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drivinginfluencingfactors,predictionsand
measurements
FannyDeckner
Licentiatethesis
DivisionofSoilandRockMechanics
DepartmentofCivilandArchitecturalEngineering
SchoolofArchitectureandtheBuiltEnvironment
KTH,RoyalInstituteofTechnology
Stockholm2013
TRITAJOBLIC2019
ISSN1650951X
ISBN9789175016603
FannyDeckner
2013
PREFACE
TheworkpresentedinthisthesishasbeencarriedoutbetweenSeptember2009andMarch
2013atNCCEngineeringandtheDivisionofSoilandRockMechanics,DepartmentofCivil
andArchitecturalEngineeringattheRoyalInstituteofTechnology.Theworkwas
supervisedbyProfessorStaffanHintzewithassistancefromDrKennethViking.
IwouldliketoexpressmygratitudetotheDevelopmentFundoftheSwedishConstruction
Industry,NCCConstructionSwedenandtheRoyalInstituteofTechnologyforthefinancial
supportgiventothisresearchproject.
Iwouldliketogratefullyacknowledgetheparticipantsinmyreferencegroup(Johan
Blumfalk,Hercules;OlleBtelsson,Trafikverket;HkanEriksson,GeoMind;UlfHkansson,
Skanska/KTH,JrgenJohansson,NGIandNilsRydn,PEAB/LTH/KTH)forvaluable
commentsandreflectionsduringtheprocess.
ThewarmestofacknowledgementsIwouldliketodirecttomysupervisorsProfessorStaffan
HintzeandDrKennethViking.Withoutyoursupportandencouragementthisprojectwould
nothavebeenpossible.
Furthermore,IwouldliketothankmywonderfulcolleaguesatNCCEngineeringfor
makingeveryworkdayajoy.
Finally,IwouldliketothankmybelovedJoelforhisgreatsupportandunderstanding,my
wonderfulsonHenryforbeingsuchahappychild,theyetunbornchildforlettingmefinish
thisthesisbeforeenteringtheworld,andtherestofmyfamilyformakingthiswork
possible.
Stockholm,February2013
FannyDeckner
III
SUMMARY
Groundvibrationsduetopiledrivingarepartofacomplexprocess.Vibrationisgenerated
fromthepiledrivertothepile.Asthepileinteractswiththesurroundingsoil,vibrationsare
transferredatthepilesoilinterface.Thevibrationpropagatesthroughthegroundand
interactswithstructures,bothabovegroundandunderground.Thevibrationcontinuesinto
thestructurewhereitmaydisturboccupantsand/ordamagethestructure.
Inthisthesisthestudyofthevibrationtransferprocessduetopiledrivingislimitedtothe
vibrationsourceandthewavepropagationinthesoil.Vibrationtransmissiontoadjacent
buildingsandstructuresisnotstudied.However,impactofvibrationsonbuildingsisbriefly
discussedintheliteraturestudy.
Itisimportanttoaccuratelypredictthemagnitudeofgroundvibrationsthatresultfrompile
drivinginurbanareas,bothoverandunderestimatedvibrationlevelsleadtoincreased
costs.Alotofresearchhasbeenperformedwithinthisfieldofknowledge,butareliableand
acknowledgedpredictionmodelforvibrationsinducedbypileorsheetpiledrivingisstill
needed.
Theobjectiveoftheresearchprojectistoincreasetheknowledgeandunderstandinginthe
fieldofgroundvibrationsduetoimpactandvibratorydrivingofpilesandsheetpiles.This
researchprojectalsoaimstodevelopareliablepredictionmodelthatcanbeusedby
practisingengineerstoestimatevibrationduetopiledriving.Thislicentiatethesispresents
thefirstpartoftheresearchprojectandaimstoincreasetheknowledgeandunderstanding
ofthesubjectandtoformabasisforcontinuedresearchwork.
Themostimportantfindingsandconclusionsfromthisstudyare:
Themainfactorsinfluencingvibrationsduetopileandsheetpiledrivingare;(1)the
vibrationstransferredfromthepiletothesoil,(2)thegeotechnicalconditionsatthe
siteand(3)thedistancefromthesource.
Thevibrationstransmittedfromthepiletothesoildependonthevibrations
transferredtothepilefromthehammer,thepilesoilinteractionandthewave
propagationandattenuationintheplastic/elastoplasticzoneclosesttothepile.
Thereistodaynopredictionmodelthatfulfilsthecriteriaoftheperfectprediction
model;reliablebutyeteasytoapply.
Futureresearchshouldstudythetransferofvibrationsatthepilesoilinterface,includingthe
generationofaplastic/elastoplasticzoneintheareaclosesttothepileandhowthataffects
thetransferofvibrationsfromthepiletothesoil.
Keywords:groundvibration,pile,sheetpile,prediction
V
SAMMANFATTNING
Markvibrationerpgrundavplningrdelavenkomplexprocess.Vibrationergenereras
frnplmaskinentillplen.Nrplenkommerikontaktmeddenomgivandejorden
verfrsvibrationermellanpleochjord.Vibrationernafortplantarsigsomvgorgenom
markenochtrffarbyggnaderochandrakonstruktioner,bdeovanochunderjord.
Vibrationernafortstterinibyggnadendrdekanorsakastrningarellerskador.
Idennaavhandlingbegrnsasstudienavvibrationsverfringsprocessentill
vibrationskllanochvgutbredningenijord.Vibrationsverfringentillintilliggande
byggnaderellerkonstruktionerharintestuderats.Pverkanavvibrationerpbyggnader
diskuterasdockkortilitteraturstudien.
Detrviktigtattpetttillfrlitligtsttkunnafrutsgamarkvibrationernapgrundav
plningistadsmilj,bdeverochunderskattadevibrationsniverledertillkade
kostnader.Forskninghartidigareutfrtsinomdettaomrde,menentillfrlitligochallmnt
accepteradprognosmodellfrvibrationerpgrundavplningellerspontningsaknas
fortfarande.
Syftetmedforskningsprojektetrattkakunskapenochfrstelsenfrmarkvibrationersom
uppkommervidinstallationgenomslagningellervibreringavplarochspont.
Forskningsprojektetsyftarockstillattutvecklaentillfrlitligprognosmodellsomkan
anvndasavyrkesverksammaingenjrerfrattuppskattavibrationsniverorsakadeav
plning.Dennalicentiatavhandlingpresenterardenfrstadelenavforskningsprojektetoch
syftartillattkakunskapenochfrstelseninommnesomrdetsamtattskapaenplattform
frdetfortsattaforskningsarbetet.
Deviktigasteresultatenochslutsatsernafrndennastudier:
Dehuvudsakligafaktorersompverkarvibrationerorsakadeavplningr;(1)de
vibrationersomverfrsfrnkllantilljorden,(2)degeotekniskafrhllandenap
platsenoch(3)avstndetfrnvibrationskllan(plen).
Vibrationernasomverfrsfrnplentilljordenberorpdevibrationersom
verfrsfrnplmaskinentillplen,plejordinteraktionensamtvgutbredningoch
dmpningidenplastiska/elastoplastiskazonensombildasnrmastplen.
Detfinnsidagingenprognosmodellsomuppfyllerkriteriernafrdenperfekta
prognosmodellen;tillfrlitligmenndlttatttillmpa.
Framtidaforskningbrunderskaverfringenavvibrationermellanpleochjord,
innefattandeuppkomstenavenplastisk/elastoplastiskzonnrmastplenochhurdet
pverkarvibrationsverfringenfrnpletilljord.
Nyckelord:markvibrationer,ple,spont,prediktion
VII
LIST OF NOTATIONS
Keysymbolsusedinthetextarelistedbelow.
GreekSymbols
RomanSymbols
IX
Groundvibrationsduetopileandsheetpiledriving
ev Voidratio
F Force kN
F c Centrifugalforce kN
Fd Drivingforce kN
Fi Impactforce kN
Fv Dynamicdrivingforce kN
F0 Staticoverload kN
f Frequency s1orHz
fd Drivingfrequency Hz
fn Naturalfrequency Hz
G Shearmodulus MPa
Gmax Initialshearmodulus MPa
Gs Secantshearmodulus MPa
g Accelerationofearthsgravity m/s2
g(t,r) PropagationfunctionorGreensfunction
H Heightofsoillayer m
h Dropheight m
Jc Dampingfactor
k Empiricallydeterminedconstant m2/sJ
LH Hammerlength m
Lp Pilelength m
L w Stresswavelength m
M Deformationmodulus kPa
Me Staticmoment kgm
MH Hammermass kg
m Mass kg
mdyn Totalvibratingmass kg
N Numberofloops/stories
n Valuedependingonwavetype
P Dynamicforce kN
PI Plasticityindex
PPV Peakparticlevelocity mm/s
R Soilresistancetostaticprobing kN/m2
Rs Shaftresistance kN
Rt Toeresistance kN
r Distancefromsource m
r0 Referencedistance m
rcrit Criticaldistance m
S Doubledisplacementamplitude m
Sp Contactareabetweenshaftandsoil m2
s Slopedistance m
s(t) Sourcefunction
T Period s
t Time s
u Displacement mm
u0 Initialvibrationvelocity mm/s
V0 Coefficientofvariation
X
Listofnotations
v Particlevelocity mm/s
v g Groundvibrationvelocity mm/s
vH Particlevelocityofhammer m/s
vH0 Velocityofhammeratimpact m/s
v p Particlevelocityofpile m/s
vres Resultantvelocity mm/s
vSRSS Simulatedresultantparticlevelocity mm/s
v x Particlevelocityinxdirection mm/s
v y Particlevelocityinydirection mm/s
v z Particlevelocityinzdirection mm/s
W Powersupply kW
W0 Inputenergy J
Ws Dissipatedenergy J/m3
w(t,r) Groundvibrationfunction
x Empiricallydeterminedconstant
Z Impedance kNs/m
ZH Hammerimpedance kNs/m
Zp Pileimpedance kNs/m
Zs Soilimpedance kNs/m
Zsp SoilimpedanceforPwaves kNs/m
z Displacement mm
z Velocity mm/s
z Acceleration mm2/s
zs Specificimpedance kNs/m3
zsp SpecificimpedanceforPwaves kNs/m3
zss SpecificimpedanceforSwaves kNs/m3
XI
LIST OF PUBLICATIONS
Thislicentiatethesisisbasedontheworkpresentedinthefollowingpublications.
Appended papers:
PaperI Deckner,F.,Viking,K.andHintze,S.(2012).Groundvibrationsduetopileand
sheetpiledrivingpredictionmodelsoftoday.InProceedingsoftheEuropean
YoungGeotechnicalEngineersConference(Wood,T.andSwahn,V.(eds)).
SwedishGeotechnicalSociety,Gothenburg,Sweden,pp.107112.Peerreviewed
conferencepaper.
Deckner performed the analyses and wrote the paper. Viking and Hintze supervised the
work and contributed valuable comments.
PaperII Deckner,F.,Viking,K.andHintze,S.(2013).Factorsinfluencingvibrationsdue
topiledriving.SubmittedtoProceedingsoftheInstitutionofCivilEngineers
GeotechnicalEngineeringinDecember2012.Journalpaper.
Deckner performed the analyses and wrote the paper. Viking and Hintze supervised the
work and contributed valuable comments.
PaperIII Deckner,F.,Lidn,M.,Viking,K.andHintze,S.(2013).Measuredground
vibrationsduringvibratorysheetpiledriving.TobesubmittedtoProceedingsof
theInstitutionofCivilEngineersGeotechnicalEngineeringinMarch2013.Journal
paper.
Deckner and Viking planned and took part in the field test measurements.Deckner and
Lidn performed the analyses. Deckner wrote the paper. Viking and Hintze supervised
the work and contributed valuable comments.
Related publications:
Lidn,M.(2012).GroundVibrationsduetoVibratorySheetPileDriving.DivisionofSoiland
RockMechanics,RoyalInstituteofTechnology,Stockholm,Sweden,MasterofScienceThesis
12/06.
Deckner supervised the work.
Deckner,F.,Hintze,S.ochViking,K.(2010).Miljanpassadplochspontdrivningi
ttbebyggtomrdeetapp2.Bygg&teknik,Vol.102,Nr.1,pp.1220.
Deckner,F.,Lidn,M.,Hintze,S.ochViking,K.(2013).Markvibrationervidspontning
frKarlstadteater.Bygg&teknik,Vol.105,Nr.1,pp.2530.
XIII
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Preface..............................................................................................................................................III
Summary...........................................................................................................................................V
Sammanfattning............................................................................................................................VII
Listofnotations..............................................................................................................................IX
Listofpublications.......................................................................................................................XIII
Tableofcontents............................................................................................................................XV
1 Introduction..................................................................................................................................1
1.1 Background...........................................................................................................................1
1.2 Aimandobjective.................................................................................................................2
1.3 Extentandlimitations..........................................................................................................2
1.4 Methodandoutline..............................................................................................................3
2 LiteratureStudy............................................................................................................................5
2.1 Introduction..........................................................................................................................5
2.2 Basicdynamictheoryandgeodynamics...........................................................................5
2.3 Installationofpilesandsheetpiles...................................................................................24
2.4 Vibrationtransferprocess..................................................................................................28
2.5 Environmentalimpactduetovibrationsfrompiledriving..........................................51
2.6 Measurementofvibration..................................................................................................61
2.7 Predictionofvibrationsduetopiledriving....................................................................66
2.8 Previousfieldstudies..........................................................................................................81
3 FieldstudyKarlstadtheatre...................................................................................................95
4 Summaryofappendedpapers..................................................................................................97
4.1 PaperI...................................................................................................................................97
4.2 PaperII..................................................................................................................................97
4.3 PaperIII................................................................................................................................98
5 Conclusionsandfutureresearch...............................................................................................99
5.1 Conclusions..........................................................................................................................99
5.2 Futureresearch..................................................................................................................100
References...........................................................................................................................................101
PaperI.................................................................................................................................................111
PaperII................................................................................................................................................119
PaperIII..............................................................................................................................................137
XV
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 BACKGROUND
Environmentalimpactisdefinedasanychangetotheenvironment,whetheradverseor
beneficial.Thesurroundingsmayincludenearbybuildings,humansoranimalsinthe
neighbourhood,soilsinthevicinity,freshwaterandmore.Pileandsheetpiledrivingin
denselypopulatedareasmainlyimpactstheenvironmentthroughvibrations,settlements
and/ornoise.Thisresearchprojecthasbeenlimitedtothestudyofvibrations.Settlements
arebrieflytoucheduponasasideeffectofvibrations.
Vibrationscanarisefrommanydifferentsourcesinamodernsociety,forinstancetraffic,
machines,hammering,explosions,earthquakesandconstructionwork(IVA,1983)
(Holmberg,1984).Thisstudyfocusesonvibrationsfrompileandsheetpiledriving.
Vibrationduetopiledrivingisacomplexprocessthatinvolvesmanyparametersthatvary
duringtheprocess.Avibrationisgeneratedbythepiledriver.Afteraninteractionbetween
thepileandthesoil,thevibrationpropagatesthroughthegroundandinevitablyinteracts
withstructuresinurbanareas,bothabovegroundandunderground.Thevibrationthen
continuesintothestructurewhereitmaydisturboccupantsand/ordamagethestructure
(Hintze,1994).
Onetrendinconstructiontodayistoincreasedemandsonquality,whilereducing
constructiontimeandloweringenvironmentalimpact.Inaddition,constructionworktoday
isfrequentlylocatedinurbanareas,adjacenttoexistingstructuresandhumans.
Constructionworkinevitablyinfluencesitssurroundings.Itmayaffectnearbybuildings,
streets,ingroundpipesandmore,aswellasdisturbspecialequipmentandpeople.
Constructioninducedvibrationsincludevibrationsfromactivitiessuchasblasting,
excavation,demolition,compactionanddrivingofpilesandsheetpiles.Todayitisbelieved
thatvibrationsfrompiledrivingarethemostcommonsourcesofconstructionvibrations
(Athanasopoulos&Pelekis,2000).
Duetotheincreasedconcernofenvironmentalimpactandbecauseconstructionprojectsare
moreoftenlocatedinurbanareasclosetoexistingstructures,vibrationassessmentand
predictionhasbecomeofimmediateinterest.Itisimportanttoaccuratelypredictthe
magnitudeofgroundvibrationsthatresultfrompiledrivingatconstructionsites.Thishas
beendiscussedinAthanasopoulos&Pelekis(2000),Hope&Hiller(2000)andMassarsch&
Fellenius(2008)andothers.Themodelsandmethodsforpredictionofvibrationsduetopile
drivingareinadequatetoday.Asignificantamountofresearchhasbeenperformedinthis
1
Groundvibrationsduetopileandsheetpiledriving
fieldofknowledge,seechapterreferences,butareliableandacknowledgedprediction
modelforvibrationsinducedbypiledrivingisstillneeded.
Aninabilityofreliablypredictvibrationsduetopiledrivingleadstoincreasedcosts(Hintze,
1994).Ifvibrationlevelsareoverestimated,thisleadstoselectingmoreexpensiveandtime
consumingconstructionmethodsthannecessary.However,ifvibrationslevelsare
underestimatedtheyresultindamagedstructures,disturbedoccupantsandsuspensionsto
theconstructionwork.
Theactualcostofdamagescausedbyvibrationsduetopiledrivingisunknown.However,a
recentarticleintheSwedishpress(Karlsson,2013)estimatesthatdamagesanddelaysin
constructionprojectshasledtocostsofabout2.7billionEurosin2010inSwedenalone.Of
these,anestimated1/3or0.9billionEurosareduetogeotechnicalerrors.
Thislicentiatethesis,whichincludesaliteraturestudyandafieldstudy,isthefirstpartof
theresearchprojectandaimstoincreasetheknowledgeandunderstandingofthesubject
andtoformabasisforthecontinuedresearchwork.Itaimstoidentifyfactorsthatinfluence
vibrationlevelsandsurveytheexistingpredictionmodels,fromwhichareasthatneed
furtherresearchcanbeidentified.Theupcomingsecondpartoftheresearchprogramwill
focusonthedevelopmentofareliablepredictionmodelforvibrationsduetopileandsheet
piledriving.
Thestudyofthevibrationtransferprocessduetopiledrivingislimitedtothevibration
sourceandthewavepropagationinthesoil.Vibrationtransmissiontoadjacentbuildings
andstructuresisnotstudied.However,impactofvibrationsonbuildingsisbrieflydiscussed
intheliteraturestudy.
2
1INTRODUCTION
Toachievetheobjective,theresearchprojectisdividedintofourdifferentphases:
Phase1Literaturestudy
Anintroductiontothefieldofresearchandtheunderlyingtheories,whatis
knownandwhatfurtherresearchneedstobedone.
Phase2Fieldstudy/Casestudy
Initialtestsandmeasurementsareperformedeitherinarealprojectoratatest
site.Theresultsareevaluatedandanalysed,andpresentedinapaperaswellas
amastersthesis.
Phase3Theorydevelopmentandnumericalcalculations
Basedonprevioustheories,newtheorydevelopmentandnumerical
calculationsamodelisdevelopedforevaluationandpredictionofthe
vibrationsinducedinapiledrivingproject.
Phase4Verificationandimplementationofthemodelinsitu
Thedevelopedmodelistestedandrevisedifnecessaryusingcomparisons
betweenthemodelandmeasurementresults.
Thislicentiatethesisconcernstheworkdonewithinphase1and2asmentionedabove.
Thisthesisiswrittenasacompilationthesisandconsistsoffivechapters,whicharebriefly
describedbelow,andthreeappendedpeerreviewedpapers.
Chapter1isanintroductiondescribingthebackgroundandobjectivesofthisstudy.
Chapter2coversasummaryoftheliteraturestudyincludingmajorfindingsandconclusions
frompreviouswork.
Chapter3containsashortsummaryofthefieldtestperformedwithinthescopeofthis
licentiatethesis.
Chapter4comprisesashortsummaryofeachoftheappendedpapers.
Chapter5presentsthemajorconclusionsfromthisstudyalongwithsuggestionsforfuture
researchwithinthefieldofvibrationsduetopiledriving.
2 LITERATURE STUDY
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Aliteraturestudybasedonavailableliteratureonenvironmentalimpactduetopiledriving
hasbeenconductedaspartofthislicentiatethesis.Limitationshavebeenmadetoliterature
availableinEnglishandSwedish.Alistofallreferencescanbefoundattheendofthethesis.
Asummaryoftheliteraturestudyispresentedhere.Thechapterbeginswithareviewofthe
basicsofdynamicsandgeodynamics.Anexplanationofthemechanismsandfunctionsof
pilesandsheetpilesandtheinstallationprocessesisnext,followedbyareviewofthe
vibrationtransferprocessforpiledriving.Theenvironmentalimpactofvibrationsdueto
piledrivingisstudiedmoreclosely,withafocusontheeffectonsoil,buildingsand
structures,andhumans.Inaddition,thecurrentlyusedmethodsforandpredicting
vibrationsfrompiledrivingarepresented.
5
Groundvibrationsduetopileandsheetpiledriving
Table2.1Expression,definitionandunitforsomeimportantparametersindynamics(Richartetal.,
1970)(Bodare,1996)(Nordal,2009).
Parameter Expression Unit Definition
A m Amplitude displacement amplitude from the mean position
T 2/ s Period time for repetition, time for a full cycle
2/T rad/s Angular frequency
f 1/T, /2 s1 or Hz Frequency
c f m/s Wave propagation velocity
v 2fA m/s Particle velocity
c/f m Wavelength distance between successive crests or troughs of
a wave
rad Phase angle
Figure2.1Parameterscommonlyusedindynamics,modifiedafterMlleretal.(2000)andHolmberg
etal.(1984).
6
2LITERATURESTUDY
Harmonic motion
Thesimplestformofvibratorymotionisrepresentedbysinusoidalorharmonicmotion
(Woods,1997).Harmonicmotionisamovementexpressedbyaharmonicfunction,see
Figure2.1,wherethedisplacement,z,isafunctionoftime,t.Bydifferentiatingthe
expressionforthedisplacement,thevelocityandaccelerationaregiven.Thevelocity, z ,is
thefirstderivativeofzwithrespecttotime,andtheacceleration, z ,isthesecondderivative.
Aharmonicmotioncanbeexpressedaccordingtothefollowingequationsforvertical
vibrations(Richartetal.,1970)(Kramer,1996):
dz
Eq.2.2 z A cos(t ) (m/s)
dt
d 2z
Eq.2.3 z A 2 sin(t ) 2 z (m/s2)
dt 2
Themostimportantfeaturesofharmonicmotionaredefinedbythreeparameters;
amplitude,angularfrequencyandphaseangle.Aisthesingleamplitude.Sometimesthe
doubleamplitude,alsocalledthepeaktopeakdisplacementamplitude,isused,whichis
equalto2A(Richartetal.,1970).Theangularfrequency,,describestherateofoscillationin
termsofradiansperunittime.Thephaseangle,,describestheamountoftimebywhich
thepeaksareshiftedfromthoseofapuresinusfunction,seeFigure2.1(Kramer,1996).From
thethreeequationsaboveandfromFigure2.1itcanbeseenthatthevelocityisphaseshifted
/2comparedtothedisplacement(sinecosine)andthattheaccelerationisphaseshifted
comparedtothedisplacement(sinerespectivelysine)(Thurner,1976).
Periodic motion
PeriodicmotionisadisplacementtimepatternthatrepeatsitselfwithaperiodT,seeFigure
2.2a.Periodicvibrationsaregeneratedbymanytypesofmachineswithaperiodicworking
cycle,e.g.pumps,vibratoryrollers,compressorsandfans.Inthecaseofpiledriving,impact
drivinggeneratesperiodicvibrationsofatransienttype(Holmberget.al.,1984).
Random motion
Randommotionisadisplacementtimerelationshipthatneverrepeatsitself,seeFigure2.2b.
