TRBC Manual - Fourth Edition - 090408 PDF

Technical
Rescue
Basics
Fourth Edition
By
San Bernardino County Sheriff s Department
Volunteer Forces Unit
Note: This manual is meant to supplement hands-on
rescue training by competent, Department-approved
instructors. It is written to accompany the Technical
Rescue Basic Course, and is not meant to be a
complete set of safe instructions by itself.
Technical rescue is inherently dangerous. Personnel

could suffer serious injury or death through the use
of improper techniques.
Technical rescue is a very dynamic field and what

is considered safe today may be determined to be
inappropriate tomorrow.
This manual contains directive statements which

apply only to the San Bernardino County Sheriffs
Department. Contact the Editors if clarification is
needed.
FOURTH EDITION
April 2009
All drawings and illustrations copyright 1998 - 2009

Drawings by Bruce Smith used by permission
Drawings by Rick Lipke used by permission
Materials from Rigging For Rescue by Kirk & Katie Mauthner used by permission
Photos and illustrations from PMI-Petzl, Inc. used by permission
All rights reserved
NO REPRODUCTION WITHOUT EXPRESS

PERMISSION OF THE VOLUNTEER FORCES UNIT
San Bernardino County Sheriff s Department

Contents
Acknowledgements...............................................................................................................................................II
Introduction..........................................................................................................................................................III
Chapter 1: Incident Command System and Organization for Rescue............................................................... 1-1
Chapter 2: Introduction to Rescue Forces and Safety Factors........................................................................... 2-1
Chapter 3: Ropes and Devices........................................................................................................................... 3-1
Chapter 4: Ties: Knots, Hitches and Bends....................................................................................................... 4-1
Chapter 5: Personal Vertical Skills.................................................................................................................... 5-1
Chapter 6: Anchors............................................................................................................................................ 6-1
Chapter 7: Belay................................................................................................................................................ 7-1
Chapter 8: Main Line Systems........................................................................................................................... 8-1
Chapter 9: Patients and Litters........................................................................................................................... 9-1
Chapter 10: One-Person Rescue...................................................................................................................... 10-1
Appendix A: References................................................................................................................................... A-1
Appendix B: Terms............................................................................................................................................B-1
Appendix C: Department Standards and Industry Ratings and Standards........................................................C-1
Appendix D: Control Officer Checklist............................................................................................................ D-1
Technical Rescue Basics I

Acknowledgements
We are fortunate to have had support from a large their entire 1997 catalog on it along with blanket
number of people, for which we are very grateful. permission to use whatever we needed in the way of
photos or illustrations. Many Thanks to them!
Many of the drawings used throughout this text were
taken from On Rope, 2nd Ed. by Bruce Smith and PMI-Petzl Distribution
Allen Padgett. Permission was obtained for their use P.O. Box 803
and acknowledgment is made in the text wherever Lafayette, GA 30728
appropriate.
(800) 282-7673
In addition, some original illustrations by Bruce
Smith are from National Cave Rescue course email: info@pmi-petzl.com
materials and this too is noted where appropriate.
Thanks Bruce! PMI website: www.pmirope.com
PMI - Petzl was kind enough to send us a CD with Petzl website: www.petzl.com
II San Bernardino County Sheriff s Department

Introduction
This manual is meant to supplement other San Bernardino county Sheriffs
current works on high angle technical rescue. Department
It is primarily intended to accompany the San Volunteer Forces Unit /SAR Coordinator
Bernardino County Sheriffs Departments 655 East Third Street
Technical Rescue Basics Course. As such, it is San Bernardino, CA 92415-0061
not all-encompassing, nor is it meant to be
the ultimate authority on the subject of high
angle technical rescue. This is a basic text and (909) 387-0641 Phone
will not get into the more advanced aspects of (909) 387-0678 Phone
the subject. For those who want to pursue the (909) 387-0667 FAX
really technical end, check out the references
and go get appropriate training.
This is also not a work on general search
and rescue. Some of the subjects you will
find conspicuously lacking or addressed only
briefly are: medical considerations, SAR
pre-planning, search, planning, finance, and
logistics, to name but a few. If you have
an interest in those subjects, we suggest
you break out Fundamentals of Search and
Rescue and study that. There is a very brief
section on ICS but that and other material not
pertaining to rope rescue-is limited to only
the minimum necessary for the course which
accompanies this manual.
This manual was compiled from numerous
sources, which we have made every effort to
credit properly. However, we realize that we
might have missed someone or something,
so feel free to contact us and let us know
what needs to be added. This is a work in
progress and is constantly evolving. You
should check the date of publication to make
sure you have the most recent version.
Comments and suggestions are always
welcome; send them to:
Technical Rescue Basics III

