History of China

4/30/2017 HistoryofChinaWikipedia
HistoryofChina
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia
WrittenrecordsofthehistoryofChinacanbefoundfromas
earlyas1500BC[1][2]undertheShangdynasty(c.16001046
BC).[3]AncienthistoricaltextssuchastheRecordsofthe
GrandHistorian(ca.100BC)andtheBambooAnnals(before
296BC)describeaXiadynasty(c.20701600BC),whichhad
nosystemofwritingonadurablemedium,beforethe
Shang.[3][4]TheYellowRiver'sYellowrivercivilizationissaid
tobethecradleofChinesecivilization,althoughcultures
originatedatvariousregionalcentersalongboththeYellow
RiverandtheYangtzeRiver'sYangtzecivilizationmillennia
agointheNeolithicera.Withthousandsofyearsofcontinuous
history,Chinaisoneoftheworld'soldestcivilizations,[5]and
isregardedasoneofthecradlesofcivilization.[6]
MuchofChineseculture,literatureandphilosophyfurther
developedduringtheZhoudynasty(1046256BC).TheZhou Approximateterritoriesoccupiedbythevarious
dynastybegantobowtoexternalandinternalpressuresinthe dynastiesandstatesthroughoutthehistoryofChina
8thcenturyBC,andthekingdomeventuallybrokeapartinto
smallerstates,beginningintheSpringandAutumnperiodand
reachingfullexpressionintheWarringStatesperiod.ThisisoneofmultipleperiodsoffailedstatehoodinChinese
history,themostrecentbeingtheChineseCivilWarthatstartedin1927.
Betweenerasofmultiplekingdomsandwarlordism,ChinesedynastieshaveruledpartsorallofChinainsome
erascontrolstretchedasfarasXinjiangandTibet,asatpresent.In221BCQinShiHuangunitedthevarious
warringkingdomsandcreatedforhimselfthetitleof"emperor"(huangdi)oftheQindynasty,markingthe
beginningofimperialChina.Successivedynastiesdevelopedbureaucraticsystemsthatenabledtheemperorto
controlvastterritoriesdirectly.China'slastdynastywastheQing(16441912),whichwasreplacedbythe
RepublicofChinain1912,andinthemainlandbythePeople'sRepublicofChinain1949,resultingintwode
factostatesclaimingtobethelegitimategovernmentofallChina.
Inthe21centuriesfrom206BCuntilAD1912,routineadministrativetaskswerehandledbyaspecialelite,the
Scholarofficials("Scholargentlemen").Youngmenwerecarefullyselectedthroughdifficultexaminationsand
werewellversedincalligraphyandphilosophy.TheconventionalviewofChinesehistoryisthatofalternating
periodsofpoliticalunityanddisunity,withChinaoccasionallybeingdominatedbysteppepeoples,mostofwhom
wereinturnassimilatedintotheHanChinesepopulation.CulturalandpoliticalinfluencesfromotherpartsofAsia
andtheWesternworld,carriedbysuccessivewavesofimmigration,culturalassimilation,expansion,andforeign
contact,formthebasisofthemoderncultureofChina.
Contents
1 Prehistory
1.1 Paleolithic
1.2 Neolithic
1.3 BronzeAge
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_China 1/32
2 AncientChina
2.1 Xiadynasty(20701600BC)(AttestedasMythology)
2.2 Shangdynasty(16001046BC)
2.3 Zhoudynasty(1046256BC)
2.4 SpringandAutumnperiod(722476BC)
2.5 WarringStatesperiod(476221BC)
3 ImperialChina
3.1 Qindynasty(221206BC)
3.2 Handynasty(202BCAD220)
3.3 ThreeKingdoms(AD220280)
3.4 Jindynasty(AD265420)
3.5 NorthernandSoutherndynasties(AD420589)
3.6 Suidynasty(AD589618)
3.7 Tangdynasty(AD618907)
3.8 FiveDynastiesandTenKingdoms(AD907960)
3.9 Song,Liao,Jin,andWesternXiadynasties(AD9601234)
3.10 Yuandynasty(AD12711368)
3.11 Mingdynasty(AD13681644)
3.12 Qingdynasty(AD16441911)
4 ModernChina
4.1 RepublicofChina(since1912)
4.2 People'sRepublicofChina(since1949)
5 Seealso
6 Notes
7 Furtherreading
7.1 Surveys
7.2 Prehistory
7.3 Shangdynasty
7.4 Zhoudynasty
7.5 Qin
7.6 Handynasty
7.7 Jin,theSixteenKingdoms,andtheNorthernandSouthernDynasties
7.8 Suidynasty
7.9 Tangdynasty
7.10 Songdynasty
7.11 Yuandynasty
7.12 Mingdynasty
7.13 Qingdynasty
7.14 Nationalistera(1912present)
7.15 Communistera(1949present)
7.16 Economyandenvironment
7.17 Womenandgender
7.18 Scholarlyjournals
7.19 Bibliographyandreference
8 Externallinks
Prehistory
Paleolithic
WhatisnowChinawasinhabitedbyHomoerectusmorethanamillionyearsago.[7]Recentstudyshowsthatthe
stonetoolsfoundatXiaochangliangsitearemagnetostratigraphicallydatedto1.36millionyearsago.[8]The
archaeologicalsiteofXihouduinShanxiProvinceistheearliestrecordeduseoffirebyHomoerectus,whichis
dated1.27millionyearsago.[7]TheexcavationsatYuanmouandlaterLantianshowearlyhabitation.Perhapsthe
mostfamousspecimenofHomoerectusfoundinChinaisthesocalledPekingMandiscoveredin192327.
FossilisedteethofHomosapiensdatingto125,00080,000BChavebeendiscoveredinFuyanCaveinDao
CountyinHunan.[9]
Neolithic
TheNeolithicageinChinacanbetracedbacktoabout10,000BC.[10]
EarlyevidenceforprotoChinesemilletagricultureisradiocarbondatedtoabout7000BC.[11]Theearliest
evidenceofcultivatedrice,foundbytheYangtzeRiver,iscarbondatedto8,000yearsago.[12]Farminggaverise
totheJiahuculture(7000to5800BC).AtDamaidiinNingxia,3,172cliffcarvingsdatingto60005000BChave
beendiscovered,"featuring8,453individualcharacterssuchasthesun,moon,stars,godsandscenesofhuntingor
grazing."ThesepictographsarereputedtobesimilartotheearliestcharactersconfirmedtobewrittenChinese.[13]
ChineseprotowritingexistedinJiahuaround7000BC,[14]Dadiwanfrom5800BCto5400BC,Damaidiaround
6000BC[15]andBanpodatingfromthe5thmillenniumBC.SomescholarshavesuggestedthatJiahusymbols(7th
millenniumBC)weretheearliestChinesewritingsystem.[14]ExcavationofaPeiligangculturesiteinXinzheng
county,Henan,foundacommunitythatflourishedin5,500to4,900BC,withevidenceofagriculture,constructed
buildings,pottery,andburialofthedead.[16]Withagriculturecameincreasedpopulation,theabilitytostoreand
redistributecrops,andthepotentialtosupportspecialistcraftsmenandadministrators.[12]InlateNeolithictimes,
theYellowRivervalleybegantoestablishitselfasacenterofYangshaoculture(5000BCto3000BC),andthe
firstvillageswerefoundedthemostarchaeologicallysignificantofthesewasfoundatBanpo,Xi'an.[17]Later,
YangshaoculturewassupersededbytheLongshanculture,whichwasalsocenteredontheYellowRiverfrom
about3000BCto2000BC.
BronzeAge
BronzeartifactshavebeenfoundattheMajiayaoculturesite(between3100and
2700BC),[18][19]TheBronzeAgeisalsorepresentedattheLowerXiajiadian
culture(22001600BC[20])siteinnortheastChina.Sanxingduilocatedinwhatis
nowSichuanprovinceisbelievedtobethesiteofamajorancientcity,ofa
previouslyunknownBronzeAgeculture(between2000and1200BC).Thesite
wasfirstdiscoveredin1929andthenrediscoveredin1986.Chinese
archaeologistshaveidentifiedtheSanxingduiculturetobepartoftheancient
kingdomofShu,linkingtheartifactsfoundatthesitetoitsearlylegendary
kings.[21][22]
AncientChina
Xiadynasty(20701600BC)(AttestedasMythology) BronzeSacredTreefoundat
Sanxingdui,linkedtothe
kingdomofShu
TheXiadynastyofChina(fromc.2070toc.1600BC)isthefirstdynastytobedescribedinancienthistorical
recordssuchasSimaQian'sRecordsoftheGrandHistorianandBambooAnnals.[3][4]
Mosthistoriansandarchaeologistsconsidertherecordsofthiseraasmythology.Excavationsthatoverlapthe
allegedtimeperiodoftheXiaindicateatypeofculturallysimilargroupingsofchiefdoms.Earlymarkingsfrom
thisperiodfoundonpotteryandshellsarethoughttobeancestraltomodernChinesecharacters.[23]Withfewclear
recordsmatchingtheShangoraclebonesortheZhoubronzevesselwritings,theXiaeraispoorlysupportedby
archaeology.
Accordingtomythology,thedynastyendedaround1600BCasaconsequenceoftheBattleofMingtiao.
Shangdynasty(16001046BC)
Capital:Yin,nearAnyang
ArchaeologicalfindingsprovidingevidencefortheexistenceoftheShangdynasty,
c.16001046BC,aredividedintotwosets.Thefirstset,fromtheearlierShang
period,comesfromsourcesatErligang,Zhengzhou,andShangcheng.Thesecond
set,fromthelaterShangorYin()period,isatAnyang,inmoderndayHenan,
whichhasbeenconfirmedasthelastoftheShang'sninecapitals(c.13001046
BC).ThefindingsatAnyangincludetheearliestwrittenrecordofChinesepastso
fardiscovered:inscriptionsofdivinationrecordsinancientChinesewritingonthe
bonesorshellsofanimalsthesocalled"oraclebones",datingfromaround1500
BC.[1]
31kingsreignedovertheShangdynasty.
Duringtheirreign,accordingtotheRecords
oftheGrandHistorian,thecapitalcitywas
movedsixtimes.Thefinal(andmost
important)movewastoYinin1350BC Oraclebonesfounddating
whichledtothedynasty'sgoldenage.The fromtheShangdynasty
termYindynastyhasbeensynonymous
withtheShangdynastyinhistory,althoughithaslatelybeenusedtorefer
specificallytothelatterhalfoftheShangdynasty.
Chinesehistorianslivinginlaterperiodswereaccustomedtothenotionof
onedynastysucceedinganother,buttheactualpoliticalsituationinearly
Chinaisknowntohavebeenmuchmorecomplicated.Hence,assome
scholarsofChinasuggest,theXiaandtheShangcanpossiblyreferto
politicalentitiesthatexistedconcurrently,justastheearlyZhouisknown
tohaveexistedatthesametimeastheShang.
Remnantsofadvanced,stratified
societiesdatingbacktotheShang AlthoughwrittenrecordsfoundatAnyangconfirmtheexistenceofthe
foundprimarilyintheYellowRiver Shangdynasty,Westernscholarsareoftenhesitanttoassociatesettlements
Valley thatarecontemporaneouswiththeAnyangsettlementwiththeShang
dynasty.Forexample,archaeologicalfindingsatSanxingduisuggesta
technologicallyadvancedcivilizationculturallyunlikeAnyang.The
evidenceisinconclusiveinprovinghowfartheShangrealmextendedfromAnyang.Theleadinghypothesisisthat
Anyang,ruledbythesameShangintheofficialhistory,coexistedandtradedwithnumerousotherculturally
diversesettlementsintheareathatisnowreferredtoasChinaproper.