Transient motion
Transientmotionisanirregular,shorttermmotionthatstartsoffatahighintensityand
graduallysubsidesoveraperiodoftime,seeFigure2.2.Anexampleofatransientvibration
couldbewhatabuildingexperienceswhenimpactpiledrivingisperformednearby
(Holmberget.al.,1984).
7
Groundvibrationsduetopileandsheetpiledriving
Figure2.2Examplesoftypesofvibratorymotiona)periodicmotion,b)randommotionandc)
transientmotion.
Wavepropagationvelocity,c,referstothespeedatwhichaseismicwavetravelsthroughthe
groundwhiletheparticlevelocity,v,referstothespeedatwhichanindividualparticle
oscillatesaboutanatrestposition.Tocharacterisewavemotion,theparticlevelocityis
oftenused(Woods,1997).
2.2.2.1 Resonance
Duringresonancetheresponseofthesystemincreasessteadily,theoreticallytowards
infinity.Inpractice,withoutdampingsomethingwouldbreakandresultinfailure.Inreality,
somedampingalwayspreventstheresultfromgoingtoinfinity(Nordal,2009).
Forarodtherearetheoreticallyaninfinitenumberofnaturalfrequencies;however,formost
practicalproblemsthelowestfrequenciesarethemostimportant(Richartetal.,1970).
8
2LITERATURESTUDY
Wavelength
Undisturbedmedium
a)
Wavelength
Undisturbedmedium
b)
Wavelength
Undisturbedmedium
c)
Wavelength
Undisturbedmedium
d)
Figure2.3Displacementcharacteristicsofdifferentwavetypes,a)Pwave,b)Swave,c)Rwaveand
d)Lovewave,modifiedafterWoods(1997)andKramer(1996).
a) Pwave Apushpullmotioninthedirectionofthewave
b) Swave Oscillationperpendiculartothepropagationdirection
c) Rwave AsortofcombinationofPandSwaveswithellipsoidalparticle
motion
d) Lwave Asnakelikemovement
Amorethoroughdescriptionofthewavetypesfollows.
Body waves
Bodywavesarenamedforthefactthatthey,unlikesurfacewaves,travelinsideabodyor
medium(Nordal,2009).BodywavesaregenerallydividedintoPwavesandSwaves.Pand
Swavesexistonebyoneandareindependentofeachotherinafullspace.Davis(2010)
mentionedanothertypeofwavethatcanbepresentinsaturatedsoil,calledaBiotwave.
Thiswaveisacombinationbetweenacompressionwaveinafluidandacompressionwave
inasoil.
9
Groundvibrationsduetopileandsheetpiledriving
Pwaves
Pwavesarealsoknownasprimary,compressionalorlongitudinalwaves.Pwavesare
linkedtoavolumechangeinthemediumastheyinvolvesuccessivecompressionand
rarefaction(dilatationalwave).Particlemotionisparalleltothedirectionofwave
propagation.Pwavescantravelthroughbothsolidsandfluids(Richartetal.,1970)(Kramer,
1996).
ThePwave(orprimarywave)involvesnoshearingorrotationofthematerialasitpasses
through.Pwavesarethefastestwavepresentinasolidmaterial.Intermsoftheshear
modulusandPoissonsratio,thePwavevelocitycanbewrittenas(Kramer,1996)(Mlleret
al.,2000):
M G ( 2 2 ) E (1 )
Eq.2.4 cP (m/s)
(1 2 ) (1 2 )(1 )
Where M=deformationmodulusoroedometermodulus(Pa)
G=shearmodulus(Pa)
E=elasticitymodulus(Pa)
=materialdensity(kg/m3)
=Poissonsratio()
Swaves
Swavesarealsoknownassecondary,shearortransversewaves.AnSwavecausesshearing
deformationsasitpropagatesthroughamedium.Swavescannottravelthroughfluidsdue
tothefactthatfluidshavenoshearingstiffness(Kramer,1996).
TheSwaveinvolvesnovolumechangeandisanequivoluminalordistortionalwave.The
velocityofashearwavecanbecalculatedfrom(Richartetal.,1970)(Kramer,1996)(Bodare,
1996)(Mlleretal.,2000)(Massarsch,2000a):
G E
Eq.2.5 cS (m/s)
2 (1 )
Where G=shearmodulus(MPa)
=totaldensity(kg/m3)
E=elasticitymodulus(MPa)
=Poissonsratio()
Swavesareoftendividedintotwoperpendicularcomponents,SHwavesandSVwaves.
SHwavesareSwavesinwhichtheparticlesoscillateinahorizontalplane.SVwavesareS
wavesinwhichtheparticlesoscillateinaverticalplane.AnygivenSwavecanbeexpressed
asthevectorsumofitsSHandSVcomponents(Kramer,1996).
10
2LITERATURESTUDY
Figure2.4Wavetypesfordifferentboundaryconditionsinelasticmedia,modifiedafterNordal
(2009).
Surface waves
Thegroundisusuallyconceptualisedasasemiinfinitebodywithaplanarfreesurface(an
elastichalfspace).Thestressfreesurfaceofanelastichalfspaceimposesspecialboundary
conditionsthatresultinwavesotherthanbodywaves,namelysurfacewaves.Surfacewaves
aretheresultofinteractionbetweenbodywavesandthesurface,seeFigure2.4.Surface
wavestravelalongthesurfacewithamplitudesthatdecreaseroughlyexponentiallywith
depth(Kramer,1996).
Thereareanumberofdifferenttypesofsurfacewaves;thetwomostcommonarediscussed
below(RwavesandLovewaves).Bodare(1996)alsomentionedStonelywavesthatcanarise
intheinterfacebetweentwoelasticmaterials;however,thesewaveshavenotbeenshownto
beofimportanceingeodynamicsandarenottreatedanyfurtherinthisthesis.
Rwaves
ThemostcommontypeofsurfacewavesareRayleighwaves(Rwaves).Rwavesarea
productofinteractionofPandSVwaveswiththesurface(Kramer,1996).Rwavescanbe
seenascombinationsofPandSwaves.Theirmotionnearthesurfaceisintheformofa
retrogradeellipse,seeFigure2.3,whileatthesurfaceofwaterwaves,theparticlemotionis
insteadthatofaprogradeellipse.Rwavesinvolvebothverticalandhorizontalparticle
motion(Kramer,1996).Atadepthofaround0.2Rthemotionchangesdirectiontorotateina
progradedirection(Bodare,1996),seeFigure2.5.
ThedepthtowhichanRwavecausessignificantdisplacementincreaseswithwavelength.
Assuch,Rwaveswithlongwavelength(lowfrequency)canproduceparticlemotionat
greaterdepthsthanRwaveswithshortwavelengths(highfrequency)(Bodare,1996)
(Kramer,1996).
11
Groundvibrationsduetopileandsheetpiledriving
____Amplitudeatdepthd___
Horisontalsurfaceamplitude
=0.5
=0.25
Horisontal =0.5
=0.25
0.5
Vertical
d/
1.0
1.5
2.0
Figure2.5HorizontalandverticalvibrationamplitudeoftheRayleighwaveasafunctionofdepth,
PoissonsratioandwavelengthmodifiedafterRichartetal.(1970).
Figure2.5showstheRayleighwaveshorizontalandverticalamplitudeasafunctionof
depth,d,Poissonsratio,,andthewavelength,.FromFigure2.5itisnoticedthatthe
verticalamplitudeisgreaterthanthehorizontalamplitudeandalsothatthevertical
amplitudedecreasesrapidlywithdepth.
ThevelocityoftheRwavecanbeestimatedaccordingtothefollowingequation(Holmberg
etal.,1984)(Bodare,1996):
c s (0.87 1.12 )
Eq.2.6 cR (m/s)
1
Where cS=shearwavevelocity(m/s)
=Poissonsratio()
Byinserting=1/3inEq.2.6cR0.93cS,hence,theRwavevelocityisoftenapproximated
withtheSwavevelocity.
Rwavesarenondispersiveinahomogenoushalfspace,meaningthatthepropagating
velocityisindependentofvibrationfrequency(Richartetal.,1970).Inalayeredelastichalf
spacetheRwavesaredispersiveandthepropagationvelocitydependsonfrequency
(Jongmans&Demanet,1993)(Whenham,2011).
12
2LITERATURESTUDY
Love waves
AnothertypeofsurfacewaveistheLovewave,resultingfromtheinteractionofSHwaves
withasoftsurfacelayer.Lovewavesarehorizontallypolarisedshearwavesandhaveno
verticalcomponentofparticlemotion(Kramer,1996)(Athanasopoulosetal.,2000)
(Whenham,2011).Lovewavesonlyexistwhenthereisalayeroflowvelocityoverlayinga
layerofhighervelocity.InahomogenoushalfspacenoLovewavesareproduced(Auersch,
1995)(Athanasopoulosetal.,2000)(Whenham,2011).
Essentially,LovewavesconsistofSHwavesthatarereflectedwithinthesurfacelayer.The
displacementamplitudeoftheLovewavevariessinusoidallywithdepthanddecays
exponentiallywithdepth(Kramer,1996)(Niederwanger,1999).Lovewavestravelwitha
velocitythatisbetweentheshearwavevelocityofthesuperficiallayerandtheshearwave
velocityofthenextlowerlayer(Richartetal.,1970).
ThepropagationvelocityofLovewavesarebetweentheRwavevelocityandtheSwave
velocity.ThevelocityoftheLovewavevarieswithfrequencybetweenanupperandlower
limit,hencetheyaredispersive(Martin,1980)(Kramer,1996).Thewavepropagation
velocityforLovewavesisdependentuponthewavelength,L,andthefrequency.
Figure2.6Raypath,rayandwavefrontfora)planewaveandb)curvedwavefront,modifiedafter
Kramer(1996).
Abodywavetravellinginanelasticmediumthatencountersaboundarywithanother
elasticmediumwillpartlybereflectedbackintothefirstmediumandpartlybetransmitted
intothesecondmedium(Richartetal.,1970).InFigure2.7thedifferenttypesofwaves
producedbyincidentP,SVandSHwavesareillustrated.PandSVwavesapproachingan
interfaceinvolveparticlemotionperpendiculartotheinterfaceplane;hencetheyproduce
bothreflectedandrefractedPandSVwaves.ForanincidentSHwave,noparticlemotion
perpendiculartotheinterfaceoccurs.Asaresult,onlySHwavesarereflectedandrefracted
andnoPwavesorSVwavesareproduced.Boththedirectionandamplitudeoftheincident
waveaffectthedirectionsandrelativeamplitudesofthewavesproducedattheinterface
(Richartetal.,1970)(Kramer,1996)(Bodare,1996).
13
Groundvibrationsduetopileandsheetpiledriving
Figure2.7Reflectedandrefractedraysresultingfromanincidenta)Pwave,b)SVwaveandc)SH
wave,modifiedafterRichartetal.(1970)andKramer(1996).
ForbothPandSwavestheangleofincidenceisequaltotheangleofreflection,whilethe
angleofrefractionisdependentontheangleofincidenceandtheratioofthewavevelocities
ofthematerialsoneachsideoftheinterface(Kramer,1996).Snellslawcangiveexitangles
forallwaves(Richartetal.,1970):
Ahalfspaceofmultiplelayersresultsinacomplexarrayofwavesaswavesarereflected
andrefractedateachinterface(Richartetal.,1970).
Wavescannotcollide.Iftwoormorewavesexistwithinthesameareatheseareaddedto
eachother,aphenomenoncalledinterference.Ifthewaveshavethesamefrequencyand
reachesmaximumatthesametime(theyareinphase),interferenceresultsinamplification.
Iftheotherwaveinsteadisoutofphasebyhalfawavelength,theywillweakeneachother.
Thecombinationofrefraction,reflectionandinterferenceofwavesmeansthatinlayered
materials,amplificationandweakeningmayoccurthatisveryhardtotheoreticallyforesee
(Mlleretal.,2000).Theheterogeneitiesinthegroundandthecreationofnewwavesalong
withthereflectionandrefractionofraypathscausethegroundvibrationstoreacha
vulnerableobjectbymanydifferentpaths(Kramer,1996).
14
2LITERATURESTUDY
n
r
Eq.2.8 A2 A1 1 (m)
r2
Where A2=amplitudeofmotionatdistancer2fromthesource(m)
A1=amplitudeofmotionatdistancer1fromthesource(m)
n=forRwaves()
1forbodywaves()
2forbodywavesatthesurface()
Thevalueofndependsonwavetype.Sincesurfacewavespropagateasexpandingrings,the
energyperunitareaofthewavedecaysinverselyproportionaltothedistancefromthe
sourceandsurfacewavesexperiencealowergeometricdampingthanbodywaves(Rockhill
etal.,2003)(Kramer,1996).
Materialdampingcanbedescribedbythefollowingexponentialfunction(Dowding,1996):
Eq.2.9 A2 A1e ( r2 r1 )
Where A2=amplitudeofmotionatdistancer2fromthesource(m)
A1=amplitudeofmotionatdistancer1fromthesource(m)
=absorptioncoefficient(m1)
Theabsorptioncoefficient,,canbeestimatedaccordingto(Athanasopoulosetal.,2000)
(Massarsch&Fellenius,2008):
2Df
Eq.2.10 (m1)
c
Where D=materialdamping(Hzs)1
f=vibrationfrequency(Hz)
c=wavepropagationvelocity(m/s)
Thewavepropagationvelocityisusuallyeitherexpressedbythesurfacewavevelocity,cR,or
theshearwavevelocity,cs.AccordingtoBodare(1996)Eq.2.10isvalidunderthecondition
thatD<<1applies.
15
Groundvibrationsduetopileandsheetpiledriving
FromequationEq.2.10itcanbeseenthattheabsorptioncoefficient,,decreasesby
decreasingvibrationfrequencyandincreasingwavepropagationvelocity.Hence,awave
withlowfrequencyisdampedlessthanawavewithhighfrequency(Martin,1980)
(Holmbergetal.,1984)(Athanasopoulos&Pelekis,2000)(Auersch&Said,2010).
Itisclearthattheabsorptioncoefficient,,varieswiththecharacteristicsofthematerial,the
wavetypeandthefrequency.Generally,softermaterialshavegreatervaluesofthan
hardermaterials;thusclaygenerallyexhibitsgreaterdampingthan,forexample,sand
(Holmbergetal.,1984)(Woods,1997)(Athanasopoulosetal.,2000)(Mlleretal.,2000).
Throughtheirmeasurements,Clough&Chameau(1980)showedthatsoftersoilsdamped
outvibrationsfasterthandensersoils.Auersch&Said(2010)reportstrongestdampingfora
peatysoil.
Table2.2showsdifferentvaluesoffordifferenttypesofmaterialsandfrequencies.The
coefficientisalsodependentonthematerialssettlementcharacteristics.Thevaluesofis
importantforcorrectestimationofthevibrationattenuation,thoughreachingasatisfying
valueofisdifficult;however,tablessuchasTable2.2canbeusedtogiveanapproximate
value(Whenham,2011).
Table2.2Attenuationcoefficientaccordingtoclassificationofrockandsoilmaterials(Dowding,
1996)(Woods,1997).
Class Attenuation coefficient, (m1) Description of material
5 Hz 40 Hz 50 Hz
I 0.01 0.033 0.08 0.26 0.1 0.3 Weak or soft soil
II 0.0033 0.01 0.026 0.08 0.03 0.1 Competent soil
III 0.00033 0.0033 0.0026 0.026 0.003 0.03 Hard soil
IV < 0.00033 < 0.0026 < 0.003 Hard, competent rock
Amick&Gendreau(2000)statedthatthemagnitudeofthematerialdampingdependson
vibrationamplitude,soiltype,moisturecontentandtemperature,forexample.Ithasbeen
seenthatwetsanddampsvibrationslessthandrysand,sincetheporewaterinthewetsand
helpstocarrycompressionwavesthatarethennotsubjectedtofrictiondamping.Amick&
Gendreau(2000)alsoclaimedthataccordingtoBarkan(1962),frozensoilattenuates
vibrationslessthanthawedsoil.
Thematerialdampingisalsodependentuponthedeformationsize,seeFigure2.8(IVA,1979
and1983).Asthestrainlevelincreasesandthesoilelementlosesstiffness,anincreasein
dampingisseen.Thedampingabilityisconnectedtotheenergydissipatedinthesoil(by
friction,heatorplasticyielding)(Bodare,1996)(Kim&Lee,2000)(Whenham,2011).Ithas
beenshowthattheplasticityindexofthesoilaffectsthedampingforsaturatedsoils,see
Figure2.8(Bodare,1996).Highlyplasticsoilshavelowerdampingratiosthanlowplasticity
soils(Whenham,2011).
16
2LITERATURESTUDY
Figure2.8Relationshipbetweenmaterialdamping,shearstrainandplasticityindex(PI),modified
afterIVA(1979)andWhenham(2011,afterVucetic&Dobry,1991).
Where A=waveamplitude(m)
r=distancefromthesource(m)
Fortheattenuationofsurfacewavesgeneratedbyearthquakes,Galitzin(1912)developeda
relationshipfortheattenuationbetweentwopointsatdistancesr1andr2fromthesource:
r1 ( r2 r1 )
Eq.2.12 A2 A1 e (m)
r2
Where A1andA2=vibrationamplitudeatdistancer1respectivelyr2fromthesource
(m)
=attenuationcoefficient(m1)
AfterLambs(1904)andGalitzins(1912)fundamentalworktheattenuationmodelhasbeen
studiedfurtheranddevelopedovertheyears.However,thebaseforthegeometric
attenuationisstillthesamemorethan100yearslater,andthetotalattenuationofwaves
propagatinginsoilisapproximatedby:
17
Groundvibrationsduetopileandsheetpiledriving
n
r ( r2 r1 )
Eq.2.13 A2 A1 1 e (m)
r2
Where A1=vibrationamplitudeatdistancer1fromthesource(m)
A2=vibrationamplitudeatdistancer2fromthesource(m)
=absorptioncoefficient(m1)
n=forsurfacewaves()
1forbodywaves()
2forbodywavesalongthesurface()
Thisequationisonlyvalidunderhomogenousconditionsandwhenthedepthtotherock
surfaceisgreat(Mlleretal.,2000).Athanasopoulosetal.(2000)concludedthatEq.2.13is
satisfactoryfordescribingtheattenuationofRayleighwaveswithdistanceaslongascorrect
valuesforthecoefficientsareused.
Figure2.9Relationshipbetweenshearmodulus,shearstrainandplasticityindex(PI),modifiedafter
IVA(1979)andWhenham(2011,originallyfromVucetic&Dobry,1991).
18
2LITERATURESTUDY
Theshearmodulus,G,isrelatedtotheelasticitymodulus,E,andthecompressionmodulus,
M,accordingly(Dowding,1996)(Nordal,2009):
Eq.2.14 G c s2 (MPa)
Eq.2.15 E 2G (1 ) (MPa)
Eq.2.16 M c 2p (MPa)
Where cs=shearwavevelocity
=density
=Poissonsratio
cp=compressionwavevelocity
Table2.3showstypicalvaluesoftheshearmodulus,G,fordifferentsoilandrockmaterials.
Table2.3Typicalvaluesofshearmodulus,G,forsomesoilandrockmaterials(Head&Jardine,1992).
Soil/Material type Relative density Shear modulus, G (MN/m2)
Loose 15110
Sand Medium 70250
Dense 2301000
Soft 1065
Clay Firm 55190
Stiff 160450
Sandstone and shale 260020000
Unweathered igneous or metamorphic rock 850032000
Table2.4givestypicalvaluesofthePwavevelocity,cp,andtheSwavevelocity,cs,for
differentmaterials.Thesurfacewave(Rwave)velocity,cR,isonlyslightlylowerthanthe
shearwavevelocityandthedifferenceisusuallyconsiderednegligibleforpracticalpurposes
(Massarsch,2004)(Massarsch&Fellenius,2008).
19
Groundvibrationsduetopileandsheetpiledriving
Table2.4Typicalvaluesofwavevelocitiesindifferentsoilsandmaterials,afterHead&Jardine
(1992).
Soil/Material type cp (m/s) cs (m/s)
Air 344 0
Ice 3000 3500 1500 1600
Water 1480 1520 0
Concrete 3400 2100
Steel 6000 3300
Granite 4500 5500 3000 3500
Sandstone, shale 2300 3800 1200 1600
Fractured rock 2000 2500 800 1400
Saturated moraine 1400 2000 300 600
Dry moraine 600 1500 300 750
Saturated sand/gravel 1400 1800 100 400
Dry sand/gravel 200 800 150 500
Clay below gw 1450 1900 80 500
Clay above gw 100 600 40 300
Organic soils 1480 1520 30 50
Thebodywavevelocitiesdependonthestiffnessanddensityofthematerialtheytravel
through.Sincegeologicmaterialsarestifferincompressionthaninshear,Pwavestravelata
highervelocitythanSwaves(Kramer,1996).
Thepropagationvelocityisdependentonmanyfactors,includingtemperature,effective
stress,stratificationvoidratioandmoisturecontent(Massarsch&Fellenius,2008).Holmberg
etal.(1984)andWoods(1997)statedthatthevelocityofstresswavesinsoilorrockdepends
ontheunitweightandthemoduli(Youngsmodulusandshearmodulus)ofthematerial.
ThePwavevelocitydependsonthedegreeofwatersaturation(groundwaterconditions)in
loosesoils.Belowthegroundwatertable,thePwavevelocitycorrespondstothatofwater
(~1450m/s)(Massarsch&Fellenius,2008).Sinceshearwavesareunabletopropagatein
fluidsandgases,theshearwavevelocitydoesnotchangebelowthegroundwatersurface
unlessthedensityofthesoilischanged(Massarsch&Fellenius,2008)(Mlleret.al.,2000).
AccordingtoRichartetal.(1970)thereseemstobenodifferenceinshearwavevelocity
betweendry,saturatedanddrainedconditions.However,Massarsch&Fellenius(2008)
statedthatduringpiledrivingtheshearwavevelocitycandecreaseduetoexcessporewater
pressureandsoildisturbance.TheRwavevelocityisnotaffectedbythegroundwaterlevel,
however,itisgenerallysaidtobelowerinmoistsoil(Head&Jardine,1992).
ThewavepropagationvelocityisalsodependentuponPoissonsratio,.Figure2.10shows
thecorrelationbetweenPoissonsratioandthewavepropagationvelocity,aswellasthe
relationshipbetweenthevelocitiesofthedifferentwavetypes.ThePwavevelocitycanbe
seentoincreaserapidlyasPoissonsratioincreases(Richartetal.,1970).
20
2LITERATURESTUDY
Figure2.10Relationshipbetweenthepropagationspeed,c,fordifferentwavetypes,Poissonsratio
andtheshearwavevelocity,cs,modifiedafterRichartetal.(1970).
Theshearwavevelocityisstronglydependentonthevoidnumberandgenerallyincreases
withdepth(confiningpressure),seeFigure2.11(Richartetal.,1970)(Massarsch&Fellenius,
2008).Incoarsegrainedsoils,thePwavevelocityislikelytoincreasebelowthepiletoedue
tocompaction,whileitmaybereducedinfinegrainedsoilsduetodisturbanceandpore
waterpressureincrease(Massarsch&Fellenius,2008).
Figure2.11Correlationbetweenshearwavevelocity,voidratio(e)anddepthfornormally
consolidated,saturatedsoil(Hintzeetal.,1997,originallyfromMassarsch,1984).
21
Groundvibrationsduetopileandsheetpiledriving
80 220
70 200
Shearwavevelocity(m/s)
Shearmodulus(MPa)
60 180
50 160
40 140
Shearmodulus
30 Shearwavevelocity
120
20 100
0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1
Shearstrain(%)
Figure2.12Resultfromaresonantcolumntestonmediumdensesandshowingshearmodulusand
shearwavevelocitywithrespecttoshearstrain,modifiedafterMassarsch(2000a).
