The Government of Nepal

Ministry of Physical Planning and Works

Earthquake Risk Reduction and Recovery Preparedness
Programme for Nepal
(UNDP/ERRRP-Project: NEP/07/010)

Recommendation for Update of

Nepal National Building Code

Final Report

July, 2009

Submitted by:

MULTI Disciplinary Consultants (P) Ltd.

P.O. Box 5720, Kathmandu, Nepal
Tel: (977)-1-5525076/5529304, Fax: (977)-1- 5523103
E-mail: mdc@multinepal.com.np, Web Site: www.MultiNepal.com/mdc
in associaton with
K.D. Associates (P) Ltd. Khwopa Engineering College
P.O. Box 686 Libali, Bhaktapur-2
Tel: 425263, Fax: 4215341 P.O. Box 84, Bhaktapur, Nepal
E-mail: kdapl@info.com.np, and Tel: 6614794, 6614798
Web: www.hurarah.com.np E-mail: khec@wlink.com.np
 Recommendation for Update of Nepal National
Building Code: Final Report
Contents
Executive Summary ........................................................................................................................ 6
1 Introduction......................................................................................................................... 10
1.1 General ................................................................................................................................... 10
1.2 The Project ............................................................................................................................. 10
1.3 The Assignment...................................................................................................................... 10
1.4 Objectives of the Assignment ................................................................................................ 10
1.5 Scope of Works ...................................................................................................................... 11
1.6 Methodology .......................................................................................................................... 11
1.7 The Project Team, Inputs and responsibilities ....................................................................... 11
1.8 Interaction with the Target Groups ........................................................................................ 12
1.9 Major Findings ....................................................................................................................... 12
2 Current Practices ................................................................................................................ 14
2.1 National Policy ....................................................................................................................... 14
2.2 Implementation of NNBC by Municipalities ......................................................................... 14
2.3 Building Permit Process in LSMC ......................................................................................... 14
2.4 Building Permit Process in KMC ........................................................................................... 15
2.5 Data and information on building code implementation ........................................................ 15
2.5.1 Government Buildings by DUDBC ........................................................................ 15
2.5.2 Practice in Municipalities ........................................................................................ 16
2.6 Institutional Arrangements for Implementation of NNBC .................................................... 16
2.7 Jurisdiction of Application of NNBC..................................................................................... 17
2.8 Subscribed methods (PWD) of Seismic design consideration ............................................... 17
3 Consideration of Problems and Issues of NNBC Application and Construction ......... 18
3.1 The Codes ............................................................................................................................... 18
3.2 Hierarchy of Act, Bylaws, Codes and Standards, and References ......................................... 19
3.3 Building bylaws...................................................................................................................... 19
3.4 Code Structure and Nepal Standards ...................................................................................... 19
3.5 Need for Unified Code ........................................................................................................... 19
3.6 Criticism of NNBC................................................................................................................. 19
3.7 Family of Codes ..................................................................................................................... 20
3.8 Frequency of Update .............................................................................................................. 20
3.9 Commentary on Codes and Standards ................................................................................... 20
3.10 Conservation of Historic Building, Aesthetics, Planning Codes............................................ 20
3.11 Relationship between Aesthetics and Structural Safety ......................................................... 21
3.12 Change in Occupancy............................................................................................................. 21
3.13 High Rise Buildings ............................................................................................................... 21
3.14 Detailing of Joints .................................................................................................................. 21
3.15 Quality Monitoring and Advertisement Market ..................................................................... 21
3.16 Supervision of Construction Works ....................................................................................... 21
3.17 Building Material Handling, storage and use ......................................................................... 22
3.18 Specification of other Materials not mentioned in NNBC ..................................................... 22
3.19 Mechanism for addressing Technical issues and data bank ................................................... 22
3.20 Participation of masons, stakeholders, owners....................................................................... 22
3.21 Info dissemination and Interactions ....................................................................................... 22
3.22 Construction Safety ................................................................................................................ 22
3.23 Ownership of Design and Intellectual Property rights ........................................................... 22
3.24 Education ................................................................................................................................ 23
3.25 Capacity of personnel, qualification....................................................................................... 23
3.26 Licensing of Skill Labor ......................................................................................................... 23
4 Implementation of Codes and Standards ......................................................................... 23
4.1 Water Supply and Sanitation .................................................................................................. 23
4.2 Electrical Code ....................................................................................................................... 23
4.3 Fire Safety Code ..................................................................................................................... 23
4.4 Use of NNBC 205: MRT ....................................................................................................... 24
5 Review of NNBC ................................................................................................................. 24
5.1 Review of NBC 000: 1994 State-Of-The Art Design And NBC 105: 1994 Seismic Design
Of Buildings In Nepal ............................................................................................................ 24
5.1.1 General .................................................................................................................... 24
5.1.2 NNBC 000: 1994 Requirements For State-Of-The Art Design .............................. 25
5.1.3 NNBC 105: 1994 Seismic Design Of Buildings In Nepal ...................................... 27
5.2 Review of NNBC 101, 102, 103, 104, 106, 108, 109 (Loads, Occupancy, Site
Consideration, Unreinforced Masonry) ............................................................................. 35
5.2.1 NNBC 101:1994: Materials Specifications ............................................................. 35
5.2.2 NNBC 102:1994: Unit Weight of Materials ........................................................... 36
5.2.3 NNBC 103:1994: Occupancy Load (Imposed Load) .............................................. 36
5.2.4 NNBC 104:1994: Wind Load ................................................................................. 37
5.2.5 NNBC 106:1994: Snow Load ................................................................................. 38
5.2.6 NNBC 108: 1994 Site Consideration ...................................................................... 40
5.2.7 NNBC 109: Masonry (Unreinforced) ..................................................................... 41
5.3 Review of NNBC: 107 (Fire Code) ...................................................................................... 42
5.3.1 General .................................................................................................................... 42
5.3.2 Main Objectives and Purpose of Building Codes ................................................... 42
5.3.3 Compliance to the Fire Code of Nepal .................................................................... 43
5.3.4 Major Drawback ...................................................................................................... 43
5.3.5 Requirement of Fire Safety in Building Codes ....................................................... 43
5.4 Review of NNBC: 110, 111, 112, 113, 114 (Masonry, PCC, Materials, Construction
Safety) .................................................................................................................................... 44
5.4.1 NNBC 110: Plain and Reinforced Concrete ..................................................................... 44
5.4.2 NNBC-111: 1994: Steel ....................................................................................................... 44
5.4.3 NNBC-112: Timber 1994.................................................................................................... 45
5.4.4 NNBC-113: Aluminum 1994 .............................................................................................. 45
5.4.5 NNBC 114:1994 CONSTRUCTION SAFETY ................................................................ 46
5.5 Review of NNBC: 201, 202, 203, 204, 205 (MRT, Low Strength and Earthen Buildings)
................................................................................................................................................ 46
5.5.1 General .................................................................................................................... 46
5.5.2 NNBC 201: Mandatory Rules Of Thumb - Reinforced Concrete Buildings with
Masonry Infill .......................................................................................................... 47
5.5.3 NNBC 202: MRT-LOAD BEARING MASONRY ................................................ 47
5.5.4 NNBC 203: 1994 - Guidelines For Earthquake Resistant Building Construction:
Low Strength Masonry ............................................................................................ 48
5.5.5 NNBC 204: 1994 - Guidelines For Earthquake Resistant Building Construction:
Earthen Building (EB) ............................................................................................. 49
5.5.6 NNBC 205: 1994 - MRT Reinforced Concrete Buildings without Masonry Infill 49
5.6 Review of NNBC 206: 2003 - Architectural Design Requirements ................................. 50
5.6.1 General .................................................................................................................... 50
5.6.2 High Rise Buildings ................................................................................................ 50
5.6.3 Other aspects ........................................................................................................... 50
5.7 Review of NNBC 207: 2003- Electrical Code ..................................................................... 51
5.8 Review of NNBC 208: 1994 - Plumbing and Sanitation ................................................... 51
5.8.1 Water Supply ........................................................................................................... 51
5.8.2 Waste Water Disposal ............................................................................................. 51
5.8.3 Rain Water Disposal................................................................................................ 52
6 Conclusion ............................................................................................................................. 53
7 Recommendation .................................................................................................................. 54
Appendix-1: List of NNBC...................................................................................................... 57
Appendix-2: Check list of activities for the study ................................................................. 57
Appendix-3: Interaction with Target Groups and National Workshop ............................. 57
Appendix-4: Review of NNBC: 000, 105 (State of Art, Seismic Design) ............................ 57
Appendix-5: Review of NNBC 101, 102, 103, 104, 106, 108, 109 (Loads, Occupancy, Site
Consideration) ..................................................................................................................... 57
Appendix-6: Review of NNBC: 110, 111, 112, 113, 114, (Materials) .................................. 57
Appendix-7: Review of NNBC: 107 (Fire Code) ................................................................... 57
Appendix-8: Review of NNBC: 201, 202, 203, 204 and 205 (MRT) .................................... 57
Appendix-9: Review of NNBC: 206 (Architectural Code) ................................................... 57
Appendix-10: Review of NNBC: 207 (Electrical Code) ..................................................... 57
Appendix-11: Review of NNBC: 208 (Water Supply and Sanitation) .............................. 57
Reference Materials ...................................................................................................................... 57
Abbreviations:

ADRC Asian Disaster Reduction Center

ADPC Asian Disaster Preparedness Center
ASTM American Society for Testing of Materials
AASHTO American Association of State Highway and Transport Officials
AREMA American Railway Engineers and Maintenance-of-way Association
ACI 318 American Concrete Institute
AISC American Institute of Steel Construction
AFPA American Forest and Paper Associations
BPU Building Permit Unit
BCPR Bureau of Crisis Prevention and Recovery
BSI British Standards Institution
DDC District Development Committee
DIN German Standards
DUDBC Department of Urban Development and Building Construction
ERRRPP Earthquake Risk Reduction and Recovery Preparedness Programme
ESS Earthquake Safety Section
FSCN Fire Safety Code of Nepal (NNBC 107)
HFA Hyugo Framework for Action (2005-2015)
GON Government of Nepal
IRC Indian Road Congress
ISI Indian Standards Institution
ICC International Code Council
IFC International Fire Code,
IBC International Building Code
IRP International Recovery Platform
JSI Japanese Standard Institute
KMC Kathmandu Metropolitan Corporation
KVTDC Kathmandu Valley Town Development Committee
LSMC Lalitpur Sub-Metropolitan City
LSGA Local Self-Governance Act 1999
LSGA Local Self Governance Act of Nepal, 1996 and Regulations 1997
LSGR Local Self-Governance Regulations 1999
LSM Low Strength Masonry
NBCI National Building Code of India,
NFPA National Fire Protection Act
NNBC Nepal National Building Code
OBC Ontario Building Code
PWD Public Works Directives
SAARC South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation
UNDP United Nations Development Program
VDC Village Development Committee
UKBC UK Building Regulations 2000
UDB Urban Development Byelaws of 2007, KVTDC, GON
Executive Summary

Introduction
The assignment for preparation of the recommendation report for Updating the National Building
Code of Nepal is entrusted to MULTI Disciplinary Consultants (P) Ltd in association with KD
Associates (P) Ltd. and Khwopa Engineering College through a contract agreement signed
between the consultant and Earthquake Risk Reduction Recovery Preparedness Programme for
Nepal - UNDP/ERRRP-Project: NEP/07/010 (The Project) on December 15, 2008.

The Project
The Earthquake Risk Reduction and Recovery Preparedness Programme for South Asian
Region is supported by the Government of Japan under a grant assistance for disaster prevention
and disaster reconstruction contributed through the United Nations Development Programme
(UNDP). The Project is designed to seek regional cooperation through sharing of knowledge and
experience in Disaster Management and to utilize the knowledge of recent Earthquake
Engineering.

Objectives of the Assignment

The objectives of the Assignment are to: a) review and recommend technical additions, alterations
and modifications, to be made in the current code, b) study, analysis and justify for update of the
Code, c) review general practice of NNBC [implementation] in some municipalities (Kathmandu
and Lalitpur), and d) study the effectiveness of implementation of NNBC in construction.

Scope of Works
The scope of works related to above mentioned Objectives is to: a) interact with major
stakeholders and experts, b) study linkages with current building bylaws, c) analyze the problems
faced by Kathmandu and Lalitpur in implementation of NNBC, d) study technical issues raised by
designers and professionals, e) compare NNBC with other codes, e) review the specific
Earthquake Safety specifications, f) specify the technical details in the code to be updated for
overall revision of NNBC, g) specify the names of codes to be urgently updated, and h) prepare
final recommendation report for updating of NNBC.

Interaction with the stakeholders

The interaction with the stakeholders such as UNDP/ERRRP, NEA, SEEN, SCAEF, SONA,
SEANEP, Licensed Designers of LSMC and KMC was carried out in four different meetings. A
national level workshop was organized on June 29, 2009 by ERRRP to discuss on the Draft Final
Report. The outcome of the interaction and comments obtained during the workshop covered
various aspects of NNBC and presented in Appendix-3 and summarized in Section 2.8. The
comments and suggestions relevant to the current assignment had been incorporated in the report
whereas certain queries which are not related to the Terms of Reference were included in
Appendix-3 for consideration during the actual revision of the Codes.

Apart from the details on the provisions of NNBC, the important aspects raised were:
Confusion of Hierarchy and Priority of Acts, Bylaws, Codes, Standards, Directives,
specifications, manuals, and References and Priority of the documents;
Need for mechanism to implement the codes as part of the Building Bylaws
Need for application of the code all over the country including VDC and small settlements
Need of Unified Code and other codes as Architectural Code, Residential Code, Historical
Building Code, High Rise Building Code, Fire Code, Plumbing Code, Construction Safety
Code, Retrofitting and Building Strengthening Code, Disabled Accessibility Code, Mechanical
Code, Fuel and Gas Code, Environmental Code and Commentary on Codes.
 Anomalies of NNBC
Frequency of Updates of Codes and Responsibilities
Aesthetics, Change in Occupancy and Structural Safety, and annual Audit for compliance
with codes
Use of MRT
Regulation of Advertisement of construction materials
Safety during handling and storage of materials
Audit of Performance of Code implementing organisations,
Ownership and Intellectual Property Right
Education, Training, Qualification, Licensing of skilled labor.

NNBC and NS Series

There are two sets of documents available which are known as Nepal National Building Code or
Nepal Standard. Actually, both of the series address the same issues. NNBC is presented as
amendment to IS whereas NS are adaptation of IS or other standards into NS with relevant
amendments.

Normally, the codes and standards are revised and updated every 3 years. But for Nepalese case,
this may not be pragmatic and frequency of updating may be adopted differently. The
International Code Council or other institutions dedicated for code development and updating
review the codes at a regular interval, for example say 3 years. A regular process for recording of
occurrence is carried out and forwarded to the standing committees for code updating. Nepal does
not have a dedicated office for record of occurrence in relation to the need for updating of Codes
and Standards.

More detailed deliberations on specific codes are provided in Section 5 and Appendices.

MRT not to be a part of NNBC

Strong voices were noted for treating MRT as non-Code document since it is just an example of
design of various types of buildings and details following the provisions of NNBC. This document
is incomplete and do not include the requirements of other codes as Fire Code, Plumbing Code,
Environmental Code etc. The quality assurance and construction complexities are not considered.
Lalitpur Municipality from the very day of application of NNBC adopted certain changes in MRT.
This document should be developed as model examples that fulfill the requirement of all codes
and should be served as guide for proper design and shall not be a part of the Building Code.

Implementation of NNBC by Municipalities

The implementation of NNBC is made mandatory by issue of instructions by the Ministry of Local
Development but the Building Act and Building Byelaws do not include NNBC provisions and
hence remains ineffective and practically not applied in Building Permit Process. Lalitpur
Municipality initiated the application of NNBC in the Building Permit Process in voluntary
manner since 2003. Kathmandu Municipality started implementation of NNBC only since 2007.

The implementation of NNBC could not be initiated in other municipalities since the Building
Byelaws has not incorporated NNBC as part of it. It will be fundamental to include the NNBC and
other relevant Family of Codes as described in Section 3 to be included in Building Bylaws.
Mandatory Application of Bylaws through out the country
The Building Byelaws are by legislation applicable in the areas of jurisdiction of the
municipalities. Most of the areas in country side and rural areas are not covered by Building Act
and Building Bylaws making the rural areas more vulnerable for Construction Safety. This loop
hole in Building Act has prompted many builders and owners to shift to VDC areas for
construction for avoiding the need for obtaining Building Permits and avoiding application of
NNBC. This provision has defeated the purpose of NNBC in general.

Implementation of Architectural Design Requirements and Planning Guidelines

Though the Architectural Design Requirements (NNBC 206:2003) had been introduced in 2003,
the actual design had not been checked for compliance with this code and coordination with
Planning Guidelines and zoning plans been very week. The effect of coordination is clearly visible
in the haphazard development of the urban areas.

Institutional Arrangements for Implementation of NNBC

There is no single institution responsible for all earthquake related matters in Nepal. Various
institutions and agencies are responsible for various earthquake related matters, and the
coordination among them is practically not provided. For this reason, the issues related to NNBC
remain unattended and keeps waiting for a particular project to start. There is a dire need for
establishing Nepal Code Council that will address the development issues of Codes and their
implementation.

Code Structure, Nepal Standards and Family of Codes

There is a gross confusion about the hierarchy and priority of the documents in relation to Act,
Bylaws, Codes (NNBC), Standards (NS), and Directives (PWD), Specifications, Manuals
Instructions and administrative circulars. This aspect needs to be clarified and clear demarcation
and definition is required.

NNBC is a collection of individual codes. May be it would be more effective when compiled into
a unified code that takes into account the family of various other codes as Urban Planning Code,
Fire code, Plumbing Code, Electrical Code, Construction Code, Construction Safety Code etc (See
list in Section 3.6 Box 2) including provision for adoption of administrative procedures for
implementation.

Criticism on NNBC
A series of positive criticism on NNBC was spelt out during the interaction with the stakeholders.
The major issues are highlighted in Section 3.5 and details are provided in Appendix-3. Most
important of all criticism is that since the code is presented as amendment to Indian Code, it has
lost its value since there is no need to refer to an incomplete code when Indian Code is handy. The
dependency of other code has to be eliminated otherwise the international codes shall be adopted
as reference codes only. The Code requires technical and literature editing to eliminate errors and
misprints.

Review of NNBC 000 to 208 and Comparison with other Codes

The review of NNBC has been carried out and a number of issues had been identified that would
required to be considered while updating the Building Code. Comments and suggestions to every
Section of the Code are provided in Appendices. Particular attention is drawn on major issues
pointed out and few disasters that have occurred recently due to the lack of provisions in the code.
They are:
 The provisions in the Codes have several ambiguous statements, Incomplete sentences,
reference to the Indian Standard Codes of Practice, absence of the Commentary, design
earthquake level is too un-conservative,
Fire Hazard in rural settlements induced by poor planning of the settlements and inadequate
consideration of Fire Safety measures
Changes in occupancy of buildings without confirming to Safety requirements,
Electrical hazards associated with lack of adherence to Electrical Code
Lack of coordination between Architectural Design Requirements and Planning and Zoning
Guidelines
Lack of Data base on Wind and Snow Loads
Lack of Data base on Building permits granted that will highlight the use of NNBC.

The updating of NNBC requires utilization of technological advancements and development of

international codes as IBC and Eurocode.

Family of Codes
Apart from the NNBC series and NS serious, the need for a numerous other codes is identified
which will be required to fulfill the purpose of achieving the safety of life and property and
enhancing comfort of living. These additional codes are listed in Section 3.5.

Environmental Code
This Code is very specific and needs to be addressed while updating the Code. The important of
this code is obvious since it affects the quality of life and its comfort. The code should introduce a
separate section for the Environmental Pollution Control covering following:
Air Pollution (Indoor and Outdoor)
Emission Control
Sound Pollution
Water Pollution
Solar pollution
Solid waste management
Visual Pollution in Urban and rural Areas
Landscaping
Public Information for Safety of Life, Property and Peaceful Living

Mandatory Rules of Thumb (MRT)

The main objective of MRT is to provide ready-to-use dimensions and details for various
structural and non-structural elements for up to three-storey reinforced concrete (RC), framed,
ordinary residential buildings commonly being built by owner-builders in Nepal that include a)
RCC framed with using brick infill walls, b) load bearing brick masonry, c) low strength rural
construction and earthen buildings.

The details in MRT designs are provided without consideration of construction requirements for
quality assurance (limitation of concrete placing from less than 1 m, allowing consolidation of
concrete, preventing honey comb in concrete and smaller dia reinforcement (10mm and 12 mm in
foundation and columns).

The designs provided in MRT should serve as good illustrations of compliance to the requirements
of all codes (family of Codes) for the designers and owners. Hence, it is considered that MRT
should not be a part of the Code.
Recommendation for Update of Nepal National
Building Code: Final Report
1 Introduction

1.1 General
The current assignment of preparation of recommendation report for Updating the National
building Code of Nepal is entrusted to MULTI Disciplinary Consultants (P) Ltd in
association with KD Associates and Khwopa Engineering College through a contract
agreement signed between the consultant and Earthquake Risk Reduction Recovery
Preparedness, Programme for Nepal - UNDP/ERRRP-Project: NEP/07/010 (The Project) on
December 15, 2008.

1.2 The Project

The Government of Japan has decided to provide a grant assistance for disaster prevention
and disaster reconstruction, with a view to contributing to the Earthquake Risk Reduction
and Recovery Preparedness Programme for South Asian Region through the United
Nations Development Programme (UNDP).

The UNDP/BCPR, the leading agency of the International Recovery Platform (IRP, Office:
Kobe City, Hyogo Prefecture), and Japan have extended cooperation in this programme to
fulfill the requirement of the Hyugo Framework for Action (HFA 2005-2015) to reduce the
degree of damage and quickly restore earthquake damage by promoting quake-proof
capacity of buildings, taking into consideration the strengthened capability in the field of
disaster prevention of the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) for
the South Asian region, including India, Nepal, Pakistan, Bangladesh and Bhutan.

The Project is designed to seek regional cooperation through sharing of knowledge and
experience in best practice on Disaster Management and utilize the knowledge of recent
Earthquake Engineering.

1.3 The Assignment

The assignment is related to preparation of recommendation report for updating of the
National Building Code of Nepal. The report will serve as base for updating of the Building
Code by the Government.

1.4 Objectives of the Assignment

The objectives of the Assignment are:
To review and recommend technical additions, alterations and modifications, to be made in
the current code
To study, analysis and justify for update of the Code
To review general practice of NNBC [implementation] in some municipalities (
Kathmandu and Lalitpur)
To study the effectiveness of implementation of NNBC in construction
1.5 Scope of Works
The scope of works related to above mentioned Objectives is:
Discussion and interaction with ERRRP/DUDBC, stakeholder municipality and other
experts
Study linkages with current building bylaws prepared by DUDBC/Town Development
Committees
Study and analyze the technical complications and problems faced by some
municipalities (Kathmandu and Lalitpur) in the implementation process of NNBC
Study Technical Issues raised by the designers and the professionals regarding the
revision of the NNBC
Study and Compare NNBC with other codes that are being practiced in Nepal such as
IS Code and others
Study other International Codes that are correlations with NNBC
Study and review the specific Earthquake Safety specifications in building codes and
guidelines already available in Nepal
Specify the technical details in the code to be reviewed and updated for overall revision
of NNBC
Specify the names of codes that have to be urgently updated
Prepare final recommendation report for updating of NNBC
Presentation of draft final report to ERRRP, UNDP,DUDBC, Municipalities and other
stakeholder organizations for comments and suggestions
Preparation of Final Report

1.6 Methodology
The methodology adopted for meeting the requirement of above scope of works is:
Collection and Study of data/information, documents on NNBC. The comprehensive list
is given in Appendix-1;
Collection and Study of data, information and documentation on building code
implementation for government buildings by DUDBC
Collection and Study of data, information and documentation on building code
implementation in municipalities;
Interaction with the users of the Codes as licensed designers of municipalities,
professional consultants involved in the Earthquake engineering, municipal and
government authorities, professional organizations;
Preparation of Recommendation for update of NNBC with detail information on
amendments, revisions, alterations to be made.

1.7 The Project Team, Inputs and responsibilities

The proposed team members are listed below in Table-1 along with the proposed task
assignment

Table-1: Proposed Team Members

SN Position Name Firm Input, Task Assignment
MM
1 Project Mr. BL Multi 1 Administration, Quality Management
Director Nyachhyon Coordination
Review of Fire Code NNBC 107
 SN Position Name Firm Input, Task Assignment
MM
2 TL Dr. Prem Multi 1 Discussion and interaction
Structural Nath Review of Building Codes 000, 105
Engineer Maskey Compare NNBC with other codes
Study Codes correlations with NNBC
Specify the codes to be urgently updated
Prepare final recommendation report
3 Structural Mr. PM Khec 1 Discussion and interaction
Engineer Pradhan* / Study linkages with building bylaws
Dr. Analyze the problems faced by some
Govinda municipalities
Lamichhane Review NNBC 110, 111, 112, 113
Specify details to be updated for overall
revision of NNBC
4 Civil Dr. Rekha Multi 1 Discussion and interaction
Engineer Shrestha Study Issues raised by the designers
Review NNBC 101, 102, 103, 104, 108,
109, 114, 201, 202, 203, 204, 205
Review Earthquake Safety specifications
in building codes and guidelines already
available in Nepal
5 Architect Devendra Multi Discussion and interaction
Planner Nath Gongal Review NNBC 206
Architectural Code
6 Sanitary Shankher KDA 1 Discussion and interaction
Engineer Agrawal/ Review NNBC 208
Kul Deep System Protection and Safety
Tuladhar Uninterrupted Supply
7 Electrical Shambhoo Multi 1 Discussion and interaction
Engineer Bahadur Review NNBC 207,
Shrestha Electrical Safety, System Protection, ,
Uninterrupted Supply
* Mr. PM Pradhan could not contribute to the study since he has resigned from Khopa Engineering College.

1.8 Interaction with the Target Groups

The Appendix -3 lists the Target Groups for interaction for brain storming on updating of
NNBC. The interaction sessions were carried out as follows:
Dec 28, 2008 - Brief interaction with UNDP/ERRRP National Program Coordinator
Feb 5, 2009 Institutional Target Groups
Feb 9, 2009 Licensed Designers registered with Lalitpur Sub-Metropolitan City
Feb 27, 2009 Licensed Designers registered with Kathmandu Metropolitan City
The notes on the Interaction programs are presented in Appendix-3.

1.9 Major Findings

The NNBC, described in 20 independent volumes, is mostly comprises of editing of certain
terminology of IS Codes and as such requires intensive revision and updating. Practically,
this updating cannot be done at this stage in view of availability of resources for review and
updating.
The revision and updating of NNBC are not done in a regular basis since there is no
dedicated institution for this job. The revision and updating of Building Codes are very
complex and cumbersome process that requires huge resources in terms of knowledge
accumulation, institutional memory, time, research and development and statistics. The code
updating assignment even for rich countries like USA and UK is very huge and requires
considerable investment. They have started standarisation at international level and today
most of them use International Building Code. Those codes which are not included in the
IBC are included by reference and used as a set of document agreed at international level.
Each country or local governments are given rights to amend the parts which are not relevant
to the local area and needs revision.

There are no statistical records on the application of NNBC in recent construction of both
Government and Private Sectors. But it is evident that mostly used documents are MRT,
which has good stories mentioned above and does not warrantee the safety of the Building
design under it. With these facts in mind, it is required that MRT is taken away from the
family of Building Codes but a separate standard design could be developed which could be
readily used by anybody without requiring to go through the Safety review procedures in
Municipalities.

The provisions of NNBC are currently applicable within the Municipality boundaries and
there is no formal need to apply NNBC in rural areas. This weakness has to be changed and
all buildings and infrastructures in the rural areas are also required to fulfill the requirements
of NNBC.

It is recommended that as a priority MRT should be urgently discarded as part of the code
and replaced with standard design of typical buildings that complies with requirement of the
Family of Codes.

The revision and updating of NNBC should replaced by adaptation of IBC with specific
changes of certain provisions that are relevant to the country and locality.

A dedicated Institution as National Code Council shall be established urgently and entrusted
the task of development and implementation of NNBC and help to protect life and property
from various risks of Natural and manmade disasters.

The provision for implementation of NNBC shall be included in the Building bylaws which
govern the external and internal design aspects of individual buildings and infrastructure and
warrant the least effect to the neighborhood.

Though the building permit process according to Building Bylaws has granted certain
purpose to the buildings constructed in the urban areas, but there are considerable cases
when the occupancy loads were changed without proper justification and without design
revision. They pose huge risks in terms of safety.

Similarly, the case of high rise buildings needs to be looked very seriously and provide
specific guidelines for comprehensive design.

The Conclusion and recommendation are provided in Chapter 6 and 7.

2 Current Practices

2.1 National Policy

Nepal is considered one of most vulnerable country for earthquakes. The recent earthquakes
(1988 in Udayapur, Nepal) have prompted serious concerns for the earthquake safety of
infrastructure. Following the major earthquake event in 1988, the Ministry of Housing and
Physical Planning undertook a policy initiative jointly with UNDP and UNCHS to address
need for changes in current building design and construction methods. The UNDP / UNCHS
(Habitat) Project and the Ministry undertook Policy and Technical Support to Urban Sector
Project under which national housing survey, shelter sector training needs assessment, draft
national housing policy formulation, draft national building code preparation etc. were
undertaken. The Building Act was adopted to facilitate the regulation of building design /
construction practice in Nepal. The Engineering Council Act was formulated to facilitate
self regulation of the profession by professionals themselves. The Nepal National Building
Code was prepared in 1994. At the same time The Bureau of Standards and Metrology had
developed the NNBC as Nepal Standards under various Standard Codes. But in the absence
of the Parliament the Codes and Standards remained unimplemented. The Gujarat
Earthquake of Jan 2001 prompted the Society of Consulting Architectural and Engineering
Firms (SCAEF, Nepal) initiated joint collaboration with NBSM for implementation of
NNBC and NS. The collaboration prompted to form the National Forum of Earthquake
Safety that facilitated the Declaration by Lalitpur Sub-Metropolitan City for implementation
of NNBC and initiation of Masters Degree Course in Earthquake Engineering by Khwopa
Engineering College.

2.2 Implementation of NNBC by Municipalities

LSMC is the First Leading Municipality in Nepal to implement NNBC in the Building
Permit Process through a declaration on the occasion of Earthquake Safety Day celebration
on January 16, 2003 (2059 BS).

The Implementation of NNBC was initially facilitated by the Technical Cell (Group of
Municipal Engineers & Engineers from DUDBC, NSET, NFES, NEA) which worked for 6
months prior to the establishment of the Earthquake Safety Section 27th November 2003
(2060 BS).

2.3 Building Permit Process in LSMC

The Building Permit Application in LSMC is processed in following steps (ref.):
Registration by the Building Permit Unit of Municipality
Checking for compliance with Building Bye-Laws
Review the design by the Earthquake Safety Section (Technical Cell in initial stage) for
compliance with NNBC
Presentation of the design by the Licensed Designer in a public forum organized by
LSMC, ESS for sharing experience, knowledge, methodology of application of NNBC,
confirmation of compliance to NNBC. This process was dropped at later stage and not
continued any more.
Building Permit is granted in two stages:
Initial Permit for construction upto Plinth Level
Final Permit after inspection of construction upto Plinth Level
 Inspection of Construction Progress by Municipality Staff
Certification of Completion jointly by the Licensed Designer who supervised the
construction and Building Permit Unit who inspected the construction.

The general Building Permit process is provided in Section 2.4.2 below.

2.4 Building Permit Process in KMC

The Building Permit process in KMC differs significantly. The compliance with NNBC for
upto 3 storeys or 1000 sqft in area is reviewed by Building Permit Section and for Buildings
over 6 floors, it is checked by the National Building Code Implementation committee
(NBCIC). The detailed procedure is described below. Kathmandu Metropolitan City (KMC)
has started implementing building code-2060 from August 21, 2005, for the construction of
buildings within the city. In October 2005 a National Building Code Implementation
Committee was set up within KMC, it is comprised by six specialists who act on voluntary
basis.

The general building permit process is as follows:

Step 1: The Application for Building permit is checked for compliance with planning
guideline as Guided Land Development, particularly for adequacy of accessibility;
Step 2: For Buildings less than 3 storeys and less than 1000 Sqft, Computer checking by
Junior Engineer for compliance with requirements of NNBC and Planning Bylaws;
collection of revenue
For Buildings more than 3 storeys and more than 1000 Sqft, checking by Engineer for
compliance with requirements of NNBC and Planning Bylaws; collection of revenue
Step 3: Initial Registration and Computer Entry
Step 4: Forward to Ward Office for Field Verification and Neighborhood Consent
Step 5: Forward to Building Permit Section for Final Registration
Step 6: Checking by Engineer and Issue of Building Permit for Construction upto DPC
Level
Step 7: Checking of Construction upto DPC Level
Step 8: Issue of Building Permit for Construction of Superstructure
Step 9: Checking of Completion of Construction and Issue of Completion Certificate
Step 10: Apply for water and sewerage service connections, Electricity and
Telecommunication
Step 11: The drinking and sewerage office sends their recommendation to the Roads
Department for permission to dig the road for the water and Sewerage connection.
Step 12: The Department of Roads grants its permission to dig the road.
Step 13: Inspection by water and sewage offices and Water and sewer connection is
carried out
Step 14: Wiring Inspection before obtaining electrical power connection and telephone
connection
Step 15: Connection of Electrical Power Supply and Telephone connection

2.5 Data and information on building code implementation

2.5.1 Government Buildings by DUDBC

DUDBC carries out implementation of certain government buildings through its
construction and Maintenance divisions. It is not known how far they comply with the
 requirement of NNBC and who does certify the compliance since design and construction
supervision documents and As-Built Drawings are not readily available.

2.5.2 Practice in Municipalities

Building permit system started after the endorsement of Building By-Laws in 1994
(2050). Simply a set of Architectural drawings consisting of plans, four side elevations,
section, location plan and site plan were required for submission and this was dealt by the
Drawing Cell. This cell was also responsible for checking the compliance with other
aspects such as coverage, FAR, GLD, zoning etc. After the introduction of NNBC, a set of
structural drawing was added to the list of requirements.

From 2003, the requirement for architectural, structural design analysis, electrical etc
drawing sheets was introduced for SOA type of buildings (Class A) while the requirement
was limited to architectural and structural drawings for Class B type buildings and Class C
type building does not require any structural design. In some cases where the area is
designated as heritage conservation area, additional design for preservation of traditional
style and vernacular architecture is emphasized and permission from the Department of
Archeology is required.

Initially, the building permit process included the technical committee for review of
designs by a panel of external experts comprising of the representatives from DUDBC,
KMC, IOE, NSET and SCAEF. This process gained very essential lessons that benefited
the crystallizing the Building Permit Process and was a learning stage for many Licensed
Designers and Building Owners. But soon, the review process felt lot of resistance since
the Licensed Designers were unable to defend their designs and the process was felt as a
burden to the Municipality. Certainly, a thorough and detailed scrutiny required excellent
preparation of the design and drawings.

There are two certificate systems one is temporary which is given after DPC check, but this
temporary certificate is postponed now. The other is the Permanent completion certificate
as obvious from the name is given after the completion check of the building construction.
Now the number of structural drawing sheets has increased from one to three and pillar
from 9x 9 to 12x12. All engineered building for residential purpose which is more
than 1000sq. ft and 3 storeys require analysis report. For commercial buildings there is a
further requirement of soil test report and other drawings such as electrical, sanitation,
plumbing.

NNBC was enforced through the endorsement of Building Act 1999, but formally it was
implemented only in 2003 because the Building Bylaws did not make any reference to the
implementation requirements of the Building Code. NNBC has categorized buildings into
four categories namely type A, B, C and D.

2.6 Institutional Arrangements for Implementation of NNBC

There is no single institution responsible for all earthquake related matters in Nepal. The
following agencies are responsible for various earthquake related matters:
Department of Mines and Geology is responsible for earthquake instrumentation
network in the country and preparation of the seismic zone map of the country.
 National Bureau of Standards and Metrology is responsible for the certification of
standards and constituents of codes and guidelines on various public works including
earthquake matters.
National Building Council is envisaged as an apex body to deal with the creation and
updating of the National Building Code of Nepal.
Department of Urban Planning and Housing is responsible for the creation and
implementation of Nepal National Building Codes including earthquake matters.
Kathmandu Valley Town Development Committees are responsible for formulation of
Formulation of urban development plans, planning and building byelaws.
Local bodies (VDCs, DDCs and Municipalities) are responsible for formulation and/or
adoption of bylaws, codes, norms, regulations and enforcing / policing their
implementation in the areas of their jurisdiction.
Professional Societies as NEA, SCAEF, SONA, SEANEP, SEEN, ESI, NSET and other
Non-Government Organisations are responsible for information dissemination,
awareness campaigns, upgrading the knowledge and skill of their members to comply
with these codes in their professional practice and occasionally provide training.
Donor agencies involved in the area of earthquake safety include UNDP, UNCHS,
UNESCO and JICA.

There is no dedicated institutional arrangement for dealing with the Earthquake Safety
matters, follow up and updating of NNBC, for expert advice, and pursuance for application
of NNBC by local Governments including Municipalities and VDCs.

2.7 Jurisdiction of Application of NNBC

The Local Self-Government Act Part 2-VDC Clause 28 (f) (2) has made provision of the
criteria for construction of Buildings and Infrastructure. LSGA Part 3-Municipality Clause
96 (b) (6) has made provision for approval of Building Construction. These provisions could
be rationally utilized for application of NNBC in VDC and Municipality areas effectively.
More specific and elaborate guidelines may be required.

Building Act 2055 (amendment 1998) has given authority to all municipalities to implement
the NNBC for providing Building Permits. However, the Act do not specify a particular
organization that is authorized to follow up and monitor the compliance to NNBC by the
Municipalities.

2.8 Subscribed methods (PWD) of Seismic design consideration

PWD Part II Chapter has provided certain guideline for Earthquake Consideration in
Infrastructure Project Sector. The guidelines for earthquake considerations apply to the
following categories of structures:
All buildings having a plinth area greater than 20 m2 or height ranging from 5 m to 90
m.
All masonry and concrete walls having a height of greater than 1.5 m.
All elevated water tanks and silos with capacity up to 200 m3.
All public buildings having general public access.
All civil engineering structures such as bridges, dams, earth structures, silos, water tanks,
chimneys etc.
All towers and electric or telecom or radio pylons.
 The requirements of these guidelines shall be followed at minimum. The designer is
however free to exercise more stringent procedures if considered necessary considering the
merit of the case.

3 Consideration of Problems and Issues of NNBC Application and

Construction
The problems and issues related to the application of NNBC and construction quality are
largely discussed in various interaction programs with major stakeholders and brief notes on
the discussion points are described in Appendix-3. These issues are briefly highlighted
herewith:

3.1 The Codes

A code is a set of technical specification and standards that control major details of analysis,
design, construction and equipment. The purpose of the code is to produce safe and
economic design so that people are protected from poor and inadequate design and
construction.

Two types of codes exist. One type of code is called Structural Code and is written by
Structural Engineers and other specialists who are concerned with a particular class of
structures (e.g., buildings, bridges, nuclear plants) or who are interested in proper use of
materials (Steel, Aluminum, Reinforced Concrete, Plastics or Wood). Typically, structural
codes specify design loads, allowable stresses of various parts of structures, design
assumptions and requirements of material. Examples of Codes frequently used by structural
engineers include following:
AASHTO Standard specification of Highway Bridges
AREMA- Manual for Railway Engineering
ACI 318 Building Code requirement of reinforced concrete
AISC Manual for Steel Construction
AFPA- National design Specification for Wood Construction

The second type of code, called Building Code, is established to cover construction in a
given region (a state, city or country). A building code contains provisions pertaining to
architectural, structural, mechanical, electrical, requirements. The objective of a building
code is toprotect the public by accounting for the influence of the local conditions on
construction. Those conditions of particular concern to the structural engineers cover such
topics as soil conditions, live loads, wind pressure, snow load, and earthquake forces. Today
many building codes adopt the provisions of Standard minimum design loads for Buildings
prepared by ASCE or more recent International Building Code by ICC.

As new systems evolve, as new materials or new technology becomes available, or repeated
failures of accepted design occur, the cont3ent of codes are revised and updated. In recent
years, a large volume of research on structural behavior and materials has resulted in
frequent changes in both types of codes. For example, the ACI committee issues annual
addendum and produces revised codes every 6 years.

Most codes make revision to depart from the provisions in the standard provision if the
design can prove by the test or analytical studies that such changes can produce a safe
design.
3.2 Hierarchy of Act, Bylaws, Codes and Standards, and References
There is a gross confusion about the hierarchy and priority of the documents in relation to
Act, Bylaws, Codes (NNBC), Standards (NS), and Directives (PWD), Specifications,
Manuals Instructions and administrative circulars. This aspect needs to be clarified and clear
demarcation and definition is required.

The reference to other international codes as IS, IRC, JSI, DIN, ASTM, Eurocode and others
shall be provided.

3.3 Building bylaws

The building byelaws of municipalities do not include several codes which are considered
very essential for enhancing safety and quality of Life. The safety of Neighborhood
buildings such as supermarkets, high rise buildings, hospitals, schools, institutional building,
water towers, electrical towers, communication towers etc requires special treatment and
deserves specific consideration. The existing bylaws do not deal with hazardous buildings as
abandoned and dangerous houses. The Building Permits process shall include all codes
relevant to the safety of buildings and infrastructure. Apart from this, the bylaws shall
include provisions for innovativeness in planning and design.

3.4 Code Structure and Nepal Standards

There are two sets of similar documents: One published by DUDBC under NNBC 000 to
NNBC 208, and another set published by NBSM under NS series. NNBC is basically refers
to IS with corrections made for internalizing with Nepal Requirements. So, NNBC is a
dependent code and requires intensive reference with IS. In the other hand, NS has adapted
the NNBC provisions and replaced the references of NNBC with relevant clauses adapted
from respective international codes. This duplication of NNBC and NS has created
confusion among the users of Nepal Codes. NNBC requires to be made more users friendly,
warrantee safety compared to other codes and build confidence among the professionals and
community as a whole.

3.5 Need for Unified Code

NNBC is a collection of individual codes. May be it would be more effective when compiled
into a unified code including provision for adoption of administrative procedures for
implementation.

3.6 Criticism of NNBC

Several experts and professionals have reported that NNBC contains several anomalies
which make it unreliable and confidence on it could not be developed. These factors are
related to:
The Safety factors,
Importance factors,
Response spectra,
Worse case of load combination
Low Load factors, Load reduction provision, Load distribution of non-orthogonal plan
Lateral earth pressure in basement
Load distribution for high rise and low rise
Time period < 0.1 N
 Design Parameters as:
- Settlement, deformation, strength, crack opening
- Static and dynamic analysis
- Retrofitting of existing buildings by laws / codes
- Repair and maintenance of old existing buildings/ code
- Disaster mitigation building stock inventory

3.7 Family of Codes Box-2: List of International Codes in Use

The International Code Council has adopted
a series of codes that comprehensively
provide safety of life and property, and
enhance the quality and comfort of the
people. This aspect has not been covered by
Building Act of Nepal and Byelaws of any
municipalities and the building codes
prepared have limited provisions. The list of
International Codes used is listed in Box-2.
These codes are part of Building By-Laws
and required to be followed as the minimum.
3.8 Frequency of Update
The Bylaws, codes and Standards required
to be updated within a certain period in
order to address the dynamic technological
development and requirement of the
consumers.
3.9 Commentary on Codes and Standards
Inclusion of Commentary on Codes and
Standards is most important since it
develops the confidence of the users, and
provides evidence of authenticity. The
commentary shall be included in the same
code and standard where it is required to be
provided.
1. Building Code *,
2. Residential Code,
3. Mechanical Code,
4. Plumbing Code *,
5. Fuel Gas Code,
6. Fire Code *,
7. Property Maintenance Code,
8. Private Sewage Disposal Code,
9. Electrical Code
10. Energy Conservation Code,
11. Existing Building Code,
12. Utility Codes (Lifts and Escalators, Lighting and
ventilation, Prefabrication and System buildings,
Acoustics, Noise control, Air Conditioning and
Heating, Communication and Networking)
13. Urban Wild land Interface Code,
14. Performance Code,
15. Planning and Zoning Code
16. Code and Commentary
17. Elevator Safety Construction Code
18. Historical Building and Conservation Code
19. Reference Standards Code
20. Disabled Accessibility Guidebook
21. National Green Building Standard
22. Nonstructural elements code
23. Code for Special Buildings as high rise
buildings, water towers, bridges.
24. Construction Safety
25. Environmental Codes (Indoor and Outdoor
Ambience)
26. Retrofitting and Building Strengthening Code

3.10 Conservation of Historic Building, Aesthetics, Planning Codes

NNBC includes a code on Architectural
* Codes included in NNBC
Design Requirement (NNBS 206:2003),
but the important aspects of urban areas as
conservation
of historic buildings, aesthetics and context of urban areas affecting the neighborhood safety
are missing which has a huge toll on the urban safety. The building permit process in the
vicinity of historic buildings and in the World Heritage Sites or Preservation areas are not
subject to the requirements of Department of Archeology which is the governing body for
conservation of buildings and heritage sites.
3.11 Relationship between Aesthetics and Structural Safety
In several cases, the architectural shape and size artificially dictate the type of structures to
be used which violates the structurally safety provisions. The codes shall make a distinction
of the relationship between the architectural shape and structural safety requirement.
Similarly, the building shape and configuration have effect on ductility of the building and
overall safety against Earthquake Hazard.