Zhoudynasty(1046256BC)
Capitals:Xi'an,Luoyang
TheZhoudynasty(1046BCtoapproximately256BC)wasthelongest
lastingdynastyinChinesehistory.Bytheendofthe2ndmillenniumBC,
theZhoudynastybegantoemergeintheYellowRivervalley,overrunning
theterritoryoftheShang.TheZhouappearedtohavebeguntheirrule
underasemifeudalsystem.TheZhoulivedwestoftheShang,andthe
ZhouleaderhadbeenappointedWesternProtectorbytheShang.Theruler
oftheZhou,KingWu,withtheassistanceofhisbrother,theDukeofZhou,
asregent,managedtodefeattheShangattheBattleofMuye.
Bronzeritualvessel(You),Western
ThekingofZhouatthistimeinvokedtheconceptoftheMandateof Zhoudynasty
Heaventolegitimizehisrule,aconceptthatwouldbeinfluentialforalmost
everysucceedingdynasty.LikeShangdi,Heaven(tian)ruledoveralltheothergods,anditdecidedwhowould
ruleChina.ItwasbelievedthatarulerhadlosttheMandateofHeavenwhennaturaldisastersoccurredingreat
number,andwhen,morerealistically,thesovereignhadapparentlylosthisconcernforthepeople.Inresponse,the
royalhousewouldbeoverthrown,andanewhousewouldrule,havingbeengrantedtheMandateofHeaven.
TheZhouinitiallymovedtheircapitalwesttoanareanearmodernXi'an,ontheWeiRiver,atributaryofthe
YellowRiver,buttheywouldpresideoveraseriesofexpansionsintotheYangtzeRivervalley.Thiswouldbethe
firstofmanypopulationmigrationsfromnorthtosouthinChinesehistory.
SpringandAutumnperiod(722476BC)
Capitals:several(multiplestates)
Inthe8thcenturyBC,powerbecamedecentralizedduringtheSpringand
Autumnperiod,namedaftertheinfluentialSpringandAutumnAnnals.Inthis
period,localmilitaryleadersusedbytheZhoubegantoasserttheirpowerandvie
forhegemony.Thesituationwasaggravatedbytheinvasionofotherpeoples
fromthenorthwest,suchastheQin,forcingtheZhoutomovetheircapitaleastto
Luoyang.ThismarksthesecondmajorphaseoftheZhoudynasty:theEastern
Zhou.TheSpringandAutumnperiodismarkedbyafallingapartofthecentral
Zhoupower.Ineachofthehundredsofstatesthateventuallyarose,local
strongmenheldmostofthepoliticalpowerandcontinuedtheirsubservienceto
theZhoukingsinnameonly.Somelocalleadersevenstartedusingroyaltitlesfor
themselves.Chinanowconsistedofhundredsofstates,someofthemonlyas
largeasavillagewithafort.
Chinesepuvesselwith
Astheeracontinued,largerandmorepowerfulstatesannexedorclaimed interlaceddragondesign,
suzeraintyoversmallerones.Bythe6thcenturyBCmostsmallstateshad SpringandAutumnperiod
disappearedfrombeingannexedandjustafewlargeandpowerfulprincipalities
dominatedChina.Somesouthernstates,suchasChuandWu,claimedindependencefromtheZhou,who
undertookwarsagainstsomeofthem(WuandYue).ManynewcitieswereestablishedinthisperiodandChinese
culturewasslowlyshaped.
Onceallthesepowerfulrulershadfirmlyestablishedthemselveswithintheirrespectivedominions,thebloodshed
focusedmorefullyoninterstateconflictintheWarringStatesperiod,whichbeganwhenthethreeremaininglite
familiesintheJinstateZhao,WeiandHanpartitionedthestate.ManyfamousindividualssuchasLaoZi,
ConfuciusandSunTzulivedduringthischaoticperiod.
TheHundredSchoolsofThoughtofChinesephilosophyblossomedduring
thisperiod,andsuchinfluentialintellectualmovementsasConfucianism,
Taoism,LegalismandMohismwerefounded,partlyinresponsetothe
changingpoliticalworld.Thefirsttwophilosophicalthoughtswouldhave
anenormousinfluenceonChineseculture.
WarringStatesperiod(476221BC)
Capitals:several(multiplestates)
Remainsofcitysewerpassing
Afterfurtherpoliticalconsolidation,sevenprominentstatesremainedby underneaththeformercitywallin
theendof5thcenturyBC,andtheyearsinwhichthesefewstatesbattled AncientLinzi,SpringandAutumn
eachotherareknownastheWarringStatesperiod.Thoughthereremained period
anominalZhoukinguntil256BC,hewaslargelya
figureheadandheldlittlerealpower.
Numerousdevelopmentsweremadeduringthis
periodincultureandmathematics,examplesinclude
animportantliteraryachievement,theZuo
CommentaryontheSpringandAutumnAnnals,
whichsummarizestheprecedingSpringandAutumn
periodandthebundleof21bambooslipsfromthe
Tsinghuacollection,whichwasinventedduringthis
perioddatedto305BC,aretheworlds'earliest Left:alacquerwarepaintingfromtheJingmenTomb
exampleofatwodigitdecimalmultiplicationtable, (Chinese:Pinyin:Jngmnchm)oftheStateof
indicatingthatsophisticatedcommercialarithmetic Chu(704223BC),depictingmenwearingprecursorsto
wasalreadyestablishedduringthisperiod.[24] Hanfu(i.e.traditionalsilkdress)andridinginatwohorsed
chariot
Asneighboringterritoriesofthesewarringstates, Right:AbronzefigureofacharioteerfromtheWarring
includingareasofmodernSichuanandLiaoning, StateseraoftheZhouDynasty,dated4thto3rdcenturyBC
wereannexed,theyweregovernedunderthenew
localadministrativesystemofcommanderyand
prefecture(/).ThissystemhadbeeninusesincetheSpringandAutumnperiod,andpartscanstillbe
seeninthemodernsystemofSheng&Xian(provinceandcounty,/).
ThefinalexpansioninthisperiodbeganduringthereignofYingZheng,thekingofQin.Hisunificationofthe
othersixpowers,andfurtherannexationsinthemodernregionsofZhejiang,Fujian,GuangdongandGuangxiin
214BC,enabledhimtoproclaimhimselftheFirstEmperor(QinShiHuang).
ImperialChina
TheImperialChinaPeriodcanbedividedintothreesubperiods:Early,Middle,andLate.
MajoreventsintheEarlysubperiodincludetheQinunificationofChinaandtheirreplacementbytheHan,the
FirstSplitfollowedbytheJinunification,andthelossofnorthChina.TheMiddlesubperiodwasmarkedbythe
SuiunificationandtheirsupplementationbytheTang,theSecondSplit,andtheSongunification.TheLate
subperiodincludedtheYuan,Ming,andQingdynasties.
Qindynasty(221206BC)
Capital:Xianyang
HistoriansoftenrefertotheperiodfromQindynastytotheendofQing
dynastyasImperialChina.ThoughtheunifiedreignoftheFirstQin
Emperorlastedonly12years,hemanagedtosubduegreatpartsofwhat
constitutesthecoreoftheHanChinesehomelandandtounitethemundera
tightlycentralizedLegalistgovernmentseatedatXianyang(closeto
modernXi'an).ThedoctrineofLegalismthatguidedtheQinemphasized
strictadherencetoalegalcodeandtheabsolutepoweroftheemperor.This
philosophy,whileeffectiveforexpandingtheempireinamilitaryfashion,
provedunworkableforgoverningitinpeacetime.TheQinEmperor
presidedoverthebrutalsilencingofpoliticalopposition,includingthe
eventknownastheburningofbooksandburyingofscholars.Thiswould
betheimpetusbehindthelaterHansynthesisincorporatingthemore
moderateschoolsofpoliticalgovernance.
MajorcontributionsoftheQinincludetheconceptofacentralized
government,theunificationofthelegalcode,developmentofthewritten
language,measurement,andcurrencyofChinaafterthetribulationsofthe QinShiHuang,thefounderofthe
SpringandAutumnandWarringStatesperiods.Evensomethingasbasicas QinDynastyandreunifiedChina
thelengthofaxlesforcartswhichneedtomatchrutsintheroadshadto
bemadeuniformtoensureaviabletradingsystemthroughouttheempire.
Alsoaspartofitscentralization,theQinconnectedthenorthernborder
wallsofthestatesitdefeated,makingthefirstGreatWallofChina.
AmajorQininnovationthatlasteduntil1912wasrelianceuponatrained
intellectualelite,theScholarofficial("Scholargentlemen").Theywere
civilservantsappointedbytheEmperortohandledailygovernance.
Talentedyoungmenwereselectedthroughanelaborateprocessofimperial
examination.Theyhadtodemonstrateskillatcalligraphy,andhadtoknow
Confucianphilosophy.HistorianWingTsitChanconcludesthat:
TheTerracottaArmyofQinShi
Generallyspeaking,therecordofthesescholargentlemenhasbeena Huang
worthyone.Itwasgoodenoughtobepraisedandimitatedin18th
centuryEurope.Nevertheless,ithasgivenChinaatremendoushandicapintheirtransitionfromgovernment
bymentogovernmentbylaw,andpersonalconsiderationsinChinesegovernmenthavebeenacurse.[25]
AfterEmperorQinShiHuang'sunnaturaldeathduetotheconsumptionofmercurypills,[26]theQingovernment
drasticallydeterioratedandeventuallycapitulatedin206BCaftertheQincapitalwascapturedandsackedby
rebels,whichwouldultimatelyleadtotheestablishmentofanewdynastyofaunifiedChina.[27]Despitetheshort
15yeardurationoftheQindynasty,itwasimmenselyinfluentialonChinaandthestructureoffutureChinese
dynasties.
Handynasty(202BCAD220)
Capitals:Chang'an,Luoyang,Liyang,Xuchang
WesternHan
TheHandynastywasfoundedbyLiuBang,whoemergedvictoriousinthecivilwarthatfollowedthecollapseof
theunifiedbutshortlivedQindynasty.AgoldenageinChinesehistory,theHandynasty'slongperiodofstability
andprosperityconsolidatedthefoundationofChinaasaunifiedstateunderacentralimperialbureaucracy,which
wastolastintermittentlyformostofthenexttwomillennia.DuringtheHandynasty,territoryofChinawas
extendedtomostoftheChinaproperandtoareasfarwest.Confucianism
wasofficiallyelevatedtoorthodoxstatusandwastoshapethesubsequent
Chinesecivilization.Art,cultureandsciencealladvancedtounprecedented
heights.WiththeprofoundandlastingimpactsofthisperiodofChinese
history,thedynastyname"Han"hadbeentakenasthenameoftheChinese
people,nowthedominantethnicgroupinmodernChina,andhadbeen
commonlyusedtorefertoChineselanguageandwrittencharacters.The
HanDynastyalsosawmanymathematicalinnovationsbeinginventedsuch
asthemethodofGaussianeliminationwhichappearedintheChinese
mathematicaltextChapterEightRectangularArraysofTheNineChapters
ontheMathematicalArt.Itsuseisillustratedineighteenproblems,with
twotofiveequations.Thefirstreferencetothebookbythistitleisdatedto
179AD,butpartsofitwerewrittenasearlyasapproximately150BC,
morethan1500yearsbeforetheEuropeanscameupwiththemethodinthe
18thcentury.[28][29]
AHandynastyoillamp,withsliding
AftertheinitialLaissezfairepoliciesofEmperorsWenandJing,the
shutter,intheshapeofakneeling
ambitiousEmperorWubroughttheempiretoitszenith.Toconsolidatehis
femaleservant(2ndcenturyBC)
power,Confucianism,whichemphasizesstabilityandorderinawell
structuredsociety,wasgivenexclusive
patronagetobetheguidingphilosophical
thoughtsandmoralprinciplesoftheempire.
ImperialUniversitieswereestablishedto
supportitsstudyandfurtherdevelopment,
whileotherschoolsofthoughtwere
discouraged.