Sinceshearwavevelocityisafunctionoftheshearmodulus,theshearwavevelocity
dependsonthestrainlevel.Whentheshearstrainexceedsabout0.001%theshearwave
velocitydecreasesconsiderably,seeFigure2.12(Massarsch,2000a)(Athanasopoulosetal.,
2000)(Whenham,2011).Forshearstrainsoflessthan0.001%theshearwavevelocityis
relativelyconstantandsometimesdenoteslowamplitudeshearwavevelocity
(Athanasopoulosetal.,2000).
2.2.4.3 Impedance
Theratiobetweenforceandvelocityiscalledimpedance.AccordingtoMassarsch&
Fellenius(2008)impedancegovernsthetransferandpropagationofvibrationsinthepile,
alongthepilesoilinterfaceandinthesurroundingsoil.Richartetal.(1970)statedthat
impedanceisameasureoftheoppositionofasystemtoanappliedforce.
Pile Impedance
Thepileimpedance,Zp,dependsonthepiledensity,,wavepropagationspeedinthepile,
cB,andthecrosssectionalareaofthepile,Ap.Theimpedancecanalsobeexpressedasa
functionoftheelasticitymodulus,E(Bodare,1996)(Massarsch,2000b)(Massarsch&
Fellenius,2008):
EA p
Eq.2.17 Z p c B A p A p E (kNs/m)
cB
Whendrivingapile,theforceatthetopofthepilemustbegreaterthanthepenetration
resistanceofthepile.Impedancelimitstheamountofforcethatthepileisabletotransmit
fromthepileheadtothepiletoe(Heckman&Hagerty,1978),(Woods,1997).
22
2LITERATURESTUDY
Commonpilematerialsareconcrete,steelandwood.Theimpedanceofthepileswilldepend
onthecrosssectionconfigurationofthepiles.Generallytimberpileshavethelowest
impedanceduetotheelasticitymodulusofwoodbeinglowerthanthatofeitherconcreteor
steel,however,thecrosssectionalareaanditsshapeaffecttheimpedancegreatly(Woods,
1997).
InTable2.5typicalvaluesofacousticimpedancefordifferentpileandgroundmaterialsare
listed.
Table2.5Typicalvaluesofimpedanceandcorrespondingenergytransmissioncoefficients(Hope&
Hiller,2000).
Material Mass density, Pwave speed, cp Acoustic impedance, Z
(kg/m3) (m/s) (MPasm1)
Steel 7800 5700 44.5
Concrete 2400 5000 12.0
Sand (saturated) 2000 1500 3.0
Clay (stiff) 2300 2000 4.6
Sandstone 2400 2300 5.5
Soil Impedance
ThesoilimpedanceforPwaves,ZsP,dependsonthecrosssectionareaofthecontact
betweenthepiletoeandtheunderlyingsoil.Itshouldnotbemixedupwiththespecificsoil
impedance,zP,whichisamaterialpropertyofthesoilanddoesnotinvolvethepile
geometry.Thesoilimpedanceisstraindependentandneedstobeadjustedforstrainlevel
duringpiledriving(Massarsch&Fellenius,2008).
Thesoilimpedance,Zs,isgivenaccordingto(Massarsch&Fellenius,2008):
Where Ap=crosssectionareaofthepiletoe(m2)
cp=Pwavevelocityinthesoil(m/s)
soil=densityofthesoil(kg/m3)
Specific impedance
Specificimpedancespecifiestherelationshipbetweenthecompressivestressandtheparticle
velocityofapropagatingwaveandisaproductofwavevelocityandmaterialdensity.
Specificimpedanceisdenotedbyz(lowercase)andisdefinedby(Bodare,1996)(Massarsch
&Fellenius,2008):
E
Eq.2.19 zs c E (kNs/m3)
c
23
Groundvibrationsduetopileandsheetpiledriving
ThespecificimpedancesforPwavesandSwaves,respectively,aregivenby:
M
Eq.2.20 z sp M c p (kNs/m3)
cp
G
Eq.2.21 z ss G c s (kNs/m3)
cp
Where M=deformationmodulusoroedometermodulus(MPa)
=materialdensity(kg/m3)
G=shearmodulus(MPa)
csandcp=SwaveandPwavevelocity,respectively(m/s)
Drophammersconsistofaweightthatisliftedacertainheight(dropheight)andthen
released(dropped)ontothepile.Theweightmaybeenclosedinacylinder(Martin,1980)
(Hansbo,1994).Drophammerswithweightsof34tonnesarecommoninSweden;hammers
withweightsofupto8tonnesexist(Stille&Hall,1995).
Thedieselhammerconsistsofafreepistoninacylinder.Asmallexplosionisusedtoliftthe
piston.Thepistonisthenusuallyallowedtofallfreeundergravitybeforehittingthepilecap
(Martin,1980).
Pneumatichammersandhydraulichammersworkinprincipalthesameasdrophammers,
exceptthattheyhavecylinders/pistonsandhydraulicdevices,respectively,tohelpliftthe
weightandevenaccelerateitdownwardasapplicable(Martin,1980)(Hansbo,1994).
Impacthammerscanbedividedintolightandheavyhammers.Heavyiswhentheweightof
thedrophammerislargerthanthetotalweightofthepile/sheetpile.Usuallyheavy
hammersbeataround3060blowsperminutewhilelighthammersbeat3001000blowsper
minute(Holmbergetal.,1984).
24
2LITERATURESTUDY
2.3.1.2 Basic theory
Thedrivingenergyduringimpactpiledrivingcomesfromthehammerstrikingthepile
headwithdownwardimpactvelocity(Masoumietal.,2007).Thehammerenergyis
transferredbyblowimpulsesviathepilecaptothepilehead.Partoftheblowenergyis
dampedbythecapandsomeislostinthecontactareabetweenthecapandthepilehead.
Theratedenergyvariesbetween5upto300kJperblowforthemostcommonlyusedimpact
hammers(Svinkin,2005)(Svinkin,2008).Ofthisenergyitisestimatedthatonly3050%is
transferredintothepile(Svinkin,2008).
Impactdriverscandrivepilesintoanytypeofsoilandinorderforthepiletopenetratethe
soil,thestaticsoilresistancemustbeovercomebytheinducedforceinthehammerblow
(VanRompaeyetal.,1995)(ArcelorMittal,2008).Ineachblowthepileisacceleratedoutof
rest,whichmeansthattheinertiaandtheshaftandtoeresistancemustbeovercomewith
eachblow(Massarsch&Fellenius,2008).
Vibratorydriverscanbeclassifiedintothreebasiccategories(Warrington,1992):
1. LowfrequencymachinesVibratorfrequencybetween510Hz.Primarilyusedfor
piletypeswithahighmassandlargetoeresistance,e.g.concreteandlargesteel
pipes.
2. MediumfrequencymachinesVibratorfrequencybetween1030Hz.Themajority
ofallvibratorypiledriversusedtodayareofthistype.
3. HighfrequencymachinesVibratorfrequencygreaterthan30Hz.Thiscategoryis
usuallydividedintotwogroups.First,machinesinthe3040Hzrangethatare
designedtominimizevibrationofneighbouringstructures.Second,resonantpile
driversthatoperateatfrequenciesof90120Hz.Theresonantpiledriverinduces
resonantresponseinthepile,whichfacilitatesdriving.
Themostcommonvibratoryhammersconsistofpairsofeccentricallymountedmasses,see
Figure2.13.Themassesarecontainedinaframewhoseappreciablemassmaybecalledthe
oscillator(orexciterblock).Theoscillatorisisolatedfromthehammersupportbyastatic
mass(biasmassorsuppressorhousing).Betweentheoscillatorandthestaticmassthereisa
verysoftspring,generallyconsistingofelastomerpads.Thestaticmassaddsastaticforceto
oscillatorandpile.Thepileisattachedtotheoscillatorwithahydraulicclamp.Thehammer
isrunbyapowergeneratorandacontrolpanelisusuallymountedonthepowergenerator.
Thewholevibratorismountedonapilingframe(Holeyman,2002)(Rausche,2002)(Viking,
2006)(Whenham,2011)(Whenham&Holeyman,2012).Vibratorydrivingsystemscanbe
eitherfreehangingorleadermounted(Viking,2006).Afreehangingmodelisillustratedin
Figure2.13.
25
Groundvibrationsduetopileandsheetpiledriving
Figure2.13Equipmentforvibratorydrivingofpiles(freehangingmodel),modifiedafterMassarsch
(2000b)andHoleyman(2002).
Onthemarkettodaytherearetwotypesofvibrators;hydraulicandelectric.Thedifferenceis
thatthemotor,housedinthevibrator,ispoweredbyeitheracarriermounteddiesel
hydraulicordieselelectricpowerpack.Thehydraulicpowerpackisbasicallyadieselmotor
coupledtoahydraulicpump,whichinteractswiththevibratorviahydraulichoses.Today
hydraulicsystemsaremostcommon.Hydraulicmotorsaresmallerthanelectricmotorsand
thuslighter,whichisoneofthereasonswhyhydraulicvibratorsaremorecommonlyused
(Holeyman,2002)(Whenham,2011).
26
2LITERATURESTUDY
Figure2.14Counterrotatingmassesandtheproducedforces,modifiedafterRichartetal.(1970).
Variableamplitudevibratorsworkaccordingtotheprincipleoftwopairsofeccentricsthat
canmoverelativetooneanother.Inthiswaytheeccentricscanaddthemselvestotally,add
themselvespartiallyorcanceleachotherout(Houz,1994).Astherotatingeccentricsare
keptinoppositepositionstheresultingmomentiszerocausingnoamplitudeofvibration,
seeFigure2.15a.Iftheeccentricsareturned60,theresultingmomentandamplitudeof
vibrationreaches50%ofthemaximumvalues,seeFigure2.15b.Whenoneoftheeccentrics
ineachpairisturned180theyworkintimewiththeotherhalfcreatingmaximummoment
andamplitude,seeFigure2.15c(Houz,1994).
a) b)
60 60
A=0 A/2
Fc/2
Fc =0
c)
Fc
Figure2.15Variationofrelativepositionofeccentricsinvariableamplitudevibrators;a)eccentricsin
oppositeposition,b)eccentricsturned60andc)eccentricsworkingintime,modifiedafterHouz
(1994).
Avibratorydriverdrivesthepileintothesoilwithtwomechanicalactions;avibratory
actionandastationaryaction.Thevibratoryactionisproducedbythecounterrotating
massesandthestationaryactionbytheweightofthepileandhammer(thestaticmass)
(Holeyman,2002).Thevibrationleadstoporepressurebuildupandeventuallyto
liquefactionandasignificantreductionofthestaticsoilresistance,enablingthepileto
penetratetheground.Ifthesoilconditionsaresuitablethepile/sheetpileisdrivenintothe
groundbyitsownweightandtheweightofthevibrator(Houz,1994)(VanRompaeyet.al.,
1995)(Niederwanger,1999).Viking(2006)discussedthatthelossinshearstrengthduring
vibratorydrivingisduetoadropinintergranularforcesbetweenthegrainsasthe
accelerationamplitudeexceedstheinitialoverburdenpressure.
27
Groundvibrationsduetopileandsheetpiledriving
Figure2.16Schematicdescriptionofa)thepenetrativemotion,b)theshaftresistanceandc)thetoe
resistance,modifiedafterViking(2000).
Thepenetrationofasheetpileduringvibratorydrivingdependsonthecharacteristicsofthe
mechanicalinteractionanddynamicnatureofthewholevibrator,sheetpileandsoilsystem
(Viking,2002b).Duringvibratorydrivingthefollowingforcesactonthepile(VandenBerghe
&Holeyman,2002)(Whenham,2011):
Thevibratingforcefromthevibrator,Fv
Thestaticweightontopofthevibrator,F0
Thefrictionresistancealongtheshaft,Rs
Thetoeresistance,Rt
Theinertialforceinducedbythemovementofthemassofthepileandthevibrator.
Thedrivingforce,Fd,consistingofthestaticoverload,F0,anddynamicdrivingforce,Fv,
varieswithasinusshapeintimewiththedrivingfrequency.Thepenetrationmovementof
thesheetpile,u(t),isadownwardsinusshapeddisplacement,correlatedintimewiththe
drivingforce,seeFigure2.16a.Duringpenetrationthedynamicshaftresistance,Rs,varies
betweenpositiveandnegative,incorrelationwiththeupwardanddownwardpenetration
motion,seeFigure2.16b.Thedynamictoeresistance,Rt,ontheotherhand,variesbetween
zeroandmaximum,alsoincorrelationwiththepenetrativemotion,reachingmaximumat
thelowerendoftheupanddownwardmotion,seeFigure2.16c(Viking,2000)(Massarsch,
2000b)(Holeyman&Legrand,1997).
28
2LITERATURESTUDY
Thevibrationtransferprocessisheredividedintothreeparts(samedivisionisseenine.g.
Stille&Hall(1995)andMassarsch(2000a)),inturndividedintosmallerparts,seeFigure
2.17:
1. Vibrationsource
a. Energytransferbetweenhammerandpile
b. Vibrationinpiles
c. Interactionbetweenpileandsoil
2. Wavepropagationinsoil
3. Damagedobject
a. Interactionbetweensoilandstructure
b. Vibrationtransmissioninstructures
Thedamagedobjectincludingtheimportantaspectsofsoilstructureinteractionand
vibrationstransmissioninstructuresisnotstudiedinthislicentiatethesis.
Figure2.17Schematicillustrationofthevibrationtransferduringpiledrivinginurbanareas,
modifiedafterHintzeetal.(1997).
29
Groundvibrationsduetopileandsheetpiledriving
Figure2.18Typicalvibrationsequencefroma)impactpiledriving,b)vibratorypiledriving,c)
blastingandd)earthquake,modifiedafterMlleretal.(2000)andLidn(2012).Observethedifferent
timescalesonthexaxisandnotethatd)isforvibrationacceleration.
Thisthesisdealswithvibrationsduetopiledrivingbyimpactdriving,whichgenerates
transientvibrations,andvibratorydriving,whichgeneratescontinuousvibrations.
Oneofthedifferencesbetweenimpactdrivingandvibratorydrivingisthefrequencyof
excitation.Forvibratorypiledriving,thefrequencyisrelativelylowandrangefromabout10
to50Hz,whileforimpactdrivingfrequenciesarehigher,upto300Hz(Svinkin,2004)
(Thandavamoorthy,2004)(Masoumietal.,2007).
30
2LITERATURESTUDY
Thevibrationsgeneratedbyimpactpiledrivingdieoutbeforethenextblow,whilethe
vibrationscausedbyvibratorypiledrivingarecontinuousduringthetimeofdriving(Wiss,
1967).AccordingtoZiyazovetal.(1976)thedurationofvibrationsexcitedbyoneblowin
impactdrivingdoesnotexceed1.53periodsandisnotenoughtoinferresonanceof
buildingsandstructures.Also,theimpactcreatedbyimpactpiledrivingisnotasingle
frequency,andonlyafewcyclesofanygivenfrequencyoccur,soresonancedoesnot
developinthesamewayasforvibratorydrivingofpiles(Woods,1997).
Normallyimpactpiledrivingisconsideredtogeneratetransientvibrations.However,for
someimpactdrivers(e.g.doubleactingairordieselhammers)thestrokesaresorapidthat
thevibrationsdonotfullydieawaybetweentheblows.Thiscouldbeconsideredasaless
regularbutcontinuousformofvibrationandissometimescalledpseudosteadystate
vibration(Head&Jardine,1992)(Svinkin,2004).Sometimesimpactpiledrivingisclassified
asintermittentvibrationasitgivesrisetotransientvibrationswithsufficienttimebetween
eachblowfortheamplitudetodecaytoaninsignificantlevel.
HerefollowsatheoreticalapproachpresentedinMassarsch&Fellenius(2008)(also
mentionedinNordal(2009))assumingnolossofenergy.Atimpacttheparticlevelocityof
thepileheadiszero,whilethevelocityofthehammercanbeestimatedfromthedropheight
accordingto:
Eq.2.22 v H 0 2 gh (m/s)
Where vH0=velocityofhammeratimpact(m/s)
g=accelerationofearthgravity(m/s2)
h=dropheight(m)
Asthehammerhitsthepileastresswaveiscreatedsimultaneouslyinthepileandinthe
hammer,seeFigure2.19.Thehammervelocityslowsdownasthepileheadaccelerates.Since
theforcesneedtobeequalthefollowingequationapplies:
Eq.2.23 Z H vH Z P vP
Where ZH,P=impedanceofhammerandpilerespectively(kNs/m)
vH,P=particlevelocityofhammerandpilerespectively(m/s)
31
Groundvibrationsduetopileandsheetpiledriving
MH
LH vH0
ZH
h vH LH
Fi vP=vH0/2
Fi vP LW
Rs
ZP
RT
Figure2.19Stresswaveinpileduringimpactdriving,modifiedafterMassarsch&Fellenius(2008).
Atthecontactsurfacethehammervelocityisdecreasingwhilethepileheadvelocityis
increasing,whichgives:
Eq.2.24 vH 0 vH vP (m/s)
CombiningEq.2.23andEq.2.24give:
vH 0
vP
Eq.2.25 Z (m/s)
1 P
ZH
Ascanbeseen,theparticlevelocityinthepileisnotaffectedbythehammermass(mH),but
onlybythehammerdropheightandtheimpedanceratioofthehammerandthepile
(Massarsch&Fellenius,2008).
Thedurationoftheimpactofthehammerdeterminesthelengthofthepropagatingstress
wave.Thetime,t,duringwhichthehammerandthepileheadisincontactisthetimeit
takesforthestrainwavetotravelfromthetopofthehammertothebottomandbackupto
thetop,i.e.2LH,accordingto(Bodare,1996)(Massarsch&Fellenius,2008):
2 LH
Eq.2.26 t (s)
cH
32
2LITERATURESTUDY
Where LH=lengthofhammer(m)
cH=velocityofstresswaveinhammer(m/s)
Eq.2.27 Me me (kgm)
Whentheeccentricallysupportedmassesrotateatanangularfrequencyitproducesa
centrifugalforce,Fv.accordingto(Woods,1997)(Massarsch,2000b)(Rausche,2002):
Eq.2.28 FV M e 2 (kN)
Where Me=staticmoment
=angularfrequency
Onlyverticalcomponentsofthecentrifugalforcearetransmittedtothepilesincepairsof
eccentricmassesspininoppositedirections(Rausche,2002).AccordingtoRichartetal.
(1970),Whenham(2011)andWhenham&Holeyman(2012)theverticalcomponentofthe
centrifugalforce,Fv(t),isaharmonicfunctiondescribingasinusoidalpathintime:
Anotherimportantfactorinvibratorypiledrivingisthedisplacementamplitude(double
amplitude)generatedbytherotatingmassvibrator(Woods,1997)(Massarsch,2000b).The
freehangingdoubledisplacementamplitudeisameasureofafreehangingvibratorandthe
upwardanddownwardoscillatingmotionofthepile.Thenominaldoubledisplacement
amplitudeforafreehangingdriverpilesystem,S,dependsonthestaticmoment,M,and
thetotalvibratingmass,mdyn,accordingto(Houz,1994)(Woods,1997)(Viking,2006)
(Whenham,2011):
2M e
Eq.2.30 S (m)
m dyn
Where mdyn=totalvibratingmass(vibrator+clamp+pile)
Therealamplitudeofthefreehangingpilewillalwaysbesmallerthanthespecifiednominal
amplitudesincethedynamicmassisincreasedbythatofthepileandtherearelossesdueto
soilresistance,forexample(Holeyman,2002)(Viking,2006).Whenham&Holeyman(2012)
actuallyshowthattheratiobetweenmeasuredforceinthepileandthenominalaxialforceis
around0.40.6.Theyobservedthattheforcetransferredtothepileisincreasedaspenetration
depth,i.e.soilresistance,increases.
33
Groundvibrationsduetopileandsheetpiledriving
2Lp
Eq.2.31 t (s)
cB
Where Lp=pilelength(m)
cB=wavevelocityinthepile(m/s)
Theforce,P,createdbytheimpulsecanbeexpressedasstressmultipliedbyarea,according
to(Woods,1997)(Nordal,2009):
Eq.2.32 P A P c B v p A p Z p v p (kN)
Where vP=particlevelocityatthetopofthepile(m/s)
cB=wavevelocityinthepile(m/s)
AP=crosssectionalareaofthepile(m2)
=densityofthepilematerial(kg/m3)
ZP=pileimpedance(kNs/m)
T 1 4L p
Eq.2.33 t
4 4 fd cB
Whenham(2011)presentedanotherruleofthumbfordeterminingwhenthepilewould
behaveasarigidbody:
34
2LITERATURESTUDY
cB
Eq.2.34 f d 0.1 f n
20L p
Where fd=drivingfrequency(Hz)
fn=longitudinalnaturalfrequencyofafreeslenderbar(Hz)
cp=longitudinalwavevelocityinthepile(m/s)
Lp=lengthofthepile(m)
Bycomparingtheaboveruleofthumbwithresultsfrommeasurements,Whenham(2011)
reportedthatonly8outof72piles/sheetpilesfulfiltherequirementofarigidbody.Viking
(2002a)statedthatresultsfromfieldmeasurementsshowthatthesheetpileheadandtoe
displaythesamedisplacementamplitudeandaccelerationthroughoutthedrivingphase.
Leeetal.(2012)concludedthatthetwosheetpilesintheirmeasurementsbehavedasrigid
bodiesduringdriving.
Thedynamicforce,P,thatistransferredtothepileheadandthenfurtherthroughthepileis
givenasaproductoftheimpedance,Zp,andthevibrationvelocityinthepile,vp,justasfor
impactdrivenpiles,seeEq.2.32(Massarsch,2000b).
Energy transfer
Theenergyinducedatthepileheadisprincipallydividedintoenergyusedforpenetration
ofthepile,energyreflectedbackupthepileandenergytransmittedintothesoil(Selby,
1991).
Whenthehammerhitsthepileabodywaveiscreatedthattravelsalongthepile.Whenthe
bodywavereachesthepile/soilinterface,partoftheenergytransmitstothesoilandpartof
theenergyisreflected(Attewell&Farmer,1973).AccordingtoAttewell&Farmer(1973)the
ratiobetweentheenergytransmittedtothesoilandtheenergyofthewavereflectedback
intothepileisapproximately2to1whenthebodywavepassesthroughasteelsoilinterface
thatisnormaltothewavedirection.Whenham(2011)reportedthatupto5060%ofthe
energytransferredtothepilefromthepowerpackisdissipatedatthepilesoilinterface.
Theenergytransmittedfromthepiletothesoilprincipallydependsonthehammerandpile
properties(Woods,1997).AccordingtoMassarsch&Fellenius(2008)thelengthofthestress
wavegovernsthetransmissionefficacyofvibrationsfromthepileshafttothesurrounding
soil.Theyalsoshowthatthevibrationtransmissionefficacyincreaseswithdecreasingpile
impedanceandincreaseswithincreasingsoildensity,hence,thepilematerialandpile
impedanceareimportantaspectsofthevibrationtransmission.AccordingtoWhenham
(2011),Westerbergetal.(1995)alsostressedtheimportanceofpileimpedancealongwiththe
behaviourofthesoilunderdynamicloadingwhenlookingatpilesoilinteraction.