3.12 Change in Occupancy

There are several occasions of change of occupancy category of the buildings that threaten
the safety of life and property. Recently, several of hotel buildings have changed occupancy
to supermarkets and office buildings. The residential buildings are easily used for
accommodating lower class schools, warehouses, and offices. Such changes in occupancy
required to be monitored and shall be governed by the provisions in Building Bylaws and
codes.

3.13 High Rise Buildings

The requirement of high rise buildings in terms of overall safety is different than that of low
rise buildings. The quality of materials and reliability of technology is much stringent and
operation and maintenance of the service require higher degree for reliability. This
requirement should be covered by NNBC.

3.14 Detailing of Joints

The use of facede materials as granite, glass panels and traditional decorative bricks (Dachi
Apa) requires inclusion of detailing of joints with main structure in order to warrantee the
safety during Earthquake. The details of connection of infill walls, parapet walls, sunshades
and main frames shall be considered.

3.15 Quality Monitoring and Advertisement Market

The current practice of quality assurance of materials and their use in construction is getting
in mess. There is no uniform method of quality monitoring exits except for the voluntary
application of quality standards at the large scale project level. The materials in the market
are dominated by commercial advertisement irrespective of applicability of the products to
the specific job and requirement of quality parameters. More the advertisement materials are
misleading to the consumers since the information provided in the advertisements are not
correct or not applicable to the situation at the particular job. The business community
exploits the consumers for their lack of knowledge understanding and ignorance, and lack of
institutional approach towards monitoring the advertisement materials.

3.16 Supervision of Construction Works

This is one of the weakest parts of implementation of NNBC and NS. The qualification of
Human resources being engaged in supervision and quality of materials and equipment
required to be addressed.
3.17 Building Material Handling, storage and use
The Safety of public and labor during material handling, storage and use is not taken care of.
Use and handling of hazardous materials as fuel and electricity and other inflammable
materials shall be considered with special care. The sales of cement, steel, brick and sand at
public places are harmful to health.

3.18 Specification of other Materials not mentioned in NNBC

There are several other building materials that are commonly used in the market whereas
these materials are not included in the Codes or Standards. There should be a mechanism
where these new materials and technology could be permitted for use under the code
provisions.

3.19 Mechanism for addressing Technical issues and data bank

The mechanism for addressing technical issues on provision of codes, standards,

specification and construction technology is lacking. Similarly, data on experts on
Earthquake Safety and Building Code matters are not consolidated. A data bank on Code
and Earthquake Safety matters will be extremely helpful including the development of a
library for collection of important reports and research works.

3.20 Participation of masons, stakeholders, owners

The participation of stakeholders directly involved in the project as masons, owners and
other stakeholders in code making and updating is lacking.

3.21 Info dissemination and Interactions

Information dissemination on code related issues are not adequately made. The information
rarely reaches the concerned stakeholders as professional societies and entities. The
information on the codes and standards shall be discussed with the stakeholders at length for
making the codes more effective and popular.

3.22 Construction Safety

The Construction safety is dealt in NNBC 114: 1994. However, it is limited to certain items
and major safety issues as responsibility and accountability of safety is not considered. At
the same time several items as formwork, reinforcement, concreting, equipment operation
and many more are not included.

3.23 Ownership of Design and Intellectual Property rights

The ownership of the designer over the design and intellectual property right of the designer,
the contractor and major technology suppliers is not covered by NNBC. This will be an
important aspect to be included in the Building Code.
3.24 Education
The education in Engineering Colleges is based on course books and seldom referred to the
NNBC or other codes and remained more academic and not pragmatic. The use of code
provisions shall b encouraged for practical classes. The colleges are the best places for
building awareness on need for use of codes and standards.

3.25 Capacity of personnel, qualification

The qualification of the administrators of the codes at municipality level is another issue.
The application of codes is ignored since there is lack of adequate human resources with
knowledge of Codes. Equally, important is the qualification of the designers who are
basically responsible for compliance with the codes. This qualification requirement shall be
applicable to the contractors staff as well.

3.26 Licensing of Skill Labor

Licensing of Skilled construction workers, inspectors, supervisors and professionals should
be adopted with provision of appropriate training addressing the requirement of quality
monitoring.

4 Implementation of Codes and Standards

The current practice of implementation of codes and standards is very poor. Particularly, this
is correct since there is no institution that is responsible for monitoring the implementation of
the Codes and the roles and responsibilities of various entities involved are not defined in
context of application of NNBC and NS. Appropriate Institutional Arrangement for
continuity of follow up for upgrading NNBC will be required. NNBC has certain provision
of Water Supply, Sanitation and Plumbing (NNBC208:2003), Electrical Safety (NNBC
207:2003), and Fire Code (NNBC 107:1994) but these codes are seldom used for granting
the Building Permit.

4.1 Water Supply and Sanitation

There is no code related to water supply.

4.2 Electrical Code

Electrical Safety Code (NNBC 207:2003) provides certain guideline for electrical details to
be made. However the need for detailed electrical diagram including wiring details is not
strongly spelt out and monitoring of safety shall be considered. Nepal Electricity Authority
makes certain verification of the house wiring prior to providing connection to the city
supply.

4.3 Fire Safety Code

The Fire Safety Code as provided by (NNBC 107:1994) is limited in application of certain
provisions as fire alarm and other appurtenances. The requirement for design consideration
and selection of building material based on Fire Grading of the Building category is not
included.
4.4 Use of NNBC 205: MRT
The municipality licensed designers widely use these codes for all construction beyond the
limit of MRT for building of larger sizes as well.

Equally, MRT is extensively used for rural construction. It shall be said that this document is
a very useful one but need to be very cautious since the designers in urban areas particularly
are misusing this document and threatening the safety. The minimum size of column of
9x9 recommended in NNBC is considered inappropriate for construction and LSMC is
adapting 9x12, and changed the concrete grade from M15 to M20.

It was referred that while better examples of standard typical designs to be made available
for replication where permitted, MRT itself should not be a part of the Bylaws, Codes and
Standards.

5 Review of NNBC

5.1 Review of NBC 000: 1994 State-Of-The Art Design And NBC 105: 1994
Seismic Design Of Buildings In Nepal

5.1.1 General

Seismic design of buildings constitutes the principal component of the building codes. The
purpose is to reduce or mitigate the damage due to future earthquakes. It has been well
recognized that the single most important development in reducing earthquake losses in the
world has been the incorporation of seismic design provisions into the building codes. The
seismic codes of various countries are in a state of continuous evolution in research and
changes in construction practice.

The history of building code and hence the seismic design of buildings in Nepal is at
tender age compared to the same of other countries. The need for national building code in
Nepal was first strongly felt following the substantial loss and damage due to Udayapur
earthquake of 1988. The preparation of the building code was initiated in early nineties and
published officially only in 1994. The general response to the code has been lukewarm
since its inception, and is in a state of model building code rather than a national building
code in terms of legal status.

Substantial advance have been achieved in the knowledge related to seismic resistant
design of buildings and structures during the past 15 years since the publication of the
National Building Code of Nepal. Changes in seismic design provisions in seismic codes
of different countries from 1994 to the present date are many and far reaching in their
impact. Part of the reasons for such changes has been to incorporate the lessons learned
from the devastating large earthquakes. Inclusion of the lessons learnt from 1994
Northridge and the 1995 Kobe earthquakes have been the major highlights of 1997 edition
of Uniform Building Code with a considerable change in 1994 edition of UBC. Since then
the large earthquakes of Gujarat (2001 January), Sumatra-Andaman (2004 December),
Kashmir-Kohistan (2005 October) and China (2007) have resulted into devastating loss
and damage, imparting the new lessons to be incorporated in the next future seismic codes.
The lessons learnt from the past earthquakes, rapid development in the technology and
researches in the area of Earthquake Engineering have resulted into sophisticated seismic
codes in developed countries. The recent editions of National Earthquake Hazards
Reduction Program (NEHRP) Provisions following the custom of updating in a cycle of
three years substantiate the fact. The recommended provisions incorporated in The
NEHRP Recommended Provisions for Seismic Regulations for New Buildings have
increasingly been adopted in recent times by model codes and standards. If in United
States, there is a custom of revising the codes every three years, it may be not that easy in
case of developing countries like Nepal. The revised edition of the Indian standard Criteria
for earthquake resistant design of structures IS 1893(Part 1) 2002 came into light replacing
IS 1893: 1984 only after a period of 18 years. However, it should be recognized that the
updating of design documents like the codes is a dynamic process, and shall be
materialized as soon as possible to further reduce and mitigate the possible losses in future
earthquakes. In view of this, it is urgently needed that the present code on seismic design
of buildings in Nepal is carefully reviewed with an objective of removing any deficiencies,
errors or scope for misinterpretation. Moreover, development of commentaries or
explanatory handbook on the code to explain the provisions with solved examples is of
utmost importance to solicit a favorable response from users.

5.1.2 NNBC 000: 1994 Requirements For State-Of-The Art Design

NNBC 000: 1994 basically describes the preface of the building code preparation and
philosophy behind the need for seismic design of buildings in Nepal. It describes and
advocates for, in general, four different levels of sophistication of design and construction,
namely, International state-of-art, Professionally engineered structures, Buildings of restricted
size designed to simple rules-of-thumb, and Remote rural buildings where control is
impractical. Accordingly, the NNBC 000: 1984 contains four separate parts describing the
requirements for each category of the design sophistication. The categorization of the design
and construction is highly influenced by the typology of buildings prevalent then in Nepal and
appears highly overwhelmed by the fact that the first ever building code should be generous to
accommodate the unsophisticated and un-engineered design. It implies the poor status of
design capability and exposure to building codes and standards. It calls for a need to not only
to revise regularly but also ascertains that the provisions are drafts standards for adoption by
NBSM. The content of NNBC 000: 1994 could have been a set of good guidelines
incorporated in local building regulations or byelaws. Since a national building code also
represents the status and sophistication of design and construction embracing latest research
and technological developments, it should not only emphasize but also concentrate only on the
International state-of-art.
A building code is a set of rules that specify the minimum acceptable level of safety for
buildings and other constructed objects. The main purpose of the building code is to protect
public health, safety and general welfare as they relate to the construction and occupancy of
buildings and other structures. The Building Code becomes the law of a particular
jurisdiction when formally enacted by the appropriate authority. Generally the codes are
meant for regulating building activity which may be recommendatory or mandatory
depending upon the authorities issuing these. Compliance to the building code is
mandatory when it is covered in Building Byelaws, Regulations, Acts, Rules, etc. issued
by the National Government and various regional or local authorities.
Building Codes are generally intended to be applied by architects and engineers, but are
also used for various purposes by safety inspectors, environmental scientists, real estate
developers, contractors, manufacturers of building products and materials, insurance
companies, facility managers, disaster management personals, and others.
The practice of developing, approving, and enforcing Building Codes is different from one
country to another. In some nations Building Codes are developed by the governmental
agencies or semi-governmental standards organizations and then enforced across the
country by the national government. Such codes are the National Building Codes, and they
enjoy a mandatory nation-wide application. In the countries, where the power of regulating
construction is vested in local authorities, a system of Model Building Codes is used.
Model Building Codes have no legal status unless adopted or adapted by an authority
having jurisdiction. In some countries, each municipality and urban development authority
has its own building code, which is mandatory for all construction within their jurisdiction.
Such buildings codes are variants of a National Building Code, which serves as model
code proving guidelines for regulating construction activity. The degree to which national
building codes and standards are enforced by law varies from country to country, as stated in
the Foreword of the Code, however it was intended that its implementation be enforced
through the Parliamentary Bill Act and concerned, local authority by-laws. In the above
scenario, it has become very important to establish the status of the building code. It is to be
noted that Building Byelaws, in relation with Building Codes, are mandatory rules and
guidelines for construction activities, issued normally by governmental agencies or
authorities with jurisdiction. Byelaws reflect the legal status of the document, and are
regulatory in nature. National Building Code or Model Building Code may be included as
an essential part of Building Byelaws; however, building codes may not contain the
byelaws. In view of this the philosophy of various levels of requirements depending upon
the design sophistication are more relevant to the byelaws to be enforced by the central or
local authorities. It is always preferable to maintain the distinct boundaries between
existing building byelaws/building regulations and building codes to avoid the confusion.
The sanctity of the building code, different from building byelaws and building
regulations, and in its turn, the seismic design of buildings shall be retained by focusing on
the international state-of-art.
It is important to understand the expressed or implied purpose of a particular design
document in order to fully appreciate its provisions. Although the basic purpose of any
seismic code is to protect life, the way that this purpose as well as any additional purposes,
presented can provide additional insight into the reasons for the presence of specific
provisions in the body of the document and its intended audience. The document shall be
free, as far as possible, of ambiguous or confusing statements or provisions. The following
paragraph describes some of issues to be resolved under NNBC 000: 1994:
The background of the development of the building code and the philosophy of seismic
design could be reasonably incorporated in the introductory part of Seismic Design of
Buildings or even in that of National Building Code itself. The requirements for the
Professionally engineered structures (Part II), Buildings of restricted size designed to
simple rules-of-thumb (Part III), and Remote rural buildings where control is impractical
(Part III) along with minimum design requirements based on the flow chart (Figure 1) shall
be left out for building regulations or building byelaws. The requirements for the
International state-of-art is the main part, based on which the Seismic Design of
Buildings evolves. The need for a separate code on the remaining issues is not
justifiable.
Labeling the Building Code or part of it as draft standards belies the purpose of the
document, and weakens the position of the code executing agencies in the
enforcement of the building code.
 Ambiguous statements shall be removed unless a necessary clarification is provided to
avoid the scope for misinterpretation. The return periods mentioned for the onset of
damage of a typical building and for the strength of building as 50 years and 300 years
respectively, in 1.2 Seismic Design under Part 1, need a clarification or rephrasing.
Incomplete sentences in the document of importance shall be avoided. The sentence
starting with The basic philosophy for and ending in blanks, in 1.2 Seismic Design
under Part 1, fails to express the principal objective of the seismic design.
The language and the format of clauses and provisions in a building code deserve a
formal/legal style rather than those of a technical report. The paragraphs following the
subheading 1.3 Other Loads under Part 1 appear like parts of a report with a little
regard for other Nepalese Standards.
Mere referring the Indian Standard Codes of Practice for design in materials like
concrete, steel and masonry does not serve the purpose of popular use and enforcement
of Nepal National Building Code. IS 456: 1978 Indian Standard Code of Practice for
Plain and Reinforced Concrete has been revised into the Fifth revision IS 456: 2000
Indian Standard Code of Practice for Plain and Reinforced Concrete. Similarly the
detailing requirements included in IS 4326: 1993 Indian Standard Code of Practice for
Earthquake Resistant Design and Construction of Buildings have been modified and
incorporated in a separate detailing code IS 13920: 1993 Indian Standard Code of
Practice for Ductile Detailing of Reinforced Concrete Structures subjected to Seismic
Forces. Since the present building code of Nepal is not explicit about which Indian
Standard Codes, referred ones or revised ones, to be adopted, the designers along with
other stake holders obviously will be in dilemma.
Due reference to Nepalese Standards without using the adjective draft, and without
the background of their development, is most preferable. The Nepalese Standards, such
as for Wind Loads (NNBC 104: 1994), Steel Design (NNBC 111: 1994), Un-
reinforced Masonry (NNBC 109: 1994) and others shall be reviewed and improved, no
matter assistance from which international codes or publications has been derived, so
that these could be treated with respect as Nepals own Standards and essential
components of the National Building Code.
Due weightage needs to be given to international coordination among the standards and
practices prevailing in different countries in addition to relating it to the practices in the
field in Nepal.

5.1.3 NNBC 105: 1994 Seismic Design Of Buildings In Nepal

Background and purpose of the code

The important information regarding the preparation of the code including its history of
development, need of the document development/improvement and the purpose of seismic
design shall be described under Foreword. Due credit shall be given to the documents and
codes, which have been used and referred in the development of the code.
The present form of Foreword needs to be enhanced with changes in terms of content and
description. The name of sub-heading - design procedure and its content stating as the
minimum design requirements for the seismic design of structures do not match; referring just
to the section under the scope does not say any thing about the design procedure nor about the
minimum requirements.
The special emphasis on the need for application of the code in conjunction with IS 4326
1993, under sub-heading Related Codes is not appreciable for two reasons. Firstly, the status
of IS 4326 1993 in India has been changed with most of the contents being separately
transferred into newly developed codes. The statement in the para implies that NNBC 105:
1994 can not be used without referring IS 4326 1993. In principle, emphasis should be on the
need of developing such basic standards or codes. Alternatively, the relevant provisions shall
be incorporated, separately as clauses, in the seismic design code itself. Naming recent editions
of IS 4326 1993 or other relevant national and international codes or documents as reference
materials will be more appreciated. Moreover, details of the Standards, preferably developed
for Nepal, which are necessary adjuncts to the Seismic Design of Buildings in Nepal shall be
listed elsewhere in the code.

The absence of the Commentary, forming an accompanying volume to the code, makes it
difficult to substantiate the requirement of using the code in association with the Commentary
as given under sub heading- Commentary.

Scope
The requirements presented under the section of scope of the present code sound conservative.
Instead, the scope of the code should be general and broad in terms of seismic load assessment
on various structures and seismic resistant design of buildings. The basic provisions shall be
applicable to buildings, elevated structures, industrial structures, dams, bridges and other
structures. The scope may not include the construction features of those buildings for which
separate standards will have to address.

Terminology
The terms used in the seismic design and their definitions given in the present code should be
extended. Since the code is the sole principal document for earthquake resistant design of
buildings it will be preferable to include basic terms and their definitions related with
Earthquake Engineering in general to shed light on basic seismological aspects, as well as
Earthquake Engineering related with buildings. Basic terms related with damping, modes,
spectra, PGA, importance factor, intensity and magnitude of earthquake, liquefaction,
maximum considered earthquake, normal modes and modal characteristics, seismic weight,
zone factor and others related with basic Earthquake Engineering shall be included. It is also
necessary to incorporate more terms related with building such as base, center of mass and
rigidity, design eccentricity, base shear, bracing systems, lateral load resisting elements,
principal axes, P- effect, storey drift, storey shear, soft storey and others.

Symbols
The symbols used in the present code may be retained with the extension or revision as the
method improved or altered. However, some terms used in the symbols may be changed, for
example, fundamental time period is more suitable than translational period Ti. There is
perhaps a typographical error in meaning the symbol Fp design seismic force for elements
and components designed in accordance with 8.

General Principles of Design

The general principles described under the present section 3 of the code could be elaborated
with the important features of seismicity and basic assumptions of seismic design.
It is necessary to include the general principle adopted regarding the ground motion, its
features in relation with the earthquake source characterizations including the sizes of the
earthquake.
It will be favorable to describe the seismic design approach adopted in the code. The generally
accepted principle of seismic resistant design of buildings is that structures should be able to
withstand minor earthquakes without damage, withstand moderate earthquakes without
structural damage but with some non-structural damage, and withstand major earthquakes
without collapse but with some structural as well as non-structural damage. These widely
quoted objectives, however, are unstated in many codes including the current NNBC 105:
1994. Instead, the principal objectives are stated, for example, the Uniform Building Code
UBC 1997 states an overall objective of safeguarding life or limb, property and public welfare.
Although the definitions of minor, moderate and major earthquakes are variable, they
generally relate to the life of the structure, and the consequences of failure. The major
earthquake level defined in most of the codes of the world has a recurrence interval of 475
years, which corresponds to a 10% probability of exceedence in 50 years that is commonly
accepted to be the expected life of a building. The corresponding service level earthquake for a
typical building would have a recurrence interval of 10 years and a 99.3% probability of being
exceeded in 50 years.
There is also a need to mention about the design approach in relation with consideration of
lateral force in each of the two orthogonal horizontal directions, and approach regarding
consideration of earthquake load in vertical direction. It shall also include the approach and
corresponding provision regarding simultaneous occurrence of wind or flood, soil-structural
interaction and change in usage of the building.

Design Methods and Load Combinations

There must be a valid logical reason for need of Limit State Method of design for reinforced
concrete design and recommending Working Stress Method for other structural materials. At
this juncture of improvement, it will be preferable to explore the design methods available and
recommended in other codes and adopt the design method most appropriate for the country. In
general, most of the countries have adopted Limit State Method or Strength Method replacing
Working Stress Method for Concrete as well as Steel, the two principle structural materials.
The provision regarding the increase in allowable soil bearing pressure by up to 50 percent
when earthquake forces are considered along with other design forces according to 4.3 of the
present code may be too un-conservative and ambiguous in application. Elaboration of the
clause is required about in what condition 50% increase can be considered, and in what
condition lower values, which are to be mentioned, of increment can be considered. IS 1893
(Part 1) : 2002 recommends the increase in allowable soil bearing pressure from 25 to 50%
depending upon the soil type (hard, medium or soft ) and the type of foundations (piles, raft,
combined, isolated and well).
The design load combinations included in the present code for Working Stress Method as well
as for Limit State Method seriously require reworking. It is well recognized that the load
factors, recommended are based on the reliability levels assumed in the structures. For
example, it appears too un-conservative to have load factor for dead load as 1 and for live load
1.3 in case of Nepal. The uncertainties due to non-uniformity of materials, workmanship,
quality control seem to be ignored in the load factor for dead load. The uncertainties in
overloading is covered by maximum 1.3 may not be practical in the condition of Nepal. IS 456
: 2000, for example, considers 1.5 for both the dead load and the live load. Similarly the
maximum load factor value for seismic load considered is just 1.25, both in combination with
0.9 times dead load, as well as in combination with dead load and 1.3 times live load. The
value of 1.25 is too low in view of the large uncertainties involved in assessment of the
seismic load. Furthermore, the recommendation for adoption of partial safety factors as per
Table 12 of NNBC 110: 1994 contradicts the provision of 4.5 of Seismic Design Code.

Method of Seismic Design

The present seismic code recommends two methods of earthquake analysis, namely, Seismic
Coefficient Method and Modal Response Spectrum Method.
The bulk of seismic resistant buildings are designed using equivalent static lateral forces to
represent the effects of ground motion due to earthquake on buildings. It is from the
assumption that equivalent static forces can be used to represent the effects of an earthquake
by producing the same structural displacements as the peak earthquake displacement response.
The application of this method is limited to reasonably regular structures. The present code
restricts the use of this method for structures up to 40 m height, and should also mention the
condition of regularity.
The dynamic analysis shall not be confined to the response spectrum method. There must be
an optional provision for Time History Analysis also. The conditions for need of using Modal
Response Spectrum Method (Dynamic Analysis) are listed, which are basically related with
irregular configuration. Due to absence of definition and classification of irregularity, the users
of the code will be confused. It is desirable to include clauses that define and describe different
types of irregularity (horizontal, vertical, stiffness, mass, geometric and others). By such
definitions a clearer picture and effect of soft storey and weak storey will be available.
The formula for determination of seismic coefficient has been changing in the seismic codes of
the world. However, the base shear due to ground motion has all the time been the product of
the seismic coefficient and the mass of the structure. The principal code factors used in
deriving static lateral forces, for a long time, have basically been:
Z A numeric value representing the seismic zoning
I An importance factor representing the importance of the structure,
especially in terms of use following a major earthquake.
C A factor representing the appropriate acceleration response spectrum value.
S A factor representing the effect of local soil conditions on the spectral
response of the ground
W The mass of the structure, including an assessment of live load
K A factor representing the performance of the structure depending on the
brittleness or ductility of the structure These values are combined in general
form for base shear:

V= ZICKSW

This formula for base shear has been for a long time popular. However in course of
evolution the formula for the seismic coefficient has been changing. The formula for the
seismic coefficient presented in the present NBE 105: 1994 considers all the above factors
except S-the factor representing the effect of local soil conditions on the spectral response
of the ground. This effect has been considered, like in other codes, in the response spectra
drawn for different (basically three) types of soil. Thus the expression for the seismic
coefficient is given in equation 8.1. Similarly, the equation 8.2 for the expression for the
design response spectrum, in which the ordinate of the basic response spectrum for the
natural time period, is multiplied by ZIK.
It has been a trend in the codes of the world to drop the performance factor K and replace it
by reciprocal of R, response reduction factor, a factor dependant on the building type and
its ductility level. The adoption of the response reduction factor leads to a realistic values
of acceleration from which the design forces are obtained by dividing the elastic forces by
it. It implies that the design force is much lower than what can be expected in the event of
a strong earthquake (Jain 2003).
The replacement of the factor K by the factor 1/R may result into a logical estimation of
the seismic coefficient, and alternate expressions derived in recent editions of codes or
documents like NEHRP shall be given a thought for the new edition of the code.
Computing dynamic response instead of using static forces is becoming increasingly
common as higher powered computing facilities are being available in design offices.
Since there is no restriction of building height and irregularity the dynamic analysis
appears to be simpler in application and yields more logical and accurate results. However,
special care shall be taken into consideration about conservative provision in some
international codes. Some codes require checking of the dynamic analysis results by
seismic coefficient method. Some documents like IS 1893 (Part 1) : 2002 require
comparing the base shear with the base shear calculated using the fundamental time period
calculated using the empirical formula recommended for static approach, and if the base
shear from dynamic analysis is less than the base shear calculated using the time period
from the empirical formula, all the dynamic responses shall be up-scaled multiplying by
the ratio of the two base shears. It again implies the dominance of the seismic coefficient
method over the dynamic analysis.

Seismic Hazard Level and Response Spectrum

Estimate of the design ground motion is the most important and complicated part of the
seismic design code development. Estimates of the design ground motion are necessarily
controversial and uncertain. It is more important to the structural designer that this is
understood than for him to attach some particular significance to any ground motion
parameter used in his design. However there is a strong argument for conservatism in the
assessment of ground motion input, and the use of high confidence level.
NNBC 105: 1994 does not present any elaborate information on the seismicity of the
country. It would be favorable to include at least maps showing epicenters of past
earthquakes, principle tectonic features, geological features including principal lithological
groups, and seismic zones, all of which are well documented by the Department of Mines
and Geology, Nepal. Pandey et al. (2002) has presented seismic hazard map of Nepal as a
result of probabilistic seismic hazard analysis The document presents the contour of
seismic hazard at the bedrock of Nepal for a return period of 500 years, indicating 10%
probability of exceedence in 50 years.
The design values of ground motion parameter such as Peak Ground Acceleration (PGA)
for different regions of the country are presented either in a tabular form (GB 50011-2001)
or attaching relevant maps like in IBC 2006 in the codes. It is necessary to do the same in
NNBC 105: 1994 also since the seismic hazard for the code was determined based on the
probabilistic seismic hazard analysis. The seismic codes adopting probabilistic approach of
hazard estimation use the hazard levels in terms of Maximum Considered/Capable
Earthquake (MCE) as in NEHRP (2003) and IBC (2006), and Design Basis Earthquake
(DBE) as in ATC (1978) and UBC (1997). The MCE and DBE represent 2% probability of
exceedence in 50 years with a return period of 2500 years and 10% probability of
exceedence in 50 years with a return period of 475 years respectively.
The seismic hazards considered in earlier editions of NEHRP and UBC 97 (1997) had a
recurrence interval of 475 years (Design Basis Earthquake) corresponding to a uniform 10
percent probability of exceedance in 50 years, which is commonly accepted to be expected
life of a building. The NEHRP(1997) and IBC2000(2000) had changed the Design Basis
Earthquake(DBE), and since then have been using the Maximum Considered Earthquake
(MCE) to represent the seismic hazards in the provisions.. The MCE represents the seismic
hazard that has a recurrence interval of 2500 years corresponding to a uniform 2%
probability of exceedence in 50 years. The design earthquake according to the provisions
of NEHRP(2003) and IBC 2006 (2006) is two-thirds of the MCE. Comparison of the
provisions of 1994 or older editions with 1997 or later editions of the NEHRP Provisions
reveals that, a structure designed by the 1994 or older editions of NEHRP Provisions is
believed to have a low likelihood of collapse under an earthquake that is one and one-half
times (reciprocal of two-third) as large as the design earthquake of those documents. The
same change has taken place from UBC 97 (1997) to IBC 2000 (2000). This major change
in association with other provisions indicates the newer versions of the documents tend to
be more conservative.
The seismic loading in NNBC 105: 1994 is set at a seismic hazard level having a return
period of 50 years, which corresponds to a probability of exceedence less than 45% in 30
years, which had been estimated as the economic life of a structure in Nepal, as presented
by Beca Worley International et al.(1993), The document as well reveals that the seismic
hazard level was set to be at a level approximately equal to that defined in the Indian
Standard, that is, IS 1893: 1984. The design earthquake level set hence is too un-
conservative and strongly needs a major revision for the following reasons:
i. The service life of buildings in Nepal estimated as 30 years is far from reasonable,
instead it must be 50 years.
ii. It is unfair to set the seismic hazard level for Nepal heavily banking upon the
earthquake level stipulated in IS 1893: 1984, which has already been revised into IS
1893 (Part 1): 2002 with a different value of design earthquake value. The Indian
Standard has yet to adopt probabilistic format of seismic hazard analysis.
iii. The provisions in the present code have been developed in reference with mainly low
rise buildings with short natural periods, where as long period structures are
increasingly becoming prevalent.
iv. The seismic design lateral load calculated for short period structures as 0.08, when
compared with the basic horizontal seismic coefficient for zone V of IS 1893: 1984,
found the same as 0.08. But the value according to the revised IS 1893 (Part 1): 2002
will be 0.09 against 0.08.
The response spectra and the zoning factors largely depends on the design earthquake
levels, and hence will be different as the seismic hazard levels change.
The broad classification of soil conditions into three types is universally accepted.
However, the definition and requirements of each type of them shall be more practical and
recognizable.

Static Method (Seismic Coefficient Method)

The seismic base shear V along any principal direction is determined by the expression:
 V = Cd Wt
In which Cd is the design horizontal seismic coefficient, and Wt is the seismic weight of the
building. However, the expression given by equation 10.1 is not supplemented with what
stands for the notation Wt . Moreover, it requires the definition of the seismic weight of the
building. There is also a need to describe how the seismic weight of the building is
calculated in terms of seismic weight of floors, which has to be referred, although briefly
introduced under the section 6 Seismic Weight. It should further be elaborated with the
rules for lumping of weights.
The distribution of the design base shear along the height of the building is carried out in a
linear manner, that is, the design lateral force at floor level i is calculated by:
Fi = V Wi hi/Wi hi
The Indian Standard IS 1893 has long been adopting the parabolic distribution,
corresponding to which the design lateral force, equivalent to IS 1893 (Part 1):2002, at
floor level i is calculated by:
2
Wi hi
Fi V n
Wi hi
2
i 1

Both of the above distributions are at the extremes. The linear distribution is true for
basically stiff structures having a natural period of 0.5 seconds or less (approximately for
up to 5 storeys of the building). The parabolic distribution is applicable basically for
flexible structures having a natural time period of 2.5 seconds (approximately for 25
storeys and more of the building).
The distribution of the horizontal forces over the height of a building is generally a quite
complex because these forces are the result of superposition of a number of natural modes
of vibration. The relative contributions of these vibration modes to the total forces depends
on a number of factors, which include shape of the ground motion response spectrum,
natural periods of vibration of the building, and the vibration mode shapes, which in turn
depend on the mass and stiffness distribution over the height of the building. Based on it,
ATC 3-06 (1978) has provided the reasonable and simple formula to obtain the horizontal
earthquake force distribution in buildings with regular variation of mass and stiffness over
the height as follows:
k
Wi hi
Fi V n
Wi hi
k
i 1

in which, k is an exponent related to the building period as follows:

For buildings having a period of 0.5 seconds or less, k = 1.
For buildings having a period of 2.5 seconds or more, k = 2.
For buildings having a period between 0.5 and 2.5 seconds, k may be taken as 2 or may be
determined by linear interpolation between 1 and 2.
In view of the changing characters of the buildings, increasingly departing from the low
rise situation, the linear distribution provision in the code will be again un-conservative,
and hence needs a change. It is to note that the American codes have been adopting the
distribution formula developed by ATC 3-06 (1978).
The provision regarding the direction of forces under sub-heading 8.2.1 shall be rewritten
to clarify to the effect that the structure shall be designed for design earthquake load in one
horizontal direction at time, indicating the design earthquake load will not be applied
simultaneously in both of the orthogonal directions.
The design eccentricity provision should have been provided together with the clause on
the horizontal shear distribution or under Torsion. The design eccentricity, ed is
recommended to be calculated depending upon the value of ec ( eccentricity between the
locations of the center of mass and the center of rigidity) in relation with b, the maximum
dimension of the building perpendicular to the direction of the earthquake force. Three
separate conditions and corresponding values to be used or calculated are presented. The
design eccentricity is required to calculate the design torsional moment to consider its
effect in the distribution of lateral forces at each level. The purpose of the provision on the
design eccentricity would have better been served by a clause on Torsion to the effect The
distribution of lateral forces at each level shall consider the effect of the torsional moment
resulting from eccentricity ec between the locations of the center of mass and the center of
rigidity. It should be followed by a complimentary clause on Accidental torsion, to the
effect In addition to the torsional moment, the distribution of lateral forces also shall
include accidental torsional moments, caused by an assumed displacement of the mass
each way from its actual location by a distance equal to 5% of the dimension of the
structure b, perpendicular to the direction of the applied forces. Alternatively, The design
eccentricity would be algebraic sum of the factored eccentricity and the accidental
eccentricity each way. Accordingly, the expression for the design eccentricity for ith floor
would be, assuming 1.5 as the factor for the eccentricity:
edi = 1.5 eci 0.05 bi

Dynamic Method (Modal Response Spectrum Method)

equation for dyanamic Method
The provisions presented in the present code are not adequate. There is a need for clauses
for free vibration analysis to obtain the natural periods (T) and mode shapes (). The
present provision for the numbers of the modes to be considered in 11.2 needs elaboration
including explanation how to check if the 90% of the mass is participating or not. It shall
be done by introduction of formulae along with definitions of modal mass and modal
participation factors. There are serious lapse of provisions for modal combination methods,
methods for determination of design lateral forces at each floor in each mode and due to all
modes considered, and also expressions for storey shear forces in individual mode and due
to all modes considered.
The para 11.3.1 mentions about need to use an established method for combination of
modal effects. An ambiguous word like established method shall be avoided and replaced
by the name of the method/s to be applied. The definition of closely spaced modes as given
in para 11.3.3 is incorrect. Closely spaced modes are defined as those of its natural modes
of vibration whose natural frequencies differ from each other by 10 % or less of the lower
frequency, not if their frequencies are within 15%.

Deformations
The primary clause for deformation due to earthquake forces is the storey drift limitation,
which shall not exceed 0.004 times the storey height. The sense of this limitation may be
implied from the provision given under 9.2.2. For the purpose of displacement
requirements only, the seismic forces obtained from the fundamental time period of the
 building by static or dynamic approach may be used. The provision under 9.1 shall be
applicable for the separation between two adjacent buildings or two adjacent units of the
same building. The separation must be provided by a distance equal to the sum of the
calculated storey displacements multiplied by 5/k or by R, if the performance factor k is
replaced by response reduction factor R. rewritten as for the separation. It shall further be
supplemented by the provision that if the floor levels of the two adjacent units or buildings
are at the same elevation levels, the factor 5/k or by R may be further replaced by 10/k or
R/2 respectively. Accordingly it is preferable to rearrange the sub-clauses under this
section.

Requirements for Other Components and Elements

The provisions under section 12 shall elaborate, beyond the general statements, how the
requirements are achieved. This section also shall present provisions for important
components like foundations, projections and other parts of the buildings.

5.2 Review of NNBC 101, 102, 103, 104, 106, 108, 109 (Loads, Occupancy, Site
Consideration, Unreinforced Masonry)

5.2.1 NNBC 101:1994: Materials Specifications

This standard deals with the requisite quality and effectiveness of construction materials used
mainly in building construction.

The code requires the use of materials confirming to NS or IS or any other approved
standards agency to satisfy this Standard which is referred to IS. This provision has made the
code redundant and not useful.

A list of such Nepal Standards and Indian Standards is provided for reference.

The use of appropriate, adopted or new materials is encouraged, provided these materials
have been proven to meet their intended purposes provided that these materials comply with
the requirements of this code. But the code has no reference to any criteria (better in quality,
strength, effectiveness, fire resistance, durability, safety, maintenance and compatibility) that
required to be checked.

If recycled /used materials meet the requirements of the standard, they may also be used.

The storage requirement for all building materials is mentioned in a vague way and do not
give any methods or reference to any guidance or Manual so that could provide methodology
of storage including limiting duration of storage. It requires to assure that during storage the
properties of materials should not be deteriorated or lossed.

The code does not cover the health hazard or Fire Hazard induced by use, transport, storage
or handling or hazard to urban life. A lot of sales depot operated in the cities do not consider
or comply to any requirement of reduction of health hazard which is one of the key objectives
of any Building Codes. Lot of traffic accidents are induced by storage of materials at roads,
transportation, and use at public places and roads. While updating, the safety and health
hazard issues induced by building materials should be considered.
The terminology Nepal National Building Codes series NNBC and Nepal Standards NS are
referred with confusion. Some where NNBC is referred as Nepal Standard which is
nominated with series 500.

5.2.2 NNBC 102:1994: Unit Weight of Materials

This Nepal Standard for unit weight of Materials adopts the Indian Code IS:875(Part 1)-1987
code of Practice for Design loads ( Other than Earthquake) for building and structures, Part 1-
Dead loads-Unit weight of building materials and stored materials.(second revision).

Since the table of unit weight of material not provided in the code, the code is not convenient
to use. Unit weight of materials is provided in Nepal Standard, so it is better to use the table
of unit weight of material from NS.

5.2.3 NNBC 103:1994: Occupancy Load (Imposed Load)

This Code (or Standard?) is nothing more than statement of justification for adoption of IS
Code and hence is not useful fro practical purposes.

This Nepal Standard for Occupancy Load adopts the Indian Code IS:875(Part 2)-1987 code
of Practice for Design loads ( Other than Earthquake) for building and structures, Part 2-
Imposed Load.(second revision).

The occupancy classification should be provided. Table for the imposed floor load for
occupancies should be provided to make the convenient for user.

In Nepal Standard NS , different tables such as table1-Imposed floor loads for different
occupancies, reduction in imposed loads on floors, table 2- Imposed loads on various types
of roofs, table 3- horizontal loads on parapets, parapet walls and balustrades are provided
which can be used in NNBC 103:1994 to make the independent code.

Uniform live loads. The live loads used in the design of buildings and other structures shall
be the maximum loads expected by the intended use or occupancy but shall in no case be less
than the minimum distributed loads required by provided table.

Partition loads. In office buildings and in other buildings where partition locations are
subject to change, provision for partition weight shall be made, whether or not partitions are
shown in construction documents, unless the specified live load exceeds 80 pound per square
foot (3.83 kN/m2). Such partition load shall not be less than a uniformly distributed live load
of 20 pounds per square foot (0.96 kN/m2).
As per occupancy classification, egress must be adequate for the uses to which it will be put.
Changing use of occupancies
As we know in Nepal, the uses of building are changed from one occupancy classification to
another occupancy, for example from residential to school or from a hotel to Super Market.
In such cases the occupancy load will be changed. It's an important aspect of any building
design. Occupancy load calculations are made as per different occupancies. This is very
dangerous for the overall safety of the building unless such changes are justified by structural
analysis. The Code requires to impose categorical prohibition on such change in use of
buildings from one occupancy classification to another.
5.2.4 NNBC 104:1994: Wind Load
This Nepal Standard on Wind Load comprises the Indian Standard IS:875(Part 3)-1987
code of Practice for Design Loads ( Other than Earthquake) for building and structures
(Second Revision) with amendments to ensure the requirements of Nepalese context,
particularly wind zoning map of Nepal.

The available wind data is inadequate both in terms of spatial distribution and duration.
Modern wind design codes are based on the peak gust velocity averaged over a short interval
of about 3 seconds that has a 50 year return period. The available Nepalese wind data is
insufficient and irrelevant to prepare wind zone map.

On the base of wind velocity, Nepal has been divided into two regions: (a) The lower plains
and hills and (b) the mountains. The first zone generally includes the southern plain of Tarai,
the Kathmandu valley and those regions of the country generally below the elevation of 3,000
metres and the second zone covers all the areas above 3,000 metres.

For the Nepalese plains continuous with Indian plains, a basic velocity of 47m/s has been
adopted. In the higher hills, a basic wind velocity of 55 m/s is selected.

Following observations on the Code are made:

- Map of Nepal showing basic wind speed is missing;
- Wind data table is missing (even though is is mentioned on page 2 second paragraph
Available wind data collected during the preparation of code is presented in appendices
NNBC 104:1 to 5);
-In the present code, some amendments to IS: 875 (Part 3)- 1987 was made to prepare NNBC
104: 1994. The code is mostly replacement or editing of terminology e.g. addition, deletion or
replacement of words.

This type of amendments has made the code very uncomfortable for use. The Nepal Standard
NS 500 provides the map of Nepal showing basic wind speed and tables for the different
factors. Nepal National Building Code needs to provide detailed data and documentation in
the code itself so that it becomes convenient for the user.

Some comments and method of estimation of Wind Speed, Basic Wind Speed, Design Wind
Speed, Design Wind Pressure based on altitude and building typology are provided in
Appendix-5. The basic Wind speed is derived as a combination of probability factor (risk
coefficient), terrain, height and structure size factor, and topography factor. The Design Wind
Pressure is derived as a function of design wind speed, Wind directionality factor, Area
averaging factor, and Combination factor.

The Russian Code and Standard (SNIP) recommends that wind load on tall building shall be
estimated as the sum total of average and pulsation excitations.

The Nigerian standard code of Practice (NSCP I) recommend to calculate Design wind load
as a function of nominal wind pressure, nominal wind velocity shape factor, and pressure
coefficient.

Reference to these codes is provided for convenience at later stage while updating the codes.
5.2.5 NNBC 106:1994: Snow Load
This code Snow Load comprises the Indian Standard IS: 875 (Part 4) 1987: CODE OF
PRACTICE FOR DESIGN LOADS ( OTHER THAN EARTHQUAKE ) FOR BUILDINGS
AND STRUCTURES (second revision) along with new improvements and amendments to
ensure the requirements of the Nepalese context.

In this code, 0.1 to 0.3.2 has been deleted from the original version to match the code with the
Nepalese lifestyle. The added revisions are related to snow load in the northern snow-covered
districts like Dolakha, Darchula, Bajhang, Humla, Mugu etc. The country is divided into five
categories based on the physiographic regions. Of these five physiographic regions, the Tarai,
the Siwaliks and the middle mountains do not experience snow fall. High mountains get snow
two or three months of a year. Though the Code has considered the Middle mountain area as
no snow fall zone, these areas had experienced snow fall sometimes. This fact has to be
taken care in code updating, particularly for the areas within and around Kathmandu Valley.
Detailed meteorological data should record these facts for more reliable updating of the code.
The High Himalayas always have snow cover throughout the year.

At high altitude in the North of Himalayas, flat roofs are built with mud placed over timber
planks or split pieces of wood. A slope is not provided because the wind speed is high and the
rainfall is sparse. Only a nominal slope that is just enough to drain the melted snow and rain
water. Snow is accumulated on the roof and the narrow space between the adjacent buildings.
Snow accumulated on the roof is removed manually.

No historical snow data exists. The Snow and Glacier Hydrology have just recently started to
collect data in higher region. Snow parameters as Depth, density and water equivalency are
monitored. However, the data obtained from the projects is far less than that of the verbal
inquiry. So, the concerned personnel and institutions are being requested to collect data from
in-depth studies and from inquiries of knowledgeable people of the locality.

Appendix-5 contains various data related to Snow Load such as:

Snow Load in Roof
most favorable roof

Comparison with other codes

As per National Building Code of Canada 1990, the snow load on roof is analysed with
consideration of various factors as ground snow load associated rain load factor, roof snow
load, factor, wind exposure factor and accumulation factor. The Canadian Code considers
snow distribution factors on various types of roofs which can be applied universally with
reliability and the only need would be to adjust the factors detail with local experience.

Some properties of snow loading

A careful assessment of the snow load is required to avoid both unnecessary construction cost
and undue risk of failure. Snow loads on roofs vary widely according to geographical
location, site exposure and shape of the roof.

Snowflakes of falling snow consist of ice crystals with their well-known complex pattern.
Owing to their large surface area to weight ratio they fall to the ground relatively slowly and
are easily blown by the wind.
Freshly fallen snow is very loose and fluffy, with a specific gravity of about 0.05 to 0.1
(1/20th to 1/10th of water). Immediately after landing, the snow crystals start to change: the
thin, needle-like projections begin to sublime and the crystals gradually become more like
small irregularly shaped grains. The specific gravity of snow as a result of settlement after
few days would usually increase to about 0.2. This compaction further increases and specific
gravity would be about 0.3 after about a month even at below-freezing temperatures. Longer
periods of warm weather as well as rain falling into the snow (a possibility that must be
included in proper design loads) may increase this density even further.

As a simple rule for estimating loads from snow depths, the specific gravity can be
considered to be about 0.2 to 0.3.
Accumulation of Snow on Roofs
In perfectly calm weather, falling snow would cover roofs and the ground with a uniform
blanket of snow. If this calm continues, the snow cover would remain undisturbed and the
prediction of roof loads would be relatively simple; the design snow load could be considered
uniform and equal to a suitable maximum value of the ground snow load.
Truly uniform loading conditions, however, are rare. In most regions snowfalls are
accompanied or followed by winds, and the snowflakes, having a large surface area than their
weight, are easily transported horizontally by the wind. Consequently, since many roofs are
well exposed to the wind, little snow will accumulate on them.

