Professional Documents
Culture Documents
BRAZIL
by
Paulo Csar de Faccio Carvalho
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FAO 2006
3
CONTENTS
1. INTRODUCTION 5
Brazilian global economy 6
Social indicators 6
The agricultural sector 7
The farming sector 7
The ruminant sector 7
Technological demands 31
Non-technological demands 32
8. REFERENCES 34
9. CONTACTS 35
Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profile 5
1. INTRODUCTION
Brazil is a very young country. It was discovered in 1500 by the Portuguese navigator Pedro lvares
Cabral and was Portuguese until 1822, when it became independent. Abolition of slavery came in the
same century, in 1888, and the first Republic was established two years later. The large majority of slaves
brought to Brazil came from African ethnic groups including Bantu from Southern Africa (the Congo,
Angola and Mozambique), as well as Samba, Moxicongo and Anjico, and ethnic groups from the north-
western coast of Africa such as Nago, Jeje, Fanti, Achanti Haussa, Mandinga, Tapa and Fulla, originating
from regions from Senegal to Nigeria.
With the Portuguese being the first, there have been many immigrations from Europe, principally
in the 19th century (Italy, Spain, Germany, Poland and Ukraine), as well as from Japan, Syria and the
Lebanon. From 1875 until 1960, about 5000000 Europeans emigrated to Brazil. All these immigrations
were added to an indigenous population estimated at 5000000 when European colonists first arrived (at
present reduced to thousands), which conferred on Brazil a uniquely rich ethnic and cultural diversity.
The census carried out by the Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics-IBGE (2000) indicated
that the Brazilian population was some 169 590 693 inhabitants, which corresponds to a geometric
medium annual growth rate of 1.93%. This last census indicates a strong tendency to a changing
population age pyramid with an increasing age span. Life expectancy at birth of the total population is
66.7 years for men and 74.1years for women. According to the World Factbook the July 2006 estimate
was 188078227 with a growth rate of 1.04%.
Brazil is the fifth most populous country in the world with 2.8% of the worlds population. Despite
having less than 11% of the total territory, the South-east region contains 42% of the Brazilian people.
On average the population density is not very high (19.92 hab/km2) but it varies strongly between
different communities (0.13 to 12897.8 hab/km2). In the last five decades there has been an enormous
reversal in the ratio of rural/urban population. At present, only 18.8% live in the countryside.
In terms of political organization, Brazil is a Federation, composed of a Federal Union, 26 states,
1 Federal District and 5 507 municipalities. The government system is presidential, organised on
Federal, State and Municipal levels.
Brazil is located in the Western
Hemisphere, between the meridians
34 47 30 and 73 59 32 to west of
Greenwich. Located between the parallel of
5 1620 of north latitude and 33 4442
of south, it is cut to the north by the
Equator and, to the south, by the Tropic
of Capricorn, therefore, about 90% of its
territory in the Southern Hemisphere. Part
of the American continent, Brazil is the only
Portuguese-speaking nation in the Americas
(see Figure 1).
Brazil is in the centre-oriental portion of
South America and has a border with nine
countries: Uruguay, Argentina, Paraguay,
Bolivia, Peru, Colombia, Venezuela,
Guyana and Suriname, and with the French
Department of Guiana; exceptions are
Ecuador and Chile (Figure 2).
Its dimensions characterize it as a
continental country, its territory occupying
1.6% of the surface of the terrestrial
globe, with 5.7% of the dry land of the
planet and 20.8% of the surface of the
American continent, as well as 12.7% of Figure 1. Latin America and Brazil
6 Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profile
Social indicators
Brazil is a country of contrasts and significant poverty levels contrast with the relatively high GDP;
around 32000000 people were below the poverty line in 1993. The concentration of wealth is among
the highest in the world, with the 10% richest sharing 47.9% of income, yet the 10% poorest share only
0.8%. Malnutrition affects 5% of children under five, which contributes to an infant mortality rate of
3.6% live births. Unemployment rate averaged 7.6% in 1999.
Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profile 7
The agricultural sector Table 1. Production of the main grain crops in Brazil (in
Brazilian agriculture is well diversified, tonnes)
and the country is largely self-sufficient Cotton Rice Bean Maize Soybean Wheat
in food. The sector contributes 14% of 3 612 176 13 262 373 2 978 240 41 872 304 49 221 619 5 814 603
the GDP, and all the agricultural chain (IBGE 2004)
27%, employing almost 17 900 000
people. Of these, 67% are male and 14% are under 14 years of age. Brazil produced 119.294 million
tons of grains in 2004, harvested from 47.329 million ha, particularly soybean, maize, rice, bean and
wheat (Table 1).
Other important crops are sugar cane (330 million tons), citrus fruits (32 million tons) and coffee
(30million bags). Cocoa, tobacco, and banana are also important. Forestry accounts for 4% of the GDP.
In 2005, a decrease in cultivated area of about 4.68% lead to a production of 112.715milliontonne,
5.51% lower than 2004.
The largest agricultural exports (in value) in 1998 were coffee, soybeans, soybean cake, orange juice
and sugar. Soybean is the major agricultural commodity when all of its products (raw soybean, meal,
oil, etc) are added. The total value of agricultural exports in 1998 was US$15.3billion, while the total
value of agricultural imports in 1998 was US$6306.4million. Wheat and dairy products are the main
agricultural imports. Brazilian agribusiness and policies are strongly oriented towards international
markets due to the need to achieve a positive commercial balance and because agriculture is one of the
main sources of income.
dairy production systems and some rare feed-lot systems. Of the 164 621 040 cattle (in 1999; by
2004 numbers were 192 million), 74.5% are beef cattle and 21.5% dairy cattle. In addition there are
14399960 sheep (14.2M in 2004), 1068059 buffaloes (1.2M in 2004) and 8622935 goats (9.1M
in 2004), the latter showing a considerable increase recently. To complete the domestic herbivore
population (and those requiring forage) there are 5831341 horses (5.9M in 2004) and 2572172 other
equidea. While stock numbers have been more or less the same since 1994 (for cattle), the number
slaughtered have increased almost two fold. About 31 600 000 head were slaughtered in 1999, with
only 3200000 receiving any kind of intensification during the production process (conserved forage,
supplements, feed-lot, etc.). For details of livestock numbers, meat and milk production and some
imports and exports see Table 2.
It is estimated that 38.0kg/year of beef are consumed per capita (in the mainly metropolitan regions).
To give an idea of its market value, in 1999 the farmer received on average US$0.6/kg of liveweight.
His product has different destinations; on average 65% of the beef goes to supermarkets, restaurants,
hotels and industrial catering, 30% to butchers and 5% to special meat shops. In 1993, the beef sector
provided 6 834 000 jobs, involving 1 793 324 farm units and occupying 221 982 144 ha. In 1999 it
produced 6 500 000 tonnes of carcass-equivalent (7 774 000 in 2004). Other meat products include
5526000tonnes of chicken (8668000 in 2004) and 2400000tonnes of pork (3110000 in 2004).