Groundvibrationsfromimpactpiledrivinghaveoftenbeenreportedtobegreaterinstiff,
dense,soilsthaninloose,softsoils.DAppolonia(1971),Martin(1980)andalsoHead&
Jardine(1992)explainedthisfromthedifferenceinresistanceindifferentsoils.Hebelieved
thatthesoilresistanceruleshowmuchenergyisusedtodrivethepiledownandhowmuch
35
Groundvibrationsduetopileandsheetpiledriving
energyisavailabletobecomegroundvibrations.Inresistivesoilthesetperblowislowand
considerableenergyisavailableforgroundvibrations,whileinlowresistancesoilsthepile
penetratesquicklyandasmallamountofenergybecomesvibrations(Whyley&Sarsby,
1992)(Hiller&Hope,1998)(Hope&Hiller,2000).Attewell&Farmer(1973)andNilsson
(1989)ontheotherhand,explainedthisconsideringthepartitionofenergyatthepilesoil
interaction.Astiffgroundgenerallyhashighimpedance.Displacementpilesarestifferthan
theground,hence,theenergytransmissionratioatthepilesoilinterfaceincreasesasthe
groundstiffnessincreases.Hope&Hillers(2000)measurementscannotfullybeexplained
withacousticimpedanceeffects.Hence,theysuggestedthatperhapsbothmechanisms
occur;onepartofthehammerenergythatisgovernedbythetransmissionratiotransmits
directlyasgroundvibrationstothesoilfromthepiletoe.Theremainingenergyisavailable
todrivethepile;however,someofthisenergywillcauseelasticdeformationsintheground.
Thelargestpartoftheenergyistransmittedtothesoilatthepiletoeaslongasthepileisnot
predominantlyfrictional,taperedorstepped.Inthesecases,moreenergyistransmittedfrom
theshaft(Head&Jardine,1992).Duringdrivingtorefusal,alloftheenergyistransmittedto
vibrationsinthesoil(Head&Jardine,1992).Theamountofenergythatistransferredfrom
theshaftandthetoerespectivelymainlydependsonthesoillayersdynamicproperties
(Massarsch,2000b).
Wave generation
Attewell&Farmer(1973),Head&Jardine(1992),Athanasopoulos&Pelekis(2000),Kim&
Lee(2000)andThandavamoorthy(2004)proposedtheuseoftwosourcesofenergytransfer
fortransmissionofgroundvibrationfrompiledriving:thepiletoeandthepileshaft,see
Figure2.20.Atthepiletoe,thedisplacementofsoilgeneratesbothcompressionalPwaves
andshearSwavesthatpropagateoutwardfromthetipinasphericalwaveforminall
directions.Theskinresistanceofthepileleadstothegenerationofaconicalwavefrontof
verticallypolarizedbodyshearwavesexpandingfromtheshaft.Theangleoftheconeis
quiteshallowsincethevelocityofthedrivingimpulsetravellingdownthepileat
compressionwavevelocityisusually10timesorevengreaterthantheshearwavevelocity
inthesoil.Inpractice,thismeansthatthewavefrontemanatingfromthepileisassumedto
becylindrical,especiallyforvibratorydriving(Woods,1997).
AsthePandSwaveshitthegroundsurfacesomeenergyisconvertedintoRwaveswhile
someisreflectedbackintotheground.TheRwavespropagatealongthegroundsurface
havingbothverticalandhorizontalcomponentsofmotion(Head&Jardine,1992)
(Athanasopoulos&Pelekis,2000).Theshearwavesfromthepiletoereachtheground
surfaceatadistancethatisapproximatelyequaltothepiledepth(Head&Jardine,1992).
Athanasopoulos&Pelekis(2000)presentafigureshowingtheminimumdistancefromthe
sourcetowheresurfacewavesaredevelopedduetoreflectionofbodywaves,seeFigure
2.21.Amick&Gendreau(2000)statedthatduringpiledrivingwhenthesourceisbelowthe
groundsurface,Rayleighwavesareformedatahorizontaldistanceofaboutafewmeters
fromthepile.
36
2LITERATURESTUDY
Figure2.20Schematicrepresentationofdifferentwavetypesthatcanbegeneratedatpiledriving,
modifiedafterAttewelletal.(1973)andMartin(1980).
ThewavegenerationinFigure2.20isbasedontheassumptionthatonlytheelastic
deformationofthesoilisrelevanttothetransferofvibrations.Reflectionsandrefractions
fromunderlyingsoillayersandtheinteractionofwavesfromthetoeandtheshaftwill
generatecomplicatedarraysofparticlemotion(Head&Jardine,1992).
cRd
r
c P2 c R2
2 2 c R2
s d r d 1
c P2 c R2
Figure2.21Determinationofminimumdistancefromthesourcetothepointonsurfacesinwhich
surfacewavesaregenerated,modifiedafterDowding(1996,originallyfromDaemonetal.,1983).
37
Groundvibrationsduetopileandsheetpiledriving
Figure2.22Criticaldistanceandcriticalangleforreflectionofsurfacewavesduringpiledriving,
modifiedafterMassarsch&Fellenius(2008).
Massarsch&Fellenius(2008)introducedadistancecalledcriticaldistance(seeFigure2.22),
whichisthedistancefromthepiletowhereasphericalwave(Pwave)emittedfromthepile
toerefractsasasurfacewavewhenreachingthegroundsurface.Thecriticalanglecanbe
determined:
cS
Eq.2.35 crit arcsin (rad)
cP
Where cS=Swavevelocity(m/s)
cP=Pwavevelocity(m/s)
Thecriticaldistance,rcrit,fromthepile,wherewaverefractionwilloccurattheground
surface,cannowbedeterminedfrom:
Where d=pilepenetrationdepth(m)
AtableinMassarschandFellenius(2008)suggestthatthecriticaldistancefromthepileis
locatedatadistanceapproximatelyhalftheembedmentdepthofthepileindrycoarse
grainedsoil,whilethecriticaldistanceinlooseorsoftsoilsbelowthegroundwaterlevel
becomesmuchshorterandisinthecaseofclayalmostzero.
Vibrationsinthesoilcanalsoariseiftheimpacthammerorvibratorcauseslateral
deformationsofthepile(Selby,1991).AccordingtoMassarsch&Fellenius(2008)friction
betweenpileshaftandgranularsoilcan,duringpiledriving,giverisetoahorizontal
vibrationcomponent.Thisisimportantinthecaseofvibratorydriving,whileitisusually
neglectedwhenitcomestoimpactdriving.
Fieldmeasurementsduringvibratorydrivingandsoilcompactionhaveshownthatthe
verticaloscillationofthepilegivesbothverticalandhorizontalvibrationsinthesurrounding
soil.Thehorizontalvibrationcomponentarisesfromthefrictionbetweenthepileshaftand
thesoilandcanbeintherangeof3050%oftheverticalvibration(Massarsch,2000b).
38
2LITERATURESTUDY
AccordingtoViking(2002b),lateralflexibilityinthesheetpilecancausethegenerationof
considerablyhighergroundvibrations.Laterallyinducedmovementinasheetpileis
claimedbyVikingtogenerallyoccurduetooneormoreofthefollowingreasons:
Sheetpileprofilesaredrivenoneatatimewithvibratorsequippedwithasingle
clampingdeviceholdingthesheetpileintheweb.
Verticalalignmentisneglectedwheninterlockinganewprofilewithanalready
installedprofile.
Badchoiceofvibratorequipmentandbadequipmentoperation.
Clutchesinbadcondition.
Strain level
AccordingtoKim&Lee(2000)andMasoumietal.(2006and2008)theenergyfrompile
drivingishighandcausesplasticdeformationsinthenearfield.Furtherfromthepileithas
beenshownthatthevibrationscausesdeformationswithintheelasticrange.Thelargestrain
levelsinducedinthesoilimmediatelyadjacenttothedrivenpilecausethesoiltobehave
nonlinearlyanddegradeundercyclicloading(Denies&Holeyman,2008)(Whenham,2011).
Consequentlythesoilstiffness(andthuswavevelocity)decreases,and,especiallyalongthe
shaft,thesoilwillberemoulded(Massarsch&Fellenius,2008).
Asdiscussedinsection2.2.4.1,theshearmodulusdecreaseswhilematerialdamping
increaseswithcyclicstrain(seeFigure2.8andFigure2.10).Aboulella(1990)confirmedthis
bystatingthatthehighstrainscausedbypiledrivinginthesoiladjacenttothepilesreduce
thedynamicshearmodulusandincreasethedampinginthatregion.AndMasoumietal.
(2009)haveshownthatanonlinearbehaviourforthesoilnexttothepileleadstosmaller
levelsofvibration.
Theshearstraininducedbythevibrationcanbeestimatedfromthefollowingrelationship
(Massarsch,2000a):
v
Eq.2.37 ()
cs
Where v=particlevelocity(m/s)
cs=shearwavevelocity(m/s)
Svinkin(1996)referstoearlierstudies(Svinkin,1976)whereinsitumeasurementshavebeen
madebydroppingamassonthegroundrepetitiouslyinordertostudytheeffectsofthe
plasticdeformationsonthegroundvibrationsfurtherfromthevibrationsource.Theresults
showedthatdespitealargeplasticdeformationatthepointofimpact,thegroundsurface
vibrationsatadistanceof43and57mfromthesourcedidnotchangeconsiderablyasthe
plasticdeformationgrewlarger.
Duringdynamicproblemsthestrainlevelsvarywithinalargerange.Atsmallstrainlevels
(typically<105),rockandsoilbehaveaselasticmaterials.However,atmoderatestrain
levels(104102)mostmaterialsdisplayelasticaswellasplasticbehaviour(Bodare,1996).
Table2.6showssoilbehaviourfordifferentstrainlevels.
39
Groundvibrationsduetopileandsheetpiledriving
Table2.6Soilbehaviourfordifferentstrainlevels,afterWhenham(2011,afterIshihara,1996).
Shear strain 106 105 104 103 102 101
Small strain Medium strain Large strain Failure strain
Elastic
Elastoplastic
Failure
Effect of load repetition
Effect of loading rate
Model Linear elastic Viscoelastic Load history tracing type
Method of response Linear Equivalent linear Stepbystep integration
analysis
Soil resistance
Whenastresswavepropagatesdownthepileitencountersresistance.Theresistancecanbe
consideredeitherintermsofpenetration,viablowcount,ordrivingresistance,viaforce.Itis
onlythedynamicresistancethatgivesrisetovibrationsemittedfromthepileshaftorpile
toetosurroundingsoil(Massarsch&Fellenius,2008).AccordingtoWaarts&Bielefeld(1994)
thesoilresistanceisthereactionforceofthesoilonthepile.
Thedynamicresistancethatarisesalongtheshaftandatthetoeofthevibratingpileis
mainlyaffectedbyfourfactors(Massarsch,2000b):
Vibrationfrequency(centrifugalforce)
Vibrationvelocityofthepile
Displacementamplitudebetweenpileandsoil
Numberofvibrationcycles
Shaft resistance
Asthepilepenetratethesoiltheshaftresistanceincreaseduetotheincreasingshaftareain
contactwiththesoil(Whenham,2011).AccordingtoWhenham(2011)theinfluenceofthe
shaftresistanceincreaseswiththecontentoffinematerial(clay)inthesoil.Whendrivingin
clay,porewaterpressurebuildupandsoilremouldingreducestheshearresistancealong
thepileshaftconsiderably.Ontheotherhand,whendrivingingranularsoilthe
displacementofsoilaroundtheadvancingpilemightincreaseshaftfriction(Hope&Hiller,
2000).VanRompaeyetal.(1995)alsomentionedtheproblemofincreasingsoilresistance
duringvibratorydrivingduetocompactionofthesoil.Thisisaphenomenonthatcanbe
seeninmostnoncohesivesoils.
Theshaftresistanceactsintheoppositeofmotionregardlessofwhetherthepileismoving
upordown(Whenham,2011),seeFigure2.16b.
Thedynamicsoilresistanceatthepileshaft,Rs,canbegivenaccordingto:
Eq.2.38 Rs z s v p S p (kN)
Where zs=specificsoilimpedance(kNs/m3)
vp=particlevelocityinthepile(mm/s)
Sp=contactareabetweenshaftandsoil(m2)
40
2LITERATURESTUDY
Toe resistance
Thedynamicportionofthedrivingresistanceatthepiletoe,Rt,canbegivenfrom
(Massarsch&Fellenius,2008):
Eq.2.39 Rt J C Z P v P (kN)
Where JC=dampingfactor()
ZP=pileimpedance(kNs/m)
vP=particlevelocityinthepile(m/s)
Thetoeresistancevariesduringdrivingandiszeroattimeswhenthepileisnotmoving
downward(Whenham,2011),seeFigure2.16c.Ascanbeseenthecurvedoesnotdisplaya
linearrelationshipbutastrainhardeningloadingandunloadingcurve(Viking,2006).
Interlock resistance
Inordertocreatearetainingwall,sheetpilesaredriveninlock.Thefrictionbetweenthetwo
sheetsastheyaredriveninlockgivesrisetoaninterlockresistance.Theconditionofthe
locksandalsotheverticalityofthedrivenpilesaffectthesizeoftheinterlockresistance.The
magnitudeoftheinterlockresistanceaffectsthegroundvibrationsinducedduringdriving
(Whenham,2011).Theinterlockfrictionismainlyduetosoilparticlesinthelocks;however,
itisalsotosomeextentduetosteeltosteelfriction(Viking,2006).
Viking(2006)claimedthatresultshaveshownthatthegroundvibrationsgeneratedduring
vibratorydrivingincreasedby25timeswheninterlockfrictionwaspresent.Leeetal.(2012)
performedmeasurementsusingstraingaugesmountedontwosheetpiles(onewithout
interlockfrictionandonedriveninlock)duringvibratorydrivinginsand.Theresults
showedthatthepeaksectionforcesweregreaterforthepiledriveninlock.Theyalso
noticedthattheinterlockfrictionwasnotconstantwithpenetrationdepth.
Viking(2002b)presentedresults,frommeasurementofgroundvibrationrecordedduring
vibratorydrivingofsheetpiles,showingthatwhenconsideringtheinterlockingfriction
forcebetweentwosheetpilestheinducedgroundvibrationsareupto25timeshigherthan
whennofrictionforceisconsidered.
Soil stratification
Itislikelytobelievethatastiffsurfacelayerontopofasofterlayerwouldindicatethat
vibrationsproblemsoccurduringthebeginningofdriving.Itisalsoexpectedtobelievethat
vibrationproblemscouldoccurduringseatingofthepilesintoastifferbearinglayeratthe
endofdriving(Hintzeetal,1997)(Woods,1997).
Massarsch&Fellenius(2008)showedthatduringdrivingthroughasurfacefilland
underlyingclaylayer,alargepartofthevibrationenergyistransmittedalongthepileshaft
and/orpropagatesassurfacewaves.However,whenthepilereachesthedenseglacialtillat
largerdepththevibrationsmeasuredagreebestwiththoseemittedassphericalwavesfrom
thepiletoe.
41
Groundvibrationsduetopileandsheetpiledriving
Figure2.23Experimentalresultsofdimensionlesspeakparticlevelocityplottedagainstdistancefrom
thepileduetovibratorypiledrivingatadrivingfrequencyof25Hz(Masoumietal.,2006).
Masoumietal.(2006)modelledthesoilbehaviourduringvibratorydrivinginorderto
investigatetheinfluencesofthesoilinhomogeneity.Theirexperimentalresultsshowthatin
inhomogeneoussoil,diffractedbodywavesarereflectedintothetoplayerandtheshear
wavefrontaroundtheshaftisaffectedbythereflectedandrefractedwaves.
Masoumietal.(2006)alsonoticedthatvibrationamplitudesattenuatemonotonicallyin
homogenoussoil.However,inalayeredsoilmodelorinamodelwithincreasingstiffness
withdepth,theattenuationisoscillatory,seeFigure2.23.Theoscillationisbelievedtobedue
totheinterferenceofthereflectedwavesonthegroundsurface.Theirresultsalsoshowed
thatvibrationsattenuatefasterinalayeredsoilthaninahomogeneoussoilprofileand
indicatedthatthehighertheoperatingfrequencyofthevibratorthemorethevibrationsare
attenuated.
Basedonexperimentalresults,Masoumietal.(2007)showedthatwhenthepenetration
depthissmallerthanthelayerthickness,thelayeringhasarelativelysmalleffectonthe
groundvibrationsgeneratedbyvibratorypiledriving.However,whenthepenetration
depthisgreaterthanthelayerthickness,theinfluenceofthelayeringislargeduetothe
reflectionandrefractionofwaves.
Thedistancefromthevibrationsourceconstantlychangesduringthedrivingofpilesor
sheetpiles.Duringpenetrationintotheground,severalvibrationsourcescanexistatthe
sametime,bothfromthepiletoeandalongtheshaft(Massarsch&Fellenius,2008).
DuringtheinstallationofpilesMassarsch(2004)identifiedthreecommonsituationsthatcan
causeexcessivegroundvibrations,seeFigure2.24:
a) Piledrivingintoastiffsurfacelayer.Theenergysourceissituatedattheground
surfaceandthevibrationswillmainlypropagateassurfacewaves.
b) Thepileisdrivenintoamediumdenseordensesanddeposit.Inthiscasethe
vibrationenergywillmainlybedissipatedalongtheshaftofthepile.Ifthesandis
verydenseorifthepilehitsanyobstruction,vibrationsmayalsobeemittedinthe
formofcompressionwavesfromthepilebase.
c) Forexamplewhendrivingtorefusalofendbearingpiles,thepileispressedhard
againstahardmaterial.Inthiscasevibrationswillpropagateasbodywaves,mainly
intheformofcompressionwaves,towardsthegroundsurfacewheretheyare
transformedtosurfacewaves.
42
2LITERATURESTUDY
Figure2.24Typicalsourcesofgroundvibrationsduringpiledriving,modifiedafterMassarsch
(2004).
Itisdifficulttoknowwhetherthepileshaftorthepiletoeisthesourceofvibrationor
whetheritisacombination.Hope&Hiller(2000)concludedthatvibrationsfromimpactpile
drivingdependsmoreonthesoilencounteredatthepiletoethanthesoilconditionsalong
theshaft.
Duringpenetrationthroughfirmlayersoratdrivingtorefusal,themainpartoftheenergyis
transmittedfromthetoeintheshapeofbodywaves(PandSwaves).Theinterchange
betweentheshaftfrictionandthetoeresistanceiscomplicatedandtheconditionschange
whenthepilepenetratesdifferentsoillayers.Atthesametime,vibrationscanbeproduced
alongtheshaftandfromthetoeandcancontainalargefrequencyspectrum(Massarsch,
2000b).
Acommondistinctionistodividegroundvibrationsduetoavibrationsourceintonearfield
conditionsandfarfieldconditions.Nearfieldconditionsareconsideredtobewhereboth
bodyandsurfacewavesarepresentandenergyisdissipatedduetoplasticdeformationsin
thesoil.Furtherawayfromthesource,inthefarfield,vibrationsmainlyconsistofsurface
wavesandthebehaviourofthesoiliselastic(Massarsch,2004)(Whenham,2011).Masoumi
&Degrande(2008)presentedresultsfromnumericalmodellingshowingthatinthenear
43
Groundvibrationsduetopileandsheetpiledriving
fieldverticallypolarizedshearwavesdominatewhileinthefarfieldthegroundvibrationis
dominatedbyRayleighwaves.
Thenearfieldzoneisnotverywellunderstood;neitheritsextentnorthewavepropagation
withinthezone.Generallythenearfieldzonewillbeoftheorderofmetersfromthedriven
pile(Head&Jardine,1992).
AccordingtoGutowski&Dym(1976)theverticalvibrationcomponentisinalmostallcases
muchlargerthanthehorizontalradialandtransversecomponentswhenthevibrationsource
ispiledriving.Head&Jardine(1992)andSvinkin(1996and2004)wrotethatnearasource
inducingverticalvibrations,thegroundvibrationsarehighlyvertical;however,asthe
distancefromthesourceincreases,ahorizontalcomponentisrapidlygenerated.
Athanasopoulos&Pelekis(2000)reportedtheoppositefromtheirfieldstudyasthe
distancefromthesourceincreasesthemotionbecomespredominantlyverticalasthe
horizontalcomponentisreduced.
Sincesurfacewavesattenuateslowerthanbodywavesthevibrationatlargedistancesfrom
thesourceislikelytobedominatedbyRandLwaves(Martin,1980).However,according
toHead&Jardine(1992),itisnotcleariftrueRayleighwavesactuallydevelopovertheshort
distancesthataregenerallydealtwithwhenconcerningproblemsofvibrationsduetopile
driving.Theysuspectthatpartlydevelopedwavesareinsteadgeneratedattheground
surface.Attewell&Farmer(1973)alsodiscussthattrueRayleighwavesareprobablynot
developeduntilatacertaindistancefromthepiledependingonsourcedepthand
wavelength.Wolf(1994)claimedthatRayleighwavesdonotfullydevelopuntiladistanceof
halftheRayleighwavelengthfromthesource.
Dongetal.(2000)showed,usingsnapshots,thatvibrationsresultinacomplicated
deformationpatternintheground,duetothereflectionandrefractionofPandSwavesas
wellasthesurfacewaves.Sometimesapeakofvibrationvelocityisseenatadistanceof
about10mfromthepile.Thisiscausedbytheoverlapofsurfacewavesfromthepile
movementatthesurfacewithwavescomingfromthepiletoe(Head&Jardine,1992).
Attewelletal.,(1991)alsoreportedthatasaresultofsuperpositionofsurfacewaves,caused
bylateralmovementsofthepile,aswellaswavesfromthepiletoe,amaximumvibration
levelcanbeobservedatadistanceofapproximately10mfromthesource.
2.4.2.2 Duration
DuetothedispersionofRayleighwavesinaninhomogeneoussoil,itisoftenobservedthat
thesoilresponseofthevibrationfromimpactdrivinggetsalongerdurationasthedistance
fromthesoilincreases(Svinkin,2008).Thedispersiongivesrisetocomponentsofdifferent
frequenciestravellingatdifferentdepthsandthuswithdifferentvelocities,resultinginthe
vibrationrecordsshowninFigure2.25(Auersch,2010a)(Auersch&Said,2010).According
toSvinkin(2008),thisisespeciallynoticeableinsaturatedsoilsandinareasinwhichthesoil
isunderlainbyrock.
44
2LITERATURESTUDY
Figure2.25Timerecordsoftheimpulseresponse,showingincreasingdurationbyincreasingdistance
fromthesource(Auersch&Said,2010).
Asdiscussedinsection2.2.4.2thegroundwatertableaffectsthewavepropagationinsoil.
Wavepropagationinsoilpartlytakesplacethroughthesoilskeletonandpartlythroughthe
liquidinthepores.Pwavescanpropagatethroughtheliquidaswellasthroughthe
particles.Swavesontheotherhandcanonlypropagatethroughthesoilskeletonsince
watercannottransmitshearstress.Rwavespropagatebothinthesoilskeletonandinthe
poreliquid(Hintzeetal.,1997).
TheresultspresentedbyWiss(1967)showedadifferenceinvibrationtransmissionbetween
cohesiveandnoncohesivesoilsandbetweenwetanddrysands.Fortrainvibrationsithas
beenseenthatlowfrequencyoscillation(<10Hz)ischaracteristicforcohesivesoils,while
oscillationswithhigherfrequenciesarecharacteristicfornoncohesivesoils(Mlleretal.,
2000).
Ahighlyplasticsoilislinearlyelastictogreaterstrainsthanothertypesofsoils.Asaresult
thedampingfactorissmallerandtheproblemsofvibrationsincrease(forexamplethecase
45
Groundvibrationsduetopileandsheetpiledriving
ofvibrationsduetoarockconcertinGothenburg,Sweden)(Erlingsson&Bodare,1992and
1996)(Madheswaranetal.,2005).
Dampingpropertiesinthesoilnaturallyfilterouthighfrequenciesthatmightbeinducedby
thedrivingprocess(Whenham,2011).AccordingtoMartin(1980)soilscanactaslowpass
filtersduetothefrequencydependentinternaldamping.Forexample,peatyandsiltysoils
havepreferredfrequenciesintherangeof510Hz,whileclayshavepreferredfrequencies
between1525Hz.Thisisalsoprovedbymeasurementsperformedduringimpactdrivingof
sheetpiles.Masoumietal.(2007)observedthatasthedistancefromthepileincreases,the
varietyoffrequenciesinthegroundvibrationsdecrease.Thisphenomenonisduetomaterial
dampingreducingthevarietyoffrequenciesinthevibrationsinthefarfield.