Over certain parts of roofs, the wind speed will be slowed down sufficiently to let the snow
"drop out" and accumulate in drifts. The drift snow loads could be grouped into following
categories:

(a) Lean-to roofs, i.e. roofs situated below an adjacent higher roof, are particularly
susceptible to heavy drift loads because the upper roof can provide a large supply of snow.
Canopies, balconies and porches also fall into this category and the loads that accumulate on
these roofs often reach a multiple of the ground load depending mainly on the size of the
upper roof. The distribution of load depends on the shape of these drifts which varies from a
triangular cross-section (with the greatest depth nearest to the higher roof) to a more or less
uniform depth.

(b) Flat roofs with projections such as penthouses or parapet walls often experience
triangular snow accumulations that reach the top of the projections on the building, but
usually the magnitude of the load is less than in category (a).

(c) Peaked and curved roofs subjected to winds at approximately right angles to the ridge
provide aerodynamic shade over the leeward slope. This sometimes leads to heavy
unbalanced loads, since most of the snow is blown from the windward slope to the leeward
slope, producing loads that exceed the ground load on occasions. Curved roofs show similar
or even more unbalanced distributions (little snow on top and heavy snow near the base of the
arch).On the other hand it is true that many small peaked roofs on residences, in exposed
areas, usually (but not always) accumulate little snow compared with that on the ground.
Redistribution of Load
Redistribution of snow load can occur not only as a result of wind action. On sloped roofs
there are two problems connected with the melting of snow at temperatures slightly below
freezing. Firstly, melt water can refreeze on caves and cause high ice loads (also water back-
up under shingles). This can at least partly be solved by taking steps to, decrease the heat loss
from the upper parts of the roof. Secondly, if a roof slopes and drains on to a lower one, melt
water sometimes accumulates by refreezing on the lower roof or it is retained in the snow.
Since flat roofs in general do not provide as good drainage as that naturally obtained with
sloped roofs, snow and ice will remain on flat roofs longer than on sloped roofs. On large flat
roofs of industrial and commercial buildings, heavy loads are observed near projections such
as air ducts (which sometimes act like snow fences in retaining snow). When this snow melts
it sometimes drains into the lower areas in the centre of bays (i.e. areas of maximum
deflection) because usually the drains are located at columns (high points). This redistribution
of load causes further deflection and can lead to a very dangerous situation.
Failures due to Snow Load
The number of building failures resulting from snow load is relatively high in Canada.
Admittedly many of them occur in older and substandard constructions and should thus be
attributed to faults of construction rather than to the snow load. Collapses occur most
frequently in older buildings, farm buildings, and cottages as well as in some community
buildings such as arenas built with a minimum of funds and professional supervision. Partial
failures, however, occur fairly frequently in those parts of roofs that accumulate high loads
from drifting, for example, porches, canopies and lean-to roofs. These partial failures indicate
the need for better design. Although many failures are probably averted each winter by the
removal of snow, this fact should never be relied upon and should never be used as a reason
for a reduction in the design load.

Responsibility of Designer
Code requirements for snow loads must necessarily be rather general, and consequently the
designer should not apply the loads given in the Code without considering the effects of the
shape and exposure of the roof. The designer should, therefore, consider in each case the
building site, size and shape, where drifts are likely to occur on the roof drainage, and so on.

5.2.6 NNBC 108: 1994 Site Consideration

This document sets out some of the factors to be considered during site selection for
buildings in order to minimize the risks to the buildings from both normal and seismic load
conditions. It also outlines the fundamental requirements for site investigation for the
foundation design of buildings.

Site consideration has been made for determining the potential of settlement, fault rupture
hazard, liquefaction, landslides and slope instability of basic general concept. Necessary
mitigation measures should be taken to minimize the potential risks.

The Code very appropriately states that an appropriate level of site investigation and formal
reporting of the design process should be carried out and shall be incorporated in the permit
application documents for the State of Art Design and engineered buildings of all categories
and for mandatory rules-of-thumb and/or advisory guidelines as an indication of good
practice and apply same as appropriate. However, this provision was never materialized and
application of Buildings in Building permit Process was not incorporated.

For site investigations, the basic questions given to address are:

- Is there any danger of inherent natural susceptibility of the land to the process of sliding
and erosion?
- Will the construction adversely affect the existing conditions and trigger landslide, erosion,
land subsidence, pore pressure generation due to blockage of or otherwise the sub-surface
flow of water; will the construction adversely affect the water table?
- What will be the extent of settlement of the building?
- Is the sub-surface capable of taking the load due to the proposed construction?
- Is there any other natural/geological process likely to threaten the integrity of the building?
- What are the possible engineering solutions for ensuring stability of the building
foundation in view of the identified condition?

Answering these questions will make necessity of additional site investigation including
subsurface exploration, in-situ and laboratory testing, geophysical surveys and testing,
probing etc.

The extent of site exploration depends upon the geological and geomorphological nature of
the terrain, and on the importance of the building.

The depth of exploration is based on the geological conditions at the site e.g. the depth and
type of subsurface soil, depth of weathering, depth of ground water fluctuation, depth of
frost action etc.

The code leaves the answers or requirements for liquefaction susceptibility, determination of
allowable bearing pressure and foundation design to the designer to follow the good
engineering practice.

Again, this allows the designer to use other codes making the provisions of this code
redundant.

5.2.7 NNBC 109: Masonry (Unreinforced)

NNBC 109:1994 covers the structural design aspect of unreinforced masonry elements in
buildings. It also deals with some aspect of earthquake resistant design of buildings.
Reference to seismic zoning, seismic coefficients, important factors and performance
coefficients are adopted as per NNBC 105-94 Seismic Design of Buildings in Nepal.

The Code is fundamentally based on Indian Standard IS:1905-1987 Code of Practice for
Structural Use of unreinforced Masonry (Third Revision).

The materials used in masonry construction are taken in accordance with NNBC 101-94
Material Specification and masonry units as per NS 1/2035 Brick Masonry.

The code provides minimum requirements for the structural design and construction of
masonry units bedded in mortar using both allowable stress design as well as limit state
design (strength design) for unreinforced as well as reinforced masonry. The topic on
strength design is a new addition to the previous edition of this code (ACI 530-99/ASCE 5-
99/TMS 402-99). In strength design, more emphasis is laid on reinforced masonry than
unreinforced masonry. An empirical design method applicable to buildings meeting specific
location and construction criteria is also included.

The review has considered the provisions made in various international codes as
International Building Code, Euro Code 5, New Zeeland Standards, Indian Standard and
British Standard. Various methods used by these codes were reviewed and the design
 methods were compared. A detailed account of these comparisons is provided in Appendix-
5.

The most important concerns as load combination and loading factors are no where indicated
in the code.

Among the codes studied, only the New Zealand Standards contains provisions on ductility
of masonry structures. Regarding shear, it contains provisions on shear friction
reinforcement and also considers the case when masonry members are subjected to shear and
flexure together with axial tension.

IS:1905-1987 provides a semi-empirical approach to the design of unreinforced masonry.

The masonry codes of other countries provide detailed provision for the design of reinforced
masonry members.

5.3 Review of NNBC: 107 (Fire Code)

5.3.1 General

Fire Hazard in Nepal is one of most common feature of disasters. Mostly during the dry
season in Nov June, several fire disaster events were reported. According to Judha Varuna
Yantra, the oldest and only public fire-fighting unit in Kathmandu, there is one fire incident
every day, causing irreparable damage to life and property.

The reasons of these fire incidents could be attributed to various reasons covering from a)
deficiencies in settlement planning, b)lack of preventive measures, c) lack of fire resistant
construction, d) mishandling of inflammable substances, e) lack of awareness on fire hazard,
f) criminal activities, g) lack of institutional arrangement to deal implement fire protection
policies, h) Lack of Safety code on use of electricity, gas, fuel, and i) lack of assessment of
fire safety of buildings and premises in urban areas and industries.

The rapidly growing urbanization process in Nepal has created environment for over 132
settlements to be recognized as emerging towns or new municipalities which means that the
rate of urban development including infrastructure will be rapid calling for enforcement of
Urban Development bylaws and National Building Codes, and capacity building of the new
municipal administration.

5.3.2 Main Objectives and Purpose of Building Codes

The main objectives of fire safety design of buildings should be:

Assurance of life safety, protection of property and continuity of operations or
functioning
Building awareness among the designers for recognition of the type of danger posed by
each component of building and allows him to incorporate effective counter-measures,
and
To confine a hostile fire to a room or area of its origin.

The purpose of the Fire Code is to provide minimum design regulations to safeguard life,
property, and public welfare and to minimize injuries by regulating and controlling the
design, construction, use of new materials as plastics, use and occupancy, location and
maintenance of all buildings and structures within the jurisdiction and certain equipment
specifically regulated herein. This has brought new fire and life safety challenges.

5.3.3 Compliance to the Fire Code of Nepal

The Fire Safety Code of Nepal (NNBC 107) was introduced in 1994 but not much experience
has been gained from this code since the code has hardly been practiced and none of the
building permits issued so far was subject to the compliance of Fire Safety Code.

5.3.4 Major Drawback

The major drawback of the fire code is that the code was not been integrated into the
Building Bylaws governing the Building Permit procedures followed by the Municipalities
and the municipalities have not been institutionally reformed to take over the functions
related to Fire Code.

5.3.5 Requirement of Fire Safety in Building Codes

The Fire Safety Code of Nepal National Building Code (NNBC 107) has made certain limited
provisional recommendation on Fire Safety and covers ordinary buildings only. It deals only
with the minimum requirements of limited provisions of a) Fire Places, b) Fire Extinguishers,
c) Storage of Water for Fire Extinguishing, d) Need for demarcation of fire zones, e) General
Requirements for Provision of proper access, wide doors, fire escape ways exit doors, fire
escapes for buildings with 5 storeys and higher, fire stairs, Open Space, Access to a Building,
provision of Lightning Arresters/Conductors.

The Indian codes IS 1641 to IS 1648 have substantial coverage of various issues of Fire
Safety, but it cannot be considered as comprehensive and adequate for warrantee of Fire
Sefety of Buildings and settlements as a whole. IS 1642-Materials and Construction has
provided Specification of materials, structural components, and construction type based on
the Fire Resistance Grading ranging from Type 1 (6 hrs) to Type 5( hrs). The Indian Codes
further specified the requirements for consideration of fire hazard form exposure to fire,
personal hazard, specific structures related as Chimneys, flues, hearths etc., electrical
installation. Non-electrical installations, fire fighting equipment, and Fire proof doors.

The International Fire Code (IFC) published by International Code Council is much more
intensive and covers wide range of aspects which are not included in Indian Fire Code and
NNBC. The structural outline of the IFC is listed in Table 1 in Appendix -11. The major
specific features not covered by IS and NNBC are a) Administration, b) Emergency Planning
and Preparedness, c) Fire Service Features, d) Building Service Features, e) Emergency
access gates, f) Tents, Canopy, membrane structures, g) Fire Safety during Construction and
Demolition, h) Provision of Water Supply for Fire Fighting, i) Fire Evacuation Planning, and
j) Identity of No-parking Fire Lane.

The design of important buildings, especially for high rise and special buildings has become a
complex process that requires integrating many skills, products and techniques into its
system. An intelligent building design is required to cater to various potential emergency
situations. NNBC 107 requires to be updated to the level of international code and needs to
address the pragmatic conditions existing in the downtown area and new built up areas.
 A comprehensive comparison of various Fire Safety Codes is carried out and presented in
Appendix-11. A brief review of plans and programs including Building Bylaws applied by
KVTDC is also provided including the requirement of structural fire engineering,
requirement of high rise buildings, Qualification of Fire Protection Services, model outline of
Fire Protection Act.

5.4 Review of NNBC: 110, 111, 112, 113, 114 (Masonry, PCC, Materials,
Construction Safety)

5.4.1 NNBC 110: Plain and Reinforced Concrete

The code is represented as NEPAL AMENDMENTS TO IS 456 1978 and specifies
amendment of few terminologies as India to Nepal , Standard to Code, etc.. Since
the use of this code again requires intensive reference to IS 456, the essence of this code is
lost and is practically not used.

Most of the references in IS 456-1978 to Indian Codes had been left unaltered and it was
stated that any subsequent revisions to IS 456-1978 will not be applicable to NNBC 110-94
until specifically recognised and updated.

Most important aspect of the code is that it has provided guidance for load combination
where Dead Load is treated with a loading factor of 50%. This factor needs to be harmonized
with NNBC 000 and NNBC 105.

The Table 12 provided the values of partial safety factors of various combinations of loads.
One more combination DL + 0.9 WL is suggested to be added.

When considering earthquake effects, the load combination requires WL to be replaced with
EL.

The code may include following points when updating:

Limit State Method

Provision of Two way slab design requirements
Provision for cantilever slab (eg slab with 3 side support)
Various types of slabs with necessary coefficients x, y, x, y and provide a table of
variables.
Design example of reinforced concrete structure, detailing of reinforced steel should be
shown in NNBC to meet Earthquake Codes
Provisions of Pre-stressed Concrete should be included
Provisions for Precast Structures should be made.

5.4.2 NNBC-111: 1994: Steel

The code comprises Indian Code IS 800-1984 Code of practice for General Construction in
Steel (Second Revision) with amendments to ensure compatibility with NNBC 000 and NNBC
105 - Seismic Design of Buildings in Nepal. It states that References to Indian material codes
will remain unaltered until such time as appropriate Nepal Standards or codes are developed.
Extensive use of the New Zealand Standards NZS 3404: 1977 Code for Design of Steel
Structures has been made. The code is specified as NEPAL AMENDMENTS TO IS 800
1984.

The Code applies to general construction in steel and structures such as bridges, cranes, tanks,
transmission towers and masts are not considered. Similarly, materials less than 3 mm thick
and cold-formed light gauge sections are not considered.

The Code has made provisions for Seismic Design that include parameters as Ductile Moment-
Resisting Frames and Ductile Braced Framed.

Some specific comments to the clauses of the code are provided in Appendix-6.

5.4.3 NNBC-112: Timber 1994

This Code covers the general principle of design of structural timber and includes
specifications, classification of timber species and nail joint in timber construction.

The code is based on Indian Standard IS: 883-1970: Structural Timber in Building (Third
revision) and IS: 2366-1983: Nail-Jointed Timber Construction (First Revision).

The Code does not cover anti-termite timber, plywood, and timber pile foundation.

The Code could be considered as more comprehensive since it contains data and information
on general characteristics of timber species as durability, basic stress, Moisture Content, sizes
of Sawn Timber, Data for Nailed Joints, bolted joints, and Glue Laminated Timber.
.
The Code has made Design Considerations which include additional requirement of capacity
for sustaining the worst combination of all loadings apart from the requirement of IS Code.

Some specific comments on the clauses of the code are provided in Appendix-6.

5.4.4 NNBC-113: Aluminum 1994

The document referred to as a series of guidelines intended only for design of simple
aluminum structures. Currently use of Aluminum as a structural material in Nepal is very
limited and a Code has not been prepared. For actual design, the Codes from other countries
should be referred.

The Guidelines include structural properties as Strength, Modulus of Elasticity, Creep,

Thermal Expansion and Contraction, Fatigue, Corrosion Protection, Fabrication, Welding,
Mechanical Jointing, and Heating.

In general it is assumed that the Code requires updating with indication of various properties
of aluminum with appropriate formula to allow proper design of aluminum structure. The use
of Aluminum in structures other than Buildings such as aircraft engineering and lightweight
thin shell structures related to Aero dynamical aspects for design consideration should also be
included. Supplementary examples of design and drawings will be very useful.

Some specific comments on the clauses of the code are provided in Appendix-6.
 5.4.5 NNBC 114:1994 CONSTRUCTION SAFETY
The purpose of this standard is to provide reasonable degree of safety to construction related
personnel in building and civil construction works. The provisions in this code are the
minimum requirements that are to be adopted during building and other civil construction or
demolition work.

The Code has made provisions for the health and safety of workers in building construction
and demolition work, fire protection, equipment operation, material handling, traffic
management within the construction site, and any use of special materials such as chemicals
and blasting materials.

The Code has made specific provisions for Material Handling, First Aid Facility and Health,
Fire Fighting, Site Preparation Earthworks in Excavation, Construction of Foundations,
Construction of Walls, Construction of Roofs, Electrical Works, Temporary Works,
Demolition of Structures, Use of Explosives, and Labour Welfare. Apart from these factors,
there are many items which require Safety Consideration and shall be included in the Codes or
guidelines.

Various international entities directly engaged in the construction have issued Construction
Safety Manuals as part of their corporate responsibility and is governed by statutory laws, by-
laws and Contract Documents and enforced by the appropriate authorities. Some of the
important aspects covered by those Manuals are guiding principles and core functions of the
Integrated Safety Management System (ISMS).

The manuals provide general information on the requirements and procedures for prevention
of accidents, safety, loss of control in the construction, operation and maintenance, and
services. The safety objective is to foster a safety environment so that accident free
construction is achieved. The Contractors are charged with the responsibility for conducting
safe operations providing protection to all employees, the public, the clients personnel, and all
others who may come in contact with the project. Safety should be a part of the project. The
Manuals contain a) Definition, b) Construction Safety Program, c) Safety Requirements, d)
Equipment and vehicle operation, and e)Reporting Procedures.

5.5 Review of NNBC: 201, 202, 203, 204, 205 (MRT, Low Strength and
Earthen Buildings)
5.5.1 General

The main objective of MRT is to provide ready-to-use dimensions and details for various
structural and non-structural elements for up to three-storey reinforced concrete (RC),
framed, ordinary residential buildings commonly being built by owner-builders in Nepal that
include a) RCC framed with using brick infill walls, b) load bearing brick masonry, c) low
strength rural construction and earthen buildings.

The Design guidelines presented in the MRT are for ordinary residential buildings with the
seismic coefficient of 0.128 (equivalent to seismic Zone C (Terai and North of Himalayas).

However, the MRT design is applied in other high seismic zones without any further
improvement and beyond the limitations described in the code. The Licensed designers use
these guidelines and designs provided in MRT for any shape, size and height of floors and
building. The detailed designs provided are not founded by analysis and not compatible with
other codes (Fire Code, Plumbing Code, Electrical Code, Construction methodology, etc.)
resulting in smaller size of columns and beams.

The details in MRT designs are provided without consideration of construction requirements
for quality assurance (limitation of concrete placing from less than 1 m, allowing
consolidation of concrete, preventing honey comb in concrete and smaller dia reinforcement
(10mm and 12 mm in foundation and columns).

This has posed increased safety hazard. However, detailed account of these statements are not
determined since no detailed data are available and recorded. These designs are in general
had not been subject to any check for compliance with other codes as Fire Safety Code,
Construction Code, Construction Safety Code, Architectural Code, Planning Code, and so on.
The recent fire hazards in Nepal are associated with the buildings belonging to MRT category
and pose a huge risk.

It is assumed that the MRT is a kind of design examples prepared for ready to use, based on
over design and hence should not be a part of NNBC. Further, it is assumed that a set of
design examples should be prepared for ready-to-use purpose that would fulfill the
requirement of all applicable codes.

The recommendations set forth in this code should be mandatory for all types of LSM to be
built throughout Nepal without limitation to public buildings irrespective of where they are
to be built in Municipal and urban areas or in rural areas.

It will be interesting to collect the data and information on the building construction in recent
years and understand how far the MRT has been meaningfully utilized.

5.5.2 NNBC 201: Mandatory Rules Of Thumb - Reinforced Concrete Buildings with
Masonry Infill

The practice of using such walls is predominant, but they are treated as non-structural (and
hence not accounted for) in the design of the frames and pose a lot of safety hazard when
placed in ad hoc basis. Hence, the objective of this MRT is to ensure the proper placement of
such walls in order to derive positive effects and to achieve economy.

The MRT is intended for buildings of regular column-beam type with reinforced concrete
slabs for floors and the roof. The MRT presents ready-to-use designs for all structural
components, including detailing of structural as well as non-structural members, for infill
framed buildings.

5.5.3 NNBC 202: MRT-LOAD BEARING MASONRY

The MRT covers load-bearing masonry buildings meeting prescribed criteria. They do not
cover wooden buildings, mud buildings (low-strength buildings), or those constructed in
adobe.

This MRT is valid (with certain limitations as to span, floor height, etc.) for: i) load-bearing
brick masonry buildings constructed in cement mortars up to three-storeys, ii) load-bearing
stone masonry buildings constructed in cement mortar up to two-storeys, and iii) load-bearing
brick masonry buildings constructed in mud mortar up to two-storeys.
 The MRT for Load Bearing Masonry is assumed to contain several weaknesses that has
influence on structural requirements. Some of the examples are as follows:

MRT is intended to cater primarily to the requirements of mid-level technicians (overseers

and draughtspersons) and hence reference to other codes shall be eliminated since they dont
have access to these codes. MRT shall be made independent and all required details shall be
provided.
The recommended minimum wall thickness of 230 mm is practically not followed since the
sizes of the bricks used in such construction have large variations and practically falls
beyond the tolerance limits, and one side of masonry walls could not be constructed to
plumb line. Hence, these walls could not be considered in terms of compliance to structural
safety requirement.
The nomenclature used in this section as two storeys and three storeys are not correct. Since
the stair case part is not included which actually, in terms of structural configuration, adds
up to additional floor. So actually, two storeys Buildings are only one storey buildings and
so on.
In the Scope, it was mentioned that the MRT does not cover wooden buildings, mud
buildings (low-strength buildings), or those constructed in adobe. No attempt should be
made to apply these rules to these latter buildings, but the load bearing masonry in mud
mortar is included in the design examples. The definition of adobe construction should be
provided and some consistency should be observed. The load bearing masonry in mud
mortar should be taken to NNBC 203.
The local size of bricks used in practice are not considered and the size of bricks used are
not consistent
The indication of engineering properties of materials and masonry or mortar as cube strength
in MRT has Less Sense since MRT is made for non- engineered buildings without taking
care of quality assurance requirements, and dealt by inspectors and non-professional persons
at site. They do not warrantee the safety envisaged by the Code. .
No buildings categorized into Important Buildings should be allowed to design based on
MRT since these buildings falls outside the limitations of MRT.
Masonry Bonds shall be described in full details.
The requirements of opening in walls are not checked properly by the Designers and the
authorities in Building Permit Section of Municipalities.
The Reinforcement provision around the opening is impractical.
A toothed joint shown in Fig 7.3 is wrong since the joint shall be made at corners at a
stepped configuration and not vertical.
The introduction of horizontal reinforcement at several locations within the height of walls
is the best part of the code.
The reinforcement Fe 550 for these small buildings of one or two storey buildings may not
be required in view of economy.

5.5.4 NNBC 203: 1994 - Guidelines For Earthquake Resistant Building Construction:
Low Strength Masonry

The MRT is prepared as the Guidelines for Earthquake Resistant Building Construction of
Low Strength Masonry (LSM). This is intended to be implemented by the owner/ builder with
some assistance from technicians.

There are some points that need to be considered in updating of the Code. They are:
 The attic floor in general is not taken as structural element and not taken into account in
storey calculation. This is confusing and need to be elaborated.
The provision of vertical reinforcement disturbs the masonry bond and in general creates
weak zone
The vertical reinforcement requires corrosion resistant treatment
The need for provision of Diagonal Bracings is complicated and cannot be constructed
properly
Bonding design and illustration should be provided. Other bonding not mentioned in the
code shall be permitted.
The wall thickness of 300 mm (Clause 2.7) for stone and brick masonry is not consistent.
The mix component of cement concrete shall indicate the water cement ratio as fourth
component (1:2:4:0.5), 0.5 being the water cement ratio.
The use of Bamboo post at the centre of a wall is complicated and disturbs the masonry
structure and serves no purpose since it is not bonded with the masonry (Fig 6.1)
Use of vertical steel around the opening is very complicated and practically not used (Fig
10.1). The use of horizontal bands should be included.
The provision in the Code for Fire Retardant Treatment of Bamboo, Timber and Thatch is
the best part of the code.

5.5.5 NNBC 204: 1994 - Guidelines For Earthquake Resistant Building Construction:
Earthen Building (EB)

This guideline is prepared in order to raise the seismic safety of earthen buildings. This is
intended to be implemented by the owner/builder with some assistance from technicians.
Other comments referred above in NNBC 204-MRT are valid for this Code as well.

5.5.6 NNBC 205: 1994 - MRT Reinforced Concrete Buildings without Masonry Infill

The MRT is intended for buildings of the regular column-beam type with reinforced concrete
slabs for floors and the roof without any contribution of masonry infill walls in resisting the
vertical or seismic loads. The frames are designed to resist earthquake forces as a bare frame.

The MRT presents ready-to-use designs for all structural components, including detailing of
structural as well as non-structural members for the specified building type.

Some of the important aspects that need to be addressed are described herewith:

The Code requires reviewing since in practice there are no buildings without infill walls.
The design recommendations need to be reviewed in terms of possibility for maintaining
Quality assurance requirements as consolidation of concrete, prevention of fragmentation
of concrete ingredients, prevention of honey comb in concrete, maintenance of ratio
cement ratio in concrete,
The column size of 250 mm with orthogonal and diagonal stirrups and hooks do not
allow any space for consolidation of concrete mass,
The foundation pad with sloping top surfacing cannot be compacted
The use of 10 mm and 12 mm bar in foundation and columns are not acceptable in view
of possibility of corrosion of steel in due course of time
The provisions in this MRT for construction of infill wall are not different than that of
MRT with Infill Walls. The provision of Infill Walls in anyway does not make it
practically different from each other.
5.6 Review of NNBC 206: 2003 - Architectural Design Requirements
5.6.1 General

The Building by-laws for Greater Kathmandu Valley, prepared by Kathmandu Valley Town
Development Committee and NNBC 206: 2003 Architectural Design Requirements are the
basis for the recommendation to update the Architectural Design Code.

The updated version of the existing code NNBC 206: 2003 Architectural Design
Requirements will serve the purpose of guiding the building designers and planners to fulfill
their responsibilities of creating built environment that will be safe, healthy and beneficial to
the community as a whole.

The code will not contradict the innovativeness and creativeness of the designer and the
planner. This will be the logical conclusion of the contents of the code, as it spells out the
minimum requirements in the design of buildings and the surrounding in serving the
objective of the code.

After much deliberation at different stages, the consultant did not receive any essential
criticism or recommendation for change in the present documents, exclusion of neighborhood
planning related articles and conservative approach in FAR values were, however, spelled
out.

As the elements of Zoning Regulation will not form the part of this code, the
recommendations for updating of the code based on the above and certain new elements are
provided in more details in Appendix-9 to be considered while updating the existing NNBC
206: 2003 Architectural Design Requirements.

A building by itself cannot guarantee fulfillment the objective of a code. The building stands
in a space of multiple of such objects. Therefore, certain aspects of neighborhood planning
needs to be included which are absent in the existing NNBC 206: 2003 Architectural Design
Requirements.

Similarly, the code has implicitly relied heavily on Building by-laws. It should have been the
other way round. The updated code is suggested to be the guide in preparing the by-laws. The
other aspect to be mentioned is the non-consideration of high rise buildings, which has to be
taken into account in the new code.

5.6.2 High Rise Buildings

The above item wise recommendations will be applied to high rise buildings separately
including the separating distance between high rise structures.
The aspects of i) Light, ii) ventilation and iii) emergency exit (smokeless stairs) will be
specified for high rise buildings separately. The rest will be treated in the general design
requirement part of the code.

5.6.3 Other aspects

Ample sketches and drawings will be included interpreting the articles wherever applicable.
Definition of different parts of building which will be mentioned in the code needs to be
clearly given in the new code.
5.7 Review of NNBC 207: 2003- Electrical Code
The code generally referred to the Nepal Electricity Authority and makes the fundamental on
Electricity Act 2049 and Electricity Regulations 2050 and general requirement of Electricity
Supply Authority which is very authentic. But again reference to Indian Codes makes it
redundant and the use of NNBC becomes limited.

The Code while had made trial to recommend the certain aspects of planning, it does not
include the basic design aspects as Type of occupancy, type of supply required (voltage,
phases and frequency level), Load Demand, atmospheric condition, degree of protection
(Earthing, insulation), future increase of load, energy consumption and conservation
requirement, continuity of supply, need for suppression of radio and telecommunication
interference; maintenance and safety aspects and comparison of costs of various alternative
variants.

There are several important aspects which required to be addressed in the code. Appendix-10
have provided certain description of short comings and provided facts and figures which may
be helpful for future code development.

5.8 Review of NNBC 208: 1994 - Plumbing and Sanitation

The code in general covers following main topics and deals with the internal requirements
within a building or premise:
Water Supply
Waste Water Disposal
Rain Water Disposal

5.8.1 Water Supply

The water supply section has generally covered: a) Water Supply Requirements for
Buildings, b) Water Storage (General Water Storage Tanks, Underground Storage, Overhead
Storage, c) Distribution System and Pipe Work, d) Fire Fighting Provision (Hydrant System).

The code does not make provision for change of water demand based on the geographic
region and sub-climatic conditions, occupation, type of institution, and conditions of city
supply, sources of supply. The code also does not cover other important aspects as alternative
sources of water supply, water reuse, water recycling and water conservation which is
common in the place of water scarcity.

The need for a systematic approach towards development of code is very essential and it
provides guideline for proper development of the code. In absence of the proper outline
structure, the code has lost basic important aspects as water quality, water pollution control,
control of leakage, safety (access to water storage by children, electrical safety, equipments
and pumping systems). Several fatal accidents observed in relation to water pumping cannot
be ignored.

5.8.2 Waste Water Disposal

The Section of NNBC comprises of scope describing various types of collection system
(Single pipe, two pipes), methods of prevention of vermin and foul smells entering the
building. This code does not work, since there not a single building in Nepal which prevent
foul smell of toilet and all rivers are polluted with waste water and has created huge
environmental damage. There is need for thorough review of this code.

The code mentions about adequate sizing and slopes and other parameters required for proper
design of waste water system, but no particular data provided which is required to be
complied with. A proper table of minimum design parameters would be useful.

The need for ventilation of pipe system and extending the vent pipes to roof levels is
indicated but the need for ventilation of indoor space is not mentioned.

The demand table for waste water appurtenance is well covered in various tables.

5.8.3 Rain Water Disposal

The Scope of Rain water disposal comprises of need for rain water collection from roofs and
balconies and disposal through a gutter system. Free fall of rain water from roofs is not
allowed for building above one storey. However, it shall be noted that this code is not used in
practice and is not effective.

The code mentions about the need for disposal of storm water system but does not precisely
discuss about the possibilities of connection to sewerage system or storm water drainage
system or open disposal to street drains and public spaces. This aspect needs to be dealt in
more precise manner.

The slope suggested for rain water drainage from various surfaces is considered inadequate
and needs reconsideration.

The restriction to connect the rain water pipe with a sewer is not practical since the sewage
system in most part of the cities is based on combined (Sewage and Rain Water or Storm
water) system. Either a categorization or zoning of storm water drainage shall be introduced.

In general, the following issues shall be taken into focus for updating of this code:
Rationalization of definitions, and inclusions of more terms and terminology.
Include first design parameters such as minimum flow through taps, residual head,
minimum slope, minimum cover etc
Include friction head loss diagram in form of nomograph, tables and appropriate
equation.
Make provisions related to domestic hot water supply installation
Make provisions related to water supply and sanitation in high altitude and sub-zero
temperature regions of the country,
Include inspection, testing maintenance requirement.
Include sizing of rain water pipes for roof drainage in more rational basis, and
techniques for rainwater harvesting,
Protection of joints between pipelines and structures for prevention of joint leakage of
rain water and other surface water
Protection of pipelines from potential damages (corrosion, mechanical damage,
chemical attack, fire)
Requirement of refuse chute, if any
 A brief comparison of NNBC has been made with Water Treatment Hand Book: Degremont
1979. The findings and inferences, problems and issues derived during study are written
in commentary and suggestion form with articles related in the NNBC publication. All these
issues and problems are to be considered and shall be adopted in future in the revised code.

Appendix-11 has included various data and information that would be useful for updating
the code.

6 Conclusion
Code Structure, Nepal Standards and Family of Codes
There is a gross confusion about the hierarchy and priority of documents in relation to Act,
Bylaws, Codes (NNBC), Standards (NS), and Directives (PWD), Specifications, Manuals
Instructions and administrative circulars. This aspect needs to be clarified and clear
demarcation and definition is required.

Institutional Arrangements for Implementation of NNBC

There is no single institution responsible for all earthquake related matters in Nepal.
DUDBC has taken initiatives in drafting the NNBC, drafting Building Act and
Regulations. But there are various institutions and agencies that are responsible for various
earthquake related matters, and the coordination among them is practically not provided.
For this reason, the issues related to NNBC remain unattended and keeps waiting for a
particular project to start.

MRT not to be a part of NNBC

Strong voices were noted for treating MRT as non-Code document since it is just an
example of design of various types of buildings and details following the provisions of
NNBC. This document is incomplete and do not include the requirements of other codes as
Fire Code, Plumbing Code, Environmental Code etc. The quality assurance and
construction complexities are not considered. Lalitpur Municipality from the very day of
application of NNBC adopted certain changes in MRT. This document should be
developed as model examples that fulfill the requirement of all codes and should be served
as guide for proper design and shall not be a part of the Building Code.

Lessons Learned from Municipality Experience

Lalitpur and Kathmandu Municipalities have had accumulated very important experience
of implementation of Building Codes along with the grant of Building Permit process and
inspection of Building Construction. But in absence of comprehensive reports on Building
Permit process and Building inspection, no meaningful lessons could be derived.

The information and data from other municipalities, DDC and VDC are rarely available.

Reforms in Building Act and Building Bylaws

Current practice has indicated that in Nepal where construction inspection falls within the
jurisdiction of local authority, the only way to successful implementation is to introduce
code compliance requirement in the Building Bylaws adopted by Municipalities, and
subsequently by DDC and VDC.

The Building Act requires to be amended to include the mandate of DDC and VDC to
comply with the requirements of NNBC (including whole family of codes).
 Application of Bylaws in VDC
Most of the areas in country side and rural areas are not covered by Building Act and
Building Bylaws making the rural areas more vulnerable for construction safety and
remain vulnerable to the earthquake hazard. This loop hole in Building Act has prompted
many builders and owners to shift to VDC areas for construction for avoiding the need for
obtaining Building Permits and avoiding application of NNBC. This provision has
defeated the purpose of NNBC in general.

Effect of neighborhood safety and Architectural Design Requirement

The important aspects of urban development as conservation of historic buildings,
aesthetics and context of urban area development affecting the neighborhood safety are
missing which has a huge toll on the urban safety. The building permit process does not
consider the effect of neighborhood safety including historic buildings and World Heritage
Sites or Preservation areas. Similarly, the relationship between Architectural Design
Requirement, neighborhood planning and zoning requirements had not been co-related with
each other. This weakness is inherited in the haphazard urban development.

Change of occupancy
There are several occasions of change of occupancy category of the buildings that threaten
the safety of life and property. Recently, several of hotel buildings have changed
occupancy to supermarkets and office buildings. The residential buildings are easily used
for accommodating schools, warehouses, and offices. The safety of Such Buildings is in
question. The municipalities and Government authorities are not in position to monitor and
verify the safety of such buildings.

High Rise Buildings

The requirement of high rise buildings in terms of overall safety is different than that of
low rise buildings. The quality of materials and reliability of technology is much stringent
and operation and maintenance of the service require higher degree for reliability. The
requirements for high rise buildings are not included in Building Bylaws and Building
Codes.

Abolishing MRT
MRT is widely used document and if properly developed could be a good instrument to
enhance the earthquake safety of the municipalities and rural areas. But, since MRT as
such is not complete, does not comply with requirement of various other codes and grossly
misused by the licensed designers of municipalities, it should be considered for abolishing
and replaced with good example of standarised design of typical building.

7 Recommendation
Drafting of NNBC a commendable job
The drafting of NNBC and adoption by the government was a marvelous milestone in the
history of Engineering and Nation Building. The Department of Urban Development and
Building Construction, UNDP and UNCHR deserve high commendation including those
institutions and organizations involved in preparation of the Codes (NNBC) and Standards
(NS).

Delays in Implementation of NNBC

The Codes (NNBC) was much delayed in implementation but it got its pace with the
initiatives of Lalitpur Sub-Metroplotan City for implementation of NNBC in their Building
Permit Process in Jan 2003 and followed by Kathmandu Metropolitan City since Jan 2005.
The implementation of NNBC, and particularly the Earthquake Safety issues, is still very
difficult since this aspect is still not institutionalized and no specific institution has been
created who will be dedicated for Code Development and Implementation. No particular
instrument has been identified for implementation of the Code.

Need for Nepal Code Council

There is a dire need for establishing Nepal Code Council that will address the development
issues of Codes and their implementation. The Council needs to take care of the
implementation and legal issues, providing encouragement to the stakeholders, record
occurrence of events, providing training to the professionals and designers, and building
awareness of the stakeholders, regularly updating the Building Codes, conducting
consultation meetings and conferences. The Council also would be interested to develop
partnership with private and public sectors to develop various codes.

Family of Codes
NNBC is a collection of individual codes which are not complete in itself. For this reason,
the effect of implementation of NNBC was not felt effective. This is evident from the
quality of construction in the society. May be it would be more effective when compiled
into a unified code that takes into account the family of various other codes as Urban
Planning Code, Fire code, Disability Accessibility Code, Environmental Code, Plumbing
Code, Electrical Code, Construction Code, Construction Safety Code etc including
provision for adoption of administrative procedures for implementation.

Reference Codes
Most of the codes are developed by the institutions that are involved in primary research or
manufacturing products or services. Many of professional associations are the originators
of the Codes. It is fundamental that these institutions and entities are included as reference
codes and allowed to refer as National Building Codes with full responsibility vested on
the Designers and the owners.

Examples of Model Designs

In order to enhance the application of the Building Code in a proper manner and making it
more popular, it would be imperative to prepare certain examples of Model Designs that
could be followed by young generation and professionals and replicate the algorithm of
compliance of Building Code requirements.

Outsourcing Municipality Responsibility

It is obvious that the municipality authorities have limited capacity to check and monitor
the compliance with Family of Building Codes. For this reason, the Building By-laws and
Municipality Regulations should make provisions for outsourcing the municipality
responsibility for monitoring the design and construction inspection activities and
involving panel of experts as and when required.

Audit of Procedures of Implementation of NNBC by Municipalities

The Implementation of Building Codes by Municipalities is limited within the municipality
and no lessons are derived that would helps to improve the implementation procedures of
the Codes and help to update them. For this reason, it would be essential to audit the
Building Permit Process including implementation of Building Codes.
Mandatory Application of Bylaws through out the country
The need for enhancing the earthquake safety is fundamental. This calls for coordinating
the simultaneous application of Building Bylaws and Building Code together
comprehensively providing warrantee for compliance of Building Codes through out the
country without limitation. This would require amendment to the Building Act and
Bylaws.

Various Other Issues

There are several issues that required to be addressed. They are related to skill and
capability of Human Resource as trained professionals, skilled labor and monitoring
authorities, method of handling of construction materials, quality of materials and
equipment, specification of materials and workmanship, method of information
dissemination including acceptable manner of advertisement, education and licensing,
intellectual ownership of designs and many other aspects described above in various
chapters.

Priority of Updating NNBC

The priority of updating the Nepal National Building Codes could be listed as follows:

Priority 1- Abolishing MRT as a part of Building Code and substituting with Good
Examples of Standardized Design of Typical Building that are popularly
constructed in urban and rural areas. If some one adopts the typical design
without change, the process of Building Permit Grant could be simplify and
limit to the verification of ownership and provision of Building bylaws.

Priority 2- Identification of the gaps in the Code Structure including priority of Building
Act, Building Byelaws, Standards, Specification, Manuals, Directives,
Instructions,

Priority 3- Adopt the International Building Code with suitable amendments wherever
required. (Part 1: General and Part-2: Specific Changes pertinent to the
Country)

Priority 4- Introduce new codes that are not covered by IBC and codes specific to the
country and locality including Family of Codes described in Chapter 3.5
above.

Priority 5- Prepare Commentaries, guidelines, directives, Illustrations (MRT) and

Training Manuals shall be developed in order to enhance the effectiveness of
the updated Codes.

