WELDING INSPECTION (WISS) Section Title yD Terms & Definitions / 2) Duties & Responsibilities 3) Welding Imperfections 4) Mechanical Testing 5) Welding Procedures/Welder approval 6) Materials Inspection D Codes and Standards 8) Welding Symbols on Drawings ») Introduction to Welding Processes » Manual Metal Are Welding 1) ‘Tungsten Inert Gas Welding 12) Metal Inert/Active Gas Welding 8) Submerged Are Welding 14) Welding Consumables 45) Non Destructive Testing // 16) Weld Repairs 17) Residual Stress & Distortion 18) Heat Treatment of Steels / 19) Oxy-Fuel Gas Welding & Cutting 20) Are Cutting Processes 21) Welding Safety 22) Weldability of steels 23) Visual Inspection SectionTWI CIMT. ‘THE WELDING INSTITUTE Terms and Definitions: Awea: A Levee betuomnwoter/ehs caused br leat er préssere ov by Oath i ALL elds A ‘ A A Joint: Be conflgurotien of. ‘Welding Inspection - Terms & Definitions Ll Rev 09-09-02 Copyright © 2002 TWI LtdTWI MT. Types of common welds: ‘THE WELDING INSTITUTE, Butt Welds. Pa / y Lav reuud Ciel ug [Al welds. (pte) . Thu'ck age Welds. ‘Welding Inspection - Terms & Definitions 12 Rev 09-09-02 Copyright © 2002 TWI LtdTWI CIMT. Types of common joints: Same Cexg ffediual wvectis ‘THE WELDING INSTITUTE Welding Inspection — Terms & Definitions 13 Rev 09-09-02 Copyright © 2002 TWILtdTwi CIMT. Weld Preparations: ‘THE WELDING INSTITUTE. ‘When welding, we need to fuse the entire width of the faces of both members. Most times we need to prepare, or remove metal from the joint to allow access for the process, for full fusion of the faces. We can use grinding, flame/are cutting, or machining for this operation, but grinding back 1 or 2 mm may be required after flame or are cutting . Rigle of Beved —\ Rect Landirg . The purpose of a weld preparation is to allow access for the welding process, penetration and fusion through the complete area of the joint and its faces. The function of the root gap is to allow penetration. The function of the root face is to remove excess heat and act as a heat sink. The higher the arc energy of the process, then generally the wider is the root face, as in SAW. The simple rule is this: The more taken out then the more must be replaced. ‘This has a major effect on both economics, and distortion. The root face, root gap and angle of bevel values, choice of single or double sided preparations, is solely dictated by the choice of welding process, the welding process parameters, the position and accessibility of the joint. ‘Welding Inspection — Terms & Definitions 14 Rev 09-09-02 Copyright © 2002 TWILtdTWI LIM. Single Butt Weld Preparations: THE WELDING INSTITUTE Single bevel / mv Vv ingie Single sided preparations are normally made on thinner materials, or when access from both sides is restricted. The selection may be also influenced by the capability of the welding process and the position of the joint, or the positional capability of available welding consumables, or the skill level available. ‘Welding Inspection — Terms & Definitions LS Rev 09-09-02 Copyright © 2002 TWI LtdTWI LZ. ‘THE WELDING INSTITUTE Double Butt Weld Preparations: Double bevel TaN Double Vv Double J TO Double _U. Double sided preparations are normally made on thicker materials, and when access from both sides is unrestricted. They may also be used to control the effect of distortion, and in economics, when welding thicker sections. ‘Welding Inspection — Terms & Definitions 16 Rev 09-09-02 Copyright © 2002 TWI LtdTWI VIA ‘THE WELDING INSTITUTE, Welded Butt Joints; 9 24 one Aye eb’ bbe He [eetl fi let Welded Butt Joint. ee Compowwd ~ Welded Butt Joint, Welding Inspection — Terms & Definitions 17 ‘Rev 09-09-02 Copyright © 2002 TWILtd‘THE WELDING INSTITUTE Welded T Joints: ‘, Lithet Welded T Joint, bectt A Welded T Joint, A Compo Welded T Joint, ‘Welding Inspection ~ Terms & Definitions 18 Rev 09-09-02 Copyright © 2002 TWI LtdTHE WELDING INSTITUTE Welded Lap Joints: _—f A Met Welded Lap Joint. a Shot Welded Lap Joint, ‘Welding Inspection ~ Terms & Definitions 19 Rev 09-09-02 Copyright © 2002 TWI LtdTWI ‘THE WELDING INSTITUTE, Welded Closed Corner Joints: losed Corner Joint. A Be tt Welded Closed Corner Joint. ‘Welding Inspection — Terms & Definitions 1.10 Rev 09-09-02 Copyright © 2002 TWI LtdTHE WELDING INSTITUTE tte thy inside f/llet Werded Open Corner Joint. Ag outside {lot Welded Open Corner Joint, A dent, ; p Joint. ‘Welding Inspection — Terms & Definitions Lu Rey 09-09-02 Copyright © 2002 TWI LtdTWI Ls THE WELDING INSTITUTE Terms of a Butt Welded Butt Joint: Hess. A&B=. Excess ‘Weld Metal. 1 The Cinut- ‘Welding Inspection — Terms & Definitions 1.12 Rev 09-09-02, Copyright © 2002 TWI LtdTWI MT. Terms of a Fillet Welded T Joint: Vertical Leg | THE WELDING INSTITUTE th Betual Thraat Thickness, In visual inspection it is usually the leg length that is used to size fillet welded joints. It is possible to find the design throat thickness easily by multiplying the leg length by 0.7 The excess weld metal can be measured by taking the measurable throat reading, then by deducting the design throat thickness calculated above. Example: If the leg length of a convex fillet weld is measured at 10 mm, then the design throat thickness = 10 x 0.7 which is 7mm, If the actual throat thickness is 8.5 mm then the excess weld metal is calculated as: 8.5 — 7mm = 1.5mm excess weld metal. ~ Terms & Definitions 113 Rev 09-09-02 Copyright © 2002 TWI LtdTWI ‘THE WELDING INSTITUTE ‘Nominal’ and ‘Effective’ Design Throat Thickness: Same leg length GT “a” = ‘Nominal’ design throat thickness ‘Effective’ design throat thickness (deep penetration fillets) When using deep penetrating processes with high current density it is possible to create deeper throat dimensions. This may be used in design calculations to carry stresses and is a big advantage by reducing overall weight of welds in a large welded structure. Deep throat fillet welds are possible when using high penetration (High current density) processes, such as FCAW & SAW. This throat notation “a” or “s” is used in BSEn 22553 for weld symbols on drawings throughout Europe. Welding Inspection — ‘Terms & Definitions 114 Rev 09-09-02 Copyright © 2002 TWI LtdTWI VM. ‘THE WELDING INSTITUTE Fillet Weld Profiles: M tre In joints that are to be dynamically loaded with cyclic stresses, concave fillet weld are preferred to minimise any stress concentrations or sites for fatigue crack initiation, In critical applications it may be a requirement of the welding procedure that the toes are lightly ground, or even flushed in with a TIG run, to remove any notches that are present. Welding Inspection — ‘Terms & Definitions 115 Rev 09-09-02 Copyright © 2002 TWI LtdTWI UM. ‘THE WELDING INSTITUTE Duties of a Welding Inspector: BL Itis the duty of a welding inspector to ensure that all operations concerning welding are carried out in strict accordance with written, or agreed practices, or specifications. This will include monitoring or checking a number of operations including: Before welding: Safety: Ensure that all operations are carried out in complete compliance with local, company, or National safety legislation (i.e. permits to work are in place). Documentation: Specification. (Year and revision) Drawings. (Correct revisions) Welding procedure specifications and welder approvals. Calibration certification. (Welding equipment/ancillaries and all inspection instruments) Material and consumable certification Welding Process and ancillaries: Welding equipment and all related ancillaries. (Cables, regulators, ovens, quivers etc.) Incoming Consumables: All pipe/plate and welding consumables for Size, Type and Condition. ‘Marking out preparation & set up: Correct method of cutting weld preparations. (Pre-Heat for thermal cutting if applicable) Correct preparation. (Relevant bevel angles, root face, root gap, root