Svinkin(1996)wrotethatdependingonthesoiltype,thefrequencyoftheverticalground
vibrationsmayeitherincreaseordecreasewiththedistancefromthevibrationsource.
AccordingtoZiyazovetal.(1976)thefrequencyofthegroundvibrationduetoimpactpile
drivingisindependentofthedistancetothesource;insteaditdependsonthesoilresistance
tostaticprobing,R.TheyproposedthefollowingrelationshipforcohesivesoilswithR=460
2400kN/m2:
TherelationshipisalsoillustratedinFigure2.26.
19
17
f(Hz) 15
13
11
9
0 400 800 1200 1600 2000 2400
R(kN/m2)
Figure2.26Variationoffrequencyofgroundvibrationsasafunctionofendresistanceofstatic
probing,R(Ziyazovetal.,1976).
46
2LITERATURESTUDY
Resonance
Foraspecificfrequencyandwavespeed,thebodyheightbecomesthesameasthe
wavelength,andastandingwaveisproduced.Thishappensatthebodysnaturalfrequency,
hencewhenthevibrationfrequencyandthenaturalfrequencycoincideresonanceoccurs
(Mlleretal.,2000).Soilandrocksdonothaveanaturalfrequencyassuch;however
frequenciesatwhichtheytransmitvibrationsmorereadilycanbeobserved.InTable2.7
somegeneralcharacteristicnaturalfrequenciesaregivenfordifferentkindsofsoilsand
rocks.
Table2.7TypicalnaturalfrequenciesfordifferenttypesofsoilfromWiss(1967),Head&Jardine
(1992)andNiederwanger(1999).
Soil type Typical natural frequency (Hz)
Very soft silt and clay 520
Peat 1013
Clay 1025
Sand and Gravel 3040
Weak rock 3080
Strong rock >50
Therearemultiplenaturalfrequenciesforallsystems;however,usuallyonlythelowestof
theseareoftechnicalinterest.Thelowestnaturalfrequency,fn,can,forahomogenoussoil
layer,beestimatedas(Erlingsson,1999):
cs
Eq.2.41 fn (Hz)
4H
Where cs=shearwavevelocity(m/s)
H=heightofsoillayer(m)
AccordingtoBodare(1996)amaterialdoesnotinitselfhaveanaturalfrequency.Thenatural
frequencyoriginatesfrominteractionbetweenthematerialandacavity.Thenatural
frequencyisinverselyproportionaltothetimeittakesforanSwavetotravelacavity
radius.Thereforesmallcavitiesgivehighnaturalfrequenciesandlargecavitiesgivelow
naturalfrequencies.
47
Groundvibrationsduetopileandsheetpiledriving
Figure2.27Soilbehaviourunderconstantcyclicshearstrainloading,modifiedafterHoleyman(2002)
(originallyfromVucetic(1993)).
ThehysteresisloopinFigure2.27representswhatatypicalsoilsubjectedtosymmetriccyclic
loadingwithamplitudecmightexhibit.Theinclinationoftheloopdependsonthestiffness
ofthesoil(Kramer,1996)(Whenham,2011).Fromtheresponsethefollowingfundamental
parameterscanbederived:
Gmax=initial(ortangent)shearmodulus
c=shearstressmobilizedatc
Gs=secant(orequivalent)shearmodulus
Gsisstraindependentandneedstobedescribedbyspecificlawswithinagivencycle.maxis
theultimateshearstrengththatisrevealedatlargestrains.BothmaxandGmaxhavebeen
showntodecreasewiththenumberofcycles(calledcyclicdegradation)(Holeyman,2002).
Cyclicdegradationmayleadtothesoillosingitsshearresistancealmostcompletely,i.e.full
liquefaction(Whenham,2011).
Theenergydissipatedwithinaloopdependsontheamplitudeofthecyclicstrain
(Holeyman,2002).Fromtheenergylostduringagivencycle,Ws,theinternaldampingor
thehystereticdampingcanberepresentedby(Whenham,2011):
W s
Eq.2.42 ()
2 c c
Thestressstrainrelationshipandthedegradationlawdependtoalargeextentonthesoil
type.Cohesivesoilsarelesssusceptibletocyclicdegradationthannoncohesivesoilasthe
particlesaremoretightlyconnectedtoeachother.Innoncohesivesoilstheparticlesareable
torearrangeandlosecontactduringvibrations(Whenham,2011).
48
2LITERATURESTUDY
2.4.2.6 Reflection and refraction
Inurbanenvironmentsthesoilandgroundconditionsareusuallyfarfromhomogenous.The
soilisoverlainbyhardlayers(asphalt,pavingstoneetc.)andthegroundisfilledwithpipes,
tunnelsandundergroundstructures.Thiscomplicatesthewavepropagationconsiderably,
resultinginmultiplereflectionsandwaveinterference(Head&Jardine,1992)(Whenham,
2011).
Therearenosimpletheoreticalsolutionsforwavepropagationinlayeredsoils(Waarts&
Bielefeld,1994).Reflectedandrefractedwavescanhavehighervelocitythantheincident
wave.Thedirectionandamplitudeofreflectedandrefractedwavesdependontheangleof
incidenceandtheratioofdensities(velocities)ofeachmaterial(Head&Jardine,1992)
(Massarsch&Fellenius,2008).Tworeflectedandtworefractedwaveswillbegeneratedfor
eachoftheoriginalwaveseverytimeaPorSwaveencountersaboundarybetweensoils
withdifferentproperties.FromFigure2.28thiscanbeseenwhentwoincidentwavesresult
in8newwaves(Woods,1997).Thishasearlierbeendescribedinsection2.2.2.3.Asdirect
andreflectedwaveswillhavedifferentpathlengthsaphasedifferencewillbenoticed
betweenthedirectandthereflectedwave(Auersch,2010c).
Figure2.28Partitionofwavesatsoillayerboundary,modifiedafterWoods(1997),
Attewell&Farmer(1973)statedthattheattenuationduetomaterialdampingissmall
comparedtothelossingeometricaldamping,andaccordingtoMlleretal.(2000)material
dampingcanbeneglectedwhenpredictingvibrationsfrompiling.Richartetal.(1970),on
theotherhand,statedthatmaterialdampingisimportantevenforsmallvaluesofthe
materialdampingcoefficient,.InFigure2.29theimportanceofmaterialdamping,
especiallyasthedistancefromthepileincrease,isillustrated.
49
Groundvibrationsduetopileandsheetpiledriving
Figure2.29Attenuationofsurfacewavewithdistancefromsourceofsteadystateexcitation(Richart
etal.,1970).
Auersch(2010a)showedthattheattenuationofgroundvibrationsdependsonthedamping
ofthesoils,thefrequencycontentofthesourceandgeometryofthesource(i.e.pointloador
lineload).However,Athanasopoulos&Pelekis(2000)showedthattheattenuationofground
vibrationsdidnotdifferconsiderablybetweenfivedifferentcaseswithdifferentsoil
conditions.
AccordingtoAuersch(2010b)ahighmaterialdampingcanbeseeninnearsurfacesoil
becauseofthelackofconfiningpressure.
Vibrationsfromimpactpiledrivingusuallyhaveahighfrequencyastheyentertheground
atthepilesoilinterface.Highfrequencyvibrationsareattenuatedfasterthanlowfrequency
vibrations.Thisimpliesthatgroundvibrationsfromimpactpiledrivingareattenuatedfaster
thangroundvibrationsfromvibratorypiledriving,whichinsteadtendtogiveastanding
waveandafairlyconstantfrequencyspectrumoverdistance(Attewelletal.,1992b).
Gutowski&Dym(1976)arguedthatitispossiblethatgrounddampingisnonlinearcloseto
thevibrationsourcewherelargevibrationamplitudesareexperienced.Theystatethatthere
ismoreattenuationperwavelengthinthenonlinearzone.However,theyalsoarguethatit
mightbesothatthedampingislinear,butatlargedistancessoilinhomogeneityresultsin
reflectionorscatteringofwavestothesurface.
Oneexceptiontothenormalattenuationofvibrationsinsoilsisbroughtupby
Athanasopoulos&Pelekis(2000).Theystatethatmeasurementsinurbanareassometimes
cangivehighervibrationlevelsforpointsslightlyfurtherfromthesourcethananotherpoint
50
2LITERATURESTUDY
closertothesource.Thisisduetothecomplexundergroundconditionsinurbanareasthat
oftenarefarfromhomogenousandcontainundergroundstructuresofvariouskinds,
leadingtocomplicatedreflectionpatternsandinterferenceofwaves.Selby(1991)also
presentedresultsshowingthattheattenuationwithdistancefromthepileisfarfrom
monotonic.Inseveralcases,peakvaluesareobservedatadistanceofabout10mfromthe
pile,aswasalsodiscussedinsection2.4.2.1.
ThedifficultyofusingthewaveattenuationrelationshipinEq.2.13inpracticehasbeento
decidewhatvaluetousefor.
AccordingtoWoods(1997)therearethreeelementsthatmustbepresentforpotential
developmentofproblemsduetopiledriving:
1) Sensitivetargetsorreceiversofvibrationcanbeanypersonorobjectthat
maybesensitivetovibrations.
2) Mediathroughwhichthevibrationsaretransmitted
3) Sourceofvibrations
Effectsofvibrationonnoncohesivesoilaregenerallymuchmoresignificantthantheeffects
ofthesamevibrationoncohesivesoils.
Asoilsubjectedtoacontinuousvibrationwillexperiencecyclicdegradationasthenumber
ofcyclesincrease.Forasoilsubjectedtotransientvibrations,theresponseismoreunknown.
Thereislittleinformationontheeffectsofrepeatedtransientvibrations,withapeakstress
occurringonlyonceortwiceforeachblowwiththeremainingcyclesbeingoflower
magnitude(Wiss,1981).
51
Groundvibrationsduetopileandsheetpiledriving
Figure2.30Compactionofsoilconcerningrelativedensityandcriticalporepressure,modifiedafter
Viking(2002a).
Underthestrainofcyclicloading,loosesandstendtodensifywhiledensesandsdilate.
AccordingtoKramer(1996),Massarsch(2000a)andViking(2002a)thereexistsacritical
densityorcriticalvoidratiowhichthesandapproacheswhensubjectedtocyclicloading.
Disregardingthematerialsinitialrelativedensity,looseordense,therelativedensityclosest
tothepile/sheetpilewillalwayschangetowardsthecriticalrelativedensity,seeFigure2.30.
AccordingtoWoods(1997)itisbelievedthatvibrationsfrompiledrivingthatcause
settlementarelikelytocontainmanycyclesoflowamplitudeshearingstrains.Massarsch
(2000aand2004)agreed,statingthatfundamentalconceptsandearlierpublisheddatashow
thattheshearstrainistheprimaryfactorcausingcompactionofgranularmaterialandthat
compactionincreaseswithshearstrainamplitude.
Thethresholdstrain,t,isdefinedasthevalueofcyclicshearstrainsuchthatthecyclicshear
strainslessthantwillnotcauseanydensificationofdrygranularsoilsoranyporepressure
buildupinwatersaturatedsoil(Massarsch,2004).AccordingtoMassarsch(2000aand2004)
theriskforgroundsettlementorstrengthlossisverylowiftheshearstrainleveldoesnot
exceed0.001%.Shouldtheshearstrainlevelcausedbygroundvibrationexceed0.1%,the
riskforsettlementorlossofstrengthissignificantincohesivesoils.
Hintzeetal.(1997)statedinsteadthatcompactionduetovibrationdoesnothappenuntilthe
accelerationexceedsacertainthresholdvalue,oracriticalacceleration.Thisbasicallymeans
thatamaterialthathasbeencompactedbeforehandtoacertainvoidratio,ev,willnot
compactmoreuntilitexperiencesvibrationsinwhichtheaccelerationisgreaterthanwhatit
hasearlierexperienced.Bement&Selby(1997)showedthatloosegranularsaturatedsoils
maycompactduringprolongedvibrationiftheparticleaccelerationexceeds0.20.4g,butare
limitedtoadepthof10mbelowthegroundsurface.Theyalsoshowedthatcompactionis
unlikelytooccuratmorethan5mfromthepileunlesswidespreadliquefactionoccurs.
Clough&Chameau(1980)showedthatthereisacorrelationbetweenstrain(estimatedasthe
amountofsettlementatapointdividedbytheheightoffillmaterialbeneaththatpoint)and
acceleration,thefielddataalsoshowthataslongastheaccelerationsarelessthan0.1gthe
strainsdonotexceed0.3%.
52
2LITERATURESTUDY
Thesizeofthesettlementdependsonseveralfactors,includingsoiltypeandstratification,
groundwaterconditions(degreeofsaturation),piletypeanddrivingmethod(Massarsch,
2004).Hintzeetal.(1997)statedthatthesizeofsettlementsismostlydependentonthe
magnitudeofthevibrationamplitudeandthedensityofthesoil.Bement&Selby(1995)
showedfromlaboratoryteststhatawellgradedsoilwithahighcoefficientofuniformity
experienceslargersettlementsfromgroundvibrationsthanmoreuniformsoils.Theyalso
showthatdryandsaturatedsoilsexperiencelargersettlementsthanpartiallysaturatedsoils.
AccordingtoHeckman&Hagerty(1978),dry,loosetomediumdensesands,andsaturated,
loosetomediumdensesandsaremostsusceptibletodensification,whilepartiallysaturated
ormoistsandsarelesssusceptibletodensification.Thiscanalsobeseenindiscussions
regardingoptimalwatercontentinsoilsforcompaction.
Ithasbeenshownthatalreadyatavibrationmeasurementof2.55mm/s(ontheground
surface)thepiledrivinggivesacompactionofloosetomediumloosenoncohesivesoil
(Hintzeetal.,1997).Clough&Chameau(1980)measuredsettlementsduringvibratory
drivingofsheetpilesinmainlynoncohesivesoil.Veryclosetothepiles,themeasured
settlementswereashighas127mm.However,settlementdecreasedrapidlywithdistance
andwasbasicallyzeroat12mfromthepiles.Thedifferenceinsettlementsbetweendifferent
locationswasexplainedbythedifferencesinsoildensityinthefills;lowerdensities
coincidedwithlargersettlements.Heckman&Hagerty(1978)proposedtheuseofDutch
ConePenetrationTestsandStandardPenetrationTestsorequivalentforidentifyingzonesin
thegroundwithloosermaterialthatmaydensifyduringvibration.
ResearchdoneinBangkokcitybyMuktabhant&Sasisuwun(1975),citedbyBrenner&
Chittikuladilok(1975),statedthatexcessporepressureinducedbypiledrivingwasobserved
withinazoneofabouteightpilediameters.
Holeyman(2002)showedthattheexcessporepressurefromcyclicloadingincreaseswith
shearstrainandnumberofcycles.
Piledrivinginloose,saturatedsandsorsiltscangeneratehighporewaterpressures.The
highporewaterpressurecanreducethestabilityofslopesandexcavations.Liquefactionis
definedasa,oftendrastic,strengthreductionofthesoil,makingitunabletosupport
structuresorremainstable.Liquefactiononlyoccursinsaturatedsoils,andassuchismost
commonnearrivers,bays,andotherbodiesofwater(Kramer,1996).
53
Groundvibrationsduetopileandsheetpiledriving
Thandavamoorthy(2004)statedthataruleofthumbinpiledrivingpracticeisthatstructures
withinonepilelengthfromthedrivenpilecanbedamagedduetovibrations.
Generallydamageonbuildingsandstructurescanbedividedinto(seee.g.Brenner&
Chittikuladilok(1975)andHead&Jardine(1992)):
Architecturaldamagedamagetotheappearanceofsurfacefinishesandfittings
Serviceabilitydamagedamagetothefunctionofthebuilding
Structuraldamagedamagetostructuralpartsofthebuildingthatpotentiallyleads
tofailureorcollapse
Damagetobuildingcontent
Structuraldamagetobuildingsoftenstartswiththedevelopmentofcracksinthestructure.
Otherevidenceofstructuraldamageduetovibrationscouldbebrokenorcrackedwindows,
buildingdistortionduetosettlement,orwaterleakingintoabasementoroutofaseweror
otherconduit(Woods,1997).
Bymanyinvestigators,apeakparticlevelocityof50mm/sisconsideredasafelimitwith
respecttostructures(Madheswaranet.al.,2005).Thesummaryofvibrationlevelsresulting
indamagecompiledbyHead&Jardine(1992)indicatedthatmostpublicationshaveplaced
thethresholdformajordamagebetween50and100mm/s.Itisextremelyunlikelythat
damagewouldoccuratpeakparticlevelocitiesmeasuredatthefoundationsmallerthan2
mm/s.Particularcareshouldbetakentooldandhistoricalbuildings,astheyareusually
moresensitivetovibrationsandalsomorecostlytorestoreifdamageweretooccur.
Buildingcontents,suchasblindsandpictures,wouldbegintovisiblymoveat0.5mm/s.
Rattlingofwindows,crockeryorlooseobjectswouldbeaudibleandannoyingat0.9mm/s
(SAGovernment,2007).
Manydifferenttypesofequipmentarehighlysensitivetovibrations.Forexamplecomputer
systemsandopticalequipment(electronmicroscopes)functionpoorlyandmightevenbe
damagedwhensubjectedtovibrations(Head&Jardine,1992).Whenassessingtheriskfor
damageonsensitiveequipment,Head&Jardine(1992)recommendedthatthemanufacturer
oroperatoriscontactedforacceptablevibrationlevels.Forverysensitiveequipment(for
exampleelectronmicroscopes),vibrationamplitudesassmallas24*106mmcanbe
damaging(Woods,1997).Asareferencetovibrationsgeneratedbyotheractivities,Table2.8
isincluded.
54
2LITERATURESTUDY
Table2.8Exampleofvibrationsinbuildingsundernormalconditions(Stille&Hall,1995fromNew,
1990).
Resulting PPV (mm/s)
Vibration source Modern steel frame Modern masonry Old dwelling (thick,
office dwelling lime mortar masonry)
Normal walking 0.020.2 0.050.5 0.020.03
Foot stamping 0.20.5 0.33.0 0.150.7
Slamming doors 1015 1117 39
Percussive drilling 525 1020 1015
Ground distortion
Wavespropagatingalongthegroundsurfaceresultinanundulationofthegroundsurface
downtoadepthofapproximatelyonewavelength(Hintzeetal.,1997)(Massarsch,2004).
Thewavelength,,isofgreatimportancefortheinfluencethegrounddistortionhasona
building.Thewavelengthisinmanycasessomewherebetween1060m(Wiss,1967)
(Holmberget.al.,1984).Ifthewavelengthofthevibrationsisconsiderablylongerthanthe
buildinglength,thebuildingisliftedandsunkdown,seeFigure2.31a.Ifthebuildinglength
andwavelengthareapproximatelythesame,thewholebuildingcanexperienceflexural
(bending)stress,seeFigure2.31b.Shouldthebuildinglengthgreatlyexceedthewavelength,
thebuildingsabsolutelocationwillnotchange,butpartsofthebuildingmayexperience
flexuralstressorpartsmayexperiencehighaccelerationforces,seeFigure2.31c(Thurner,
1976).IfthefoundationofthestructureinFigure2.31cisrigid,thewaveinthegroundwill
causeareastoexperiencenegativereactionsfromtheelasticsoilbase,whichmightleadto
changesinthecontactconditionsbetweenthestructureandtheelasticsoilbase(Svinkin,
2008).
AccordingtoMassarsch(2000a)thereisariskforbuildingdamagewhenthewavelengthof
thepropagatingwaveisshorterthanthebuildinglength.Thiscouldbethecaseforsoftclays
orsiltsbelowgroundwaterlevel,inwhichwavepropagationvelocityislow.
55
Groundvibrationsduetopileandsheetpiledriving
Figure2.31Thewavelengthssignificanceontheimpact,modifiedafterThurner(1976).
Direct vibration
Directvibrationiswhenthedamageisadirectresultofthevibrationvelocityorthe
accelerationandthevibrationfrequency,seeFigure2.32(Massarsch,2004).Forexample
dynamicamplificationfactorsintheframeorinbuildingpartscanleadtostructuralor
architecturaldamage(Hintzeet.al.,1997).
Figure2.32Directvibrations,modifiedafterMassarsch(2004).
AccordingtoAtlasCopcoABEM(1973),theBuildingResearchStationinEngland(1970)
showedfromnumerousinvestigationsofgroundandstructuralvibrationsthattherewere
nocasesinwhichobservedbuildingdamagewasproventobecausedbytheeffectsof
vibrationalone.Athanasopoulos&Pelekis(2000)andSvinkin(2005)saidthattheeffectof
directvibrationsonstructurescanbelimitedtoadistanceofonepilelengthfromthedriven
pile.However,forstructuressusceptibletovibrationsthisdistancecanbeconsiderably
larger.
56
2LITERATURESTUDY
Waveform
Conditionofthebuilding,e.g.initialstaticstress
Ithasbeenshownthatdamagetobuildingscanbecorrelatedwiththepeakparticlevelocity
(Martin,1980).Itisnotthevibrationvelocitiesthemselvesthatcausestructuraldamageor
humandisturbance.Whenitcomestobuildingdamage,itistheresultingdynamicstrains
thatareofconcern(Rockhilletal.,2003).
Whentheeffectsofgroundvibrationsonbuildingsareconsidered,therangeoffrequencies
inthegroundvibrationisofgreatimportance.Iftheincomingvibrationhasafrequencyat
ornearthestructuresnaturalfrequency,resonanceoccursandthevibrationatgroundlevel
ismagnifiedinthestructure.Atresonance,thevibrationsareamplifiedanddamageisquite
likelytooccur(Wiss,1967)(Heckman&Hagerty,1978)(Stille&Hall,1995)
(Thandavamoorthy,2004).Svinkin(2005)statedthatresonantstructuralvibrationscanbe
triggeredatdistancesuptoafewhundredmetersfromthedrivenpile.Thenatural
frequencyofamultistoreybuildingisoftenapproximatedbyfn=10/N,whereNisthe
numberofstories(Head&Jardine,1992)(Stille&Hall,1995).Residentialstructuresusually
haveanaturalfrequencybetween410Hz.Asaresult,thecriteriaforlowfrequency
vibrationshavebeensetatalowerparticlevelocitythanforhighfrequencyvibrations(Wiss,
1981).
Alpan&Meidav(1963)statedthataccelerationaloneisnotasatisfactorycriterionfor
susceptibilitytodamage.Inearthquakeareasitwasobservedthataccelerationsof0.1g
causeddamageifassociatedwithlowfrequencies,whileaccelerationsof1gor2gweresafe
athighfrequencies.FromFigure2.33itcanbeseenthatlowfrequencyvibrationsrequire
lowertolerancesthanhighfrequencyvibrations(Woods,1997).
Figure2.33Relationshipbetweenpeakparticlevelocity,frequencyandpossibilityofdamageisshown,
modifiedafterMlleretal.(2000).
57
Groundvibrationsduetopileandsheetpiledriving
Table2.9Excitationfrequencyinrelationtonaturalfrequency,vibrationmode,dynamicstressand
physicalmeasure(Niederwanger,1999).
Frequency of excitation 05 510 1060 >60
(Hz)
Building excited by Machines
Earthquakes Traffic, Vibratory Vibratory Blasting
hammers hammers,
Blasting
Natural frequency of Whole building Walls, Vertical Walls, Ceilings
High rise Low buildings vibrations of
structures ceilings
Mode of vibration Bending and Combination of Bending and strain vibrations of walls
shear vibrations both and ceiling
of the whole
building
Dynamic stress Inertia forces Combination of Stress caused by bending and strain
both
Significant physical Acceleration Combination of Velocity of vibration
measure both
Niederwanger(1999)presentedaninterestingtableregardingexcitationfrequencyandits
relationtonaturalfrequencies,vibrationmode,dynamicstressandsignificantphysical
measure,seeTable2.9.