The End
Appendix-1: List of NNBC
Appendix-2: Check list of activities for the study
Appendix-3: Interaction with Target Groups and National Workshop
Appendix-4: Review of NNBC: 000, 105 (State of Art, Seismic Design)
Appendix-5: Review of NNBC 101, 102, 103, 104, 106, 108, 109 (Loads,
Occupancy, Site Consideration)
Appendix-6: Review of NNBC: 110, 111, 112, 113, 114, (Materials)
Appendix-7: Review of NNBC: 107 (Fire Code)
Appendix-8: Review of NNBC: 201, 202, 203, 204 and 205 (MRT)
Appendix-9: Review of NNBC: 206 (Architectural Code)
Appendix-10: Review of NNBC: 207 (Electrical Code)
Appendix-11: Review of NNBC: 208 (Water Supply and Sanitation)

Reference Materials

NNBC 000: 1994 to NNBC 205:1994, Nepal National Building Code Requirements, HMG of
Nepal, Ministry of Physical Planning and Works, DUDBC, Kathmandu, Nepal, 2050.
NNBC 206: 203 to NNBC 208:2003, Nepal National Building Code Requirements, GON of
Nepal, Ministry of Physical Planning and Works, DUDBC, Kathmandu, Nepal, 2062.
IBC 2006 International Building Code, International Code Council, USA.
IS 13920: 1993 Indian Standard Code of Practice for Ductile Detailing of Reinforced Concrete
Structures subjected to Seismic Forces, Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi, India.
IS 1893 : (Part 1) 2002 Indian Standard Criteria for Earthquake Resistant Design of Structures
Part 1 General Provisions and Buildings (Fifth Revision), Bureau of Indian Standards, New
Delhi, India.
IS 1893: 1984 Indian Standard Criteria for Earthquake Resistant Design of Structures, Bureau
of Indian Standards, New Delhi, India.
IS 4326: 1993 Indian Standard Code of Practice for Earthquake Resistant Design and
Construction of Buildings, Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi, India.
IS 456: 1978 Indian Standard Code of Practice for Plain and Reinforced Concrete, Indian
Standards Institution, New Delhi, India.
IS 800: 1984 Indian Standard Code of Practice for General Construction in Steel, Bureau of
Indian Standards, New Delhi, India.
NEHRP 2003 Recommended Provisions for the Development of Seismic Regulations for New
Buildings, Building Seismic Safety Council, Federal Emergency Management Agency, USA.
ACI 530-02/ASCE 5-02/TMS 402-02, (2002), Building Code Requirements for Masonry
Structures, Masonry Standards Joint Committee, USA.
ACI 530-99/ASCE 5-99/TMS 402-99, (1999), Building Code Requirements forMasonry
Structures, Masonry Standards Joint Committee, USA.
BS 5628: Part 1, (1978), Code of practice for structural use of masonry, Part 1 Unreinforced
masonry, British Standards Institution
Eurocode 6, (1996), Design of Masonry Structures Part 1-1: General rules for buildings
Rules for Reinforced and Unreinforced Masonry, European Committee for Standardization,
Brussels.
 Review of Design Codes for Masonry Buildings IITK-GSDMA-EQ10-V1.0 15
IS:1905-1987, (1987), Indian Standard Code of Practice for Structural Use of Unreinforced
Masonry, Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi.
NZS 4230 Parts 1 & 2: 1990, (1990), Code of Practice for the Design of Concrete Masonry
Structures and Commentary, Standards Association of New Zealand, Wellington, New
Zealand.
National Building Code of Canada
IS:875(Part 4)- Snow load
SP 20(S & T): 1991, (1991), Handbook on Masonry Design and Construction, Bureau of
Indian Standards, New Delhi.
NNBC 109:1994, Nepal National Building Code, Masonry: Unreinforced
BS 5628: Part 1, (1978), Code of practice for structural use of masonry, Part 1 Unreinforced
masonry, British Standards Institution
Eurocode 6, (1996), Design of Masonry Structures Part 1-1: General rules for buildings
Rules for Reinforced and Unreinforced Masonry, Europea Committee for Standardization,
Brussels.
Review of Design Codes for Masonry Buildings IITK-GSDMA-EQ10-V1.0 15
Engineering, New Zealand, Paper No. 1790.
Recently Modified Articles Law and Database of ROC.
Schneider Electric Electrical Installation Guide-2009.
National rules for Electrical Installations, Third Edition, Amendment No.1, Electro-Technical
Council of Ireland Ltd,2001.
National Electrical Code 2005, -Building code for the Village of Tinley Park, Cook ..
North Dakota State Electrical Board, Laws, Rules and Wiring Standards of North Dakota.
Distribution Code-Regulatory Framework of the Pakistan Distribution Electric Supply System.
Nepal Electricity Regulation 2050 (1993), H.M.G., Nepal
Nepal Electricity Act, 2049 Royal Seal: 17 December,1992 (2049/9/2)
National Building Code Part VIII Building Service Section 2 Electrical Installation, Bureau of
Indian Standard.
Fire protection and prevention act, 1997
Review of Fire Codes and Byelaws By G.B.Menon, Fire Adviser, Govt. of India {Retd.}
Cochin Ex-Chairman CED-22 Fire Fighting Sectional Committee Bureau of Indian Standards.
And J.N.Vakil, Asst.General Manager{Retd}, TAC/GIC, Ahmedabad Ex-Chairman CED-36
Fire Safety Sectional Committee Bureau of Indian Standards.
DEV KUMAR SUNUWAR , City fuel stations vulnerable to fire hazard
 List of NNBC
Appendix-1:
Nepal National Building Code Nepal Standard
Vol Code Title Page Standards Page
1 NNBC Requirements for State-of-the-art Design 1-10 NS 504 1-19
000:1994
2 NNBC Materials Specifications 1-37 NS 505 1-39
101:1994
3 NNBC Unit Weight of Materials 1-1 NS 506 1-52
102:1994
4 NNBC Occupancy Load 1-1 NS 507 1-25
103:1994
5 NNBC Wind Load 1-4 NS 508 1-30
104:1994
6 NNBC Seismic Design of Buildings in Nepal 1-26 NS 514 Earthquake 1-
105:1994 Resistant
7 NNBC Snow Load 1-4
106:1994
8 NNBC Fire Safety 1-4 NS 509 1-6
107:1994
9 NNBC Site Consideration 1-12 NS 510 1-10
108:1994
10 NNBC Masonry: Unreinforced 1-37 NS 512 1-38
109:1994
11 NNBC Plain and Reinforced Concrete 1-4 NS 511 1-139
110:1994
12 NNBC Steel 1-8
111:1994
13 NNBC Timber 1-18
112:1994
14 NNBC Aluminum 1-4
113:1994
15 NNBC Construction Safety 1-9
114:1994
16 NNBC Mandatory Rules of Thumb Reinforced 1-40 NS 1-48
201:1994 Concrete Buildings with Masonry Infill
17 NNBC Mandatory Rules of Thumb Load Bearing 1-49 NS 517 1-51
202:1994 Masonry
18 NNBC Guidelines for Earthquake Resistant Building 1-54 NS 514 1-69
203:1994 Construction: Low Strength Masonry
19 NNBC Guidelines for Earthquake Resistant Building 1-42 NS 515 1-60
204:1994 Construction: Earthen Building (EB)
20 NNBC Mandatory Rules of Thumb Reinforced 1-29 NS 1-36
205:1994 Concrete Buildings without Masonry Infill
21 NNBC Architectural Design Requirements 1-9
206:2003
22 NNBC Electrical Design Requirements For (Public 1-18
207:2003 Buildings)
23 NNBC Sanitary And Plumbing Design Requirements 1-39
208:2003
Appendix-2: Check list of activities for the study

Collect Building Codes (NNBC, FEMA, IBC, AIJ, Eurocode, Chinese Code, New Zealand
Code PWD)
Collect WHO Standard doe Sanitation Water Supply and Waste water Disposal
Collection and Study of data, information and documentation on building code
implementation for government buildings by DUDBC
Collection and Study of data, information and documentation on building code
implementation in municipalities;
Study of relevant codes by each team members and making notes
Summarise notes on study of codes
Categories the problems and issues
identify target group for interaction
invitation for participation in interaction program
Interaction with the users of the Codes as licensed designers of municipalities, professional
consultants involved in the Earthquake engineering, municipal and government authorities,
professional organizations;
prepare questionnaires, check list for interaction and discussion materials
identify venue and time of following interaction sequences:
Initial Introductory Interaction
Interim Interaction
Draft report presentation
Prepare proposals for change in each NNBC codes
Review Building Permit process KMC, LSMC
Categorisation of Buildings High, Medium and Low rise buildings
Preparation of Recommendation for update of NNBC with detail information on
amendments, revisions, alterations to be made.
Formulate Code Structure
Appendix-3: Interaction with Target Groups and National Workshop
Group 1: ERRRP/UNDP
Group 2: DUDBC, SCAEF, NEA, SEANEP, NSET, SEEN, SOPHEN, SOMEN, FCAN, FNCCI,
Group 3: LSMC and Licensed Designers
Group 4: KMC and Licensed Designers
Group 5: National Workshop

Notes on the Interaction

Dec 28, 2008: Interaction with ERRRP/DUDBC (Group 1)

The Initial Interaction with the National Program Coordinator Er Amrit Man Tuladhar and Er
Niyam Maharjan, ERRRP covered following points:

Attention is drawn on NNBC 205:MRT which is

widely used by the municipality designers and
rural construction
The Safety factors, Importance factors, Response
spectra recommended in NNBC have been a
concern for many professionals and experts who
have considered the factors as inadequate
compared to the outcome of other codes
Several designers and specially Lalitpur Sub-
Metropolitan City has recommended for changing
the NNBC recommended minimum size of
column of 9x9 to 9x12, and changing the
concrete grade from M15 to M20 or higher.
Feb. 5, 2009: Interaction with Institutional Stakeholders (Group 2)
Introduction
Formal Consultation with Stakeholders for sharing experience of implementation of NBC
Briefing on Update Needs on NNBC
Inception Report on Dec. 31 No Comments
Criticism on NBC
Adequacy of Code Provision/ Guidelines/ Manual/ Specification Construction Practice
Objectives of Updating of NBC
User friendly
Safety Assurances
Confidence
What updating required in NBC
Code structure Hierarchy of Provisions
Additional Codes International Codes have 16 various codes included
Reasons for Using NBC
Confidence: IRC, IS
Demand for NBC is not felt
Maintaining safety, Image, - make complete code
Accepted Codes (IS, BS, ASTM)
Format of Code
Individual code
Compiled code/ unified code
standards & building codes relation
Adaptation of other codes/ IS code and other
use of materials not mentioned in NBC
Professional and Administrative consistency of NBC and standards
Implementation of Codes
Interaction with NBSM standards making procedure updating needs
DUDBC is member of NBSM
Regulation for implementation, and practicing is in mess
Design is considered, but construction practices not mentioned
Controlling Quality
Applicability of materials: TMT Fe 500 or TOR Fe 415 specification of parameters strength
characteristics elongation/ strength
Prefab materials
Construction is mess: quality regulation not in place
monitoring value is getting less/ haphazard construction
Urgent matters
Product dominant market/ Ad base market
Monitoring of Ad
Mechanism for addressing Technical issues is lacking
Intellectual property (limited)
Mechanism to invite participation of masons, stakeholders, owners,
info dissemination to mass
Supervision: maternal/ manpower monitoring is lacking
Safety of public during material handling
Electrical Safety
Role of inspectors NEA supplies, operations
Electrical hazards: standards of appliances efficiency, economy
Dumping site for CFL luminaries proven factors
Miscellaneous matters
Application of Water Supply, Sanitation, Electrification, Fire codes:
More interactions required at institutional level
Planning, aesthetics, architecture issues are missing
Communication, gas supply, Cement supply, storage
Architects dictate shape of structure
ductility of structure and building configuration;
Old structure occupancy change in occupancy
Irregularity of shape in plan/ elevation/
Old & new structure existing stock/ heritage/ monumental/ Economy/
Rules made for misbehavior to people
Market domination approach

Building bylaws
do not include several disciplines:
o health & hygiene;
o Supermarket, high rise building, basement
o market forces dominate development: it has consequences
o Safety of neighborhood:
o Nachghar
o USAID
o Kathmandu District Court
o Abandoned houses,
o Hunting dangerous building
o Bridge/ specific structure/ water towers, electrical towers
o Hoarding board, FM tower, mobile tower,
o Building permit for certain time, renewal of building permit

Construction Safety
formwork,
Audit
Insulation
Problem, complain by layman,
Capacity of personnel, qualification
Certification of designer, contractor, owner

Education
Use of Code in Education/ Code based education
Panel review,
Awareness colleges are good venue
Include NBC education in colleges
Purbanchal University; ME in EE in Khwopa Engineering College
Awareness of students
NBC projects!

Comments on NNBC
NBC should include all aspects including innovative
 MRT Use by L, K & Dharan: 201, 202, 205 (1000 sq.ft. 3 floor)
Driving force for execution
NBC under Building Act; MRT should not be under NBC
Commentary on all clauses of NBC
Feb. 9, 2009; Interaction with Licensed Designers in LSMC (Group 3)

Application of NNBC in LSMC from 2003

o Effective implementation of NNBC as pilot case;
o A lot of technology has been developed and need for updating NNBC is felt;
o interaction with practitioners
o Sharing the experience;
o Initial exposure in use of NNBC; a lot of changes from 1994;
o Need for Revision of NNBC
Most of international codes are revised every 3 years based on technological achievements;
High rise buildings are new things materials changed,
Building permit process
Upgrading drawbacks;
Historic/ monumental buildings, fire, sanitation, electrical safety, planning, environmental
codes are not included;
Design and construction differs (Residential Buildings, 2 & 3 storey designs)
Standarisation of designs and consideration: clients needs to be addressed
Instruction of Department of Archeology not considered
Lack of Proper Standard of details
Tie/ details: infill wall & frame Tie
Dachi Apa Decorative layer Safety Issues
Think over before tying of frame with infill wall
Tie only may not be enough; projection, parapet wall, sunshade may not be dangerous;
Prevention of structural collapse/ design consideration may be required
Lack of Awareness among contractors and labor
Designers + contractors: Joint design finalization
Licensing of contractors/ Owners to certify for safety
Investment shall be based on available resources:

Safety during construction

Safety of Glazed Faade, Granite facing and Anchorage, Architectural Code
Heating/ sound insulation/ indoor ventilation
Environmental hazard;
Lack of Design analysis
Soil bearing capacity location selection, bearing capacity
MRT shall be abolished;
MRT is limited to 4.5 m. and 2 storeys, but applied for other buildings under coverage of MRT
Typical designs to be provided;
NBC is not practically used
- Application is difficult in various municipalities
NBC to consider
- Worse case of load combination
- Load factors are low
- Lateral earth pressure in basement
- Load distribution for high rise and low rise
- Top flow load? Flip effect
- Time period < 0.1 N
- Load distribution of non-orthogonal plan
- Load reduction provision
- Concrete quality: base shear;
- Settlement, deformation, strength, crack opening
 - Tall buildings, shear wall
- Static and dynamic analysis
- Retrofitting by laws / codes
- Repair and maintenance of old existing buildings/ code
- Disaster mitigation building stock inventory
Electrical Safety
- Details for electrical wiring and safety of structure
Fire Safety to be Considered
- Fire in Ostankin tower of Moscow
Ownership of Design and Jurisdiction
- Mayers bridge in Switzerland- Austria border: authors are designer, General contractor
and Formwork Contractor
- Whatever may be written, jurisdiction of designer is important
- Codes with community
NNBC has not considered the requirements of sector as
New high rise apartment buildings
Occupancy Change from Hotel Building to Super markets
Institutional Arrangement for Continuity of follow up for upgrading NNBC
Collection of Thesis works of Masters Degree from various institutes
Review Material Quality requirements
Quality management requirement of Construction
A number of Articles, comments and recommendation collected by ERRRP was also shared.
The list of materials received was included in References.
Feb. 27, 2009; Interaction with Licensed Designers in KMC (Group 4)

Venue: United World Trade Centre, Kathmandu

An interaction was held on Nepal National Building Code 2004 (amendments and update). The
conversation was chaired by Mr. Bimal Risal, Chief, Urban Development Department, KMC.
After a short welcome speech by the chairperson, the floor was opened for the technical
discussion. Following issues were raised and discussed.

Following the municipality building permit process for the design of buildings above six floors, it
is mandatory to submit the design parameters (whether conducted for seismic design or not)
following NNBC. The buildings with less than six floor, no design paprameters required to be
submitted.

Mr. Ram Chandra Kandel from NSET stressed that MRT is a part of the code and it is required to
provide more Technical details of building with various types details. Dr. PN Maskey clarified
that MRT should not be part of the code while it ccould be developed as guideline\ handbook for
non-engineered building construction.

As the present code lacks many technical aspects of design and implementation, the floor advised
to include as follows:
Planning code shall specify the Minimum size of stair case and safety.
Building for low income group
Code for Quality control and
Code of Ethics of Professionals, and Labor.

Apart from above technical discussing, Mr. Devendra Dongol, The Technical chief, KMC
highlighted the irrelevant building bye-laws which also require reviewing and updating. He
proposed that the code of building bye-laws should work in conjunction with each other and the
conflict should not exist between these two. However, the Consultant proposed that the Code
should be a part of bye-laws. And when bye-laws are to be made, no clause should supersede the
clauses of the code.

The content of the questionnaire for design parameter in Building permit process require revision
(specially, on the seismic assessment) in Kathmandu Municipality.
National Workshop, June 29, 2009 (2066-3-15) organised by ERRRP/DUDBC

The Workshop was organized by DUDBC with participation of DUDBC staff, UNDP
representatives, and representatives from SEANEP, EOI and others. Altogether there were 47
participants.Most important photo documentation is presented herewith.

The Comments and Suggestions obtained during the workshop and through the emails are
recorded as follows. The workshop also has had made audio record of the proceedings of the
Workshop. The comments are as follows:

1. Code should include a Mechanism for regular updating of the Codes.

2. The Report on Recommendation for updating of NBC includes codes as "Suitable/ Adequate"
which shall be more specific.
3. Building Code and Building Bylaws are two different documents and any confusion shall be
eliminated through additional studies.
4. Commentary Report NBC on is available. The revision of code shall consider the commentary
as well.
5. NBC 000 - The International State of Art should include the Own National State of Art
Building of the country.
6. Acceleration value in NBC 105 needs review
7. In the current context, promoting Performance Based Design will not be appropriate since it is
just introduced in Japan in 2003 for evaluate the structures. The knowledge in this field is not
enough and the construction technology should also be considered.
8. SP Standard Practice, Standard publication, Design examples may be required
9. Provision for checking of Wind Load or Earthquake Load or both shall be made.
10. Limit state or working Stress method of design shall be included.
11. Design check during Construction stage shall be made.
12. EQ wave propagation destroys only certain buildings
13. In NBC 202, Analysis Model type shall be clearly elaborated.
14. In stead of referring to clear cover in IS 456, a separate Table shall be provided.
15. In IS 456, in the table for finding TC is determined based on % of Steel (pt) grade of concrete,
but TC refers to stress strain/ depth ratio.
16. NBC 111 refers to IS 800 but there is less practice of utilizing, the rivet joint type of joints
shall be analyzed in depth.
17. There are cases where TMT Rebar are cracked during Bending. This is the effect of Poisons
Ratio.
18. The Design Method prepared has suggested to use Super Element Method, but currently most
of the Tools have practice of using Finite Element Method. The effectiveness of SEM should
be more elaborated.
19. In the Architectural code NBC 206, the Plinth level and storey level houses shall be correlated
in neighborhood.
20. NBC 208 - Concealed plumbing and Electrical services may cause Structural Damages which
shall be considered in the code and provision shall be made to eliminate it.
21. Row housing shall consider the separation joints.
22. When considering Structural resonance, the Seismic coefficient method shall consider the
resonance factor.
23. The existing NBC is divided into four parties, but it may be made one document with various
chapters.
24. Building Act has made clear directives to implement NBC. In such case, it implies that
Bylaws also recognize NBC.

25. NBC Implementation

Implementation/ updating is a big challenge
The study will provide direction to resolve the challenges
The experts, govt. offices Building Act: Policy included
Effectiveness in whole community
Safety of large buildings should be the responsibility of designers
Small residents: owners are not aware of the Safety requirements of the Codes
Updating with new technology and Materials are required.

26. Construction safety is related with prevention of accidents at site and safety of the building
under construction. The safety issues are particularly related to
 Electrical hazard
Gas hazard
Laser protection
27. EQ Safety Technology
Protecting old houses retrofitting and making it cost effective
Chapter on Retrofitting should be included.

28. New context: introduction of disabled accessibility and making user friendly:

29. Building Act

The Building Act was formulated in 1994 and amended in 2006, and required that the
Building Permits are granted based on Building bylaws issued by Town Development
Committees; Designers are registered in Municipalities
The Building Bylaws do not specifically make recommendation on High rise buildings,
remains mainly the responsibility of the Designers to secure the Safety at all times.:
important
In the changed context, it is imperative to consider that the Building Codes should take
precedence to take over for ensuring the protection of life & property.

30. Report Formatting & structure

It is obvious that the report was prepared by a team of experts which is appreciable but it
would be appreciable if it could be improved in terms of language structure and formatting.
The Detailing of joints as granite faade shall be included.

31. MRT Issues

The issues raised in relation to MRT are OK but some of the points require rethinking
It would be wise to keep MRT within the Code since based on the experience of NNBC,
other countries as Pakistan, Iran, Bangladesh have started to replicate. This is a pride for
the country. Based on MRT the building stock of over 28,000 has been surveyed.
MRT would be appropriate to including as a part of Code. But the name could be changed
as required.
The case of Buildings with H/W < 3:1 is not mentioned. Why?
10% lump
NBC 205 shall consider analysis of infill wall.

32. NBC 107: Fire Code

Fire code should be reviewed in terms of National Perspective.
Effect of plaster and other elements that enhance the fire safety shall be considered.
IOE students had prepared M.Sc. thesis works in this topic.
IS 456 and NBC 110 may be referred
Fire resistance of Steel structures and chemical protection shall be included
Do not reduce structural strength
5.5.6.1 Appendix 4: Review of NNBC
000: 1994 REQUIREMENTS FOR
STATE-OF-THE ART DESIGN and
NNBC 105: 1994 SEISMIC DESIGN
OF BUILDINGS IN NEPAL
1. General

Seismic design of buildings constitutes the principal component of the building codes. The
purpose is to reduce or mitigate the damage due to future earthquakes. It has been well
recognized that the single most important development in reducing earthquake losses in the
world has been the incorporation of seismic design provisions into the building codes. The
seismic codes of various countries are in a state of continuous evolution in research and
changes in construction practice.

The history of building code and hence the seismic design of buildings in Nepal is at
tender age compared to the same of other countries. The need for national building code in
Nepal was first strongly felt following the substantial loss and damage due to Udayapur
earthquake of 1988. The preparation of the building code was initiated in early nineties and
published officially only in 1994. The general response to the code has been lukewarm
since its inception, and is in a state of model building code rather than a national building
code in terms of legal status.

Substantial advance have been achieved in the knowledge related to seismic resistant
design of buildings and structures during the past 15 years since the publication of the
National Building Code of Nepal. Changes in seismic design provisions in seismic codes
of different countries from 1994 to the present date are many and far reaching in their
impact. Part of the reasons for such changes has been to incorporate the lessons learned
from the devastating large earthquakes. Inclusion of the lessons learnt from 1994
Northridge and the 1995 Kobe earthquakes have been the major highlights of 1997 edition
of Uniform Building Code with a considerable change in 1994 edition of UBC. Since then
the large earthquakes of Gujarat (2001 January), Sumatra-Andaman (2004 December),
Kashmir-Kohistan (2005 October) and China (2007) have resulted into devastating loss
and damage, imparting the new lessons to be incorporated in the next future seismic codes.
The lessons learnt from the past earthquakes, rapid development in the technology and
researches in the area of Earthquake Engineering have resulted into sophisticated seismic
codes in developed countries. The recent editions of National Earthquake Hazards
Reduction Program (NEHRP) Provisions following the custom of updating in a cycle of
three years substantiate the fact. The recommended provisions incorporated in The
NEHRP Recommended Provisions for Seismic Regulations for New Buildings have
increasingly been adopted in recent times by model codes and standards. If in United
States, there is a custom of revising the codes every three years, it may be not that easy in
case of developing countries like Nepal. The revised edition of the Indian standard Criteria
for earthquake resistant design of structures IS 1893(Part 1) 2002 came into light replacing
IS 1893: 1984 only after a period of 18 years. However, it should be recognized that the
updating of design documents like the codes is a dynamic process, and shall be
materialized as soon as possible to further reduce and mitigate the possible losses in future
earthquakes. In view of this, it is urgently needed that the present code on seismic design
of buildings in Nepal is carefully reviewed with an objective of removing any deficiencies,
errors or scope for misinterpretation. Moreover, development of commentaries or
explanatory handbook on the code to explain the provisions with solved examples is of
utmost importance to solicit a favorable response from users.

NNBC 000: 1994 REQUIREMENTS FOR STATE-OF-THE ART DESIGN

NNBC 000: 1994 basically describes the preface of the building code preparation and
philosophy behind the need for seismic design of buildings in Nepal. It describes and
advocates for, in general, four different levels of sophistication of design and construction,
namely, International state-of-art, Professionally engineered structures, Buildings of restricted
size designed to simple rules-of-thumb, and Remote rural buildings where control is
impractical. Accordingly, the NNBC 000: 1984 contains four separate parts describing the
requirements for each category of the design sophistication. The categorization of the design
and construction is highly influenced by the typology of buildings prevalent then in Nepal and
appears highly overwhelmed by the fact that the first ever building code should be generous to
accommodate the unsophisticated and un-engineered design. It implies the poor status of
design capability and exposure to building codes and standards. It calls for a need to not only
to revise regularly but also ascertains that the provisions are drafts standards for adoption by
NBSM. The content of NNBC 000: 1994 could have been a set of good guidelines
incorporated in local building regulations or byelaws. Since a national building code also
represents the status and sophistication of design and construction embracing latest research
and technological developments, it should not only emphasize but also concentrate only on the
International state-of-art.
A building code is a set of rules that specify the minimum acceptable level of safety for
buildings and other constructed objects. The main purpose of the building code is to protect
public health, safety and general welfare as they relate to the construction and occupancy of
buildings and other structures. The Building Code becomes the law of a particular
jurisdiction when formally enacted by the appropriate authority. Generally the codes are
meant for regulating building activity which may be recommendatory or mandatory
depending upon the authorities issuing these. Compliance to the building code is
mandatory when it is covered in Building Byelaws, Regulations, Acts, Rules, etc. issued
by the National Government and various regional or local authorities.
Building Codes are generally intended to be applied by architects and engineers, but are
also used for various purposes by safety inspectors, environmental scientists, real estate
developers, contractors, manufacturers of building products and materials, insurance
companies, facility managers, disaster management personals, and others.
The practice of developing, approving, and enforcing Building Codes is different from one
country to another. In some nations Building Codes are developed by the governmental
agencies or semi-governmental standards organizations and then enforced across the
country by the national government. Such codes are the National Building Codes, and they
enjoy a mandatory nation-wide application. In the countries, where the power of regulating
construction is vested in local authorities, a system of Model Building Codes is used.
Model Building Codes have no legal status unless adopted or adapted by an authority
having jurisdiction. In some countries, each municipality and urban development authority
has its own building code, which is mandatory for all construction within their jurisdiction.
Such buildings codes are variants of a National Building Code, which serves as model
code proving guidelines for regulating construction activity. The degree to which national
building codes and standards are enforced by law varies from country to country, as stated in
the Foreword of the Code, however it was intended that its implementation be enforced
through the Parliamentary Bill Act and concerned, local authority by-laws. In the above
scenario, it has become very important to establish the status of the building code. It is to be
noted that Building Byelaws, in relation with Building Codes, are mandatory rules and
guidelines for construction activities, issued normally by governmental agencies or
authorities with jurisdiction. Byelaws reflect the legal status of the document, and are
regulatory in nature. National Building Code or Model Building Code may be included as
an essential part of Building Byelaws; however, building codes may not contain the
byelaws. In view of this the philosophy of various levels of requirements depending upon
the design sophistication are more relevant to the byelaws to be enforced by the central or
local authorities. It is always preferable to maintain the distinct boundaries between
existing building byelaws/building regulations and building codes to avoid the confusion.
The sanctity of the building code, different from building byelaws and building
regulations, and in its turn, the seismic design of buildings shall be retained by focusing on
the international state-of-art.
It is important to understand the expressed or implied purpose of a particular design
document in order to fully appreciate its provisions. Although the basic purpose of any
seismic code is to protect life, the way that this purpose as well as any additional purposes,
presented can provide additional insight into the reasons for the presence of specific
provisions in the body of the document and its intended audience. The document shall be
free, as far as possible, of ambiguous or confusing statements or provisions. The following
paragraph describes some of issues to be resolved under NNBC 000: 1994:
The background of the development of the building code and the philosophy of seismic
design could be reasonably incorporated in the introductory part of Seismic Design of
Buildings or even in that of National Building Code itself. The requirements for the
Professionally engineered structures (Part II), Buildings of restricted size designed to
simple rules-of-thumb (Part III), and Remote rural buildings where control is impractical
(Part III) along with minimum design requirements based on the flow chart (Figure 1) shall
be left out for building regulations or building byelaws. The requirements for the
International state-of-art is the main part, based on which the Seismic Design of
Buildings evolves. The need for a separate code on the remaining issues is not
justifiable.
Labeling the Building Code or part of it as draft standards belies the purpose of the
document, and weakens the position of the code executing agencies in the
enforcement of the building code.
Ambiguous statements shall be removed unless a necessary clarification is provided to
avoid the scope for misinterpretation. The return periods mentioned for the onset of
damage of a typical building and for the strength of building as 50 years and 300 years
respectively, in 1.2 Seismic Design under Part 1, need a clarification or rephrasing.
Incomplete sentences in the document of importance shall be avoided. The sentence
starting with The basic philosophy for and ending in blanks, in 1.2 Seismic Design
under Part 1, fails to express the principal objective of the seismic design.
The language and the format of clauses and provisions in a building code deserve a
formal/legal style rather than those of a technical report. The paragraphs following the
subheading 1.3 Other Loads under Part 1 appear like parts of a report with a little
regard for other Nepalese Standards.
Mere referring the Indian Standard Codes of Practice for design in materials like
concrete, steel and masonry does not serve the purpose of popular use and enforcement
 of Nepal National Building Code. IS 456: 1978 Indian Standard Code of Practice for
Plain and Reinforced Concrete has been revised into the Fifth revision IS 456: 2000
Indian Standard Code of Practice for Plain and Reinforced Concrete. Similarly the
detailing requirements included in IS 4326: 1993 Indian Standard Code of Practice for
Earthquake Resistant Design and Construction of Buildings have been modified and
incorporated in a separate detailing code IS 13920: 1993 Indian Standard Code of
Practice for Ductile Detailing of Reinforced Concrete Structures subjected to Seismic
Forces. Since the present building code of Nepal is not explicit about which Indian
Standard Codes, referred ones or revised ones, to be adopted, the designers along with
other stake holders obviously will be in dilemma.
Due reference to Nepalese Standards without using the adjective draft, and without
the background of their development, is most preferable. The Nepalese Standards, such
as for Wind Loads (NNBC 104: 1994), Steel Design (NNBC 111: 1994), Un-
reinforced Masonry (NNBC 109: 1994) and others shall be reviewed and improved, no
matter assistance from which international codes or publications has been derived, so
that these could be treated with respect as Nepals own Standards and essential
components of the National Building Code.
Due weightage needs to be given to international coordination among the standards and
practices prevailing in different countries in addition to relating it to the practices in the
field in Nepal.

NNBC 105: 1994 SEISMIC DESIGN OF BUILDINGS IN NEPAL

Background and purpose of the code

The important information regarding the preparation of the code including its history of
development, need of the document development/improvement and the purpose of seismic
design shall be described under Foreword. Due credit shall be given to the documents and
codes, which have been used and referred in the development of the code.
The present form of Foreword needs to be enhanced with changes in terms of content and
description. The name of sub-heading - design procedure and its content stating as the
minimum design requirements for the seismic design of structures do not match; referring
just to the section under the scope does not say any thing about the design procedure nor
about the minimum requirements.
The special emphasis on the need for application of the code in conjunction with IS 4326
1993, under sub-heading Related Codes is not appreciable for two reasons. Firstly, the
status of IS 4326 1993 in India has been changed with most of the contents being
separately transferred into newly developed codes. The statement in the para implies that
NNBC 105: 1994 can not be used without referring IS 4326 1993. In principle, emphasis
should be on the need of developing such basic standards or codes. Alternatively, the
relevant provisions shall be incorporated, separately as clauses, in the seismic design code
itself. Naming recent editions of IS 4326 1993 or other relevant national and
international codes or documents as reference materials will be more appreciated.
Moreover, details of the Standards, preferably developed for Nepal, which are necessary
adjuncts to the Seismic Design of Buildings in Nepal shall be listed elsewhere in the code.
The absence of the Commentary, forming an accompanying volume to the code, makes it
difficult to substantiate the requirement of using the code in association with the
Commentary as given under sub heading- Commentary.
Scope
The requirements presented under the section of scope of the present code sound
conservative. Instead, the scope of the code should be general and broad in terms of
seismic load assessment on various structures and seismic resistant design of buildings.
The basic provisions shall be applicable to buildings, elevated structures, industrial
structures, dams, bridges and other structures. The scope may not include the construction
features of those buildings for which separate standards will have to address.

Terminology

The terms used in the seismic design and their definitions given in the present code should
be extended. Since the code is the sole principal document for earthquake resistant design
of buildings it will be preferable to include basic terms and their definitions related with
Earthquake Engineering in general to shed light on basic seismological aspects, as well as
Earthquake Engineering related with buildings. Basic terms related with damping, modes,
spectra, PGA, importance factor, intensity and magnitude of earthquake, liquefaction,
maximum considered earthquake, normal modes and modal characteristics, seismic weight,
zone factor and others related with basic Earthquake Engineering shall be included. It is
also necessary to incorporate more terms related with building such as base, center of mass
and rigidity, design eccentricity, base shear, bracing systems, lateral load resisting
elements, principal axes, P- effect, storey drift, storey shear, soft storey and others.

Symbols

The symbols used in the present code may be retained with the extension or revision as the
method improved or altered. However, some terms used in the symbols may be changed,
for example, fundamental time period is more suitable than translational period Ti. There is
perhaps a typographical error in meaning the symbol Fp design seismic force for elements
and components designed in accordance with 8.

General Principles of Design

The general principles described under the present section 3 of the code could be
elaborated with the important features of seismicity and basic assumptions of seismic
design.

It is necessary to include the general principle adopted regarding the ground motion, its
features in relation with the earthquake source characterizations including the sizes of the
earthquake.

It will be favorable to describe the seismic design approach adopted in the code. The
generally accepted principle of seismic resistant design of buildings is that structures
should be able to withstand minor earthquakes without damage, withstand moderate
earthquakes without structural damage but with some non-structural damage, and
withstand major earthquakes without collapse but with some structural as well as non-
structural damage. These widely quoted objectives, however, are unstated in many codes
including the current NNBC 105: 1994. Instead, the principal objectives are stated, for
example, the Uniform Building Code UBC 1997 states an overall objective of safeguarding
life or limb, property and public welfare.
 Although the definitions of minor, moderate and major earthquakes are variable, they
generally relate to the life of the structure, and the consequences of failure. The major
earthquake level defined in most of the codes of the world has a recurrence interval of 475
years, which corresponds to a 10% probability of exceedence in 50 years that is commonly
accepted to be the expected life of a building. The corresponding service level earthquake
for a typical building would have a recurrence interval of 10 years and a 99.3% probability
of being exceeded in 50 years.

There is also a need to mention about the design approach in relation with consideration of
lateral force in each of the two orthogonal horizontal directions, and approach regarding
consideration of earthquake load in vertical direction. It shall also include the approach and
corresponding provision regarding simultaneous occurrence of wind or flood, soil-
structural interaction and change in usage of the building.

Design Methods and Load Combinations

There must be a valid logical reason for need of Limit State Method of design for
reinforced concrete design and recommending Working Stress Method for other structural
materials. At this juncture of improvement, it will be preferable to explore the design
methods available and recommended in other codes and adopt the design method most
appropriate for the country. In general, most of the countries have adopted Limit State
Method or Strength Method replacing Working Stress Method for

Concrete as well as Steel, the two principle structural materials.

The provision regarding the increase in allowable soil bearing pressure by up to 50 percent
when earthquake forces are considered along with other design forces according to 4.3 of
the present code may be too un-conservative and ambiguous in application. Elaboration of
the clause is required about in what condition 50% increase can be considered, and in what
condition lower values, which are to be mentioned, of increment can be considered. IS
1893 (Part 1) : 2002 recommends the increase in allowable soil bearing pressure from 25 to
50% depending upon the soil type (hard, medium or soft ) and the type of foundations
(piles, raft, combined, isolated and well).

The design load combinations included in the present code for Working Stress Method as
well as for Limit State Method seriously require reworking. It is well recognized that the
load factors, recommended are based on the reliability levels assumed in the structures. For
example, it appears too un-conservative to have load factor for dead load as 1 and for live
load 1.3 in case of Nepal. The uncertainties due to non-uniformity of materials,
workmanship, quality control seem to be ignored in the load factor for dead load. The
uncertainties in overloading is covered by maximum 1.3 may not be practical in the
condition of Nepal. IS 456 : 2000, for example, considers 1.5 for both the dead load and
the live load. Similarly the maximum load factor value for seismic load considered is just
1.25, both in combination with 0.9 times dead load, as well as in combination with dead
load and 1.3 times live load. The value of 1.25 is too low in view of the large uncertainties
involved in assessment of the seismic load. Furthermore, the recommendation for adoption
of partial safety factors as per Table 12 of NNBC 110: 1994 contradicts the provision of
4.5 of Seismic Design Code.
Method of Seismic Design

The present seismic code recommends two methods of earthquake analysis, namely,
Seismic Coefficient Method and Modal Response Spectrum Method.
The bulk of seismic resistant buildings are designed using equivalent static lateral forces to
represent the effects of ground motion due to earthquake on buildings. It is from the
assumption that equivalent static forces can be used to represent the effects of an
earthquake by producing the same structural displacements as the peak earthquake
displacement response. The application of this method is limited to reasonably regular
structures. The present code restricts the use of this method for structures up to 40 m
height, and should also mention the condition of regularity.
The dynamic analysis shall not be confined to the response spectrum method. There must
be an optional provision for Time History Analysis also. The conditions for need of using
Modal Response Spectrum Method (Dynamic Analysis) are listed, which are basically
related with irregular configuration. Due to absence of definition and classification of
irregularity, the users of the code will be confused. It is desirable to include clauses that
define and describe different types of irregularity (horizontal, vertical, stiffness, mass,
geometric and others). By such definitions a clearer picture and effect of soft storey and
weak storey will be available.
The formula for determination of seismic coefficient has been changing in the seismic
codes of the world. However, the base shear due to ground motion has all the time been the
product of the seismic coefficient and the mass of the structure. The principal code factors
used in deriving static lateral forces, for a long time, have basically been:
Z A numeric value representing the seismic zoning
I An importance factor representing the importance of the structure, especially in
terms of use following a major earthquake.
C A factor representing the appropriate acceleration response spectrum value.
S A factor representing the effect of local soil conditions on the spectral response of
the ground
W The mass of the structure, including an assessment of live load
K A factor representing the performance of the structure depending on the brittleness
or ductility of the structure

These values are combined in general form for base shear:

V = ZICKSW
This formula for base shear has been for a long time popular. However in course of
evolution the formula for the seismic coefficient has been changing. The formula for the
seismic coefficient presented in the present NBE 105: 1994 considers all the above factors
except S-the factor representing the effect of local soil conditions on the spectral response
of the ground. This effect has been considered, like in other codes, in the response spectra
drawn for different (basically three) types of soil. Thus the expression for the seismic
coefficient given in equation 8.1. Similarly, the equation 8.2 for the expression for the
design response spectrum, in which the ordinate of the basic response spectrum for the
natural time period is multiplied by ZIK.
It has been a trend in the codes of the world to drop the performance factor K and replace it
by reciprocal of R, response reduction factor, a factor dependant on the building type and
its ductility level. The adoption of the response reduction factor leads to a realistic values
 of acceleration from which the design forces are obtained by dividing the elastic forces by
it. It implies that the design force is much lower than what can be expected in the event of
a strong earthquake (Jain 2003).
The replacement of the factor K by the factor 1/R may result into a logical estimation of
the seismic coefficient, and alternate expressions derived in recent editions of codes or
documents like NEHRP shall be given a thought for the new edition of the code.
Computing dynamic response instead of using static forces is becoming increasingly
common as higher powered computing facilities are being available in design offices.
Since there is no restriction of building height and irregularity the dynamic analysis
appears to be simpler in application and yields more logical and accurate results. However,
special care shall be taken into consideration about conservative provision in some
international codes. Some codes require checking of the dynamic analysis results by
seismic coefficient method. Some documents like IS 1893 (Part 1) : 2002 require
comparing the base shear with the base shear calculated using the fundamental time period
calculated using the empirical formula recommended for static approach, and if the base
shear from dynamic analysis is less than the base shear calculated using the time period
from the empirical formula, all the dynamic responses shall be up-scaled multiplying by
the ratio of the two base shears. It again implies the dominance of the seismic coefficient
method over the dynamic analysis.

Seismic Hazard Level and Response Spectrum

Estimate of the design ground motion is the most important and complicated part of the
seismic design code development. Estimates of the design ground motion are necessarily
controversial and uncertain. It is more important to the structural designer that this is
understood than for him to attach some particular significance to any ground motion
parameter used in his design. However there is a strong argument for conservatism in the
assessment of ground motion input, and the use of high confidence level.
NNBC 105: 1994 does not present any elaborate information on the seismicity of the
country. It would be favorable to include at least maps showing epicenters of past
earthquakes, principle tectonic features, geological features including principal lithological
groups, and seismic zones, all of which are well documented by the Department of Mines
and Geology, Nepal. Pandey et al. (2002) has presented seismic hazard map of Nepal as a
result of probabilistic seismic hazard analysis. The document presents the contour of
seismic hazard at the bedrock of Nepal for a return period of 500 years, indicating 10%
probability of exceedence in 50 years.
The design values of ground motion parameter such as Peak Ground Acceleration (PGA)
for different regions of the country are presented either in a tabular form (GB 50011-2001)
or attaching relevant maps like in IBC 2006 in the codes. It is necessary to do the same in
NNBC 105: 1994 also since the seismic hazard for the code was determined based on the
probabilistic seismic hazard analysis. The seismic codes adopting probabilistic approach of
hazard estimation use the hazard levels in terms of Maximum Considered/Capable
Earthquake (MCE) as in NEHRP (2003) and IBC (2006), and Design Basis Earthquake
(DBE) as in ATC (1978) and UBC (1997). The MCE and DBE represent 2% probability of
exceedence in 50 years with a return period of 2500 years and 10% probability of
exceedence in 50 years with a return period of 475 years respectively.
The seismic hazards considered in earlier editions of NEHRP and UBC 97 (1997) had a
recurrence interval of 475 years (Design Basis Earthquake) corresponding to a uniform 10
percent probability of exceedance in 50 years, which is commonly accepted to be expected
 life of a building. The NEHRP(1997) and IBC2000(2000) had changed the Design Basis
Earthquake(DBE), and since then have been using the Maximum Considered Earthquake
(MCE) to represent the seismic hazards in the provisions.. The MCE represents the seismic
hazard that has a recurrence interval of 2500 years corresponding to a uniform 2%
probability of exceedence in 50 years. The design earthquake according to the provisions
of NEHRP(2003) and IBC 2006 (2006) is two-thirds of the MCE. Comparison of the
provisions of 1994 or older editions with 1997 or later editions of the NEHRP Provisions
reveals that, a structure designed by the 1994 or older editions of NEHRP Provisions is
believed to have a low likelihood of collapse under an earthquake that is one and one-half
times (reciprocal of two-third) as large as the design earthquake of those documents. The
same change has taken place from UBC 97 (1997) to IBC 2000 (2000). This major change
in association with other provisions indicates the newer versions of the documents tend to
be more conservative.
The seismic loading in NNBC 105: 1994 is set at a seismic hazard level having a return
period of 50 years, which corresponds to a probability of exceedence less than 45% in 30
years, which had been estimated as the economic life of a structure in Nepal, as presented
by Beca Worley International et al.(1993). The document as well reveals that the seismic
hazard level was set to be at a level approximately equal to that defined in the Indian
Standard, that is, IS 1893: 1984. The design earthquake level set hence is too un-
conservative and strongly needs a major revision for the following reasons:
v. The service life of buildings in Nepal estimated as 30 years is far from reasonable;
instead it must be 50 years.
vi. It is unfair to set the seismic hazard level for Nepal heavily banking upon the
earthquake level stipulated in IS 1893: 1984, which has already been revised into IS
1893 (Part 1): 2002 with a different value of design earthquake value. The Indian
Standard has yet to adopt probabilistic format of seismic hazard analysis.
vii. The provisions in the present code have been developed in reference with mainly low
rise buildings with short natural periods, where as long period structures are
increasingly becoming prevalent.
viii. The seismic design lateral load calculated for short period structures as 0.08, when
compared with the basic horizontal seismic coefficient for zone V of IS 1893: 1984,
found the same as 0.08. But the value according to the revised IS 1893 (Part 1): 2002
will be 0.09 against 0.08.
The response spectra and the zoning factors largely depend on the design earthquake
levels, and hence will be different as the seismic hazard levels change.
The broad classification of soil conditions into three types is universally accepted.
However, the definition and requirements of each type of them shall be more practical and
recognizable.

Static Method (Seismic Coefficient Method)

The seismic base shear V along any principal direction is determined by the expression:
V = Cd Wt
In which Cd is the design horizontal seismic coefficient, and Wt is the seismic weight of the
building. However, the expression given by equation 10.1 is not supplemented with what
stands for the notation Wt . Moreover, it requires the definition of the seismic weight of the
building. There is also a need to describe how the seismic weight of the building is
calculated in terms of seismic weight of floors, which has to be referred, although briefly
introduced under the section 6 Seismic Weight. It should further be elaborated with the
rules for lumping of weights.
The distribution of the design base shear along the height of the building is carried out in a
linear manner, that is, the design lateral force at floor level i is calculated by:
Fi = V Wi hi/Wi hi
The Indian Standard IS 1893 has long been adopting the parabolic distribution,
corresponding to which the design lateral force, equivalent to IS 1893 (Part 1):2002, at
floor level i is calculated by:
2
Wi hi
Fi V n
Wi hi
2
i 1

Both of the above distributions are at the extremes. The linear distribution is true for
basically stiff structures having a natural period of 0.5 seconds or less (approximately for
up to 5 storeys of the building). The parabolic distribution is applicable basically for
flexible structures having a natural time period of 2.5 seconds (approximately for 25
storeys and more of the building).
The distribution of the horizontal forces over the height of a building is generally a quite
complex because these forces are the result of superposition of a number of natural modes
of vibration. The relative contributions of these vibration modes to the total forces depends
on a number of factors, which include shape of the ground motion response spectrum,
natural periods of vibration of the building, and the vibration mode shapes, which in turn
depend on the mass and stiffness distribution over the height of the building. Based on it,
ATC 3-06 (1978) has provided the reasonable and simple formula to obtain the horizontal
earthquake force distribution in buildings with regular variation of mass and stiffness over
the height as follows:
k
Wi hi
Fi V n
Wi hi
k
i 1

in which, k is an exponent related to the building period as follows:

For buildings having a period of 0.5 seconds or less, k = 1.
For buildings having a period of 2.5 seconds or more, k = 2.
For buildings having a period between 0.5 and 2.5 seconds, k may be taken as 2 or may be
determined by linear interpolation between 1 and 2.
In view of the changing characters of the buildings, increasingly departing from the low
rise situation, the linear distribution provision in the code will be again un-conservative,
and hence needs a change. It is to note that the American codes have been adopting the
distribution formula developed by ATC 3-06 (1978).
The provision regarding the direction of forces under sub-heading 8.2.1 shall be rewritten
to clarify to the effect that the structure shall be designed for design earthquake load in one
horizontal direction at time, indicating the design earthquake load will not be applied
simultaneously in both of the orthogonal directions.
The design eccentricity provision should have been provided together with the clause on
the horizontal shear distribution or under Torsion. The design eccentricity, ed is
 recommended to be calculated depending upon the value of ec ( eccentricity between the
locations of the center of mass and the center of rigidity) in relation with b, the maximum
dimension of the building perpendicular to the direction of the earthquake force. Three
separate conditions and corresponding values to be used or calculated are presented. The
design eccentricity is required to calculate the design torsional moment to consider its
effect in the distribution of lateral forces at each level. The purpose of the provision on the
design eccentricity would have better been served by a clause on Torsion to the effect The
distribution of lateral forces at each level shall consider the effect of the torsional moment
resulting from eccentricity ec between the locations of the center of mass and the center of
rigidity. It should be followed by a complimentary clause on Accidental torsion, to the
effect In addition to the torsional moment, the distribution of lateral forces also shall
include accidental torsional moments, caused by an assumed displacement of the mass
each way from its actual location by a distance equal to 5% of the dimension of the
structure b, perpendicular to the direction of the applied forces. Alternatively, The design
eccentricity would be algebraic sum of the factored eccentricity and the accidental
eccentricity each way. Accordingly, the expression for the design eccentricity for ith floor
would be, assuming 1.5 as the factor for the eccentricity:
edi = 1.5 eci 0.05 bi

Dynamic Method (Modal Response Spectrum Method)

The provisions presented in the present code are not adequate. There is a need for clauses
for free vibration analysis to obtain the natural periods (T) and mode shapes (). The
present provision for the numbers of the modes to be considered in 11.2 needs elaboration
including explanation how to check if the 90% of the mass is participating or not. It shall
be done by introduction of formulae along with definitions of modal mass and modal
participation factors. There are serious lapse of provisions for modal combination methods,
methods for determination of design lateral forces at each floor in each mode and due to all
modes considered, and also expressions for storey shear forces in individual mode and due
to all modes considered.
The para 11.3.1 mentions about need to use an established method for combination of
modal effects. An ambiguous word like established method shall be avoided and replaced
by the name of the method/s to be applied. The definition of closely spaced modes as given
in para 11.3.3 is incorrect. Closely spaced modes are defined as those of its natural modes
of vibration whose natural frequencies differ from each other by 10 % or less of the lower
frequency, not if their frequencies are within 15%.