In 2000 twenty billion litres of milk were produced (23 billion litres by 2004), which represent
a production of 4.9 litres/cow/day. Milk consumption per capita is around 246 ml (daily intake
recommendation is 400ml/day) and 75% of national consumption goes to 20% of the population. Dairy
products, apart from wheat, were until recently the most important agricultural import, accounting
for US$ US$ 443 M in 1999 (US$ 114.4 M in 2003), however from the 1999 importation figure of
2,41billionlitres of milk, this fell to only 0,73billion litres in 2001 and 0.55billion litres in 2003. In
2004 the dairy sector trade presented a positive commercial balance of US$11.5M and Brazil started
to become a dairy exporter. The dairy sector has been deregulated during the last decade and at present
60% of the Brazilian market is controlled by transnational companies. Imports pass to private industry.
European milk enters Brazil at half of its actual cost.
Exports of meat was valued at some US$ 443 835 000 in 1997: by 1999 there were exports of
150000Mt of meat, mainly to Europe (50.6%) and USA (37.44%). Exports increased to 620117Mt of
carcass-equivalent in 2003 worth US$1154508000.
Table 2. Brazil statistics for livestock numbers, beef & veal, sheep, goat meat and milk production,
beef & veal exports and dairy product imports and exports for the period 19962005
Item 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005
Cattle nos. (,000,000) 158.3 161.4 163.2 164.6 169.9 176.4 185.4 189.5 192.0 192.0
Sheep nos. (,000,000) 14.7 14.5 14.3 14.4 14.8 14.6 14.3 14.6 14.2 14.2
Goat nos. (,000,000) 7.4 8.0 8.2 8.6 9.4 9.5 9.4 9.6 9.1 9.1
Buffalo nos. (,000,000) 1.1 1.0 1.0 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.2 1.2 1.2
Horse nos. (,000,000) 5.7 5.8 5.9 5.8 5.8 5.8 5.9 5.9 5.9 5.9
Beef & veal prod. (mt) 6.2 5.9 5.8 6.4 6.6 6.8 7.1 7.2 7.8 7.8
(,000,000)
Sheep meat prod. (mt) (,000) 69.9 70.1 67.8 71.4 71.5 71.5 68.6 68.1 76 76
Goat meat prod. (mt) (,000) 26.8 31 34.3 38.3 38.5 38.6 39.8 40.5 40.5 40.5
Milk prod. (,000,000 mt) 19.2 19.4 19.4 19.8 20.5 21.3 22.5 23.5 23.5 23.5
Beef & veal exports mt (,000) 46.7 52.5 80.9 150.7 188.7 368.3 430.2 620.1* 925.1 n.a.
Milk equivalents exports mt 44.7 24.0 12.2 9.6 17.3 56.8 107.6 134.2 279.4 n.a.
(,000)
Milk equivalents imports mt 1 920.6 1 429.7 1 850 1 960.9 1 561.9 733.8 1 286.4 549.1 399.7 n.a.
(,000)
(FAO Database 2006)
Source: FAOSTAT 2006
n.a. - not available
* in addition there were 164234Mt of beef preparations and dried beef exports, 1.9MMt of chicken meat exports as well as 39186Mt of
canned chicken, and 544208Mt of pork and pigmeat exports.
Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profile 9
Geology of Brazil
Brazil is totally within the South American Platform, whose basement is of very complex geologic
evolution, originating in the Archean period. Brazil had its consolidation completed between the
Proterozoic Superior period and the beginning of the Palaeozoic period, with the closing of the Brazilian
cycle. The basement of the South American Platform is essentially on metamorphic rocks of amphibolite
to granulite facies and granitoids of Archean age, associated with the Proterozoic units that are usually
represented by folded strips of green schist facies and sedimentary and volcanic coverings (seldom
metamorphosed) and several granitoids. That basement is widely exposed in great shields, separated
from each other by fanerozoic coverings, whose limits extend to the neighbouring countries. Prominent
are the shields of Guyana, Central Brazil and the Atlantic.
The Guyana shield extends to the north of the basin of Amazonas. The Brazil-central, or Guapor
shield extends to the interior of Brazil and south of that basin, while the Atlantic shield is exposed in the
eastern portion reaching the Atlantic. These shields are exposed in more than 50% of the area of Brazil.
On that platform were developed in Brazil, in stable conditions of ortho-platform, starting from
Ordovician-Silurian, the sedimentary and volcanic coverings that spatially filled three extensive basins
with sineclisis character: Amazonas, Paraba and Paran. Besides those basins, several other
smaller basins, including coastal basins and other sedimentary areas, are exposed on the platform.
Geomorphology
The relief of Brazil is divided into two great plateau areas and three plain areas as follows:
Guyana Plateau, embracing the mountainous area and the Amazon North Plateau, in the extreme
north of the country, it is an integral part of the shield of Guyana, presenting Precambrian crystal-
line rocks. This area includes the highest point in Brazil - the Pico da Neblina, with an altitude
of 3014m.
Brazilian plateau, subdivided into Central, Maranho-Piau, North-eastern Brazil, mountains and
plateau of the East and Southeast, Southern and Uruguayan-Riograndense, is formed by quite
worn crystalline lands and sedimentary basins. It is located in the central part of the country, and
encompasses great areas of the national territory.
Plains and Amazon low lands, in the North of the country, below the Plateau of Guyana, present
three different altimetrical levels - valleys, constituted by lands of recent formation near the mar-
gins of the rivers; fluvial terraces, with maximum altitudes of 30m and periodically flooded; and
low-plateaus, formed by lands of Tertiary age.
Plain of the Pantanal, in the west of the state of Mato Grosso do Sul and Southwest of Mato
Grosso, are formed by lands of Quaternary age. Plains and coastal lowlands, along the coast from
Maranho to the south of the country, are formed by lands of the Tertiary and by current lands
of the Quaternary.
It should be noted that the Brazilian relief does not present formations of very high mountainous
chains and prevailing altitudes are below 500m, since it was developed on an old geologic base, without
recent tectonic movements.
Soil types
In agronomic terms, it should be noted that the main soils are Ferralsols, which are strongly predominant.
Ferralsols are extremely weathered soils, often developed on transported materials of Pleistocene or older
age in a humid or very humid tropical climate and covered by a tropical rain forest or semi-deciduous
forest. These soils are characterised by the dominance of kaolinite clays and a residual accumulation of
iron and aluminium oxides and hydroxides, a stable soil structure, a low silt/clay ratio and a very low
content of weatherable minerals. They are deep to very deep and generally show yellowish or reddish
colours. Ironstone nodules and iron-pans, inherited from previous land surfaces, are common.
Ferralsols are poor chemically, with a low ion exchange capacity, and nutrient reserves that are
easily depleted by agricultural practices, while fixation of phosphorus is a major problem. The content
10 Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profile
of available aluminium may reach toxic levels (84% have acidity constraints), as may manganese also.