Kramer(1996)aswellasNiederwanger(1999)stressedthefactorofdurationasanimportant
parameterforbuildingdamage.Amotionwithshortdurationmightnotproduceenough
loadreversalsfordamagingresponsetobuildupinastructure,eveniftheamplitudewould
behigh.Itcouldalsobethatamotionwithmoderateamplitudebutlongdurationisableto
produceenoughloadreversalstocausedamage.
Theimportanceoffrequencyinregardtoresonanceismuchmoreaccentuatedwhendealing
withvibrationsfromvibratorydrivenpilesthanfromimpactdrivenpiles.Duringimpact
drivingthedurationofthevibrationisshort(0.20.3s)andresonancebuildupofstructural
componentsisunlikely(Wiss,1967)(Svinkin,2005).AccordingtoErlingsson&Bodare(1996)
ittakesabout1520loadcyclestobuildupasteadystateresponseoftheground.Wiss(1967)
statedthatthesafelevelofvibrationsduetotransientvibrationscouldbetwiceorevenupto
fivetimesthesafelevelforsteadystatevibrations.However,fromtheabovereasoningit
wouldmeanthatvibrationswithafrequencyoverabout50Hzduringaperiodof0.3s
wouldbeabletogiveresonance.
58
2LITERATURESTUDY
2.5.3.1 Human perception of vibrations
Humanperceptionissaidtobethemostdifficultcomponenttodealwith.Measuresof
humanperceptionandtolerancehavebeenmeasuredandresultsareapplicableforthe
averageindividual.However,inagroupofpeopleitistheleasttolerantindividualwho
maycontrolthesituation(Woods,1997).
Humansperceivevibrationsataverylowlevel(Head&Jardine,1992)(Hiller&Hope,1998).
AccordingtoBrenner&Chittikuladilok(1975)andMartin(1980)humanscanperceive
vibrationsthataremuchlower,actuallyuptoabout30timeslower,thanthelevelsthat
usuallycausearchitecturaldamagetobuildings.Asaresult,thetriggerforcomplaintsand
litigationismoreoftenhumanperceptionandtolerancethanactualphysicaldamageto
structures(Woods,1997).InTable2.10thehumanperceptionofdifferentvibrationlevelsare
shown.
Table2.10Approximatevibrationlevelwithcorrespondinghumanperception(Wiss,1981)(Selby,
1991)(SAGovernment,2007).
Approximate vibration level (mm/s) Degree of human perception
0.10 Not felt
0.15 Threshold of perception
0.35 Barely noticeable
1.0 Noticeable
2.2 Easily noticeable
6.0 Strongly noticeable
Anothercriticalfactorwhenitcomestoimpactonhumansisthatwhenpeoplefeel
vibrationstheybecomeconcernedaboutbuildingsafetyandbegintosearchforpossible
damage(Brenner&Chittikuladilok,1975)(SAGovernment,2007).Head&Jardine(1992)
claimedthatthereasonthatpeoplecomplainaboutpilingworksisinmanycasesthatthey
aretemporaryandintermittent,whilerepresentingachangetonormalconditionswith
intenseactivityandsuddennoise.Thefactorofpersonalattitudescanlargelybehelpedby
informingaffectedpeopleaboutthenatureandtimingofthevibrationsandassurancesthat
thevibrationsaremonitoredandundercontrol(Head&Jardine,1992).Ithasbeennoticed
thatthetoleratedvibrationlevelishigherifthecauseforthevibrationisknownandno
damageistobeexpected(Stille&Hall,1995).
59
Groundvibrationsduetopileandsheetpiledriving
Figure2.34Humanresponsetotransientpulsesofvaryingduration,modifiedafterWoods(1997).
Experiencehasshownthatforapersonstanding,verticalmovementsaremorenoticeable
thanhorizontalmovementsandviceversaforpeoplelyingdown.Thus,theconclusioncan
bedrawnthathumansaremoresensitivetovibrationsinthebodyslongitudinaldirection
(Richartetal.,1970)(Mlleretal,2000).
Inplacesnormallywithoutvibrations,peoplearemoredisturbedthaninurbanareaswitha
lotofbackgroundnoise(Stille&Hall,1995).
Thevibrationfrequencyaffectshowtheyareperceived;thehumanbodysownvibration
frequencycanamplifytheuneasinessofvibrations(Hintzeetal.,1997)(ArcelorMittal,2008).
Ithasbeenseenthatthehumanbodyismoresensitivetoaccelerationatlowfrequencies.
Thisisparticularlyobservablewhenfrequenciesarearound25Hz,whichistheresonance
frequencyofthehumanbody(Brenner&Chittikuladilok,1975).Thisisconfirmedbythe
SwedishEngineeringSociety(IVA,1983),whostatedthatvibrationswithinthefrequency
rangeof120Hzareusuallyespeciallydisturbingforhumans,whilevibrationswith
frequenciesgreaterthan20or30Hzarenormallyconsideredasmallerproblem.
Durationandtimeofexposureisanotherfactortoconsider,seeFigure2.34.Accordingtothe
figure,thelevelofbarelyperceptiblemotiondecreasesfromabout2.5mm/sfor1sof
exposuretoabout0.5mm/sat100sofexposure(Woods,1997).
Ithasbeenshownthatthethresholdofperceptionispracticallythesameforsteadystate
andtransientvibrations.However,whenitcomestocausingannoyanceforpeople,thelevel
isconsiderablylowerforsteadystatevibrationsthanfortransientvibrations(Brenner&
Chittikuladilok,1975).Thevibrationlevelshumansfinddisturbingfromtransientvibrations
are310timeshigherthanthedisturbingvibrationlevelfromacontinuousvibration,see
Figure2.35(Wiss,1967)(Stille&Hall,1995).
60
2LITERATURESTUDY
Figure2.35Comparisonofhumanreactionstosteadystateandtransientvibrations,modifiedafter
Stille&Hall(1995,originallyfromReiher&Meister(1931)andWiss&Parmlee(1974)).
Afewofthemostcommondevicesformeasuringvibrationsaredescribedbelow.
61
Groundvibrationsduetopileandsheetpiledriving
Figure2.36Principalcomponentsofavelocitytransducer,modifiedafterRichartetal.(1970).
Operation principles
Theprincipalofoperationforvelocitytransducersisthatanelectriccoilmovesinamagnetic
field,seeFigure2.36.Whenthetransducerisshakenthecoilmovesthroughamagneticfield
producedbyapermanentmagnet.Thismechanismproducesavoltagethatisproportional
totherelativevelocitybetweenthecoilandthemagnet.Eitherthecoilorthemagnetmay
move.Velocitytransducerswithmovingcoilsareinsensitivetoexternalmagneticfields,
whilethoseinwhichthemagnetisthemovingcomponentaresensitivetoexternalmagnetic
fields(Woods,1997).
Sincevelocitytransducersproduceavoltagethatisproportionaltotheparticlevelocityof
thesurfaceonwhichtheyaremounted,itisimportantthatthemountingisdoneproperlyso
thatreliablerepresentationsofmotionaremade.Avelocitytransducercanbeplacedat
considerabledistancefromtherecordersincethevoltageisnotaffectedbycablelength
(Woods,1997).
Velocitytransducerscanonlymeasureinonedirection.Inordertomeasurebothvertical
andhorizontalvibrationsitisnecessarytohavedifferentvelocitytransducersbecauseofthe
internalmountingofamassonsprings(Mlleretal.,2000).Usuallythreetransducersare
connectedperpendiculartoeachothertoenablemeasurementsinthreecomponentsof
motion.Normallymeasurementsareperformedintheverticalandintwohorizontal
directions(longitudinaltothesourceandperpendiculartothesource)(Mlleretal.,2000).
AccordingtoKim&Lee(2000)theresponseofvelocitytransducersbecomesnonlinearat
lowfrequencies;theyalsohaveanaturalfrequencysinceitisasingledegreeoffreedom
system.Duetothisitisnecessarytocalibratetheexactvoltageoutputforthegeophonewith
frequency.
62
2LITERATURESTUDY
Themostcommontypeofaccelerationtransducersareaccelerometers.
Operation principles
Thereareseveraltransductionprinciplesforaccelerometers.Themostcommontypeusesthe
piezoelectricpropertiesofcertainnaturalandartificialcrystals.Itworksaccordingtothe
principlethatsqueezingorshearingofoneofthesepiezocrystalscausescurrenttoflowina
conductorattachedtooppositesidesofthecrystal.Theamountofgeneratedcurrentis
proportionaltothepressureorshearforce.Thefunctionoftheaccelerometeristhatthe
crystalissqueezedbyaseismicmass,producingaforceproportionaltoitsacceleration
(fromF=ma)(Woods,1997).
Accelerometersrequiresupplemental(signalconditioning)instrumentationinadditionto
recordinginstrumentation,whichisadisadvantage.Anotherdisadvantageisthe
vulnerabilityofthecablinginfieldapplicationsandthecalibrationofthetransducermay
alsobedependentoncablelength(Woods,1997).
Usuallyaccelerometersareconstructedtooperateineithershearorcompression(Head&
Jardine,1992).Oilexplorationgeophysicsledtothedevelopmentofrobustmovingcoil
accelerometersworkinginthefrequencyrangeof2200Hz(Head&Jardine,1992).
Onereasonfortheuseofthevibrationvelocityisthatthekineticenergytransferredintothe
soilduringavibrationgeneratingactivityisproportionaltothesquareofthevelocity
(Niederwanger,1999).Anotherreasonisthatthevibrationvelocityisagoodindicatorofthe
potentialfordamagesincetheinduceddynamicstressinthebuildingisproportionaltothe
vibrationvelocity(Whyley&Sarsby,1992)(Hiller&Hope,1998).
Wavesproducedbyearthquakescontainlowfrequencies.Forthesewavesitismore
commonthataccelerationisusedasadamagemeasure.Thevibrationtolerancelevelin
vibrationsensitiveequipment,suchascomputersorsophisticatedlaboratoryequipment,is
oftenexpressedinacceleration(AtlasCopcoABEM,1973).
63
Groundvibrationsduetopileandsheetpiledriving
Figure2.37Examplesofoscillationmovementsshownasbothfunctionoftimeandfrequency.
Avibratorymotionisusuallycharacterisedeitherasafunctionoftimeorasafunctionof
frequency,seeFigure2.37.Inthetimedomainthemaximumandminimumvaluecanbe
interpreted.Inthefrequencydomainthedominatingfrequencycanbeevaluated(Mlleret
al,2000).
Complicatedoscillationpatternsareoftenshownasafunctionoffrequency,afrequency
spectrum,inwhichtheincludingfrequenciesaredisplayed(IVA,1979).Different
oscillationmovementsareshowninFigure2.37,bothasfunctionoftimeandoffrequency.
ThefrequencyspectrumisusuallyobtainedbyperformingafastFouriertransform(FFT)
(Tamateetal.,1995).
64
2LITERATURESTUDY
SRSS(simulatedresultant) , , ,
Unidirectionalpeak , , , ,
Verticalpeakvalue ,
Instantaneous(true)resultant
VibrationsfrompiledrivingcouldbecharacterisedbythesimulatedresultantPPV.The
simulatedresultantisalsoreferredtoastheSRSS(squarerootofsumofsquares)asitisthe
vectorsumofthepeakparticlevelocitiesinthreemutuallyperpendiculardirections,which
maynotoccursimultaneously(Head&Jardine,1992)(Rockhilletal.,2003).Sometimesthe
vibrationintensityisdescribedbythepeakcomponentofparticlevelocityorthepeakvalue
oftheverticalcomponent.Thetruevectorsumortheinstantaneousresultantisalsoused
(Hiller&Hope,1998)(Athansopoulos&Pelekis,2000).
ItisabsolutelynecessarytostatewhichdefinitionofthePPVisusedsincethenominalPPV
candifferlargelydependingonthedefinitionused.Head&Jardine(1992)andRockhilletal.
(2003)proposedtheuseofthesimulatedpeakresultant(SRSS).However,accordingto
Athanasopoulos&Pelekis(2000)SRSSisnolongerusedasoften,andisnowconsideredas
tooconservative.Theyclaimedthatfielddatahadindicatedthatcomparedtothetrue
resultant,orthetruevectorsumastheycallit,thepeakcomponentparticlevelocitywasup
to25%lowerwhilevSRSSwas50%higher.
3 3
2 2
Vertical velocity [mm/s]
1 1
0 0
-1 -1
-2 -2
-3 -3
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
Transversal velocity [mm/s] Longitudinal velocity [mm/s]
Figure2.38Examplesofparticledisplacementpaths(Lidn,2012).
65
Groundvibrationsduetopileandsheetpiledriving
Predictionofthegeneratedvibrationsinaconstructionprojectcanhaveimportanteconomic
andtechnicalconsequences.Unnecessarilyconservativeassumptionsleadtoincreasingcosts
andmayalsolimitthechoiceofconstructionmethodsand/ordelaytheproject.However,
underestimatingtheenvironmentalimpactmayleadtodamagedstructures,disturbed
occupantsandauthoritiesmaystoptheconstructionwork.Despitethefactthatresearchon
thesubjecthasledtothedevelopmentofnew,mainlytheoretical,predictionmodelsthere
seemstobeageneralconsensusinliteraturethatasoftodayreliablemethodsforestimating
thevibrationsfrompiledrivingaremissing(seee.g.Hintzeetal.(1997),Whyley&Sarsby
(1992),Massarsch(2004),Jongmans(1996),Madheswaranetal.(2005),Waarts&Bielefeld
(1994)andDavis(2010)).
Thissectionpresentstheexistingpredictionmodelsandmethodsforestimatingvibrations
duetopiledriving.Furthermore,conceptsandtheoryaboutfactorsinfluencingthe
predictedvibrationsareincluded.
Theexistingpredictionmodelscanbedividedintodifferentcategoriesdependingontheir
approach.Inliteraturedifferentwaysofcategorisingpredictionmodelshavebeenseen.For
example,Whenham(2011)lookedatempiricalapproaches,analyticalapproachesand
numericalapproaches.Davis(2010)dividedpredictionmodelsintotheoretical/(semi)
analytical,insitutesting/fieldmeasurementsModularPredictionApproaches,empirical
prediction/DirectMeasurementPredictionModel(DMPM)andnumericalmodels.Inthis
studypredictionmodelsforpredictionofvibrationsfrompiledrivingaredividedintothe
followingthreecategories:
Empiricalmodelsmodelsbasedonempiricalknowledgefromprevious
measurementsandexperience
Theoreticalmodelssuchasfiniteelementmodelsoranalyticalmodels
Engineeringmodelssometimesalsocalledmixedapproachmodels,theseareamix
ofempiricalmodels,theoreticalmodelsandengineeringknowledge
Thefirststepforpredictionbymeansofmeasurementinvolvesconductingvibration
measurementsatthesiteofinterestduringpiling/sheetpiling.Themeasurementsarethen
evaluatedandfitintoanattenuationrelationship.Thesetypesofpredictionmodelsareonly
applicableatthespecificsiteswheremeasurementhasbeenconducted.Predictionmodels
basedonmeasurementsarenotstudiedfurtherinthisliteraturestudy;onlymodelsthatcan
beusedwithoutpreviousvibrationmeasurementsarepresented.
66
2LITERATURESTUDY
ofgroundvibrationsisstillbasedonroughempiricalrulesdevelopedalongtimeago
(Hintzeetal.,1997)(Massarsch&Fellenius,2008).
Head&Jardine(1992),Hiller&Hope(1998)andMassarsch(2004)pointedoutthatempirical
relationsshouldonlybeappliedinconditionssimilartothoseforwhichtheywere
developed.Inparticularempiricalmodelsmaybeunreliableclosetothepileorinlocations
withinterveningstructures.
In1973Attewell&Farmerpresentedoneofthefirstempiricalpredictionmodels,wherethey
suggestthattheverticalpeakparticlevelocity,v,isgivenaccordingtothegeneralformula:
x
W0
Eq.2.43 v k (mm/s)
r
Where k=empiricallydeterminedconstantofproportionality(m2/sJ)
W0=inputenergy(hammerenergy)(J)
r=radialdistancebetweenpileandmonitoringpoint(m)
x=empiricallydeterminedindex()
Attewell&Farmer(1973)concludedthatlossesduetomaterialdampingaresmallcompared
tolossesduetogeometricaldamping.Asaresult,theysuggestedthatmaterialdampingcan
beneglectedforpracticalestimatesofvibrationfrompiledriving.
Fromtheirfieldmeasurements,Attewell&Farmer(1973)claimedthattheresultscorrelate
quitewellwiththefollowingrelationship:
W0
Eq.2.44 v (mm/s)
r
Whichgivesk=1andx=1.However,Attewell&Farmer(1973)suggestedthataconstantof
proportionality,k,of1.5shouldbeusedforpracticalconservativepredictionofground
vibrationsduetopiledriving.
67
Groundvibrationsduetopileandsheetpiledriving
Table2.11Summaryofvaluesofparametersusedindifferentpredictionmodels,modifiedafterHope
&Hiller(2000).
Literature Parameters Velocity
x k component
Attewell & Farmer (1973) 1 1.5 Vertical PPV
Whyley & Sarsby (1992) 1 0.25 (soft or loose soil)
0.75 (stiff or medium dense soil)
1.5 (stiff or dense soil)
Attewell et al. (1992a) 0.87 0.76 Vertical PPV
Hiller & Crabb (1998) 3 (stiff or medium dense soil)
Head & Jardine (1992) 1 1,5 (for r>0.5 m) SRSS
1.54* 0.2*
BSI (1992a) 1 0.75
CEN (1998) 1 0.5 (soft cohesive soil)
0.75 (stiff cohesive soil)
1.0 (very stiff cohesive soil)
ArcelorMittal (2008) 1 Impact driving
0.5 (soft cohesive soil, loose granular media, loose
fill and organic soils)
0.75 (stiff cohesive soils, medium dense granular
media, compact fill)
1.0 (very stiff cohesive soil, dense granular media,
rock, fill with large obstructions)
Vibratory driving
0.7 (all soil conditions)
*At the base of the foundation
ThegeneralforminEq.2.43hassincebeendevelopedbyvariousresearchers.In1981Wiss
proposedanequationequivalenttotheaboveequation(Eq.2.43)forthepeakparticle
velocity.Wiss(1981)statedthatxliesbetween1.0and2.0witharelativelycommonvalueof
1.5andthatthefactorkdependsongroundconditionsandsourcetype.Accordingto
Attewelletal.(1992a)abestfitlinefrommeasurementsofgroundvibrationsfromboth
impactandvibratorypiledrivinggivek=0.76andx=0.87.Wiss(1967),Whyley&Sarsby
(1992)andHiller&Crabb(1998)showedthatkvarieswithsoilconditions.Nilsson(1989)
statedthatseveralfieldstudieshaveshownthatkdoesnotexceed0.75fordrivingofpiles
and1.5fordrivingofsheetpiles.AccordingtoWhyley&Sarsby(1992),kvariedbetween
0.251.5dependingonsoiltypeandxrepresentsbothgeometricalandinternaldamping.
AccordingtoArcelorMittal(2008),kvariedbetween0.5and1.0dependingonsoiltypeand
drivingmethod.Heckman&Hagerty(1978)proposedthatkdependsonthesoilconditions
andtheimpedanceofthepileandvariesbetween0.2and1.5withincreasingkfordecreasing
impedance.
Table2.11givesasummaryofvaluessuggestedforkandxinequationEq.2.43foundin
literature.Thedatafittinginthetableareforallcasesupperbound.
Theactualsourceenergyisdifficulttoestimateduetolossesatthepilesoilinterface,
thereforeAttewelletal.(1992a)andWhenham(2011)suggestthatthenotionalenergy
quotedbythepiledrivermanufacturerisusedforsourceenergy,W0.W0isexpressedin
joules(Newtonmeters)forimpactpiledrivingandjoules/cycleforvibratorypiledriving.
Head&Jardine(1992)givethefollowingrulesofthumbsforcalculatingtheenergyvaluesin
Joulesfordifferentdrivingsystem:
68
2LITERATURESTUDY
Drophammers
Massofhammer = mtonnes
Dropheight = hmeters
Energyperblow = 9807*m*hJoules
Dieselhammers
Ratedenergyperblow = (R.E.)kgm
Energyperblow = (R.E.)*9.807Joules
Vibratorydrivers
Powersupply = WkVA(=kilowatt=kiloJoules/s)
Ratedfrequency = fHertz
Energypercycle = 1000*(W/f)Joules
Figure2.39Whyley&Sarsbys(1992)predictiveplot.
69
Groundvibrationsduetopileandsheetpiledriving
W0
Eq.2.45 vg v p (mm/s)
r
Where vg=groundvibration(mm/s)
vp=pilevibrationatthepilehead= 2 (mm/s)
c=wavepropagationvelocityinthepile(m/s)
Zp=pileimpedance(kNs/m)
Lp=pilelength(m)
W0=energytransferredtothepile(J)
r=distancefromthepiletothepointofinterest(m)
Svinkin(2008)suggestedthatW0isdeterminedastheratedenergytimestheefficiency.For
vibratorydrivingW0isthemaximumenergytransferredtoavibratorydrivenpilepercycle
ofdrivinganddeterminedfromthemaximumpowertimestheperiodtimestheefficiency.
Where F=eccentricforceofthevibrator(kN)
Table2.12Dataforvibrationpredictionforvibratorydrivensheetpiles(hammersupto350kN)
(HandboekDamwanden).
Soil profile u0 (mm/s) (m) V0
Vert Hor Vert Hor Vert Hor
1 (Amsterdam) 1.1 1.6 0 0 0.9 1.5
2 (Eindhoven) 1.9 2.6 0 0 1.1 0.8
3 (Groningen) 1.7 0.9 0 0 1.8 0.5
4 (Den Haag/Scheveningen) 1.9 2.6 0 0 1.1 0.8
5 (Maasvlakte)
6 (Rotterdam) 1.1 1.6 0 0 0.9 1.5
7 (Tiel) 1.1 1.6 0 0 0.9 1.5
70
2LITERATURESTUDY
Table2.13Dataforvibrationpredictionforimpactdrivensheetpiles(HandboekDamwanden).
Soil profile u0 (mm/s) (m) V0
Vert Hor Vert Hor Vert Hor
1 (Amsterdam) 0.030 0.03 0.6
2 (Eindhoven)
3 (Groningen)
4 (Den Haag/Scheveningen)
5 (Maasvlakte) 0.040 0.00 0.6
6 (Rotterdam) 0.017 0.026 0.03 0.03 0.6 0.6
7 (Tiel)
ThevaluesfromTable2.12andTable2.13areusedinthefollowingsummarisedequationin
ordertoreceiveapredictedvibration,u(r):
r0 ( r r0 ) 0.7 V0
Eq.2.47 u (r ) u 0 e e (mm/s)
r
Where =accordingtoTable2.14dependsontheprobabilityofexceedance
r0=referencedistancesetto5m
Table2.14Probabilityofexceedanceandvalues(HandboekDamwanden).