Deformations

The primary clause for deformation due to earthquake forces is the storey drift limitation,
which shall not exceed 0.004 times the storey height. The sense of this limitation may be
implied from the provision given under 9.2.2. For the purpose of displacement
requirements only, the seismic forces obtained from the fundamental time period of the
building by static or dynamic approach may be used. The provision under 9.1 shall be
applicable for the separation between two adjacent buildings or two adjacent units of the
same building. The separation must be provided by a distance equal to the sum of the
calculated storey displacements multiplied by 5/k or by R, if the performance factor k is
replaced by response reduction factor R. rewritten as for the separation. It shall further be
supplemented by the provision that if the floor levels of the two adjacent units or buildings
are at the same elevation levels, the factor 5/k or by R may be further replaced by 10/k or
 R/2 respectively. Accordingly it is preferable to rearrange the sub-clauses under this
section.

Requirements for Other Components and Elements

The provisions under section 12 shall elaborate, beyond the general statements, how the
requirements are achieved. This section also shall present provisions for important
components like foundations, projections and other parts of the buildings.

References

1. ATC 3-06 (1978) Tentative Provision for the Development of the Seismic Regulations for
Building, Applied Technology Council, USA.
2. Beca Worley International in association with others (1993), Seismic hazard Mapping and
Risk Assessment for Nepal, UNDP/UNCHS(Habitat) Subproject, Nep//88/054/21.03
3. GB 50011-2001 Code for Seismic Design of Buildings, National Standard of the Peoples
Republic of China, Beijing, PRC.
4. IBC 2006 International Building Code, International Code Council, USA.
5. IS 13920: 1993 Indian Standard Code of Practice for Ductile Detailing of Reinforced
Concrete Structures subjected to Seismic Forces, Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi,
India.
6. IS 1893 : (Part 1) 2002 Indian Standard Criteria for Earthquake Resistant Design of
Structures Part 1 General Provisions and Buildings (Fifth Revision), Bureau of Indian
Standards, New Delhi, India.
7. IS 1893: 1984 Indian Standard Criteria for Earthquake Resistant Design of Structures,
Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi, India.
8. IS 4326: 1993 Indian Standard Code of Practice for Earthquake Resistant Design and
Construction of Buildings, Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi, India.
9. IS 456: 1978 Indian Standard Code of Practice for Plain and Reinforced Concrete, Indian
Standards Institution, New Delhi, India.
10. IS 456: 2000 Indian Standard Code of Practice for Plain and Reinforced Concrete (Fourth
Revision), Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi, India.
11. IS 800: 1984 Indian Standard Code of Practice for General Construction in Steel, Bureau
of Indian Standards, New Delhi, India.
12. Jain, S. K. Review of Indian Seismic Code IS 1893 (Part 1): 2002, the Indian Concrete
Journal, November 2003, India.
13. NNBC 000: 1994 Nepal National Building Code Requirements for State-of-the art Design
an Introduction, HMG of Nepal, Ministry of Physical Planning and Works, DUDBC,
Kathmandu, Nepal, 2060.
14. NNBC 102: 1994 Nepal National Building Code Unit Weight of Materials, HMG of
Nepal, Ministry of Physical Planning and Works, DUDBC, Kathmandu, Nepal, 2060.
15. NNBC 103: 1994 Nepal National Building Code Occupancy Load (Imposed Load), HMG
of Nepal, Ministry of Physical Planning and Works, DUDBC, Kathmandu, Nepal, 2060.
16. NNBC 104: 1994 Nepal National Building Code Wind Load, HMG of Nepal, Ministry of
Physical Planning and Works, DUDBC, Kathmandu, Nepal, 2060.
17. NNBC 105: 1994 Nepal National Building Code Seismic Design of Buildings in Nepal,
HMG of Nepal, Ministry of Physical Planning and Works, DUDBC, Kathmandu, Nepal,
2060.
18. NNBC 106: 1994 Nepal National Building Code Snow Load, HMG of Nepal, Ministry of
Physical Planning and Works, DUDBC, Kathmandu, Nepal, 2060.
19. NNBC 109: 1994 Nepal National Building Code Masonry: Unreinforced, HMG of Nepal,
Ministry of Physical Planning and Works, DUDBC, Kathmandu, Nepal, 2060.
20. NNBC 110: 1994 Nepal National Building Code Plain and Reinforced Concrete, HMG of
Nepal, Ministry of Physical Planning and Works, DUDBC, Kathmandu, Nepal, 2060.
21. NNBC 111: 1994 Nepal National Building Code Steel, HMG of Nepal, Ministry of
Physical Planning and Works, DUDBC, Kathmandu, Nepal, 2060.
22. NEHRP 2003 Recommended Provisions for the Development of Seismic Regulations for
New Buildings, Building Seismic Safety Council, Federal Emergency Management
Agency, USA.
23. Pandey, M. R., Chitrakar, G. R., Kafle, B., Sapkota, S. N., Rajaure, S. & Gautam, U. P.
(2002), Seismic Hazard Map of Nepal, National Seismological Centre, Department of
Mines and Geology, His Majesty's Government of Nepal, Kathmandu
24. UBC 1997 Uniform Building Code, INTERNATIONAL Conference on Building Officials,
Whittier, California, USA.
Appendix 5- Review of NNBC 101, 102, 103, 104, 106, 107, 108, 109

NNBC 101:1994
Materials Specifications

This standard deals with the requisite quality and effectiveness of construction materials used
mainly in building construction. It also deals with the storage of materials where storage has
relevance to strength.

A list of Nepal Standards (NS) for key materials is provided. For those materials for which Nepal
Standard does not exist, a list of Indian Standard (IS) has been included. The use of appropriate,
adopted or new materials is encouraged, provided these materials have been proven to meet their
intended purposes. Those materials which are not covered by the code also may be used in
building requiring National Building Code compliance provided these materials are equivalent, or
better in quality, strength, effectiveness, fire resistance, durability, safety, maintenance and
compatibility. Prior to the use of such materials, it shall be the responsibility of the building
owner, or the authorized representative of the building owner, to obtain proof of equivalency.

If recycled /used materials meet the requirements of the standard, they may also be used. The
code does not specify or refer to the methods of quality tests of materials and works. The reference
methods and Standard Operating Procedures shall be referred.

NBC 102:1994
Unit Weight of Materials

This Nepal Standard for unit weight of Materials adopts the Indian Code IS:875(Part 1)-1987 code
of Practice for Design loads ( Other than Earthquake) for building and structures, Part 1- Dead
loads-Unit weight of building materials and stored materials.(second revision).

Since the table of unit weight of material not provided in the code, the code is not convenient to
use. Unit weight of materials is provided in Nepal Standard, so table of unit weight of material
from NS can be used.

NBC 103:1994
Occupancy Load (Imposed Load)

The Nepal Standard for Occupancy Load adopts the Indian Code IS:875(Part 2)-1987 code of
Practice for Design loads ( Other than Earthquake) for building and structures, Part 2- Imposed
Load.(second revision).

It is considered imperative that a table of the occupancy classification and corresponding loading
is provided in the code. The Table for the imposed load for occupancys should be provided for
convenience for the users.

In Nepal Standard NS , different tables such as Table1-Imposed floor loads for different
occupancies, reduction in imposed loads on floors, Table 2- Imposed loads on various types of
roofs, Table 3- horizontal loads on parapets, parapet walls and balustrades are provided which can
be used in NBC 103:1994 to make it independent.
Uniform live loads. The live loads used in the design of buildings and other structures shall be the
maximum loads expected by the intended use or occupancy but shall in no case be less than the
minimum distributed loads required by provided table.

Partition loads. In office buildings and in other buildings where partition locations are subject to Formatted: Justified
change, provision for partition weight shall be made, whether or not partitions are shown in
construction documents, unless the specified live load exceeds 3.83 kN/m2. Such partition load
shall not be less than a uniformly distributed live load of 0.96 kN/m2.

Change in occupancy load

As we know in Nepal, the use of buildings is changed from one occupancy classification to
another occupancy, for example from residential to schools or store; from Hotel to Super Market
or Office . In such cases, the occupancy load will be changed. It's an important aspect of any
building design, and occupancy load calculations are made as per different occupancies. At all
stages of the operation of the building, it is essential that the safety of the life and p[roperty
including the building is safeguarded and comply with the requirements of the Code for the
concerned class of Occupancy Load. If the safety is not warranted, prohibition of change of
occupancy class of the building should be imposed. .

NNBC 104:1994
Wind Load

The Nepal Standard on Wind Load comprises the Indian Standard IS:875(Part 3)-1987 code of
Practice for Design Loads ( Other than Earthquake) for building and structures (Second Revision)
with amendments to ensure the requirements of Nepalese context, particularly wind zoning map
of Nepal.

The available wind data in Nepal is inadequate both in terms of spatial distribution, intensity and
duration. Modern wind design codes are based on the peak gust velocity averaged over a short
interval of about 3 seconds that has a 50 year return period.

On the base of wind velocity, Nepal has been divided into two regions: (a) The lower plains and
hills, and (b) the mountains. The first zone generally includes the southern plain of Tarai, the
Kathmandu valley and those regions of the country generally below an elevation of 3,000 metres.
The second zone covers all the areas above the 3000 metres.

For the Nepalese plains, a continuum with Indian plains, a basic wind velocity of 47m/s has been
adopted. In the higher hills, a basic wind velocity of 55 m/s selected.

In the wind map of Nepal no basic wind speed is indicated. Similarly, wind data table is not
provided.

While making the present code, some amendments have been done to IS:875(Part 3)- 1987
comprising of replacement of terminology like Indian to Nepal or code with standard,
delation of some clauses and sentences, and so on.

This type of amendments has created discomfort for using the NBC 104:1994. In Nepal Standard
NS 500, the map of Nepal has indicated the basic wind speed and different factors. Nepal National
building code may provide detailed required data and information in the code itself so that it
becomes convenient for th eusres.
Wind Speed and Pressure
In general, wind speed in the atmospheric boundary layers increases with height from zero at the
ground level to a maximum at a height called the gradient height. Wind speed at any height never
remains constant and it has been found convenient to resolve its instantaneous magnitude into an
average or mean value and a fluctuating component around this average value. The average value
depends on the averaging time employed in analyzing the meteorological data and this averaging
time varies from a few seconds to several minutes. The magnitude of fluctuating component of
wind speed which is called gust, depends on the averaging time. In general, smaller the averaging
interval, greater is the magnitude of the gust speed.

Basic Wind Speed

Basic wind speed is based on the peak gust velocity averaged over a short time interval of about 3
seconds and corresponds to a mean height above the ground level in an open Terrain. Basic wind
speed for the zone is taken from map of Nepal.

Design Wind Speed (Vz)

The Design Wind Speed is expressed as follows:

Formatted: Justified
Vz = VbK1K2K3 Formatted: Justified, Indent: Left: 0.5", First
line: 0.5"

Where Vz design wind speed at any height z in m/s;

K1 probability factor (risk coefficient)
K2 terrain, height and structure size factor
K3 topography factor

Design Wind Pressure

The design wind pressure at any height above mean ground level is obtained from the expression:

Pz = 0.6 Vz2

Where pz design wind pressure in N/m2 at height z, and

Vz design wind velocity in m/s at height z.

In IS : 875(Part 3): Wind Loads on Buildings and Structures, the proposed draft commentary
prepared by Dr. Prem Krishna, Dr. Krishen Kumar, Dr.N.M. Bhandari suggested to analyses the
design wind pressure pd assign following equation:
pd = Kd. Ka. Kc. pz
where Kd = Wind directionality factor
Ka = Area averaging factor
Kc = Combination factor
Ka should be taken as 1.0 when considering local pressure coefficients.
Kd - Considering the randomness in the directionality of wind and recognizing the fact that pressure
or force coefficients are determined for specific wind directions, it is specified that for buildings,
solid signs, open signs, lattice frameworks, and trussed towers (triangular, square, rectangular) a
factor of 0.90 may be used on the design wind pressure.

For circular or near circular forms, this factor may be taken as 1.0.
For the cyclone affected regions also, the factor Kd shall be taken as 1.0.
Area Averaging Factor, K
a
Pressure coefficients are a result of averaging the measured pressure values over a given area. As
the area becomes larger, the correlation of measured values decrease and vice-versa. The decrease
in pressures due to larger areas may be taken into account as given in Table 1.
Table 1: Area averaging factor (Ka)
2
Tributary Area (A) (m ) Area Averaging Factor (Ka)
10 1.0
25 0.9
100 0.8

The Russian Code and Standards (SNIP) recommend that wind load on tall building shall be
estimated as the sum total of average and pulsation excitations. The design wind load can be
expressed as:
w = wc + w p
wc = wo.k.c,
wp = 1.4 wph(z/h)

where wc average wind pressure, wp wind pressure due to pulsation; w0- nominal wind
pressure; wph nominal pulsation wind pressure at the top height of the building; k- height factor;
dynamic coefficient;z- height at which pulsation wind pressure is being determined.

Nigerian standard code of Practice (NSCP) suggest to analyse the design wind load using
following expression:
P = fs.qo.ce
Where qo the nominal wind pressure;
vo- the nominal wind velocity;
fs shape factor
ce the pressure coefficient

NBC 106:1994
Snow Load

The code on Snow Load comprises the Indian Standard IS: 875 (Part 4) 1987: CODE OF
PRACTICE FOR DESIGN LOADS (OTHER THAN EARTHQUAKE) FOR BUILDINGS AND
STRUCTURES (second revision) along with new improvements and amendments to ensure the
requirements of the Nepalese context.

In this code, 0.1 to 0.3.2 has been deleted from the original version to match the code with the
Nepalese lifestyle. The added revisions are related to snow load in the northern snow-covered
districts like Dolakha, Darchula, Bajhang, Humla, Mugu etc. The country is divided into five
categories based on the physiographic regions. Of these five physiographic regions, the Tarai, the
Siwaliks and the middle mountains, do not experience snow fall. High mountains get snow two or
three months of a year. The High Himalayas always have snow cover throughout the year. Snow
load could be experienced once in a whilw within Kathmandu Valley, and the areas around
Kathmandu Valley experience snow load quite often.

At high altitude, roofs are built flat with mud floor placed over timber planks or split pieces of
wood. A slope is not provided because the wind speed is high and the rainfall is sparse. Only a
nominal slope that is just enough to drain the melted snow and rain water is provided. Snow
accumulates on the roof and the narrow space between the adjacent buildings also filled. Snow
accumulated on the roof is removed manually.

No historical snow data exist. The Snow and Glacier Hydrology have just recently started to
collect data in high altitude region. Depth, density and water equivalent are monitored. However,
the data obtained from the projects is far less than that of the verbal inquiry. So, the concerned
personnel and institutions are being requested to collect data from in depth studies and inquiries of
the knowledgeable people of the locality.

Snow Load in Roof

The Design snow load is obtained by multiplying the snow load on the ground, S0 by the shape
coefficient ,
S= S0
where s - design snow load in Pa on plan area of roof,
- shape coefficient and
S0 - ground snow load

The code has done some amendments in IS: 875(Part 3)-1987 with replacement of some
terminology, and sentences

In the code, it is mentioned that the most favorable slope for both wind and snow is taken as 2:1.

This type of amendments does make it convenient to the users.

Since the middle mountain zones also experience snow fall sometimes, but the code has
demarcated it as no snow fall zone. There is a gap in data as such in this region.

Comparisons with other codes

As per National Building Code of Canada 1990, the Snow load on a roof or any other building
surface subject to accumulation shall be calculated from the formula
S = Ss(CbCwCa)+Sr
where
Ss - the ground snow load in kPa
Sr -s associated with rain load in kPa
Cb - the basic roof snow load factor of 0.8,
Cw - the wind exposure factor,
Ca - the accumulation factor. .

The Canadian Code presents snow distribution factors on various types of roofs which can be
applied universally with reliability and need only be tempered in detail with local experience.

In Russian code SNIP 2.01.07-85, the Snow load is calculated by formula

S=Sg x
Some properties of snow
A careful assessment of the snow load is required to avoid both unnecessary construction cost and
undue risk of failure. Snow loads on roofs vary widely according to geographical location, site
exposure and shape of the roof.
Snowflakes of falling snow consist of ice crystals with their well-known complex pattern. Owing
to their large surface area to weight ratio they fall to the ground relatively slowly and are easily
blown by the wind.

Freshly fallen snow is very loose and fluffy, with a specific gravity of about 0.05 to 0.1 (1/20th to
1/10th of water). Immediately after landing, the snow crystals start to change: the thin, needle-like
projections begin to sublime and the crystals gradually become more like small irregularly shaped
grains. This results in settlement of the snow and after a few days the specific gravity will usually
have increased to about 0.2. This compaction further increases and specific gravities of about 0.3
will often have been attained after about a month, even at below-freezing temperatures. Longer
periods of warm weather as well as rain falling into the snow (a possibility that must be included
in proper design loads) may increase this density even further.

As a simple rule for estimating loads from snow depths, the specific gravity can be considered to
be about 0.2 to 0.3. In other words, each inch of snow represents a load of about 5-8 Kg/m2.

Accumulation of Snow on Roofs

In perfectly calm weather, the falling snow would cover roofs and the ground with a uniform
blanket of snow. If this calm continued, the snow cover would remain undisturbed and the
prediction of roof loads would be relatively simple; the design snow load could be considered
uniform and equal to a suitable maximum value of the ground snow load.

Truly uniform loading conditions, however, are rare. In most regions, snowfalls are accompanied
or followed by winds, and the snowflakes, having a large surface area to their weight, are easily
transported horizontally by the wind. Consequently, since many roofs are well exposed to the
wind, accumulation of snow will depend on the wind and configuration of the roof itself. Over
certain parts of roofs the wind speed will be slowed down sufficiently to let the snow "drop out"
and accumulate in drifts.

The roofs situated below an adjacent higher roof are particularly susceptible to heavy drift loads
because the upper roof can provide a large supply of snow. Canopies, balconies and porches also
fall into this category and the loads that accumulate on these roofs often reach a multiple of the
ground load depending mainly on the size of the upper roof. The distribution of load depends on
the shape of these drifts which varies from a triangular cross-section (with the greatest depth
nearest to the higher roof) to a more or less uniform depth.
Flat roofs with projections such as penthouses or parapet walls often experience triangular snow
accumulations that reach the top of the projections on the building.

Peaked and curved roofs subjected to winds at approximately right angles to the ridge provide
aerodynamic shade over the leeward slope. This sometimes leads to heavy unbalanced loads, since
most of the snow is blown from the windward slope to the leeward slope, producing loads that
exceed the ground load on occasions. Curved roofs show similar or even more unbalanced
distributions (little snow on top and heavy snow near the base of the arch).On the other hand it is
true that many small peaked roofs on residences, in exposed areas, usually (but not always)
accumulate little snow compared with that on the ground.

Redistribution of Load
Redistribution of snow load can occur not only as a result of wind action. On sloped roofs there
are two problems connected with the melting of snow at temperatures slightly below freezing.
Firstly, melt water can refreeze on caves and cause high ice loads (also water back-up under
shingles). This can at least partly be solved by taking steps to, decrease the heat loss from the
upper parts of the roof. Secondly, if a roof slopes and drains on to a lower one, melt water
sometimes accumulates by refreezing on the lower roof or it is retained in the snow.

Responsibility of Designer
Code requirements for snow loads must necessarily be rather general, and consequently the
designer should not apply the loads given in the Code without considering the effects of the shape
and exposure of the roof. The designer should, therefore, consider in each case the building site,
size and shape, where drifts are likely to occur on the roof drainage, and so on.

NNBC 109:1994
Masonry: Unreinforced

1. Introduction

1. NBC 109:1994 Masonry: Unreinforced

1.1 Introduction

Nepal National Building Code NBC 109:1994 covers the structural design aspect of Formatted: Indent: Left: 0.5"
unreinforced masonry elements in buildings. It also deals with some aspect of earthquake
resistant design of buildings. Reference to seismic zoning, seismic coefficients, important
factors and performance coefficients are adopted as per NBC 105-1994: Seismic Design of
Buildings in Nepal.

It was quoted in the Code that this code should be read in conjunction with the Indian Formatted: Indent: Left: 0.5"
Standard IS:1905-1987 Code of Practice for Structural Use of Unreinforced Masonry
(Third Revision). This provision makes it (Code NBC 109:1994) dependent on
IS:1905-1987.

Materials used in Masonry construction are taken in accordance with NBC 101-1994 Formatted: Indent: Left: 0.5"
Material Specification and masonry units as per NS 1/2035 Brick Masonry.

Special considerations for earthquake resistance considered for site consideration were
made as per NBC 108-1994: Site consideration.

1.2 DESIGN CONSIDERATION OF DIFFERENT CODES:

1.2.1 Building Code Requirements for Masonry Structures (ACI 530-02/ASCE 5-02/TMS Formatted: Indent: Left: 0", Hanging: 0.5"
402-02)

The code provides minimum requirements for the structural design and construction of Formatted: Justified, Indent: Left: 0.5"
masonry units bedded in mortar using both allowable stress design as well as limit state
design (strength design) for unreinforced as well as reinforced masonry. The topic on
strength design is a new addition to the previous edition of this code (ACI 530-99/ASCE 5-
99/TMS 402-99). In strength design, more emphasis is laid on reinforced masonry than
unreinforced masonry. An empirical design method applicable to buildings meeting
specific location and construction criteria is also included.
1.2.2 International Building Code 2000

The International Building Code 2000 (ICC 2000) is designed to meet the need for Formatted: Indent: Left: 0.5"
modern, up to date building code addressing the design of building systems through
requirements emphasizing performance. The provisions of this code for the design of
masonry members have been borrowed from ACI 530-02/ASCE 5-02/TMS 402 -02.

1.2.3 Euro code 6: Design of Masonry Structures

This code specifies a general basis for the deign of buildings and civil engineering works Formatted: Indent: Left: 0.5"
in unreinforced and reinforced masonry made with clay and concrete masonry units laid in
mortar. Limit State Design method has been adopted throughout this code. However, Euro
Code 6 does not cover the special requirements of seismic design.

1.2.4 Indian Standard Code of Practice for Structural Use of Unreinforced Masonry (IS: Formatted: Indent: Left: 0", Hanging: 0.5"
1905-1987)

The provisions of this code are similar to those of BS 5628: Part 1:1978. The Indian Formatted: Indent: Left: 0.5"
Standard provides recommendations for structural design aspect of load bearing and non
load bearing walls using unreinforced masonry only. Design procedure adopted throughout
the code is allowable stress design, along with several empirical formulae. The code refers
to IS: 4326 for strengthening unreinforced masonry buildings for seismic resistance and
does not provide any calculation for the design of reinforcement.

1.3 Design Philosophies

The specification laid down in clause 5.1 to 5.5.5 of Indian Standard IS:1905-1987 is Formatted: Justified, Indent: Left: 0.5"
adopted in this code.
Formatted: Justified
The design philosophies of various codes have been compared with regard to their design Formatted: Justified, Indent: Left: 0.5"
assumptions and assumed factor safety in following section:
Formatted: Justified
1.3.1 Empirical Design

Empirical rules and formulae for the design of masonry structures were developed by Formatted: Justified, Indent: Left: 0.5"
experience and traditionally, they have been used as a procedure, not as a design analysis
for sizing and proportioning masonry elements. This design procedure is applicable to very
simple structure with limitations on building height proportions and horizontal loads such
as due to wind and earthquake. Indian Standards mixes empirical procedure with allowable
stress design method.

1.3.2 Allowable stress design

Formatted: Justified
Allowable stress design states that under working loads, the stresses developed in a Formatted: Justified, Indent: Left: 0.5"
member must be less than the permissible stresses. In case of unreinforced masonry, it is
assumed that tensile stresses, not exceeding allowable limits, are resisted by the masonry.
For the reinforced masonry, tensile of masonry is neglected.
1.3.3 Strength Design of Limit State design
Formatted: Justified
Strength design requires that masonry members be proportional such that the design strength Formatted: Justified, Indent: Left: 0.25"
equals or exceeds the required strength. Design strength is the nominal strength multiplied by a
strength reduction factor (). The procedure has been adopted by the ACI code, IBC 2000 and
the New Zealand code, and more emphasis has been laid on reinforced masonry in all these
three codes. In these codes, on the basis of the following assumptions, the strength of
reinforced masonry members is calculated.
a. There is strength continuity between the reinforcement, grout and masonry.
b. The maximum usable strain (emu) at the extreme masonry compression assumed to be Formatted: Justified, Numbered + Level: 1 +
Numbering Style: a, b, c, + Start at: 1 +
0.0035 for clay masonry and 0.0025 for concrete masonry. The New Zealand code Alignment: Left + Aligned at: 0.25" + Tab
specifies that the maximum usable strain will be 0.008 for confined concrete masonry. after: 0.5" + Indent at: 0.5"
c. Reinforcement stress below specified yield strength (fy) shall be taken as Es times steel Formatted: Indent: Left: 0.25", Hanging:
strain. For strains greater than that corresponding to fy, stress in reinforcement shall be 0.25"

taken equal to fy.

d. The tensile strength of masonry shall be neglected in calculating flexural strength but shall
be considered in calculating deflection.

1.4 COMPARISON CONCEPTS FOR UNREINFORCED MASONRY

Formatted: Indent: Left: 0", Hanging: 0.5"
1.4.1 Allowable Stress Design

1.4.1.1 Axial Compression Formatted: Indent: Left: 0.5"

Axial compression on masonry arises due to vertical loads, especially from dead load and
live load. Compression tests of masonry prisms are used as the Basis for determining
specified compressive strength of masonry fm, which is further modified for slenderness,
eccentricity, shapes of cross-section, etc. to derive allowable compressive stress values.

In ACI code, calculated compressive stress (fa) should be less than the allowable
compressive stress Fa which is obtained by multiplying fm with 0.25 and slenderness ratio,
R. The factor 0.25 accounts for material uncertainty and reduces fm to working stress level.
R is the capacity reduction factor for slenderness.

Slenderness can affect capacity either as a result of inelastic buckling or because of Formatted: Indent: Left: 0.5"
additional bending moments due to the deflection. Applied axial load must be less than
25% of the Euler buckling load. Therefore, according to ACI code, the permissible value is
function of slenderness ratio whereas the limiting value of axial load depends on both
slenderness ratio as well as eccentricity of the axial load.

In IS: 1905 code a stress reduction factor (ks) is multiplied with the basic compressive Formatted: Justified, Indent: Left: 0.5"
stress for slenderness ratio of the element and also the eccentricity of loading. The basic
compressive stress is either determined from prism test values or a standard table which is
based on compressive strength of unit and mortar type.

1.4.1.2 Axial Compression with Flexure Formatted: Indent: Left: 0.5"

Masonry members are generally subjected to flexural stresses due to eccentricity of loading Formatted: Justified, Indent: Left: 0.5"
or application of horizontal loads such as wind and earthquake. According to the ACI
code, if a member is subjected to bending only, calculated bending compressive stress fb
 should be less than allowable bending stress fb in masonry, taken as 0.33fm which is 1.33
times the basic compressive stress allowed for direct loads (0.25fm)

IS: 1905 checks bending compression and tensile stresses independently against Formatted: Indent: Left: 0.5"
permissible values. The permissible values for bending compression are obtained first by
increasing the basic compressive stress by 25% and then reducing it for eccentric loading
causing flexure. The code provides permissible loads for three eccentricity values: (a) e<
t/24, (b) t/24<e<t/6, (c) t/6<e. An applied moment can be converted into equivalent
eccentricity.

1.4.3 Shear

Masonry load bearing walls also act as shear walls to resist in-plane lateral loads due to Formatted: Justified, Indent: Left: 0.5"
wind or seismic forces. The lateral load carrying capacity of shear wall structures mainly
depends on the in-plane resistances of the shear walls because the in-plane stiffness of a
shear wall is far greater than its out-of plane stiffness. Three modes of shear failure in
unreinforced masonry are possible:

1. 1. Diagonal tension cracks form through the mortar and masonry units. Formatted: Justified, Indent: Left: 0.5",
Numbered + Level: 1 + Numbering Style: 1, 2,
2. 2. Sliding occurs along a straight crack at horizontal bed joints. 3, + Start at: 1 + Alignment: Left + Aligned
3. 3. Stepped cracks form, alternating from head joint to bed joint. at: 0" + Tab after: 0.25" + Indent at: 0.25",
Tab stops: 0.75", List tab + Not at 0.25"

The ACI code recognizes these modes of failure and addresses them while specifying Formatted: Justified, Indent: Left: 0.5"
permissible shear stresses. For prevention of diagonal cracks, in-plane shear stress should
not exceed 0.125 fm . For sliding failure, the allowable shear stress is based on a Mohr-
Coulomb type failure criterion ( =c+dtan ) and to resist failure due to stepped cracks,
different values of permissible shear stress are given for various bond pattern of masonry.

The IS: 1905 code only takes care of sliding failure by specifying that the permissible Formatted: Indent: Left: 0.5"
shear stress fs = 0.1 + fd/6, which is a Mohr-Coulomb type failure criterion, where fd is
compressive stress due to dead loads in N/mm2.

1.4.2 Strength Design or Limit State Design

1.4.2.1 Axial Compression Formatted: Justified, Indent: Left: 0.5"

In ACI code, the nominal axial strength is based on compressive strength of masonry Formatted: Indent: Left: 0.5"
modified for unavoidable minimum eccentricity and slenderness ratio, in addition to the
strength reduction factor. The expression for effect of slenderness is the same as in
allowable stress design.

Eurocode 6 also considers the effect of slenderness and eccentricity by using capacity
reduction factor. However, this capacity reduction factor is based on eccentricity not only
at the ends of member but also at middle one-fifth; wherever the moment may be
maximum.
Formatted: Justified, Indent: Left: 0.5"
1.4.2.2 Axial Compression with Flexure

In all the codes, the two failure modes of wall considered are parallel and perpendicular to
bed joints. The codes require the section to be checked by calculating axial and flexural
strength.
 1.4.2.3 Shear

For ACI code considers the previously discussed three modes of failure in evaluating the
nominal shear strength of masonry. Similarly IBC 2000 also considers those factors for
determining nominal shear strength of masonry and differs only in magnitude from the
ACI code. Eurocode 6 only considers a sliding mode of shear failure and prescribes an
equation of Mohr-Coulomb type (Fv = 0.1 +0.4d).

1.5 COMPARISON OF DESIGN CONCEPTS FOR REINFORCED MASONRY

Reinforced masonry is a construction system where steel reinforcement in the form of Formatted: Justified, Indent: Left: 0.5"
reinforcing bars or mesh is embedded in the mortar or placed in the holes and filled with
concrete or grout. By reinforcing the masonry with steel reinforcement, the resistance to
seismic loads and energy dissipation capacity can be improved significantly.

1.5.1 Allowable Stress Design

Only the ACI code contains provisions on allowable stress design for reinforced masonry. Formatted: Indent: Left: 0.5"

1.5.1.1 Axial Compression Formatted: Indent: Left: 0.5"

In ACI code, the allowable axial compressive load (Pa) shall not exceed (0.25fmAn+0.65 Formatted: Justified, Indent: Left: 0.5"
AstFs) R, which is obtained by adding the contribution of masonry and reinforcement. The
contribution of longitudinal steel is given by the term 0.65AstFs. The coefficient of 0.65
was determined from tests of reinforced masonry columns. The coefficient of 0.25
provides a factor of safety of about 4 against the crushing of masonry. Strength is further
modified for slenderness effects by the factor R, which is the same as for unreinforced
masonry.
Formatted: Indent: Left: 0.5"
1.5.1.2 Axial Compression with Flexure

For combined axial compression and flexure in reinforced masonry, the unity formula for Formatted: Justified, Indent: Left: 0.5"
interaction is not used in designing masonry members. The unity formula is suitable for
unreinforced masonry but becomes very conservative for reinforced masonry. For
reinforced masonry emphasis has been to compute nonlinear interaction diagram taking the
effect of reinforcement and compression behavior of masonry into account. The axial load-
bending moment interaction diagram is developed using equations and assumptions very
similar to those used in analysis and design of reinforced concrete members.

1.5.1.3 Shear Formatted: Indent: Left: 0.5"

When reinforcement is added to masonry, the shear resistance of masonry is increased. Formatted: Justified, Indent: Left: 0.5"
Shear reinforcement is effective in providing resistance only if it is designed to carry the
full shear load. According to the ACI code, the minimum shear reinforcement is given by
the following:

Vs
Av =
Fs d
1.5.2 Strength Design or Limit State Design

1.5.2.1 Axial Compression Formatted: Indent: Left: 0.5"

The nominal strength of a member may be calculated using the assumptions of an Formatted: Justified, Indent: Left: 0.5"
equivalent rectangular stress block as outlined in the design assumptions. Slenderness
effect on axial load carrying capacity is also taken into account except in IBC 2000. In the
New Zealand Standards, nominal axial strength of a load bearing wall is given by
0.5fmAgR, where R is equal to [1-(h/40t) 2].

1.5.2.2 Axial Compression with Flexure Formatted: Indent: Left: 0.5"

These design assumptions vary from one code to another. According to the ACI code and Formatted: Justified, Indent: Left: 0.5"
IBC 2000, mu shall be 0.0035 for clay masonry and 0.002 for concrete masonry. In wall
design for out-of-plane loads according to both the codes, the required moment due to
lateral loads, eccentricity of axial load and lateral deformation are assumed maximum at
mid-height of the wall. In certain design conditions, such as large eccentricities acting
simultaneously with small lateral loads, the design maximum moment may occur
elsewhere.

In Eurocode 6, it is mentioned that the maximum tensile strain in reinforcement should be

limited to 0.01. According to this code, no redistribution of moment is allowed with
normal ductility steel. In this case, the ratio of depth of neutral axis to the effective depth
should not be greater than 0.4. Redistribution of moments in a continuous beam should be
limited to 15% when high ductility steel is to be used.

The New Zealand Standards, which deals with only concrete masonry, specifies that mu
shall be 0.0025 for unconfined masonry and 0.008 for confined masonry. Confinement is
provided to the masonry walls to impart ductility to them.
Formatted: Indent: Left: 0.5"
1.5.2.3 Shear

Shear force is assumed to be resisted by both, masonry and reinforcement. Formatted: Justified, Indent: Left: 0.5"

In Eurocode 6, there is a maximum limit to the shear strength provided by masonry and
shear reinforcement together, which is given by 0.3 fmbd/m. It is mentioned in the New
Zealand Standards that for masonry members subjected to shear and flexure together with
axial load, the shear stress provided by the masonry shall be multiplied by the factor (1 +
12 Pu/Agfm), where P is negative for tension. Resistance to sliding along a potential shear
failure plane is provided by frictional forces between the sliding surfaces. The frictional
forces are proportioned to the coefficient of friction and the total normal force acting
across the joint, which may be provided by axial force, Pu, and distributed reinforcement,
Avffy. The effective clamping force across the crack will be Avffy + Pu. Thus the dependable
shear force, Vu, which can be transmitted across the crack by shear friction, is f (Avffy +
Pu). During the placing of grout, if the interface has been intentionally roughened, f equals
1.0; else f is taken to be 0.7.

1.6. CONCLUSION ON DESIGN CONCEPT

Among the codes studied in this document, only the New Zealand Standards contains Formatted: Justified, Indent: Left: 0.5"
provisions on ductility of masonry structures and confined masonry. Regarding shear, it
 contains provisions on shear friction reinforcement and also considers the case when
masonry members are subjected to shear and flexure together with axial tension.

IS:1905-1987 provides a semi-empirical approach to the design of unreinforced masonry. Formatted: Justified, Indent: Left: 0.5"
The masonry codes of other countries provide detailed provision for the design of
reinforced masonry members. NBC109:1994 should adopt IS :1905-1987 and should be
independent code.

REFERENCES

NBC 109:1994, Nepal National Building Code, Masonry: Unreinforced Formatted: Indent: First line: 0"
ACI 530-02/ASCE 5-02/TMS 402-02, (2002), Building Code Requirements for
Masonry Structures, Masonry Standards Joint Committee, USA.
ACI 530-99/ASCE 5-99/TMS 402-99, (1999), Building Code Requirements for
Masonry Structures, Masonry Standards Joint Committee, USA.
BS 5628: Part 1, (1978), Code of practice for structural use of masonry, Part 1
Unreinforced masonry, British Standards Institution
Eurocode 6, (1996), Design of Masonry Structures Part 1-1: General rules for
buildings Rules for Reinforced and Unreinforced Masonry, European
Committee for Standardization, Brussels.
Review of Design Codes for Masonry Buildings
IITK-GSDMA-EQ10-V1.0 15
International Building Code 2000, (2000), International Code Council, Virginia,
USA.
IS:1905-1987, (1987), Indian Standard Code of Practice for Structural Use of
Unreinforced Masonry, Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi.
Masonry Designers Guide, (Third Edition), The Masonry Society.
NZS 4230 Parts 1 & 2: 1990, (1990), Code of Practice for the Design of Concrete
Masonry Structures and Commentary, Standards Association of New Zealand,
Wellington, New Zealand.
SP 20(S & T): 1991, (1991), Handbook on Masonry Design and Construction, Bureau
of Indian Standards, New Delhi. Formatted: Indent: First line: 0"

APPENDIX: List of symbols

Ag Gross cross-sectional area of masonry

An Net cross-sectional area of masonry
As Total area of longitudinal reinforcing steel in a reinforced masonry wall, column or pilaster
Av Cross section area of shear reinforcement
Avf Area of shear friction reinforcement
a Depth of equivalent compression zone at nominal strength
b Width of section
bw Effective web width
c Distance from extreme compression fiber to neutral axis
d Distance from extreme compression fiber to centroid of tension reinforcement
dv Actual depth of masonry in direction of shear considered
Em Modulus of elasticity of masonry in compression
e Eccentricity
ea Accidental eccentricity
ehi Eccentricity resulting from horizontal loads at top or bottom of wall
ehm Eccentricity at mid-height resulting from horizontal loads
emk Eccentricity in the middle one-fifth of the wall
ek Eccentricity due to creep
eu Eccentricity of Puf
Fa Allowable compressive stresses due to axial load only
Fb Allowable compressive stresses due to bending only
Fs Allowable tensile or compressive stress in reinforcement
Fv Allowable shear stress in masonry
fa Calculated compressive stresses due to axial load only
fb Calculated compressive stresses due to flexure only
fm Specified compressive strength of masonry
fr Mean compressive strength of mortar
fxk Characteristic flexural strength of masonry
fu Compressive strength of masonry unit
fu Compressive strength of masonry unit
fxk1 Characteristic flexural strength in plane of failure parallel to bed joints
fxk2 Characteristic flexural strength in plane of failure perpendicular to bed joints
fy Specified yield strength of steel for reinforcement
fyk Characteristic strength of steel
h Effective height of columns, walls or pilasters
h Dimension of confined masonry core measured perpendicular to the direction of confining
plate being considered
In Moment of inertia of net cross-sectional area of a member
L Length of a panel between supports
lc Length of compressed part of wall, ignoring any part of wall that is in tension
M Maximum moment at the section under consideration
Mcr Nominal cracking moment strength
Md Design moment
Mi Design moment at top or bottom of wall resulting from eccentricity of floor load at support
Mm Design moment within the middle one-fifth of the wall
Mn Nominal moment strength
Mu Factored moment
Nv Compressive force acting normal to shear surface
P Axial load
Pa Allowable compressive force in reinforced masonry due to axial load
Pe Euler buckling load
Pd Design axial strength
Pi Design vertical load at top or bottom of the wall
Pm Design vertical load at middle one-fifth of the wall
Pn Nominal axial strength
Pu Factored axial load
Puf Factored load from tributary floor or roof areas
Puw Factored weight of wall area tributary to wall section under consideration
Pvf Factored axial load normal to cross-section occurring with Vu, taken positive for
compression and negative for tension
R Slenderness reduction factor
s Spacing of shear reinforcement
t Thickness of wall
V Shear force
Vd Design value of applied shear load
Vm Shear strength provided by masonry
Vn Nominal shear strength
Vs Shear strength provided by reinforcement
Vu Factored shear force at section
vi Total shear stress corresponding to Vi
vm Allowable shear stress of masonry
Z Section modulus of wall
Bending moment coefficient depending on , degree of fixity at edge of panels and
aspect ratio of panels
i,m Capacity reduction factors
Strength reduction factors
u Deflection due to factored loads
mu Maximum compressive strain in masonry
Orthogonal ratio of characteristic flexural strengths of masonry, fxk1/fxk2
f Coefficient of friction
f Partial safety factor for loads
m Partial safety factor for materials
s Partial safety factor for steel
Angle of shear reinforcement to the axis of the member
d Permanent vertical stress on wall
u Factored out-of-plane uniformly distributed load
Final creep coefficient

NEPAL NATIONAL BUILDING CODE

NBC 114:1994
CONSTRUCTION SAFETY

The purpose of this standard is to provide reasonable degree of safety to construction related Formatted: Justified, Indent: Left: 0"
personnel in building and civil construction works. The provision in this standard are the
minimum requirements that are to be adopted during building and other civil construction or
demolition work.

This standard covers provisions for the health and safety of workers in building construction and Formatted: Justified, Indent: Left: 0"
demolition work, planning for fire protection and any use of special materials such as chemicals
and blasting materials.

In the code, in terminology, definitions are given which can arranged in alphabetical manner.

In material handling, it is explained about material storage with safety.

In the code, exact number of requirement should be provided not in tentative or just inadequate
number for example First aid facility including an adequate number of stretchers shall be
maintained at site during execution of all types of construction and demolition works.
Formatted: Justified
For the fire fighting equipment also, the number of pieces should be maintained in the code, but
not in general terms as adequate number of fire fighting equipment .
Formatted: Justified
In the code, the safety measurements are given for site preparation, Earthworks in Excavations, Formatted: Justified, Indent: Left: 0"
construction of foundations, construction of walls, construction of roofs, electrical works,
temporary works, demolition of structures, use of explosives, labour welfare. It is maintained that
appropriate and adequate precaution or measures shall be taken maintained in the code but it
should be maintained in detailed with exact explanation.
NNBC 108: 1994
SITE CONSIDERATION FOR SEISMIC HAZARDS

This document sets out some of the factors to be considered during site selection for buildings in Formatted: Justified, Indent: Left: 0"
order to minimize the risks to the buildings from both primary and secondary seismic hazards.
Formatted: Justified
It also outlines the fundamental requirements for site investigation for the foundation design of Formatted: Justified, Indent: Left: 0"
buildings.

Site consideration has been considered with considering the potential of fault rupture hazard, Formatted: Justified, Indent: Left: 0"
liquefaction, landslides and slope instability basic general concept.
Necessary mitigation measures should be taken to minimize the potential risk.
Formatted: Justified
For the site investigation basic questions are given to address: Formatted: Justified, Indent: Left: 0"
- Is there any danger of inherent natural susceptibility of the land to the process of sliding and Formatted: Justified, Bulleted + Level: 1 +
erosion? Aligned at: 0" + Tab after: 0.25" + Indent at:
0.25"
- Will the construction adversely affect the existing conditions and trigger landslide, erosion,
land subsidence, pore pressure generation due to blockage of or otherwise the sub-surface flow
of water; will the construction adversely affect the water table?
- What will be the extent of settlement of the building?
- Is the sub-surface capable of taking the load due to the proposed construction?
- Is there any other natural/geological process likely to threaten the integrity of the building?
- What are the possible engineering solution for ensuring stability of the building foundation in
view of the identified condition?
Formatted: Justified
Answering these questions will make necessity of additional site investigation including Formatted: Justified, Indent: Left: 0"
subsurface exploration, in-situ and laboratory testing, geophysical surveys and testing, probing etc.

Extent of site exploration depends upon the geological and geomorphological nature of the Formatted: Justified, Indent: Left: 0"
terrain, and on the importance of the building.

Depth of exploration is based on the geological conditions at the site e.g. the depth and type of
subsurface soil, depth of weathering, the depth of ground water fluctuation, the depth of frost
action etc.
Formatted: Justified
For the analysis of liquefaction susceptibility, the actual requirement of the depth of exploration Formatted: Justified, Indent: Left: 0"
shall be mentioned.

Determination of allowable bearing pressure and foundation design should be recommended as

per good engineering practice.
NNBC 201:1994
Mandatory rules of thumb
Reinforced concrete buildings with masonry

The objective of these mandatory rules of thumb (MRT) is to achieve the appropriate earthquake Formatted: Justified
resistant design of those buildings in Nepal which are:

- not normally engineered

- constructed of fired brick or stone masonry in cement or mud mortars
- not more than two stories high if built in stone masonry in cement mortar or fired brick in mud
masonry
- not more than three storeys high if built or fired brick in a cement mortar.

Limitations Formatted: Font: Bold

Formatted: Indent: Left: 0"
The MRT only intends to achieve minimum acceptable structural safety, though it is always
preferable to undertake specific design.

Non engineered buildings Formatted: Font: Bold

Formatted: Indent: Left: 0"
The term non engineered buildings may be defined as describing those buildings which are Formatted: Justified, Indent: Left: 0"
spontaneously and informally constructed in the traditional manner without intervention by
qualified engineers or architects in their design. However, they may follow a set of
recommendations derived from the observed behaviour of such buildings.

The main objective of the Mandatory Rules of MRT is to provide ready to use dimensions and Formatted: Justified
details for various structural elements for upto three storey reinforced concrete (RC), framed
ordinary residential buildings commonly built by owner builders in Nepal using brick infill walls.

Design guidelines presented in the MRT are the ordinary residential buildings with the seismic
coefficient of 0.128 (equivalent to seismic zone C ). However, if a buildings in all other respects
complied with the MRT were to be constructed in higher seismic zone, it would be expected to
have a better earthquake resistance than that of a similar non-engineered construction undertaken
solely with the advice of craftsmen.

In selection and investigation of site, it is recommended not to construct the buildings if the Formatted: Justified
proposed site is water logged, a rock falling area, a landslide prone area, a subsidence and/ fill
area, a river bed or swamp area.

