CSE30307 Soil Mechanics (Seepage)

CSE30307 Soil Mechanics

for Civil Engineering
Dr. Andy YF Leung

Room ZS938
Tel: 2766 6064
Email: yfleung@polyu.edu.hk
http://www.cee.polyu.edu.hk/~leung_yf/
 CSE30307 Soil Mechanics (Seepage)

By the end of lecture, you will be able to

Determine the permeability of soils using results of
laboratory tests and in-situ tests.
Understand groundwater flows in a wide range of
ground conditions, and determine seepage
quantities and pore pressures within the ground.
 Permeability Theory of
Soil & Water Darcys law Flownets
tests Seepage

Groundwater
The pressure of pore water in soil is a key parameter that governs
the strength and stiffness of soils.
The pressure of pore water is measured relative to atmospheric
pressure. The level at which the pressure is atmospheric (i.e. zero)
is defined as the water table, or the phreatic surface.
According to the subsurface soil profile and the corresponding soil
permeability, conditions such as perched water tables or artesian
conditions may exist.
 Permeability Theory of
Soil & Water Darcys law Flownets
tests Seepage

Groundwater
 Permeability Theory of
Soil & Water Darcys law Flownets
tests Seepage

Groundwater artesian aquifer

Artesian well a well drilled through impermeable strata to reach
water capable of rising to the surface by internal hydrostatic
pressure.
Artesian aquifer an aquifer that has pressure built up inside. This
pressure is the result of the recharge area of the aquifer being at a
higher level than the rest of the aquifer region. The force of gravity
pulls the higher water down which creates extra pressure inside the
aquifer. This is why artesian wells flow by themselves; the pressure
forces the water out of the well.
 Permeability Theory of
Soil & Water Darcys law Flownets
tests Seepage

Concept of total head

Bernoulli equation in fluid mechanics (conservation of energy):
1 2
+ + = constant
2
(v = velocity of flow, u = fluid pressure, = fluid density,
g = gravitational acceleration, z = elevation)
Energy is lost as water flows through the soil. This is usually
represented as head loss, where total head (hT) is a normalized
measure of energy, and consists of two components (hp, he):

= + = +

Pressure Elevation head
head (measured from datum)
Flow velocity is low in soils so the kinetic energy term is ignored.
Head loss is the change in total head as water flows through soil.
 Permeability Theory of
Soil & Water Darcys law Flownets
tests Seepage

Concept of total head

Consider a 2-m deep swimming pool built on the rooftop of a 50-m tower.
At the top of tower (Point A), heA = 50m, hpA = 0m, hTA = 50m
At bottom of pool (Point B), heB = 48m, hpB = 2m, hTB = 50m
Total head within a continuous water mass is always constant (no head
loss within a swimming pool, i.e., no seepage in soil)
A
hpB
B

heA heB

Datum
 Permeability Theory of
Soil & Water Darcys law Flownets
tests Seepage

Concept of total head examples

Key concepts:
Total head = pressure head + elevation head
Total head is constant within a continuous
water mass and when there is no flow
through soil
 Permeability Theory of
Soil & Water Darcys law Flownets
tests Seepage

Darcys law
Henry Darcy established the following law experimentally:

= =

where v = flow velocity (in m/s),
k = coefficient of permeability (in m/s),
i = hydraulic gradient (total head loss/flow path)
Henry Darcy

The head loss (or energy

difference) drives the flow
 Permeability Theory of
Soil & Water Darcys law Flownets
tests Seepage

Permeability of soils
Coefficient of permeability (k) depends on the average size of
pores. Typical range of soil permeability are shown below:

For sands, Hazen proposed the following formula:

= 102 10 2 (in m/s) (D10 is in mm)
The viscosity of water, and hence permeability of soil, is also
affected by temperature. Permeability is inversely proportional to
the viscosity of the fluid.
 Permeability Theory of
Soil & Water Darcys law Flownets
tests Seepage

Permeability tests (1) Laboratory tests

(b) Falling head method
for fine-grained soil

(a) Constant head method

for coarse-grained soil

Flow rate is too low for

Maintain a constant fine-grained soil if
water level and constant head method
measure the flow is used. Instead, the
rate through the soil drop (falling) of water
level in the standpipe
is measured.

Coarse-
grained soil Fine-
grained soil
 Permeability Theory of
Soil & Water Darcys law Flownets
tests Seepage

Permeability tests (1) Laboratory tests

(b) Falling head method
Applying Darcys law:
for fine-grained soil

(a) Constant head method h is a function of time

for coarse-grained soil =

h is constant
=


= = = 1
1
=
0 0

=

0
= ln
1 1
 Permeability Theory of
Soil & Water Darcys law Flownets
tests Seepage

Permeability tests (2) Field tests

Water is pumped out of the test
well, and changes in water table
measured in nearby observation
boreholes.
For unconfined aquifer,
with radial flow towards the well:
Section