Majormilitarycampaignswerelaunchedto
weakenthenomadicXiongnuEmpire, LateEasternHan(25220AD)Chinesetombmuralsshowing(onthe
limitingtheirinfluencenorthoftheGreat left)courtattendantswithdomesticwares,wearingHanfu,and(onthe
Wall.Alongwiththediplomaticeffortsledby right)livelyscenesofabanquet(yanyin),danceandmusic
ZhangQian,thesphereofinfluenceofthe (wuyue),acrobatics(baixi),andwrestling(xiangbu),
HanEmpireextendedtothestatesinthe fromtheDahutingTomb(Chinese:,Pinyin:Dahuting
TarimBasin,openeduptheSilkRoadthat HanmuWadeGiles:Tahut'ingHanmu),onthesouthernbankofthe
connectedChinatothewest,stimulating SuiheRiverinZhengzhou,Henanprovince,China(justwestofXi
bilateraltradeandculturalexchange.Tothe County)
south,varioussmallkingdomsfarbeyondthe
YangtzeRiverValleywereformallyincorporatedintotheempire.
EmperorWualsodispatchedaseriesofmilitarycampaignsagainsttheBaiyuetribes.TheHanannexedMinyuein
135BCand111BC,Nanyuein111BC,andDianin109BC.[30]Migrationandmilitaryexpeditionsledtothe
culturalassimilationofthesouth.[31]ItalsobroughttheHanintocontactwithkingdomsinSoutheastAsia,
introducingdiplomacyandtrade.[32]
AfterEmperorWu,theempireslippedintogradualstagnationanddecline.Economically,thestatetreasurywas
strainedbyexcessivecampaignsandprojects,whilelandacquisitionsbyelitefamiliesgraduallydrainedthetax
base.Variousconsortclansexertedincreasingcontroloverstringsofincompetentemperorsandeventuallythe
dynastywasbrieflyinterruptedbytheusurpationofWangMang.
Xindynasty
InAD9,theusurperWangMangclaimedthattheMandateofHeavencalledfortheendoftheHandynastyand
theriseofhisown,andhefoundedtheshortlivedXin("New")dynasty.WangMangstartedanextensiveprogram
oflandandothereconomicreforms,includingtheoutlawingofslaveryandlandnationalizationandredistribution.
Theseprograms,however,wereneversupportedbythelandholdingfamilies,becausetheyfavoredthepeasants.
Theinstabilityofpowerbroughtaboutchaos,uprisings,andlossofterritories.Thiswascompoundedbymass
floodingoftheYellowRiversiltbuildupcausedittosplitintotwochannelsanddisplacedlargenumbersof
farmers.WangMangwaseventuallykilledinWeiyangPalacebyanenragedpeasantmobinAD23.
EasternHan
EmperorGuangwureinstatedtheHandynasty
withthesupportoflandholdingandmerchant
familiesatLuoyang,eastoftheformercapital
Xi'an.Thus,thisneweraistermedtheEastern
Handynasty.Withthecapableadministrations
ofEmperorsMingandZhang,formergloriesof
thedynastywasreclaimed,withbrilliant
militaryandculturalachievements.The
XiongnuEmpirewasdecisivelydefeated.The
diplomatandgeneralBanChaofurther
expandedtheconquestsacrossthePamirsto
theshoresoftheCaspianSea,[33]thus
reopeningtheSilkRoad,andbringingtrade,
AnEasternHanglazedceramicstatueofahorsewithbridleand
foreigncultures,alongwiththearrivalof
halterheadgear,fromSichuan,late2ndcenturytoearly3rdcentury
Buddhism.Withextensiveconnectionswiththe
AD
west,thefirstofseveralRomanembassiesto
ChinawererecordedinChinesesources,
comingfromthesearouteinAD166,andasecondoneinAD284.
TheEasternHandynastywasoneofthemostprolificeraofscienceandtechnologyinancientChina,notablythe
historicinventionofpapermakingbyCaiLun,andthenumerousscientificandmathematicalcontributionsbythe
famouspolymathZhangHeng.
ThreeKingdoms(AD220280)
Capitals:Luoyang(CaoWeiandWesternJin)Chengdu(ShuHan)Jiankang(EasternWu)Chang'an(Western
Jin)
Bythe2ndcentury,theempiredeclinedamidstlandacquisitions,invasions,andfeudingbetweenconsortclansand
eunuchs.TheYellowTurbanRebellionbrokeoutinAD184,usheringinaneraofwarlords.Intheensuing
turmoil,threestatestriedtogainpredominanceintheperiodoftheThreeKingdoms.Thistimeperiodhasbeen
greatlyromanticizedinworkssuchasRomanceoftheThreeKingdoms.
AfterCaoCaoreunifiedthenorthin208,hissonproclaimedtheWeidynastyin220.Soon,Wei'srivalsShuand
Wuproclaimedtheirindependence,leadingChinaintotheThreeKingdomsperiod.Thisperiodwascharacterized
byagradualdecentralizationofthestatethathadexistedduringtheQinandHandynasties,andanincreaseinthe
powerofgreatfamilies.
In265,theJindynastyoverthrewtheWeiandlaterunifiedthecountryin280,butthisunionwasshortlived.
Jindynasty(AD265420)
Capitals:Chang'an(WesternJin)Jiankang(EasternJin)
TheJindynastywasseverelyweakenedbyinterceinefighting
amongimperialprincesandlostcontrolofnorthernChinaafter
nonHanChinesesettlersrebelledandcapturedLuoyangand
Changan.In317,aJinprinceinmoderndayNanjingbecame
emperorandcontinuedthedynasty,nowknownastheEastern
Jin,whichheldsouthernChinaforanothercentury.Priorto
thismove,historiansrefertotheJindynastyastheWestern
Jin.
NorthernChinafragmentedintoaseriesofindependent
kingdoms,mostofwhichwerefoundedbyXiongnu,Xianbei,
EasternHan(25220AD)Chinesestonecarvedque
Jie,DiandQiangrulers.ThesenonHanpeopleswere
pillargatesofDingfang,ZhongCounty,Chongqing
ancestorsoftheTurks,Mongols,andTibetans.Manyhad,to
thatoncebelongedtoatemplededicatedtothe
someextent,been"sinicized"longbeforetheirascentto
WarringStateserageneralBaManzi
power.Infact,someofthem,notablytheQiangandthe
Xiongnu,hadalreadybeenallowedtoliveinthefrontier
regionswithintheGreatWallsincelateHantimes.DuringtheperiodoftheSixteenKingdoms,warfareravaged
thenorthandpromptedlargescaleHanChinesemigrationsouthtotheYangtzeBasinandDelta.
NorthernandSoutherndynasties(AD420589)
Capitals:Ye,Chang'an(NorthernDynasties)Jiankang(SouthernDynasties)
Intheearly5thcentury,ChinaenteredaperiodknownastheNorthernand
Southerndynasties,inwhichparallelregimesruledthenorthernand
southernhalvesofthecountry.Inthesouth,theEasternJingavewaytothe
LiuSong,SouthernQi,LiangandfinallyChen.EachoftheseSouthern
DynastieswereledbyHanChineserulingfamiliesandusedJiankang
(modernNanjing)asthecapital.Theyheldoffattacksfromthenorthand
preservedmanyaspectsofChinesecivilization,whilenorthernbarbarian
regimesbegantosinify.
Inthenorth,thelastoftheSixteenKingdomswasextinguishedin439by
theNorthernWei,akingdomfoundedbytheXianbei,anomadicpeople RoyaltortoisetombstoneinXiao
whounifiednorthernChina.TheNorthernWeieventuallysplitintothe Xiu'smausoleum,Liangdynasty
EasternandWesternWei,whichthenbecametheNorthernQiandNorthern (502587)
Zhou.TheseregimesweredominatedbyXianbeiorHanChinesewhohad
marriedintoXianbeifamilies.
Despitethedivisionofthecountry,Buddhismspreadthroughouttheland.InsouthernChina,fiercedebatesabout
whetherBuddhismshouldbeallowedwereheldfrequentlybytheroyalcourtandnobles.Finally,towardstheend
oftheSouthernandNorthernDynastiesera,BuddhistsandTaoistsreachedacompromiseandbecamemore
tolerantofeachother.
In589,theSuidynastyunitedChinaonceagain,endingaprolongedperiodofdivisioninChinesehistory.Inthe
nearlyfourcenturiesbetweentheHanandSuidynasties,thecountrywasunitedforonly24yearsduringthe
WesternJin.
Suidynasty(AD589618)
Capital:Daxing(official)Dongdu(secondary)
TheSuidynasty,whichlasted29yearsandwitnessedthereignsofthree
emperors,playedarolemoreimportantthanitslengthofexistencewould
suggest.TheSuireunitedChinaundertheleadershipofEmperorWenof
Suiandsetupmanyinstitutionsthatweretobeadoptedbytheir
successors,theTang.TheseincludedthegovernmentsystemofThree
DepartmentsandSixMinistries,standardcoinage,improveddefenseand
expansionoftheGreatWall,constructionoftheGrandCanal,andofficial
supportforBuddhism.However,numerousfailedattemptsofinvadingthe
KoreanEmpireofGoguryeobecamethemaincauseofitsdownfall. Abixie(wingedlion)atthetombof
XiaoHui,seenagainstthe
Tangdynasty(AD618907) backgroundofGanjiaxiang,an
industrialsectionofQixiaDistrict
Capitals:Chang'an,Luoyang
AccordingtohistorianMarkEdwardLewis:
MostChineseregardtheTangdynasty(618907)asthehighpointof
ImperialChina,bothpoliticallyandculturally.Theempirereached
itsgreatestsizepriortotheManchuQingDynasty,becomingthe
centerofandEastAsianworldlinkedbyreligion,script,andmany
economicandpoliticalinstitutions.Moreover,Tangwritersproduce
thefinestpoetryinChina'sgreatlyrictradition.[34]
TheTangdynastywasfoundedbyEmperorGaozuon18June618.Itwasa
goldenageofChinesecivilizationandconsideredtobethemost
prosperousperiodofChinawithsignificantdevelopmentsinculture,art, AChineseTangdynastytricolored
literature,particularlypoetry,andtechnology.Buddhismbecamethe glazeporcelainhorse(c.AD700)
predominantreligionforthecommonpeople.Chang'an(modernXi'an),the
nationalcapital,wasthelargestcityintheworldduringitstime.[35]
Thesecondemperor,Taizong,iswidelyregardedasoneofthegreatestemperorsinChinesehistory,whohadlaid
thefoundationforthedynastytoflourishforcenturiesbeyondhisreign.Combinedmilitaryconquestsand
diplomaticmaneuverswereimplementedtoeliminatethreatsfromnomadictribes,extendtheborder,andsubmit
neighboringstatesintoatributarysystem.MilitaryvictoriesintheTarimBasinkepttheSilkRoadopen,
connectingChang'antoCentralAsiaandareasfartothewest.Inthesouth,lucrativemaritimetraderoutesbegan
fromportcitiessuchasGuangzhou.Therewasextensivetradewithdistantforeigncountries,andmanyforeign
merchantssettledinChina,encouragingacosmopolitanculture.TheTangcultureandsocialsystemswere
observedandimitatedbyneighboringcountries,mostnotably,Japan.InternallytheGrandCanallinkedthe
politicalheartlandinChang'antotheagriculturalandeconomiccentersintheeasternandsouthernpartsofthe
empire.
UnderlyingtheprosperityoftheearlyTangdynastywasastrongcentralizedbureaucracywithefficientpolicies.
Thegovernmentwasorganizedas"ThreeDepartmentsandSixMinistries"toseparatelydraft,review,and
implementpolicies.Thesedepartmentswererunbyroyalfamilymembersaswellasscholarofficialswhowere
selectedbyimperialexaminations.Thesepractices,whichmaturedintheTangdynasty,werecontinuedbythe
laterdynasties,withsomemodifications.
UndertheTang"equalfieldsystem"alllandwasownedbytheEmperorandgrantedtopeopleaccordingto
householdsize.Mengrantedlandwereconscriptedformilitaryserviceforafixedperiodeachyear,amilitary
policyknownasthe"Fubingsystem".Thesepoliciesstimulatedarapidgrowthinproductivityandasignificant
armywithoutmuch
burdenonthestate
treasury.Bythedynasty's
midpoint,however,
standingarmieshad
replacedconscription,
andlandwas
continuouslyfallinginto
thehandsofprivate
WoodenrelicfromtheTangDynasty.
owners.