As per MRT it is given that site exploration shall be carried out by test pit two as minimum with
the depth of 2m. No exploration shall be required if the site is on rock or fluvial terraces with
boulder beds.

METHOD OFANALYSIS

Most national codes recognize that structures with simple and regular geometry perform well during
earthquakes, and unsymmetrical placement of masonry infill walls may introduce irregularities into them.
These codes permit static analysis methods for regular short buildings located in regions of low seismicity.
NBC -201 adopts analysis procedure in which axial forces in the frame members are estimated by assuming
a pin-jointed frame and representing masonry infill by compression diagonal struts. A method of
distributing the lateral shear force on various masonry infill walls in a story is specified in the code, which
depends upon the seismic base shear on the frame and cross-sectional and material properties of masonry
infill and RC frame members.

The masonry infill wall in such structures are intended to resist seismic loads elastically in Formatted: Justified
moderate or severe earthquakes. However, in very large earthquakes, the infill walls could be
severely damaged. For such an event, steel is provided in the walls to reduce the risk to occupants
of the building from the uncontrolled collapse of the walls under shear loads. Seismic loads will
have to be resisted mostly by frame alone. Frame has been designed to resist the gravity loads and
has been for ductility,

EMPIRICAL FORMULAE FOR NATURAL PERIOD

Several codesIS-1893 (2002); NBC-105(1994); Algerian code 1988; suggest using an empirical formula Formatted: Justified
to calculate the natural period of masonry infill wall with RC frame structure Ta.
Ta 0.09 h
d
Where h is the height of the building and d is the base dimension of building at the plinth level Formatted: Justified
along the considered direction of the lateral force.

In the Nepal code NBC-201 (1995), eccentricity between center of mass and center of rigidity along each
principal direction is limited to 10% of the building dimension along that direction. The above requirement
may be satisfied by adjusting thicknesses of walls.

LATERAL DISPLACEMENT AND INTER STORY DRIFT

Lateral deformations at various levels in masonry infill -RC frame buildings depend upon the distribution
of MI walls in buildings. If more walls are present at the base, lateral deformations will be less and evenly
distributed along the height of buildings. On the other hand, if more walls are present on the upper stories,
then lateral deformations will be concentrated at the bottom, where stories are lesser infilled. Lateral
deformations and interstory drift will also depend upon the ductility and damping of buildings.

A few national codes, such as Eurocode 8 (2003), NBC-105 (1994), have restricted the interstory drift Formatted: Justified
ratio for masonry infill RC frames to about 1%. These drift ratios are calculated using displacements
obtained from elastic forces, which are amplified. FEMA-306 , ATC (1999) recommends the following
inter story drift limit states for different solid panels: for brick masonry, 1.5%; for grouted concrete block
masonry, 2.0%; and for ungrouted concrete block masonry, 2.5%. However, there is a concern that these
values are too large and further experimental studies are needed to verify these limit states.

STRENGTH OF MASONRY INFILL

Effect of Openings in Masonry Infill on Strength

Nepal code NBC-201 (1994) also requires masonry infill to be modeled as diagonal struts, without Formatted: Justified
specifying their cross-sectional properties. A minimum wall thickness of half brick is allowed to be used as
infill.

Strength Associated with Out-of-Plane Collapse of Masonry Infills

According to the Nepal code NBC-201 (1994), only those walls with an opening area less than 10% of the
gross panel area are considered as resisting seismic loads.

Openings shall be outside the restricted zone and if these openings are located inside the middle two-thirds
of a panel, then they need to be strengthened by providing RC elements around them . RC tie beams at both
the top and bottom of openings along the full length and width of the wall, and vertical elements on both
sides of the opening shall be provided with longitudinal reinforcement of two bars of 8 mm diameter. Shear
reinforcement in the form of minimum 6 mm diameter bars at every 150 mm is required in the elements.
Such strengthening elements are not required for openings in a nonsignificant area.

STIFFNESS OF MASONRY INFILL

Masonry infill walls are laterally much stiffer than RC frames, and therefore, the initial stiffness of the MI- Formatted: Justified
RC frames largely depends upon the stiffness of masonry infill. Stiffness of MI-RC frames significantly
depends on the distribution of MI in the frame. Generally, the MI-RC frames with regular distribution of
masonry infill in plan as well as along height are stiffer than the irregular MI-RC frames. Lateral stiffness
of MI-RC frames reduces with the presence of openings in infills; however, this issue has not been
addressed by the codes.

Eurocode 8 (2003), Nepal code NBC-201 (1994), and FEMA-306 recommend modeling the masonry infill Formatted: Justified
as equivalent diagonal struts. However, Eurocode 8 and Nepal code do not specify the width of strut.

Nepal code specifies the modulus of elasticity of masonry infill as 2,400 to 3,000 MPa for various grades of
mortar. On the other hand, FEMA-306 recommends using modulus of elasticity as 550 times the masonry
prism strength in the absence of tests. As per FEMA-306, the only masonry walls assumed to provide
stiffness are those that are in full contact with RC frames, or those that are structurally connected to RC
frames.

Code NBC 201 recommended the structural detailing for the building as specified in figure 1. Material
grade is taken M15 for the structural elements.

Figure 1
CONCLUSIONS

Infilled frames also tend to be substantially stronger, but less deformable, than identical bare frames. In
symmetric buildings with vertically continuous infilled frames, the increased stiffness and strength may
protect a building from damage associated with excessive lateral drift or inadequate strength. Because of its
higher stiffness, infill panels may attract significantly greater forces that may lead to premature failure of
infill, and possibly of the whole structure. Therefore, it is essential for designers to consider the effects of
infills in the design of RC buildings.
The codes restrict the amount of eccentricity between center of mass and center of rigidity to safeguard the Formatted: Justified
building components against the adverse effects of plan irregularities. National codes specify lower values
of response reduction factors for MI-RC frame buildings as compared to the buildings without MI, such
that MI frames are required to be designed for 1.153 times the design forces for the corresponding bare
frames. Lower value of response reduction factor is considered for MI-RC frames because of lower
ductility and a higher degree of uncertainty and seismic vulnerability associated with MI. A few codes have
specified limitations on the elastic and inelastic deformations and interstory drift ratio of MI-RC frames for
damage limitation requirements.

Few codes recommend modeling MI using equivalent diagonal struts; however, the required sectional Formatted: Justified
properties for the struts are not specified. Strength and stiffness of MI reduces with the presence of
openings. Various ways of reducing the damage in MI due to openings have been discussed.

In few codes, e.g., framing the openings using RC elements, full strength and stiffness of MI is not utilized Formatted: Justified
when out-of-plane collapse of infills takes place. A few codes specify limits on slenderness ratio (ratio of
length or height to thickness) to prevent outof- plane failure of masonry infill. Some national codes
recommend using light wire mesh and RC tie-bands along the length of walls at various locations to avoid
out-of plane collapse of MI.

In NNBC 201, it is demonstrated the examples for the building structure for maximum three storey and
span length not more than 4.5 m. It can not be used for other structure not following these parameters.

NNBC 202:1994
Load Bearing Masonry Buildings
Applicability
These mandatory rules of thumb (MRT) cover load bearing masonry buildings. They do not cover Formatted: Justified
wooden buildings, mud buildings (low strength buildings) or those constructed in adobe.
Limitations
This MRT is valid (with certain limitations as to span, floor height, etc., as prescribed in Table 1.1) for : Formatted: Right: -0.08"
i) Up to three-storeyed load-bearing brick (and other rectangular building units) masonry Formatted: Indent: Left: 0", Hanging: 0.5"
buildings constructed in cement mortars.
ii) Up to two-storeyed load-bearing stone masonry buildings constructed in cement mortar.
iii) Up to two-storeyed load-bearing brick masonry buildings constructed in mud mortar.

However, these limitations shall not bar anyone wishing to employ qualified professionals to produce
an appropriate design. Structures falling outside these limitations will require the appropriate specific
design.
Floor Min. Wall Max. Height Max. short span of Cantilever Formatted: Centered
Thickness (m) floor (m)
(mm) (m)
Load-Bearing Brick 2nd 230 2.8 3.5 1.0 Formatted: Justified
Masonry in Cement Mortar 1st 230 3.0 3.5 1.0 Formatted Table

Ground 350 3.2 3.5 No Formatted: Centered

Formatted: Centered
Load-Bearing Stone
Masonry in Cement 1st 230 3.0 3.2 No Formatted: Centered

Mortar, or Load-Bearing Formatted: Justified, Don't adjust space

between Latin and Asian text, Don't adjust
Brick Masonry in Mud Ground 350 3.2 3.2 No space between Asian text and numbers
Mortar Load-Bearing Brick
Formatted: Centered
Masonry in Mud Mortar
Formatted: Centered

The refers to the General Construction Aspects as Opening in walls, Masonry Bond , Formatted: Justified
 5.6 Mortars and Concrete
5.7
5.8 Vertical Joints Between Orthogonal Walls
For convenience of construction, builders prefer to make a toothed joint which is later often left hollow Formatted: Justified
and weak. To obtain full bond, it is necessary to make a sloped or stepped joint. It should be
constructed so as to obtain full bond by making the corners first to a height of 600 mm, and then
building the wall in between them. Alternatively, the toothed joint shall be made in both the walls in
lifts of about 450 mm.
5.9
5.10 Roof Band
This band shall be provided at the eave-level of trussed roofs (Figure 8.2) and also below gable levels
on such floors which consist of joists and covering elements - so as to integrate them properly at their
ends and fix them into the walls.
5.11
5.12 Gable Band
Masonry gable ends must have the triangular portion of masonry enclosed in a band, the horizontal
part of which will be continuous with the eave-level band on the adjacent longitudinal walls .
6
7 Vertical Reinforcement in Walls
Steel bars shall be installed at the critical sections (ie., the corners of walls, junctions of walls, and
jambs of doors) right from the foundation concrete. They shall be covered with cement concrete in
cavities made around them during the masonry construction. This concrete mix should be kept to 1:2:4
by volume, or richer.
Formatted: Font: 8.5 pt
The vertical steel at openings may be stopped by embedding it into the lintel band, but the vertical
steel at the corners and junctions of walls must be taken into either the floor and roof slabs or the roof
band.

NNBC 203:1994
GUIDELINES FOR EARTHQUAKE RESISTANT BUILDING
CONSTRUCTION: LOW STRENGTH MASONRY
Formatted: Font: 8.5 pt
This document provides basic guidelines for the earthquake resistance of low- strength masonry
construction.
Formatted: Font: 7 pt
1. Background
Formatted: Font: 6 pt
The devastating earthquakes in the past have proved the vulnerability of most of the
Formatted: Indent: Left: 0.5"
vernacular buildings of Nepal. Enormous life and property were lost due to the collapse of
buildings which LSM as the their main load-bearing element. Earthquakes can neither be
prevented nor predicted precisely. But the large-scale destruction can be minimized by
employing seismic-resistant measures in buildings. This can be achieved by the use of
existing building materials in appropriate ways. This Guideline for Earthquake-
Resistant Building Construction : Low Strength Masonry shows the improved
techniques that can raise the level of seismic safety of low strength masonry buildings.
Formatted: Font: 8 pt
2. Limitation
Formatted: Font: 7 pt
LSM buildings required to conform to this standard shall not exceed two storeys in height
Formatted: Indent: Left: 0.5"
with an additional attic floor.
Formatted: Font: 6 pt
The guideline provides details for foundations, walls, opening in the walls, structure (post
and capitals), and roof details for low strength masonry buildings.
Formatted: Font: 8 pt
 The guidelins also recommend harvesting and preserving bamboo for construction, fire
resistant treatment for thach roof.
NNBC 204: 1994
GUIDELINES FOR EARTHQUAKE RESISTANT BUILDING CONSTRUCTION:
EARTHEN BUILDING

Introduction

This guideline is prepared in order to raise the seismic safety of earthen buildings. This is intended to
be implemented by the owner/builder with some assistance from technicians. This could also act as a
basic guideline for architectural design and construction detailing of Earthen Buildings (EB).

This Guideline for Earthquake-Resistant Building Construction : Earthen Buildings provides the
improved techniques that can raise the level of seismic safety of earthen buildings.
Formatted: Justified
The guideline provides the details of planning, foundation , wall and roof details.

NNBC 205
MANDATORY RULES OF THUMB
REINFORCED CONCRETE BUILDINGS WITHOUT INFILL

In this NNBC 205 , structural detailed has been presented for the three storeyed building example. Formatted: Justified
This code is same as NNBC 201 REINFORCED CONCRETE BUILDINGS WITH INFILL but
without infill. Generally building contains infill wall, so we have to consider the infill also in RC
construction.
Appendix-6: NBC 110, 111, 112, 113, 114:1994

NBC-110:1994 Plain and Reinforced concrete Material

NNBC 110:1994 comprises the Indian Code IS 456-1978 Code of Practice for Plain and
Reinforced Concrete (Third Revision) amended so as to meet the conditions of Nepal. In
particular, these amendments were made to ensure compatibility with NNBC 105-94: Seismic
Design of Buildings in Nepal. The Code contains the amendments that were felt necessary to IS
456-1978 for its use in Nepal.

Most of the references in IS 456-1978 to Indian material Codes had been left unaltered and it was
stated that any subsequent revisions to IS 456-1978 will not be applicable to NNBC 110-94 until
specifically recognised and updated.

The Code mostly contains the alteration, replacement, deletion and additions to IS 456-1978

The Table 12 provided the values of partial safety factors of various combinations of loads. One
more combination DL + 0.9 WL is suggested to be added.

When considering earthquake effects, the load combination requires WL to be replaced with EL.

The amendments to IS 456-1978 are limited to Structural Design with Working Stress Method
only. No further amendment is given.

Further there is a felt need to consider for inclusion of

Limit State Method
Cantilever slab Design (slab with 3 side support)
Various types of slabs with necessary coefficients x, y, x, y and provide a table of variables.
Pre-stressed Concrete should be included
Pre-cast Structures should be made
Adequate detailing of reinforced steel should be shown in NNBC to meet Earthquake Codes.

NBC-111:1994 Steel
The Code comprises the Indian Code IS 800-1984: General Construction in Steel (Second
Revision) with amendments as set out to ensure compatibility with NBC for Seismic Design of
Buildings in Nepal. References to Indian material codes have been left unaltered until such time as
appropriate Nepal Standards are developed. Extensive use of the New Zealand Standards NZS
3404: 1977 Code for Design of Steel Structures has been made.

The Code is designated as NEPAL AMENDMENTS TO IS 800 1984 and mostly comprise of
replacement of terminology and references. The Code applies to general construction in steel but
excludes structures such as bridges, cranes, tanks, transmission towers and masts, and materials
less than 3 mm thick and cold-formed light gauge sections.

The Code has made provisions for Seismic Design that include parameters as Ductile Moment-
Resisting Frames and Ductile Braced Framed.
NBC-112:1994 Timber
This Code covers the general principle of design of structural timber and includes specifications,
classification of timber species and nail joint in timber construction.

The code is based on Indian Standard IS: 883-1970: Structural Timber in Building (Third revision)
and IS: 2366-1983: Nail-Jointed Timber Construction (First Revision).

The Code does not cover anti-termite timber, plywood, and timber pile foundation.

The Code could be considered as comprehensive since it contains data and information on general
characteristics of timber species as durability, basic stress, Moisture Content, sizes of Sawn
Timber, Data for Nailed Joints, bolted joints, and Glue Laminated Timber.
.
The Code has made Design Considerations which include additional requirement of capacity for
sustaining the worst combination of all loadings apart from the requirement of IS Code.

NBC-113:1994 Aluminum
The document referred to as a series of guidelines intended only for design of simple aluminum
structures. Currently use of Aluminum as a structural material in Nepal is very limited and a Code
has not been prepared. For actual design, the Codes from other countries should be referred.

The Guidelines include structural properties as Strength, Modulus of Elasticity, Creep, Thermal
Expansion and Contraction, Fatigue, Corrosion Protection, Fabrication, Welding, Mechanical
Jointing, and Heating.

The code states the designers should refer to other codes if actual design.

In general it is assumed that the Code requires updating with indication of various properties of
aluminum with appropriate formula to allow proper design of aluminum structure. The use of
Aluminum in structures other than Buildings such as aircraft engineering and lightweight thin
shell structures related to Aero dynamical aspects for design consideration should also be
included. Supplementary examples of design and drawings will be very useful.

NBC 114:1994 CONSTRUCTION SAFETY

The purpose of this standard is to provide reasonable degree of safety to construction related
personnel in building and civil construction works. The provisions in this code are the minimum
requirements that are to be adopted during building and other civil construction or demolition
work.

This standard covers provisions for the health and safety of workers in building construction and
demolition work, planning for fire protection and any use of special materials such as chemicals
and blasting materials.

In terminology, definitions are given which can be arranged in alphabetical manner.

In material handling, it is explained about material storage with safety.

First aid facility including an adequate number of stretchers shall be maintained at site during
execution of all types of construction and demolition works.
For the fire fighting equipment, the number of pieces should be maintained in the code, not like
adequate fire fighting equipment should be provided as maintained in the code.

In the code safety measurements are given for site preparation, Earthworks in Excavations,
construction of foundations, construction of walls, construction of roofs, electrical works,
temporary works, demolition of structures, use of explosives, labour welfare. It is
maintained appropriate and adequate precaution or measures shall be taken maintained in
the code but it should be maintained in detailed with exact explanation.
 Appendix 7- Review of Fire Safety Codes
1. Recent Fire Incidents ........................................................................................................... 111
2. Reasons of Fire .................................................................................................................... 112
3. Background, Objectives and Purpose .................................................................................. 113
a. Background .......................................................................................................................... 113
b. Main Objective ..................................................................................................................... 113
c. Purpose of Fire Codes .......................................................................................................... 113
d. Compliance to the Fire Code of Nepal ................................................................................. 113
4. Methodology ........................................................................................................................ 114
a. Critical study and review...................................................................................................... 114
b. Consultation meetings with major stakeholders................................................................... 114
5. Fire Safety Requirements In Building Codes - An Overview ............................................. 114
6. Fire Safety Requirements In Other Sector Codes - An Overview ....................................... 116
a. Fire Safety of City fuel stations............................................................................................ 116
7. International Trends And Practices ..................................................................................... 116
a. Existing Buildings and Structures ........................................................................................ 116
b. Unsafe Buildings .................................................................................................................. 116
c. Water Supply for Fire Fighting ............................................................................................ 117
d. Fire Fighting Shafts .............................................................................................................. 117
e. Width of Escape Stairs ......................................................................................................... 117
f. Evacuation Strategies ........................................................................................................... 118
g. Evacuation Using Lifts ......................................................................................................... 118
h. Dry Riser .............................................................................................................................. 118
i. Emergency Lighting and System ......................................................................................... 118
j. Escape Lighting .................................................................................................................... 118
k. Fire Resistance Rating .......................................................................................................... 118
l. Fire Stop ............................................................................................................................... 119
m. Means of Egress ................................................................................................................... 119
8. Comparison of Fire Safety Codes ........................................................................................ 119
9. Special Consideration .......................................................................................................... 120
a. Fire fighting in High Rise Buildings .................................................................................... 120
10. Local Regulations and Organisations .................................................................................. 120
a. Local Governance Act .......................................................................................................... 120
b. Tenth Development Plan ...................................................................................................... 120
c. Building Byelaw for Municipalities in KV, 2007 ................................................................ 121
d. Building Byelaws for High Rise Buildings .......................................................................... 121
e. Fire Fighters Voluntary Association of Nepal ..................................................................... 121
f. Firefighters volunteer Association of Nepal (FAN, www.fan.org.np) is a non-governmental
organization established in year 2000 with objectives of creating awareness among the
public about fire and drawing attention of the concerned authorities on this matter. .......... 121
11. Structural Fire Engineering ................................................................................................. 121
12. Qualifications, Experience, and Responsibilities Of Fire Protection Services.................... 122
13. Fire Protection and Prevention Act ..................................................................................... 122
 Review of NNBC 207: Fire Safety Codes
Recent Fire Incidents
Fire Hazard in Nepal is one of most common features of disasters. Mostly during the dry
season in Nov June, several fire disaster events were reported in media. According to
Judha Varuna Yantra, the oldest and only public fire-fighting unit in Kathmandu, there is
one fire incident every day.
Some of the recent events are quoted herewith:
Apr 01 09: Separate fires that spread in Tikuliya and Bishahariya villages Wednesday
afternoon have gutted at least 150 houses in Saptari district. The fire has rendered some
four dozen families homeless and destroyed property estimated to be worth NRR 12
million. Fire started about 1 pm today from a fire-hearth. It was spread quickly due to
a windy weather.
Mar 25 09: About 185 Yaks have been killed and a Yak-herd has gone missing in a
wild fire that spread in the forests of eastern mountainous district Sankhuwasabha. The
misfortune occurred when a wildfire that started from Thotanekhola a few days ago
had spread to Jumlingkharka and Aibhakhkharka. Wangduk Sherpa of Taplejung who
had gone to tend the Yaks has gone missing after the fire.
18 Mar 2009 Tuesday: The Fire at Ratna Rajya Campus in Kathmandu destroyed
documents including degree certificates. It was not clear what caused the fire.
On March 12, 2009, the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS)
on NASAs Aqua satellite caught a glimpse of a relatively rare event: largescale
forest fires in the Himalaya Mountains of Nepal. Places where the sensor detected
active fires are outlined in red. The numerous small fires in southern Nepal may not be
wildfires, but rather agricultural or other land-management fires. Nepal commonly
experiences some small forest fires each spring, which is the end of the dry season
there. However, conditions during the fall and winter of 2008 and 2009 were unusually
dry, and fires set by poachers to flush game may have gotten out of control.
02 March 2008. A fire that swept the Goldhap refugee camp left homeless more than
10,000 Bhutanese refugees and more than 1,300 makeshift homes were destroyed.
Four people were seriously injured in the fire, and dozens suffered minor injuries. It
was unclear what sparked the blaze.
Mar 01 09: At least one person has been burnt alive and over 200 houses gutted by fire
in various parts of the country on Saturday. Sukraraj Yoktangden of Subhang VDC in
Panchthar died when he got trapped in a raging fire in Salleri forest as he was
returning home from work. The fire that started three days ago has still not come in
control. In another incident, five people have been reportedly killed in fire in Myagdi.
The names of the deceased and the extent of damage are not known. The fire started
from a house at 8 pm. Some 200 houses belonging to 76 families of Mahuwa Tole in
Saptaris Chhinnamasta VDC were gutted and property worth Rs 15 million damaged
when the fire spread from the house of a local, Laxmi Raut, Saturday morning. With
the advent of the dry season coupled by the prolonged dry spell, incidents of fire have
been frequent in the recent days. An entire village in Kapilvastu with about 80 houses
had been reduced to a pile of ashes by fire only a week ago.
 On Feb 14, 2009, at least one person was killed and six others injured when a gas-
operated passenger van they were traveling on caught fire at Mugling in western
Nepal Saturday morning.
On Feb 13, 2009, at least 42 houses were destroyed in a fire breakout at Sankarpur
VDC in Sarlahi district allegedly set fire by a group of people from a neighbouring
village. Every year several villages in Terai are subject to fire hazard resulting in huge
toll of life and property.
Jan 2009, Nepalganj. The recent fire of Nepal Police commercial building in
Nepalganj is another example.
April 10, 2008. At least 522 families on Tuesday rendered homeless when 1,169
houses caught fire in four wards of the Belhi Chapena Village Development
Committee (VDC) in Saptari district with an estimated property loss worth NRS. 30
million.
Dec 9, 2002 Sunday evening. Myanglung Bazar, the district headquarters of Tehrathum
District, was engulfed with fire. About 300 families were rendered homeless and
property worth NRs 2 billion reduced to a cinder, after a blazing fire gutted down at
least 80 houses and several government offices.

Reasons of Fire
Various fire incidents observed mentioned above are clearly indicated the reasons of Fire.
Some of the important reasons are as follows:
Windy weather and dry season induced fire which is aggravated by:
o lack of proper planning,
o inadequate fire reserve between adjacent houses
o houses made of inflammable materials as thatch roof, bamboo partition
Relatively rare event: largescale forest fires, wild Fire in forests
Blackout induced fire that caught due to negligence of house owner
Blackout induced Fire that caught due to accident with burning candles, incense and oil
lamp burning
Fire was aggravated since the access for Fire Fighting Vehicle was found blocked with
parking of vehicles, motorbikes, street vendors
Accidental sparks from carelessly thrown cigarette butts
Electrical short circuit
Lack of safety measures in handling inflammable fuel
Lack of Safety code on use of Gas Cylinder
Fire induced by criminal activities
Unknown Reasons
Fire-fighting preparedness is not a priority for the government compared to
earthquakes
Fire Vulnerability of existing building stock is not known and not regulated
Unsafe Buildings were not identified
Fire safety of Gas Depots, Fuel Depots and stations, and Industries are not considered.
Background, Objectives and Purpose
Background
According to the National Census 2001, about 14 % of the total population of Nepal lives
in urban areas, and this figure is expected to reach 24 % in next ten years. Besides 58
municipalities, there are 132 towns in Nepal among which, many towns are likely to be
transformed into municipalities. Due to various services, facilities and opportunities in
cities, the rate of migration from rural to urban areas in Nepal has sharply increased
because of which the existing, limited social and physical infrastructures in cities are under
added pressure. The study review and comments relating to NNBC 107 Fire Safety were
undertaken in very short duration and was not comprehensive as it should be due to the
time limitation.

Main Objective
The main objectives of fire safety design of buildings should be:
Assurance of life safety, protection of property and continuity of operations or
functioning
Building awareness among the designers for recognition of the type of danger posed by
each component of building and allows him to incorporate effective counter-measures,
and
To confine a hostile fire to a room or area of its origin.

Purpose of Fire Codes

In developed countries, the Fire Codes are made to provide minimum design regulations to
safeguard life, health, property, public welfare from fire hazard and to minimize injuries by
regulating and controlling the building permit process, design, construction, quality of
materials, use and occupancy, location and maintenance of all buildings and structures
within the jurisdiction and certain equipment specifically regulated herein.

Likewise, various kinds of new materials as roofing, walls, doors and false ceiling, wall
panels and other interior finishing materials are being increasingly used which are based on
inflammable materials as plastics. This has brought new fire and life safety challenges.

Compliance to the Fire Code of Nepal

The Fire Safety Code of Nepal (NNBC 107) was introduced in 1994 but not much
experience has been gained from this code since the code has hardly been practiced and
none of the building permits issued so far was subject to the compliance of Fire Safety
Code. These codes were not been integrated into the Building Permit procedures followed
by the Municipalities.

This Report has been prepared keeping in view the objectives, terms of reference and
methodology to be adopted, as laid down in the Inception Report (December 31, 2008).
Methodology
For preparation of this report on Fire Code, the following methodology was followed:

Critical study and review

Critical study and review of the provisions relating to:

Fire safety and fire protection in Nepal National Building Code (NNBC). The report
contains comments on the existing deficiencies/inadequacies in the document and
compared with the International Codes as National Building Code of India, International
Fire Code, International Building Code and Ontario Building Code.
The Urban Development Byelaws of Kathmandu Valley Town Development Committee
2007,
Local Self Governance Act of Nepal, 1996 and Regulations 1997.

Consultation meetings with major stakeholders

Consultation meetings with major stakeholders as DUDBC, ERRRP/UNDP, KMC, LSMC,

SCAEF, NEA, SEANEP, NSET, SEEN, SOPHEN, SOMEN, CAN, FCAN, FNCCI/CCI,
Chief Fire Officers, Water and Sanitation Authority, Licensed Designers of Municipalities
and other Civil Societies.

Feb 5, 2009 ERRRP/UNDP: Present: SEANEP, SEEN, FCAN, NSET, NEC, SCAEF,
IOE, KathEC
Feb 9, 2009 LSMC EQ Safety Section: Licensed Designers

Consultation with secondary stakeholders as Department of Forest, Contractors

Association, was not carried out due to time limitations

Fire Safety Requirements In Building Codes - An Overview

Those responsible for Building Codes formulation recognize the need for a modern and
up-to-date Fire Code addressing conditions hazardous to life and property from:

Fire, explosion, use of hazardous materials, and

Change in occupancies of buildings and premises.

The Fire Safety Code of Nepal National Building Code (NBC 107) has made certain
limited provisional recommendation on Fire Safety and covers ordinary buildings. It deals
only with the minimum requirements of:
Fire Places
Fire Extinguishers
Storage of Water for Fire Extinguishing
Need for demarcation of fire zones
General Requirements for Provision of:
o Proper Access
o Wide Doors
o Fire Escape Ways Exit Doors, Fire Escapes for buildings with 5 storeys and
higher, Fire Stairs
o Open Space
 o Access to a Building should be 4m wide to facilitate unconstrained movement of
Fire engine
o Lightning Arresters/Conductors. List of Indian Fire Codes
IS 1641-Fire Grading
IS 1642-Materials and Construction
The need for application of higher levels of fire IS 1643-Exposure Hazard
safety in the designs by following other relevant IS 1644-Personal Hazard
[international] reference, Standards or Codes is IS 1645-Chimneys, Flues, Fluepipes, Hearths
strongly cited. IS 1646-Electrical Installation
IS 1647-Non-electrical installations
IS 1648-Fire Fighting Equipment, Fire Proof
The Indian Standards have developed a series of Doors
Fire related codes which are listed in the Box. IS 1256-Height condition for separating walls

IS 1642-Materials and Construction has provided Specification of materials, structural

components, and construction type based on the Fire Resistance Grading ranging from
Type 1 (6 hrs) to Type 5( hrs). The Indian Codes further specified the requirements for
consideration of fire hazard form exposure to fire, personal hazard, specific structures
related as Chimneys, flues, hearths etc., electrical installation. Non-electrical installations,
fire fighting equipment, and Fire proof doors.

The British Codes (BS 476-Fire Tests on Buildings and Structures) have also specified the
methods for Fire Tests on buildings and structures.

The International Fire Code (IFC) published by International Code Council is much more
intensive and cover wide range of aspects which are not included in Indian Fire Code and
NNBC. The structural outline of the IFC is listed in Table 1. The major specific features
not covered by IS and NNBC are as follows:
Administration
Emergency Planning and Preparedness
Fire Service Features
Building Service Features
Emergency access gates
Tents, Canopy, membrane structures
Fire Safety during Construction and Demolition
No Parking Fire Lane Sign Specifications

The design of important buildings, especially for high rise and special buildings has
become a complex process that requires integrating many skills, products and techniques
into its system. An intelligent building design is required to cater to various potential
emergency situations. NNBC 107 requires to be updated to the level of international code
and needs to address the pragmatic conditions existing in the downtown area and new
built up areas.
Fire Safety Requirements In Other Sector Codes - An Overview
Fire Safety of City fuel stations

Basic safety norms to deal with possible fires in petrol pumps across the country are dealt
by Nepal Oil Corporation (NOC). The major issue is the capability to implement these
norms. Some of the problems encountered in Safety of Fuel stations are:
A number of Fuel Stations do not adhere to the norms, risking a major fire mishap at
any time
Safety monitoring system and preparedness for any disaster are not existent;
Mechanism for regular inspection of compliance to the safety requirements are not
existent;
Knowledge and Training on ways to use the fire fighting equipment is not adequate;

The NOC norms require that a petrol pump must keep at least two fire extinguishers, four
dry, sand-filled buckets, a spade, a fire-axe, and safety gear like fire-proof clothing, and
masks.
According to the NOC, there are 74 petrol pumps in Kathmandu, 19 in Lalitpur and 14 in
Bhaktapur.

Fire Safety of Gas (cylinder) depots

The Fire code is silent about the fire safety of gas (cylinder) depots..

International Trends And Practices

Existing Buildings and Structures

The provisions of the Building Construction and Safety Code are applicable to existing
buildings where any one of the following conditions applies:

i) Any of the use or occupancy classification occurs

ii) A repair, renovation, modification, reconstruction, or addition is made
iii) The building or structure is relocated
iv) The building is considered as unsafe building or a fire hazard
v) Use or Occupancy is changed.

Unsafe Buildings

As per NFPA 5000, all buildings that are, or that hereafter become as follows shall be
considered unsafe:

Structurally unsafe
Insanitary
Deficient in means of egress
A hazard from fire or natural or man-made threats
Dangerous to human life or public welfare by reasons of illegal or improper use,
occupancy or maintenance
Non compliance with the provisions of the applicable Codes
Significantly damaged by fire or explosion or other natural or manmade cause
Incomplete buildings for which building permits have expired
 The falling away, hanging loose; or loosening of any sidings; block or other building
material; structural member, appurtenance, or part thereof of a building; or the
deterioration of the structure or structural parts of the building, a partially destroyed
building, or any part of a building when caused by deterioration or overstressing.
The existence of unsanitary conditions by reason of inadequate or malfunctioning
sanitary facilities or waste disposal systems.

Water Supply for Fire Fighting

Water requirement for fire fighting is a big concern. The city water networks generally
include fire hydrants at certain locations. But of late years, the fire hydrant systems are
more in disarray and the emergency supply of water is in jeopardy. The attack on World
Trade Center has raised serious question on the amount of water required for fighting fires
effectively in high-rise buildings.

Fire Fighting Shafts

(i) As per UK Building Regulations, buildings with a floor at more than 18m above fire
service vehicle access level, or with a basement at more than 10m below fire service
vehicle access level, should be provided with fire fighting shafts containing fire
fighting lifts, fire fighting stairs and fire fighting lobbies which are combined in a
protected shaft known as the fire fighting shafts. Again, buildings with two or more
basement storeys each exceeding 900m2 in area, should be provided with fire fighting
shafts, which need not include fire-fighting lifts.

(ii) Currently, several classes of buildings (industrial, storage, and commercial buildings)
less than 18m in height are also required to have a fire-fighting shaft.

(iii) An event tree analysis which was developed showed that the probability of fire spread
and casualties varies between building categories, and that other classes of building,
such as multi-storey public entertainment premises, have high rates of fire spread and
will benefit from the provision of fire fighting shafts.

Width of Escape Stairs

As per UK Building Regulations 2000 Approved Document B, FIRE SAFETY, the width
of escape stairs has been regulated as below:

(i) Stairs with a rise of more than 30m should not be wider than 1400mm unless provided
with a central hand rail

(ii) Stairs wider than 1800mm should be provided with a central handrail.

(iii) Provision of a central hand rail for wider stairs was found necessary for safe
evacuation especially for tall buildings to avoid possible jostling, collision etc. as well
as the tendency for people to stay within reach of a hand rail, especially during
prolonged descent.
Evacuation Strategies

Ensuring life safety is the most essential aspect of Building Codes. High rise and multi
storey assembly buildings pose particular challenges due to the large number of occupants
and large vertical travel distances. Traditionally the means of escape strategy mostly is
based on the principle of single stage evacuation. To achieve this, buildings are designed
with stairways of sufficient width to enable all the occupants to evacuate simultaneously.
In high-rise buildings with large number of occupants it has been found that single-phase
evacuation is a time consuming process and is impracticable. This has led to a system of
evacuation known as phased evacuation in which the building is evacuated in different
phases in the event of fire. This method is today recognized as the best method for
evacuation in high-rise buildings.

Evacuation Using Lifts

In Nepal, most of general lifts are not used during a fire. Since the lifts themselves are not
fire resistant and succumb to smoke and fire hazard. The introduction of fire fighting lifts
had not been provided.

In UK and Hong Kong, fire fighters as well as disabled people use fire fighting lifts in tall
buildings. However, there is a much wider potential use for fire protected lifts in ordinary
buildings for general evacuation purposes.

This method is particularly useful in super high-rise structures where the large vertical
travel distances result in a number of significant problems like possible increased exposure
to smoke and fire, increased fatigue during evacuation and difficulty in safe evacuation of
injured, infants, aged or disabled occupants.

Dry Riser

An arrangement for fire fighting within the building by means of vertical rising mains not
less than 100 mm internal diameter with landing valves on each floor/landing which is
normally dry but is capable of being charged with water usually by pumping from fire
services appliances.

Emergency Lighting and System

Emergency Lighting is provided for use when the supply to the normal lighting fails with
power being supplied from a standby power source.

Escape Lighting

That part of emergency lighting which is provided to ensure that the escape route is
illuminated at all material times (for example, at all times when persons are on the
premises), or at times the main lighting is not available, either for the whole building or the
escape routes.

Fire Resistance Rating

 The time that a material or construction will withstand the standard fire exposure as
determined by fire test done in accordance with the standard methods of fire tests of
material/structures.
Fire Stop

A fire resistant material, or construction having a fire resistance rating of not less than the
separating elements, installed in concealed spaces or between structural elements of a
building to prevent the spread/ propagation of fire and smoke through walls, ceilings and
the like as per the laid down criteria.

Means of Egress

A continuous and unobstructed way of travel from any point in a building or structure to a
place of comparative safety

Comparison of Fire Safety Codes

Basically three codes are taken into consideration NNBC, IS Code, and IFC. The NNBC
has made a brief provision of requirement of access, doors, and appliance whereas Indian
Code is much elaborated and includes Fire Grading, material classification, and utilities as
electrical installations. The IFC is very comprehensive and starts with the administration of
Fire Code, Emergency Planning, Fire services, Protection systems, means of egress, fire
safety during construction, protected parking for fire engines during fire events. The Euro
Code is specifically focused on structural fire safety and the features included in IFC.

NNBC 107 IS Code International Fire Code

0 Foreword IS 1641- Fire Grading 0010 Adoption.
1 Scope IS 1642: Materials and Chapter 1 - Administration.
Construction
2 Interpretation IS 1643- Exposure Hazard Chapter 2 - Definitions.
2.1 General IS 1644 - Personal Hazard Chapter 3 - General
precautions against fire.
2.2 Terminology IS 1645 -Chimneys, Flues, Chapter 4 - Emergency
Fluepipes, Hearths planning and preparedness.
3 Types of IS 1646 -Electrical Chapter 5 - Fire Service
Construction and Installation Features.
Appliances
3.1 Fire Places IS 1647 - Non-electrical Chapter 6 - Building services
installations and systems.
3.2 Fire Extinguishers IS 1648 - Fire Fighting Chapter 9 - Fire protection
Equipment, Fire Proof Doors systems.
4 Fire Zones BS 476 - Fire Tests on Chapter 10 - Means of
Buildings and Structures egress.
5 General Chapter 14 - Fire safety
Requirements during construction and
demolition.
5.1 Provision of a Chapter 24 - Tents, canopies
Proper Access and other membrane
structures.
5.2 Provision of Wide Chapter 33 - Explosives and
Doors fireworks.
 NNBC 107 IS Code International Fire Code
5.3 Provision of Fire APPENDIX C - Fire
Escape Ways Hydrant locations and
distribution.
5.4 Provision of Open APPENDIX H - Emergency
Space access gates and barriers.
6 Exit Requirements Exhibit A - Fire hydrant
specifications.
6.1 General Exhibit B. - Standard fence
Requirements and hydrant locations.
6.2 Number of Exits Exhibit #1 (C) No Parking
Fire Lane Sign
Specifications
6.2.1 Stairs
6.2.2 Fire Escapes
6.2.3 Exit Doors
7 Access to a
Building
8 Lightning
Arresters/Conducto
rs

Special Consideration
Fire fighting in High Rise Buildings

When a fire gets out of control in a skyscraper it tests fire fighters to their limits.
Predicting how a fire is behaving high up in a building is almost impossible. The fire
fighters who entered the Twin Towers on 11 September 2001 and came out live have
advocated for new system of fire protection which is called Fire grid, which keeps the fire
limited to a small area where it was generated and do not allow to spread to other areas.

Local Regulations and Organisations

Local Governance Act

The LOCAL SELF-GOVERNANCE ACT, 2055 (1999), which describes the basic
mandate of the local governments as VDC, Municipalities and DDC, has made a very
brief provision for operating and managing Fire Brigade in their area of jurisdiction. No
further provisions with regard to Fire Safety and Fire Protection are made.

Tenth Development Plan

The Tenth Plan Annex 21.1 has very briefly included a program to implement the Building
Codes Act, 1998 after making necessary amendments subsequent to the incorporation of
international norms in the areas of natural disaster including fire, flood, and landslide to
put the building construction technologies in order (Building Construction). This provision
of the Tenth Plan was dropped out in the Three Year Interim Plan without much
achievements being made.
 Building Byelaw for Municipalities in KV, 2007

The Building Bylaw in general has made mandatory provisions for Building Construction
within Kathmandu Valley including municipalities and VDC emerging to towns. Apart
from the land use zoning and provisions for building construction, the bylaw also has given
guidelines in relation to access, construction along the access, conservation areas, electrical
installation regulation, and installation of Fueling stations, Cinema Halls, Housing and
Real State. The bylaws have not made any considerations in respect to disaster mitigation,
fire safety and protection, traffic management, epidemics, etc. Similarly, the Building
Bylaws do not provide guidelines for urban waste management as solid waste, waste water,
air pollution, noise pollution, and environmental protection as nature preservation.

Building Byelaws for High Rise Buildings

In May 2007, DUDBC prepared the recommendations for preparing the Building Byelaws
for High Rise Buildings in Nepal. The study recommended limiting the settlement
coverage at 40% of land and population density to be limited to 300 persons per hectare.
The Building safety and Building Fire Safety were limited to the provision of NNBC 107.
This would call for more careful consideration for updating of NNBC and adopt strong
approach for implementation of NNBC through inclusion in Building Byelaws and
Building Permit Process. The recommendation has given high priority on the provision of
water supply for fire fighting. The recommendations for Fire protection for Hise Rise
Buildings are reprinted in Appendix A.

Fire Fighters Voluntary Association of Nepal

Firefighters volunteer Association of Nepal (FAN, www.fan.org.np) is a non-governmental

organization established in year 2000 with objectives of creating awareness among the
public about fire and drawing attention of the concerned authorities on this matter.

Structural Fire Engineering

Fire Protection Engineering comprises active and passive ways of providing satisfactory
protection level to buildings and/or its contents from fires. Active fire protection for
buildings includes fire detection and alarm systems, sprinkler, and other automatic fire
fighting systems.

Passive fire protection deals with the design of a building for adequate load bearing
resistance and for limiting fire spread under fire conditions. Structural Fire Engineering is
generally categorized in this discipline.

The structural fire resistance must be demonstrated that the structure will retain adequate
strength and stability for the required fire resistance period by considering individual
elements or a more complete assembly. The assessment may be made using prescriptive
methods or more advanced calculations either, to determine thicknesses of applied
protection or to demonstrate that some or all structural elements do not require protection.
Structural connections may require special consideration. Because each unit is generally
treated as a separate compartment, it is possible to examine the effects of localised heating
on the structure; significant savings on the cost of fire protection can thus be achieved. It is
important to consider the effect of local deformations on compartment boundaries, such as
 the dividing walls between adjacent units, to ensure that they are able to maintain their
function.

The fire safety measures of buildings must satisfy the fire safety objectives specified by
codes and standards, property owners, designers, insurance bodies and approvals
authorities.

Structural Fire Engineering deals with specific aspects of passive fire protection in terms of
analysing the thermal effects of fires on buildings and designing structural members for
adequate load bearing resistance, i.e. the structural fire resistance. SFE allows fire
protection measures to be integrated into structural design. If SFE could be applied in the
design process from the very beginning of a building project, it can bring significant
benefits to the project.

Qualifications, Experience, and Responsibilities Of Fire Protection Services

A specific reference in the Codes shall be made to define the minimum qualification, skill
and responsibility of the Fire Protection services for operating the Fire Safety and
Protection operations.

Fire Protection and Prevention Act

An outline of a sample of Fire Protection and Prevention Act may include following
aspects:
Municipal Responsibilities (Community Fire Safety Officer, Fire Departments, Fire Chief, Fire
Co-Ordinators, Municipal By-Laws)
Rights Of Entry In Emergencies And Fire Investigations
Entry On Adjacent Lands By Firefighters, Etc.
Entry Where Fire Has Occurred Or Is Likely To Occur
Inspections (Inspection Orders, Service Of Order, Review Of Inspection Order By Fire
Marshal)
Appeal To Fire Safety Commission, Appeal To Divisional Court
Offences And Enforcement
Fire Marshal To Carry Out Inspection Order
Warrant Authorizing Entry
Recovery Of Costs
Appeal To Fire Safety Commission
Enforcement Of Order To Pay Costs
Firefighters: Employment And Labour Relations
WORKING CONDITIONS (STRIKE AND LOCK OUTS, HOURS OF WORK, BARGAINING RIGHTS,
ARBITRATION
Fire Safety Commission
Fire Marshals Public Fire Safety Council
Miscellaneous (Protection From Personal Liability, Indemnification)
Appendix A: Fire Protection recommendation for Hise Rise Buildings

a. Fire Water Supply

Water supply in high-rise firefighting is critical. In a high-rise building there should be a

standpipe system to carry water for fire fighting operations to the upper floors. Depending
on the size of the building, there can be multiple standpipes placed strategically on all
floors usually in or near stairwells. These pipes shall be designed to give an adequate water
flow rate to maintain firefighting operations.

There are two systems of standpipes, a wet system and a dry system. In a wet system, the
building has fire pumps installed in the standpipe and is directly piped to a water supply,
usually a municipal water system. When there is a demand on the system, flow meters
detect a drop in pressure and the fire pumps start up and then supply water to the system.
In a dry system, there is no fire pump and the system is piped to a standpipe inlet on the
side of a building at the grade level. From this opening, the fire department connects to the
standpipe with an engine and pressurizes the system for fire fighting operations.

