Tribology International Vol. 29. No. 5, pp.

415-423, 1996
Copyright 0 1996 Elsevier Science Ltd
Printed in Great Britain. All rights reserved
0301-679X/96/$15.00 +O.OO
0301-679X( 95)00097-6

Characteristics of wear results

y pin-on-disc at
te to high speeds
H. So

The use of a pin-on-disc configuration for investigating the wear

mechanism or behaviour of solid materials is examined carefully
since the results of such configurations differ from published data
and some existing theories cannot be applied to such a
configuration directly. The obvious contradictions include the
following. The results between the arrangements of the rotating
pin and the stationary pin under the same load and speed are
different. The bulk temperatures of the rubbing specimens increase
with the duration of testing, which may eventually arrive at a
steady state. However, before the wear condition reaches a steady
state, it will have continuously varied. Moreover, the friction
coefficient increases with sliding speed when the applied load on
the rubbing specimens is over certain levels. All these
contradictions can be reasonably explained with the accurate
prediction of bulk and flash temperatures at the contact area. To
this end, this paper provides a more reasonable method for the
calculation of temperatures and the real and apparent contact
areas. Copyright 0 1996 Elsevier Science Ltd

Keywords: characteristics, pin-on-disc, rotating (stationary) pin, wear,

friction

Introduction rise correspondingly, until they reach a thermal steady

The pin-on-disc configuration is commonly used for
wear tests in laboratories because of its simple arrange-
ment. However, some phenomena which affect the
test results markedly are always overlooked. These
include the fact that the bulk temperature of the pin
is higher than that of the disc and that the temperature
as well as the wear rate of a stationary pin forced on
a rotating disc is higher than that of a rotating pin
sliding on a stationary disc when the normal load is
over some level. If the test is not limited to a single
pass of rubbing, the pin and the disc will accumulate
the rubbing heat and cause their bulk temperature to
Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Taiwan University.
Taipei, Taiwan, 10617
Received 2 November 1994; revised 13 April 1995; accepted 6 June
1995
Tribology
state. Therefore, the theoretical results for computing
the flash temperature presented by Blok*,2, Jaeger3,
Barbe? and Archard and for computing the mean
surface temperature presented by Ashby and co-
worker@ cannot be directly applied to the pin-on-disc
configuration for a long time test unless the bulk
temperatures of the rubbing specimens are known
simultaneously. A high bulk temperature at high
rubbing speeds will decrease the yield strength of the
material and lead to changes in the wear mechanism
and the real contact configuration. Lim and Ashby
noticed the rise of temperature in the pin and disc,
but neglected the influence of the bulk temperature
on the yield strength of the rubbing materials. There-
fore, their predicted results for wear rate at higher
speeds may deviate from the real wear mechanism.
Based on the theory for predicting the flash temperature
at contact surfaces, some investigator& presented
International Volume 29 Number 5 1996 415
Characteristics of wear results by pin-on-disc: H. So