On the other hand, the physical characteristics of these soils are quite favourable; because of their high
permeability and stable micro-structure they are less prone to erosion. Ferralsols are easy to work but
the surface is liable to compaction and crusting if heavy machinery is used to clear forest or if they are
overgrazed.
The chemical constraints of these soils may be overcome in part by careful fertilization, including
both phosphate and lime, but attention must be paid to mode and timing of application. Ferralsols are
used to grow a variety of annual and perennial tropical crops, either by sedentary or shifting cultivators.
According to the FAO classification there are still Acrisols and Leptosols. In a lesser extent, Lixisols,
Plinthosols, Arenosols and others.
According to the Soil Aptitude Chart of Brazil, 35% of the territory is not recommended for agriculture
due to low fertility and steep slopes. Salinity is not a significant factor, accounting for 2% of the land
surface. 7% of soils are shallow. Only 9% of the surface has no constraints for agricultural use, with
little nutrient limitation, good drainage as well as physical soil properties, and sufficient precipitation.
General climate
The climate of a given area is conditioned by several factors, among them are: temperature, rains,
atmospheric humidity, winds and atmospheric pressure - which, in turn, are conditioned by factors such
as altitude, latitude, relief characteristics, vegetation and continentality.
Brazil, due to its continental dimensions, possesses a very wide climatic diversity, influenced by its
geographical configuration, its significant coastal extension, its relief and the dynamics of the masses of
air on its territory. This last factor assumes great importance, because it acts directly on the temperatures
and the pluviometric indices in the different areas of the country.
The air masses, especially those that occur more directly in Brazil, are, according to the Statistical
Annual of Brazil (IBGE): the Equatorial air mass, which is divided into Continental Equatorial and
Atlantic Equatorial; the Tropical air mass, also divided into Continental Tropical and Atlantic Tropical;
and the Polar Atlantic air mass. All these air masses provide the climatic differentiation in Brazil
(Figure4).
Thus climates vary from very humid and hot climates, coming from the Equatorial air masses, as is
the case for the great part of the Amazon area; to very strong semi-arid climates, such as those in the
hinterlands of north-eastern Brazil.
The Northern Area and part of the interior of the North-east region experience annual medium
temperatures above 25 oC, while in the South of the country and part of the Southeast annual medium
temperatures are below 20 oC. Absolute maxima above 40 oC are observed in the interior lowlands of
the Northeast Area with little variability during the year, which characterises the hot climate of these
regions. In mid-latitudes, temperature variation throughout the year is very important for climate
definition in the depressions, valleys and lowlands of the Southeast; in the Pantanal and lower areas of
the Middle-West; and in the central depressions and in the valley of the river Uruguay, in the Southern
Area. Absolute minima, with frequent negative values, are observed in the mountainous summits
of the South-east and in a large part of the South, where they are accompanied by frosts and snow.
During winter, there is a greater penetration of high-latitude cold air masses, which contributes to the
predominance of low temperatures.
Because of its great territorial extension, Brazil presents varied precipitation and temperature
regimes. All over the country, a great variety of climates with distinct regional characteristics can be
found. In the North of the country, a rainy equatorial climate is found, with practically no dry season. In
the Northeast, the rainy season, with low rainfall indexes, is restricted to a few months, characterising a
semi-arid climate. The Southeast and West-Central regions are influenced not only by tropical systems
12 Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profile
but also by mid-latitudes, with a dry season well defined in the winter and a rainy summer season with
convective rain. The South of Brazil, due to its latitude, is affected mostly by mid-latitude systems, in
which the frontal systems cause most of the rain during the year.
Northern Region
The Northern Region has spatial and seasonal temperature homogeneity, but the same is not observed
in terms of rainfall. This region receives the greatest total annual rainfall, especially notable at the coast
of the Amap State, at the south of the Amazonas river and at the western part of the region, where
precipitation exceeds 3000mm. In this region, three abundant precipitation centres are identified:
the first one is in the Northwest of the Amazon, with rainfall above 3000mm/year. The existence
of this centre is associated with the condensation of humid air brought by easterly winds from the
Intertropical Convergence Zone, with high rainfall where the flow rises to the Andes Mountains.
the second centre is in the central part of Amazon, around 5 S, with precipitation of 2500mm
(year),
and the third one, in the eastern part of the Amazonian base, close to the city of Belm, with pre-
cipitation of 2800mm/year.
Therefore three rainfall regimes can be identified in the northern region of Brazil:
one in the Northwest, where rain is abundant throughout the whole year, reaching a maximum in
April-May-June, with more than 3000mm/year;
the second one in a zonally oriented band, extending to the central part of Amazon, where the rainy
season takes place in March-April-May;
and the third one in the Southern part of the Amazonian region where the rainfall peak occurs in
January-February-March.
Northeast Region
In terms of rainfall, there is considerable climatic variation in the Northeast (NE), ranging from a semi-
arid climate interior, with an accumulated precipitation lower than 500 mm/year, to a rainy climate
Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profile 13
mainly observed on the east coast, with an accumulated annual precipitation above 1 500 mm. The
northern part of the region receives between 1000 and 1200mm/year. Similar to the Northern Region,
temperature in most of the NE also has a great seasonal and spatial homogeneity. Only in the south of
Bahia is there a greater seasonal variability in temperature, in view of the penetration of relatively
cold masses in winter.
Different rainfall regimes are identified in the NE. In the north of the region, the main rainy season
is from March to May, in the south and Southeast rain occurs mainly during the period from December
to February, and in the east the rainy season occurs from May to July. The main rainy season in the NE,
including the north and east of the region, which accounts for 60% of the annual rainfall, occurs from April
to July and the dry season, for the greatest part of the region, takes place from September to December.
Southern Region
The annual distribution of rain in the south of Brazil is quite uniform. Throughout almost all the territory,
the precipitation annual average varies from 1250 to 2000mm. Only a few areas are not within this
rainfall range. Above 2 000 mm are the coast of Paran, the east of Santa Catarina and the area
around So Francisco de Paula, in Rio Grande do Sul. Values below 1250mm are restricted to the
southern coast of Santa Catarina and to the north of Paran. Relief exerts little influence on rainfall
distribution in this region. Temperature, in its turn, plays a role in the same sense as precipitation,
reinforcing climate uniformly in the south of the country. However, this is the region in Brazil with
greater thermal variability throughout the year.
Agro-ecological Zones
Brazil is known as the worlds richest country in terms of its mega diversity, with its fauna and flora
comprising at least 1020% of the worlds species described to date (Brazil, Convention on Biological
Diversity). The vegetation changes from North to South, expressing the different environmental
conditions. The main phytogeographic zones are shown in Figure 5.
forests which are periodically flooded, and the igap forests, which are permanently flooded as
happens in almost the entire central region of the Amazon.