It is critical that a pre-fire plan be made at high-rise buildings so the incident commanders
and all fire fighting agencies know the location of the standpipe outlets on all floors and
the location of the standpipe supply inlets on the building. When connecting into a
standpipe of a building with an engine, the fire engine operator must not pressurize the
system until he/she is assured that the system is a dry pipe system. If the system is wet with
an internal fire pump it can be over pressured by the fire department causing pipe bursts
and water damage to many floors. At the standpipe outlet there is a shutoff for flow control
with usually a 2 -1/2 or 3 opening so that firefighting companies can attach their fittings
and hoses for fire operations.

When a fire alarm is sounded in a building the fire department response is that the first
arriving engine responds to the location or fire floor with their necessary equipment. The
second arriving engine connects to the building standpipe and secures a hydrant but does
not pressurize until directed by the incident commander.
In most situations this system works well, but there could be breakdowns in the water
supply system due to maintenance problems. When this occurs, an alternate plan needs to
be in place.

Pre-piped aerial ladders can be used as an external standpipe by replacing the nozzle with
the appropriate fitting and extended to the floor designated by the fire floor commander for
fire operations. This plan works well but is limited by the length of the ladder. There are
other ways for water supply to upper floors but that requires excessive manpower. The on-
scene commander must make these decisions.

b. Automatic fire detecting and alarm system

Buildings shall have an automatic fire detecting and alarm system. It is an arrangement of
automatic fire detectors, such as a fuse working at a given temperature, a thermostat or a
fluid filled tube or an electronic device, for detecting an outbreak of fire, and sounders and
other equipment for automatic transmission and indication of alarm signals without manual
intervention. The system also has provision for testing of circuits and, where required for
the operation of auxiliary services.
c. Automatic sprinkler system
In addition to detection mechanism the buildings shall also have a well designed automatic
water sprinkler system. It is an arrangement of piping, sprinklers and connected equipment
designed to operate automatically by the heat of fire and to discharge water upon that fire
and which may also simultaneously give automatic audible alarm.

d. Dry riser
The buildings shall also have a dry riser system which is a vertical fire water supply pipe ,
inside a building, not normally connected to a water main or an automatic stationary pump,
with an inlet or inlets at street level, through which water can be pumped by fire service
pumps to hydrant outlets or hose reels at various floors.

e. Fire exit
A way out leading to an escape route is mandatory in such buildings.

f. Provision of open space

The front entrance should have enough open space as defined by Architectural Design
Requirements (NBC 206) so that a number of people can gather and contribute in
extinguishing the fire, if any.

g. Fire separation
The buildings shall have adequate fire separation. It is the distance in metres measured
from any other building on the site, or from other site, or from the opposite side of street or
other public space to the building for the purpose of preventing the spread of fire.

h. Fire Tower
The building design shall incorporate a fire tower which is an enclosed staircase which can
only be approached from the various floors through landings or lobbies separated from
both the floor areas and the staircase by fire-resisting doors, and open to the outer air.

i. Fire wall
All exit ways like staircases and lobbies shall have fire resistance rated wall, having
protected openings, which restricts the spread of fire and extends continuously from the
foundation to at least I m above the roof.

j. Wet Riser
Buildings shall have a charged vertical water main inside a building, connected to a water
main or an automatic stationary pump and fitted with internal hydrants landing valves,
hose reels for tapping water at various floors.

In addition to the above mentioned general design requirements, for effective fire
prevention the following guidelines shall also be followed:
Construction

1. All materials of construction in load bearing elements, stairways and corridors and facades
shall be non-combustible. The internal walls of staircase shall be of brick or reinforced
concrete with a minimum of 2 hour fire rating.

2. The staircase shall be ventilated to the atmosphere at each landing and a vent at the top; the
vent openings shall be of 0.5 m in the external wall and the top. If the staircase cannot be
ventilated, because of location or other reasons, a positive pressure of 50 Pa shall be
maintained inside. The mechanism for pressurizing the staircase shall operate automatically
with the fire alarm. The roof of the shaft shall be I m above the surrounding roof. Glazing or
glass bricks shall not be used in the staircase.

Lifts

1. Walls of lift enclosures shall have a fire rating of 2 h; lift shafts shall have a vent at the top of
area not less than 0.2 m2.
2. Lift motor room shall be located preferably on top of the shaft and separated from the shaft by
the floor of the room.
3. Landing doors in lift enclosures shall have a fire resistance of not less than half an hour.
4. Lift car door shall have a fire resistance ratting of 1 h.
5. For buildings above 15m in height, collapsible gates shall not be permitted for lifts and shall
have solid doors with fire resistance of at least I h
6. If the lift shaft and lobby is in the core of the building, a positive pressure between 25 and 30
Pa shall be maintained in the lobby and a positive pressure of 50 Pa shall be maintained in the
lift shaft. The mechanism for pressurization shall act automatically with the fire alarm; it shall
be possible to operate this mechanically also.
7. Exit from the lift lobby, if located in the core of the building, shall be through a self-closing
smoke stop door of half an hour Fire resistance.
8. Grounding switch(es), at ground floor level, shall be provided to enable the fire service to
ground the lifts.
9. To enable fire services personnel to reach the upper floors with the minimum delay, one or
more of the lifts shall be so designed so as to be available for the exclusive use of the firemen
in an emergency and be directly accessible to every dwelling/ rentable floor space on each
floor.
10. The lift shall have a floor area of not less than 1.4 m*. It shall have loading capacity of not less
than 545 kg (8 persons/lift) with automatic closing doors.

Basements

1. Each basement shall be separately ventilated. Vents with cross-sectional area (aggregate) not
less than 2.5 percent of the floor area .spread evenly round the perimeter of the basement shall
be provided in the form of grills or breakable stall board lights or pavement lights or by way of
shafts. Alternatively, a system of air inlets shall be provided at basement floor level and smoke
outlets at basement ceiling level. Inlets and extracts may be terminated at ground level with
stall board or pavement lights as before, but ducts to convey fresh air to the basement floor
level have to be laid. Stall board and pavement lights should be in positions easily accessible
to the fire brigade.
2. In multi-storey basements, intake ducts may serve all basement levels, but each basement and
basement compartment shall have separate smoke outlet duct or ducts.
3. In case of multiple basements mechanical extractors shall be designed to permit 30 air changes
per hour in case of fire or distress call. However, for normal operation, only 28 air changes or
any other convenient factor can be maintained.
4. If cut outs are provided from basements to the upper floors or to the atmosphere, all sides cut
out openings in the basements shall be protected by sprinkler heads at closed spacing so as to
form a water curtain in the event of a fire.

Fire Fighting Operations

In a normal response to a high-rise fire alarm three engines, one ladder truck, one rescue squad
and one battalion chief shall be assigned.

The first arriving engine responds directly to the floor below the alarm floor for investigation or
starting of fire operations. The first engine is assisted by the third arriving engine and the rescue
squad (if not assigned to other duties by the incident commander).

The ladder company responds to the floor above the search and ventilation operations. The second
arriving engine connects to the standpipe and secures a hydrant and then stands by for water flow
direction.

Depending on the incident, the battalion chief will set up command on the floor below or the
lobby of the building. If the investigating engine crew finds a working fire they will secure a
standpipe on the floor below the fire floor and ensure that an adequate water supply is available.
The fire attack crew will then lay a hose line to the fire floor and extinguish the fire.

The senior officer on the fire floor will assume command as the fire floor commander. The fire
floor commander will inform the incident commander of all the particulars of the incident and his
actions taken to mitigate the scene. The fire floor commander shall instruct the ladder team to gain
access to the floor above the fire to start ventilation procedures and check for vertical fire spread.
The rescue squad after an initial search will be used as manpower where needed. With this system
in place most high-rise fire incidents can run smoothly and efficiently. If other resources are
needed because of fire growth or evacuation problems this system will be able to expand as
needed.

Gaining Access

In high-rise buildings, if the incident is above the eighth floor the only two reasonable options to
reach the fire floor are elevators or stairways.

The preferred method of reaching the upper floors is by an elevator but only if it can be safely
used. The firefighter must take control of the elevator with a fire fighters key. This key allows
firefighters to by-pass the normal operations of the elevator and they then safely use the elevator
car. In elevator use, the incident commander can have his resources at the staging area a floor
below the fire much quicker and have a much safer and efficient fire attack. A firefighter needs to
know of the elevators limitations such as overloading, mechanical breakdowns, electrical failure
etc. The elevator is never to be used to go above the fire floor. Stairwells are to be used for this
purpose. When a stairway ascent is to be used, the incident commander must be aware of the time
and effort it takes to ascend to the fire floor. The initial fire attack team should be allowed to
ascend the stairs unencumbered so they can arrive at the fire floor reasonably refreshed to start fire
fighting operations.
If stairways are to be used, the incident commander will have to decide which stairway will be
used for fire fighting operations and which will be used for evacuation procedures. The incident
commander will have to know if the stairwells have standpipes, are they pressurized, are the fire
doors in place and is there access to the floors above the fire for evacuation and inspection of fire
spread. The following priorities should be used when selecting a stairwell for search and
evacuation procedures:

1. Use a fire tower (smoke proof tower), if available, for search and evacuation. If is the safest
stairway for evacuation because it is the least likely to be contaminated by smoke because of its
ventilated vestibule.

2. If a fire tower is not present in the building, use a pressurized stairway if one is available. If
more than on pressurized stairway is available, use the one most remote from the fire for search
and evacuation.

3. If no pressurized stairs are available, use the one most remote from the fire for search and
evacuation.

Ventilation

Ventilation of a high-rise building is extremely difficult and hazardous due to the construction of
the building and the effects of limited access of the building floors. In a fire in a low rise building
five floors or less, ventilation can be accomplished by normal fire fighting practices, such as roof
openings and window ventilation.

In a high-rise building these practices cannot be done. The fire could be ten floors below the roof
therefore roof openings would not have any effect on ventilating the fire. Windows on a fire floor
may not be attainable. Fire spread can block the firefighters access to the window for ventilation.
Ventilation through windows on a high- rise building can be extremely dangerous because of
falling glass over a wide spread area.

If a stairwell is available that is not being used for fire fighting or evacuation this can be used for
ventilation. This can be done by going to the roof access door of the stairwell, opening the door
and directing the smoke and heat into the stairwell and then up and out of the building.

Positive pressure fans work well for ventilation by pressurizing the fire floor and directing the
pressurized air out to the stairwell then up and out of the building. When this option is used two
fans is the minimum to be used. One fan is to be placed at the entry door to the fire close to the
opening so as to direct air into the fire floor. The second fan is placed behind the first fan to seal
the entry with pressurized air and to add more air to the fire floor to direct that and smoke out to
the ventilation stairwell and then up and out of the building.

Great care must be taken when using positive pressure fans in high-rise buildings. A good water
supply must be available before the fans can be put into operation. The smoke movement must be
monitored to ensure that it is exiting the building and not creating a hazard in other areas of the
building. Fire spread must also be monitored to ensure that the fans are not enhancing or moving
the fire to other compartments or floors of the building.

High-rise buildings have a large and complicated H.V.A.C. system that control air movement in
the structure. These units can be used to ventilate the fire floors. The practice should only be done
under the supervision of the building engineers or maintenance employees familiar with H.V.A.C
systems. Exhaust fans in the structure can be put in use to evacuate the fire floor or air movement
can be redirected for ventilation purposes. Good ventilating practices in a high-rise incident is a
vital aid in fire suppression and will reduce structural damage to the building.

Egress and Evacuation Requirements

Evacuation of a high-rise building in an emergency situation is a very difficult process. If the

building needs to be evacuated call for an extra alarm for evacuation purposes has to be made. The
extra alarm resources will be used to direct the building occupants down the proper stairs and to
search the building for trapped occupants.

When evacuating occupants a stairwell that is free of smoke or heat and not used for firefighting
operations should be used. The occupants should be directed away from the elevators and to the
proper stairwell for egress. Upon the arrival at the lobby or the grade floor occupants should be
directed to a safe area away from the building and firefighting operations.

If the fire or incident can be contained to one floor or area, the occupants can and should be
evacuated in place. If there is no danger in their specific area it should be suggested that they stay
in their office or apartment and wait for the incident to be mitigated. If evacuation in place is to be
used the occupants must be reassured that there is no danger and their interests are being looked
after. In theory, this in how evacuation should take place, but in practice the fire department will
arrive on the scene with people fleeing the building by whatever means they find available.
Stairwells will be clogged with people hindering firefighters trying to reach the fire scene.
Occupants will be trying to use elevators for egress and there will be a sense of panic.

The incident commander and firefighters must immediately take control and try to remove people
in a calm and orderly manner. This process will start on the grade floor and work up as firefighters
rise higher in the building. Firefighters will have a calming effect with their presence and this can
be used in evacuation and direction. There are two types of evacuation: self evacuation of the total
building and controlled selective evacuation.

Self evacuation takes on a life of its own and is a haphazard process. It is based entirely on the
decisions and actions carried out by the buildings occupants. This is the scene of most high-rise
fires that firefighters will find on arrival and they will need to step in and take control.

Controlled selective evacuation requires that the building management have input in the decision
making process and execution of the actions needed to evacuate. This should be coordinated with
the fire department. This will be found in the daytime when management is on site and if the
occupants have practiced evacuation procedures.
The first arriving firefighters will rarely see this perfect scenario. Upon arrival at the scene of a
high-rise fire, the fire department must take control of the scene as it is found and use all the
resources available to them for evacuation

General Requirements

An exit normally shall consist of either a doorway, corridor or passageway to an internal staircase,
to an external staircase, to a verandah leading to the street, to the roof of a building, or to the
street. The exit may also lead to another building in the neighbourhood. The exit should :
a) be able to allow the evacuation of all the occupants in a relatively short time;
b) meet the minimum requirements as to size;
c) be free of any obstructions and shall not provide any resistance to movement;
d) be clearly visible, preferably with proper signs.
e) be continuous and shall not intrude into private space.
Stairs
The number of stairs in any building, especially when it exceeds 500 square metres in plinth area,
shall be a minimum of two, one internal and the other an external fire escape. Additional stairs
shall be provided in proportion to any increase in the plinth area. In the case of residential
buildings, the minimum width of the stairs shall be 90 cm. For other buildings, the minimum
width shall be 1.5 m. The distance from any point in a passageway to a staircase in a building shall
not exceed 20 meters.

Fire Escapes
Every building more than five storeys high shall have a separate fire escape having a minimum
width of 75 cm. The fire escape shall have a minimum tread width of 20 cm and each riser shall be
not more than 19 cm high. The number of risers per flight shall not be more than 15. Such a fire
escape shall carry users towards an open space.

Exit Doors
Exit doors shall open to a passageway or to a corridor. They should open outwards, but without
restricting the movement of people passing outside the door. The maximum distance of such an
exit doorway from any point in a passage shall be 20 m. The exit doorway shall neither be smaller
than 90 cm in width, nor 180 cm in height.

Lightening Arrester
A lightning arrester shall be located in the highest part of every building and it shall be connected
by a conductor to an earth rod buried in the earth. The lightning arrester shall be so located that as
much as possible of the building lies inside the surface of an imaginary cone having a vertex angle
of 45 degrees and its apex at the top of the arrester.

All other provision shall be in confirmation with Nepal National Building Code (NBC 107:1994)
and National Building Code of India 1983 and Indian Standard Provisions IS:1642:1989,
IS:1643:1988, IS 1644:1988, and IS:1646:1997, for Fire Safety of Buildings.

Fire Hazard of Timber Bridges

Several of Timber Bridges along East West Highway were set into fire during conflict
time. This issue not given much attention.
Appendix-8: Review of Mandatory rules of thumb

NNBC 201:1994
Reinforced concrete buildings with masonry
Objectives
The main objective of the Mandatory Rules of MRT is to provide ready to use dimensions and Formatted: Justified
details for various structural elements for upto three storey reinforced concrete (RC), framed
ordinary residential buildings commonly built by owner builders in Nepal using brick infill walls.

The objectives of these mandatory rules of thumb (MRT) are to achieve the appropriate Formatted: Justified
earthquake resistant design of those buildings in Nepal which are:
1- Designed and constructed without professional engineers intervention (non-engineered) Formatted: Justified, Bulleted + Level: 1 +
Aligned at: 0" + Tab after: 0.25" + Indent at:
- constructed of fired brick or stone masonry in cement or mud mortars 0.25"
2- not more than two stories high if built in stone masonry in cement mortar or fired brick in mud
Formatted: Justified, Bulleted + Level: 1 +
masonry Aligned at: 0" + Tab after: 0.25" + Indent at:
3- not more than three storeys high if built or fired brick in a cement mortar. 0.25"
- Single span is less than 4.5m and Plinth Area is less than 100 m2

Limitations
The MRT only intends to achieve minimum acceptable structural safety, though it is always Formatted: Justified, Indent: Left: 0"
preferable to undertake specific design.

Non-engineered buildings
The term non-engineered buildings may be defined as those buildings, which are spontaneously Formatted: Justified, Indent: Left: 0"
and informally constructed in the traditional manner without intervention by qualified engineers or
architects in their design. However, they may follow a set of recommendations derived from the
observed behavior of such buildings.

Design Guidelines
The design guidelines presented in the MRT cover ordinary residential buildings with seismic Formatted: Justified
coefficient of 0.128 (equivalent to seismic zone C ). However, if the buildings in all other respects
complied with this MRT , it would be expected to have a better earthquake resistance than that of
a similar non-engineered construction undertaken solely with the advice of craftsmen.

For selection and investigation of site, it is recommended not to construct the buildings if the Formatted: Justified
proposed site is water logged, a rock falling area, a landslide prone area, a subsidence and/ fill
area, a river bed or swamp area.

As per MRT, it is given that site exploration shall be carried out by test pit two as minimum with Formatted: Justified
the depth of 2m. No exploration shall be required if the site is on rock or fluvial terraces with
boulder beds.

METHOD OF ANALYSIS

Most national codes recognize that structures with simple and regular geometry perform well during Formatted: Justified
earthquakes, and unsymmetrical placement of masonry infill walls may introduce irregularities into them.
These codes permit static analysis methods for regular buildings located in regions of low seism city.

irregularities into them. These codes permit static analysis methods for regular buildings located in regions
of low seismicity.
NBC -201 adopts analysis procedure in which axial forces in the frame members are estimated by assuming
a pin-jointed frame and representing masonry infill by compression diagonal struts. A method of
distributing the lateral shear force on various masonry infill walls in a story is specified in the code, which
depends upon the seismic base shear on the frame and cross-sectional and material properties of masonry
infill and RC frame members.

The masonry infill walls in such structures are intended to resist seismic loads elastically in
moderate or severe earthquakes. However, in very large earthquakes, the infill walls could be
severely damaged. For such an event, steel is provided in the walls to reduce the risk to occupants
of the building from the uncontrolled collapse of the walls under shear loads. Seismic loads will
have to be resisted mostly by frame alone. Frame has been designed to resist the gravity loads and
provide ductility.

EMPIRICAL FORMULAE FOR NATURAL PERIOD

Several codesIS-1893 (2002); NBC-105(1994); Algerian code 1988; suggest using an empirical formula
to calculate the natural period of masonry infill wall with RC frame structure, Ta.
Ta 0.09 h
d
Where h is the height of the building and is the base dimension of building at the plinth level along
the considered direction of the lateral force.

In the Nepal code NBC-201 (1995), eccentricity between center of mass and center of rigidity along each
principal direction is limited to 10% of the building dimension along that direction. The above requirement
may be satisfied by adjusting thicknesses of walls.

LATERAL DISPLACEMENT AND INTERSTORY DRIFT

Lateral deformations at various levels in masonry infill (MI) of RC frame buildings depend upon the
distribution of MI walls in buildings. If more walls are present at the base, lateral deformations will be less
and evenly distributed along the height of buildings. On the other hand, if more walls are present on the
upper stories, then lateral deformations will be concentrated at the bottom, where stories are less infilled.
Lateral deformations and inter-story drift will also depend upon the ductility and damping of buildings.

Few national codes, such as Eurocode 8 (2003), NBC-105 (1994), have restricted the inter-story drift ratio
for masonry infill RC frames to about 1%. These drift ratios are calculated using displacements obtained
from elastic forces, which are amplified. FEMA-306, ATC (1999) recommends following inter-story drift
limit for different solid panels: for brick masonry, 1.5%; for grouted concrete block masonry, 2.0%; and for
ungrouted concrete block masonry, 2.5%. However, there is concern that these values are too large and
further experimental studies are needed to verify these limits.

STRENGTH OF MASONRY INFILL

Effect of Openings in Masonry Infill on Strength

Nepal code NBC-201 (1994) also requires masonry infill to be modeled as diagonal struts, without
specifying their cross-sectional properties. A minimum wall thickness of half brick is allowed to be used as
infill.
Strength Associated with Out-of-Plane Collapse of Masonry Infills

According to NNBC-201 (1994), only those walls with an opening area less than 10% of the gross panel
area are considered as resisting seismic loads. Openings shall be outside the restricted zone and if these
openings are located inside the middle two-thirds of a panel, then they need to be strengthened by
providing RC elements around them. RC tie beams at both the top and bottom of openings along the full
length and width of the wall, and vertical elements on both sides of the opening shall be provided with
longitudinal reinforcement of two bars of 8 mm diameter. Shear reinforcement in the form of minimum 6
mm diameter bars at every 150 mm is required in the elements. Such strengthening elements are not
required for openings in a nonsignificant area.

STIFFNESS OF MASONRY INFILL

Masonry infill walls are laterally much stiffer than RC frames, and therefore, the initial stiffness
of MI-RC frames largely depend upon the stiffness of masonry infill. Stiffness of MI-RC frames
significantly depends on the distribution of MI in the frame, generally, the MI-RC frames with regular
distribution of masonry infill in plan as well as along height are stiffer than the irregular MI-RC frames.
Lateral stiffness of MI-RC frames reduces with the presence of openings in infills; however, this issue has
not been addressed by the codes.

Eurocode 8 (2003), Nepal code NBC-201 (1994), and FEMA-306 recommend modeling of masonry infill
as equivalent diagonal struts. However, Eurocode 8 and Nepal code do not specify the width of strut.
Nepal code specifies the modulus of elasticity of masonry infill as 2,400 to 3,000 MPa for various grades of
mortar. On the other hand, FEMA-306 recommends using modulus of elasticity as 550 times the masonry
prism strength in the absence of tests. As per FEMA-306, the only masonry walls assumed to provide
stiffness are those that are in full contact with RC frames, or those that are structurally connected to RC
frames.

Code NBC 201 recommended the structural detailing for the building as specified in figure 1.
Material grade is taken M15 for the structural elements.

Figure 1
CONCLUSION

Infilled frames also tend to be substantially stronger, but less deformable, than otherwise identical bare
frames. In symmetrical buildings with vertically continuous infilled frames, the increased stiffness and
strength may protect a building from damage associated with excessive lateral drift or inadequate strength.
Because of its higher stiffness, infill panels may attract significantly greater forces that may lead to
premature failure of infill, and possibly of the whole structure. Therefore, it is essential for designers to
consider the effects of infills in the design of RC buildings.

The codes restrict the amount of eccentricity between center of mass and center of rigidity to safeguard the
building components against the adverse effects of plan irregularities. National codes specify lower values
of response reduction factors for MI-RC frame buildings as compared to the buildings without MI, such
that MI frames are required to be designed for 1.153 times the design forces for the corresponding bare
frames. Lower value of response reduction factor is considered for MI-RC frames because of lower
ductility and a higher degree of uncertainty and seismic vulnerability associated with MI. A few codes have
specified limitations on the elastic and inelastic deformations and Inter-story drift ratio of MI-RC frames
for damage limitation requirements.

Few codes recommend modeling MI using equivalent diagonal struts; however, the required sectional
properties for the struts are not specified. Strength and stiffness of MI reduces with the presence of
openings; Various ways of reducing the damage in MI due to openings have been discussed in few codes,
e.g., framing the openings using RC elements. Full strength and stiffness of MI is not utilized when out-of-
plane collapse of infills takes place. A few codes specify limits on slenderness ratio (ratio of length or
height to thickness) to prevent outof- plane failure of masonry infill. Some national codes recommend
using light wire mesh and RC tie-bands along the length of walls at various locations to avoid out-of plane
collapse of MI.

Since in MRT 201, the examples demonstrate the building structure for maximum three storey and span
length not more than 4.5 m and it can not be used for other structures not following these parameters.

The purpose of MRT is to allow the design and construction of selected type of buildings without
intervention of professional engineers. MRT has defited this pupose since the building permit
proes requires certification by a lcensed designer. The preparation of design (rather municipal
drawings) are so complicated that non-engineered design cannot be produced and approved by
municipality. For these reasons, MRT is recommended to be eliminated as part of the code. But
few samples of buildings could be developed with consideration of the Code requirements and
made available free of cost and without need for going through the building permit process.

MRT has allowed non-design professionals to carry the responsibility for creating site-specific
designs using MRT and compelling building inspectors to attempt to confirm these designs as
correct in the field. This means the buildings designed and constructed under MRT do not
warranty the Safety.

NNBC 202:1994 - Load Bearing Masonry Buildings

Applicability
These mandatory rules of thumb (MRT) cover load bearing masonry buildings. They do not cover
wooden buildings, mud buildings(low strength buildings) or those constructed in adobe.
Limitations
As prescribed in Table 1.1, MRT is valid (with certain limitations as to span, floor height, etc.,) for:
i) Up to three-storeyed load-bearing brick (and other rectangular building units) masonry buildings
constructed in cement mortars.
ii) Up to two-storeyed load-bearing stone masonry buildings constructed in cement mortar.
iii) Up to two-storeyed load-bearing brick masonry buildings constructed in mud mortar.

However, these limitations shall not bar anyone wishing to employ qualified professionals to produce
an appropriate design. Structures falling outside these limitations will require the appropriate specific
design.

Floor Min. Wall Max. Height Max. short span of Cantilever

Thickness (m) floor (m)
(mm) (m)
Load-Bearing 2nd 230 2.8 3.5 1.0
Brick Masonry in 1st 230 3.0 3.5 1.0
Cement Mortar Ground 350 3.2 3.5 No
Load-Bearing
Stone Masonry in 1st 230 3.0 3.2 No
Cement Mortar, or
Load-Bearing
Brick Masonry in Ground 350 3.2 3.2 No
Mud Mortar
8
9 General Construction Aspects
9.5 The general construction aspects have included Opening in walls, Masonry
Bond, reinforcment details,Vertical Joints Between Orthogonal Walls,Roof
Band, Gable Band, and Vertical Reinforcement in Walls.

NNBC 203:1994
GUIDELINES FOR EARTHQUAKE RESISTANT BUILDING
CONSTRUCTION: LOW STRENGTH MASONRY (LSM)
This document provides basic guidelines for the earthquake resistance of low- strength masonry
construction.

Background
The devastating earthquakes in the past have proved the vulnerability of most of the vernacular
buildings of Nepal. Enormous life and property were lost due to the collapse of buildings which
LSM as their main load-bearing element. Earthquakes can neither be prevented nor predicted
precisely. But the large-scale destruction can be minimized by employing seismic-resistant
measures in buildings. This can be achieved by the use of existing building materials in
appropriate ways. This Guideline for Earthquake-Resistant Building Construction: Low
Strength Masonry shows the improved techniques that can raise the level of seismic safety of
low strength masonry buildings.

Limitation
LSM buildings required to conform to this standard shall not exceed two storeys in height with an
additional attic floor.
The guideline provides details for foundations, walls, opening in the walls, structure (post and
capitals), and roof details for low strength masonry buildings.

The guidelines also recommend the method of harvesting and preserving bamboo for
construction, and fire resistant treatment for thatch roof.

Conclusion
MRT has made certain details of construction. In the absence of a proper design, the buildings
being constructed are not properly planned because of lack of capacity to prepare a proper plan.
The seismic resistance and fire resistance are not warranted. It would be much helpful to provide
some examples of LSM buildings designs that could be readily applicable.

NNBC 204: 1994

GUIDELINES FOR EARTHQUAKE RESISTANT BUILDING CONSTRUCTION:
EARTHEN BUILDING

Introduction
This guideline is prepared in order to raise the seismic safety of earthen buildings. This is intended to
be implemented by the owner/builder with some assistance from technicians. This could also act as a
basic guideline for architectural design and construction detailing of Earthen Buildings (EB).

This Guideline for Earthquake-Resistant Building Construction: Earthen Buildings provides the
improved techniques that can raise the level of seismic safety of earthen buildings.

The guideline provides the details of planning, foundation, wall and roof details.

The comments provided in Conclusion above applies.

 Appendix 9 Review of NNBC 206: 2003 Architectural Design Requirement.
Building Code is basically an Architectural Code. Whereas, Building by-laws is the mother
of Building Code. Nevertheless, Architectural Code and hence Building Code now is
considered the foundation and basis of Building by-laws.

The Building by-laws for Greater Kathmandu Valley, prepared by Kathmandu Valley Town
Development Committee and NNBC 206: 2003 Architectural Design Requirement are the basis
for the recommendation to update the Architectural Design Code.

The updated version of the existing code NNBC 206: 2003 Architectural Design Requirement, will
serve the purpose of guiding the building designers and planners to fulfill their responsibilities of
creating built environment that will be safe, healthy and beneficial to the community as a whole.

The code will not contradict the innovativeness and creativeness of the designer and the planner.
This will be the logical conclusion of the contents of the code, as it spells out the minimum
requirements in the design of buildings and its surroundings in serving the objective of the code.
Hence, tolerant of uncertainty and welcomes experiments character of architecture will be
maintained.

After much deliberation at different stages, the consultant did not receive any substantial criticism
or recommendation for changes in the existing document, exclusion of neighborhood planning
codes, conservation, and FAR values in the existing code, however, were spelled out.

NNBC 206 has dealt architectural elements only from safety point of view. The NNBC 206: 2003
Architectural Design Requirements have dealt certain aspect of design norms for architectural
works as listed below:
1. Staircase.
2. Exit (General Exit requirement and Exit Doors.
3. Lighting and Ventilation.
4. Requirement for the Physical disabled.
5. Glazing in Hazardous location.
6. Parapet height.

Therefore, it was aptly termed Architectural Design Requirements rather than Architectural
Code as we have with fire safety or structural and many others. The clauses of the existing
code do not require any changes. What are necessary are definitely, more details in each and
additional clauses to be incorporated in the new updated code as listed below.

A building, complying all requirements of the code by itself, cannot guarantee fulfillment of the
objective of code. As the building stands in a space of multiple of such objects, certain aspects of
neighborhood planning needs to be included which are absent in the existing NNBC 206: 2003
Architectural Design Requirements. Even so, it is to be noted down that, planning code is not land
use zoning, although in some countries and places it is treated as the same way. For the purpose of
the present recommendation, elements of Zoning Regulation and Building by-laws will not form
the part of this code. Similarly, Architectural code should not be confused for an architectural
design code.
The other aspect to be mentioned is the non consideration of high rise buildings in the existing
code.
One of the important aspects for the Architectural Code is the big differences in the architectural
expression in different geographical area of the country. Certain recommendations to this aspect
will also from the part of this report. In the above context, the updated code is suggested to be the
guide in preparing the by-laws of different municipalities and VDCs.
The following recommendations based on the above with certain new elements are proposed to be
considered while updating the existing NNBC 206: 2003 Architectural Design Requirements,
considering the present context of the country.
Recommendations for updating of the existing Building Code.
A. Division of the country in three different geographical zones for formulation of
Architectural code. An alternate suggestion for division of zones is;
1. Himalayan and Inner Himalayan Zone. (Altitude. > 3,000 m)
2. Hill and Mountain Zone. (Altitude 400-3000m)
3. Terai Zone (alt >70m <400 m)
B. Define Building Categories (or Class) based on buildings materials, uses and life span.

C. Recommendation matrix.
Three different alternatives are recommended for three different geographical zones.
S. No. Elements of building Particular Additional for buildings of Public
and neighborhood dimensional aspects mass assembly type. (Buildings of
planning. community use, industrial type and
others)
1 2 3 4
1. Doors and Exists minimum width and i. Total width of the entry and exit
height doors depending upon the
maximum number of users at one
time.
ii. Direction of opening.
iii. Emergency doors with signage.
2. Rooms. i. Height. i. Height.
(including offices, ii. Minimum area and ii. Minimum area and proportion of
kitchen, stores, attics proportion of length to breadth.
mezzanine floors, length to breadth. iii.Relation between the volume and
basements etc) maximum number of users of the
space at one time.
3. Openings for light and i. Provision of natural i. Provision of natural light
ventilation. light ii. Minimum area of openings for
ii. Minimum area of light and ventilation.
openings for light and
ventilation.
4. Steps and Stairs i. Riser and treads i. Total width of the stairs in relation
ii. Total number of to the maximum number of users
steps in one flight. served at one time.
iii. Width for different ii. Provisions for physically disabled.
type of buildings. iii. Emergency stairs and signage.
iv. provision of hand
rails and its height.
5. Lift i. Length, breadth and i. Total number of lift units and total
height of capacity in the structure.
compartment. ii. Provisions in high rise buildings.
ii. Ventilation and light
6. Parapet Height height
 S. No. Elements of building Particular Additional for buildings of Public
and neighborhood dimensional aspects mass assembly type. (Buildings of
planning. community use, industrial type and
others)
7. Corridors and i. Width vs. number of i. Width vs. number of users and total
emergency exits users and total length.
length. ii. Light and ventilation
ii. Light and iii. Emergency exits.
ventilation. iv. Non smoking stairs.
8. Plinth Height from the road Height from the road level.
level.
9. Roof Pitch Slope and maximum Slope and maximum slope length.
slope length.
10. Rain water Gutter Gutter outlets from Gutter outlets from buildings.
buildings.
11. Access to Width of access road in Total width of access road in relation
neighborhood. relation to its length. to the accumulation of people..
12. Right of way and Distance from the Distance from the center of the road.
building line. center of the road.
13. Cul-de-Sacs. Condition of inclusion. Condition of inclusion.
14. Pedestrians. Pedestrian path in Pedestrian path in neighborhood
neighborhood road. road.
15. Open spaces Provision of individual Provision community open space.
and community open
space.
16. Storm drainage. Provision of drainage Provision of drainage and outlet.
and outlet.
17. Cultural aspects. Due consideration, to the cultural sites like heritage, monument,
and spaces valued as a cultural property, be followed & as
necessary as specified in Monumental Zone bylaws or any such
regulations of specific municipalities, VDC or settlements.
18. Below ground space i. Particular uses
ii. Height and Width of Entry and Exits
iii. Light, height and ventilation in the space.
19. Vehicle Parking -- Parking for Minimum number of
vehicles.
20. Space associated with -- Safety measures in design
hazardous materials

D. High Rise buildings.

The above item wise recommendations will be applied to high rise buildings separately
including the separating distance between high rise structures.
Aspects of i) Light, ii) ventilation and iii) emergency exit (smokeless stairs) will be
specified for high rise buildings separately. The rest will be treated in the general
design requirement part of the code.

E. Other important aspects.

C. Ample sketches and drawings will be included interpreting the articles wherever
applicable.
Definition of different parts of building which will be mentioned in the code needs to be
clearly given in the new code.
 Appendix-10: Review of NNBC 207: 2003
(Electrical Design Requirements for Public Buildings)
Background
Electrical service is a part of the building services which turns building shell into a habitable one.
But, if the electrical equipment and wiring are improperly installed and if neglected, electricity
itself may pose hazard. Electrical code sets out rules by which everyone, by law, should adhere to
when working with electricity or installing and maintaining electrical equipment.

Electrical codes are not well developed in Nepal. Even in such circumstances, the preparation of
Electrical Design Requirements for Public Buildings, NBC 207-2003 as a part of Nepal National
Building Code, is a praiseworthy work. Codes all over the world are revised and developed
regularly. In this context, the update of Nepal National Building code is necessary and help shall
be taken from other national building codes developed by other countries. Keeping in mind that
Nepal National Building code should be understandable and easy to use for the general public,
efforts have been made to congregate information as much as possible.

General
The Electrical Design Requirements for Public Buildings, NNBC-207-2003 has covered most of
the aspects related with the Building code. But it would be easier to use the code, if following
basic points were included:
terminology,
graphical symbols,
tables, and
drawings etc,.

Secondly, instead of referring to other foreign codes, which are not easily accessible to general
public, it would be better to include the full text of the codes in NNBC as far as possible.

Thirdly, the Safety Procedures and Practices has to be included.

Proximity of the buildings from the electric lines,
Standard Voltage and its allowable deviations,
Prohibition of building construction below electric lines,
Installation of a danger board on every switch board above 230 V.
Installation of Primary First Aid method board on every sub-station.

Planning of Electrical Installations:

The code should include following basic tasks while planning and designing an electrical
installation :-

1. type of occupancy;
2. type of supply;
3. earthing;
4. load;
5. atmospheric condition;
6. degree of protection;
7. future increase of load;
8. maintenance and safety aspects;
9. energy consumption;
10. continuity of supply;
11. Energy Conservation,
12. Alternative energy sources during emergencies
13. need for radio and telecommunication interference suppression;
14. Comparison of costs of various alternative variants.

Electrical apparatus
All Electrical Apparatus shall be suitable for the services what they are intended for.

Co-ordination
i) Clients may have their own view and requirements. Hence, before starting of wiring and
installation, the collection of views from Architecture /Electrical Contractor, the local
supply Authority` along with the client would be of utmost importance.
ii) In the clause "Load Centre and Centre of Gravity of Building, the availability of the
power lines nearby may also be kept in view while deciding the location of the Substation.

Capacity and Size of sub-station

Tables of the area required for transformer room and substation for different capacities along with
the table of Additional area required for Generator in electric substation should be included.

As per the Indian Standard, the Requirements of Rooms shall considered following points:-
i) Rooms shall be provided with windows and independent access doors ;
ii) Rooms shall have partitions up to the ceiling with proper ventilation.
iii) Transformer floors shall have proper ventilation and where necessary louvers at lower
level and exhaust fans at higher level shall be provided at suitable locations.
iv) In order to prevent storm water entering the transformer and switch rooms through the
soak-pits, the floor level of the substation shall be at least 15cm above the highest flood
water level that may be anticipated in the locality.
v) The minimum height of the high voltage switchgear room shall be 3.6m.

Location of Switch Room

In large installations, where a substation is provided, a separate switch room shall be provided.
This shall be located as closely as possible to the electrical load centre and suitable ducts shall be
laid with minimum number of bends from the point of entry of the main supply cable to the
position of the main switchgear. The switch room shall also be placed in such a position that rising
ducts may readily be provided there from to the upper floors of the building in one straight vertical
run. In larger buildings, more than one rising duct may be required and then horizontal ducts may
also be required for running cables from the switch room to the foot of each rising main. Such
cable ducts shall be reserved for the electrical services only which may, however, include medium
and low voltage installations, such as call-bell systems; telephone installations, should be suitably
segregated. Location and Requirements of distribution Panels should be mentioned in the code.

Distribution of Supply and Cabling :

In the field of building construction high rise buildings is a new development, mainly in the cities.
So, the time has come to include in NNBC the use of high voltage distribution system of supply in
the buildings.

Following clauses and points should be included:

1. All electrical apparatus should be suitable for the voltage and frequency of supply.
2. In very large industrial buildings where electricity is supplied at high voltage from the main
substation, selection of high voltage switchgear should be done under the following consideration-
voltage of supply system;
prospective short-circuit current at the point of supply;
size and layout of electrical installation;
accommodation available; and
nature of industry.
Making and breaking capacity of switchgear

Cables
Code for laying of the H.T. cables depending upon the specific requirements should be given.

Transformer
Code for selection of the maximum size of transformer used to supply a medium voltage
installation from a high voltage network should be mentioned e.g..
present load;
possible future load;
operation and maintenance cost and other system conditions; and
short-circuit making and breaking capacity of the switchgear used for controlling the
medium voltage distribution system.

Low Voltage Switchgear

Criteria for selecting the Switchgear and fuse gear in relation to the capacity of the
transformers ultimately to be connected is necessary to include.
It should be mentioned that Isolation and protection of outgoing circuits forming main
distribution system may be effected by means of circuit-breakers, or fuses or switch and
fuse units mounted on the main switchboard. The choice between alternative types of
equipment may be influenced by the following considerations-
i) In certain installations supplied with electric power from remote transformer
substations, it may be necessary to protect main circuits with circuit-breakers
operated by earth leakage trips, in order to ensure effective earth fault protection.
ii) In installations where overloading of circuits may be considered unlikely, HRC
type fuses will normally afford adequate protection for main circuits. Where means
of isolating main circuits separately is required, the fuses shall be mounted in fuse
switch or switch fuse units or with switches forming part of the switchboards.
iii) It is better to mention the requirement of:
passages to all the switchboards for operation and maintenance;
providing of proper means for isolating the equipment;
sufficient additional space for anticipated future extensions.
 Keeping in view the safety of people, it is necessary to mention that all electrical
installations in a room or cubicle or in an area surrounded by wall fence, access to which is
controlled by lock and key shall be considered accessible to authorized persons only.

Reception and Distribution of Main supply

1. All main switches shall be either of metal-clad enclosed pattern or of any Insulated
enclosed pattern which shall be fixed at close proximity to the point of entry of supply.
2. Safety should be in first priority while fixing the location of main board and switchboards.
Hence, following criteria are recommended to mention in the code:
a) Easy accessibility for firemen and other personnel to quickly disconnect the supply in
case of emergencies;
b) selection of the location keeping in view safety against operation by unauthorized
personnel;
c) installation of open type switchboards away from storage batteries or places exposed
to chemical fumes.
d) switchboard should be totally enclosed or made flame proof while installing in damp
situation or where inflammable or explosive dust, vapor or gas is likely to be present;
e) proximity of switchboards while erecting above gas stoves or sinks or any washing
unit in the washing rooms or laundries, or in bathrooms, lavatories or toilets, or
kitchens.
f) conditions to be fulfilled in case of fixing the switchboards unavoidably in places
likely to be exposed to weather, to drip, or in abnormal moist atmosphere;
g) Adequate illumination shall be provided for all working spaces about the
switchboards when installed indoors.

3. Metal-clad switchgear shall preferably be mounted on any of the following types of

boards: e.g. hinged-type metal boards, Fixed-type, Wooden boards etc.

4 Along with building drawings before proceeding with the actual construction of the boards,
a proper drawing showing the detailed dimensions and design including the disposition of
the mountings should be prepared.

5. Code for Arrangement of apparatus should be mentioned; e.g.

a) Equipment which is in front of a switchboard;

b) Projection of apparatus and proximity of fuse body and unnecessary holes from the
edge of the panel;
c) Spacing of the live parts from non-hygroscopic, non-inflammable insulating
material;
d) Arrangement of gear according to its accessibility and connections to all
instruments and apparatus shall also be easily identifiable.
e) In every case in which switches and fuses are fitted on the same pole, these fuses
shall be so arranged that the fuses are not alive when their respective switches are
in off position.
f) No fuses other than fuses in instrument circuit shall be fixed on the back of or
behind a switchboard panel or frame.

Location of Distribution Boards

 a) The distribution fuse-boards shall be located as near as possible to the centre of the load
they are intended to control.

b) These shall be fixed on suitable stanchion or wall and shall be accessible for
replacement of fuses, and shall not be more than 2m from floor level.

c) These shall be either metal-clad type, or all-insulated type. But, if exposed to weather
or damp situations, these shall be of the weatherproof type and, if installed where
exposed to explosive dust, vapor or gas, these shall be of flame proof type. In corrosive
atmospheres, these shall be treated with anti-corrosive preservative or covered with
suitable plastic compound.

d) Where two or more distribution fuse - boards feeding low voltage circuits are fed from a
supply of medium voltage, these distribution boards shall be:
1. fixed not less than 2m apart; or
2. arranged so that it is not possible to open two at a time , namely, they are
interlocked and the metal case is marked 'Danger 400 volts' and identified with
proper phase marking and danger marks; or
3. installed in a room or enclosure accessible to only authorized persons.

e) All distribution boards shall be marked 'Lighting' or 'Power', as the case may be, and
also marked with the voltage and number of phases of the supply, Each shall be
provided with a circuit list giving diagram of each circuit which it controls and the
current rating of the circuit and size of fuse element.

f) In wiring branch distribution board, total load of consuming devices shall be divided
as far as possible evenly between the number of ways in the board leaving spare
circuits for future extension.

Circuits and Protection of Circuits

Main distribution board

Main distribution board shall be provided with a circuit-breaker on each pole of each circuit, or a
switch with a fuse on the phase or live conductor and a link on the neutral or earthed conductor of
each circuit. The switches shall always be linked.

Branch Distribution Boards

Quality or reliability of supply depends upon the proper division of circuits. This part is found
omitted in NNBC.

In this connection, Electrical Installation Guide 2009 published by Schneider Electric, Electrical
Installation of Bureau of Indian Standards and Structure of National Building Code of NEC are
presented for reference.

In Electrical Installation Guide 2009 published by Schneider Electric, ,Chapter P: Residential and
other special locations, following points are recommended:
Subdivision of circuits should be according to the number of utilization categories in the
installation concerned.
At least one circuit for lighting. Each circuit supplying a maximum of 8 lighting points.
 At least one circuit for socket-outlets rated 10/16 A, each circuit supplying a maximum of
8 sockets. These sockets may be single or double units (a double unit is made up of two
10/16 A sockets mounted on a common base in an embedded box, identical to that of a
single unit).
One circuit for each appliance such as water heater, washing machine, cooker, refrigerator
etc.
It further recommends the number of 10/16A (or similar) socket-outlets and fixed lighting points,
according to the use for which the various rooms of a dwelling are intended.

Table:-1
Room function Minimum number of Minimum number of 10/16A
fixed lighting points socket-outlets.
Living room 1 5
Bed room, lounge, bureau, 1 3
Dinning room.
Kitchen 2 4(1)
Bathroom, shower room 2 1 or 2
Entrance hall, box room 1 1
WC, storage space 1 -
Laundry room - 1
Note:- (1) Of which 2 above the working surface and 1 for a specialized circuit. In addition an
independent socket-outlet of 16A or 20A for cooker and a junction box or socket-outlet for a 32A
specialized circuit.