Notation

A apparent contact area or cross-

sectional area of the pin (m)
4 real contact area (m*)
CO circumference of the pin (m)
c 1.2 constants (IS)
F normal load (N)
H hardness (Pa)
Vickers hardness number
F convection heat-transfer coefficient
(W/m* K)
K&o thermal conductivity (J/msK)
length of the pin (m)
k asperity height or thickness of oxide
film (m)
P apparent contact pressure (Pa)
Qd.p heat flow to disc and pin,
respectively (W)
TEi room temperature (K)
TC flash temperature
TO mean surface temperature at
apparent contact area Fig 1 Schematic diagram of pin-on-disc configuration.
V sliding speed (m/s) Left: rotating pin; right: stationary pin
W wear rate (m3/m)
P friction coefficient
flf flow stress (Pa) the rotating specimen. The frictional torque is measured
with a load cell fastened on the stationary rod. The
rotating shaft is controlled by a dc servo motor to
provide the sliding speeds ranging from 0.1 m/s to
theoretical results for the friction coefficient of sliding 10 m/s in the present tests. The load varied from 5 N
contact at very high speed, but it can be shown that to 400 N. The temperature of the pin that is mounted on
those formulae cannot be applied to the pin-on-disc the stationary rod can be measured with thermocouples
configuration if the disc is made from metals of much welded on the pin. In the present tests two thermo-
lower melting point than that of the pin, because the couples were welded on the pin at distances of 2 mm
whole disc is softened by frictional heat and deforms and 6 mm from the top of the pin, respectively. The
plastically over the whole contact area. Finally, the two thermo-couples give two readings for temperature,
friction coefficient will increase with increasing sliding TI and T2 of the pin. In such an arrangement, the
speed. distances from the welded thermocouples to the contact
Quinn pointed out that if the pin and the disc were surface may change at every moment as the pin is
made from any kind of steel, an oxide film might worn by rubbing action. The amount of wear is
measured with a linear varied differential transformer
form on the rubbed area in accordance with the sliding
(LVDT) and a data acquisition system. The average
speed. In such a condition both the wear rate and the
temperature of the rotating disc can only be measured
friction coefficient would decrease correspondingly. In
approximately with an infrared microscope. If the disc
fact, this is not always true in many conditions.
is fixed to the stationary rod, its bulk temperature
According to intensive test results conducted with a can be measured with thermocouples, while the
pin-on-disc configuration, this paper indicates some temperature of the rotating pin can only be estimated
mechanisms of friction and wear, which are different by its colour if it is made of steel. The latter method
from most published results. The present results can is based on the fact that when a steel is heated to a
help to distinguish the applicability of the pin-on-disc specified high temperature and cooled in air, the
configuration on wear tests. surface of the steel will result in a specific colour.
Comparing the colour between the pin and the sampled
steel of the same type, the temperatures along the
Experimental details pin axis can be estimated. However, the error in
temperature prediction by such a method will be
Wear test rig within 30C.
A Falex multi-specimen friction test machine was used
as the wear test rig. Two arrangements of the pin and Specimens
disc can be established as shown in Fig 1 in which, if
the disc is mounted on the upper rotating shaft, the The pin specimens were made from several alloys
pin will be fixed to the lower stationary rod, and vice including medium and high carbon steels, AISI 4140
versu. The load is applied by means of dead weights Cr-Mo steel, 410 stainless steel and forging die steel.
or by an air cylinder through the stationary rod against The disc specimens were made from medium and high
416 Tribology International Volume 29 Number 5 1996
 Characteristics of wear results by pin-on-disc: H. so

carbon steels, AISI 4340 Ni-Cr-Mo steel, 410 stainless

steel and 6061 aluminium alloy. The dimensions of
the pins were 4.75 mm diameter and 15 mm length, 150- To
and those of the disc were 55.5 mm or 31.78 mm
diameter and 10.88 mm thick. The distance between
the centres of the pin and the shaft was 23.4 mm or
11.85 mm.
The hardness numbers of the specimens used in present
tests are listed in Table 1.

Test procedures
The experiments were carried out at nominal sliding
speeds ranging from 0.2 m/s to 8 m/s. The loads
ranged from 9.8 to 392 N to yield an apparent contact 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
pressure ranging from 0.55 to 22 MPa. The duration Timefmin)
of each test depended upon the rubbing materials, the
speed and the load. Each test was conducted as long
as the thermal condition or the wear rate reached a Fig 2 Variation in temperature of the specimens with
steady state condition, unless the wear rate was too rubbing time for a 6061 aluminium alloy disc sliding
high either causing the pin to be shortened too fast on a die steel pin at 1 mls and 2.2 MPa. T,,: temperature
or to making the rubbed track on the disc wear too at apparent contact area of the pin; Td: mean surface
deep; in such situations, the test was terminated. temperature of disc; T,, T2: measured temperature on
the pin