Probability of exceedance value
0.5 0.0
0.1 1.18
0.05 1.64
0.01 2.32
0.005 2.57
0.001 3.09
W0
log v x1 x 2 log x log 2 W 0
Eq.2.48 r 3 r
Where v=vibrationvelocity(mm/s)
x1,x2andx3=constantsofproportionality(),seeTable2.15andTable2.16
W0=inputenergy(J)
r=distancebetweensourceandpointofinterest(m)
Constantsx1,x2andx3arefunctionsofthesoilconditionsatthesiteofpiledriving(Attewell
etal.,1992b).ProposedvaluesoftheconstantsofproportionalityaregiveninTable2.15and
Table2.16forimpactrespectivelyvibratorypiledriving.InAttewelletal.(1992a)itis
71
Groundvibrationsduetopileandsheetpiledriving
recognisedthatvibratorydrivingisinmanywaysdifferentfromimpactdriving,andforthe
estimationofgroundvibrationsfrompiledrivingthetwoinstallationmethodsshouldbe
treatedseparately.Hence,thedevelopedmodelmakesadistinctionbetweenvibrationsfrom
impactdrivenandvibratorydrivenpiles.
Attewelletal.(1992b)proposedthatthevaluesforhalfastandarddeviationshouldbeused
fornormalconstructionworkwhileonestandarddeviationshouldbeusedwherehigh
securityagainstvibrationisneeded.Forthebestfitlinethereisariskofexceedingthe
estimatedvaluesof50%,forhalfastandarddeviationtheriskis31%andforonestandard
deviationtheriskisreducedto16%(Attewelletal.,1992b).
InAttewelletal.(1992b)tablesforpredictionofvibrationsduetoimpactandvibratory
drivingarepresented.ThetablesarebasedonEq.2.48andvaluesfromTable2.15orTable
2.16andaimtowardshelpingpractitionersthatarenotusedtohandlingquadraticequations
tomakepredictionsontheconstructionsite.
Thehorizontaldistancealongthegroundbetweenthesourceandthepointofinterestis
usuallytakenasr.However,Attewelletal.(1992a)arewellawarethatthiscouldleadto
errorswhenalargeamountofthevibrationenergyistransferredatthepiletoe,especiallyat
closerange.Despitethistheyhavechosentoputrasthehorizontaldistancebetweensource
andpointofinterestmainlyforthesakeofsimplicity.
72
2LITERATURESTUDY
FDMcantakeintoaccountlayeringandanisotropyofthesoil;however,thereisuncertainty
inthelossoftheenergyduetomaterialdamping.AnotherdrawbackofFDMisthatit
requiresahighlevelofmathematicalskillsfromtheuser(Davis,2010).
FEMispopularforthemodellingofproblemsinsoilandrockmaterials;thereareanumber
ofcommercialcomputerprogramsbasedonFEM(Plaxisbeingthemostcommonamong
geotechnicalengineers)withgraphicaluserinterfacesmakingitapopulartoolinmany
situations.2DFEMisnotidealformodellingpileorsheetpiledrivingasitgenerallyisa
pointsourceandthesoilconditionsareusuallycomplexgivingdivergingpropagationpaths
indifferentdirections(Davis,2010).
BEMissomewhatmorelimitedinitsusethanFEMandFDMduetoitsneedfor
reformulationofthepartialdifferentialequations.ToovercomethelimitationswithBEMthe
soilimmediatelynexttothesourcecanbemodelledwithFEMwhiletherestofthe
propagationpathcanbemodelledusingacoupledBEMmodel.Forthemodellingofground
vibrationproblemswithinfinitedomains,BEMisconsideredtobebetterthanFEMfor
efficiency,accuracyanduserfriendliness(Davis,2010).Severaloftheexistingprediction
modelsmixdifferentnumericalmethodsintheirpredictionmodels.
Theoreticalmodelsoftencontainsubmodelsforthepile,thesoilandsometimesalsofor
objectssusceptibletodamage.Thesubmodelsaremodelledseparatelyandthereafter
connectedtomaketheprediction.Connectionbetweenthesubmodelsisusuallybasedon
connectivityofvibrationorforceatnodes(Waarts&deWit,2004).
Inthissectionsomeoftheexistingtheoreticalmodelsaredescribedinbrief.
TheWaarts&Bielefeldmodelisactuallydividedintotwodifferentmodels.Themodelfor
thepiledriving,describedbythestresswavesimulationprogramTnowave,andthemodel
forthewavetransmissioninsoilsdescribedbythefiniteelementpackageDiana.The
Tnowaveprogramisbasedontheonedimensionalstresswavetheoryanditsimulatesthe
piledrivingprocessformanycombinationsofpiledrivinghammers(bothimpactand
vibratoryhammers),piletypesandsoilconditions.FromTnowavetheloadappliedtothe
soiliscomputed.Theload,consistingoftheforceatthepiletoeandtheoutsidefrictionon
thepile,isthereafterputintoDiana.WithDianadisplacements,velocitiesandaccelerations
canbecomputedasafunctionoftimeineverypointinthesoil.
Waarts&Bielefeld(1994)chosenottomodelthecompressionwaveintheFEMmodel.
However,whencomparingpredictedvalueswithmeasuredvalues,averyobvious
differencewasthelackofcompressionwavesinthepredictedsignals.Thepredictedpeak
accelerationswererelativelyclosetothemeasuredvalues.Thepredictedpeakvelocities,
however,showedadifferencecomparedtomeasuredvalues.Forpredicteddominant
frequenciesandshearwavevelocities,thecorrelationwiththemeasuredresultswasgood.
73
Groundvibrationsduetopileandsheetpiledriving
Waarts&Bielefeld(1994)proposesafewimprovementstotheirpredictionmodel.For
example,thepilesoilinteractioncanbeimprovedtakingdegradationeffectsonthesoilinto
account.Anotherimprovementistodevelopthedeterminationofsoilparametersfromsoil
investigationresults.
Figure2.40VibratorydrivingmodeldevelopedbyHoleyman(1993)(Whenham,2011from
Holeyman,1993b).
74
2LITERATURESTUDY
2.7.2.4 Finite Element Method (Plaxis)
Whenham(2011)havemodelledvibratorypiledrivinginthecommercialFEMsoftware
Plaxis.Theproblemsetupisanaxisymmetricgeometryextending40mintheradial
directionand25mintheverticaldirection,seeFigure2.41.Theboundariesarechosenas
absorbentboundariesatthebottomandrighthandside,andhavethefunctionthat
compressionwavesthathittheboundaryperpendicularlywillbeabsorbedwhileshear
waveswillstillgiveasmallboundaryeffect.
Theloadisaddedaspointloadsdistributedbetween0and2.25matthecentreofsymmetry.
Thisloadmodelassumesthattheforceappliedtothesoilbythepileisequallydistributed
alongthepileshaft.
Thesoilisconsideredtobelinearelastic,andmaterialdampingisrepresentedbyadamping
parameterproportionaltothemassandstiffnessofthesystem.
Figure2.41SetupofPlaxismodel(Whenham,2011).
Tosolvethesystem,theStructuralDynamicsToolboxinMatlabisfirstusedtomakethe
finiteelementmodelofthepile.Thenthesoilimpedanceandthemodalresponsesofthesoil
arecomputedusingtheprogramMISS6.3.Fromthereonthesoiltractionsontheinterface
andtheninthefreefieldarecomputed.
75
Groundvibrationsduetopileandsheetpiledriving
Figure2.42Geometryandoutlineoftheproblem(Masoumietal.,2009).
Masoumietal.(2008)noticedthattheirmodelseemedtooverestimategroundvibrationin
thefarfield.Theybelievedthistobeduetoplasticstrainsinducedinthesoilinthevicinity
ofthepileleadingtomorematerialdamping.Therefore,Masoumietal.(2009)proposedthe
useofamodelthatincludesaplasticzoneinthevicinityofthepile.AccordingtoMasoumi
etal.(2009)themodelincludesboththedynamicpilesoilinteractionandthenonlinear
behaviourofthesoilinthevicinityofthepile.Thesoilstructuresystemhasbeendivided
intotwosubstructures:aboundedstructureinvolvingthepileandthesectionofthesoil
aroundthepilethatmaynotbehavelinearly,andtheunboundedlinearelastichorizontally
layeredsoil,seeFigure2.42.Thepileandthesoilclosesttoitaremodelledusingatime
domainfiniteelementmethodandthesoilismodelledasahorizontallylayeredelastichalf
spaceusingtheboundaryelementtechniqueinthefrequencydomain.
Thesimulationclearlyshowedtheevolutionofaplasticzonearoundthepileandbelowthe
piletoeforbothimpactandvibratorydriving.Masoumietal.(2009)alsocomparedvibration
levelsreceivedfromtheirmodelwithfieldmeasurementspresentedbyWiss(1981)showing
goodagreementbetweenpredictionsandmeasurements.
Mahutka&Grabe(2006)performedfieldteststovalidatetheirmodel.Theymeasuredthe
accelerationatthepileaswellastheverticalandhorizontalvelocitiesatfourpointslocated1
m,2m,4mand8mfromthevibratorydrivenpile.Themeasuredresultsshowagood
agreementwiththemodelledresults,seeFigure2.43.
76
2LITERATURESTUDY
Figure2.43Measuredandcalculatedvibrationvelocityatthegroundsurfaceandaccelerationatthe
pile(Mahutka&Grabe,2006).
Thepileisdrivendownbythemodellingofsuccessivehammerimpacts.Khoubani&
Ahmadi(2012)haveusedonesecondasthetimebetweeneachhammerblowintheirmodel.
ThePPViscomputedatdifferentdistancesfromthecentrelineofthepile.Themodelled
resultswerecomparedwiththeresultsmeasuredbyWiss(1981)andshowedgood
agreement.Theyalsocomparedtheirresultswiththenumericalresultspresentedby
Masoumietal.(2009).TheresultsdifferssomewhatKhoubani&Ahmadi(2012)reported
highervaluesthanMasoumietal.(2009)foradistanceof59mandviceversafordistances
of923m.
Khoubani&Ahmadi(2012)alsonoticedthatforallpointsmorethan5mfromthepilethe
maximumPPVoccurredatapenetrationdepthbetween4.55.5m.
FromtheirsensitivityanalysisKhoubani&Ahmadi(2012)concludedthatthelevelof
vibrationsdependedonthepropertiesofthepile,hammerandsoil.Anincreaseinthe
impactforce,thepilediameterorthesoilpilefrictionintheirmodelresultedinanincrease
inPPV.Iftheelasticitymodulusofthesoilwasincreased,PPVdecreased.
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Groundvibrationsduetopileandsheetpiledriving
Massarsch&Fellenius(2008)suggestedthatthecalculationofgroundvibrationsinducedby
piledrivingwithimpacthammersbebasedonthefollowingapproach:
Determinethedynamicpilehammerproperties
Determinethedynamicpileproperties
Estimatethepeakparticlevelocityofthestresswave
Assessthevibrationtransmissionefficacyalongthepileshaftandatthepiletoe
Calculatethepropagationofsphericalwaveenergyfromthepiletoetotheground
surface,takingintoaccountwavereflection
Atthecriticaldistancefromthepileonthegroundsurface,calculatethevibration
attenuationofsurfacewaves
Calculatethecylindricalwavesfromthepileshaft
Predictedvaluesfromthemodelwerecomparedwithmeasurementresultsfromonedriven
pileinacasestudypresentedbyNilsson(1989).Massarsch&Fellenius(2008)claimedthat
therewasagoodcorrelationbetweenpredictedandmeasuredvalues.Massarsch&Fellenius
(2008)pointedoutthattheirpredictionmodeldoesnottakeintoaccountgroundvibration
amplificationduetowavesuperpositionwhenwavesinteract,suchasfromthepiletoeand
thepileshaft.
Jongmansmodelisbasedonthatthegroundvibrationatadistancerfromthesourcecanbe
givenaccordingtothefollowingfunction:
Where s(t)=sourcefunction
g(t,r)=propagationfunction,alsocalledGreensfunction
Thetwofunctionsaredeterminedseparately.Inordertodeterminethepointloadsolution,
Greensfunction(g(t,r)),itissuggestedthateachsiteisinvestigatedbyastandardseismic
prospectingtest.Fromtheseismogramsthesoilconditionswithdifferentlayersand
dynamicpropertiesaredecided.Theinterpretationisbasedontheassumptionthatthe
groundishorizontallylayered.Byusingadiscretewavenumbermethod,oncethegeometry
anddynamicpropertiesareknown,Greensfunctioniscomputed.
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2LITERATURESTUDY
Thesourcefunctionsimulatestheinputwaveformandrepresentsanequivalentlinear
sourcefunction.Thefunctiondependsonpiletypeanddrivingmethodandvarieswithsoil
resistanceatthepiletoe.Jongmansmodelassumesthatvibrationsaregeneratedatthepile
toebyaverticalforce.Theequivalentlinearsourcefunctionisdeterminedfromavibration
recordclosetothepileandthesitesGreenfunction.Jongmanssuggeststhatadatabaseof
sourcefunctionsfordifferentdrivingmethodsandsoiltypescouldbesetup.
Jongmanscomparedhismodeltoresultsfromafieldtestshowingagoodcorrelation
regardingamplitudeandwaveformsofthevibrations.
Bysettingupanexperimentofapplyingknownmagnitudesofimpactonthesiteofinterest,
forexamplebydroppingamassandrecordingtheoscillationatimpact,theimpulse
responsefunctionisdetermined.Oncetheimpulseresponsefunctionisknownthedynamic
loadsforpiledrivingarecomputedbywaveequationanalysis.FinallyDuhamelsintegral
(Smith&Downy,1968)isusedtofindthepredictedvibrations.
Thepredictionmodelisbasedontheassumptionthatthesoilbehavesasalinearmaterial.
Intheirdiscussionaboutuncertaintiesinpredictionofvibrations,Waarts&deWit(2004)
cametotheconclusionthatvibrationsduetosheetpilevibratorydrivingaremoredifficult
topredictthanvibrationsfrompiledriving.However,theyconcludethatoverallthe
uncertaintyinvibrationpredictionoftodayisquitelarge,eventhoughthepredictionsare
somewhatmorereliablefortheoreticalmodels.
OneofthemainconclusionsinthestudyofWaarts&deWit(2004)arethattheuserofthe
predictionmodelhasamassiveinfluenceontheoutcomeoftheprediction.Another
conclusionwasthattheuncertaintyinvibrationpredictiongenerallyisquitelarge;however,
theuseofsophisticatedFEMmodelsreducedtheuncertaintycomparedtoexpert
judgement.
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Groundvibrationsduetopileandsheetpiledriving
Hope&Hiller(2000)presentedareviewofthepredictionmodelsavailableatthattime.They
focusonvibrationsfromimpactpiledriving.Intheirreviewtheyfindthattheaccuracyof
theexistingpredictionmodelsislimited.Mostpredictionmodelsconsiderablyoverestimate
thevibrationmagnitudesatdistanceslessthan11mfromthepile.However,mostprediction
modelsareintentionallyconservative.
Davis(2010)discussedtheneedforrelativesimplicity,thespeedofcalculationandtheneed
foraccuracywhenitcomestopredictionmodels.Piledrivingprojectsareinalmostallcases
temporaryandofarelativelyshortduration,asopposedtopermanentvibrationsources,
suchase.g.railwaysortraffic.Thiscallsforadifferenceindemandsthatareputonthe
predictionmodels.Forpiledrivingthespeedofcalculationandrelativesimplicity(user
friendliness)areprobablyasimportantasaccuracy,whileforpermanentsourcesaccuracyis
probablymuchmoreimportantthanspeedofcalculationandasimplemodel.
AccordingtoAttewelletal.(1992a)itisquitereasonablethatgroundvibrationsduetopile
drivingcanbeestimatedbytheuseofempiricalmethods.Theystatethatempiricalmethods
arethemostsensibleandsuitableforuseonsite.Athanasopoulos&Pelekis(2000)agreed,
claimingthatempiricalmodelsdonottakestronglynonuniformsoilsnorthedynamicsoil
structureinteractionintoaccount.However,theyareeasytoapplyandthusvaluablefor
pilingpractitioners
However,Massarsch&Fellenius(2008)showedthattheenergybased,empiricalapproach
widelyusedbyengineersistoocrudeforreliableanalysisofgroundvibrationsandcaneven
bemisleading.AccordingtoMassarsch&Fellenius(2008)themainlimitationofempirical
energybasedpredictionmodelsarethenotionthatthedrivingenergygovernstheground
vibrations,theexclusionofgeotechnicalconditionsandtheuncertaintyintheinputvalues.
Svinkin(1996)andHope&Hiller(2000)alsodrawtheconclusionthatpredictionmodelsnot
takingsoilconditionsintoconsiderationarelessaccuratethanpredictionmodelstakingsoil
conditionsintoaccount.
AccordingtoSelby(1991)theproblemofgroundvibrationscausedbypiledrivingshould
notbeapproachedanalyticallyduetothecomplexityoftheproblem,resultingfromthe
imprecisionofthepiledrivingequipmentandtheinhomogeneityofthegroundconditions,
amongotherreasons.ThereforeSelby(1991)recommendsanempiricalapproach.
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2LITERATURESTUDY
Bycomparingfielddatafromsheetpiledrivingwiththecommonattenuationrelationship
(Eq.2.13),Clough&Chameau(1980)showedagoodcorrelationusing=0.03/ft.Fromthe
comparisontheydrawthefollowingconclusionregardingtheabsorptioncoefficient,:
1.Softclayeysoilshavehighervaluesofthandenser,firmersoils,whichindicategreater
vibrationattenuationwithdistancefromthesource.
2.Higherabsorptioncoefficientisgivenforharddrivingthanfornormaldriving.This
believestobeduetothefactthatduringharddrivinghigherstrainlevelsareinduced
leadingtomorematerialdamping.
3.Thereisnotmuchdifferenceinvaluesforhorizontalandverticalvibrations.
Resultsfromthemeasurementsshowedthatinalmostallcasesthemaximumvalue
correspondedtotheverticalcomponentofvibration.Whencomparingthevibration
intensitiesmeasuredintheirstudytootherstudiesreportedinliterature,theymeasured
lowervalues,whichtheybelieveisduetofavourablesoilconditionsinPatras.
FromtheirmeasurementsAthanasopoulos&Pelekis(2000)reconstructedtheparticle
displacementpathsateachmeasurementpoint.Fromtheparticledisplacementpaths
Athanasopoulos&Pelekis(2000)observedthatverticalvibrationsoftheRayleightypewere
themostcommon.
81
Groundvibrationsduetopileandsheetpiledriving
Figure2.44Resultsfromgroundvibrationmeasurements(Athanasopoulos&Pelekis,2000).
TheresultsfromalltheirmeasurementsareplottedinFigure2.44,withpeakcomponent
velocityontheyaxisanddistanceonthexaxis.
Themeasurementsofvibrationlevelsinbuildingsshowedanamplificationofvibration
levelsatelevatedfloors,believedtobeduetoexcitationofthebuildingfloorsnatural
frequencies.Thevibrationwasamplifiedforeachfloor(upto7floors),however,therateof
increaseoftheamplificationratiodecreasedforeachfloorindicatingthattheremightbea
deamplificationathigherfloorsinhighrisebuildings.
Boreletal.(2002)investigatedresonancefrequenciesfortheslenderpile(339mm)usedin
theirfieldstudyandfoundthattheresonancefrequenciesforlateralmovementaremuch
lower(117Hz)thanforverticalmovement(50150Hz).Thisisbelievedtoexplainthehigh
horizontalvibrationsthatweremeasuredasitispossiblethatthedriversfrequency
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2LITERATURESTUDY
repeatedlymatchedtheresonantlateralpilefrequency,andhencecausedhorizontal
vibrationstobetransmittedtothesoil.
FrommeasurementsBoreletal.(2002)noticedthatpeakvelocitieswerehigherduring
drivingthroughtheuppersandystrata.Whenthepilereachedtheunderlyingsandandclay
layers,thevibrationsdecreasedbyafactorof2.Attheendofdrivingvibrationlevelswere
seentoincreaseagainasthedrivingspeeddecreased.
TheresultsfromthemeasurementsattestsiteA(Norrkping)showedthatduringthe
installationofoneofthesheetpilesthemeasuredvibrationfrequencyshiftedbetween20
and40Hz,withafourfoldincreaseinmaximumparticlevelocitywhenthefrequency
shiftedfrom40to20Hz.Ahlqvist&Enggrencouldnotfindanyexplanationforthis
phenomenon;thedrivingfrequencyfromthevibratorwas40Hzduringtheentiredriving,
evenwhenthefrequencyofthesystemshiftedto20Hz.Thephenomenonwasonlyseen
duringthedrivingofoneoffoursheetpiles.
ThemeasurementsmadebyAhlqvist&Enggren(2006a)showedthatthevibrationsfromthe
sheetpileinstallationneverreachedthegeophonesandseismometersplacedmorethan40m
awayfromthesheetpile.
Ahlqvist&Enggren(2006aand2006b)concludedthatmaximumvibrationoccurswhenthe
penetrationspeedofthesheetpileislow.Theyalsoreceivehighvibrationswhenthedriving
frequencyislowduringthestartupandshutdownofthevibrator.Theystatethatthebest
solutiontoavoidhighvibrationsinthesurroundingenvironmentistogivethevibratory
driveroperatorrealtimeinformationaboutthevibrationsduringthesheetpileinstallation.
InFigure2.45theinfluenceofthedrivingpowerontheverticalparticlevelocityisshown.
FromFigure2.45itcanbeseenthatforpenetrationdepthslessthan6.1m,theparticle
velocityincreasedaspowerincreased,whileitremainedconstantorevendecreasedfor
penetrationdepthsgreaterthan6.1m.
Whenham(2011)reportedthatforalltheperformedteststheaccelerationanddisplacement
amplitudeswereloweratthepileheadthanatthepiletoe.
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Groundvibrationsduetopileandsheetpiledriving
Figure2.45Verticalparticlevelocityasafunctionofpowerdevelopedbythepowerpack(Whenham,
2011).
Theresultsofthestudyindicatedhighhorizontalvibrations,inmostcaseshigherthanthe
verticalvibrations.Whenham(2011)alsoshowedresultsoftheinfluenceoftheclamping
deviceontheinducedhorizontalvibrations.Forcasesinwhichasingleclampwasused
(holdingthesheetpileeccentrically)vibrationlevelswerehigherthanforthecasesinwhich
thedoubleclampswereused(holdingthesheetpileintheneutralaxis).Thehighhorizontal
vibrationsobservedintheprojectoverallwerebelievedtobeexplainedbythedriving
frequencymatchingthenaturalfrequencyforlateralmovementofthepile.
Asthepilesreachedamoreresistantsoillayerat45mdepthasharpincreaseinthe
measuredgroundvibrationsatthesurface3mfromthepilewereseen.Attenuationcurves
withsoilparticlevelocityplottedagainstdistancetopileallshowedamonotonicdecrease
withdistanceforallpenetrationdepths.
FromparticlevelocitypathsWhenham(2011)concludedthatatashortdistancefromthepile
thevelocityhasanellipticalshapesimilartotheRwavemotion.Atagreaterdistancethe
velocitypathshowedapredominantlyradialmovement.Theresultsinthestudyalso
showedthatthelowerthedrivingfrequency,thehighertheverticalsoilvibrations.The
trendwaslessclearforthehorizontalvibrations.
Whenham(2011)presentedresultsfrommeasurementsoflateralvibrationperformedonthe
sheetpileduringdriving.Astheaccelerometeronthesheetpilereachedthesurfaceofthe
earthandstartedtopenetratethesoil,adropinthelateralaccelerationamplitudeswasseen.
Thisisbelievedtobeduetotheconfiningpressureholdingthesheetpileinplacewhen
penetratingintothesoil.
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2LITERATURESTUDY
2.8.2 Impact driven piles
2.8.2.1 Alpan & Meidav (1963)
Alpan&Meidav(1963)studiedthevibrationsoutsideandwithinbuildingscausedby
drivingpilesinthevicinity.Theresultsshowedthatthegreatestparticlevelocityoutsidethe
buildingwasattainedimmediatelyaftereachdrivingimpact,whilethegreatestparticle
velocityinsidethebuildingwasmeasured350400millisecondsafterthearrivalofthe
impactwaves.Theyalsosawthatthevibrationrecordwithinthebuildingcouldbe
separatedintotwodifferentphases.Thefirstphasestartedwhentheimpulsearrivedand
lastedforabout0.2s;theaccelerationandfrequencyinthefirstphasewerehighwitha
relativelylowkineticenergy.Thesecondphaseincludedlowerfrequencieswithhigh
particlevelocitiesandloweraccelerations.