THIS PAGE LEFT BLANK INTENTIONALLY
IV San Bernardino County Sheriff s Department

Incident Command System and Organization for Rescue
Chapter 1: I C S and Organization for Rescue

Note: This manual is not intended as a text on During small operations, one person might
ICS. This discussion of the Incident Command assume responsibility of all five functions and
System is deliberately very limited. direct the entire incident. However, if you
witness an operation that involves a large
team and only one or two people are jumping
General all over the place trying to direct everything,
Rescue is not done by committee. Before there is a problem. Youre probably watching a
you even start dealing with the situation, you poorly-trained team.
should have a functioning command structure
and some idea of how it operates. The best If the rescue expands or becomes more
way to accomplish this is through a pre-plan. complex, the management system grows
and branches. However, manageable span of
In a perfect world, you would assign control is maintained. As the incident becomes
each function to the best person for the job. more complex, the person responsible for
You should already know the strengths and Command may wish to place a person in
weaknesses of everyone prior to the rescue. charge of each function with personnel to
Over-the-side is not the place to discover your direct.
team has a training deficiency!
You can decrease the amount of confusion The positions described below are typical
and increase you overall efficiency by use of for a search and rescue incident:
the Incident Command System.
Span of Control Incident Commander: Sets objectives for
The various ICS schools (military, fire
the incident. Responsible for all that happens.
and law enforcement) generally agree that
the span of control, which is defined as the Generally found at the Command Post.
number of persons under direct management, Operations Chief: Directs the overall
should be three to eight, with the optimum operation.
being five. During a technical rescue, the Plans Chief: Sets strategic goals and assigns
span of control can easily be influenced by resources. Keeps track of the situation and makes
geographical locations or communication projections for anticipated needs/requirements.
problems.
Logistics Chief: Procures the materials needed
Basic Management Functions to conduct the rescue.
The Incident Command System (ICS) is designed to be Finance Chief: Keeps track of the money.
flexible in its response to different situations. While SAR workers in many counties are
volunteers, a rescue still costs money.
There are five major organization functions
common to every rescue management method
regardless of the size of the mission. These
five functions are: Command, Operation,
Logistics, Planning and Finance.
Notes:
Technical Rescue Basics 1-1

INCIDENT
COMMANDER
SAFETY PUBLIC INFO

OFFICER OFFICER
OPERATIONS LOGISTICS
CHIEF CHIEF
CONTROL
MAIN LINE
BELAY LINE
The technical rescue
LITTER
takes place here!
EDGE
DIRECTIONALS
SAFETY
This is one way a technical rescue may be organized. Positions may be added or deleted as
necessary. Note there are 2 Safety Officer positions. The one reporting to the IC is responsible
for the entire operation, which may involve more than the immediate rigging problem. There is an
additional Safety Officer assigned at each rigging problem. The Operations Chief may be at the
Command Post and a local Operations Leader assigned to each rigging problem. There are endless
variations and how you organize for a rescue will always depend on the situation.
Notes:
1-2 San Bernardino County Sheriff s Department