The savannahs and savannah woodlands of Roraima are on poor soils in the northern end of the
basin of Rio Branco. The Campinaranas or Caatinga amaznica are white sand forest, being
spread in stains along Rio Negros basin. These last two formations consist of the Cerrado type of
vegetation, thus being areas of Cerrado isolated from the main Cerrado ecosystem of the Brazilian
central plateau. Mixed forest with palms, semi-deciduous forests, lianes, bamboo forests and tidal zones
are also important vegetation types.
characterised by the occurrence of the very thin vegetation of the semi-arid Caatinga. The highest
areas or Agreste, which are subject to less intense droughts, are located closer to the coast. The transi-
tion area between Caatinga and Amaznia is known as Middle-north or Zona dos Cocais (Palm
zone). Suffering from prolonged droughts, desertification, soil erosion and salinization, the Caatinga
has lost 50% of its native vegetation. Extensive cattle-ranching, agriculture, resource extraction, and
subsistence farming have all had major impacts in this biome. Hunting for food is an important addi-
tional factor, especially in the dry season.
The Cerrado
The Cerrado (see Plate 2) occupies the area of the Brazilian Central Plateau. The continuous area
of the Cerrado corresponds to 23.92% of the national territory (2036448km2), and there are great
patches also in the Amazon and some smaller ones in the Caatinga and also in the Atlantic forest. Its
climate presents two very different and defined aspects. The season of guas and the season of secas,
corresponding to wet and dry seasons, respectively, which are very well defined. The Cerrado presents
varied physiognomies, from clear areas lacking woody vegetation to cerrades, which are dense
arboreal formations. This area is permeated by dendritic forests and pathways that follow the courses of
water, and includes high altitude moorlands.
The Cerrado biome, which has
suffered from the enormous advance
of the agricultural frontier in recent
decades, has already lost over 40% of its
native vegetation through the expansion
of crops, cattle ranching, and dramatic
increases in human population. More than
50% of the remaining natural ecosystems
have been degraded. Burning, both for
the maintenance and creation of cattle
pasture and for plantations is a common
practice, and results in soil erosion
as well as serious loss of biological
diversity. Economic activities of some
sort are present throughout the majority Plate 2. Typical Cerrado scene
of the remaining area. (photo by Rodrigo A. Barbosa)
Other formations
The Fields of the South (Campos Plate 3. Typical Pantanal scene
(photo by Sandra A. Santos)
zone or Pampas)
The Campos zone (see Plate 4) occurs
in the subtropical climate of the extreme
south, and represents 2.07% of the
national territory (176 496 km2). The
open lands of the plains and plateaux
gachos (native of Rio Grande do
Sul) and the coxilhas, of soft-wavy
relief, are colonised by field pioneer
species that form a vegetation type
of open savannah and steppe. There
are areas of seasonal forests and of
fields with grassy-woody covering. The
predominant physiognomy of these
fields is herbaceous, with many species
Plate 4. Typical Campos scene
of Poaceae, Asteraceae, Cyperaceae, (photo by Ilsi I. Boldrini)
Fabaceae, Rubiaceae, Apiaceae and
Verbenaceae (Ministrio do Meio
Ambiente, 2000). Average height of the
continuous, sometimes dense, coverage
is 40 to 60 cm, sometimes 1 m. This
zone extends to Uruguay, Argentina
and Paraguay, totaling 500 000 km2
and feeding about 65 million domestic
ruminants. Cattle and horses were the
first domestic herbivores introduced by
Spanish settlers at the beginning of the
XVIIth. Considering the climatic and soil
conditions of this ecosystem, one would
expect that it should be covered by
subtropical forests and not dominated by Plate 5. Typical Araucarias scene
(photo by Ilsi I. Boldrini)
herbaceous formations. Probably these
extensive grass fields are remnants of
the semi-arid climate that had dominated the region during the climate changes of the Quaternary period.
Grazing is considered the main disturbance in keeping grasslands in a herbaceous pseudoclimax phase.
these forests, representatives of the tropical and temperate flora of Brazil coexist, being dominated,
however, by the pinheiro-do-Paran. The forests vary in arboreal density and height of the vegetation
and can be classified according to the soil aspects, as alluvial, along the rivers, sub-mountainous, which
no longer exist, and mountainous, the major one dominating the landscape. The open vegetation of
the grassy-woody fields occurs on shallow soils. Because of the high economic value of the pine tree
forests of Araucria they are subject to intense logging pressure. Only about 1,2% of the original area
remains and from these only 40774ha are being legally protected. Araucaria is nowadays considered in
extinction by Brazilian government and specific protection measures have been taken.
Brazilian biodiversity
Brazil is the nation with the richest biodiversity in the world (Brazil, Convention on Biological Diversity).
At least 10% of the worlds amphibians and mammals (27% of the worlds primates) and 17% of all
bird species occur in Brazil. In terms of the Brazilian flora, there is 50000 to 56000 described species
of higher plants, or 2224% of the worlds angiosperm species. By way of comparison, the estimate for
North America is 17000 species, that for Europe 12500, and 40000 to 45000 species are believed to
occur in Africa. Not only is the number of species high, but also the level of endemism.
The dimensions and complexity of Brazils biodiversity, both marine and terrestrial, may mean that
it will never be completely described. Officially five great biomes are recognised. The Amazonian
biome comprises 40% of the worlds tropical forest, being the largest remaining rain forest of the world.
Cerrado is the largest extent of savannah in a single country. Atlantic forest extends from south to
northeast covering an area of 1millionkm2. This biome at present includes the Campos zone, covering
13608000ha of natural pastures in Southern Brazil with more than 400 grass and 150legume forage
species, which is not officially recognised as a biome. Caatinga is a vast semi-arid area of about
1000000km2, contrasting with the Pantanal and its 140000km2 of wetlands. Coastal and marine
biomes add up to 3 500 000 km2 under Brazilian jurisdiction. There are numerous subsystems and
ecosystems within these biomes, each with unique characteristics, and the conservation of ecotones
between them is vital for the conservation of their biodiversity.
Recently, Brazil has made strong efforts towards the preservation of its biodiversity. Nowadays,
130550000ha, or 15.37% of Brazils area have been legally declared as protected areas. Moreover,
200 000 records of plant germplasm are being conserved throughout the country (24% are native
species).
For all information on livestock numbers the reader is referred to Table 2 in section 1. Concerning
pastures, the last official census in 1996 indicated 177700472ha as the total area comprised by natural
and cultivated pastures. In 1970, only 25millionha were cultivated pastures, increasing to 100million
ha in 1996. By contrast, natural pastures decreased from 100 to 75millionha. Recent data indicate that
cultivated pastures in Brazil attained more than 130millionha and natural pastures account for less than
70millionha,
The main important cultivated pastures are grasses of African origin, which in general, show great
adaptation to the Brazilian climate and soils. Some species have become naturalised, since they were
18 Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profile
first introduced through slave trading in the eighteenth Table 3. Cattle enterprises in Brazil
century. Grass was used as bedding for slaves during the trip Index Average
to the new country. Birth rate 60%
Until 1985, government policy provided substantial Mortality up to weaning 8%
incentives for expansion of agricultural and cattle-ranching Weaning rate 54%
frontiers. Between 1970 and 1985, financial incentives
Mortality post-weaning 4%
and subsidized credits totalled US$ 700 000 000, mostly
Age at first calving 48 months
involving deforestation for cattle ranching. This changed
Calving interval 21 months
some regions in a remarkable and quick way, the Cerrado
Slaughter age* 48 months
being the best example. Up until 1960 the Cerrado was
Slaughter rate* 17%
exploited extensively, with a few farmers using natural
Carcass weight 220 kg
pastures for cow-calf operations and many small farmers
cultivating cassava and beans, mainly along river margins Carcass productivity 53%
Stocking rate 0.9 head/ha/year
for subsistence. This changed drastically with government
* Showed great improvement recently. See text for
investments in highways and railways or direct agricultural further explanations
incentives. Monocultures of cash crops or cultivated grasses According to Zimmer & Euclides (1997)
spread to 40% of this system, and the population quadrupled.