= = 2

2 2

= 2
1 1

ln 2 1
=
2 2 1 2 Plan
 Permeability Theory of
Soil & Water Darcys law Flownets
tests Seepage

Permeability tests (2) Field tests

For confined aquifer,
with radial flow towards the well:

ln 2 1
=
2 2 1

Flow only in the permeable stratum with

thickness of H, sandwiched between two
impermeable strata
 Permeability Theory of
Soil & Water Darcys law Flownets
tests Seepage

Permeability tests (2) Field borehole tests

 Permeability Theory of
Soil & Water Darcys law Flownets
tests Seepage

Theory of seepage
Consider the following scenario:
An MTR station is to be constructed in
an urban area, where the water table
is near ground surface;
A retaining structure is constructed to
facilitate the construction; ???
In order to have a dry working
environment, water needs to be
pumped out of the excavation;
???
A difference in water level is created.
How do you estimate the amount of
???
water seepage?
 Permeability Theory of
Soil & Water Darcys law Flownets
tests Seepage

Theory of seepage
 Permeability Theory of
Soil & Water Darcys law Flownets
tests Seepage

Theory of seepage
 Permeability Theory of
Soil & Water Darcys law Flownets
tests Seepage

Theory of seepage continuity of flow

Consider a two-dimensional seepage through an element of
dimensions dx dz
Net inflow = + (velocity area)

Net outflow = + + +

+
Continuity of flow requires that:
outflow
Net inflow Net outflow = 0

+ =0
+

(no volume change in the element and

water assumed to be incompressible)
inflow
 Permeability Theory of
Soil & Water Darcys law Flownets
tests Seepage

Theory of seepage potential function

Now, define the potential function, , , such that:

= = ; = =

Combining with the continuity equation (previous page), and if the
soil is isotropic (kx = kz), it can be shown that:
2 2
2
+ 2 =0 (Laplace equation)

Also, integration gives:
= 3
, = , + z
= 2
= 1
The total head is constant along an
equipotential line.
Equipotential lines

x
 Permeability Theory of
Soil & Water Darcys law Flownets
tests Seepage

Theory of seepage flow function/stream function

Consider another function, the stream function, , , such that:

= = ; = =

For to be a constant value,

= + = + = 0 =

Therefore, any constant function represents the flow path.
2
= ( + )
1
2
= = 2 1
1

Difference between flow lines is the

flow rate.
 Permeability Theory of
Soil & Water Darcys law Flownets
tests Seepage

Relation between flow lines and equipotential lines

For a constant value of ,

=

Similarly, for a constant value of ,

=

Therefore, flow lines and equipotential lines intersect each other at
right angles.
 Permeability Theory of
Soil & Water Darcys law Flownets
tests Seepage

Relation between flow lines and equipotential lines

Consider two flow lines 1 and 1+, separated
by n, and two equipotential lines 1 and 1+,
separated by s.
It can be shown that:

= +

= cos 2 + sin2 =
Also:

= +

= sin2 + cos 2 =
Therefore, = cos
= sin
= or =

 Permeability Theory of
Soil & Water Darcys law Flownets
tests Seepage

Summary
1. Seepage can be approximated by potential flow.
2. Stream functions are for flow lines and equipotential
functions are for equi-energy lines.
3. Streamline and equipotential lines are perpendicular to each
other.
4. Difference between streamlines give us the flow rate.
5. For square grids (n = s), change in .
6. The theory of seepage, together with the Darcys law, will be
applied in the technique of flownets.
 Permeability Theory of
Soil & Water Darcys law Flownets
tests Seepage

Flownets
According to the seepage theory, in a square grid of flow
lines and equipotential lines.
Making use of this feature, the seepage problem, with relevant
boundary conditions, can be solved graphically by constructing
curvilinear squares of flow and equipotential lines, forming a
flownet.
Since = , = q, and = kh,
=

= ; =


=

Nf = number of flow channels;
Nd = number of equipotential drops
 Permeability Theory of
Soil & Water Darcys law Flownets
tests Seepage

Constructing a flownet
 Permeability Theory of
Soil & Water Darcys law Flownets
tests Seepage

Key features of flownet

All intersections between flow lines and equipotentials lines
should be at 90o.
The curvilinear squares must be square (i.e. no rectangular
elements)
Between two adjacent equipotentials, the hydraulic gradient is
given by: =
 Permeability Theory of
Soil & Water Darcys law Flownets
tests Seepage

Typical mistakes in flownets

Equipotential lines cannot cut through

each other (e.g. water surface)

Flow lines cannot enter impermeable

boundary

Flow lines and equipotential lines not

perpendicular

Good flownet
 Permeability Theory of
Soil & Water Darcys law Flownets
tests Seepage

Flownets Example 1
A river bed consists of a layer of sand 8.25 m thick overlying impermeable rock; the
depth of water is 2.5 m. A long cofferdam 5.5 m wide is formed by driving two lines of
sheet piling to a depth of 8 m below the level of river bed, and excavation to a depth
of 2 m below bed level is carried out within the cofferdam. The water level within the
cofferdam is kept at excavation level by pumping. If the flow of water into the
cofferdam is 0.25 m3/hr per unit length, what is the coefficient of permeability of the
sand? What is the hydraulic gradient immediately below the excavated surface?
 Permeability Theory of
Soil & Water Darcys law Flownets
tests Seepage