ThedynastycontinuedtoflourishundertheruleofEmpressWu
Zetian,theonlyempressregnantinChinesehistory,andreached (1) (2)
itszenithduringthelongreignofEmperorXuanzong,who
oversawanempirethatstretchedfromthePacifictotheAral
Seawithatleast50millionpeople.Therewerevibrantartistic
andculturalcreations,includingworksofthegreatestChinese
poets,LiBai,andDuFu.
Atthezenithofprosperityoftheempire,theAnLushan
Rebellionfrom755to763wasawatershedeventthat
devastatedthepopulationanddrasticallyweakenedthecentral
imperialgovernment.Uponsuppressionoftherebellion,
regionalmilitarygovernors,knownasJiedushi,gained
increasinglyautonomousstatus.Withlossofrevenuefromland
tax,thecentralimperialgovernmentreliedheavilyonsalt
monopoly.Externally,formersubmissivestatesraidedthe (3)
(4)
empireandthevastborderterritorieswereirreversiblylostfor
subsequentcenturies.Nevertheless,civilsocietyrecoveredand Fromlefttoright:
thrivedamidsttheweakenedimperialbureaucracy. (1)Buddhistartdepictingmusiciansinparadise,a
muralfromtheYulinCavesofDunhuang,Tang
InlateTangperiod,therewereineffectiveandcorruptrulersand Dynasty
officialsintheimperialcourtallowingregionalwarlordsto (2)anarmedcortege,muralfromthetombofLi
triggerwidespreadrevolts.ThemostcatastrophicwastheHuang XianattheQianlingMausoleum,early8th
ChaoRebellion,from874to884,whichaffectedtheentire centuryAD
empireforadecade.ThesackofthesouthernportGuangzhouin (3)paintingonasilkscrollofafemaledancer
879wasfollowedbythemassacreofmostofitsinhabitants, fromtheAstanaCemeteryofGaochang(Turpan),
alongwiththelargeforeignmerchantenclaves.[36][37]By881, c.702AD
bothcapitals,LuoyangandChang'an,fellsuccessively.The (4)femalefigureastheplanetVenusfromthe
relianceonethnicHanandTurkicwarlordsinsuppressingthe painting"TejaprabhBuddhaandtheFive
rebellionincreasedtheirpowerandinfluence.Consequently,the Planets"(),depictedas
fallofthedynastyfollowingZhuWen'susurpationledtoanera playingthepipa,c.897AD
offragmentation.
FiveDynastiesandTenKingdoms(AD907960)
Capitals:Kaifeng,Luoyang(FiveDynasties),variouscities(TenKingdoms)
TheperiodofpoliticaldisunitybetweentheTangandtheSong,knownastheFiveDynastiesandTenKingdoms
period,lastedfrom907to960.Duringthishalfcentury,Chinawasinallrespectsamultistatesystem.Five
regimes,namely,(Later)Liang,Tang,Jin,HanandZhou,rapidlysucceededoneanotherincontrolofthe
traditionalImperialheartlandinnorthernChina.Amongtheregimes,rulers
of(Later)Tang,JinandHanweresinicizedShatuoTurks,whichruledover
theethnicmajorityofHanChinese.Morestableandsmallerregimesof
mostlyethnicHanrulerscoexistedinsouthandwesternChinaoverthe
period,cumulativelyconstitutedthe"TenKingdoms".
Amidstpoliticalchaosinthenorth,thestrategicSixteenPrefectures(region
alongtoday'sGreatWall)werecededtotheemergingKhitanLiaoDynasty,
whichdrasticallyweakenedthedefenseoftheChinaproperagainst
northernnomadicempires.Tothesouth,Vietnamgainedlasting
PagodasonthetopoftheNine
independenceafterbeingaChineseprefectureformanycenturies.With
PinnaclePagoda(8thcentury)
warsdominatedinNorthernChina,thereweremasssouthwardmigrations
ofpopulation,whichfurtherenhancedthesouthwardshiftof
culturalandeconomiccentersinChina.Theeraendedwiththe
coupofLaterZhougeneralZhaoKuangyin,andthe
establishmenttheSongdynastyin960,whichwould
eventuallyannihilatedtheremainsofthe"TenKingdoms"and
reunifiedChina.
Song,Liao,Jin,andWesternXiadynasties(AD
9601234)
Capitals:KaifengandLin'an(Songdynasty)Shangjing, SectionanddetailofthescrollpaintingNight
Nanjing,Tokmok(Liaodynasty)Shangjing,Zhongdu, RevelsofHanXizai,byGuHongzhong,10th
Kaifeng(Jindynasty)Yinchuan(WesternXiadynasty) centuryAD
In960,theSongdynastywasfoundedbyEmperorTaizu,with
itscapitalestablishedinKaifeng(alsoknownasBianjing).In979,theSong
dynastyreunifiedmostoftheChinaproper,whilelargeswathsoftheouter
territorieswereoccupiedbysinicizednomadicempires.TheKhitanLiao
dynasty,whichlastedfrom907to1125,ruledoverManchuria,Mongolia,and
partsofNorthernChina.Meanwhile,inwhatarenowthenorthwestern
ChineseprovincesofGansu,Shaanxi,andNingxia,theTanguttribesfounded
theWesternXiadynastyfrom1032to1227.
AimingtorecoverthestrategicSixteenPrefectureslostintheprevious
dynasty,campaignswerelaunchedagainsttheLiaodynastyintheearlySong
period,whichallendedinfailure.Thenin1004,theLiaocavalrysweptover
theexposedNorthChinaPlainandreachedtheoutskirtsofKaifeng,forcing
theSong'ssubmissionandthenagreementtotheChanyuanTreaty,which
imposedheavyannualtributesfromtheSongtreasury.Thetreatywasa
significantreversalofChinesedominanceofthetraditionaltributarysystem.
YettheannualoutflowofSong'ssilvertotheLiaowaspaidbackthroughthe
purchaseofChinesegoodsandproducts,whichexpandedtheSongeconomy, TheChangqingPagodain
andreplenisheditstreasury.ThisdampenedtheincentivefortheSongto HuangshanCity,China,builtin
furthercampaignagainsttheLiao.Meanwhile,thiscrossbordertradeand 1049duringtheSongdynasty
contactinducedfurthersinicizationwithintheLiaoEmpire,attheexpenseof
itsmilitarymightwhichwasderivedfromitsprimitivenomadiclifestyle.
SimilartreatiesandsocialeconomicalconsequencesoccurredinSong'srelationswiththeJindynasty.
WithintheLiaoEmpire,theJurchentribesrevoltedagainsttheiroverlords
toestablishtheJindynastyin1115.In1125,thedevastatingJincataphract
annihilatedtheLiaodynasty,whileremnantsofLiaocourtmembersfledto
CentralAsiatofoundtheQaraKhitaiEmpire(WesternLiaoDynasty).Jin's
invasionoftheSongdynastyfollowedswiftly.In1127,Kaifengwassacked,
amassivecatastropheknownastheJingkangIncident,endingtheNorthern
SongDynasty.LatertheentirenorthofChinawasconquered.Thesurvived
membersofSongcourtregroupedinthenewcapitalcityofHangzhou,and
initiatedtheSouthernSongdynasty,whichruledterritoriessouthofthe
HuaiRiver.Intheensuingyears,theterritoryandpopulationofChinawere
dividedbetweentheSongdynasty,theJindynastyandtheWesternXia
dynasty.TheeraendedwiththeMongolconquest,asWesternXiafellin
1227,theJindynastyin1234,andfinallytheSouthernSongdynastyin
1279.
Despiteitsmilitary
weakness,theSong
dynastyiswidely
consideredtobethe
highpointofclassical
Chinesecivilization.
TheSongeconomy,
facilitatedbytechnology
advancement,had
reachedalevelof ShrikeonatreeinwinterbyLiDi
NineDragonsbyChenRong(13thcentury)
sophisticationprobably (1187)
unseeninworldhistory
beforeitstime.Thepopulationsoaredtoover100millionandtheliving
standardsofcommonpeopleimprovedtremendouslyduetoimprovementsinricecultivationandthewide
availabilityofcoalforproduction.ThecapitalcitiesofKaifengandsubsequentlyHangzhouwereboththemost
populouscitiesintheworldfortheirtime,andencouragedvibrantcivilsocietiesunmatchedbypreviousChinese
dynasties.Aslandtradingroutestofarwestwereblockedbynomadicempires,therewereextensivemaritime
tradewithneighbouringstates,whichfacilitatedtheuseofSongcoinageasthedefactocurrencyofexchange.
GiantwoodenvesselsequippedwithcompassestravelledthroughouttheChinaSeasandnorthernIndianOcean.
Theconceptofinsurancewaspractisedbymerchantstohedgetherisksofsuchlonghaulmaritimeshipments.
Withprosperouseconomicactivities,thehistoricallyfirstuseofpapercurrencyemergedinthewesterncityof
Chengdu,asasupplementtotheexistingcoppercoins.
TheSongDynastywasconsideredtobethegoldenageofgreatadvancementsinscienceandtechnologyofChina,
thankstoinnovativescholarofficialssuchasSuSong(10201101)andShenKuo(10311095).Inventionssuch
asthehydromechanicalastronomicalclock,thefirstcontinuousandendlesspowertransmittingchain,woodblock
printingandpapermoneywereallinventedduringtheSongDynasty.
Therewascourtintriguebetweenthepoliticalreformersandconservatives,ledbythechancellorsWangAnshiand
SimaGuang,respectively.Bythemidtolate13thcentury,theChinesehadadoptedthedogmaofNeoConfucian
philosophyformulatedbyZhuXi.EnormousliteraryworkswerecompiledduringtheSongdynasty,suchasthe
historicalwork,theZizhiTongjian("ComprehensiveMirrortoAidinGovernment").Theinventionofmovable
typeprintingfurtherfacilitatedthespreadofknowledge.Cultureandtheartsflourished,withgrandioseartworks
suchasAlongtheRiverDuringtheQingmingFestivalandEighteenSongsofaNomadFlute,alongwithgreat
BuddhistpainterssuchastheprolificLinTinggui.
TheSongdynastywasalsoaperiodofmajorinnovationinthehistoryofwarfare.Gunpowder,whileinventedin
theTangDynasty,wasfirstputintouseinbattlefieldsbytheSongarmy,inspiringasuccessionofnewfirearms
andsiegeenginesdesigns.DuringtheSouthernSongDynasty,asitssurvivalhingeddecisivelyonguardingthe
YangtzeandHuaiRiveragainstthecavalryforcesfromthenorth,thefirststandingnavyinChinawasassembled
in1132,withitsadmiral'sheadquartersestablishedatDinghai.Paddlewheelwarshipsequippedwithtrebuchets
couldlaunchincendiarybombsmadeofgunpowderandlime,asrecordedinSong'svictoryovertheinvadingJin
forcesattheBattleofTangdaointheEastChinaSea,andtheBattleofCaishiontheYangtzeRiverin1161.
TheadvancesincivilizationduringtheSongdynastycametoanabruptendfollowingthedevastatingMongol
conquest,duringwhichthepopulationsharplydwindled,withamarkedcontractionineconomy.Despiteviciously
haltingMongoladvanceformorethanthreedecades,theSouthernSongcapitalHangzhoufellin1276,followed
bythefinalannihilationoftheSongstandingnavyattheBattleofYamenin1279.