radius, land, etc.) Correct pre-welding distortion control. (Tacking, bridging, jigs, line up clamps, etc.) Correct pre heat applied prior to tack welding. All tack welding to be monitored and inspected ‘Welding Inspection — Duties of a Welding Inspector 24 Rev 09-09-02 Copyright © 2002 TWI LtdTWI CMT. THE WELDING INSTITUTE During welding: Pre-heat values. (Heating method, location and control) In-process distortion control. (Sequence or balanced welding) Consumable control, (Specification, size, condition, and any special treatments) Process type and all related variable parameters. (Voltage, amperage, travel speed) Purging gases. (Type, pressure/flow and control method) Welding conditions for root run/hot pass and all subsequent run, and inter-run cleaning. Minimum, or maximum inter-pass temperature, (Temperature and controling method) Compliance with all other variables stated on the approved welding procedure, After welding: ‘Visual inspection of the welded joint. (Including dimensional aspects) NDT requirements. (Method and qualification of operator, and execution) Identify repairs from assessment of visual or NDT reports. (Refer to repairs below) Post weld heat treatment (PWHT) (Heating method and temperature recording system) Re-inspect with visual/NDT after PWHIT. (If applicable) Hydrostatic test procedures. (For pipelines or pressure vessels) Repairs: Excavation procedure. (Approval and execution) Approval of the NDT procedures (For assessment of complete defect removal) Repair procedure, (Approval of re-welding procedures and welder approval) Execution of approved re-welding procedure. (Compliance with repair procedure) Re-inspect the repair area with visual inspection and approved NDT method. ‘Submission of inspection reports, and all related documents to the Q/C department. ‘Welding Inspection — Duties of a Welding Inspector 22 Rev 09-09-02 Copyright © 2002 TWI LtdTwi THE WELDING INSTITUTE Responsibilities of a Welding Inspector: To observe all relevant actions related to weld quality throughout production. This will include a final visual inspection of the weld area. To Record To record, or log all production inspection points relevant to quality, including a final ‘map and report sheet showing all identified welding imperfections. To Compare _ ois To compare all reported information with the acceptance levels/criteria and clauses within the applied application standard. Submit a final inspection report of your findings to the QA/QC department for analysis and any remedial actions. Welding Inspection — Duties ofa Welding Inspector 2.3 Rev 09-09-02 Copyright © 2002 TWI LidTWI UM ‘THE WELDING INSTITUTE Mechanical Testing: Mechanical tests are generally carried out to ensure that the required levels of certain mechanical properties have been achieved. When metals have been welded, the mechanical properties of the plates may have changed in the HAZ due to the thermal effects of the welding process. Itis also necessary to establish that the weld metal itself reaches the minimum specified values. ‘The mechanical types of properties or characteristics most commonly evaluated are: Hardness: The ability of a material to resist indentation, Toughness: The ability of a material to absorb impact energy and resist fracture. Strength: The ability of a material to resist a force. (Normally tension) Duetility: ‘The ability of a material to plastically deform under tension. To carry out these evaluations we require specific tests. There are a number of mechanical tests available to test for these specific mechanical properties, the most common of which are: 1) _ Hardness testing. (Vickers/Brinell/Rockwell) 2) Toughness testing. (Charpy V/Izod/CTOD) Used to measure Quantity. 3) _ Tensile testing. (Reduced/Radius /AIl weld metal) ‘Tests 1-3 have units and are termed quantitative tests. We use other tests to evaluate the quality of welds 4) Macro testing. 5) Bend testing. (Side/Face/Root) Used to measure 6) __ Fillet weld fracture testing. Quality. 7) Butt weld Nick-break testing. Tests 47 have no units and are termed qualitative tests. Welding Inspection - Mechanical Testing at Rev 09-09-02 Copyright © 2002 TWI LtdTWI CIMT. 1) Hardness tests: — Used to check the level of hardness across the weld. ‘THE WELDING INSTITUTE ‘Types of hardness test are: a) Rockwell scale. (Diamond or stee! ball) b) Vickers pyramid. VPN (Diamond) ©) Brinell. BHN ( or 10 mm diameter steel ball) 4) Shore Schlerescope. (Measures resilience) Most hardness tests are carried out by (1) impressing a ball, or a diamond into the surface of a material under a fixed load, (2) then measuring the resultant indentation and comparing it to a scale of units (BHN/VPN etc.) relevant to that type of test. Hardness surveys are generally carried out across the weld as shown below. In some applications it may also be required to takes hardness readings at the weld junction/fusion zone. A shore schlerescope measures hardness by dropping a weight from a height onto the surface of a metal and measuring the height of the rebound. The higher the rebound of the weight, the harder is the material. Early equipment was cumbersome, but more portable compared to other hardness testing methods. Equipment is now available which works on the resilience principle, and is the size of a ballpoint pen. This equipment is generally scaled to give hardness values in all of the above scales. bh area Plate ° Fusion zone Welding Inspection — Mechanical Testing 42 Rev 09-09-02 Copyright © 2002 TWILtdTWI ZHI. 2) — Toughness tests: Used to check the resistance to impact loading. ‘THE WELDING INSTITUTE Types of toughness test are: a) Charpy V. (Joules) Specimen held horizontally in test machine, notch to the rear. b) Izod. (Filbs) Specimen held vertically in test machine, notch to the front. ©) CTOD or Crack Tip Opening Displacement testing. (mm) ‘There are many factors that affect the toughness of the weldment and weld metal. One of the important effects is that of testing temperature. In the Charpy V and Izod test, the fracture toughness is assessed by the amount of impact energy absorbed by a small specimen of 10 mm? during fracture by a swinging hammer. A graph can be produced using temperature as the base. The notch is 2mm deep, 0.25 root radius, and notch ® 45 ° Graduated scale of Joules absorbed energy Release lever Pendulum locked in position Notch placed to the Specimen ‘Welding Inspection ~ Mechanical Testing 43 Rev 09-09-02 Copyright © 2002 TWI LtdTHE WELDING INSTITUTE Ductile/Brittle transition curve for a typical ferritic steel Ductile fracture ‘Temperature range 47 Joules Ductile/Brittle transition point 28 Joules Energy absorbed (Joules) -50 -40 30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 Degrees Centigrade ‘The curve can be moved by many factors, including alloying & heat input: a) Alloying: ‘The curve can be moved to the left by additions of manganese of up to 1.6 %. In other words the addition of manganese of up to 1.6% has a positive effect on improving the toughness of plain ferritic steels. Nickel also has a very positive effect on low temperature toughness of steels, however nickel is a very expensive metallic element and is used only where low temperatures are severe. Steels containing 9% nickel have excellent low temperature toughness. Fully austenitic stainless steels show measurable toughness at -270 °C, or a few degrees above absolute zero. b) Heat input: The curve can be moved to the right by too high a heat input during the welding cycle. This happens because of the effect called grain growth. At high temperatures, grains grow and fuse together to form larger grains. The amount of energy needed to fracture a large grain structure is much less than a fine grain structure. Hence the need to control inter-pass temperatures. ‘Welding Inspection — Mechanical Testing 44 Rev 09-09-02 Copyright © 2002 TWI LtdTWI VM. ‘THE WELDING INSTITUTE 3) Tensile Test: Used to measure tensile strength (N/mm*) (Ductility as E %) Types of tensile tests are: a) Transverse tensile test: Reduced section: Used to test the strength of the weldment. Radius reduced section: _ Can be used to assess the strength of the weld metal. b) _Allweld metal tensile test: ‘Used to test weld metal for UTS, yield point and elongation, or E%. Transverse tensile tests are taken across the weld to test the value of tensile strength in this area. A reduced tensile test is the standard test where the specimen is first cut and then reduced to allow a gripping area for the machine with a very low stress concentration. A radius may be cut into the weld to assess the weld metal strength. A transverse tensile test specimen ‘Test gripping area Weld Radius (For radius reduced test specimens only) Reduced Section Elongation marks Failure is generally expected in the plate material, though failure in the weld or HAZ is not reason to fail the test if the minimum specified tensile stress has been reached. Ina Radius reduced tensile test the weld metal is tumed down, and so failure would be expected in the weld, due to a smaller CSA. It is sometimes used to show the tensile strength of the weld metal, but it is not very accurate due to the local stress concentrations that are produced. All weld metal tensile tests are carried out by electrode manufacturers to determine weld metal strength, and also ductility as elongation (E%). A deep weld is made in a plate and then a tensile specimen is cut along the length of the weld, which should contain 99.9% undiluted, or pure weld metal. Prior to the test, marks are made 50 mm. apart along the length of the specimen. As the test is being carried out yield stress and fracture stress are recorded and documented. After fracture, the pieces are placed back together and the elongation is calculated from the original gauge length and given as E% ‘Welding Inspection — Mechanical Testing 45 Rev 09-09-02 Copyright © 2002 TWI LtdTWI VMI. 4) Macro examination tests: Used to check the internal level of quality in the weld. ‘THE WELDING INSTITUTE ‘A macro specimen is normally cut from a stop/start position in the root, or hot pass of a welder approval test. The start/stop position is marked out during a welder approval test by the welding inspector. Once cut, the specimen is polished using progressively finer grit papers and polishing at 90° to previous polishing direction, until all the scratches caused by the previous polishing direction have been removed. It is then etched in an acid solution which is normally 5 -10% Nitric acid in alcohol (carbon steels). Care must be taken not to under-etch or over-etch the specimen, as this will mask the elements that can be observed on a correctly etched specimen. After etching for the correct time, the specimen is then washed and dried. A visual examination should be carried out at all stages of production to observe any imperfections that are visible. Finally, a report is then produced on the visual findings, then compared and assessed to the levels of acceptance in the application standard. Macro samples may be sprayed with clear lacquer after inspection, for storage purposes. Macro of a Butt Welded Butt Joint Macro Assessment Table 1) Excess weld metal height. 2) Slag with lack of sidewall fusion. 3) Slag with lack of inter-run fusion. 4) Angular misalignment. 5) _ Root penetration bead height. 6) Segregation bands. 7) Undereut Welding Inspection ~ Mechanical Testing 46 Rev 09-09-02 Copyright © 2002 TWI LtdTWI VIM. Welding Inspection — Mechanical Testing, 47 Cop} THE WELDING INSTITUTE 5) Bend tests: Used to check weld ductility & fusion in the area under stress. The former is moved through a guide (guided bend test), or rollers, and the specimen is bent to the desired angle. Types of bend test are: a) Facebends b) Rootbends c) Sidebends —_d) Longitudinal bends Specimen Guide After testing Specimen is bent through pre-determined angle Generally, bend tests are carried out for welder approval tests, though they may also be used during procedure approval to establish good sidewall, root, or weld face fusion. Inspection of the test face is made after the test to check the integrity of the area in test. For materials of greater than 12mm thickness, a slice of 10-12mm is normally cut out along the length and the material is side bend tested, Bend testing is a qualitative method of mechanical testing. Ductility may be observed but is not measured. Rev 09-09-02 © 2002 TWILtdTWI UM. 6) Fillet weld fracture tests. Used to assess root fusion in fillet welds. THE WELDING INSTITUTE AA fillet weld fracture test is normally only carried out during a welder approval test. The specimen is normally cut by hacksaw through the weld face to a depth (usually 1-2 mm) stated in the standard. It is then held in a vice and fractured with a hammer blow from the rear. Once fracture has been made, both fractured surfaces are inspected for imperfections. Finally the vertical plate X is moved through 90° and the line of root fusion is observed for continuity. Any straight line would indicate a lack of root fusion. In most standards this is sufficient to fail the welder. Hammer blow Saw cut me Line of fusion A Cc == = a Full fracture Y ~ “Lack of root fusion” After inspection of both fractured surfaces for imperfections, turn fracture piece X through 90° vertically and inspect the line of root fusion. (Line 2) A Fillet weld fracture test is a qualitative mechanical test, as we are observing weld quality. Welding Inspection - Mechanical Testing, 48 Rev 09-09-02 Copyright © 2002 TWI LtdTWI THE WELDING INSTITUTE ick-break tes Used to assess root penetration and fusion in double-sided butt welds, and the intemal faces of single sided butt welds. A Nick-break test is normally carried out during a welder approval test. ‘The specimen is normally cut by hacksaw through the weld faces to a depth stated in the standard. It is then held in a vice and fractured with a hammer blow from the rear. Once fracture has been made then both fractures are tumed horizontally through 90° and may then be inspected for imperfections on the fracture faces, as shown below in C. Saw Cuts Hammer blow Fracture line Lack of root penetration, or fusion Inclusions on the fracture line A butt Nick—break test is a qualitative test, as we are observing quality. ‘Welding Inspection — Mechanical Testing 49 Rev 09-09-02 Copyright © 2002 TWI LtdTWI CIM. ‘THE WELDING INSTITUTE Quantitative and Qualitative Mechanical Testing: Quantitative: We test weldments mechanically to establish the level of mechanical properties of the weld. In such a case we may use the following types of tests: 1) Hardness: Vickers (VPN) _Brinell (BHN) Rockwell (Scale C for steels) 2) Toughness: Charpy V (Joules) Izod (Ftlbs) CTOD (mm) 3) Tensile Strength: ‘Nimm? (UK) & PSI (USA) ‘Transverse reduced & radius reduced. Longitudinal all weld metal. Elongation E% may be measured during tensile testing. (The ductility value often given as a % reduction in area mainly in transverse and short transverse tensile tests) All the above tests 1 - 3 have units, and are thus termed quantitative tests. They are used only in welding procedure approvals. Qualitative: We also test weldments mechanically to establish the level of quality in the weld. In such a case we may use the following types of test: 4) Macro testing. 5) Bend testing, (Face. Root, Side, & Longitudinal) 6) Fillet weld fracture testing. 