Other Positions be in charge so that commands are clearly
understood and everyone knows where their
attention should be directed. A checklist
Safety Officer(s) of commands is included in the pages that
The duties of the Safety Officer include: follow. A Control Officers Card is found
Reports to the Incident Commander. in Appendix D which can be copied and
laminated for field use.
Responsible for monitoring and assessing
hazardous and unsafe situations, and procedures There may be circumstances where
for assuring personnel safety at the scene. terrain or environmental conditions force
you to resort to relaying commands through
Verifies safety of rigging and operations. several people. However, do so using the
An overall Safety Officer may coordinate the absolute minimum necessary and with the
activities of several subordinate Safety Officers understanding that operations must be very
and he reports to the IC. methodical and careful in order to avoid
Maintains proper records. misunderstandings or mistakes. Be careful!
Although a Safety Officer may exercise

emergency authority to stop or prevent unsafe Overlapping Roles
acts when immediate action is required, this Reference has been made several times
officer will generally correct unsafe acts or to the fact that a shortage of personnel may
conditions through the chain of command. dictate that a single person fill more than
one role. At the basic level of rope rescue,
There may also be more than one however, there is a level beyond which this
Safety Officer, particularly if the technical should not go. For the purposes of this text,
rescue covers too much area for one individual it is permissible that the Operations Officer
to cover adequately. can be the Control Officer but not the Safety
All the team leaders (see below) should Officer, and the Safety Officer could be the
request a safety check when their assignment Control Officer, but not the Operations Officer.
is completed. Bottom line is that two rescuers will be
required, at the minimum, to fill these three
roles. The Venn diagram below illustrates this
Control Officer point:
When the rigging is completed and the
operation is ready to begin, the Operations
Chief turns control of the operation over to the
Control Officer, who then directs the technical
rescue. This person is not usually the Incident Operations Safety
Commander or Safety Officer, although a Officer Officer
shortage of personnel may dictate the Control
Officer assume those roles as well.
Control
The Control Officer makes the calls
and positions himself where he can best Officer
control the entire operation. The practice of
relaying commands through several people
is inefficient and creates opportunities for
error. This may mean that the Control Officer
is positioned very near the edge in some
cases, but this is fine. Only one person can
Notes:

Communications Control Officer says, Main Line Up!, the Main Line
Rope rescue can place severe demands on your Team Leader repeats it back to him as, Main Line Up!
ability to communicate because you are sometimes This accomplishes several things:
separated by distance or by obstacles that create
interference. There are a number of ways to deal with The Main Line Team Leader confirms he heard
this problem: the command.
The Main Line Team Leader tells the Control
Radios: Consider the use of earphones and/ Officer that his team is carrying out the
or microphones to facilitate the use of radios. command.
Radio chest harnesses are particularly useful The Control Officer knows the Main Line Team
for keeping the radio handy and can prevent Leader properly understood the Command and
accidental dropping of your valuable electronic it is being carried out.
device. Everyone else in the area is kept abreast of what
Field phones: Not always practical for use in is happening.
the wilderness, they may be of utility where
radio line-of-sight is severely restricted for any If a team leader can not carry out a
reason, e.g., in slot canyons, mines, or caves. command immediately, he says (in the case
Whistles: Pre-arranged and standardized whistle above), Main Line, stand by, X minutes! to let the
signals are especially useful in situations with Control Officer know how long it will be before he
high noise levels. can carry out the command.
Visual signals: When all else fails and you have
line-of-sight, pre-arranged visual signals may be
your only recourse! Visual Signals are an acceptable means
of communications when radios are unavailable and
Standardized communications with no excess distances are too great for audible signals such as
chatter will help to alleviate your communication voice or whistles. A standard set of visual signals are
problems to a great extent! not available at this time. Agree before beginning the
operation what signals will be used for, and who will be
the designated signallers, then stick to the plan.
Commands for Rescue Operations
No matter what form your communications
Whistle Signals are a simple and effective
during a rescue operation take, ensure they are
means of communication between rescuers and those
standardized, consistent, clear, and concise. Rescuers
operating a rope raising or lowering system. They may
should not be hearing things that sound like Take er
be used as a primary means of communication when
down about six inches Vern!
radios fail or when ambient noise levels makes them
unintelligible. Use a whistle device, with enough
Voice Commands are the normal means of
volume to be audible over ambient noise and for the
communications during a typical rope rescue. The
distances involved. Standard whistle blasts to signal the
standard voice commands used are shown on the next
required action are shown on the facing page.
page.
Repeat commands as they are given. If the
Notes:
Advanced Level Rope Rescue Operations (SBSD)