Yuandynasty(AD12711368)
Capitals:Xanadu,Dadu
TheYuanDynastywasformallyproclaimedin1271,whentheGreatKhan
ofMongol,KublaiKhan,oneofthegrandsonsofGenghisKhan,assumed
thetitleoftheEmperor,andreignedoverhisinheritedpartoftheMongol
Empire.Intheprecedingdecades,theMongolshadconqueredtheJin
DynastyinNorthernChina,andtheSouthernSongdynastyfellin1279
afteraprotractedandbloodywar.TheMongolYuanDynastybecamethe
firstconquestdynastyinChinesehistorytoruletheentireChinaproperand YangGuifeiMountingaHorseby
itspopulationasanethnicminority.Thedynastyalsodirectlycontrolled QianXuan(12351305AD)
theMongoliaheartlandandotherregions,inheritingthelargestshareof
territoryofthedividedMongolEmpire,whichroughlycoincidedwiththe
modernareaofChinaandnearbyregionsinEastAsia.Furtherexpansion
oftheempirewashaltedafterdefeatsintheinvasionsofJapanand
Vietnam.FollowingthepreviousJinDynasty,thecapitalofYuanDynasty
wasestablishedatKhanbaliq(alsoknownasDadu,moderndayBeijing).
TheGrandCanalwasreconstructedtoconnecttheremotecapitalcityto
economichubsinsouthernpartofChina,settingtheprecedenceand
foundationwhereBeijingwouldlargelyremainasthecapitalofthe
successiveregimesthatunifiedChinamainland.
Afterthepeacetreatyin1304thatendedaseriesofMongolscivilwars,the
KublaiKhan,Mongolrulerofthe
emperorsoftheYuanDynastywereupheldasthenominalGreatKhan Yuandynasty,onahunting
(Khagan)ofthegreaterMongolEmpireoverotherMongolKhanates, expedition,paintedonasilk
whichnonethelessremaineddefactoautonomous.Theerawasknownas
handscroll(fragment),1280AD,by
PaxMongolica,whenmuchoftheAsiancontinentwasruledbythe
theChinesecourtartistLiuGuandao
Mongols.Forthefirstandonlytimeinhistory,thesilkroadwascontrolled
entirelybyasinglestate,facilitatingtheflowofpeople,trade,andcultural
exchange.Networkofroadsandpostalsystemwereestablishedtoconnectthevastempire.Lucrativemaritime
trade,developedfrompreviousSongDynasty,continuedtoflourish,withQuanzhouandHangzhouemergedasthe
largestportsintheworld.Adventuroustravelersfromfarwest,mostnotablytheVenetian,MarcoPolo,would
havesettledinChinafordecades.Uponhisreturn,hisdetailtravelrecordinspiredgenerationsofmedieval
EuropeanswiththesplendorsofthefarEast.TheYuanDynastywasthefirstancienteconomy,wherepaper
currency,knownatthetimeasChao,wasusedasthepredominantmediumofexchange.Itsunrestrictedissuance
inthelateYuandynastyinflictedhyperinflation,whicheventuallybroughtthedownfallofthedynasty.
WhiletheMongolrulersoftheYuanDynastyadoptedsubstantiallytoChineseculture,theirsinicizationwasof
lesserextentcomparedtoearlierconquestdynastiesinChinesehistory.Forpreservingracialsuperiorityasthe
conquerorandrulingclass,traditionalnomadiccustomsandheritagefromtheMongoliansteppewereheldinhigh
regard.Ontheotherhand,theMongolrulersalsoadoptedflexiblytoavarietyofculturesfrommanyadvanced
civilizationswithinthevastempire.TraditionalsocialstructureandcultureinChinaunderwentimmensetransform
duringtheMongoldominance.LargegroupofforeignmigrantssettledinChina,whoenjoyedelevatedsocial
statusoverthemajorityHanChinese,whileenrichingChineseculturewithforeignelements.Theclassofscholar
officialsandintellectuals,traditionalbearersofeliteChineseculture,lostsubstantialsocialstatus.Thisstimulated
thedevelopmentofcultureofthecommonfolks.Therewereprolificworksinzajuvarietyshowsandliterary
songs(sanqu),whichwerewritteninadistinctivepoetrystyleknownasqu.Novelsofvernacularstylegained
unprecedentedstatusandpopularity.Notably,theearliertwoofthefourgreatclassicalnovelswerewrittenduring
theyearsofregimetransitionfromYuantoMingDynasties.
BeforetheMongolinvasion,Chinesedynastiesreportedapproximately120millioninhabitantsaftertheconquest
hadbeencompletedin1279,the1300censusreportedroughly60millionpeople.[38]Thismajordeclineisnot
necessarilydueonlytoMongolkillings.ScholarssuchasFrederickW.Motearguethatthewidedropinnumbers
reflectsanadministrativefailuretorecordratherthananactualdecreaseotherssuchasTimothyBrookarguethat
theMongolscreatedasystemofenserfmentamongahugeportionoftheChinesepopulace,causingmanyto
disappearfromthecensusaltogetherotherhistoriansincludingWilliamMcNeillandDavidMorganconsiderthat
plaguewasthemainfactorbehindthedemographicdeclineduringthisperiod.Inthe14thcenturyChinasuffered
additionaldepredationsfromepidemicsofplague,estimatedtohavekilled25millionpeople,30%ofthe
populationofChina.[39]
ThroughouttheYuandynasty,therewassomegeneralsentimentamongthepopulaceagainsttheMongol
dominance.Yetratherthanthenationalistcause,itwasmainlystringsofnaturaldisasters,andincompetence
governancethattriggeredwidespreadpeasantuprisingssincethe1340s.Afterthemassivenavalengagementat
LakePoyang,ZhuYuanzhangprevailedoverotherrebelforcesinthesouth.Heproclaimedhimselfemperorand
foundedtheMingDynastyin1368.ThesameyearhisnorthernexpeditionarmycapturedthecapitalKhanbaliq.
TheYuanremnantsfledbacktoMongoliaandsustainedtheregime.OtherMongolKhanatesinCentralAsia
continuedtoexistafterthefallofYuandynastyinChina.
Mingdynasty(AD13681644)
Capitals:Nanjing,Beijing
TheMingdynastywasfoundedbyZhu
Yuanzhangin1368,whoproclaimed
himselfastheHongwuEmperor.The
capitalwasinitiallysetatNanjing,andwas
latermovedtoBeijingfromYongle
Emperor'sreignonward.
Urbanizationincreasedasthepopulation
grewandasthedivisionoflaborgrewmore CitywallofXi'an,aUnescoWorld
complex.Largeurbancenters,suchas HeritageSitebuiltduringtheearly
NanjingandBeijing,alsocontributedtothe MingDynasty
growthofprivateindustry.Inparticular,
TheHongwuEmperor,the smallscaleindustriesgrewup,oftenspecializinginpaper,silk,cotton,and
founderoftheMingdynasty porcelaingoods.Forthemostpart,however,relativelysmallurbancenterswith
marketsproliferatedaroundthecountry.Townmarketsmainlytradedfood,with
somenecessarymanufacturessuchaspinsoroil.
Despitethexenophobiaandintellectualintrospectioncharacteristicoftheincreasinglypopularnewschoolofneo
Confucianism,ChinaundertheearlyMingdynastywasnotisolated.Foreigntradeandothercontactswiththe
outsideworld,particularlyJapan,increasedconsiderably.ChinesemerchantsexploredalloftheIndianOcean,
reachingEastAfricawiththevoyagesofZhengHe.
HongwuEmperor,beingtheonlyfounderofChinesedynastiesfromthepeasantorigin,hadlaidthefoundationof
astatethatreliedfundamentallyinagriculture.Commerceandtrade,whichflourishedinthepreviousSongand
Yuandynasties,werelessemphasized.NeofeudallandholdingsoftheSongandMongolperiodswere
expropriatedbytheMingrulers.Landestateswereconfiscatedbythegovernment,fragmented,andrentedout.
Privateslaverywasforbidden.Consequently,afterthedeathoftheYongleEmperor,independentpeasant
landholderspredominatedinChineseagriculture.Theselawsmighthavepavedthewaytoremovingtheworstof
thepovertyduringthepreviousregimes.TowardslatereraoftheMingdynasty,withdeclininggovernment
control,commerce,tradeandprivateindustriesrevived.
Thedynastyhadastrongandcomplexcentralgovernmentthatunifiedand
controlledtheempire.Theemperor'srolebecamemoreautocratic,although
HongwuEmperornecessarilycontinuedtousewhathecalledthe"Grand
Secretariat"toassistwiththeimmensepaperworkofthebureaucracy,
includingmemorials(petitionsandrecommendationstothethrone),
imperialedictsinreply,reportsofvariouskinds,andtaxrecords.Itwasthis
samebureaucracythatlaterpreventedtheMinggovernmentfrombeing
abletoadapttochangesinsociety,andeventuallyledtoitsdecline.
TheYongleEmperorstrenuouslytriedtoextendChina'sinfluencebeyond
itsbordersbydemandingotherrulerssendambassadorstoChinatopresent
tribute.Alargenavywasbuilt,includingfourmastedshipsdisplacing
1,500tons.Astandingarmyof1milliontroops(someestimateasmanyas
1.9million)wascreated.TheChinesearmiesconqueredandoccupied
Vietnamforaround20years,whiletheChinesefleetsailedtheChinaseas
andtheIndianOcean,cruisingasfarastheeastcoastofAfrica.The
ChinesegainedinfluenceineasternMoghulistan.SeveralmaritimeAsian
MingChinaunderthereignofthe
nationssentenvoyswithtributefortheChineseemperor.Domestically,the
YongleEmperor
GrandCanalwasexpandedandbecameastimulustodomestictrade.Over
100,000tonsofironperyearwereproduced.Manybookswereprinted
usingmovabletype.TheimperialpalaceinBeijing'sForbiddenCityreacheditscurrentsplendor.Itwasalso
duringthesecenturiesthatthepotentialofsouthChinacametobefullyexploited.Newcropswerewidely
cultivatedandindustriessuchasthoseproducingporcelainandtextilesflourished.
In1449EsenTayisiledanOiratMongolinvasionofnorthernChinawhichculminatedinthecaptureofthe
ZhengtongEmperoratTumu.Sincethen,theMingbecameonthedefensiveonthenorthernfrontier,whichledto
theMingGreatWallbeingbuilt.MostofwhatremainsoftheGreatWallofChinatodaywaseitherbuiltor
repairedbytheMing.Thebrickandgraniteworkwasenlarged,thewatchtowerswereredesigned,andcannons
wereplacedalongitslength.
Atsea,theMingbecameincreasinglyisolationistafterthedeathoftheYongleEmperor.Thetreasurevoyages
whichsailedIndianOceanwerediscontinued,andthemaritimeprohibitionlawsweresetinplacebanningthe
Chinesefromsailingabroad.EuropeantraderswhoreachedChinainthemidstoftheAgeofDiscoverywere
repeatedlyrebukedintheirrequestsfortrade,withthePortuguesebeingrepulsedbytheMingnavyatTuenMun
in1521andagainin1522.Domesticandforeigndemandsforoverseastrade,deemedillegalbythestate,ledto
widespreadwokoupiracyattackingthesoutheasterncoastlineduringtheruleoftheJiajingEmperor(15071567),
whichonlysubsidedaftertheopeningofportsinGuangdongandFujianandmuchmilitarysuppression.[40]The
PortuguesewereallowedtosettleinMacauin1557fortrade,whichremainedinPortuguesehandsuntil1999.The
DutchentryintotheChineseseaswasalsometwithfierceresistance,withtheDutchbeingchasedoffthePenghu
islandsintheSinoDutchconflictsof16221624andwereforcedtosettleinTaiwaninstead.TheDutchinTaiwan
foughtwiththeMingintheBattleofLiaoluoBayin1633andlost,andeventuallysurrenderedtotheMingloyalist
Koxingain1662,afterthefalloftheMingdynasty.
In1556,duringtheruleoftheJiajingEmperor,theShaanxiearthquakekilledabout830,000people,thedeadliest
earthquakeofalltime.
TheMingdynastyinterveneddeeplyintheJapaneseinvasionsofKorea(159298),whichendedwiththe
withdrawalofallinvadingJapaneseforcesinKorea,andtherestorationoftheJoseondynasty,itstraditionalally
andtributarystate.TheregionalhegemonyoftheMingdynastywaspreservedatatollonitsresources.