Temperature calculation
the air. Moreover, the diameter of the pin is less than
According to Archard, the greater part of frictional its length. Therefore, one-dimensional heat conduction
heat is supplied to the moving specimen at high sliding is assumed. From heat conduction in a one-dimensional
speeds. This is not true in the pin-on-disc configuration condition, the energy balance between any two cross-
while the pin is rotating, because the bulk temperature sections of area A separated by a small axial distance
of the disc is much lower than that of the pin, and dx of a cylinder is given as:
most of the frictional heat will be supplied to the
stationary disc. On the other hand, by measurement $ KA ; - h&(T - T,) = 0
of temperatures at the stationary pin and the rotating i i
(1)
disc, both temperatures increase with increasing rub-
bing time (Fig 2), where To is the temperature at the where K is the thermal conductivity of the pin material,
apparent contact surface of the pin computed with the h the convection heat-transfer coefficient, C, is the
method described later. The temperature of the circumference of the pin, and T, is room temperature.
stationary pin is always higher than that of the rotating If the thermal conductivity and convection heat-
disc. Moreover, the mean temperature at the apparent transfer coefficient are assumed to be constant and
contact surface is found to be different from that equal to the average values, respectively, the general
predicted by Ashby et al. 6,7. The discrepancy is caused solution for Eq. (1) is
by the different bulk temperatures of the pin and the T = T, + C, exp(mx) + Cz exp( -mx) (2)
disc, which Ashby et al. did not take into consideration.
where
A modified calculation of the mean surface temperature
at the apparent contact area is proposed as follows.
(3)
If a natural convection condition is assumed for the
stationary pin, the heat conducted away from the If the temperatures at any two positions of the pin,
clamped end of the pin dominates that convected by T, and T,, are measured, the constants C, and C2 can