7) Butt nick-break testing. All the above tests 4 ~ 7 have no units, and are thus termed qualitative tests. ‘They are mainly used in welder approvals. Some of the qualitative tests may be used during procedural approval to establish good fusion/penetration ete. ‘Welding Inspection - Mechanical Testing 4.10 Rev 09-09-02 Copyright © 2002 TWI LidTWI VL Summary of Mechanical Testing: THE WELDING INSTITUTE Name Property Qualitative Units, if Used mainly for If applicable or applicable ___| Quantitative Rockwell scale Hardness ‘Quantitative | Seale Cis used | Welding for Steels Procedure tests Vickers pyramid | Hardness Quantitative [VPN Welding Procedure tests Brinell Hardness Quantitative | BHN Welding Procedure tests Shore Schlerescope | Hardness Quantitative | Measures ‘Measuring Resilience mm _| Stock materials Charpy V Toughness Quantitative | Joules. Energy | Welding absorbed Procedure tests Tzod Toughness Quantitative | Ft.lbs Welding Procedure tests crop Notch Ductility | Quantitative | 0.0000 mm+a | Welding Toughness detailed report _| Procedure tests ‘Transverse Reduced | Tensile Strength | Quantitative | N/mm” or PSI | Welding Tensile Ductility % Reduction Area | Procedure tests ‘All Weld Metal Tensile Strength | Quantitative | Nimm* or PSI | Welding Tensile Duetility Elongation % _ | Consumable tests Radius Reduced | Tensile Strength | Quantitative | N/mm’ or PSI | Welding Transverse Tensile | of weld metal Procedure tests Macro N/A Qualitative NIA ‘Welder Approval or Procedure tests Bends Ductility may be | Qualitative NA ‘Welder Approval Face Root or Side __| observed or Procedure tests Fillet Weld Fracture NIA Qualitative NA Welder Approval T & Lap Joints or Procedure tests Nick Break Test NIA Qualitative NA Welder Approval Butt Joints or Procedure tests Welding Inspection — Mechanical Testing 4a1 Rev 09-09-02 Copyright © 2002 TWI LtdTwi VT. ‘THE WELDING INSTITUTE ‘Welding Procedures: What is a welding procedure? A welding procedure is a systematic method of producing a sound weld. For production purposes this is generally held as a written, or a computer generated document. Testing a weld sample: Most production welding procedures are approved. (They have been thoroughly tested) Having carried out a test weld using the preliminary Welding Procedure Specification (pWPS), the welded specimen is generally sent for visual inspection and non-destructive testing to assess the level of quality. If the test weld passes these tests it may then be sent for any required mechanical testing. The test coupons are cut from the welded test piece from locations that are generally specified in the application standard, and are then sent to a test house for testing. ‘These tests may include quantitative tests such as hardness, toughness or tensile tests, and any required qualitative tests such as macros, bends, or fracture tests. Documentation: If all the tests have met the requirements of the standard, the procedure will become approved. The Welding Procedure Approval Record *(WPAR) will include all the various welding parameters and test record data. * Also commonly referred to as a Procedure Qualification record (PQR) From this data a workable document for production welding is prepared and called a Welding Procedure Specification (WPS). Generally the approved Welding Procedure Specification will have an “Extent of approval” which may include the following variable parameters: 1) Thickness of plate. 2) Diameter of pipe. 3) Welding position. 4) Material groups. 5) Amperage range. © Number of runs. 7) Consumables. 8) Heat input range. (kJ/mm) A CSWIP 3.2 Senior Welding Inspector would generally witness the welding of the procedure and supervise the subsequent testing of the weld. ‘Welding Inspection— Welder & Procedure Approval 5. Rev 09-09-02 Copyright © 2002 TWI Ltd‘THE WELDING INSTITUTE, Welder Approval: A welder approval test is a test of the level of skill attained by the welder. Once a welding procedure has been approved it is then important to ensure that all welders employed using the procedure on a project can meet the level of quality set down in the application standard. Welder approvals are therefore carried-out, where the welders are directed to accurately follow the approved WPS by the welding inspector. The test plate, or pipe is then tested for quality using NDE/NDT and some qualitative mechanical tests. In general a visual examination is carried out, followed by radiography or ultrasonic testing (depending on the level of skill demanded from the welder) to look for internal imperfections. The specimen may then be cut into coupons for the various qualitative mechanical tests. These tests generally require simple equipment such as a hacksaw, hammer, vice, polishing equipments, and bend testing machine. ‘The mechanical tests of a welder approval may include: a) Bend tests. (Side. Face. Root) -b)-—_‘Fillet weld fracture tests. ©) Nick Break tests. d) Macro Assessments. ‘When supervising a welder test the welding inspector should: 1) Check the welding process, condition of equipment and test area for suitability. 2) Check that extraction systems, goggles and all safety equipment are available. 3) Check grinders, chipping hammers, wire brush and all hand tools are available. 4) Check materials to be welded are correct and stamped correctly for the test. 5) Check welding consumables specification, diameter, and treatment with WPS. 6) Check the welder’s name and stamp details are correct. 7) Check that the joint has been correctly prepared and tacked, or jigged. 8) Check that the joint and seam is in the correct position for the test. 9) Explain the nature of the test and check that the welder understands the WPS. 10) Check that the welder carries out the root run, fill and cap as per the WPS. 11) Ensure welders identity and stop start location are clearly marked. 12) Supervise or carry out the required tests and submit results to Q/C department. A CSWIP 3.1 welding inspector may be called upon to witness/conduct a welder approval test, and supervise, or carry out the subsequent testing of the weld. ‘Welding Inspection — Welder & Procedure Approval 52 Rev 09-09-02 Copyright © 2002 TWI LtdTWI ‘THE WELDING INSTITUTE A typical welder approval certificate to BS 4872 would contain the following data: Organization’ Symbol Logo: | Welder approval test certificate | Test reeord No & (BS 4872: Part 1 1982) 321 ‘Manufacturers name: Welders name & Identity No Issue No XYZ Fabrications Ltd. Mr. A Welder. Stamp 123 001 ‘Test piece details: _ Date of test ‘September 2002 ‘Welding process: MMA IIL Parent material: Ferrite steel Extent of approval: i smm Single V bu. Welding Proces: MMA 150mm ‘Materials Range: Ferrie steels. Overhead. Vertical up. Thickness range: =—-2.5-- 10mm, Horizontal vertical. Flat. Joint types: Butt welds in ‘Axis® inclined 45 plate & pipe, Fixed Pipe outside 2: 75 -300mm, ‘Welding Position: All except ‘Welding consumables as Vertical down. Consumables: Rutile & Basic. Filler metal: BOC Fortrex 7018 (Make & type) ‘Weld preparation (dimensioned sketch) ‘Composit Ferric steel. ee Specification: ES05B12HS Geo Shielding gas: NA Specification number: BSEn 499 1994 15—2:mm Visual examination & Test results: Visual Inspection: Contou Haepelle Penetration (No backing) Haste Undereut: Ahasptale Penetration (with backing) | Aet plea ‘Smoothness ofjoins: | Ahegtalle Surface defects Haptic Destructive tests: ‘Macro Side Bend Root Bend | Fillet fracture | Butt Nick break [___ Ht reganed Met regained Xe Aeuptable Wot required Ao reguived Remarks: 7he weld was spatter free ard had a good gppeararce ard tae bled, ‘The statements in this certificate are correct. The test weld was prepared in accordance with the requirements of BS 4872: Part 1 1982. Manufacturers Representative: Inspecting authority, or test house Mr. A Representative ABC Inspection Ltd. A Representative C Plenty Position. Witnessed by: Quality Manager Mr. IC Plenty : 9" September 2002 Date: 9" September 2002 ‘Welding Inspection — Welder & Procedure Approval 53 Rev 09-09-02. Copyright © 2002 TWI LtdTWI CLM. ‘THE WELDING INSTITUTE. Materials Inspection: All materials arriving on site should be inspected for: 1» Size. 2) Condition. 