Professional Documents
Culture Documents
MatSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials D.D. Johnson 2004 MatSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials D.D. Johnson 2004
Beam, minimum weight, stiffness E1/2/ When separable, the optimum subset of materials can be identified
without solving the complete design problem,
Beam, minimum weight, strength 2/3 / knowing details of F and G.
Beam, minimum cost, stiffness E 1/2/Cm Cm =cost/mass
Beam, minimum cost, strength 2/3 /Cm There is then enormous simplification and performance can be
Column, minimum cost, buckling load E 1/2/Cm optimized by focusing on f 3(M), which is the materials index
Thermal insulation, minimum cost, heat flux 1/( Cm) =thermal cond S= safety factor should always be included!
MatSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials D.D. Johnson 2004 MatSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials D.D. Johnson 2004
1
Price and Availability of Materials Relative Cost (in $) of Materials
Current Prices on the web (a) : TRENDS
-Short term: fluctuations due to supply/demand.
-Long term: prices increase as deposits are depleted. $ /kg
$=
($ /kg)ref material
Materials require energy to process them:
- Energy to produce - Cost of energy used in Reference material :
materials (GJ/ton) processing materials ($/GJ) (g) -Rolled A36 carbon steel.
MatSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials D.D. Johnson 2004 MatSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials D.D. Johnson 2004
Materials Selection Examples in Mechanical Example 1: Material Index for a Light, Strong, Tie-Rod
Design with Separable Performance Factor A Tie-rod is common mechanical component.
A = x-area Functional needs: F, L, f
PERFORMANCE: functional needs , geometry, and materials index
F Tie-rod must carry tensile force, F.
P = f1(F) f 2(G) f3(M) ---> optimize the material index f3(M). NO failure. Stress must be less than f. (f=YS, UTS)
L is usually fixed by design, can vary Area A.
While strong, need to be lightweight, or low mass.
Example 1: Material Index for a Light, Strong, Tie-Rod
Example 2: Material Index for a Light, Stiff Beam in Tension -Strength relation: - Mass of rod:
Example 3: Material Index for a Light, Stiff Beam in Deflection F f m = LA
Example 4: Torsionally stressed shaft (Callister Chapter 6) A S
Example 5: Material Index for a Cheap, Stiff Support Column
Example 6: Selecting a Slender but strong Table Leg Eliminate the "free" design parameter, A:
Example 7: Elastic Recovery of Springs
m (FS)(L)
minimize for small m
Example 8: Safe Pressure Vessel (some from M.F. Ashby) f
f
Or Maximize Materials Index: M=
For light, strong, tie-rod
MatSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials D.D. Johnson 2004 MatSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials D.D. Johnson 2004
2
Example 1: square rod (its all the same!) Maximize M = f / Consider log f vs log
For fixed M: log M = log f log = constant = C
Carry F without failing; fixed initial length L.
-Strength relation: - Mass of bar: What are units of M=f / ?
000 00
f F =1 =1
= M = Lc2 M M For fixed M, look at
S c2 log f = (1/1) log + C
0
=1
Eliminate the "free" design parameter, c: M For fixed M, you look for lines
of slope = 1.
M = (FLS)
f Along each line materials have
the same M values! But NOT the
minimize for small M
specified by application same materials properties (f or
) e.g. some less dense (lighter).
Maximize the Materials Performance Index:
(strong, light tension members) M f
index =
MatSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials D.D. Johnson 2004 MatSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials D.D. Johnson 2004
L3 L3 12 L3 12 m = b2 L = AL
Eliminate the "free" design parameter, c:
3
Example 4: Torsionally stressed shaft (Callister Chpt. 6)
Performance of Square Beam vs. Fixed Height or Width
shaft must carry moment, M t, with length L.
Mass plus Twisting Moment, M t: = 2M t/R3
Light, Stiff Plate E/ - Strength relation: - Mass of bar:
f
Light, Stiff Beam E 1/2/ =
2M t
m = R2 L
S R 3
Light, Stiff Panel E 1/3 /
Eliminate the "free" design parameter, R:
2/3
m = 2 SM t L
( )
2f / 3
Maximize the Materials Index: 2f / 3
(strong, light torsion members) M =
MatSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials D.D. Johnson 2004 MatSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials D.D. Johnson 2004
* All materials that lie on these lines will perform equally for strength-per-mass basis.
Density, (Mg/m3) Mechanical Design ,
Butterworth-Heinemann
Ltd., 1992.)
However, each line has a different Materials M index, or overall Performance P index.
MatSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials D.D. Johnson 2004 MatSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials D.D. Johnson 2004
4
Strength vs Density Other Material Indices: Cost factor
Considering mass
Considering M = 2/3/Cm
Seach area is then limited (Cost/mass)*mass
to the area in plot above all 22x103
lines (if maximizing). Maximize: 13x103
M = 2/3 /Cm 11x103
9x103
4340 Steel is best! 1x103
MatSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials D.D. Johnson 2004 MatSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials D.D. Johnson 2004
Details: Strong, Light Torsion Members Details: Strong, Low-Cost Torsion Members
2
f
/3
Maximize the Performance Index: P = Minimize Cost: Cost Index ~ m$ ~ $/M (since m ~ 1/M)
Other factors: Numerical Data:
--require f > 300MPa. material M (MPa) 2/3 m3 /Mg) ($/M)x100
$
--Rule out ceramics and glasses: K Ic too small. CFRE (vf=0.65) 73 80 112
Numerical Data: GFRE (vf=0.65) 52 40 76
Al alloy (2024-T6) 16 15 93
material (Mg/m 3) f (MPa) P (MPa) 2/3 m3 /Mg)
Ti alloy (Ti-6Al-4V) 15 110 748
CFRE (v f=0.65) 1.5 1140 73
4340 steel (oil 11 5 46
GFRE (v f=0.65) 2.0 1060 52
quench & temper)
Al alloy (2024-T6) 2.8 300 16
Data from Table 6.7, Callister 6e .
Ti alloy (Ti-6Al-4V) 4.4 525 15
4340 steel (oil 7.8 780 11
quench & temper)
Lowest cost: 4340 steel (oil quench & temper)
Data from Table 6.6, Callister 6e .
Lightest: Carbon fiber reinf. epoxy Need to consider machining, joining costs also.
(CFRE) member.
MatSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials D.D. Johnson 2004 MatSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials D.D. Johnson 2004
5
Example 5: Material Index for a Cheap, Stiff Support Column Performance of Stiff but Cost Effective Beam
(From Ashby Matierals Selection in Mechanical Design)
F L3 C m Maximize
1/2 1/2 1/ 2
E
C 4
2 1/2
n L E
Cheap, Stiff Beam C
m
specified by
application
minimize for small m
MatSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials D.D. Johnson 2004 MatSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials D.D. Johnson 2004
with a flat toughened glass top on slender, unbraced, cylindrical legs. M1= 6 (GPa)1/2 /(Mg/m 3)
For attractiveness, legs must be solid (to be thin) and light as possible (to make
table easy to move). Legs must support table top and load without buckling.
M2 = E =100 GPa
What material would you recommend to Luigi?
- Critical Elastic Load: - Mass of leg:
EI ER 4 m = R2 L E1/2/ guideline (slope of 2)
F 2 =3
L2 4L2
Eliminate the "free" design parameter, R:
1/ 2 1/ 2
m 4P L2 Maximize M = E
Wood is good choice.
E
1/ 2
1
So is composite CFRP (higher E).
For slenderness, get R for Critical Load Eq.: Ceramic meets stated design
1/4 goals, but are brittle
4P 1/2 1 1/4 M2= E
r = crit
3
L
E
2 indices to meet
MatSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials D.D. Johnson 2004 MatSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials D.D. Johnson 2004
6
Example 7: Elastic Recovery of Springs Example 8: Safe Pressure Vessel
Recall from Hookes Law and Resilience, U el = 2/2E.
Uses info from leak-before-fail example.
We wish to maximize this, but the spring willl be damage if > ys . U el = ys 2/2E = pR/t Design requirements
R Function: contain pressure, p
(Torsion bars and lead spring are less efficient than axial springs because some of 2a
p Objective: maximum safety
the material is not fully loaded, for instance, the neutral axis it is not loaded at all!)
Constraints: (a) must yield before break
Deflection,d t (b) must leak before break
el 2 t
F/2 F/2 Can show that U = (ys /E)/18 (c) t small: reduces mass and cost
Addition constraint can be added. Choose t so that at working pressure, p, the stress is less than ys .
Check (by x-ray, ultrasonics, etc.) that no cracks greater than 2a c are present;
F
If in-service, a spring under goes deflection of d under force F, then ys2/E KIc
has to be high enough to avoid permanent set (a high resilience!). then the stress required to active crack propagation is =
Y a c
For this reason spring materials are heavily SS-strengthening and work-hardening Safety (should have safety factor, S) achieved for stress less than this, but greater
(e.g, cold-rolled single-phase brass or bronze), SS plus precipitation strengthening safety obtained requiring no cracks proposgate even if = ys (stably deform).