Export products, such as soybean, have increased notably. Commercial, large-scale, mechanised and
capital-intensive farming has replaced small farmers, who have decreased by 1 000 000 in the last
decade (all regions concerned). Socially, the development of modern agriculture in the Cerrado has not
improved its already uneven social inequality, and also it has brought ecological costs such as landscape
fragmentation, loss of biodiversity, biological invasion, soil erosion, water pollution, changes in burning
regimes, land degradation and heavy use of chemicals.
Savannahs are responsible for almost 55% of the countrys beef and pioneer cattle ranching; they
provide good examples of a production system. Natural vegetation is removed and soil fertility is
sometimes improved by fertilizers. All these operations can cost around US$ 600/ha or more. Roads
and transport are still constraints in many situations. Alternative ways of land exploitation include
partial removal of vegetation, followed by burning, disking and direct seeding of pastures. Depending
on financial possibilities and local market needs, first operations can be crop production such as upland
rice to reduce land clearance and preparation costs and use the residual natural fertility incorporated
in the soil.
Farming systems in Brazil may be composed of cow-calf operations, store and finishing, with
farmers doing all phases or specialising. Beef and dairy enterprises in tropical pasture-based systems are
notoriously of low productivity. The low soil fertility, the over-exploitation of native grasslands, the low
genetic potential of the animals and the poor management of soil, pasture and animal components are all
arguments used to explain these low-productivity systems. Productivity indexes for cattle enterprises
show a lack of productivity (Table 3).
The long payback time on cattle production systems compared to other agricultural enterprises also
restrains technology diffusion and adoption. As a result, the financial policy is focusing investment on
crops other than pastures to allow farmers to have their investment back as soon as possible. Recently,
the beef cattle sector has experienced great positive changes. There has been a reduction of herd age to
slaughter from 4 to 3 years on average in the last ten years. But the birth rate is still 60% and calving
interval 21 months.
The average beef production in Brazil is 30kg/ha/year, which can easily be increased by the adoption
of already available conventional technologies such as:
Improvement in pasture management;
Pasture subdivision;
Recovery and maintenance of soil fertilization;
Feed supplementation for critical periods;
Reproductive control of animals;
Animal genetic improvement;
Sanitary control;
Adjustment of the binomial genotype-environment.
Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profile 19
Regarding national markets there are signs of a growing Table 4. Land tenure in cattle enterprises
potential for beef consumption in Brazil, even with a per % of the Farm size % of farms
flock (ha)
capita consumption of 38 kg/year it is important to stress
27.19 > 1 000 0.94
that at least 50% of the population have limited access to
meat due to poverty. In terms of international markets, a 38.77 1001 000 9.35
vast potential for expansion can be foreseen with great 24.0 10100 34.06
Aiming to present the Brazilian pasture resource in a clearer and more organized way, and since Brazil
has continental dimensions, the description will be made according to different officially recognized
Brazilian biomes (see Plate 6).
20 Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profile
full sunlight. The trees got most of the water they need from deeper soil layers, allowing more for the
herbaceous vegetation that explores the upper layers of the soil. Lots of similarities are also found in the
northeast within the Caatinga vegetation.
The spectacular increase in individual animal performance when grazing legume-based cultivated
pastures compared with native savannah grassland deserves mention. It is hoped that legumes will
contribute with low-cost nitrogen to the associated grass. This characteristic and the tolerance to low
fertility and acid soils are always major themes of research and the first objectives pursued. The problem
is that Brazilian grazing history with large herbivores is short and these legumes have, in general, very
limited adaptations to tolerate heavy grazing, having more specialised escape mechanisms; this deserves
more attention by forage breeders.
ha. The conversion efficiency of this ecosystem in capturing radiation energy from sunlight to transform
it into primary production ranges from 0.20% for high grazing pressures to 0.36% at appropriate ones,
which represented an 80% increase in system efficiency. This demonstrates the important improvements
that can be made simply by managing this pasture ecosystem at the correct grazing intensity. These
values and relationships mean that the productivity of these grasslands can be 100% increased at a cost
of harvesting forage by the grazing animal, with no other energy input than thought.
Carvalho (unpublished) summarises the main current knowledge about natural pasture management
in southern Brazil, as follows:
i) natural pastures have enormous plant diversity (400 grasses and 150 legumes);
ii) C4 grasses predominate and are responsible for the strong seasonal variations in productivity
and forage quality;
iii) Moderate grazing intensities allow light interception and yield to reach their potential (herb-
age mass about 14000 kg dry matter/ha);
iv) Moderate grazing intensities allow secondary production to reach its potential (daily herbage
allowance of 12 to 13 kg dry matter/ 100kg LW);
v) Compared to the mean current productivity of the natural pastures in Southern Brazil, the use
of adequate grazing intensities may triplicate animal production. It may reach 700kg LW/day
when adequate grazing intensities are associated with fertilization;
vi) Plant diversity is lower in the extremes of grazing intensities, therefore, moderate intensities
promote biodiversity;
vii) This ecosystem is highly resilient;
viii) Higher grazing intensities lead to vegetation with prostrate types of plants, with a predomi-
nance of escape mechanisms to grazing. On moderate grazing intensities we can see a mix-
ture of bushes, tussock grasses and prostrate species with a diversity of escape and tolerance
mechanisms;
xi) High grazing intensities decrease organic matter, reduce the water infiltration rate, reduce soil
cover, and reduce the availability of nutrients;
x) Native pastures respond positively to the removal of limiting factors, especially to fertiliza-
tion. Moreover under such conditions C3 grasses and legumes may be introduced by overseed-
ing on the natural pasture, to fill the forage gap in winter;
xi) Deferment is necessary for correct management;
xii) Use of fire reduces the system productivity and compromises the chemical and physical condi-
tions of the soil;
xiii) The grazing method has little effect on animal production. Grazing intensity is the determinant
variable;
forage mass and quality reduces ADG/an.- Bare spots become visible in the pasture, weeds invade and
some native species return. So, judicious monitoring of carrying capacity would indicate the beginning
of the degradation process. When detected early it may cost 100US$/ha to recover the area, while later
detection raises costs to 200US$/ha. Reducing the stocking rate helps to maintain animal performance
but does not overcome the trend in pasture degradation.