Coincidentally,withMing'scontrolinManchuriaindecline,theManchu(Jurchen)tribes,undertheirchieftain
Nurhaci,brokeawayfromMingsrule,andemergedasapowerful,unifiedstate,whichwaslaterproclaimedasthe
Qingdynasty.ItwentontosubduethemuchweakenedKoreaasitstributary,conqueredMongolia,andexpanded
itsterritorytotheoutskirtoftheGreatWall.ThemostelitearmyoftheMingdynastywastostationattheShanhai
PasstoguardthelaststrongholdagainsttheManchus,whichweakeneditssuppressionofinternalpeasants
uprisings.
Qingdynasty(AD16441911)
Capitals:Shenyang,
Beijing
TheQingdynasty
(16441911)wasthe
lastimperialdynastyin
China.Foundedbythe
Manchus,itwasthe
secondconquest
dynastytorulethe
ThereceptionoftheDiplomatique entireterritoryofChina
(Macartney)andhissuite,atthe anditspeople.The
CourtofPekin,drawnandengraved Manchuswereformerly
byJamesGillray(published knownasJurchens,
September1792). residinginthe TerritoryofQingChinain1892
northeasternpartofthe
Mingterritoryoutside
theGreatWall.TheyemergedasthemajorthreattothelateMingdynastyafterNurhaciunitedallJurchentribes
andestablishedanindependentstate.However,theMingdynastywouldbeoverthrownbyLiZicheng'speasants
rebellion,withBeijingcapturedin1644andtheChongzhenEmperor,thelastMingemperor,committingsuicide.
TheManchusalliedwiththeformerMinggeneralWuSanguitoseizeBeijing,whichwasmadethecapitalofthe
Qingdynasty,andthenproceededtosubduetheMingremnantsinthesouth.ThedecadesofManchuconquest
causedenormouslossoflivesandtheeconomicscaleofChinashrankdrastically.Intotal,theQingconquestof
theMing(16181683)costasmanyas25millionlives.[41]Nevertheless,theManchusadoptedtheConfucian
normsoftraditionalChinesegovernmentintheirruleandwereconsideredaChinesedynasty.
TheManchusenforceda'queueorder,'forcingtheHanChinesetoadopttheManchuqueuehairstyle.Officials
wererequiredtowearManchustyleclothingChangshan(bannermendressandTangzhuang),butordinaryHan
civilianswereallowedtoweartraditionalHanclothing,orHanfu.MostHanthenvoluntarilyshiftedtowearing
Qipaoanyway.TheKangxiEmperororderedthecreationoftheKangxiDictionary,themostcompletedictionary
ofChinesecharactersthathadbeencompiled.TheQingdynastysetuptheEightBannerssystemthatprovidedthe
basicframeworkfortheQingmilitaryorganization.Bannermencouldnotundertaketradeormanuallaborthey
hadtopetitiontoberemovedfrombannerstatus.Theywereconsideredaformofnobilityandweregiven
preferentialtreatmentintermsofannualpensions,land,andallotmentsofcloth.
Overthenexthalfcentury,allareaspreviouslyundertheMingdynasty
wereconsolidatedundertheQing.Xinjiang,Tibet,andMongoliawerealso
formallyincorporatedintoChineseterritory.Between1673and1681,the
KangxiEmperorsuppressedtheRevoltoftheThreeFeudatories,an
uprisingofthreegeneralsinSouthernChinawhohadbeendenied
hereditaryruleoflargefiefdomsgrantedbythepreviousemperor.In1683,
theQingstagedanamphibiousassaultonsouthernTaiwan,bringingdown
therebelKingdomofTungning,whichwasfoundedbytheMingloyalist
Koxinga(ZhengChenggong)in1662afterthefalloftheSouthernMing,
andhadservedasabaseforcontinuedMingresistanceinSouthernChina.
TheQingdefeatedtheRussiansatAlbazin,resultingintheTreatyof
Nerchinsk.
BytheendofQianlongEmperor'slongreign,theQingEmpirewasatits
zenith.Chinaruledmorethanonethirdoftheworld'spopulation,andhad
thelargesteconomyintheworld.Byareaitwasoneofthelargestempires
ever.
Late1890sFrenchpoliticalcartoon
showingChinadividedamong Inthe19thcenturytheempirewasinternallystagnantandexternally
Britain,Germany,Russia,Franceand threatenedbywesternpowers.ThedefeatbytheBritishEmpireintheFirst
Japan OpiumWar(1840)ledtotheTreatyofNanking(1842),underwhichHong
KongwascededtoBritainandimportationofopium(producedbyBritish
Empireterritories)wasallowed.Subsequentmilitarydefeatsandunequaltreatieswithotherwesternpowers
continuedevenafterthefalloftheQingdynasty.
InternallytheTaipingRebellion(18511864),aquasiChristianreligiousmovementledbythe"HeavenlyKing"
HongXiuquan,raidedroughlyathirdofChineseterritoryforoveradecadeuntiltheywerefinallycrushedinthe
ThirdBattleofNankingin1864.Thiswasoneofthelargestwarsinthe19thcenturyintermsoftroop
involvementtherewasmassivelossoflife,withadeathtollofabout20million.[42]Astringofcivildisturbances
followed,includingthePuntiHakkaClanWars,NianRebellion,DunganRevolt,andPanthayRebellion.[43]All
rebellionswereultimatelyputdown,butatenormouscostandwithmillionsdead,seriouslyweakeningthecentral
imperialauthority.TheBannersystemthattheManchushadrelieduponforsolongfailed:Bannerforceswere
unabletosuppresstherebels,andthegovernmentcalleduponlocalofficialsintheprovinces,whoraised"New
Armies",whichsuccessfullycrushedthechallengestoQingauthority.Chinaneverrebuiltastrongcentralarmy,
andmanylocalofficialsbecamewarlordswhousedmilitarypowertoeffectivelyruleindependentlyintheir
provinces.[44]
Inresponsetocalamitieswithintheempireandthreatsfromimperialism,theSelfStrengtheningMovementwasan
institutionalreforminthesecondhalfofthe1800s.Theaimwastomodernizetheempire,withprimeemphasison
strengtheningthemilitary.However,thereformwasunderminedbycorruptofficials,cynicism,andquarrelswithin
theimperialfamily.Asaresult,the"BeiyangFleet"weresoundlydefeatedintheFirstSinoJapaneseWar(1894
1895).TheGuangxuEmperorandthereformiststhenlaunchedamorecomprehensivereformeffort,theHundred
Days'Reform(1898),butitwassoonoverturnedbytheconservativesunderEmpressDowagerCixiinamilitary
coup.
Attheturnofthe20thcentury,theviolentBoxerRebellionopposedforeigninfluenceinNorthernChina,and
attackedChineseChristiansandmissionaries.WhenBoxersenteredBeijing,theQinggovernmentorderedall
foreignerstoleave.ButinsteadtheforeignersandmanyChinesewerebesiegedintheforeignlegationsquarter.
TheEightNationAlliancesenttheSeymourExpeditionofJapanese,Russian,Italian,German,French,American,
andAustriantroopstorelievethesiege.TheExpeditionwasstoppedbytheBoxersattheBattleofLangfangand
forcedtoretreat.DuetotheAlliance'sattackontheDaguForts,theQinggovernmentinresponsesidedwiththe
BoxersanddeclaredwarontheAlliance.TherewasfiercefightingatTientsin.TheAllianceformedthesecond,
muchlargerGaseleeExpeditionandfinallyreachedBeijingtheQinggovernmentevacuatedtoXi'an.TheBoxer
Protocolendedthewar.
ModernChina
RepublicofChina(since1912)
Capitals:Nanjing,Beijing,Chongqing,severalshortlivedwartimecapitals,Taipei(after1949defacto)
FrustratedbytheQingcourt'sresistancetoreformandbyChina'sweakness,young
officials,militaryofficers,andstudentsbegantoadvocatetheoverthrowofthe
Qingdynastyandthecreationofarepublic.Theywereinspiredbythe
revolutionaryideasofSunYatsen.Arevolutionarymilitaryuprising,theWuchang
Uprising,beganon10October1911,inWuhan.Theprovisionalgovernmentofthe
RepublicofChinawasformedinNanjingon12March1912.TheXinhai
Revolutionended2,000yearsofdynasticruleinChina.
AfterthesuccessoftheoverthrowoftheQingDynasty,SunYatsenwasdeclared
President,butSunwasforcedtoturnpowerovertoYuanShikai,whocommanded
theNewArmyandwasPrimeMinisterundertheQinggovernment,aspartofthe
agreementtoletthelastQingmonarchabdicate(adecisionSunwouldlaterregret).
Overthenextfewyears,Yuanproceededtoabolishthenationalandprovincial
assemblies,anddeclaredhimselfemperorinlate1915.Yuan'simperialambitions SunYatsen,founderand
werefiercelyopposedbyhissubordinatesfacedwiththeprospectofrebellion,he firstpresidentofthe
abdicatedinMarch1916,anddiedinJuneofthatyear. RepublicofChina
Yuan'sdeathin1916leftapowervacuuminChinatherepublicangovernmentwas
allbutshattered.ThisusheredintheWarlordEra,duringwhichmuchofthecountrywasruledbyshifting
coalitionsofcompetingprovincialmilitaryleaders.
In1919,theMayFourthMovementbeganasaresponsetothetermsimposedonChinabytheTreatyofVersailles
endingWorldWarI,butquicklybecameanationwideprotestmovementaboutthedomesticsituationinChina.
TheprotestswereamoralsuccessasthecabinetfellandChinarefusedtosigntheTreatyofVersailles,whichhad
awardedGermanholdingstoJapan.TheNewCultureMovementstimulatedbytheMayFourthMovementwaxed
strongthroughoutthe1920sand1930s.AccordingtoEbrey:
"Nationalism,patriotism,progress,science,democracy,andfreedomwerethegoalsimperialism,feudalism,
warlordism,autocracy,patriarchy,andblindadherencetotraditionweretheenemies.Intellectualsstruggled
withhowtobestrongandmodernandyetChinese,howtopreserveChinaasapoliticalentityintheworld
ofcompetingnations."[45]
ThediscreditingofliberalWesternphilosophyamongstleftistChineseintellectualsledtomoreradicallinesof
thoughtinspiredbytheRussianRevolution,andsupportedbyagentsoftheCominternsenttoChinabyMoscow.
ThiscreatedtheseedsfortheirreconcilableconflictbetweentheleftandrightinChinathatwoulddominate
Chinesehistoryfortherestofthecentury.
Inthe1920s,SunYatsenestablishedarevolutionarybaseinsouthChina,
andsetouttounitethefragmentednation.WithassistancefromtheSoviet
Union(itselffreshfromaLenin'stakeover),heenteredintoanalliance
withthefledglingCommunistPartyofChina.AfterSun'sdeathfrom
cancerin1925,oneofhisprotgs,ChiangKaishek,seizedcontrolofthe
Kuomintang(NationalistPartyorKMT)andsucceededinbringingmostof
southandcentralChinaunderitsruleinamilitarycampaignknownasthe
NorthernExpedition(19261927).Havingdefeatedthewarlordsinsouth TheflagoftheRepublicofChina
andcentralChinabymilitaryforce,Chiangwasabletosecurethenominal from1928tonow.
allegianceofthewarlordsintheNorth.In1927,ChiangturnedontheCPC
andrelentlesslychasedtheCPCarmiesanditsleadersfromtheirbasesinsouthernandeasternChina.In1934,
drivenfromtheirmountainbasessuchastheChineseSovietRepublic,theCPCforcesembarkedontheLong
MarchacrossChina'smostdesolateterraintothenorthwest,wheretheyestablishedaguerrillabaseatYan'anin
ShaanxiProvince.DuringtheLongMarch,thecommunistsreorganizedunderanewleader,MaoZedong(Mao
Tsetung).