Someinterestingresultswerefoundfromthemeasurements;amongothersasudden
decreaseinvibrationwasseenwhenthepiletipmovedfromtheuppermostsandfilllayer
intothesoftclaybelow.Thenwhenthepiletipreachedafinesandlayerfurtherdowninthe
groundthevibrationincreasedandthemaximumpeakparticlevelocitywasreached.An
increaseinvibrationwasalsoseenasthepilepenetratedintoastifferclaylayerwithgreater
penetrationresistance.However,adistinctincreasewasonlyobservedatsurfacepoints
furtherawayfromthepile.BrennerandChittikuladilok(1975)believedthatareasonforthis
couldbethatatmeasurementpointsclosetothepile(r<6m)themaximumvibrationisnot
causedbywavesoriginatingfromthepiletipbutfromwaveshavingtheirsourcehigherup
alongthepileinthesoilprofile.Thenatgreaterdistances,wavesfromthepiletiphave
becomemoredominantandgivethelargestamplitudes.Itisalsobelievedthattheyare
probablycomposedofbodywavesradiatedfromthepiletip,andtosomeextent,bysurface
waves.
FromtheirmeasurementsBrenner&Chittikuladilok(1975)statedthattheradialand
tangentialvibrationcomponenthadvaluesbetween3080%oftheverticalcomponent.
Brenner&Chittikuladilok(1975)alsoperformedmeasurementsofvibrationlevelsatdepths
of1.75m,3.25mand4.75mbelowthesurface.Theresultsshowthatatadepthof1.75mthe
surfaceandsubsurfacevibrationswerealmostequal.Attheotherdepthsthesubsurface
vibrationwasalwayslessthanthesurfacevibrations.Theyexplainedthisbythefactthat
surfacewaveamplitudesdecreaserapidlywithdepth.
Theresultsshowedthatthegroundmotionfrequenciescausedbythepiledrivingranged
between1225Hzfortheverticalcomponentandbetween2833Hzfortheradialand
tangentialcomponent.Therewerenocorrelationsseenbetweenfrequencyrangeandtypeof
soillayerbeingpenetrated.
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Groundvibrationsduetopileandsheetpiledriving
Measurementswithinbuildingsshowedthatonlyabout30%ofthegroundsurface
vibrationsweretransferredtothewallsofthebuilding.Formostmeasurementstheradial
andtangentialcomponentshowedvalueslessthan40%oftheverticalvibrations.However,
forastaircaseinonebuildingthetangential,butnottheradial,componenthadthesame
orderofmagnitudeastheverticalcomponent.Themeasurementsalsoshowedthatsome
vibrationamplificationwithrespecttothegroundslabtookplace,thoughmotionwasstill
lessthanforthegroundsurface.Theonlystructuralmemberofthebuildingswhichshowed
considerableamplificationwasthestaircase.Thisamplificationwasprobablydueto
resonanceeffects.
Theirresultsshowedthatthevibrationvelocityappearstovaryaccordingtothecone
resistance;however,thecorrelationisfairlyweak.Brenner&Viranuvut(1977)pointedout
thatforlayersofequalconeresistancethedepthofthelayeralsoinfluencesthevibration
level.Nocorrelationwasfoundwiththeotherparametersstudied(localfriction,total
frictionandenergypermeterofpilepenetration).
Heckman&Hagerty(1978)alsostudiedresultsfromimpactdrivingofHpiles.Theresults
showedthathigherpeakparticlevelocitieswereobtainedfromthedrivingof305mmH
pilesthanfromthedrivingof350mmHpiles.
Theresultsshowednocorrelationbetweenthedropheightofthehammerandthefrequency
ofthemeasuredvibrations.However,theresultsshowedthattherewasaconsiderable
changeinthedisplacementamplitude,Amax,withincreasinghammerdropheight.The
resultsshowedanincreaseinAmaxwithdecreasingpenetrationperblow.Thisissupported
bythetheorythatthesmallertheplasticpenetrationperblowofthehammer(withconstant
dropheight),thegreaterthequantityofenergytransferredintothesoilandinducingground
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2LITERATURESTUDY
vibrations.Thepenetrationperblowinturndependsonthesoilresistance,whichgivesthe
conclusionthatthevibrationisdependentuponthesoilresistance(Ciesielskietal.,1980).
Martin(1980)alsodidmeasurementsinsidenearbybuildings.Theresultsshowedthatthe
ratiobetweentheinsideandoutsidevibrationlevelswasaround0.5inbuildingswith
concretefloors,andaround1.6inbuildingswithwoodenfloors.
Frequencyanalysisshowedthatthevibrationsignalshaveafrequencyrangeof060Hz.The
dominatingfrequencyfortheRayleighwavewasbetween815Hzandthedominating
frequencyfortheshearwavewasbetween3050Hz.
Thefieldstudyshowedthatimpactdrivingofconcretepilesgenerateshighervibration
valuesthanimpactdrivingofsteelpiles.Theresultsalsoshowedthatthesteelpiledriving
witha40kNhammercausedlessvibrationthanthepiledrivenwiththe15kNshammer.
AccordingtoNilsson(1989)thisisduetothefactthatthe40kNhammerwithlowdrop
heighttransferredlessenergyintothepile.
AtsiteA,wheresheetpileswheredriven,resultsshowedgenerallylowervaluesforvertical
vibrationsthanforhorizontal(radialandtransversal).Bothairanddieselhammerswere
used.However,therewasnorecognisabledifferenceinthevibrationlevelbetweenthetwo
hammers.Thevibrationslevelsdidnotseemtodifferwithdepthnorbeanyhigherduring
finaldrivingtorefusal.ThiswasalsoobservedatsiteC,whereconcretepilesweredriven.
87
Groundvibrationsduetopileandsheetpiledriving
Figure2.46DatafordieselanddrophammersatsiteB(Whyley&Sarsby,1992).
AtsiteB,measurementswhereconductedonthegroundaswellasonandinsidestructures.
Resultsindicatedthatthevibrationlevelsonthestructuresweresimilartothevaluesoutside
ontheground.However,forsomecasesvaluesonfloorsandceilingswerehigher,probably
asaresultoflongfloorspans.Acomparisonwasmadebetweendieselanddrophammers,
(seeFigure2.46),showingnodifferencebetweenhammertypes.
AtsiteC,whereconcretepileswereimpactdriven,thehorizontalcomponentsintheradial
andtransversaldirectionwerehigherthantheverticalcomponent.
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2LITERATURESTUDY
2.8.2.9 Jongmans (1996)
Jongmans(1996)presentedresultsfromafieldstudyinwhichgroundvibrationsfromfour
differentpiledrivingtechniquesweremeasured.Allpileswereimpactdrivenwithimpactat
eitherheadortoe.Measurementswereconductedusingbothverticalandtriaxial
geophonesatdifferentdistancesfromthepile.
Figure2.47showsresultsfromthemeasurementsbothintheverticalandintheradial
direction.Theattenuationfortheverticalcomponentwaslinear,whiletheradialcomponent
showedapeakatadistanceofabout10mfromthepile.
Figure2.47Measuredparticlevelocityattenuationwithdistanceforthreepiletoedepths.Left:
verticalcomponentandright:radialcomponent(Jongmans,1996).
Figure2.48andFigure2.49showthatpeakresultantvelocity,vres,wasnotlineartothe
horizontaldistance,r,nearthepile.Insteadvresshowedamorelinearbehaviourwhen
plottedagainstslopedistance,s,nearthepile.FromtheresultsinFigure2.49Hope&Hiller
(2000)proposedtheuseofsratherthanroverthewholerangeassgivesagoodlinearity
throughouttherange.
89
Groundvibrationsduetopileandsheetpiledriving
Figure2.48Groundvibrationsfromimpactpile Figure2.49Groundvibrationsfromimpactpile
drivingaspeakresultantparticlevelocity drivingaspeakresultantparticlevelocityagainst
againsthorizontaldistance(Hope&Hiller, slopedistance(Hope&Hiller,2000).
2000).
Hope&Hiller(2000)alsoshowedthattherewasnolinearrelationshipbetweentheresultant
peakvelocityandthepotentialenergyofthehammermechanism.Thisstatementcontrasts
theassumptionsmadeinmostempiricalpredictionmodels.Fromtheirmanymeasurements,
Hope&Hiller(2000)concludedthatempiricalpredictionmodelsinvolvingonlydistance
andhammerenergyhaveverylittlechanceofreliablypredictinggroundvibrationsfrom
impactpiledriving.
Fromtheirmeasurements,Hope&Hiller(2000)sawthatPPVincreasedwiththeembedment
depthofthepile.Thiscouldbeduetonumerousfactors:thelengthofshaftincontactwith
soilincreaseswithincreasingembedment,thepropertiesofthesoilmayvaryalongtheshaft
andthepiletoemayhitsoilswithdifferentproperties.
Themeasurementsalsoshowedthatmostoftheenergywastransmittedbyverticalmotion
withfrequenciesbelow10Hz.
AccordingtoKim&Lee(2000)theparticlemotionsmeasuredweremostlyinthevertical
directionandfromthattheyconcludethatvibrationsduetoimpactpiledrivingcanbe
characterizedasverticalshearwaveswithconicalwavefronts.Becauseofthis,thevibration
sourcecanbeclassifiedasapointsourcegeneratingbodywavesandthetraveldistancecan
beestimatedasthehorizontaldistancefromthesource.
90
2LITERATURESTUDY
2.8.2.12 Hwang et al. (2001)
Hwangetal.(2001)studiedthegroundresponseduringimpactpiledrivingofconcretepiles
bymeasuringporewaterpressure,grounddeformationandvibrationsduringthedrivingof
threeconcretepilesatasiteinTaiwan.Thevibrationswererecordedduring10sateach
meterofpenetration.
Figure2.50AccelerationtimehistoriesduringdrivingofpileDP3atapilepenetrationdepthof15m
(Hwangetal.,2001).
Hwangetal.(2001)concludedthatthevibrationfromtheimpactpiledrivingwasofahigh
frequencyandhadaperiodoflessthan0.5s.However,itisnoticedthatthewavetracestarts
offatahighfrequency,seeFigure2.50,afterwhichthefrequencybecomeslower.Thisis
explainedasthehighfrequencybeingthebodywavesfollowedbythelowerfrequency
surfacewaves.Thepatternwasmorediscernibleatlargerdistancesfromthepile;at5mit
wasdifficulttomakeadistinction.
91
Groundvibrationsduetopileandsheetpiledriving
Theverticalvibrationswerehigherthanthevibrationsrecordedintheradialhorizontal
direction.Theresultsalsoindicatedthatthepeakgroundaccelerationforthesurfacewaves
waslargerthanthepeakgroundaccelerationforthebodywaves.
Figure2.51Verticalgroundvibrationvelocityplottedagainstpenetrationdepth15mfromthedriven
pile(Thandavamoorthy,2004).
Resultsindicatedthatasthesoilgotharder,thedrivingresistanceincreasedandanincrease
ingroundvibrationwasobserved.Atadistanceof15mfromthepilethemaximumvelocity
wasrecordedas126.2mm/s,seeFigure2.51.
Measurementsofvibrationaccelerationatthealreadyinstalledpileatadistanceof6.25m
fromthedrivenpilegaveamaximumaccelerationof123.42m/s2,whichisavaluethatcould
potentiallyharmthepileandreduceitsbearingcapacity.Thefrequencyspectrumshoweda
frequencyrangeof0500Hzformeasurementsatthepile.
InFigure2.52verticalandhorizontalaccelerationsareplottedagainstpenetrationdepthata
distanceof3mfromthedrivenpile.Theresultsindicatedthattheverticalvibrationswere
largerthanhorizontalvibrations.Thefrequencyfortheverticalvibrationsintheground
rangedfrom0to200Hzandforthehorizontalvibrationstherangeis0to150Hz.
FromstudyingaccelerationrecordsatdifferentdepthsofimpactThandavamoorthy(2004)
concludedthatbodywaveswerepredominantintheverticalaccelerationwhilesurface
waveswerepredominantinthehorizontalacceleration.Timehistoriesforeachblowshowed
awavetraceofhighfrequencyinthebeginningandalowerfrequencyforthefollowing
time.AccordingtoThandavamoorthy(2004)thehighfrequencywasprimarilybodywaves
andthelowerfrequencywasthesurfacewaves.
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2LITERATURESTUDY
Figure2.52Verticalandhorizontalvibrationaccelerationplottedagainstpenetrationdepth3mfrom
thedrivenpile(Thandavamoorthy,2004).
93
AretatiningstructurewasneededforaplannedextensionofKarlstadtheatre,inthecityof
KarlstadinthewesternregionofSweden.Thetheatrebuildingaswellasseveralother
buildingsinthevicinitywereconstructedaroundtheendofthe19thcenturyandfounded
shallowlyondryrubbleorraftfoundations.
ThetheatreislocatedalongtheKlarlvenriver,whichhighlyinfluencethegeotechnical
characteristicsofthesite.Theupperpartsofthesoilmainlyconsistofloose,finegrainriver
sediments,mostlysand.Belowaround8mfromthegroundsurface,thesandtransitionsinto
loosesiltfollowedbyastiffersandlayer.Belowthesand/silt,aclaylayercontinuestoa
depthofabout25m.Thegroundwaterlevelcorrespondstothewaterlevelintheriver,
approximately3mbelowthegroundsurface.
Toinvestigatethepossibilityofusingavibratorydrivensheetpilewall,atrialsheetpiling
wasundertaken.ThetrialsheetpilingwasexecutedonMay4,2010andincludedthedriving
offoursheetpiles.Measurementofgroundvibrationswereperformedduringthedrivingof
thelastthreesheetpiles.Thepilesweredriventoadepthofabout11m.
Thegroundvibrationsduringthesheetpiledrivingweremeasuredusingtwotriaxial
geophonesandoneuniaxialgeophone.Thetriaxialgeophoneswereconnectedtoa
recorder,whichwereabletorecordaneventatasamplingrateof750Hzduring70s.The
uniaxialgeophonewasconnectedtodataacquisitionequipmentrecordingonlymaximum
values.ThemeasurementandrecordingequipmentwassuppliedbyBergskerAB.
Thegeophoneswerepositioned3.4m,7.9mand15mrespectivelyfromthesheetpileline.
Inthetwoclosestmeasurementpoints,velocitywasmeasuredinthreedirections(vertical,
transversalandlongitudinal)whileonlytheverticaldirectionwasmeasuredinthethird
measurementpoint.
Forpresentation,analysisanddiscussionoftheresultsofthefieldmeasurementsthereader
isreferredtotheworkpresentedinLidn(2012)andthethirdappendedpaper(PaperIII).
95
4.1 PAPER I
Ground vibrations due to pile and sheet pile driving prediction models of
today
Deckner,F.,Viking,K.andHintze,S.(2012).Groundvibrationsduetopileandsheetpile
drivingpredictionmodelsoftoday.InProceedingsoftheEuropeanYoungGeotechnical
EngineersConference(WoodTandSwahnV(eds)).SwedishGeotechnicalSociety,
Gothenburg,Sweden,pp.107112.Peerreviewedconferencepaper.
Aspartofconstructionwork,pileandsheetpiledrivingunavoidablygeneratesvibrations.
Constructionworkstodayareoftenlocatedinurbanareasandalongwithsocietys
increasingconcernforenvironmentalimpact,theneedforpredictingvibrationsbefore
constructionisofimmediateinterest.Thisstudypresentsareviewofthepredictionmodels
existingtoday.Forpredictionofgroundvibrationsfrompileandsheetpiledrivingthereare
roughlythreedifferenttypesofmodels:empiricalmodels,theoreticalmodelsand
engineeringmodels.Apredictionmodelshouldbereliableinallcasesinwhichitismeantto
beused.Itisalsoimportantthatitisrelativelyeasytouseandthattheinputdataiseasily
obtained.Thisstudyconcludesthat,asoftoday,suchamodelislacking.Todaysmodels
eitherlackinreliabilityorrequiregreatamountsofinputdata,knowledgeandskillsaswell
astimeandmoney.
4.2 PAPER II
Factors influencing vibrations due to pile driving
Deckner,F.,Viking,K.andHintze,S.(2013).Factorsinfluencingvibrationsduetopile
driving.SubmittedtoProceedingsoftheInstitutionofCivilEngineersGeotechnicalEngineering
inDecember2012.Journalpaper.
Vibrationsduetopileandsheetpiledrivingarepartofacomplexprocessinvolvingmany
elementsandfactorsthatinfluencebothvibrationmagnitudeandfrequency.Better
understandingandpredictionofthevibrationsgeneratedwillgreatlybenefitthecivil
engineeringpracticeaswellastheconstructionindustry.Animportantcomponentin
understandingvibrationsduetopiledrivingistocomprehendandrecognisethefactorsthat
influencethesevibrations.Theobjectiveofthepresentstudyistoidentifyfactorsthat
97
Groundvibrationsduetopileandsheetpiledriving
influencevibrationscausedbypiledriving.Furthermore,currentmodelsforpredictionof
vibrationsarediscussedandevaluated.Basedontheliteraturestudyconducted,itis
concludedthatthemostimportantfactorsarethegeotechnicalconditions,theenergy
generatedatthesourceandthedistancefromthesource.Theidentifiedfactorsshouldbe
includedinordertocreateareliablepredictionmodelforvibrationscausedbypileandsheet
piledriving.
Deckner,F.,Lidn,M.,Viking,K.andHintze,S.(2013).Measuredgroundvibrationsduring
vibratorysheetpiledriving.TobesubmittedtoProceedingsoftheInstitutionofCivilEngineers
GeotechnicalEngineeringinMarch2013.Journalpaper.
AnextensionwasplannedfortheoldtheatrebuildinginthecityofKarlstadinSweden.The
theatrewasconstructedin1893andseveralofthesurroundingbuildingsareofthesame
age.ThetheatreislocatedalongtheriverbankofKlarlvenandthedryrubblefoundationis
placedontopofalayerofloosesand.Theoldbuildingsalongwiththecomplexsoil
conditionsmadeenvironmentalimpactacurrentissue.Theresearchdescribedinthispaper
wasundertakentoprovidedataforthedecisionwhethervibratorydrivensheetpilescould
beanoptionfortheretainingstructure.Groundvibrationsweremeasuredduringatrial
sheetpilingusinggeophones.Analysisoftheresultssuggeststhatvibratorydrivensheet
pileswouldcauselargesettlementsintheloosesandlayer.Itwasalsoconcludedthat
geotechnicalconditionsaswellasdistancefromthesourcehavelargeimpactonthe
generatedvibrations.Acomparisonbetweenmeasuredvibrationsandpredictedvibrations
usingempiricalrelationsgavevaluableinsightsforthedevelopmentoffutureprediction
models.
98
Thefollowingsectionisasummaryofthemajorfindingsandconclusionsofthisstudy.In
addition,proposalsforfutureresearchareincluded.
5.1 CONCLUSIONS
Animportantpartofunderstandingandpredictingvibrationsduetopiledrivingisbeing
awareofthefactorsthatinfluencethemagnitude,shapeandfrequencyofvibrations.From
theliteraturestudyandthefieldmeasurements,itisconcludedthatthemainfactors
influencingvibrationsduetopileandsheetpiledrivingarethevibrationstransferredfrom
thepiletothesoil,thegeotechnicalconditionsatthesiteandthedistancefromthesource.
Thevibrationstransmittedfromthepiletothesoilaredependentonthevibrations
transferredtothepilefromthehammer,thepilesoilinteractionandthewavepropagation
andattenuationintheplastic/elastoplasticzoneclosesttothepile.Thehammerpile
interactionandthevibrationtransmittedthereinisratherclearlyunderstoodanddescribed
inliterature.Thereforefurtherresearchneedstobefocusedonclarifyingtheactionsatthe
pilesoilinterface.Thesizeoftheplastic/elastoplasticzoneandthetransmissionof
vibrationsthereinandtotheelasticpartofthesoilwarrantfurtherresearch.
Itisclearthatthegeotechnicalconditionsaffectthevibrationmagnitude,shapeandthe
frequencycontentofthevibrationgeneratedbypiledriving.However,theliteraturestudy
hasshownthatitisstillunderdebateandunclearwhichfactorsinthesoilhavethelargest
influenceorifitisacombinationofseveralsoilparameters.Toreachthefinalaimofthe
researchprogramitisnecessarytoperformfuturestudiesshowingwhichsoilparameters
arenecessarytoincorporateinafuturepredictionmodelofvibrationsduetopileandsheet
piledriving.
Thedistancebetweenthesourceofvibrationandthepointofinterestlargelyaffectsthe
vibrationmagnitude.Thedifficultyhereliesindecidingthecorrectdistancetousein,for
example,apredictionmodel.Thehorizontaldistanceiseasytouse;howeveritmightbe
conservativeespeciallyincasesinwhichthedistancetothesourceisshortandthevibrations
aretransmittedatthepiletoe.Thatargumentvalidatestheuseoftheslopedistanceoverthe
horizontaldistance;however,sincethesourceatthepilecanbebothshaftandtoetheslope
distancecoulddifferconsiderablyduringthepenetrationofthepile.Therefore,inthe
processofdevelopingofanewpredictionmodelitmustbeclarifiedwhichdistancegivesthe
mostcorrectandreliablypredictedvibrations.
99
Groundvibrationsduetopileandsheetpiledriving
Thereareotherfactorsthathavebeenmentionedinliteraturetoaffectthevibrations,
foremostinthehorizontaldirection.Thatisforexamplethewaythepile/sheetpileisheld
(eccentricclampinggenerateseccentricvibrations)andinterlockfriction.Interlockfriction
andeccentricclampingwasalsoobservedinthefieldstudy.Theimportanceofsuchfactors
aredifficulttoquantify,however,theknowledgeoftheireffectishighlyimportantforfuture
designofpileandsheetpiledrivingworksanddrivingequipment.Therefore,further
researchontheeffectofthesefactorsiswarrantedinfuturefieldstudies.
Fromtheliteraturestudyitcanbeconcludedthatapredictionmodeltoalargeextent
dependsontheinputdata.Therefore,areliableandwellfunctioningpredictionmodelneeds
tobebasedondatathatisaccurateanddescriptivefortheproblem,forexampleregarding
drivingequipment,pile,andsoil.Itisalsonecessarythattheinputdataisrelativelyeasyto
obtainwithoutgreatcostsortimesincepredictionsshouldbeperformedatarelativelyearly
stageintheconstructionprocess.
Thereviewofthecurrentpredictionmodelsforvibrationsduetopileandsheetpiledriving
givereasontoconcludethatasoftodaythereisnopredictionmodelthatfulfilthecriteriaof
theperfectpredictionmodel;reliablebutyeteaystoapply.Thecurrentempiricalmodels
aretoounreliableandtendtohighlyoverestimatethevibrationlevels.Thecurrent
theoreticalmodelsrequiregreatamountsofinputdata,greatuserknowledgeandare
usuallyrelativelytimeconsuming.Thecurrentengineeringmodelsalllackvalidationto
measuredvibrationsinordertobeconsideredreliable.
Withinthisresearchprogramthefocusoffutureresearchwilllieonthepilesoilinteraction
andthevibrationtransferbetweenpileandsoil.Attemptswillalsobemadetofurther
investigatewhichparametersofthegeotechnicalconditionsthatarethemostimportantfor
thegeneratedvibrationsandhowthesebestcanbeincorporatedintoapredictionmodel.
Thefuturestudieswithinthisresearchprojectwillmainlyconsistofnewfieldtestsandthe
analysisoftheirresults.
100
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