Another choice that is acquiring importance is the integration of crop and grassland agriculture within
a complete system of land use and farm productivity. The annual crops will generate financial resources
for improving the soil fertility level, thus reducing the costs of pasture establishment. Consistent results
are showing new pastures with increased pasture potential for the region, where fertilized Panicum
pastures are producing 740 kg LW/ha/year, while the Brachiaria sp. reach a ceiling yield at 600 kg
LW/ha/year. These differences come from the higher ADG/an and higher number of steers carried
by the Panicum, compared to Brachiaria pastures. For enterprises adopting low levels of technology,
Brachiaria is the option, while for those adopting the existing high level of technology, Panicum
pastures are recommended.
New experimental results with Brachiaria cultivars showed different rates of leaf growth for the
wet and the dry seasons. Some ecotypes displayed higher leaf DM yield in the dry season while others
performed better for the wet season, and were recommended to be tested for animal gains. They have
already shown high pasture potential. Hopes rest on the animal potential of those new varieties.
The promotion of grazing based on the green leaf lamina dry matter (GLLDM), contributes to our
knowledge and understanding of what happens in the pasture profile, to evaluate pasture dynamics and
to watching the shaping up of the silhouette of a steer gaining weight and being finished on pasture under
grazing. At low levels of GLLDM the animals graze more frequently, promote tiller density as well as
invasion of other plant species, and adversely affect root mass, plant diameter, internode length, tiller
weight, rate of accumulation of GLLDM and total GLLDM yield. It seems that heavy grazing does not
help the pasture.
With clearly defined levels of pasture GLLDM management being applied to Mott dwarf elephant
grass, studies reveal that a sustainable optimum ADG of 1.043kg/an at a herbage allowance of 10.5%
LW/day of GLLDM yielding 1188kg LWG/ha can finish a slaughter steer within 210 days of grazing,
under continuous stocking.
Based on the acquired knowledge in conducting grazing experiments to evaluate herbage allowance
and animal and pasture responses, it is suggested that at least 15002000kg/ha of live green leaf lamina
DM of the forage mass is required from which the grazing animals will get their diet.
Sward targets: a recent orientation for grassland management (see Silva & Carvalho,
2005)
The tropical/sub-tropical environment is unique, requiring creative and site-specific solutions to
overcome production constraints in order to realise its potential. The range of plant species, their varying
size, morphology and physiology highlight the need to review some of the concepts and general views
relating to animal performance from these pastures. Recent experimental work on pasture ecophysiology
and grazing ecology in Brazil has been conceived under the conviction that control, monitoring and
manipulation of sward state is an important feature of grazing management. This is very different from
the traditional and simplistic view of production, in which control of the grazing process is made by
means of fixed stocking rates, herbage allowances, grazing intervals and grazing method and allows for
significant variation in sward state.
New work is in progress in Brazil for the main forage resources (e.g., Brachiaria, Panicum, Cynodon,
Pennisetum, etc.) about how sward structure is built and how animals capture forage from these
structures. As a consequence of this new knowledge, and aiming to optimize pasture production (i.e.
light interception) and animal intake (i.e. animal performance), some very recent sward guidelines are
being recommended, some of which are illustrated below:
i) In continuous stocking, B. brizantha should be managed between 2040cm height during the
growing period, and around 15 cm just before and during winter. When using rotational grazing,
a pre-grazing sward height of 25cm and residual herbage height about 1015cm are desirable,
according to different categories and objectives;
Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profile 29
ii) P. maximum cv. Mombaa, in rotational grazing should be managed with a pre-grazing sward
height of 90cm while for P. maximum cv. Tanznia the target is 70cm for pre-grazing sward
height. For both cultivars the recommended residual herbage height is 3050cm, according to
different categories and objectives;
iii) Cynodon cultivars when used in continuous stocking, should be managed between 10 and 20cm
height;
iv) Pennisetum glaucum when used in continuous stocking, should be managed around 30 cm
height;
v) Annual temperate pastures, such as Lolium multiflorum and Avena strigosa when used in con-
tinuous stocking, should be managed around 15 and 25cm height;
vi) Natural pastures used in continuous stocking maximize animal intake when inter-tussok areas
are managed around 13cm height;
Recent evidence generated under these conditions demonstrates that well fertilized and managed
tropical/sub-tropical forage species can produce herbage of sufficiently high quality to ensure satisfactory
animal performance throughout the year. Low quality herbage during the winter period can be a result
of inefficient harvest during previous favourable growing seasons and is not necessarily an intrinsic
characteristic of the herbage produced. Additionally, non-nutritional factors (e.g., sward structure) have
a greater relative importance than nutritional factors regulating herbage intake of grazing animals.
Animal production systems for tropical/sub-tropical pastures have an additional and significant
constraint, i.e. the pronounced seasonality of herbage production. This generates variation in the feed
supply-demand balance of the system between and within seasons of the year, which must be managed
if sward control is to be achieved effectively. Management practices have direct and indirect impacts
on sward control, structure and animal performance that need to be known in order to allow for the
correct planning and decision making process on a farm scale. Consequently, the current research and
the management orientation for tropical/sub-tropical grasslands are being based on the careful control
and planning of sward state.
Pasture fertilization
It is well documented and recognized that the levels of available P in the soils are extremely low. The use
of fertilizers to increase DM and quality of native pasture production has taken too long to be accepted
by those involved with livestock production; cultivated pastures were fertilized at establishment, but not
for maintenance.
In a classical experiment done in southern Brazil, phosphorous was applied broadcast in a natural
pasture (160 kg/ha), and continuous versus rotational grazing was under evaluation. After 11 years
of grazing, there was a 10% increase in livestock production from rotational grazing compared with
continuous stocking. However, the outstanding response was to P fertilization, which showed an increase
in productivity of around 4.95kg LWG/ha/kg of applied P. After 11 years the fertilized natural pasture
was producing 70% more than the unfertilized natural pasture. No doubt, there was a very lasting and
contributing effect of the P application.
To illustrate the possibility of changing botanical composition by fertilizers and altering the quality
status of pastures, a trial has shown that Desmodium incanum increases from 3.3% up to 24.4% in a
pasture as a result of high phosphorus applications in southern Brazil. With regard to nitrogen, when a
natural grass such as Paspalum notatum is fertilized and water doesnt limit growth, pasture production
reaches 12.0tonnes DM/ha, and places doubt on the necessity for cultivated pastures. This information
has had a considerable impact on the southern research programmes resulting in the promotion of native
pasture fertilization at medium levels for pasture sustainability.
Maintenance of soil nutrient status is a key variable in pasture sustainability. There are sharp residual
effects of P fertilization on forage DM production of subtropical pasture mixtures, with increased legume
contribution as the P levels are increased. However, the P levels in the soil are gradually being reduced
due to extraction by plants when there is no P replacement, and after five years phosphorous can be
reduced to 1/5 of what it was at the beginning.
