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Materials Selection and Design Design & Selection: Materials Indices

For selection, one must establish a link between materials and


Structural elements perform physical functions (carry load or heat, store energy,..),
function, with shape and process playing also a possibly
function and so they must satisfy certain functional requirements specified by the design,
important role (now ignored.)
such as specified tensile load, max. heat flux, spring restoring force, etc.
Materials
AREAS OF DESIGN CONCERN Attributes: physical, Material index is a combination of materials properties that characterizes the
Function- support a load, contain a mechanical, thermal, Performance of a material in a given application.
pressure, transmit heat, etc. electrical, economic, shape
What does component do? environmental. Performance of a structural element may be specified by the
functional requirements, the geometry, and the materials properties.
Objective- make thing cheaply, light weight,
increase safety, etc., or combinations of these.
PERFORMANCE:
What is to be maximized or minimized? process
P[ (Functional needs, F); (Geometric, G); (Material Property, M)]
Constraints- make thing cheaply, light weight,
increase safety, etc., or combinations of these. For OPTIMUM design, we need to MAXIMIZE or MINIMIZE the functional P.
What is non-negotiable conditions to be met?
What is negotiable but desired conditions? Consider only the simplest cases where these factors form a separable equation.
Following Materials Selection in Mechanical Design, M. Ashby
P = f1(F) f 2(G) f3(M)

MatSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials D.D. Johnson 2004 MatSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials D.D. Johnson 2004

Examples of Materials Indices Design & Selection: Materials Indices


Function, Objective, and Constraint Index
PERFORMANCE: (using separable form) P = f1(F) f 2(G) f3(M)
Tie, minimum weight, stiffness E/

Beam, minimum weight, stiffness E1/2/ When separable, the optimum subset of materials can be identified
without solving the complete design problem,
Beam, minimum weight, strength 2/3 / knowing details of F and G.
Beam, minimum cost, stiffness E 1/2/Cm Cm =cost/mass

Beam, minimum cost, strength 2/3 /Cm There is then enormous simplification and performance can be
Column, minimum cost, buckling load E 1/2/Cm optimized by focusing on f 3(M), which is the materials index

Spring, minimum weight for given energy storage YS 2/E

Thermal insulation, minimum cost, heat flux 1/( Cm) =thermal cond S= safety factor should always be included!

Electromagnet, maximum field, temperature rise Cp =elec. cond

MatSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials D.D. Johnson 2004 MatSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials D.D. Johnson 2004

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Price and Availability of Materials Relative Cost (in $) of Materials
Current Prices on the web (a) : TRENDS
-Short term: fluctuations due to supply/demand.
-Long term: prices increase as deposits are depleted. $ /kg
$=
($ /kg)ref material
Materials require energy to process them:
- Energy to produce - Cost of energy used in Reference material :
materials (GJ/ton) processing materials ($/GJ) (g) -Rolled A36 carbon steel.

Al 237 (17) (b) elect resistance 25 Relative cost fluctuates


PET 103 (13) (c) propane 11 less than actual cost over
Cu 97 (20) (b) natural gas 9 time.
steel 20(d) oil 8
glass 13(e) a
a
http://www.statcan.ca/english/pgdb/economy/primary/prim44.htm
http://www.metalprices.com
b http://www.automotive.copper.org/recyclability.htm
paper 9(f) c http://members.aol.com/profchm/escalant.html
d http://www.steel.org.facts/power/energy.htm
e http://eren.doe.gov/EE/industry_glass.html Based on data in Appendix
Recycling indicated in green. f http://www.aifq.qc.ca/english/industry/energy.html#1
C, Callister, 6e.
g http://www.wren.doe.gov/consumerinfo/rebriefs/cb5.html

MatSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials D.D. Johnson 2004 MatSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials D.D. Johnson 2004