3) — Type/Specification. In addition, other elements may need to be considered depending on the materials form ‘or shape. Most plate materials begin life as a casting, which is then rolled out into plate. Plate is sometimes rolled into pipe and then welded with a longitudinal, or helical seam. Some imperfections associated with rolling are shown below: Direction of rolling Laminations contain impurities and major inclusions such as slags that solidify in the ingot. ‘When rolled out these major inclusions may exist throughout the plate thickness. Gas pores in the solidified ingot can also cause laminations when rolled out but will generally ‘close up’ during the hot rolling process. Laminations will become thinner as the plate is rolled into thinner sections and will eventually become invisible to the naked eye in thinner sheet or plate. Segregation bands occur in the centre of the plate and are low melting point impurities such as sulphur or phosphorous which have segregated to the centre of the ingot as that is the last place to cool. Great care needs to be taken when welding low quality steel as. sulphur levels may be present in the steel which cannot be detected by non destructive testing. Segregation bands can only be found on etched surfaces and have an appearance similar to that of a weld HAZ. Laps are caused during rolling when overlapped metal does not fuse to the base ‘material due to insufficient temperature, and or pressure. ‘Welding Inspection — Materials Inspection 61 Rev 09-09-02 Copyright © 2002 TWI LtdTWI CM. ‘THE WELDING INSTITUTE Plate Inspection: Condition: Corrosion, Mechanical damage, Laps and Laminations. Type/Specificatioi Thickness Other checks need to be made such as heat treatment condition, distortion, tolerance, quantity, storage and identification. ‘Welding Inspection — Materials Inspection 62 Rev 09-09-02 Copyright © 2002 TWI LtdTWI CLM. THE WELDING INSTITUTE Pipe Inspection: Condition: Corrosion, Mechanical damage, Wall thickness, Ovality, Laps, Laminations. Type/Specification: Welded seam Size: Outside @ ‘Wall thickness Other checks also need to be made, such as heat treatment condition, distortion, tolerance, quantity, identification and storage. ‘Welding Inspection ~ Materials Inspection 63 Rev 09-09-02 Copyright © 2002 TWI Ltd‘THE WELDING INSTITUTE, Codes and Standards: A code of practice is generally a legally binding document containing the rules and laws required to design, and test a specific product, whereas a standard will generally contain, or refer to all the relevant optional and mandatory manufacturing, testing and measuring data. The definitions given in the English dictionary state: A code of practice: ‘A set of law's, or rules that shall be followed when providing a service or product. An applied standard: A level of quality, or specification too which something must be tested. ‘We use codes and standards to manufacture many things that have been built many times before. The lessons of failures, or under-design are generally incorporated into the next revised edition. ‘Typical design/construction codes and standards used in industry include: Pipe lines carrying low, and high-pressure fluids. Oil storage tanks. Pressure vessels. Offshore structures. ‘Nuclear installations. ‘Composite concrete and steel bridge construction. Vehicle manufacture. ‘Nuclear power station pipe work. ‘Submarine hull construction. Earth moving equipment. Building construction etc. Generally; the higher the level of quality required then the more specific is the code/standard in terms of the manufacturing method, materials, workmanship, testing and acceptable imperfection levels. The application code/standard gives important information to the welding inspector as it determines the inspection points and stages, and other relevant criteria that must be followed, or achieved by the contractor during the fabrication process. Most major application codes and standards contain 3 major sections, which are dedicated to: 1) Design. 2) Manufacture, 3) Testing. ‘Welding Inspection — Codes and Standards 7A Rev 09-09-02 Copyright © 2002 TWI LtdTWI CMT. Application codes/standards may not contain all the relevant data required for ‘manufacture, but may refer to other applicable standards for special elements. Examples of these are given below: ‘THE WELDING INSTITUTE 1) Materials specifications. 2) Welding consumable specifications. 3) Welding procedure and welder approvals. 4) Personnel qualifications for NDT operators. 5) NDT Methods. On many occasions the application code/standard will contain it own levels of acceptance, which are drawn up by a board of professional senior engineers, who operate in that specific industrial area. Codes and standards are ‘revised periodically to take into account new data, new manufacturing methods, or processes that may come into being. If no local legal obligations exist then it is the year of the application code/standard within the contract documents, which becomes the legally binding version. ‘The main areas of responsibility within an application standard is generally divided into: 1) _ Theclient, or customer. 2) ‘The contractor, or manufacturer. 3) The third party inspection authority, or client's representative. ‘The applied code/standard will form hub of the contract documents hence any deviation, or non-conformance from the code/standard must be applied for by application from the contractor to the client as a concession. Once a concession has been agreed, it must then become a signed and written document, which is then filed with the fabrication quality documents. Welding Inspection ~ Codes and Standards 12 Rev 09-09-02 Copyright @ 2002 TWI LtdTWI LLM. THE WELDING INSTITUTE Weld Symbols on Drawings: We use weld symbols to transfer information from the design office to the workshop. It is essential that a welding inspector can interpret weld symbols, as a large proportion of the welding inspectors time will be spent checking that the welder is correctly completing the weld in accordance with the approved fabrication drawing. Therefore without a good knowledge of weld symbols, a welding inspector is unable to earry out his full scope of work. Standards for weld symbols do not follow logic, but are based on simple conventions. There are many different standards for weld symbols, as most major manufacturing countries have their own. Basically a weld symbol is made of 5 different components, and the following is common to all major standards: 1) Thearrow line: ‘The arrow line is always a straight and unbroken line, (With the exception of instances in AWS A2.4) and has only 1 of 2 points on the joint where it must touch, as shown below: Fither/or 2) The reference line: The reference line must touch the arrow line, and is generally parallel to the bottom of the drawing page. There is therefore always an angle between the arrow line and reference line. The point of the joint of the 2 lines is referred to as the knuckle, an Either/or ana 3) The symbol: The orientation of the symbol on the line is generally the same in most standards, however the concept of arrow side and other side is shown differently in some standards. This convention is explained within the following text for UK, European, and ISO standards. (AWS A2.4 convention for arrow and other side follows that of BS 499) 4) ‘The dimensions: Basically, all cross sectional dimensions are given to the left, and all linear dimensions are given to the right hand side of the symbols in most standards, 5) _ Supplementary information: Supplementary information, such as welding process, weld profile, NDT, and any special instructions may differ from standard to standard. The following section gives a guide to the standards used in UK and Europe. ‘Welding Inspection — Weld Symbols on Drawings 81 Rev 09-09-02 Copyright © 2002 TWI Ltd.TWI VL, ‘THE WELDING INSTITUTE 1) _ Convention of BS 499 (UK): The Arrow Line: a) Shall touch the joint intersection. b) Shall not be parallel to the drawing. ©) Shall point towards a single plate preparation. The Reference Line: a) Shall join the arrow line. b) Shall be parallel to the bottom of the drawing, The Weld Symbol: a) Welds done from this side (Arrow side) of joint, go underneath the reference line, b) Welds done from the other side of the joint, go on top of the reference line. c) Symbols with a vertical line component must be drawn with the vertical line drawn 10 the left side of the symbol. 