Annual fertilization of a mixture of guinea grass, Siratro, Glycine wightii and Stylosanthes guianensis
on the other hand, kept that pasture productive for more than ten years. The annual application of
30 Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profile
20kg/ha of P helped in maintaining pasture production while the application of 40kg/ha of P increased the
pasture production by 30%, whereas under no fertilization production dropped at a rate of 15% annually.
Panicum spp. were also identified as responsive to fertile soils, where high levels of P were applied,
while Stylosanthes capitata, Stylosanthes guianensis and Zornia spp. with Brachiaria humidicola,
Hyparrhenia rufa and Andropogon gayanus were identified as species with good performance on soils
with low P supply. Researchers thus emphasized the development of a philosophy of pasture productivity
to take advantage of fertilizer use and applied knowledge in pasture management all over the country to
benefit from the improvement brought about by the fertilizer applications.
In fact, farmers do not frequently adopt fertilizer use. A 1997 survey revealed that only 663000tonnes
of NPK fertilizers were annually applied to 90000000 ha of introduced pastures in Brazil, i.e. about
7.4 kg of NPK fertilizer/ha of pasture per year. Results from grazing trials conducted in eastern and
central Brazil, in the Cerrados revealed that fertilization increased yield of cultivated pastures from
150 to 400kg/ha, irrespective of the final animal product. The search for cheap sources of nitrogen is
suggested to be of paramount importance to supply pasture ecosystems and obtain livestock production
at low cost.
The efficiency of P fertilization is 4.6kg LWha/kg of applied P, while for N fertilization it is 1.6
to 2.0kg LWG ha/kg of applied N (reported for tropical pastures in central Brazil). The magnitude of
responses is associated with the stocking rate, experiencing sharp declines in LWG/ha as the stocking
rate is increased.
dairy enterprises. Production costs have been reported of about US$0.9/kg carcass weight in irrigated
tropical pastures at the same time as selling prices were US$ 1.36/kg carcass weight. Cost analysis
studies indicate that adoption of irrigated tropical pasture depends on production costs in the dry pasture
system, overall production costs and selling price and the increase in productivity in the irrigated system.
Below are presented different views from research and extension, which give an idea of future
possible scenarios for cattle production systems and their potential in Brazil. The following conclusion
were drawn by Corsi et al. (2001):
1. Animal production from tropical pasture-based systems has a high plant and animal productivity
potential when soil fertility is adequate (e.g., fertilizers are used) and more than 25000kg milk/
ha/year and 900kg liveweight gain/ha/year can be obtained.
2. Technology transfer in these systems is constrained because animals and land are used as a capital
reserve and animal products (milk and meat) in these situations are by-products rather than prod-
ucts. Economic policies toward cereal/legumes crops instead of high-cost cattle enterprises also
constrain uptake of technology. This frequently makes smallholder livestock farmers unable to
adopt the necessary technology to efficiently and intensively manage beef and dairy enterprises.
On the other hand, capitalized farmers and companies having already reasonable economic outputs
in extensive systems have no interest to adopt more intensive ones.
3. Stockpiling practices and grass-legume mixtures are pasture management options when stocking
rates are low, generally up to 1.22.0AU/ha/year. Stocking rates above this limit are necessary to
efficiently use the high herbage growth rate potential of tropical pastures. Higher stocking rates
during the summer should consider the use of rotational grazing and the need to plan winter feed-
ing, e.g. the utilization of conserved forages, feedlots, or irrigated tropical pastures.
4. Tropical grass management (mainly for tussock-forming grasses) seems to have different charac-
teristics compared to temperate pasture management. As herbage accumulation rates in tropical
species increase above 100 days, tropical pasture management should be oriented toward forage
quality and/or pasture structure.
5. The supplementation of grazing animals in summer/autumn periods in tropical environments can
be a valuable tool to increase the individual animal performance and the overall pasture output.
6. The use of fertilizers seems to be a pre-requisite to sustain high pasture productivity. Practices that
increase the pasture productivity while maintaining the environment quality should be emphasized.
With regard to pastures, according to Zimmer and Euclides (1997) it is necessary to develop better
quality forages, which can provide a better animal performance in favourable growth periods as well
as in drought. Special emphasis should be given to increase production in the rainy season when the
conditions are better, improving animal performance in this way, where the available tropical pasture
at present does not fulfil the genetic potential for animal gain. In dry periods the nutritional needs of
some animal categories should be met using alternatives for feed supplementation, since in this period
forages do not meet animal needs. It is essential that genetic improvement of forages focus on the search
of legumes for animal diet improvement and, particularly, for biological nitrogen fixation. Biological N
fixation is important for sustainability and for the reduction of possible environmental damage.
According to the National Agriculture Confederation [see CNA] the main demands from the beef
cattle enterprise are:
Technological demands
(a) Genetics: selection for desirable characteristics, like precocity and biological efficiency, particu-
larly concerning live weight and carcass; studies about volume and quantity of meat produced;
production of steers with monounsaturated fat; obtaining animals with greater live weight gain
in less time.
(b) Nutritional management: production costs reduction by low-cost ratios; reduce problems concern-
ing loss of live weight on drought periods.
(c) Production of younger steers: comparative studies (younger animals/ordinary animals, carcass
output, flavour, tenderness, juiciness and acceptability by consumers.
(d) Characterisation of buffalo meat in natura: sensorial analyses by sex and animal age, concern-
ing tenderness, flavour, visual quality, etc., and its acceptability by consumers; studies on meat
32 Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profile
Non-technological demands
(a) Evaluation of generated products: market research to better know the final consumers.
(b) Definition of consumers health objectives.
(c) Production of younger steers: quantitative analysis to quantify market and classical economic
analysis.
(d) Animal husbandry: diagnostics of reproduction.
(e) Re-dimensioning of taxes in all components of the meat chain.
(f) Improvement of the laboratories of quality control: inputs and products.
(g) Increase relationship and co-ordination along the chain.
(h) Increase efficiency of international affairs to negotiate better agreements to the meat chain.
Several organizations, mainly public, are involved in agricultural research and development. On a
national scale, Federal Universities, EMBRAPA and EMATER are important institutions. At State level,
we should consider the efforts of public Universities and/or Research Institutes financed by each state.
Private Universities are not consolidated concerning research. Investment in scientific and technological
research arising directly from Government or from research foundations can be assumed to amount to
some 80% of the total.
The main overall research efforts are being made in the following areas: plant and animal breeding
with the main focus on productivity and capacity to cope with harsh environments; technologies to
rehabilitate degraded areas; grazing management focusing on intensive systems, animal nutrition
focusing on feed-lot systems.
Private enterprises have recently made efforts, notably on animal genetics and plant breeding. Some
of them do development work and assist farmers as a market strategy.