Flownets Example 2
The section through a dam spillway is shown below. Determine the
quantity of seepage under the dam and plot the distributions of uplift
pressure on the base of the dam, and the net distribution of water
pressure on the cut-off wall at the upstream end of the spillway. The
coefficient of permeability of the foundation soil is 2.510-5 m/s.
 Permeability Theory of
Soil & Water Darcys law Flownets
tests Seepage

Flownets for anisotropic soils

Most natural soils are anisotropic, with kx having a higher value
than kz. The Laplace equation can be rewritten using change of
variables:
2 2
2 + 2 = 0

2 2

2 + 2=0
( / )
2 2
+ = 0 where =
2 2



Also, = = =

which gives =
 Permeability Theory of
Soil & Water Darcys law Flownets
tests Seepage

Flownets for anisotropic soils

Scale all horizontal distances by a factor

=

Plot flownet on the transformed space
Find the flow rate by using transformed formula


= where =

 Permeability Theory of
Soil & Water Darcys law Flownets
tests Seepage

Software for evaluation of seepage

 Permeability Theory of
Soil & Water Darcys law Flownets
tests Seepage

Non-homogeneous soil conditions

Considering two isotropic soil layers of thicknesses H1 and H2, with
respective coefficients of permeability k1 and k2. What is the
equivalent horizontal and vertical coefficients of permeability if the
two layers are to be approximated as a single homogeneous
anisotropic layer of thickness (H1 + H2)?
 Permeability Theory of
Soil & Water Darcys law Flownets
tests Seepage

Seepage through embankment dams

Unconfined seepage where the phreatic surface needs to be
estimated before the flow net can be drawn.
Streamlines resemble parabola functions.
Conformal mapping technique is used to obtain solution of the
problem, where complex mapping function takes every point in one
complex plane and map onto another complex plane
Dam model in laboratory: Parabola
 Permeability Theory of
Soil & Water Darcys law Flownets
tests Seepage

Conformal mapping
Mapping function: r = w2
r = x + iz
w = + i

Considering the mapping function,

+ = + 2 = 2 2 + 2

Therefore,
= 2 2 and = 2

Consider = n (n=0,1,2,3),
2
= = 2 2
2 4

Consider = m (m=0,1,2,,6), (a) w plane; (b) r plane

2
= = 2
2 42
 Permeability Theory of
Soil & Water Darcys law Flownets
tests Seepage

Application to embankment dams

The following boundary conditions should be
satisfied in the mapping:
Equipotential line BC: = -kh
Equipotential line AD: = 0
Flow line CD: =q
Flow line BA: =0

Mapping function: r = Cw2 (C is a constant)

= ( 2 2 ) and = 2

For the top flow line, = q and = -kz,

1 1 2
= ; =
2 2

When z = 0,
2
0 = = 0
2 40

= 20
 Permeability Theory of
Soil & Water Darcys law Flownets
tests Seepage

Application to embankment dams

Corrections on the basic parabola for application to embankment dams:
Top flow line starts at C, and must intercept upstream slope at right
angle. Initial point of the parabola should start at G (GC = 0.3 HC)
according to Casagrande (1940). Coordinates of G also allows x0 to be
determined.
Downstream correction is applied to the parabola according to the
design of drainage filter
 Permeability Theory of
Soil & Water Darcys law Flownets
tests Seepage

Embankment dam with anisotropic soils permeability

Example
 Permeability Theory of
Soil & Water Darcys law Flownets
tests Seepage

Embankment dam with anisotropic soils permeability

Example
 Permeability Theory of
Soil & Water Darcys law Flownets
tests Seepage

Embankment dam with anisotropic soils permeability

Example
 Permeability Theory of
Soil & Water Darcys law Flownets
tests Seepage

Transfer condition
For diagonal seepage across boundary between two soils with coefficient
k1 and k2, a change in flow direction (v1 v2) will occur.
For Soils 1 and 2,
1 = 1 1 2 = 2 2
At common point B, h1 = h2
1 2
=
1 2

Differentiating with respect to s, the direction along boundary,

1 1 1 2 1 2
= i.e. =
1 2 1 2
Since v1n = v2n (continuity of flow in normal direction)
1 1 1 2 tan 1 1
= i.e. =
1 1 2 2 tan 2 2
 Permeability Theory of
Soil & Water Darcys law Flownets
tests Seepage

Transfer condition
It has been proven earlier that

= i.e. =

If q and h have same values on both sides of

the boundary, then:

1 = 2
1
2

(Aspect ratio of the flow net will be affected by

the ratio k1/k2)
1
If = 1 then =
1
2
2
Problem 2.3
Determine the quantity of seepage if k = 4 x 10-7 m/s.