Materials Selection Examples in Mechanical Example 1: Material Index for a Light, Strong, Tie-Rod
Design with Separable Performance Factor A Tie-rod is common mechanical component.
A = x-area Functional needs: F, L, f
PERFORMANCE: functional needs , geometry, and materials index
F Tie-rod must carry tensile force, F.
P = f1(F) f 2(G) f3(M) ---> optimize the material index f3(M). NO failure. Stress must be less than f. (f=YS, UTS)
L is usually fixed by design, can vary Area A.
While strong, need to be lightweight, or low mass.
Example 1: Material Index for a Light, Strong, Tie-Rod
Example 2: Material Index for a Light, Stiff Beam in Tension -Strength relation: - Mass of rod:
Example 3: Material Index for a Light, Stiff Beam in Deflection F f m = LA

Example 4: Torsionally stressed shaft (Callister Chapter 6) A S
Example 5: Material Index for a Cheap, Stiff Support Column
Example 6: Selecting a Slender but strong Table Leg Eliminate the "free" design parameter, A:
Example 7: Elastic Recovery of Springs
m (FS)(L)
minimize for small m
Example 8: Safe Pressure Vessel (some from M.F. Ashby) f
f
Or Maximize Materials Index: M=
For light, strong, tie-rod

MatSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials D.D. Johnson 2004 MatSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials D.D. Johnson 2004

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Example 1: square rod (its all the same!) Maximize M = f / Consider log f vs log
For fixed M: log M = log f log = constant = C
Carry F without failing; fixed initial length L.
-Strength relation: - Mass of bar: What are units of M=f / ?
000 00
f F =1 =1
= M = Lc2 M M For fixed M, look at
S c2 log f = (1/1) log + C
0
=1
Eliminate the "free" design parameter, c: M For fixed M, you look for lines
of slope = 1.

M = (FLS)
f Along each line materials have
the same M values! But NOT the
minimize for small M
specified by application same materials properties (f or
) e.g. some less dense (lighter).

Maximize the Materials Performance Index:
(strong, light tension members) M f
index =

MatSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials D.D. Johnson 2004 MatSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials D.D. Johnson 2004

Example 3: Material Index for a Light, Stiff Beam in Deflection


Example 2: Material Index for a Light, Stiff Beam in Tension
F Bending is common mode of loading,
b
Bar must not lengthen by more than L b e.g., golf clubs, wing spars, floor joists.
under force F; must have initial length L.
=deflection
- Stiffness relation: - Mass of bar: Bar with initial length L must not deflect
F
by more than under force F.
=E ( = E) m = Lc 2 - Stiffness relation: - Mass of bar:
c2 L
F C1EI = C1E b 4 = C1E A 2

L3 L3 12 L3 12 m = b2 L = AL
Eliminate the "free" design parameter, c:

FL2 Eliminate the "free" design parameter, A:


m= specified by 1/2
E
application
E1/2
m 12S (L3) 1/2
Maximize

minimize for small m
specified by application C L

M=
E

1

Light, Stiff Beam
E minimize for small m
Maximize the Materials Index: M=
(stiff, light tension members) If only beam height can change (not A), then M= (E 1/3 /) (Car door) I b 3w

If only beam width can change (not A), then M= (E/)



MatSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials D.D. Johnson 2004 MatSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials D.D. Johnson 2004

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Example 4: Torsionally stressed shaft (Callister Chpt. 6)
Performance of Square Beam vs. Fixed Height or Width
shaft must carry moment, M t, with length L.
Mass plus Twisting Moment, M t: = 2M t/R3
Light, Stiff Plate E/ - Strength relation: - Mass of bar:
f
Light, Stiff Beam E 1/2/ =
2M t
m = R2 L
S R 3
Light, Stiff Panel E 1/3 /
Eliminate the "free" design parameter, R:
2/3
m = 2 SM t L
( )
2f / 3

specified by application minimize for small M


Maximize the Materials Index: 2f / 3
(strong, light torsion members) M =

MatSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials D.D. Johnson 2004 MatSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials D.D. Johnson 2004

Ashby Plot: Strength vs Density (on log scale) Data Overview:


Strong & Light Tension/Torsion Members
M = 30 has 1/3 the mass of Increasing M
M =10 (mass 1/M ). Strength, (MPa) for strong
f
10 4 torsion members
Ceramics
Cermets
M =
2 /3
100 10 3 PMCs
Steels
|| grain Metal
30 102
alloys
log = 3/2 log od
10 wo Polymers
+ 3/2 logM 10 2
Increasing M grain = 3/ = 1
1 pe ope
for strong slo sl
3 tension Adapted from Fig. 6.22,
0.1 Callister 6e . (Fig. 6.22
members 0.1 1 10 30 adapted from M.F. Ashby,
Materials Selection in

* All materials that lie on these lines will perform equally for strength-per-mass basis.
Density, (Mg/m3) Mechanical Design ,
Butterworth-Heinemann
Ltd., 1992.)
However, each line has a different Materials M index, or overall Performance P index.

MatSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials D.D. Johnson 2004 MatSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials D.D. Johnson 2004

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Strength vs Density Other Material Indices: Cost factor

Considering mass

Additional constraints may Maximize:


be added, such as strength M = 2/3 /
having minimum value, e.g.,
f > 300 GPa. CRFP are best!

Considering M = 2/3/Cm
Seach area is then limited (Cost/mass)*mass
to the area in plot above all 22x103
lines (if maximizing). Maximize: 13x103
M = 2/3 /Cm 11x103
9x103
4340 Steel is best! 1x103

MatSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials D.D. Johnson 2004 MatSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials D.D. Johnson 2004

Details: Strong, Light Torsion Members Details: Strong, Low-Cost Torsion Members
2
f
/3
Maximize the Performance Index: P = Minimize Cost: Cost Index ~ m$ ~ $/M (since m ~ 1/M)

Other factors: Numerical Data:
--require f > 300MPa. material M (MPa) 2/3 m3 /Mg) ($/M)x100
$
--Rule out ceramics and glasses: K Ic too small. CFRE (vf=0.65) 73 80 112
Numerical Data: GFRE (vf=0.65) 52 40 76
Al alloy (2024-T6) 16 15 93
material (Mg/m 3) f (MPa) P (MPa) 2/3 m3 /Mg)
Ti alloy (Ti-6Al-4V) 15 110 748
CFRE (v f=0.65) 1.5 1140 73
4340 steel (oil 11 5 46
GFRE (v f=0.65) 2.0 1060 52
quench & temper)
Al alloy (2024-T6) 2.8 300 16
Data from Table 6.7, Callister 6e .
Ti alloy (Ti-6Al-4V) 4.4 525 15
4340 steel (oil 7.8 780 11
quench & temper)
Lowest cost: 4340 steel (oil quench & temper)
Data from Table 6.6, Callister 6e .

Lightest: Carbon fiber reinf. epoxy Need to consider machining, joining costs also.
(CFRE) member.

MatSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials D.D. Johnson 2004 MatSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials D.D. Johnson 2004

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Example 5: Material Index for a Cheap, Stiff Support Column Performance of Stiff but Cost Effective Beam
(From Ashby Matierals Selection in Mechanical Design)

Radius, r A slender column of fixed intial length L uses


less material than a fat one; but must not be
Buckle so slender than it buckles under load F. With cost considered,
deflection now polymers and
L - No buckling relation: - Cost objective: metals area useful!
d
2 C = mCm = ALCm
F Fcrit = N 2 EI
L Cm is the cost/kg of
Load less than Euler Load. (usually processed)
N given by end constraint on column. material.

Eliminate the "free" design parameter, A:

F L3 C m Maximize
1/2 1/2 1/ 2
E
C 4



2 1/2
n L E

Cheap, Stiff Beam C

m


specified by
application

minimize for small m
MatSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials D.D. Johnson 2004 MatSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials D.D. Johnson 2004

Example 6: Selecting a Slender but strong Table Leg Example 5: (cont)


(Note this uses previous example from Ashby.) 1/ 2
E
Material indices: M1 = and M 2= E
Luigi Tavolina, furniture designer, conceives of a lightweight table of simplicity,

with a flat toughened glass top on slender, unbraced, cylindrical legs. M1= 6 (GPa)1/2 /(Mg/m 3)
For attractiveness, legs must be solid (to be thin) and light as possible (to make
table easy to move). Legs must support table top and load without buckling.
M2 = E =100 GPa
What material would you recommend to Luigi?
- Critical Elastic Load: - Mass of leg:
EI ER 4 m = R2 L E1/2/ guideline (slope of 2)
F 2 =3
L2 4L2
Eliminate the "free" design parameter, R:
1/ 2 1/ 2
m 4P L2 Maximize M = E



Wood is good choice.