Table 1 Hardness of the alloys used in the present tests

Medium High carbon 410 4140 4340 Die steel 6061

carbon steel steel stainless steel steel aluminium
steel

Vickers 160 210 160 970 750 600 100

hardness annealed annealed
number 560 800
(4) quenched quenched

Tribology International Volume 29 Number 5 1996 417

Characteristics of wear results by pin-on-disc:
be obtained and the temperature at any point on the
pin can be determined as well.
The convection heat-transfer coefficient
mated as:
if the pin is stationary.
The mean temperature at the apparent contact area,
TO is found to be:
T,, = T, + C1 + C,
The heat flow Q,, transferred to the pin is:
Q,, = K AmC2 - K AmC,
The flash temperature T, at the real contact area A,
can be obtained by the energy balance in the contact
zone of the pin and is:
T, = To + !@E (7)
KOA,
where KO is the thermal conductivity of the material
in the contact area or of the oxide film; Ii is the
average height of surface asperities or the thickness
of the oxide film. If oxide film can hardly be found
on the contact surface of the pin, I, is given by the
mean peak-to-valley height, R,(DIN), measured with
a profiling type proficorder. The real contact area is
difficult to determine12, but the usual calculation can
be employed as follows.
A, = -F
H jacket, while the other experienced natural heat
where F is the normal load, and H is the smaller of
the hardness numbers of the two contacting specimens
at the flash temperature. H can be replaced by the
value of 3~7r,,where af is the flow stress of the specimen
at the flash temperature. Therefore:
Tc = To + -%Q
F K. I p
To determine T,, one should assume a value for T,
at first, then, obtain H at the assumed T, from the
published data elsewhere13*14, and compute the result
on the right-hand-side of Eq. (9). If the computed
result is equal to the assumed T,, then T, is the
required flash temperature. Although the shear strain
rate on the real contact asperities may be very high,
it has little effect on the flow stress of the material under
compression because of the anisotropic behaviour in
plastic deformation. This is because the planes that
suffer frictional shearing are different from the planes
that are subjected to maximum shear stress due to
normal compression. However, for more accurate
calculation, the normal load F can be replaced by the
resultant load obtained from the normal and frictional
forces.
Figure 3 indicates typical results for the flash tempera-
ture computed with Eq. (9). The flash temperatures
based on the hardness at room temperature are also
shown for comparison.
PI8 Triboloav International Volume
H. So
is approxi-
(4)
(5)
I
0 015 I 1.k 1
(6)
P (MW
Fig 3 Computed results for temperature of rubbing
pairs made from medium carbon steel at a constant
sliding speed of 4 mls against different apparent contact
pressure p, MPa. T,: flash temperature based on
the hardness of the rubbed material at the required
temperature T,; TL: flash temperature based on hardness
at room temperature
Temperature of the disc
The bulk temperature of the disc is always neglected
by many investigators, but this temperature does affect
the rate and mechanism of wear of the rubbing bodies.
Figure 4a indicates the wear loss of the discs made of
410 stainless steel sliding on a stationary pin made of
(8) die steel. One of the discs was cooled by a water
transfer, and all other conditions were the same in
the tests. As the temperature rose to a certain level
in the latter condition (Fig 4b), the wear rate of the
disc increased suddenly. Although the wear rate in
the cooled condition was quite steady, the wear loss
was heavier. This was caused by the lower contact
temperature in the water-jacket-cooled condition,
which inhibited the pin from forming oxides. In the
natural heat-transfer case, as the temperature of the
disc rose the disc was softened, allowing heavier wear
loss.
Because of sharing the same interface, the flash
temperature of the rubbing bodies should be the same,
while the mean surface temperature at the apparent
contact area of the two contacting bodies may be
different from each other and should be computed
separately. The temperature at any position on the
rubbing track but outside the current apparent contact
area of the disc will be much lower than the mean
temperature inside the current contact zone. The mean
surface temperature at the current apparent contact
area is:
Qci=Hv-Qp-Q (10)
where Qd is the heat flow supplied to the disc, Q is
the rate of energy for creating new surfaces and for
accelerating the debris. But Q is difficult to determine
and is therefore neglected. Neglecting Q causes the
computed result for the flash and mean surface
29 Number 5 1996
 Characteristics
1000
Slide Distance (m)
600
FL-J
0 1000 2000
Slide Distance (m)
Fig 4 (a) Comparison of wear loss between disc speci-
mens in the conditions of water-jacket-cooled disc (+)
and the natural heat-transfer (*); (b) variation of mean
surface temperature at the apparent contact area of pin
specimens with time in the conditions of water-jacket-
cooled disc (+) and natural heat-transfer (*)
temperatures to be slightly overestimated. Replacing
Qr, by Qd and substituting the appropriate values for
K,, I, and I-I for the disc in Eq. (9) gives the mean
surface temperature To at the current apparent contact
area on the disc.
It is found that the temperature at any cross-section
of the disc parallel to the rubbing surface only
depends on the distance from the rubbing plane. The
temperature is almost the same at the same cross-
section.
Effect of moving specimen
Based on the dimensions of the pin used in the present
experiments and the comparison of the convection
coefficients between natural and forced convection,
Tribology
of wear results by pin-on-disc: H. So
when the speed of the pin is higher than 0.2 m/s, the
heat convected to the atmosphere increases with
increasing speed. Consequently, the temperature of
the pin and the disc is lower in the arrangement with
a rotating pin than for a stationary pin. This affects
the wear behaviour of the pin remarkably as shown
in Fig 5, which indicates the wear appearance of a
rotating pin and a stationary pin subjected to an
apparent contact pressure of 5.5 MPa and at a sliding
speed of 4 m/s. The stationary pin has a mushroom
shape at the rubbing end. This implies that the
temperature of the stationary pin was much higher
than that of the rotating pin subjected to the same
load and speed. The high temperature softened the
stationary pin. By comparing the colours of the pin
surface, the temperature distribution of a rotating pin
at the end of a test can be estimated. The mean
surface temperatures at the apparent contact area of
some tested pins are listed in Table 2 in which the
average temperatures on the rubbing track of the
mating discs are also shown.
Wear rate
Effect of moving specimen
Same material for the rubbing pair
If the pin and the disc are made of the same material,
the amount of wear will be dominated by the pin,
whichever is rotating (Fig 6). The wear of the disc is
negligible.
Different materials for the rubbing pair
Hardness of the same order. If the hardness numbers
of the two rubbing materials at room temperature are
of the same order, the wear rate of the pin specimen
will dominate that of the disc specimen, although the
hardness of the pin is higher than that of the disc at
room temperaature. In Fig 7 the pin and the disc were
made from AISI 4140 and 4340 alloy steels and heat-
treated to Vickers hardness numbers of 970 and 750,
respectively. It was found that the wear loss of the
disc was less than one tenth that of the pin. Figure 8
shows a comparison of the wear loss of the four
arrangements for the high and medium carbon steels
corresponding to Table 2. In whichever arrangement
all the wear loss is contributed by the pin specimen,
while that of the discs is negligible. Such results are
mainly caused by the much higher bulk temperature
of the pins near the contact surface. High temperatures
can markedly decrease the hardness of steels. There-
fore, the pin specimen having a softer sub-surface
results in heavier wear loss.
The hardness of one specimen is much higher than that
of the other. In such a condition the wear is dominated
by the soft material, whether the soft material is
machined to be the pin or the disc. Figures 4 and 9
indicate the wear loss of a stainless steel rubbed with
a die steel whose wear loss is negligible. In Fig 9, the
critical load (or the apparent pressure) for the transition
from mild oxidational to severe wear is shown.
International Volume 29 Number 5 1996 419
Characteristics of wear results by pin-on-disc: H. So