Some key persons and their research areas are presented (this list is not intended to be exhaustive nor
definitive and it should be viewed only as a way to start contacts in the following areas):
Key institutions
Empresa Brasileira de Pesquisa Agropecuria: www.embrapa.br
EMATER : www.emater.tche.br/
Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul: www.ufrgs.br
Universidade Federal de Viosa: www.ufv.br
Universidade Federal de Lavras: www.ufla.br
Universidade Federal Rural do Rio de Janeiro: www.ufrrj.br
Universidade de Braslia: www.unb.br
Universidade de So Paulo: www.usp.br
Universidade Estadual Paulista: www.unesp.br
Universidade Estadual de Maring: www.uem.br
Instituto de Zootecnia: www.iz.sp.gov.br
Fundao Estadual de Pesquisa Agropecuria: www.fepagro.rs.gov.br
Sociedade Brasileira de Zootecnia : www.sbz.org.br
Conselho Nacional de Pesquisa e Desenvolvimento Tecnolgico. www.cnpq.br
Coordenadoria de Aperfeioamento de Pessoal de Nvel Superior:www.capes.gov.br
34 Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profile
8. REFERENCES
Allem, A.C., Valls, J.F.M. 1987. Recursos forrageiros nativos do Pantanal Mato-grossense. Embrapa, 339 p.
Andrade, R. P., Barcellos, A. O., Rocha, C.M.C. 1995. Pastagens nos Ecossistemas Brasileiros: Pesquisas
para o Desenvolvimento Sustentvel. In: XXXII Reunio Anual da Sociedade Brasileira de Zootecnia,
Brasil, Proceedings, 200 p.
Assis, A.G.1997. Milk production under grazing in Brazil. In: International Symposium on Animal Production
under Grazing, Viosa, Proceedings, p.3159.
Atlas Climatolgico do Brasil. 1969. Ministrio da Agricultura, Rio de Janeiro. 100 p.
Brazil. First National Report for the Convention on Biological Diversity. http://www.biodiv.org
Cndido, M.J.D., Arajo, G.G.L., Cavalcante, M.A.B. 2005. Pastagens no ecossistema semi-rido
brasileiro: atualizao e perspectivas futuras. In: Simpsio sobre pastagens nos ecossistemas brasileiros:
alternativas viveis visando a sustentabilidade dos ecossistemas de produo de ruminantes nos diferentes
ecossistemas, 2005, Goinia, Proceedings, CD-Rom.
Confederao Nacional da Agricultura. http://www.cna.org.br/cna/index.wsp
Cordeiro, A. 2000. Sustainable Agriculture in the Global Age: Lessons from Brazilian Agriculture. Swedish
Society for Nature Conservation - Report. 28p.
Corsi, M., Martha Jr., G.B., Nascimento Jr., D., Balsalobre, M.A.A. 2001. Impact of grazing management
on productivity of tropical grasslands. In: XIX International Grassland Congress, Brazil, Proceedings,
p.801805.
Dias-Filho, M.B., Andrade, C.M.S. 2005. Pastagens no ecossistema trpico mido. In: Simpsio sobre
pastagens nos ecossistemas brasileiros: alternativas viveis visando a sustentabilidade dos ecossistemas
de produo de ruminantes nos diferentes ecossistemas, 2005, Goinia, Proceedings, CD-Rom.
Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatstica. http://www1.ibge.gov.br/
Joly, C.A., Aidar, M.P.M., Kilnk, C.A., McGrath, D.G., Moreira, A.G., Moutinho, P., Nepstad,
D.G., Oliveira, A.A., Pott, A., Rodal, M.J.N., Sampaio, E.V.S.B. 1999. Evolution of the Brazilian
phytogeography classification systems: implications for biodiversity conservation. Cincia e Cultura, v.51,
p. 331348.
Macedo, M.C. 1997. Sustainability of pasture production in the savannahs of tropical America. In: XVIII
International Grassland Congress, Canada, Proceedings, p.515.
Macedo, M.C. 2005. Pastagens no ecossistema Cerrados: evoluo das pesquisas para o desenvolvimento
sustentvel. In: Simpsio sobre pastagens nos ecossistemas brasileiros: alternativas viveis visando a
sustentabilidade dos ecossistemas de produo de ruminantes nos diferentes ecossistemas, 2005, Goinia,
Proceedings, CD-Rom.
Maraschin, G.E. 2001. Production potential of South American grasslands. In: XIX International Grassland
Congress, Brazil, Proceedings, p.5-15.
Maraschin, G. E., Jacques, A.V.A. 1993. Grassland opportunities in the subtropical region of South-
America. In: XVII International Grassland Congress, NZ-Australia, Proceedings, p.2014-2015.
Ministrio do Meio Ambiente. 2000. Avaliao e aes prioritrias para a conservao da biodiversidade
da Mata Atlntica e Campos Sulinos. 40p.
Nabinger, C., Moraes, A., Maraschin, G. 2000. Campos in Southern Brazil. In: Grassland Ecophysiology
and Grazing Ecology. CABI. p.355376.
Pallars, O.R., Berretta, E., Maraschin, G.E. 2005. The South American Campos ecosystem. In: Suttie,
J.M., Reynolds, S.G., Batello, C. Grasslands of the world, FAO, p.171220.
Peixoto, A.M., Moura, J. C., Faria, V.P. 1986. Pastagens na Amaznia. In: Congresso Brasileiro de
Pastagens, Piracicaba, Proceedings, 99 p.
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Brasileiro de Pastagens, Piracicaba, Proceedings, 542 p.
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Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profile 35
Silva, S.C.; Carvalho, P.C.F. 2005. Foraging behaviour and herbage intake in the favourable tropics/
subtropics. In: Mc Gilloway, D. A. (Org.). Grassland: a global resource. Wageningen, p. 8196.
Zimmer, A.H., Euclides Filho, K. 1997. Brazilian pasture and beef production. In: International Symposium
on Animal Production under Grazing, Viosa, Proceedings, p.130.
Zimmer, A.H., Macedo, M.C.M., Kichel, A.N., Euclides, V.P.B. 2004. Integrated agropastoral production
systems. In: Guimares, E.P., Sanz, J.I., Rao, I.M. et al. (Eds.). Agropastoral systems for the tropical
savannas of Latin America, CIAT, p.253290.
9. CONTACTS
This profile was prepared by Paulo Csar de Faccio Carvalho. His research area
is the plant/animal relations and integrated crop-livestock systems and since
October 1997 he has lectured at the Faculdade de Agronomia, Universidade
Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, in Porto Alegre - RS, in Southern Brazil.
E-mail: paulocfc@ufrgs.br
To prepare a Country Pasture Resource Profile for such a large and diverse
country as Brazil has not been a simple task. The author wishes to thank
important contributors and has much appreciated the comments received
from various reviewers. Contributions are still welcome. Arrangements are
being made for local revision and updating.
[The profile was prepared in April/May 2002 and was edited by S.G. Reynolds and J.M. Suttie in June
2002; it was further modified by S.G. Reynolds in October 2005, and a major revision undertaken by
Paulo C. de F. Carvalho in January, 2006.]