E
1/ 2

1
So is composite CFRP (higher E).

For slenderness, get R for Critical Load Eq.: Ceramic meets stated design
1/4 goals, but are brittle

4P 1/2 1 1/4 M2= E
r = crit
3
L

E
2 indices to meet
MatSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials D.D. Johnson 2004 MatSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials D.D. Johnson 2004

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Example 7: Elastic Recovery of Springs Example 8: Safe Pressure Vessel
Recall from Hookes Law and Resilience, U el = 2/2E.
Uses info from leak-before-fail example.
We wish to maximize this, but the spring willl be damage if > ys . U el = ys 2/2E = pR/t Design requirements
R Function: contain pressure, p
(Torsion bars and lead spring are less efficient than axial springs because some of 2a
p Objective: maximum safety
the material is not fully loaded, for instance, the neutral axis it is not loaded at all!)
Constraints: (a) must yield before break
Deflection,d t (b) must leak before break
el 2 t
F/2 F/2 Can show that U = (ys /E)/18 (c) t small: reduces mass and cost

Addition constraint can be added. Choose t so that at working pressure, p, the stress is less than ys .
Check (by x-ray, ultrasonics, etc.) that no cracks greater than 2a c are present;
F
If in-service, a spring under goes deflection of d under force F, then ys2/E KIc
has to be high enough to avoid permanent set (a high resilience!). then the stress required to active crack propagation is =
Y a c
For this reason spring materials are heavily SS-strengthening and work-hardening Safety (should have safety factor, S) achieved for stress less than this, but greater
(e.g, cold-rolled single-phase brass or bronze), SS plus precipitation strengthening safety obtained requiring no cracks proposgate even if = ys (stably deform).
(spring steel). 2

Annealing any spring material removes work-hardening, or cause precipitation to This condition ( = ys ) yields ac 1 K Ic
Y 2 ys
M1 = K Ic/ys
coarsen, reducing YS and making materials useless as a spring!
MatSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials D.D. Johnson 2004 MatSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials D.D. Johnson 2004

Example 8: Safe Pressure Vessel (cont)


Example 8: Safe Pressure Vessel (cont)
Yield-before-break CH
Tolerable crack size is maximized by choosing largest M1 = K Ic/ys
EAR
M1 = K Ic/ys S
Large pressure vessels cannot always be tested for cracks and stress
Steels
testing is impractical. Cracks grow over time by corrosion or cyclic Cu-alloys
Leak-before-break
loading (cannot be determined by one measurement at start of service).
M2 = (K Ic)2/ys Al-alloys
K Ic
Leak-before-fail criterion (leaks can be detected over lifetime) =
Y t
pR Thin wall, strong M1=0.6 m1/2
Wall thickness was designed to contain pressure w/o yielding, so t M3 = ys
ys

Two equations solved for maximum pressure gives M2 = (K Ic)2/ys Large pressure vessels are
always made of steel.
Largest M1 and M 2 for smallest ys . FOOLISH for pressure vessel. Models are made of Cu,
Wall thickness must be thin for lightness and economy. for resistance to corrosion.
Check that M 2 favors steel. M3=100 MPa
Thinnest wall has largest yield stress, so M =
3 ys M3=100 MPa eliminates Al.

MatSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials D.D. Johnson 2004 MatSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials D.D. Johnson 2004

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Optimal Magnet Coil Material (see CDROM) Lorentz Stress & Heating
High magnetic fields permit study (2) of: Applied magnetic field, H:
- electron energy levels,
Pulsed magnetic
- conditions for superconductivity capable of 600,000 H = N I/L
- conversion of insulators into conductors. gauss field during
20ms period.
Largest Example: Lorentz "hoop" stress: Resistive heating: (adiabatic)
- short pulse of 800,000 gauss
elect. resistivity
(Earth's magnetic field: ~ 0.5 Gauss) I HR
I2e

Technical Challenges: = o ( f )
A S T = t (< Tmax )
- Intense resistive heating Fractured magnet coil. A 2c v
can melt the coil. (Photos from NHMFL,
Los Alamos National Labs,
- Lorentz stress can exceed NM (Apr. 2002) by P.M.
temp increase specific heat
the material strength. Anderson) during current
Magnetic field pulse of t
Goal: Select an optimal coil material. out of plane.
(1) Based on discussions with Greg Boebinger, Dwight Rickel, and James Sims,
National High Magnetic Field Lab (NHMFL), Los Alamos National Labs, NM (April, 2002).
(2) See G. Boebinger, Al Passner, and Joze Bevk, "Building World Record Magnets", Force
Scientific American, pp. 58-66, June 1995, for more information. = IoH
length
MatSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials D.D. Johnson 2004 MatSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials D.D. Johnson 2004

Magnet Coil: Performance Index Magnet Coil: Cost Index


Mass of coil: Applied magnetic field: Relative cost of coil: Applied magnetic field:
m = d AL H = N I/L $=$M H = N I/L

Eliminate "free" design parameters A, I from the Eliminate M from the stress & heating equations:
stress & heating equations (previous slide) :
--Stress requirement --Heating requirement
--Stress requirement --Heating requirement
H2 1 f H2 1 f H t Tmax 1 c v
H t Tmax 1 cv

m 2R2 Lo N d
$ 2R LoN d $
2 $ 2 RL d $ e
m 2 RL d e

specified by application specified by application


specified by application specified by application
Cost Index C 1: Cost Index C 2:
Performance IndexP 1: Performance Index P 2:
maximize for maximize for
maximize for large H 2/M maximize for large Ht 1/2/M
large H2/$ large Ht1/2/$
MatSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials D.D. Johnson 2004 MatSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials D.D. Johnson 2004

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Indices For A Coil Material SUMMARY
From Appendices B and C, Callister 6e :
Material f d $ cv e P1 P2 C1 C2 Material costs fluctuate but rise over long term as:
1020 steel (an) 395 7.85 0.8 486 1.60 50 2 63 2.5 - rich deposits are depleted,
1100 Al (an) 90 2.71 12.3 904 0.29 33 21 3 1.7
7075 Al (T6)
- energy costs increase.
572 2.80 13.4 960 0.52 204 15 15 1.1
11000 Cu (an) 220 8.89 7.9 385 0.17 25 5 3 0.6 Recycled materials reduce energy use significantly.
17200 Be-Cu (st)
71500 Cu-Ni (hr)
475 8.25 51.4 420 0.57 58 3 1 <0.1 Materials are selected based on:
380 8.94 12.9 380 3.75 43 1 3 <0.1
Pt 145 21.5 1.8e4 132 1.06 7 19 <1 <0.1 - performance or cost indices.
Ag (an) 170 10.5 271 235 0.15 16 <1 <1 <0.1 Examples:
Ni 200 462 8.89 31.4 456 0.95 52 2 2 <0.1
units MPa g/cm 3 -- J/kg-K -m 3 f/d (cv/e )0.5 P1/$ P2/$
- design of minimum mass, maximum strength of:
d shafts under torsion,
bars under tension,
Avg. values used. an = annealed; T6 = heat treated & aged;
st = solution heat treated; hr = hot rolled plates under bending,
- selection to optimize more than one property:
Lightest for a given H: 7075 Al (T6) P1
leg slenderness and mass.
Lightest for a given H(t)0.5: 1100 Al (an) P2 pressure vessel safety.
Lowest cost for a given H: 1020 steel (an) C1 material for a magnet coil (see CD-ROM).
Lowest cost for a given H(t)0.5: 1020 steel (an) C2

MatSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials D.D. Johnson 2004 MatSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials D.D. Johnson 2004

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