ThebitterstrugglebetweentheKMTandtheCPCcontinued,openlyor
clandestinely,throughthe14yearlongJapaneseoccupationofvariousparts
ofthecountry(19311945).ThetwoChinesepartiesnominallyformeda
unitedfronttoopposetheJapanesein1937,duringtheSecondSino
JapaneseWar(19371945),whichbecameapartofWorldWarII.Japanese
forcescommittednumerouswaratrocitiesagainstthecivilianpopulation,
includingbiologicalwarfare(seeUnit731)andtheThreeAllsPolicy(Sank
Sakusen),thethreeallsbeing:"KillAll,BurnAllandLootAll".[46]
FollowingthedefeatofJapanin1945,thewarbetweentheNationalist
governmentforcesandtheCPCresumed,afterfailedattemptsat Chineseciviliansburiedalive
reconciliationandanegotiatedsettlement.By1949,theCPChadestablished duringthe1937NankingMassacre
controlovermostofthecountry(seeChineseCivilWar).Westadsaysthe
CommunistswontheCivilWarbecausetheymadefewermilitarymistakes
thanChiang,andbecauseinhissearchforapowerfulcentralizedgovernment,Chiangantagonizedtoomany
interestgroupsinChina.Furthermore,hispartywasweakenedinthewaragainsttheJapanese.Meanwhile,the
Communiststolddifferentgroups,suchaspeasants,exactlywhattheywantedtohear,andcloakedthemselvesin
thecoverofChineseNationalism.[47]DuringthecivilwarboththeNationalistsandCommunistscarriedoutmass
atrocities,withmillionsofnoncombatantskilledbybothsides.[48]Theseincludeddeathsfromforcedconscription
andmassacres.[49]WhentheNationalistgovernmentforcesweredefeatedbyCPCforcesinmainlandChinain
1949,theNationalistgovernmentretreatedtoTaiwanwithitsforces,alongwithChiangandmostoftheKMT
leadershipandalargenumberoftheirsupporterstheNationalistgovernmenthadtakeneffectivecontrolof
TaiwanattheendofWWIIaspartoftheoverallJapanesesurrender,whenJapanesetroopsinTaiwansurrendered
toRepublicofChinatroops.[50]
Untiltheearly1970s,theRepublicofChinawasrecognizedasthesolelegitimategovernmentofChinabythe
UnitedNationsandmostWesternnations,refusingtorecognizethePeople'sRepublicofChinaonaccountofthe
ColdWar.However,in1971,Resolution2758waspassedbytheUNGeneralAssemblyand"therepresentatives
ofChiangKaishek"(andthustheROC)wereexpelledfromtheUNandreplacedas"China"bythePRC.In1979,
theUnitedStatesswitchedrecognitionfromTaipeitoBeijing.TheKMTruledTaiwanundermartiallawuntilthe
late1980s,withthestatedgoalofbeingvigilantagainstCommunistinfiltrationandpreparingtoretakemainland
China.Therefore,politicaldissentwasnottolerated.
Sincethe1990s,theROCwentfromaonepartyruletoamultipartysystemthankstoaseriesofdemocraticand
governmentalreformsthatwasimplementedinTaiwan.AdditionalArticlesoftheConstitutionwaspassedtogrant
fullcivilandpoliticalrightstoTaiwanesepeople(officiallythepeopleoftheFreeareaoftheRepublicofChina).
UndertheAdditionalArticles,thePresidentandthenationallegislatorsshallbedirectlyelected.Thefirst
congressionalelectionsonTaiwanwasheldin1991forNationalAssemblyand1992forLegislativeYuan.The
firstelectionforprovincialGovernorsandmunicipalityMayorswasin1994.Mostimportantly,Taiwanheldthe
firstdirectelectionofthePresidentandVicePresidentin1996.
People'sRepublicofChina(since1949)
Capital:Beijing
MajorcombatintheChineseCivilWarendedin1949withKuomintang(KMT)pullingoutofthemainland,with
thegovernmentrelocatingtoTaipeiandmaintainingcontrolonlyoverafewislands.TheCommunistPartyof
ChinawasleftincontrolofmainlandChina.On1October1949,MaoZedongproclaimedthePeople'sRepublicof
China.[51]"CommunistChina"and"RedChina"weretwocommonnamesforthePRC.[52]
ThePRCwasshapedbyaseriesofcampaignsandfiveyearplans.The
economicandsocialplanknownastheGreatLeapForwardcausedan
estimated45milliondeaths.[53]Mao'sgovernmentcarriedoutmass
executionsoflandowners,institutedcollectivisationandimplementedthe
Laogaicampsystem.Execution,deathsfromforcedlaborandother
atrocitiesresultedinmillionsofdeathsunderMao.In1966Maoandhis
allieslaunchedtheCulturalRevolution,whichcontinueduntilMao'sdeath
adecadelater.TheCulturalRevolution,motivatedbypowerstruggles
withinthePartyandafearoftheSovietUnion,ledtoamajorupheavalin
Chinesesociety.
ChairmanMaoZedongproclaiming
theestablishmentofthePeople's In1972,atthepeakoftheSinoSovietsplit,MaoandZhouEnlaimetUS
RepublicofChinain1949. presidentRichardNixoninBeijingtoestablishrelationswiththeUnited
States.Inthesameyear,thePRCwasadmittedtotheUnitedNationsin
placeoftheRepublicofChina,withpermanentmembershipoftheSecurityCouncil.
ApowerstrugglefollowedMao'sdeathin1976.TheGangofFourwere
arrestedandblamedfortheexcessesoftheCulturalRevolution,marking
theendofaturbulentpoliticalerainChina.DengXiaopingoutmaneuvered
Mao'sanointedsuccessorchairmanHuaGuofeng,andgraduallyemerged
asthedefactoleaderoverthenextfewyears.
DengXiaopingwastheParamountLeaderofChinafrom1978to1992,
althoughheneverbecametheheadofthepartyorstate,andhisinfluence
withinthePartyledthecountrytosignificanteconomicreforms.The
TheflagofthePeople'sRepublicof CommunistPartysubsequentlyloosenedgovernmentalcontrolover
Chinafrom1949tonow. citizens'personallivesandthecommunesweredisbandedwithmany
peasantsreceivingmultiplelandleases,whichgreatlyincreasedincentives
andagriculturalproduction.ThisturnofeventsmarkedChina'stransitionfromaplannedeconomytoamixed
economywithanincreasinglyopenmarketenvironment,asystemtermedbysome[54]as"marketsocialism",and
officiallybytheCommunistPartyofChinaas"SocialismwithChinesecharacteristics".ThePRCadoptedits
currentconstitutionon4December1982.
In1989thedeathofformergeneralsecretaryHuYaobanghelpedtosparktheTiananmenSquareprotestsofthat
year,duringwhichstudentsandotherscampaignedforseveralmonths,speakingoutagainstcorruptionandin
favourofgreaterpoliticalreform,includingdemocraticrightsandfreedomofspeech.However,theywere
eventuallyputdownon4JunewhenPLAtroopsandvehiclesenteredandforciblyclearedthesquare,withmany
fatalities.Thiseventwaswidelyreported,andbroughtworldwidecondemnationandsanctionsagainstthe
government.[55][56]Afilmedincidentinvolvingthe"tankman"wasseenworldwide.
CPCgeneralsecretaryandPRCPresidentJiangZeminandPRCPremierZhuRongji,bothformermayorsof
Shanghai,ledpostTiananmenPRCinthe1990s.UnderJiangandZhu'stenyearsofadministration,thePRC's
economicperformancepulledanestimated150millionpeasantsoutofpovertyandsustainedanaverageannual
grossdomesticproductgrowthrateof11.2%.[57][58]ThecountryformallyjoinedtheWorldTradeOrganizationin
2001.
AlthoughthePRCneedseconomicgrowthtospuritsdevelopment,thegovernmentbegantoworrythatrapid
economicgrowthwasdegradingthecountry'sresourcesandenvironment.Anotherconcernisthatcertainsectors
ofsocietyarenotsufficientlybenefitingfromthePRC'seconomicdevelopmentoneexampleofthisisthewide
gapbetweenurbanandruralareas.Asaresult,underformerCPCgeneralsecretaryandPresidentHuJintaoand
PremierWenJiabao,thePRCinitiatedpoliciestoaddressissuesofequitabledistributionofresources,butthe
outcomewasnotknownasof2014.[59]Morethan40millionfarmersweredisplacedfromtheirland,[60]usually
foreconomicdevelopment,contributingto87,000demonstrationsandriotsacrossChinain2005.[61]Formuchof
thePRC'spopulation,livingstandardsimprovedverysubstantiallyandfreedomincreased,butpoliticalcontrols
remainedtightandruralareaspoor.[62]
Seealso
TimelineofChinese Listofrebellionsin Listofrulersof Listoftributaries

history China China ofImperialChina
Outlineofancient Navalhistoryof Chineseemperors HistoryofHong
China China familytree Kong
Chinesehistoriography HistoryofIslamin Ancient HistoryofMacau
ListofNeolithic China EarlyMiddle Historyofthe
culturesofChina Fouroccupations Late GreatWallof
Economichistoryof Chineseexploration Ethnicgroupsin China
China Chinesesovereign Chinesehistory ReligioninChina
Historyofscienceand Womeninancient Foreignrelationsof Chinesearmour
technologyinChina andimperialChina ImperialChina
Militaryhistoryof Listofrecipientsof
China(pre1911) tributefromChina
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MonthlyReviewPress.ISBN1583671234.Retrieved30October2008.
55.Youngs,R.TheEuropeanUnionandthePromotionofDemocracy.OxfordUniversityPress,2002.ISBN978019
9249794.
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57."Nationbuckstrendofglobalpoverty".ChinaDaily.11July2003.
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59."Chinaworriedoverpaceofgrowth".BBC.Retrieved16April2006.
60."China:Migrants,Students,Taiwan".MigrationNews.13(1).January2006.
61."InFaceofRuralUnrest,ChinaRollsOutReforms".TheWashingtonPost.28January2006.
62.Thomas,Antony(11April2006)."Frontline:TheTankMantranscript".Frontline.PBS.Retrieved12July2008.
Furtherreading
Surveys
Blunden,Caroline,andMarkElvin.CulturalAtlasofChina(2nded1998)excerptandtextsearch(http://www.amazon.c
om/CulturalAtlasChina/dp/0816038147/)
Dardess,JohnW.(2010).GoverningChina,1501850.HackettPublishing.ISBN1603843116.
Eberhard,Wolfram.AHistoryofChina(19504thedition,revised1977),380pages'GoogleBook(https://books.google.
com/books?id=mUofeN6WW_IC&printsec=frontcover&dq=editions:ISBN160303420X#v=onepage&q=editions%3AISB
N160303420X&f=false)
Ebrey,PatriciaBuckley(2010).TheCambridgeIllustratedHistoryofChina.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress.
ISBN9780521196208.
Elvin,Mark.ThePatternoftheChinesePast(StanfordUp,1973)
Fairbank,JohnKingandGoldman,Merle.China:ANewHistory.2nded.HarvardU.Press,(2006).640pp.
Gernet,Jacques,J.R.Foster,andCharlesHartman.AHistoryofChineseCivilization(1996).Onevolumesurvey.
Hsu,Choyun.China:ANewCulturalHistory(ColumbiaUniversityPress2012)612pagesstressonChina's
encounterswithsuccessivewavesofglobalization.
Hs,ImmanuelChungyueh.TheRiseofModernChina,6thed.(OxfordUniversityPress,1999),highlydetailed
coverageof16441999,in1136pp.
Huang,Ray.China,aMacroHistory(1997)335pp.Apersonal,essayisticapproachQuestiaonlineedition(by
subscription(http://www.questia.com/library/book/chinaamacrohistorybyrayhuang.jsp)
Keay,John.China:AHistory(2009),642pp
Franz,Michael.ChinathroughtheAges:HistoryofaCivilization.(1986).278pponlineeditionQuestia(bysubscription
(http://www.questia.com/library/book/chinathroughtheageshistoryofacivilizationbyfranzmichael.jsp)
Mote,FrederickW.ImperialChina,9001800HarvardUniversityPress,1999,1,136pages.Aauthoritativetreatmentof
theSong,Yuan,Ming,andQingdynasties.