Fig 5 Comparison of wear appearance between the rubbed surfaces of pin specimens in different arrangements.
Left: stationary pin; right: rotating pin made of high carbon steel (Hv = 210) rubbed with medium carbon steel
discs (Hv = 160) at 4 mls and 5.5 MPa

Table 2 Mean surface temperature fC) at apparent contact area measured at a sliding distance of
1200 m, sliding speed 2 m/s and contact pressure 5.5 MPa

Rotating pin Stationary disc Stationary pin Rotating disc

HC pin on MC disc 430 260 750 340

MC pin on HC disc 348 250 500 270

Effects of sliding speed and normal load 30

The individual effect of sliding speed on wear rate of
the rubbing pair is ambiguous in experiments subjected 25 -
to a wide range of combinations of speeds and loads.
It is found that when the applied load is over some ms
level but the sliding speed keeps increasing at that E 20-
constant load, the wear rate of the pin specimen will $I
b
rise suddenly at some speed. Higher than such a speed 5 15-
the wear rate increases with increasing sliding speed.
22
Figure 10 indicates the typical results.
2
On the other hand, if the sliding speed is kept constant 3 lo
but the load varies, there is a critical load over which s
the wear rate of the stationary pin increases to a much 5-
higher value (Fig 11). The rapid increase in wear rate
in Fig 11 is caused by the massive volume in the pin
undergoing plastic deformation as shown in Fig 5. The 0 I I I I
plastic deformation is caused by a decrease in flow 0.00 1.00 2.00 3.00
stress at high bulk temperatures. It is found that in Pressure (MPa)
many tests, if the mean temperature at the apparent
contact area is higher than 400C and the apparent Fig 6 Comparison of wear rates between rubbing pairs
contact pressure is higher than 5 MPa, the wear of made of medium carbon steel in different arrangements
the pin specimens will turn to a severe condition for at a constant sliding speed of 2 mls: (+), stationary
most steels. pin; (*), rotating pin
420 Tribology International Volume 29 Number 5 1996
 Characteristics of wear results by pin-on-disc: H. So

i i 6 10
Sliding distance(103m)
0
Fig 7 Wear loss, W of a 4140 steel pin (Hv = 970)
rubbing against a 4340 steel disc (H, = 750) at 2 mls 0 50 100 150
and 2.5 M-Pa Slide Distance(m)

Fig 9 Wear loss of stainless steel pins rubbing against

die steel discs at a sliding speed of 0.8 mls and under
a contact pressure of 8.3 MPa (*) and 7.74 MPa (H)

1000

T
z
;E

a,
100 I
E 10

0 300 600 900 1200 1500 1 I I I I

Slide Distance (m)
Fig 8 Comparison of wear loss between the pin speci-
mens in four arrangements indicated in Table 2 at 2
mls and 5.5 MPa. (*), HC disc sliding on stationary
MC pin; (@), MC disc sliding on stationary HC pin;
(El), rotating MC pin sliding on a HC disc; (O),
rotating HC pin sliding on a MC disc. MC: medium
carbon steel (Hv = 160); HC: high carbon steel
(H, = 210)
Oxidational effect
The ranges of sliding speeds and normal loads employed
in the present tests fall into the condition of oxidational
wear1r,15. Therefore, in most cases the friction as well
as the wear rate is controlled by the formation of an
oxide film on the rubbing surfaces, especially when
the speed is high enough. However, it should be
pointed out that even in a severe wear condition there
are oxide films created on the rubbing surfaces, and
in such a case the wear rate is not affected by the
formation of oxides.
Tribology
1 2 3 4 5
Speed (m/s)
Fig 10 Variation in wear rate with rubbing speedfor a
HC pin (H, = 800) under a pressure of 4.43 MPa (A)
and for a stellite pin (H, = 650) under 8.85 MPa (0)
Friction coefficient
Two important results for the coefficient of friction of
the rubbing pair in the pin-on-disc configuration are
obtained. First, the friction coefficient in a rotating
pin arrangement is lower than that for a stationary
pin, when the applied load is raised to certain levels
(Fig 12). Secondly, when one of the rubbing bodies
has a much lower melting point than the other, the
friction coefficient increases with increasing speed (Fig
13). The variation in temperature of the stationary
disc with rubbing time is also shown in Fig 13. These
results are different from most published results and
are caused by an increase in plastic zone size near the
contact area subjected to the high bulk temperature
which softens the lower melting point material. The
real contact area therefore increases with increasing
International Volume 29 Number 5 1996 421
Characteristics of wear results by pin-on-disc: H. So