4) _Alllcross sectional dimensions are shown to the left of the symbol. Fillet throat thickness is preceded by the letter a and the leg length by the letter b ‘When only leg length is shown the reference letter (b) is optional. The throat thickness for partial penetration butt welds is preceded by the letter s ) _Alllinear dimensions are shown on the right of the symbol ie, Number of welds, length of welds, length of any spaces. Example: Number X Length (Space) Example: a.7 b.10 x 50 ‘Welding Inspection — Weld Symbols on Drawings 8.2 Rev 09-09-02 Copyright © 2002 TWI Ltd.TWI VM. Examples of BS 499 ISO 2553 and BSEn 22553 ‘THE WELDING INSTITUTE Double-sided butt weld symbols Double bevel DoubleV Double J Double U Supplementary & further weld symbols to BS 499: Weld all around Weld onsite square butt weld a Profile of fillet weld yy 111 (Welding process to ISO 4063 aN Compound weld (Single bevel and double fillet) Intermittent welds in BS 499 and BSEn 22553 are given as shown as below with number of welds x length of each weld, with gap length given in brackets ie. 3 x20 (50) ‘A staggered intermittent weld may be shown with a Z drawn across the axis between the weld length and gap. 3No’s 20mm length 50mm gap ot 60) 3x20 Staggered ‘Welding Inspection — Weld Symbols on Drawings 83 Rev 09-09-02 Copyright © 2002 TWI Ltd.TWwI VM. 2) Convention of ISO 2553 and BSEn 22553: (Has now replaced BS 499 in UK) ‘THE WELDING INSTITUTE The Arrow Line: (As per BS 499) a) Shall touch the joint intersection. b) Shall not be parallel to the drawing. ©) Shall point towards a single plate preparation. The Reference Line: a) Shall join the arrow line. uses 3) Shall rama! to the bottom of the drawing, A* Per BS °) Shall have a broken line placed above, or beneath the reference line. or The Symbol: _As per BS 499 with the following exceptions: The other side of the joint is represented by the broken line, which shall be shown above, or below the reference line, except in the case where the welds are totally symmetrical about the central axis of the joint. Fillet weld leg length shall always be preceded by the letter 2. ‘Nominal fillet weld throat thickness shall always be preceded by the letter a. Effective throat thickness shall always be preceded by the letter 8 for deep penetration fillet welds and partial penetration butt welds. Unbroken line representing the arrow side of the joint Removable backing strip ‘Welding process to BSEn 24063 4 Reference information Cu] +10 a8 s10 210 a Broken line indicating other side of the joint Sa toes to be ground smoothly ‘Welding Inspection — Weld Symbols on Drawings 84 Rev 09-09-02 Copyright © 2002 TWI Ltd.TWI CIMT. Table 10 * Numerical indication of process ‘THE WELDING INSTITUTE No. Process No. Process 1 Are welding 7 Other welding processes 11 Metal-are welding without gas protection Tl Thermit welding 111 Metal-are welding with covered electrode 72 —_Electroslag welding 112 Gravity are welding with covered electrode 7B Blectrogas welding 113 Bare wire metal-are welding 74 Induction welding 114 Flux cored metal-are welding 75 Light radiation welding 115 Coated wire metal-are welding 751 Laser Welding 118 Firecracker welding 752 Arc image welding 12. Submerged are welding 753 Infrared welding 121 Submerged arc welding with wire electrode 76 Electron beam welding 122 ‘Submerged arc welding with strip electrode 77 Percussion welding 13. Gas shielded metal-are welding 78 Stud welding 131 MIG welding: cwits an inet shitd ga) 781 Arc stud welding 135 MAG welding: (with an active eas shit) 782 Resistance welding 136 Flux cored are welding (with an sctive gs shield) 14 Gas-shielded welding (Woncomsumablecectod) 9 ~—-Brazing, soldering & braze welding 141 TIG welding 91 Brazing 149 Atomic-hydrogen welding 911 Inffared brazing, 15 Plasmaare welding 912 Flame brazing 18 Other are welding processes 913 Fumace brazing 181 Carbon are welding 914 Dip brazing 185 Rotating arc welding, 915 Salt bath brazing 916 Induction brazing 2 Resistance welding 917 Ultrasonic brazing 21 ‘Spot welding 918 Resistance brazing 22 Seam welding 919 Diffusion brazing 221 Lap seam welding 923 Frietion brazing 225 Seam welding with strip 924 Vacuum brazing 23 Projection welding 93 Other brazing processes 24 Flash welding 94 Soldering 25 Resistance butt welding 941 Inffared soldering 29 Other resistance welding processes 942 Flame soldering 291 HF resistance welding 943 Fumace soldering 944 Dip soldering 3 Gas welding 945 Salt bath soldering 31 Oxysfuel gas welding 946 Induction soldering 311 Oxyacetylene welding 947 Ultrasonic soldering 312 Oxy-propane welding 948 Resistance soldering 313 Oxy-hydrogen welding 949 Diffusion soldering 32 Air fuel gas welding 951 Flow soldering 321 Air-acetylene welding 952 Soldering with soldering iron 322 Air-propane welding 953 Friction soldering 954 Vacuum soldering 4 Solid phase welding: Pressure welding 96 Other soldering processes 41 Ultrasonic welding 97 Braze welding 42 Friction welding 971 Gas braze welding 43 Forge welding 972 Are braze welding 44 Welding by high mechanical energy 441 Explosive welding 45 Diffusion welding 47 Gas pressure welding 48 Cold welding * This table complies with International Standard ISO 4063 (Now BSEn 24063) Welding Ins, pection — Weld Symbols on Drawings Copyright © 2002 TWI Ltd. 85 Rev 09-09-02TWI UM. THE WELDING INSTITUTE ‘Complete a symbols drawing for the welded cruciform joint given below: All butt weld are welded with the MIG process and fillet welds with MMA. All fillet weld leg lengths are 10 mm ‘Use the sheets overleaf to transcribe the information shown above into weld symbols complying with the following standards: BS 499 Part II BSEn 22553 Use the drawings provided overleaf ‘The course lecturer will present the solutions, after you have completed the exercise, ‘Welding Inspection ~ Weld Symbols on Drawings 8.6 Rev 09-09-02 Copyright © 2002 TWI Ltd.TWI THE WELDING INSTITUTE, BS 499 Part II BSEn 22553 ‘Welding Inspection — Weld Symbols on Drawings 87 Rev 09-09-02 Copyright © 2002 TWI Ltd.TWI CLM. ‘THE WELDING INSTITUTE Introduction to Welding Processes: A.welding process: Special equipment used with method, for producing welds. ‘The 4 main requirements of any fusion welding process are: Heating Protection To make sound welds, we need ‘Adequate properties Cleaning Heating: Of high enough intensity to cause melting of base metals and filler metals. Protection: Of the molten filler metal in transit and base metal from oxidation, and to protect the heat source and metals from ingress of gases such as hydrogen & oxygen. Cleaning: —_ Of the weld metal to remove oxides and impurities, and refine the grains. Adequate: Adding alloying elements to the weld, to produce the desired mechanical properties properties. ‘Welding Inspection — Introduction to Welding Processes 9.1 Rev 09-09-02 Copyright © 2002 TWI Ltd.TWI CMT. Heating: THE WELDING INSTITUTE ‘There are many heat sources used for welding. In fusion welding, the main requirement is that the source must be of sufficient temperature to melt the materials being welded. Combustion