Perkins,Dorothy.EncyclopediaofChina:TheEssentialReferencetoChina,ItsHistoryandCulture.FactsonFile,
1999.662pp.
Roberts,J.A.G.AConciseHistoryofChina.HarvardU.Press,1999.341pp.
Schoppa,R.Keith.TheColumbiaGuidetoModernChineseHistory.ColumbiaU.Press,2000.356pp.Questiaonline
edition(bysubscription(http://www.questia.com/library/book/thecolumbiaguidetomodernchinesehistorybyrkeiths
choppa.jsp)
Spence,JonathanD.TheSearchforModernChina(1999),876ppsurveyfrom1644to1990s(http://www.questia.com/r
ead/98946348)Questiaonlineedition(bysubscription).
Wang,Kewen,ed.ModernChina:AnEncyclopediaofHistory,Culture,andNationalism.Garland,1998.442pp.
Wright,DavidCurtis.HistoryofChina(2001)257ppQuestiaonlineedition(bysubscription)(http://www.questia.com/l
ibrary/book/thehistoryofchinabydavidcurtiswrightjohnefindlingfrankwthackeray.jsp)
Wills,Jr.,JohnE.MountainofFame:PortraitsinChineseHistory(1994)Biographicalessaysonimportantfigures.
Prehistory
Chang,Kwangchih.TheArchaeologyofAncientChina,YaleUniversityPress,1986.
Discoveryofresiduefromfermentedbeverageconsumedupto9,000yearsagoinJiahu,HenanProvince,China.ByDr.
PatrickEMcGovern,UniversityofPennsylvaniaarchaeochemistandcolleaguesfromChina,GreatBritainandGermany.
Zhu,RixiangZhishengAnRichardPottsKennethA.Hoffman."Magnetostratigraphicdatingofearlyhumansin
China"(PDF).doi:10.1016/S00128252(02)001320.Retrieved23January2011.
TheDiscoveryofEarlyPotteryinChina(http://arheologija.ff.unilj.si/documenta/pdf29/29chi.pdf)byZhangChi,
DepartmentofArchaeology,PekingUniversity,China.
Shangdynasty
Durant,StephenW.TheCloudyMirror:TensionandConflictintheWritingsofSimaQian(1995).
Zhoudynasty
Qin
Lewis,MarkEdward(2007).TheEarlyChineseEmpires:QinandHan.HistoryofimperialChinaSeries.Cambridge,
MA:BelknapPressofHarvardUniversityPress.ISBN9780674024779.
Handynasty
deCrespigny,Rafe.1972.TheChiangBarbariansandtheEmpireofHan:AStudyinFrontierPolicy.PapersonFar
EasternHistory16,AustralianNationalUniversity.Canberra.
deCrespigny,Rafe.1984.NorthernFrontier.ThePoliciesandStrategiesoftheLaterHanEmpire.RafedeCrespigny.
1984.FacultyofAsianStudies,AustralianNationalUniversity.Canberra.
deCrespigny,Rafe(1990).ChapterOnefromGeneralsoftheSouth:theFoundationandearlyhistoryoftheThree
KingdomsstateofWu."SouthChinaundertheLaterHanDynasty".AsianStudiesMonographs,NewSeriesNo.16.
FacultyofAsianStudies,TheAustralianNationalUniversity,Canberra.Retrieved23January2011.
deCrespigny,Rafe(1996)."LaterHanMilitaryAdministration:AnOutlineoftheMilitaryAdministrationoftheLater
HanEmpire".AsianStudiesMonographs,NewSeriesNo.21(BasedontheIntroductiontoEmperorHuanandEmperor
LingbeingtheChronicleofLaterHanfortheyears189to220ADasrecordedinChapters59to69oftheZizhitongjian
ofSimaGuanged.).FacultyofAsianStudies,TheAustralianNationalUniversity.Retrieved23January2011.
Dubs,HomerH.193855.TheHistoryoftheFormerHanDynastybyPanKu.(3vol)
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centuriesCE.ISBN9781439221341.
Hulsew,A.F.P.andLoewe,M.A.N.,eds.ChinainCentralAsia:TheEarlyStage125B.C.A.D.23:anannotated
translationofchapters61and96oftheHistoryoftheFormerHanDynasty.(1979)
Twitchett,DenisandLoewe,Michael,eds.1986.TheCambridgeHistoryofChina.VolumeI.TheChinandHan
Empires,221B.C.a.d.220.CambridgeUniversityPress.
Yap,JosephP.(2009)WarsWiththeXiongnuATranslationFromZizhitongjian,AuthorHouse.ISBN1490006044
Jin,theSixteenKingdoms,andtheNorthernandSouthernDynasties
deCrespigny,Rafe(1991)."TheThreeKingdomsandWesternJin:AHistoryofChinaintheThirdCenturyAD".East
AsianHistory.FacultyofAsianStudies,AustralianNationalUniversity,Canberra(1June1991,pp.136,&no.2
December1991,pp.143164).Retrieved23January2011.
Lewis,MarkEdward(2009).ChinabetweenEmpires:TheNorthernandSouthernDynasties.Cambridge,Mass.:
BelknapPressofHarvardUniversityPress.ISBN9780674040151.
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Benn,Charles.2002.China'sGoldenAge:EverydayLifeintheTangDynasty.OxfordUniversityPress.ISBN019
5176650.
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1447.
Wang,Zhenping.1991."TangMaritimeTradeAdministration."WangZhenping.AsiaMajor,ThirdSeries,Vol.IV,
1991,pp.738.
Songdynasty
Ebrey,Patricia.TheInnerQuarters:MarriageandtheLivesofChineseWomenintheSungPeriod(1990)
Gernet,,Jacques(1962).DailyLifeinChina,ontheEveoftheMongolInvasion,12501276.translatedbyWright,H.
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Hymes,Robert,andConradSchirokauer,eds.OrderingtheWorld:ApproachestoStateandSocietyinSungDynasty
China,UofCaliforniaPress,1993completetextonlinefree(http://content.cdlib.org/ark:/13030/ft1000031p/?&query=&
brand=ucpress)
Kuhn,Dieter(2009).TheAgeofConfucianRule:TheSongTransformationofChina.Cambridge,Mass.:BelknapPress
ofHarvardUniversityPress.ISBN9780674031463.
Shiba,Yoshinobu.1970.CommerceandSocietyinSungChina.OriginallypublishedinJapaneseasSodaishogyoshi
kenkyu.Tokyo,Kazamashobo,1968.YoshinobuShiba.TranslationbyMarkElvin,CentreforChineseStudies,
UniversityofMichigan.
Yuandynasty
Brook,Timothy(2010).TheTroubledEmpire:ChinaintheYuanandMingDynasties.Cambridge,MA:BelknapPress
ofHarvardUniversityPress.ISBN9780674046023.
Mingdynasty
Brook,Timothy.TheConfusionsofPleasure:CommerceandCultureinMingChina.(1998).
(2010).TheTroubledEmpire:ChinaintheYuanandMingDynasties.Cambridge,MA:BelknapPressofHarvard
UniversityPress.ISBN9780674046023.329pages.FocusontheimpactofaLittleIceAgeontheempire,astheempire,
beginningwithasharpdropintemperaturesinthe13thcenturyduringwhichtimetheMongolleaderKublaKhanmoved
southintoChina.
Dardess,JohnW.AMingSociety:T'aihoCounty,Kiangsi,FourteenthtoSeventeenthCenturies.(1983)usesadvanced
"newsocialhistory"completetextonlinefree(http://content.cdlib.org/ark:/13030/ft2s2004qh/?&query=&brand=ucpress)
Farmer,Edward.ZhuYuanzhangandEarlyMingLegislation:TheReorderingofChineseSocietyFollowingtheEraof
MongolRule.E.J.Brill,1995.
Goodrich,L.Carrington,andChaoyingFang.DictionaryofMingBiography.(1976).
Huang,Ray.1587,AYearofNoSignificance:TheMingDynastyinDecline.(1981).
Mote,FrederickW.,andDenisTwitchett,eds.TheCambridgeHistoryofChina.Vol.7,part1:TheMingDynasty,
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Qingdynasty
ArthurW.Hummel.EminentChineseoftheCh`ingPeriod(16441912).(Washington:LibraryofCongress.Orientalia,
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Mann,Susan.PreciousRecords:WomeninChina'sLongEighteenthCentury(1997)
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ww.amazon.com/ChineseSocietyEighteenthCenturyNaquin/dp/0300046022/)
Peterson,WillardJ.,ed.TheCambridgeHistoryofChina.Vol.9,Part1:TheCh'ingDynastyto1800.CambridgeU.
Press,2002.753pp.
Rawski,EvelynS.TheLastEmperors:ASocialHistoryofQingImperialInstitutions(2001)
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ISBN9780674036123.
Smith,RichardJ.(2015).TheQingDynastyandTraditionalChineseCulture.Lanham:Rowman&Littlefield.
ISBN9781442221949.
Struve,LynnA.,ed.TheQingFormationinWorldHistoricalTime.(2004).412pp.
Struve,LynnA.,ed.VoicesfromtheMingQingCataclysm:ChinainTigers'Jaws(1998)
Yizhuang,Ding."Reflectionsonthe'NewQingHistory'SchoolintheUnitedStates,"ChineseStudiesinHistory,Winter
2009/2010,Vol.43Issue2,pp9296.
Nationalistera(1912present)
Bergere,MarieClaire.SunYatSen(1998),480pp.Standardbiography
Boorman,HowardL.,ed.BiographicalDictionaryofRepublicanChina.(Vol.IIVandIndex.19671979).600short
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Dreyer,EdwardL.ChinaatWar,19011949.(1995).422pp.
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EastmanLloydetal.TheNationalistErainChina,19271949(1991)
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Taiwan,Berkeley,CA:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,ISBN1557290482.
Edmondson,Robert(2002),"TheFebruary28IncidentandNationalIdentity",inStephaneCorcuff,Momoriesofthe
Future:NationalIdentityIssuesandtheSearchforaNewTaiwan,NewYork:M.E.Sharpe.
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Fairbank,JohnK.andFeuerwerker,Albert,eds.TheCambridgeHistoryofChina.Vol.13:RepublicanChina,1912
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pp.
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Womenandgender
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books)
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Ko,Dorothy.TeachersofInnerChambers:WomenandCultureinChina,15731722(1994)
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Scholarlyjournals
CentralAsianSurvey
ChineseStudiesinHistory[1]
EastAsianHistory[2]
EarlyMedievalChina(http://www.aall.ufl.edu/EMC/).CoverstheperiodbetweentheendoftheHanand
beginningoftheTang.
JournalofModernChineseHistory[3]
LateImperialChina
ModernChina:AnInternationalJournalofHistoryandSocialScience[4]
SinoJapaneseStudies[5]
T'oungPao:InternationalJournalofChineseStudies
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BenjaminElman,ClassicalHistoriographyForChineseHistory(https://web.archive.org/web/201604222027
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Cheng,Linsun(2009).BerkshireEncyclopediaofChina.GreatBarrington,Mass.:BerkshirePub.Group.
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Li,Xiaobing.ChinaatWar:AnEncyclopedia(2012).
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YenchingInstitute),2013,1128p.,ISBN9780674067158.SupersedesWilkinson(2000).Thoughaimed
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YinYuTang:AChineseHome(http://pem.org/yinyutang/),anexplorationofdomesticChinesearchitecture
duringtheQingdynasty.
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maozedong/index.html&date=20091025+17:56:42)
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minutelectureonChinesehistorygivenbyYuYingshih,EmeritusProfessorofEastAsianStudiesand
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5.Seewebsite(http://chinajapan.org/)
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