3mls
1.75

1.50 1
f ,2mls
0 I /

OC0 2 4 6 0

P (MW
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Fig 11 Variation in wear rate with apparent pressure p Time (min)
for different materials rubbed with AISI 4340 disc. HC,
high carbon steel pin (Hv = 800) at 4 m/s; DS, die 400
steel pin, (Hv = 600) at 2 mls; ST, MC pin laser
cladded with stellite (H., = 650) at 4 m/s
350- 3mls

300-

9
; 250-
5
0.8 2 200-
t
a& 150- 1 mls
k
loo-

0 I 1 1 , I 6 I
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
0.2 Time(min)
Fig 13 (a) Variation in friction coefficient with rubbing
0.0 speed of die steel pin sliding on stationary discs made
of 6061 aluminium alloy under a contact pressure of
0 300 600 900 1200 1500 2.2 MPa; (b) variation in bulk temperature of alu-
Slide Distance (m) minium discs with the speed of die steel pin correspond-
ing to Fig 13(a)
Fig 12 Comparison offriction coefficients between rotat-
ing pin and stationary pin corresponding to Fig 8 and
Table 2: (O), stationary HC pin; (*), stationary MC and stationary pins. This is caused by different
pin; (O), rotating HC pin; (El), rotating MC pin heat-transfer conditions occurring in the two
arrangements.
(2) A more accurate prediction of flash temperature
plastic zone size. The increases in plastic zone size
and mean surface temperature at the apparent
and real contact area hinder the rubbing motion.
contact area can be achieved with the calculation
Consequently, the friction coefficient increases with
proposed in the paper in accordance with the
increasing sliding speed. measurement of temperature on the stationary
pin.
Conclusions (3) The increase in bulk temperatures of the rubbing
bodies decreases the flow stresses of the rubbing
Some important conclusions can be drawn in accord- materials to a certain extent, which results in an
ance with the wear tests conducted with a pin-on-disc increase in the plastic zone size in the sub-
configuration. surfaces of the rubbing bodies. Consequently,
(1) The wear mechanism, friction coefficient and the friction coefficient as well as wear rate
bulk temperature of the rubbing bodies are increases with increasing sliding speed when the
different between the arrangements with rotating normal load is over certain levels.
422 Tribology International Volume 29 Number 5 1996
 Characteristics of wear results by pin-on-disc: H. So

(4) In order to avoid ambiguity in the presented
results from the pin-on-disc configuration, it is
sensible to point out the arrangement for the pin
and the disc, and whether a steady state condition
is reached, and if not, how long the sliding
distance is. Moreover, the use of a dimensionless
wear rate is preferable.
Acknowledgements
The author wishes to thank H. M. Chen, Y. A. Chen,
W. S. Jean, C. T. Chen, and C. H. Chen for their
assistance in the experiments.
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1. Blok H. Surface temperature under extreme pressure lubricating
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5. Archard, J.F. The temperature of rubbing surfaces. Wear 19581
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6. Ashby M.F., Abulawi J. and Kong H.S. Temperature maps for
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7. Lim, S.C. and Ashby M.F. Wear-mechanism maps. Acta MetaN.
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8. Ettles, C.M.McC. The thermal control of friction at high sliding
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3. Jaeger, J.C. Moving sources of heat and the temperatures at 14. Lange, K. Handbook of Metal Forming, McGraw-Hill, 1985,
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4. Barber, J.R. Distribution of heat between sliding surfaces. J. 15. So H. The mechanism of oxidational wear. Wear 1995. 184,
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Tribology International Volume 29 Number 5 1996 423