of gases: Oxygen & acetylene will combust to produce a temperature of 3,200 °C. Other fuel gases may be used for oxy fuel gas cutting. The intensity of the flame is not as high as other heating methods and so longer time has to be spent to bring the material to its melting point. Electrical resistance: The heat generated by electrical resistance between 2 surfaces is used to produce over 95% of all welds made, in the resistance spot welding process. Electrical resistance is also used as a heat source in the Electro Slag welding process where the resistance is given by the molten slag. This process is classed as a resistive heating process. High intensity energy beams: We use 3 types of concentrated high intensity energy beams, which are: 1) Laser. (Light Amplification by Stimulated Emissions of Radiation) 2) Electron Beam. (Concentrated beam of electrons, generally in a vacuum) 3) Plasma. (A gas forced through an electric arc to create an ionised gas) All these welding processes use beams of high energy creating extremely high temperatures. These energy beams also enable very high welding speeds, which reduce the amount of overall distortion with increased productivity. Friction: ‘We can use the heat generated by friction (and pressure) to weld components together. ‘The joint is made with the materials faces in the plastic state. The Electric Are: By far the most common heat source for fusion welding, the electric arc is utilised in most of the common welding processes. The electric arc can produce heat of > 6000 °C with extreme levels of ultra-violet, infrared and visible light. Heat is derived from the collision of electrons and ions with the base material and the electrode, An electric arc may be defined as the passage of current across an ionised gap. All gases are insulators and thus sufficient voltage, or pressure needs to be available to enable an electron to be stripped from an atom into the next. Once this conducting path or plasma has been created, a lower voltage can maintain the arc. The voltage required to initiate the arc is termed the open circuit voltage or OCV requirement of the process/consumable, The voltage that maintains the arc once it is created is termed the welding, or are voltage. ‘The conducting path produced is termed the plasma column. ‘Welding Inspection ~ Introduction to Welding Processes 9,2 Rev 09-09-02 Copyright © 2002 TWI Ltd,TWI CMT. Protection: ‘THE WELDING INSTITUTE In MMA welding, the gas shield is produced from the combustion of compounds in the electrode coating. The gas produced is mainly CO* but electrodes are available that produce hydrogen gas, which give a very high level of penetration. In Submerged Are welding the gas shield is again produced ftom the combustion of ‘compounds, but these compounds are supplied in a granulated flux, which is supplied separately to the wire, MMA electrodes or SAW fluxes containing high levels of basic compounds are used where hydrogen controlled welding is required. In MIG/MAG & TIG welding the gas is supplied directly from a cylinder, or bulk feed system and may be stored in a gaseous, or liquid state. In TIG & MIG welding we generally use the inert gases argon or helium. In MAG welding we generally use CO? or mixtures of CO? or 07 in argon. Cleaning (of surface contaminants): The cleaning, refining and de-oxidation of the weld metal is a major requirement of all common fusion welding processes. As a weld can be considered as a casting, it is possible to use low quality wires in some processes, and yet produce high quality weld metal by adding cleaning agents to the flux. This is especially true in MMA welding, where many cleaning agents and de-oxidants may be added directly to the electrode costing. De-oxidants and cleaning agents are also generally added to FCAW & SAW fluxes. For MIG/MAG & TIG welding wires, de-oxidants, such as silicon, aluminium and manganese must be added to the wire during initial casting. Electrodes and wires for MIG & TIG welding must also be refined to the highest quality prior to casting, as they have no flux to add cleaning agents to the solidifying weld metal. Adequate properties (from alloying): As with de-oxidants, we may add alloying elements to the weld metal via a flux in some processes to produce the desired weld metal properties. It is the main reason why there is a wide range of consumables for the MMA process. The chemical composition of the deposited weld metal can be changed easily during manufacture of the flux coating, This also increases the electrode efficiency. (Electrodes of > 160% are not uncommon). In SAW, elements such as Ferro-manganese may be added to agglomerated fluxes. It is much cheaper to add alloying elements to the weld via the flux as an ore, or compound. ‘As with the cleaning requirement described above, wires for MIG/MAG & TIG must be drawn as cast, thus all the elements required in the deposited weld metal composition. must be within the cast and drawn wire. This is the main reason why the range of these consumables is very limited. With the developments of flux core wires, the range of consumables for FCAW is now very extensive, as alloying elements may be easily added to the flux core in the same way as MMA electrodes fluxes. ‘Welding Inspection - Introduction to Welding Processes 9.3, Rey 09-09-02 Copyright © 2002 TWI Ltd.TWI UT. Special Terms Related to Welding Safety: THE WELDING INSTITUTE Duty cycle: A Duty Cycle is the amount of current that can be safely carried by a conductor in a period of time. The time base is normally 10 minutes and a 60% duty cycle means that the conductor can safely carry this current for 6 minutes in 10 and then must rest and cool for 4 minutes. At a 100% duty cycle equipment can carry the current continuously. Generally 60% & 100% duty cycles are given on welding equipment. Example: 350amps at 60% duty cycle and 300amps 100% duty cycle. This should not be confused with the term Operating Factor, often wrongly used for Duty Cycle, as they are both measured as a percentage. Operating Factors are mainly used in economic calculations to calculate the amount of time required from a welding process to deposit an amount of weld metal. A typical Operating Factor for MMA would be only 30% Occupational, and Maximum Exposure Limit (OEL and MEL): Operational, and Maximum Exposure Limits may be defined as a safe, or maximum working limit of exposure to various fume, gases or compounds during certain time limits, as calculated by the Health and Safety Executive or HSE in the UK. The branch of the executive that holds responsibility for this function is known as COSHH or Control of Substances Hazardous to Health. Examples of levels of some fume and gases. that workers may be exposed to, taken from Guidance Note EH/40 2002, are given in the table below: Fume or gas Exposure Limit Effect on Health Cadmium: (0.025Mgim ‘Extremely toxie_| General Welding Fume SMg/m’ Low toxicity Tron. SMgim® Low toxicity ‘Aluminium 5Me/m Low toxicity Ozone 0.20 PPM Extremely toxic Phosgene (0.02 PPM Extremely toxie ‘Argon No OEL Value Very low toxicity ©’ air content to be controlled *Note MEL/OEL values given in Guidance Note EH/40 may change annually. The toxicity of these examples can be gauged by the value of exposure limit. Any of the above examples may be present in welding under certain conditions, which will be expanded upon by your course lecturer at the relevant time, though Welding Safety will be discussed fully as a separate subject area. Welding Inspection — Introduction to Welding Processes 9.4 Rev 09-09-02 Copyright © 2002 TWI Ltd.TWI LM. THE WELDING INSTITUTE Arc Characteristic for MMA & TIG: In MMA & TIG welding, the arc length is controlled by the welder. Whilst an experienced and highly skilled welder can keep the arc length at a fairly constant length, there