(spring steel). 2
Annealing any spring material removes work-hardening, or cause precipitation to This condition ( = ys ) yields ac 1 K Ic
Y 2 ys
M1 = K Ic/ys
coarsen, reducing YS and making materials useless as a spring!
MatSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials D.D. Johnson 2004 MatSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials D.D. Johnson 2004
Two equations solved for maximum pressure gives M2 = (K Ic)2/ys Large pressure vessels are
always made of steel.
Largest M1 and M 2 for smallest ys . FOOLISH for pressure vessel. Models are made of Cu,
Wall thickness must be thin for lightness and economy. for resistance to corrosion.
Check that M 2 favors steel. M3=100 MPa
Thinnest wall has largest yield stress, so M =
3 ys M3=100 MPa eliminates Al.
MatSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials D.D. Johnson 2004 MatSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials D.D. Johnson 2004
7
Optimal Magnet Coil Material (see CDROM) Lorentz Stress & Heating
High magnetic fields permit study (2) of: Applied magnetic field, H:
- electron energy levels,
Pulsed magnetic
- conditions for superconductivity capable of 600,000 H = N I/L
- conversion of insulators into conductors. gauss field during
20ms period.
Largest Example: Lorentz "hoop" stress: Resistive heating: (adiabatic)
- short pulse of 800,000 gauss
elect. resistivity
(Earth's magnetic field: ~ 0.5 Gauss) I HR
I2e
Technical Challenges: = o ( f )
A S T = t (< Tmax )
- Intense resistive heating Fractured magnet coil. A 2c v
can melt the coil. (Photos from NHMFL,
Los Alamos National Labs,
- Lorentz stress can exceed NM (Apr. 2002) by P.M.
temp increase specific heat
the material strength. Anderson) during current
Magnetic field pulse of t
Goal: Select an optimal coil material. out of plane.
(1) Based on discussions with Greg Boebinger, Dwight Rickel, and James Sims,
National High Magnetic Field Lab (NHMFL), Los Alamos National Labs, NM (April, 2002).
(2) See G. Boebinger, Al Passner, and Joze Bevk, "Building World Record Magnets", Force
Scientific American, pp. 58-66, June 1995, for more information. = IoH
length
MatSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials D.D. Johnson 2004 MatSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials D.D. Johnson 2004
Eliminate "free" design parameters A, I from the Eliminate M from the stress & heating equations:
stress & heating equations (previous slide) :
--Stress requirement --Heating requirement
--Stress requirement --Heating requirement
H2 1 f H2 1 f H t Tmax 1 c v
H t Tmax 1 cv
m 2R2 Lo N d
$ 2R LoN d $
2 $ 2 RL d $ e
m 2 RL d e
8
Indices For A Coil Material SUMMARY
From Appendices B and C, Callister 6e :
Material f d $ cv e P1 P2 C1 C2 Material costs fluctuate but rise over long term as:
1020 steel (an) 395 7.85 0.8 486 1.60 50 2 63 2.5 - rich deposits are depleted,
1100 Al (an) 90 2.71 12.3 904 0.29 33 21 3 1.7
7075 Al (T6)
- energy costs increase.
572 2.80 13.4 960 0.52 204 15 15 1.1
11000 Cu (an) 220 8.89 7.9 385 0.17 25 5 3 0.6 Recycled materials reduce energy use significantly.
17200 Be-Cu (st)
71500 Cu-Ni (hr)
475 8.25 51.4 420 0.57 58 3 1 <0.1 Materials are selected based on:
380 8.94 12.9 380 3.75 43 1 3 <0.1
Pt 145 21.5 1.8e4 132 1.06 7 19 <1 <0.1 - performance or cost indices.
Ag (an) 170 10.5 271 235 0.15 16 <1 <1 <0.1 Examples:
Ni 200 462 8.89 31.4 456 0.95 52 2 2 <0.1
units MPa g/cm 3 -- J/kg-K -m 3 f/d (cv/e )0.5 P1/$ P2/$
- design of minimum mass, maximum strength of:
d shafts under torsion,
bars under tension,
Avg. values used. an = annealed; T6 = heat treated & aged;
st = solution heat treated; hr = hot rolled plates under bending,
- selection to optimize more than one property:
Lightest for a given H: 7075 Al (T6) P1
leg slenderness and mass.
Lightest for a given H(t)0.5: 1100 Al (an) P2 pressure vessel safety.
Lowest cost for a given H: 1020 steel (an) C1 material for a magnet coil (see CD-ROM).
Lowest cost for a given H(t)0.5: 1020 steel (an) C2
MatSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials D.D. Johnson 2004 MatSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials D.D. Johnson 2004