The Bureau of Indian Standards presents the above table in following way:

Table:-2 A recommended schedule of socket-outlets in a residential building (As per Bureau of

Indian Standard)
Location Number of 5A socket-outlets Number of 15A socket-
outlets
Bed room 2 to 3 1
Living room 2 to 3 2
Kitchen 1 2
Dinning room 2 1
Garage 1 1
Refrigerator 1
Air-conditioner One for each
Verandah 1 per 10m 1
Bathroom 1 1

As per the Bureau of Indian Standards :

Branch distribution boards shall be provided with a fuse or a miniature circuit breaker or both
of adequate rating/setting on the live conductor shall be connected to a common link and be
capable of being, disconnected individually for testing purposes. At least, one spare circuit of
the same capacity shall be provided on each branch distribution board.

In residential installation, lights and fans may be wired on a common circuit. Such sub-circuit
shall not have more than a total of ten points of lights, fans and 5A socket outlets. The load of
such circuit shall be restricted to 800 watts. If a separate fan circuit is provided, the number of
 fans in the circuit shall not exceed ten. Power sub-circuits shall be designed according to the
load but in no case shall there be more than two 15A outlets on each sub-circuit.

In industrial installations, the branch distribution board shall be totally segregated for single-
phase distribution and wiring.

In industrial and other similar installations requiring the use of group control for switching
operation circuits for socket outlets may be kept separate from fans and lights. Normally, fans
and lights may be wired on a common circuit, however, if need is felt separate circuits may be
provided for the two. The load on any low voltage sub-circuit shall not exceed 3,000 watts. In
a case of new installation, all circuits and sub-circuits shall be designed by making a provision
of 20 percent increase in load due to any future modification. Power sub-circuits shall be
designed according to the load but in no case shall there be more than four outlets on each sub-
circuit.

In the same way, in this Chapter Protection of Circuits, the Bureau of Indian Standards states
that:
a) Appropriate protection shall be provided at switchboards and distribution boards for all
circuits and sub-circuits against short circuit and over current and the protective apparatus
shall be capable of interrupting any short circuit current that may occur, without danger.
The ratings and settings of fuses and the protective devices shall be coordinated so as to
afford selectivity in operation.

b) Where circuit-breakers are used for protection of a main circuit and of the sub-circuits
derived there from, discrimination in operation may be achieved by adjusting the
protective devices of the sub main circuit-breakers to operate at lower current settings and
shorter time-lag than the main circuit-breaker.

c) Where HRC type fuses are used for back-up protection of circuit-breakers, or where
HRC fuses are used for protection of main circuits, and circuit-breakers for the protection
of sub-circuits derived there from, in the event of short-circuits protection exceeding the
short-circuits capacity of the circuit-breakers, the HRC fuses shall operate earlier than the
circuit-breakers; but for smaller overloads within the short-circuit capacity of the circuit-
breakers, the circuit-breakers shall operate earlier than the HRC fuse blows.

d) If rewirable type fuses are used to protect sub-circuits derived from a main circuit
protected by HRC type fuses, the main circuit fuse shall normally blow in the event of a
short-circuit, although discrimination may be achieved in respect of overload currents. The
use of rewirable fuses is restricted to the circuits with short-circuit level of 4 kA; for higher
level either cartridge or HRC fuses shall be used.

e) A fuse carrier shall not be fitted with a fuse element larger than that for which the carrier is
designed.

f) The current rating of a fuse shall not exceed the current rating of the smallest cable in the
circuit protected by the fuse.

g) Every fuse shall have its own case or cover for the protection of the circuit and an indelible
indication of its appropriate current rating in an adjacent conspicuous position.
9.6
9.7 National Electric Code (NEC) in Structure of National Building Code (NBC) Articles
210 addresses "branch circuits" (as opposed to service or feeder circuits) and
receptacles and fixtures on branch circuits. There are requirements for the minimum
number of branches, and placement of receptacles, according to the location and
purpose of the receptacle outlet.
9.8 It suggests that a ground fault circuit interrupter (GFCI) is required for all receptacles
in wet locations, e.g: outlets in bathrooms, outdoors and kitchens, and, in addition, for
dwelling units: crawl-spaces, garages, unfinished basements, and within 6 feet (1.8 m)
of a wet-bar sink, with limited exceptions. The NEC also has rules about such things as
how many circuits and receptacles/outlets should be placed in a given residential
dwelling, and how far apart they can be in a given type of room, based upon the typical
cord-length of small appliances (for example, not more than 12 feet (3.66 m) apart, or 4
feet (1.22m) apart on kitchen countertops).
9.9
Safety device introduced with the 1999 code is the arc-fault circuit interrupter (AFCI). This device
detects arcs from hot to neutral that can develop when insulation between wires becomes frayed or
damaged. While arcs from hot to neutral would not trip a GFCI device since current is still
balanced, circuitry in an AFCI device detects those arcs and will shut down a circuit. AFCI
devices generally replace the circuit breaker in the circuit. They are required in new construction
on all 15A, 20A circuits to bedrooms, where most arc fault fires originate.

Rating of Cables and Equipments-

Current Rating of the Distribution Fuse Board should be mentioned in the code.

Lighting and Level of Illumination

9.10 As per the Facilities Standards for the Public Buildings Service of the US General
Administration Service, the lighting should be designed to enhance both the overall
building architecture as well as the effect of individual spaces within the building.
9.11
Interior Lighting - Consideration should be given to the options offered by direct lighting,
indirect lighting, down lighting, up lighting and lighting from wall or floor-mounted fixtures.
9.12 Illumination Levels - For lighting levels for interior spaces values are given in the Table-
3 below.
9.13
Table-3 Interior Illumination Levels (Average)

Area Nominal Illumination Level in

Lumens/Square Meter (lux)

Office Space

Normal work station space, open or closed offices1 500

ADP Areas 500

Conference Rooms 300

Training Rooms 500

Area Nominal Illumination Level in
Lumens/Square Meter (lux)

Internal corridors 200

Auditoria 150-200

Public Areas
Entrance Lobbies, Atria 200
Elevator Lobbies, Public Corridors 200

Ped. Tunnels and Bridges 200

Stairwells 200

Support Spaces
Toilets 200
Staff Locker Rooms 200
Storage Rooms, Janitors Closets 200
Electrical Rooms, Generator Rooms 200
Mechanical Rooms 200
Communications Rooms 200
Maintenance Shops 200
Loading Docks 200
Trash Rooms 200
Specialty Areas
Dining Areas 150-200
Kitchens
Kitchens 500
Out leased Space 500
Physical Fitness Space 500
Child Care Centers 500
Structured Parking, General Space 50
Structured Parking, Intersections 100
Structured Parking, Entrances 500
1
Level assumes a combination of task and ceiling lighting where systems furniture is
used. (This may include a combination of direct/indirect fixtures at the ceiling for
ambient lighting.)
NOTE: To determine footcandles (fc), divide lux amount by 11.
9.14
9.15 Accessibility for Servicing. Careful consideration must be taken in the design of lighting
systems regarding servicing of the fixtures and replacement of tubes or bulbs. This
issue needs to be discussed with building operation staff to determine the dimensional
limits of servicing equipment.

Light Sources. Generally, interior lighting should be fluorescent. Downlights should be compact
fluorescent; high bay lighting should be high intensity discharge (HID) type. HID can also be an
appropriate source for indirect lighting of high spaces. However, it should not be used in spaces
where instantaneous control is important, such as conference rooms, auditoria or courtrooms.

Dimming can be accomplished with incandescent, fluorescent or HID fixtures, although HID and
fluorescent dimmers should not be used where harmonics constitute a problem. Incandescent
lighting should be used sparingly. It is appropriate where special architectural effects are desired.

It is essential that adequate provision shall be made for all the electrical services which may be
required immediately and during the intended useful life of the building.

Indian Bureau of Standards refers that when considering the function of artificial lighting,
attention shall be given to:

a. illumination and its uniformity;

b. special distribution of light. This includes a reference to the composition of diffused and
directional light, direction of incidence, the distribution of luminance and the degree of glare;
and
c. colour of the light and colour radiation.
1. The variety of purposes which have to be kept in mind while planning the lighting
installation could be broadly grouped as:

a. industrial buildings and processes;

b. offices, schools and public buildings;
c. surgeries and hospitals; and
d. hostels, restaurants, shops and residential buildings.

2. It is important that appropriate levels of illumination for these and the types and positions
of fittings determined to suit the task and the disposition of the working plans.

Electrical System Standards and Design Guidelines, Wisconsin Department of

Administration Division of State Facilities (DSF) suggests that;

General Design

The lighting design shall be practical, energy-efficient, easy to maintain, and appropriate for
the intended function of the space.
The lighting design for new and renovated buildings with windows and significant daytime
occupancies require careful coordination between the lighting designer and the architect.

Interior Lighting

Lighting of interior areas shall utilize fluorescent lighting sources. Incandescent or HID
sources shall be used only for specific isolated applications and justified by program or usage.
For ambient lighting design, utilize 4 T8 lamps as much as possible. For ease of maintenance
and lamp storage requirements, the lighting design should utilize a minimum number of
different lamp types. Minimize the use of 2 fixtures,
Indirect/direct fixtures shall be used in day lighted zones per DSF Daylighting Standards for
State Facilities guidelines. When the recommended indirect or direct/indirect lighting system
is not applicable, use parabolic fixtures for ambient lighting.
For the DSF Daylighting Standards for State Facilities guidelines, low-wattage task lighting
shall be an essential component of the lighting design. The lighting designer, architect, user
agency, and DSF project manager shall discuss and reach a common understanding as to the
task lighting that will be provided. DSF recommends task lighting be fixed where possible,
and utilize low-wattage fluorescent lamps.
For high/low bay applications such as gymnasiums, warehouses, swimming pools and shop
areas, consider the use of fluorescent fixtures with specular reflectors. Otherwise, utilize
enclosed metal halide fixtures, especially if area is subject to dirt or dust.
Proper design provisions shall be made to ensure that adequate support for mounting of
lighting fixtures is present. Add fixture mounting details to drawings, as appropriate.
Exterior Lighting

Outdoor lighting shall use metal halide lamps (design based on pulse-start lamps). A different
lamp source may be used if needed to match existing lamps.
Exterior lighting shall typically be fed from panels in an adjacent building, and shall be
controlled by a photocell, time clock, or campuswide lighting signal system.
Outdoor lighting system design shall utilize cutoff type fixtures which minimize the amount of
lamp lumens which are emitted above the horizontal plane of the fixture and which minimize
the spillage onto adjacent facilities.

Lighting Controls

Lighting controls and switching shall be kept simple, inexpensive, and easy-to-maintain.
Architectural lighting control systems (scene lighting controls), low-voltage switching
systems, digital control systems, or whole-building programmable control systems utilizing
multiple control panels, shall be used only when necessary. These systems may be considered
only for lighting control in lecture halls, auditoriums and theaters, for switching of large areas,
or for specific energy-saving requirements.
Keep usage of dimming controls to a minimum (only when necessary per program).
Occupancy sensors shall be used as much as practical (occupancy sensors shall typically be
used for required automatic light shut-off instead of central time-clock control or central
energy-management system control). Consider their use in all restrooms, classrooms,
conference rooms, open office spaces, individual offices, and corridors. Use infrared or
passive sound detection occupancy sensors (or combination of these types) only, - no
ultrasonic sensors allowed.
Day lighting/photo sensors shall be used to provide stepped or multilevel on-off switching of
lighting in daylight areas. Care shall be taken in setting up the control sequence to prevent
short cycling of the controls.
Single offices shall typically be provided with 3-lamp fixtures, with bi-level switching of the
inboard and outboard lamps. Provide a wall-mounted occupancy sensor located at the door.
For day light single offices, photo sensors which provide stepped day-lighting control shall be
considered (occupancy sensor shall over-ride photo sensors).
Consider digital timer switches for storage areas, closets, and electrical/mechanical rooms.
(Fixtures in electrical/mechanical rooms shall be fed by emergency generator circuits).
For campus lecture halls and auditoriums, coordinate lighting design with the audio/visual
technology requirements. Speaker/instructor area lighting, projection screen lighting, and
note-taking lighting shall be considered.

Egress / Emergency / Night Lighting

Emergency lighting shall powered by circuits from a buildings emergency (generator) system.
Emergency battery lighting units shall only be used in buildings without a backup generator.
It is the intention of DSF that egress or emergency lighting be illuminated for those portions of
a building that are, in fact, occupied. To prevent the illumination of egress or emergency
lighting during times that an area is not occupied, DSF recommends the use of occupancy
sensors to provide automatic shut-off of this lighting. Lighting shall be installed in an un-
switched night-lighting mode only when necessary (security applications).
For another method of controlling emergency lighting, consider the use of transfer switch
devices which switch the AC ballast from a switched normal circuit to a generator circuit, -
avoiding wiring emergency fixtures as nightlight fixtures.
4. Wiring
In this heading, the code includes many clauses especially from the Bureau of Indian
Standards. But still following points, which are based on NEC, are better to be
considered:

4.1. Consideration of the voltage drop while calculating and selecting the cable size and fuse.

4.2. Cross-sectional-area (c.s.a.) of conductors

The c.s.a. of conductors and the rated current of the associated protective device depend on:-

a) the current magnitude of the circuit,

b) the ambient temperature,
c) the kind of installation, and
d) the influence of neighbouring circuits .

Moreover, the conductors for the phase wires, the neutral and the protective conductors of
a given circuit must all be of equal c.s.a. (assuming the same material for the conductors
concerned, i.e. all copper or all aluminum).

The following table indicates the c.s.a. required for commonly-used appliances Protective
devices 1 phase +N in 2x9 mm spaces comply with requirements for isolation, and for
marking of circuit current rating and conductor sizes.

Table-4
c.s.a. of conductors and current rating of the protective devices in residential installations
(c.s.a. of aluminum conductors are shown in brackets)

Type of circuit 1- c.s.a. of conductors Maximum Protective device

phase 230V power
1-ph+N or 1 ph+PE
Fixed lightning 1.5 mm2 2,300W Circuit-breaker 16 A
(2.5mm2) Fuse 10 A
10/16 A 2.5 mm2 4,600 W Circuit breaker 25 A
(4 mm2) Fuse 20 A
Indivisual load circuits
Water heater 2.5 mm2 4,600 W Circuit breaker 25 A
(4 mm2) Fuse 20 A
Clothes-washing machine 2.5 mm2 4,600 W Circuit breaker 25 A
(4 mm2) Fuse 20 A
Cooker or hotplate1 6 mm2 7,300 W Circuit-breaker 40 A
(10 mm2) Fuse 32 A
Electric space heater 1.5 mm2 2,300 W Circuit-breaker 16A
(2.5 mm2) Fuse 10 A
Note- (1) In a 230/400 V, 3-phase circuit, the c.s.a. is 4 mm2 for copper or 6 mm2 for
aluminium, and protection is provided by a 3d2 A circuit breaker or by 25 A fuses.

Layout and Installation Drawing:

National Rules for Electrical Installation, Third Edition Amendment No.1, Electro-Technical
Council of Ireland Limited 2001 suggests that:

Wiring shall be so arranged and fixed that it cannot be used to support items such as
clothing.
In attic spaces, care shall be taken to lay wiring in an orderly manner and in such a way as
to minimize the risk of damage to the wiring.
The earthing contact in a socket-outlet shall be connected to the protective conductor. The
metal enclosure of a socket-outlet shall be connected to the protective conductor; fixing
screws shall not be used for this purpose.

Laws, Rules and Wiring Standards of North Dakota states that:

Electrical Installations shall be planned to provide adequate capacity for the load.
Wiring system shall have conductors of sufficient capacity to furnish each outlet without
excessive line loss or voltage drop. The voltage drop shall not exceed five percent at the
farthest outlet of power, heating and lighting loads or combinations of such loads.
Material shall be listed by nationally recognized testing laboratories to safeguard life and
property. It is the duty of the electrical installer to secure permission from the executive
director to use materials, devices, and methods of installation not specifically covered by
these standards.
When wiring public school buildings approval shall be received from the department of
public instruction and the state electrical board.
Overhead conductors shall not cross over water wells or known sites where water wells
may be drilled. A minimum distance of 6.10m in all directions shall be maintained for
overhead conductors.
All hospitals, nursing homes, and related patient care areas along with dormitories
designed to house more than sixteen people shall be wired in metal raceway. Portable
cleaning equipment receptacle outlets shall be installed in corridors and located so that no
point in the corridor along the floor line, measured horizontally, is more than 7.62 m from
an outlet, spacing of receptacle outlets for dormitories and assisted living shall be
conformity with section 210.60,2005 edition, NEC.
In the wiring of nursing homes and hospitals, reference shall be made to the state
department health for special requirements pertaining to operating rooms, delivery rooms,
and emergency lighting.
All electrical wiring shall be copper. No aluminum or copper clad aluminum wire shall be
installed in any electrical installation without written permission from the chief electrical
inspector prior to installation.

Kelly Smith in Typical Electrical Building Code writes that:

While planning general requirements for wiring an installation position of wall- light switches
in the rooms such as bed room, kitchen, dinning room etc shall be stated. Here is an example
of that:

a) Bedrooms, living rooms and dinning room

Wall light switch should be provided near the entry door,

Each wall must have at least one receptacle.
One or more receptacles must be provided in 4m of interval.
 Light fixtures must of on 15 ampere circuit.

b) Kitchen

Larger appliances such as refrigerator should be placed on dedicated circuits.

Receptacles above countertops used for small kitchen appliances must be GFCI
receptacles, controlled by two 20 amp circuits.

c) Electric wiring for Bathroom

Bathroom is a damp environment. Hence receptacles should be GFCI-protected.

Lights must be protected with a globe or something similar to keep moisture at bay.
Depending on amperage use, heaters, lights and fans must be on their own circuits.
d) Outdoor use
It must be underground feed cable (UF) or sealed conduit must be used.

e) Bathrooms and showers.

Bathrooms and showers rooms are area of high risk, because of the very low resistance of
the human body when or immersed in water. Precaution to be taken, are therefore
correspondingly rigorous, and the regulations are more severe than those for most other
locations.

Fittings and Accessories

This part is found missing in the NNBC.

EARTHING
In this Chapter, following clauses should be considered in the code.

Equipment to be Earthed Except for equipment provided with double insulation, all the non-
current carrying metal parts of electrical installations are to be earthed properly. All metal
conduits, trunking, cable sheaths, switchgear, distribution fuseboards, lighting fittings and all other
parts made of metal shall be bended toghethcr and connected by means of two separate and
distinct conductors to an efficient earth electrtode.

Structural Metal Work Earthing of the metallic parts shall not be effected through any
structural metal work which houses the installation. Where metallic parts of the installation are not
required to be earthed and are liable to become alive should the insulations of conductors become
defective, such metallic parts shall be separated by durable non-conducting material from any
structural work.

System of EarthingEquipment and portions of installations shall be deemed to be earthed only

if earthed in accordance with either the direct earthing system, the multiple earthed neutral system
or the earth leakage circuit-breaker system.

Drawings of earthing should be attached.

Telecommunication and other services

In this chapter following codes are required to be considered:
 House wiring of telephone subscribers offices in small buildings is normally undertaken by the
Telephone Department on the surface of walls. But in large multi-storied buildings intended
for commercial, business and office use as well as for residential purposes, wiring for
telephone connections is generally done in a concealed manner through conduits.

The requirements of telecommunication facilities like Telephone connections, Private Branch

Exchange, Intercommunication facilities. Telex and Telegraph lines are to be planned well in
advance so that suitable provisions are made in the building plan in such a way that the
demand for telecommunication services in any part of the building at any floor are met at any
time during the life of the building.
Layout arrangements, methods for internal block wiring and other requirements regarding
provisions of space, etc, may be decided defending as the number of phone outlets and other
details in consultation with Engineer/Architect and user.
Common Antenna System for TV Receivers
In multistoried apartments, houses and hotels where many TV receivers are located, a common
master antenna system may preferably be used to avoid mushrooming of individual antennas.
Master antenna is generally provided at the top most convenient point in any building and a
suitable room on the top most floor or terrace for housing the amplifier unit, etc, may also be
provided in consultation with the architect/engineer.
From the amplifier rooms, conduits are laid in recess to facilitate drawing coaxial cable to
individual flats. Suitable 'Tap Off boxes may be provided in every room/flat as required.

Lightning Protection of Building

Lightning is a natural hazard that causes serious economical losses and personal injuries and
deaths in many parts of the world. In the world, over 20,000 people are affected by lightning and
succumbed to injuries every year. The number of people survive with life-time injuries, temporary
disabilities and psychological trauma may be several times more than that.Nepal is prone to
lightning hazards. So, protection from lightning is one of the important factors to consider in
building code.

Under this chapter, it is necessary to point out the structures which need to be protected from
lightning. For example, Schools, hospitals, auditoria etc are places where a large number of people
congregate; Brick buildings or buildings with thatched roof which have greater degree of risk of
lightning stroke; relatively exposed buildings; buildings of hilly or mountainous area etc.

For the assessment of the lightning hazards, risk index with explanation should be given in the
tabular form in the code. In addition to these methods, protection from lightning also is
recommended to include.
Appendix-11: REVIEW & RECOMMENDATION FOR
REVISION OF NNBC (NNBC 208:2003) SANITARY AND
PLUMBING DESIGN REQUIREMENTS
10 1. INTRODUCTION TO PLUMBING SERVICES IN NNBC FOR REVISION AND
UPDATE

The section SANITARY AND PLUMBING SERVICES shall cover the basic
requirements for water supply, sanitation, gas supply, A/C, Ventilation, Chimneys, fire
fighting hose and pipelines, drainage and sewerage for residential, high rise buildings,
government office complexes, business, Industrial buildings and urban areas. The Water
Supply and Sanitation Code shall cover from city dwellings, to commercial complexes and
traffic terminal stations. It shall cover and deal with general requirements of plumbing
connected to municipal water supply and sanitation system.

Apart from the water supply it should cover the design, layout, construction, and
maintenance of drains for foul water, surface water, subsoil water and sewage along with
all ancillary works such as connections, manholes, inspection chambers, water storages
tanks. Each building should be connected to disposal system such as public or private
sewer or individual sewerage including cesspool, soak away or to other approved point of
disposal /treatment plants.

The section should include all the controlling design parameters for the designer to achieve
reliable water supply, sewerage disposal and treatment system design.

However, the present code of NNBC 208 disseminates valuable design parameters, but
possesses following discrepancies and inappropriate parameters and which should be
avoided during updating. They are:

Unit conversion mistakes

Missing sub headings for tables and nomograph
Lack of sample example to use code
Using consistent unit to the terminology e.g. (Residual head be referred to Meters
instead of Pressure unit)

As foreseen the requirement for update of NNBC, the consultants suggest and recommend
focusing on the following issues as well:

Rationalization of definitions, and inclusions of more terms and terminology.

Include first design parameters such as minimum and maximum flow through taps,
residual head, minimum slope, minimum cover etc
Include friction head loss diagram in form of nomograph, tables and appropriate equation.
Make provisions related to domestic hot water supply installation
Make provisions related to water supply and sanitation in high altitude and sub-zero
temperature regions of the country,
Include inspection, testing maintenance requirement.
Include sizing of rain water pipes for roof drainage in more rational basis, and techniques
for rainwater harvesting,
Requirement of refuse chute, if any
 Include a code for solid waste disposal, management and treatment, and Environmental
pollution.
Design and Installation pipes and fittings should not be encased in structural element such
as beams, slab, and columns) by chiseling or by any means.
Overhead water storage facilities for the high rise buildings must be located in consultation
with the structural designer.
Water storage facilities shall be provided for each two to three floors with separate
distribution system to each floors for the high rise building.
Provision for storing rainwater in the highest floor is recommended and its uses be limited
to flushing of toilets, fire fighting and cleaning and its overflow be connected to the ground
water recharge well.
Water treatment and waste treatment is a must for the high-rise building. No wastewater
and sewerage be allowed to dispose in the public sewer untreated.

With due consideration to above facts, a comprehensive design code could be formulated
which shall be user friendly and comfortable in adaptation and use of NNBC.

The NNBC Section-208 is thoroughly studied for commenting and compared with other codes
such as National Building code of India-1970, and 2005, International Building Code
(International Plumbing Code), Byelaws prepared by DUDBC/Town development
committees, WHO publications and requirements. However, due to unavailability of latest
International Plumbing Code, the comparison of NNBC code could not be done. Besides,
International Plumbing code, NNBC has been compared and checked with Water Treatment
Hand Book: Degremont 1979.

The findings and inferences, problems and issues derived during study are written in
commentary and suggestion form with articles related in the NNBC publication. All these
issues and problems are to be resolved and updated by the concern through the panel
discussions on the raised issues and shall be adopted in future in the revised code. Thus
specific technical details, languages, spellings and grammar concerning the Plumbing
Services are discussed below with the technical suggestions, formatting and comments etc.
All these suggestions are to be scrutinized by the panel of sanitary engineers, public health
engineers, and environmentalist.
TECHNICAL ISSUES AND PROBLEMS IN NNBC PART 208:

Code may be written in standard format as suggested below or in any other internationally
accepted format of IBC or UBC:

PREFACE

SCOPE

TERMINOLOGY

WATER SUPLY FORMAT FOR

REQUIREMENT APPLICATION FOR
FOR BUILDING OBTAININGFOR

DESIGN OF LICNSING
DISTRIBUTION OF PLUMBERS
SYSTEM

INSPECTION
AND TESTING
MATERIALS FITTING
AND APPLIANCES

GUIDELINES TO
MAINTENANCE
 APPENDIX: (Eg)
PIPING & 1.
DISTRIBUTION 2.
3.
4.

GENERAL
REQUIREMENT OF PIPE
WORK

LAYING OF
PIPES

JOINTING OF
PIPES

WATER STORAGE

HOT WATER SUPPLY

SYSTEM

CLEANING &
DISINFECTION

DRINKING WATER
QUALITY

SIMPLE
METHOD FOR
IMPROVING W.Q.
w.a.
1.1. NNBC : SECTION (A) WATER SUPPLY

This section deals basically with requirements of water supply, distribution and storage for
the design and construction.

In Last Line of para (1) including fire fighting may be relocated and provision/ system for
fire fighting may be separately included. However, water requirement for the fire fighting
may be included in the Water requirement table.

1.2 REVIEW WATER SUPPLY REQUIREMENTS FOR BUILDINGS:

The water requirements in each type of dwelling is studied and compared as below:

S. No. Type of Buildings Minimum Requirements per head per day

NNBC Nepal NBC-INDIA WHO/EO REMARKS
1. Apartment Buildings 100 lit 135 135 RR
2. Auditorium (per seat) 15 lit 15
3. Hospital (inc. laundry)/ bed
(a) # of beds <100 340 lit 340
(b) # of beds >100 450 lit 450
4. Cold Storage 45 lit
5. Buildings higher than 4 st. 45 lit
Commercial & Industrial
5.1 Nurses Home & Medical 135 lit. 135 RR
Quarters

RECOMMENDED
6. Residences 100 lit. 135 135 RR
7. Office 45 lit. 45
8. Hostels (Qty. for Nurses 100 135
etc.)
9. Hotels per bed 100 180 180 RR
10. Restaurants (per seat) 50 70 70 RR
11. Schools & College
(a) Day Schools 15 45
(b) Boarding Schools 100 135 135 RR
12. Cinemas, Theatre Halls, 15 lit. 15
Concert Halls (per seat)
13. Factories
(a) With bathing facilities 45 lit 45
(b) W/o bathing facilities 30 lit 30
14. Terminal Stations (Bus and 15 lit 45/23 45 RR
Railway per pass)
15. Airports (Internationals) 70 lit. 70/70
16. Airports (Domestic) 20 lit. 70/70 70 RR

Increase or decrease of water requirement depends upon flushing system of toilets. Water
requirement may be allowed to reduce for poor flush toilets. Above table gives the
glimpse of water requirement by different standards & agencies, with the consultant
remarks as RR (Note: RR means recommended for review and revision).
 While considering for any decrease in minimum water requirement will have severe impact
on the design of municipal water and sewer disposal conveyance. This issue is raised for
the panel discussions while revising the code.

2. WATER STORAGE

1st Para Last line: Storage of water within premises is thus necessary to meet peak demand
In article 2.1.8 Addition of this statement may be useful inlet pipe of the w/s line must be
connected with floating valves where municipal supply is connected to the underground or
overhead water tanks.

2.2 UNDERGROUND STORAGE

In article 2.2.2, Sizing and capacity of the tanks should be left to the designer than to
specify in the code

In article 2.2.3,Tank should not be built or placed closed to manhole, septic tank or soakpit

Minimum distance specified in the code may be increased.

Addition of this statement will be useful Inlet should be closed by floating valve.

2.3 OVERHEAD STORAGE

Addition of this statement will be useful Inlet pipe should not be closed by floating value
if pumped.

Table A2 may require revision, the designer may be allowed to determine its capacity
requirement.

Before writing above, terminology of each item needs to be mentioned in code such as:

Airlock, Air gap, Available Head, Residual Head, back flow, Backflow preventer, Back
siphon age, Branch, Cross-connections, communication pipe, consumer, consumer's pipe,
orifice, diameter, nominal diameter, direct tap, down take pipe, effective opening, feed
cistern, float operated value, check value or unidirectional value, gate value, ball valve, air
releasing value, flushing cistern, general washing place, geyser, horizontal pipe, hot water
tank or cylinders, offset, period of supply, pipe work, plinth, plumbing, potable water,
service pipe, stop cock, stop tap, storage tank, supply line, supports, terminal pressure,
vertical pipe, warning pipe, wash out value, water level, water main, water outlet, water
supply system, water works, leakage ferrules, authority having jurisdiction.

3. DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM & PIPEWORKS

In article 3.1, the formulae recommended for pipe network design is valid for pipe sizes
greater than 100 mm and higher velocity.

For internal plumbing pipe networks are based upon Darcy Weisbach equation.
 Hi 4*2f**gl**dv
2

Viz:

Where f: Head loss in meter in the section

f: friction co-efficient
l: length of pipe in m
v= velocity of flow in m/sec
g= 9.81 m/sec2
d= diameter of pipe in meter (Internal)

f is estimated by f = 0.005 1 1
400 d
: d internal diameter of pipe in m.
f for new galvanized pipe is 0.006.

Minimum discharge may be specified which may be.

Q = 0.15 liter per second in House hold taps.

Q = 0.25 lit per second in Public tap stand.

Minimum velocity of discharge

v = 1 m/s to 3m/s.

Minimum residual head = 1.8 3.5 meter (0.18 to 0.35 kgf/ cm2).

In article 3.2, Residual head of 0.018 N/ mm2 (1.8 kg/cm2 ) at consumer's tap

This statement is either mistaken in unit conversion or typo mistake, which requires
revision as such large residual head ask for large pipes and extra pumps will be required to
generate such a high head.

Hazen Williams formulae

v = 0.85 C R0.63 S0.54 can be used for Turbulent flow above 3 liter per second.

This equation will be reduced to:

1.85
6.78 * l v
hf
D1.165 c
where l : length of pipe in meter
v: velocity of pipe
d: diameter of pipe in meter
c: a constant depending upon the roughness of pipe which is taken generally
100 value.

If calculation is made by these two formulae head loss for 12 mm internal dia GI pipe will
be 1.76 m to 10 meter length of pipe by Darcy Weisbach equation & 3.96 m for 10 meter
length of pipe by Hazen Williams which mean larger diameter pipes will be required in
household plumbing works. Therefore, Hazen Williams Equation is considered valid for
the distribution network design with higher supply. Alternatively, Prandtle Colebrook egn:
is valid for both which is tedious equation: to be solved by iteration is as follows:
Hf *v 2
2* g *d where;
Hf = Loss of head in the pipe due to friction in meter of water column per m length of pipe

= head Loss Coefficient

k = equivalent roughness coefficient of the wall of conduit in m
l = length of pipe in meter
v = velocity of pipe
d = diameter of pipe in meter
g = 9.81 m/sec2

Values of kinematics viscosity, roughness coefficient smooth non corroding piping with
scaling unlikely, and sample calculation, head loss tables nomograph may be developed
and given in this section to help the designer.

In article 3.7, Addition of this statement will be useful 90 cm or above soil cover is
required for High density polyethylene pipe (life of pipes deterioration with exposure of
pipe in sunlight due to VV rays).

In article 3.9, the quality & selection of pipes depend upon the quality of water to be
conveyed. The code may define the quality of potable water, which may be as follows:

MINIMUM STANDARD OF WATER QUALITY

S. Parameters Unit Standard/ Goal EU/ Recommended
No. Standard
1. Coliform /100ml Not be
detectable
2. Lead (Toxicity factor) mg/1 0.1
3. Manganese mg/l 0.05
4. Fluoride mg/l 1.5
5. Iron (Fe) mg/l 0.10
6. Phenols mg/l <0.002
7. Nitrate mg/l 45
8. Nitrate mg/l 0.10
9. Ammonium mg/l 0.05
10. Ammonium mg/l <0.035
11. Oxygen mg/l 7.5
12. Oil mg/l 0.01
13. Color Co- 5
Scale
14. Taste/ Odor D.N Unobjectionable
15. Turbidity F.TV 5
16. Suspended Solids mg/l 5
 S. Parameters Unit Standard/ Goal EU/ Recommended
No. Standard
17. Hardness mmol/l 1.0
18. Ca++ Aggressivity mg/l <200>75
19. Mg++ mg/l 1.50
20. Saturation Index mg/l 0<0.5
21. PH mg/l 8-8.3
22. CO2 mg/l -
23. HCO3 mg/l -
24. TDS mg/l 500
3
25. Alkalinity mg/m 200
3
26. Chlorophy II mg/m <5
-
27. So4 mg/m3 200
28. Temperature C. 15-27
29. Chlorides mg/l 200
30. Lindane mg/l -0.004
31. Phenolic Compounds mg/l 0.002
32. Detergent mg/l 0.20

In article 3.7 the addition of this statement may be useful 90 cm or above soil cover is
required for high density polyethylene pipes (life of pipes deteriot with exposure of pipe in
sunlight due to VV rays).

In article 3.9, the quality & selection of pipes depend upon the quality of water to be
conveyed. The code should define the quality of potable water which may be as follows:

S. Parameters Unit Standard/ EO/ Recommended

No. Goal Standard
1. Coliform /100 ml No coli.
2. Lead (Toxicity factor) mg/ 1 0.1
3. Manganese mg/l 0.05
4. Fluoride mg/l 1.5
5. Iron (Fe) mg/l 0.10
6. Phenols mg/l <0.002
7. Nitrate mg/l 45
8. Nitrate mg/l 0.10
9. Ammonium mg/l 0.05
10. Phosphate mg/l <0.035
S. Parameters Unit Standard/ EO/ Recommended
No. Goal Standard
11. Oxygen mg/l 7.5
12. Oil mg/l 0.01
13. Color Co-scale 5
14. Taste/ odor D.N. Unobjectio
nable
15. Turbidity F.TU 5
16. Suspended solids mg/l 5
17. Hardness mg/l 1.0
18. Ca++ Aggressivity mg/l <200>75
19. Mg++ mg/l 1.50
20. Saturation Index mg/l 0<0.5
21. PH mg/l 8-8.3
22. CO2 mg/l -
23. HCO3 mg/l -
24. TDS mg/l 500
25. Alkalinity mg/m3 200
3
26. ChlorophyII mg/m <5
3
27. SO4 mg/m 200
28. Temperature C. 15-27
29. Chlorides mg/l 200
30. Lindane mg/l -0.004
31. Phenolic Compounds mg/l 0.002
32. Detergent mg/l 0.20

The following articles may required to be added to the code:

Materials, fittings and appliances

Conveyance, and distribution of water within premises
General requirement for the pipe works
Laying of mains and pipes on site
Jointing of pipes
Storage of water (all ready included in Chapter I)
Hot water supply system
Inspection and testing
Guidelines to maintenance of the system
 Page No. 10/11:140 Plumbing: Design & Practice.

It will be appropriate to show level difference between.

Terrace & soffit of overhead water tank
Highest level of water tank and air vent
Cross connection of supply pipe must be avoided

Such cross connection may not be allowed.

Separate supply is maintained to urinal/ commode/ WC to encourage usage of

rainwater.

Water meter required to be shown above street level.

Page No. 12/13. Fire hydrant is required to be encouraged in breakable glass boxes with
hose reel next to it.

A routine check of Air value is required.

B. Waste Water Disposal:

Should this section be renamed as Drainage and Sanitation because waste water disposal is
part of Drainage.

Same structure of code writing may be followed as in water supply.

The more terminology may be defined such as:

Authority having Jurisdiction, Bedding, Barrel, Benching, BOD chair, channel, cleaning
eye, connection, cover, COD, B-coli Depth of man hole, nominal diameter, drain, drainage
work, drop connection, Drop Manhole, E-Coli French drain, rubble drain, fittings, fixture
units, formation haunching, highway authority, interceptor manhole, invert, junction pipe,
manhole, manhole chamber, non-service latrine, puff ventilation, rest bend, saddle, service
latrine, sewer, soakaway, soffit, soil waste, soil pipe, subsoil water, surface water, surface
water drain system of plumbing, two pipe systems, single pipe system, trade effluent, vent
pipe, ventilating pipe, waste pipe, waste water (sullage).

The word Collection Systems may be replaced by System of plumbing

In article 1.4, Word symphonic may be replaced siphonic

In Table B1- Addition of this statement may be useful Preferably bath on each floor.

In Table B2- Factories

 S.No. 1. (i) 2 for 21-45 persons may be 2 for 16-35 persons.
(ii) Taps word is missing.

In Table B3
In column 4 3 para 100 person is too high may be not more than 1 or 2 , 2% percent may
be replaced by 1%.

In column 2 Water losets may be replaced water closets.

In column 3 Urinals 1 for 25 persons is too high may be 1 for 50 person.

In Table B4
In column 4, 2nd para, 150 persons may replace 159 persons.

Washbasins for female public may be 1 for every 200 persons.

In Table B6
In column 4, Ablution tap may be 1 for each W/C.
Wash basins may be 1 for every 100 persons.
In Table B7
In column 7, Ablution taps may be 1 in each W.C. instead of 5.

In column 3, the rate 2.5 percent may be revised to 3%

Type mistake 2-5 percent should be 2.5%
Baths are preferable in each floor may be discussed and adopted for the
future code
In Table B8 In column five urinals may be 20-45 persons.
In Table B9 v) kitchen sinks two should move one up.

In Table B10
In column 3 1 per 60 may be 1 per 40

Table B12
Fitments shall be corrected to fitments.

2. Disposal of sewage/ wastewater & pipe work.

Descriptive parts required to be split under certain heading of article such as
Preparation & submission of plans & drawings
Drainage and Sanitation Requirement.
Prepare preliminary data for design where damage to buildings and structures are
importantly received.
Design considerations, with layouts, rainfall data
Design, - estimation of flow, methodology for the estimation of flow
- Pipe sizes
- Gradients
- Manhole locations & interval
- Type of manhole
Construction relating to conveyance of sanitary wastes
Selection and Installation of Sanitary Appliances
Inspecting Testing
 Maintenance
Appendix For Forms/ Format/ Design charts/ table etc.

2.4 Gradients:

In Table B14:
On column 3, the gradient of pipe for each diameter is miscalculated, and requires a
professional review.
1 100 mm 1:35 to get 0.18 m3/min.
2 150 mm 1:65 to get 0.42 m3/min.
and so on in mixed lining with Ks = 55
for polyethylene or PVC or glazed earthen pipe Ks =100
Then gradient will be as follows.

1. 100 mm 1:125 to get 0.18 m3/min.

2. 150 mm 1:255 to get 0.42 m3/min.

Manning Stricklers formulae is.

V = Ks * R * I
Where v = mean velocity of flow in m/sec.
R = Hydraulic or mean radius = for circular pipe D/4.
I = Channel gradient
Ks = Wall roughness

Bazins formula.

87 RI
V
r
1
R
=wall roughness

Value of or ks is as follows.
Nature of wall R Ks.
Very smooth walls (PVC, PE, Earthen, Cement Plate) 0.06 100
Walls with ordinary cement rendering - 90
Smooth wall (cement concrete, bricks) 0.16 70-80
Rough walls 0.46 60-70
Channels with earth walls 1.30 40
Do with pebble bottom & grassy sides 1.75 25-35

Kutters Formulae/ Chezys Formula

V = CRI

1 0.00155
23

Where C n 1
0.00155 0.013
1 (23 )*
1 R

n = 0.013.
Hazen williams

V = 0.85 * (R)0.63 * (I )0.54

Similarly in Table B 15 Requires revision, and correct value of gradients requires to be entered.

Based on the above equations suitable, table, nomographs, and chart may be developed and
introduced in the code.

In Illustration B1, it will be nice to print name of Fixture such as wash basin, WC, floor traps,
sinks, siphon etc.

In two pipe system, waste water collection shall be discharged in separate man hole than in sludge
man hole. This system requires the two system pipe in municipal conveyance too.

The rain water collection shall be connected to waste water or separate piping may be indicated in
the map with floor trap in roof terrace of flat nature.

In case of slope roof; rain water may be collected through the provisions of Gutter and down water
pipes

In Illustration B3

Cross-connection of wash basins and sink may be avoided.

Floor trap may be shown

C. Rain Water Disposal

In article 8; asbestos cement pipe/ roofing short may be NOT ALLOWED TO USE.

NNBC code should encourage for rain water harvest than its disposal. One of the cost effective
measure for rain water harvest with be constructing shallow wells of depth 6-9 meter of 1 of 1.5
meter dia and takes the rain water pipe to the well. This well can serve to the community not for
individual. However precaution may be taken in usage of roofing material having health hazard
paints or asbestos. Encouraging to built community wells will be useful for recharging ground
water and serve as the seismic energy dissipater during several earthquake.

D. Gas Supply

Although the present NNBC does no include this chapter, however during revision of the code, it
might be worth while to include in the code for which following considerations are suggested.

Terminology: Customers/ consumers connection gas filter, pilot, pressure regulator, purge
qualified installing agency, riser, service pipe service shut off valve, vent pipe, five extinguishers.

Regulations on usage of LPG/ Methane etc.

Gas pressure regulator valve shall be outside the usage area.

Gas cylinder shall be installed outside in the open area to usage area shall not be placed
below ground.
Portable fire extinguishers to be installed near the gas usage area.
 Pipe sizing, piping material, fittings
Inspection of services etc.

E. Miscellaneous

Code does not cover much for rural inhabitant thus code be prepared for rural as well covering
following:
Septic tank, soak pit construction
Poor flush toilet with twin pit
Bio-gas plant
Management of cattle, agricultural, domestic waste
Hot Water Supply and Insulation

The Code may introduce a separate sub section for the Environmental Pollution covering
following:
Outdoor Air Pollution
- Vehicular Traffic
- Usage cow dung, coal etc for kitchen
- Dust pollution
- Domestic waste storage, industrial waste storage
- Usage of pollutants / storage of cosmetics
Indoor Air Pollution
- Dust Control,
- Smell and Odor Control
- Fungus control
- Termite Control
Sound Pollution
- Noise from Generator
- Vehicular Noise
- Concert, Musical Instruments, speakers, etc.
- Operation of Handicraft enterprises
- Storage of gases and petroleum products
- Storage of cosmetics, Lithium Battery
- Storage of explosives and Testing
Water Pollution
- Transmission, Disposal of cattle waste, human waste, domestic waste in and around
rechargeable well, water resources, water sources, abstraction well
- Disposal of industrial waste
- Laundry, Butcher House
- Usage of organic, inorganic chemicals
Solar pollution
- Usages of reflector producing UV rays.
- Usage of reflection materials in building facade
- Usage of reflecting roofing sheet along the landing and take off strip of airplanes
- Obstruction of solar rays by one building to the other especially on south faade

Separate section is provided in the code for the remedial measures for the Environmental
Pollution with inclusion of following articles:
Code for "LANDSCAPING, SIGNS AND OUTDOOR DISPLAY STRUCTURES" Right
for information for peaceful living in urban and rural area.
 Limiting transmission of carbon dioxide and carbon mono oxide by the moving vehicle in
the street.
Limiting noise level by vehicle horn, generators.
Limiting the usage of reflectors in the building faade
Limiting the dust collector units in the building faade.
Cleaning building faade

Creating mandatory regulation for planting trees along the sides of existing and newly
constructed road, building, parks and structures, open spaces to minimize the global warming
effect through the usage of carbon dioxide by plants and giving more oxygen to inhabitant.

A separate agency may be created as law enforcement body to check, monitor and bring
awareness amongst the city dwellers not to construct an element that is heath hazaradous and
creates problems to other. If the code is not enforced properly, the time and efforts invested in
the development of nice code may turn into vain.

References:

- National Nepal Building Code NNBC 208-2003.

- National Building Code of India 1970, 2005.
- Water Treatment Hand Book: Degremont 1979
Foundation de IEAU Lemoges.

- Legislation for Drinking Water & Swimming Pools.

2.1 Recommendations of World Health Organization (1972)
WHO Palace of Nations, Geneva
- Legislation covering domestic sewage, and industrial waste water in West Germany,
Belgium, France, Great Britain, Switzerland

- Legislation on Air pollution, France

- Environmental Regulation Hand Book.

- Journal of the Installation of Water Engineers & Scientists.

- Techniques et Science. Municipals,

- Water Supply and Sanitary Engineering Gurcharan Singh

- Text Book of water Supply & Sanitary Engineering - S.K. Hussain