will always be some variation. ‘When the arc length is increased, the voltage or pressure required to maintain the are will also need to increase. This would also reduce the current supplied in a normal electrical circuit, where the supplied voltage is proportional to a drop in current. ‘Thus we need to find a way of reducing a large drop in current for the variation in arc voltage. This is achieved by the use of special electrical components within the equipment that produce sets of curves as shown below. The graph below shows amperage curve (A) selected @ 100 amps, with the effect of variation in the are gap and voltage. Note how an increase in are length increases the area under the graph, which appears to give an increase in overall heat input. The extra heat is, however, generally lost in the arc and is not transferred to the weld pool. Constant Current (Drooping) Characteristic ocv 50-90 volts. Output Curves for current selector settings: A: 100 Amps. B: 140 Amps. C: 180 Amps Long are gap Normal are gap} Short are gap Are Voltage Welding Amperage A BC A large variation in voltage = A smaller variation in amperage ‘Welding Inspection - Manual Metal Arc Welding 10.1 Rev 09-09-02 Copyright © 2002 TWI Led.‘THE WELDING INSTITUTE MMA is a welding process that was first developed in the late 19" century using bare wire electrodes. Definitions: MMA: ‘Manual Metal Arc Welding. (UK) SMAW: Shielded Metal Arc Welding. (USA) Introduction: MMA is simple process in terms of equipment and consumables, using short flux covered electrodes. The electrode is secured in the electrode holder and the leads for this, and the power retum cable are placed in the + or — electrical ports as required. The process demands a high level of skill from the welder to obtain consistent high quality welds, but is widely used in industry, mainly because of the range of available consumables, its positional capabilities and adaptability to site work. (Photograph 1) The electrode core wire is often of very low quality, as refining elements are easily added to the flux coating, which can produce high quality weld metal relatively cheaply. The are is struck by striking the electrode onto the surface of the plate and withdrawing it a small distance, as you would strike a match. The arc should be struck in the direct. area of the weld preparation avoiding arc strikes, or stray flash on the plate material. Care should also be taken to maintain a short and constant are length and speed of travel. Photograph 2 shows a trainee dressed in the correct safety clothing, whilst photograph 3 indicates the level of process-produced fume, and the use of a flexible hose extraction system. Little has changed with the basic principles of the process since it was developed, but improvements in consumable technologies occur on a very regular basis. ‘Welding Inspection ~ Manual Metal Arc Welding 10.2 Rev 09-09-02 Copyright © 2002 TWI Ltd.TWI mm THE WELDING INSTITUTE Manual Metal Arc Welding Basic Equipment Requirements: 1) _ Power source Transformer/Reetifier. (Constant current type) 2) Holding oven. (Temperature up to 200 °C) 3) Inverter power source. 4) Electrode holder. 5) Power cable. 6) Welding visor with correct filter glass rating. 7) Power return cable. 8) Electrodes. 9) Electrode oven. (Bakes up to 350 °C) 10) Control panel. (Amperage & polarity) ‘Welding Inspection - Manual Metal Are Welding 103 Rev 09-09-02 Copyright © 2002 TWI Lid.TWI CMT. THE WELDING INSTITUTE Variable Parameters: 1) Voltage: The Are Voltage of the MMA welding process is measured as close to the arc as possible. It is variable only by changes in are length. The OCV (Open Circuit Voltage) is the voltage required to initiate, or re-ignite the electric arc and will change with the type of electrode being used. Most basic coated electrodes require an OCV of 70 — 90 volts. Most rutile electrodes require only 50 volts. 2) Current & Polarity: ‘The type and value of current used will be determined by the choice of electrode classification, electrode diameter, material type and thickness, and the welding position. Electrode polarity is generally determined by the operation i.e. surfacing/joining and the type of electrode, or electrode coating being used. Most surfacing and non-ferrous alloys require DC — for correct deposition, although there are exceptions to this rule. Electrode bum off rates will vary with AC or DC + or — depending on the coating type and the choice of polarity will also affect heat balance of the electric arc. Important Inspection Points/Checks when MMA Welding: 1) The Welding Equipment: ‘A visual check should be made to ensure the welding equipment is in good condition. 2) The Electrode: Checks should be made to ensure that the correct specification of electrode is being used, that the electrode is of the correct diameter and that the flux coating is in good condition. A check should be made to ensure that any basic coated electrode being used has been pre-baked to that specified in the welding procedure. A general pre-use treatment for basic coated electrodes would typically be: a) Baked at 350 °C for 1 hour. b) Held in holding ovens at 150°C ©) Issued to the welder in a heated quiver (Normally around 70 °C) ‘Vacuum pack pre-baked electrodes do not need to undergo this pre-baking treatment. If the vacuum seal appears be broken at the point of opening the carton, users should follow the manufacturers advice and instructions to maintain the hydrogen level specified on electrode cartons. The date and time of opening must be recorded to enable re-baking as required, ‘Welding Inspection —-Manval Metal Arc Welding 10.4 Rey 09-09-02 Copyright © 2002 TWI Ltd.TWI MT. ‘THE WELDING INSTITUTE, Cellulosic and rutile electrodes do not require this pre-use+treatment, but should be stored in a dry condition. Rutile electrodes may require “drying only when damp” and should therefore be treated as damp unless evidence dictates otherwise and dried at specified temperature. 3) ocyv ‘A check should be made to ensure that the equipment can produce the OCV required by the consumable and that any voltage selector has been moved to the correct position. 4) Current & Polarity. A check should be made to ensure the current type and range is as detailed on the WPS. 5) Other Variable Welding Parameters: Checks should be made for correct angle of electrode, arc gap distance, speed of travel and all other essential variables of the process, given on the approved welding procedure, ©) Safety Checks: Checks should be made on the current carrying capacity, or duty cycle of equipment, and that all electrical insulation is sound. A check should also be made that correct eye protection is being used when welding and chipping slag and that an efficient extraction system is in use, to avoid over exposure to toxic fumes and gases. ‘A check should always be made to ensure that the welder is qualified to weld the procedure being employed. ‘Typical Welding Imperfections: 1) Slag inclusions caused by poor welding technique or insufficient inter-run cleaning. 2) Porosity from using damp, or damaged electrodes or welding contaminated material. 3) Lack of root fusion or penetration caused by in-correct settings of amps, root gap or face. 4) Undereut caused by too high amperage for the position or by a poor welding technique c.g. travel speed too fast or too slow, arc length (therefore voltage) variations during weaving in particular. 5) Are strikes, caused by incorrect arc striking procedure, or lack of skill. ‘These may be also caused by incorrectly fitted/secured power retum lead clamps. ©) Hydrogen cracks caused by the use of incorrect electrode type, or incorrect baking procedure and/or control of basic coated electrodes. ‘Welding Inspection — Manual Metal Are Welding 10.5 Rev 09-09-02 Copyright © 2002 TWI Ltd.