Operations conducted with teams of less than eight rescuers or combining the roles
here into one person are reserved for teams certified by San Bernardino for Advanced Rope
Rescue operations only. Questions regarding this policy will be referred to the Rope Rescue
Oversight Committee.
Voice & Whistle Signals for Rescue

STOP 1 Long Whistle Blast Used to stop all movement until further instructions.
Means something or somebody is moving up or

UP 2 Short Whistle Blasts requires moving up. On horizontal systems it would
indicate movement of the load towards the anchor or
hauling system.
Means something or somebody is moving down

DOWN 3 Short Whistle Blasts or requires moving down. On horizontal systems
it would indicate movement of the load away from
the anchor or hauling system. This is the opposite of
UP.
Used at the end of a climb, rappel, raise or lower to

OFF ROPE 4 Short Whistle Blasts communicate that one is off the rope, has found a safe
position and that the rope can be used by the next
person or for the next operation.
A general emergency call. Its use may indicate

different actions depending upon the system in use
HELP Continuous Blast at the time. For example, during a rappel it would
include the need for a bottom belay. The signal alerts
others to come to the aid and, if necessary, work
quickly and safely to effect a rescue.
A Short Whistle Blast is defined a 1 second in duration. Where the signal calls for multiple blasts there
shall be a 1 second interval between each blast.
A Long Whistle Blast is 3 seconds in duration.
A Continuous Blast indicating the need for help, should be long enough to attract attention and be dif-
ferentiated from any other signal, at least 10 seconds if possible.
These same patterns could be used with any audible signalling device such as a compressed gas horn,
vehicle horn, etc.
Source: ASTM
Notes:

The Pre-Plan Communications, including frequencies.
Most rescue teams dont have the full-time How the group relates to other rescue groups.
paid personnel structure that fire departments and the Medical control and protocols.
military have, so they dont have clearly established or Basic procedures for approaching various
predictable and consistent chains of command. In order rescue situations.
to reduce the problems this can cause, a pre-plan is
often helpful. Periodically review your pre-plan and update it
to ensure it is current and relevant.
In 1982 we noticed a problem with our teams
cliff rescue responses. We found we were spending Small Team Management
too much time getting started, and this is how we The failure of rope rescue teams to complete
went about improving our response. We developed a a rescue in a timely manner can often be due to the
Cliff Rescue Pre-Plan with the goal of putting a Field failure of their small team management techniques. The
Coordinator and a Medic at the scene of the victim key elements in rope rescue small team management
as soon as possible. Upon reaching the victim, the involve leadership, organization, and direction toward
Medic will stabilize him physically and medically, the rescue goals.
Then the Field Coordinator, with input from the
Medic, will evaluate the problem based on observed
Leadership
facts. Then an updated plan for the rescue could be
In any rope rescue situation, there can only
developed reflecting the actual requirements of the
be one leader. Committees dont usually carry on
situation. Additional personnel, equipment and resource
successful rescues. For a team to be strong, however, it
management will be requested from the Operations
must have several people capable of assuming this role.
Leader and supplied by the rest of the team. First, we
The key here is that even though any one of several
tested the concept in training situations and since then
people could step up and assume the role of leaders, all
it has proven itself on many rescues. We review it after
other must back up that person with everything they
each rescue to look for improvements.
have.
CMC Rope Rescue Manual, 2nd Ed., Frank & Smith
A leader is not a dictator, nor is he infallible.
A smart leader will solicit opinions from other
If you stick to the framework your pre-plan
experienced members of the team and use their advice
provides, you will find yourself less hampered by the
where appropriate.
need to deal with routine matters in the early stages
A leader must also be flexible. The situation
of your rescue effort. It will also provide you with the
may (and often does) change for any one of a number of
flexibility to deal with unexpected situations. Some of
reasons. The good leader will anticipate this possibility
the elements of a pre-plan might include:
and have alternate plans in mind before theyre needed.
He must be able to stop, assess the new situation,
Local needs for rescue.
develop a new plan to deal with it, inform everyone
Who has jurisdictional and operational
what the new plan is and then carry it out in a calm and
responsibility for rescue in a particular area, and
professional manner.
how your rescue group fits in.
How call-outs are initiated and function.
The command structure on scene. Goals and Directions
The support structure on scene. In just about every rope rescue, you are trying to
Notes:

solve a unique puzzle: How do we safely rescue this Technical rescue is inherently dangerous
person using our ropes, hardware, people, skills and will always involve some element of risk. It is
and ingenuity? impossible to eliminate all risk. However, you can
Try to approach this in an organized manner. substantially reduce the risk in your operation by
Conduct a briefing for the key personnel involved in the careful attention to safety procedures and by using only
mission. They should be informed what the problem is, well-trained, competent rescuers for the core of your
what you perceive the overall solution to be, what their team.
teams task will be, and what each key persons role will Safety is therefore basic to all aspects of a
be. technical rescue operation. Your priorities for safety - in
To best move toward the goal, each task should this order - are:
be assigned to a small team leader who is responsible
for communicating that task to the people assigned to 1. Your personal safety.
him and seeing it is correctly accomplished in a timely
2. The safety of your fellow rescuers.
and efficient manner.
Everyone must have a clear idea what their 3. The safety of the person(s) to be
individual task is and how to do it. rescued.
These priorities are not subject to
Briefing argument. There is never any excuse for injuring
In order for everyone to have a clear idea of yourself or a fellow rescuer because someone thought
what is going on, you should follow a standardized that a safety procedure should be ignored.
briefing format before starting every operation.
One such format that has been time-tested is the
Situational Awareness
Military aircraft crash investigators often
military 5-Paragraph Order, know by the acronym,
attribute a loss of situational awareness as a
SMEAC. contributing factor in serious accidents. Ken Phillips
in charge of SAR at Grand Canyon National Park, has
Situation: Heres what we face. Include applied this term to search and rescue operations and
objective hazards. points out that the ability of an aviator to maintain an
Mission: Heres what we need to do.
Execution: Heres how well do it.
Admin & Logistics: Beans, band-aids, and We are not in the business of trading the
biners, plus any miscellaneous factors. lives of rescuers for those of rescue subjects.
Command & Communications: Whos who
in the zoo? (IC, Safety, Control, Team Leaders,
etc. What radio frequencies? accurate perception of the external environment as well
as detect and act on any problem encountered, is also a
Your local protocols may dictate a different valuable asset for technical rescue personnel.
format. Whatever you use, standardize it and stick with In other words, dont get tunnel vision on small
it and youll end up being more efficient. aspects of the rescue environment to the point that you
lose track of thing that can get you hurt! Factors that
Safety can reduce situational awareness:
Insufficient communication
Notes:

Fatigue/stress Tolerate inattentiveness.
Task overload Get careless during breakdown. Just because
Group mindset the operation is over is no excuse to relax safety
Press on regardless philosophy (!!!) procedures.
Degraded operating conditions
Other Thoughts...
Safety Officer An actual rescue calls for the best from
Whenever you must go over the side, for everyone. However, if it is determined that the incident
example, to perform a raising or a lowering operation, is not time critical, then it may be appropriate for
appoint an experienced person to perform the role of
Safety Officer to check everything that the team is Always remember, in search and rescue,
rigging and using. All carabiners should be squeezed, everyone is responsible for safety.
harnesses checked, personal equipment looked at, knots
checked, etc.
Rotate this assignment on each rescue and
training among your experienced personnel. (However, your less-trained individuals to try out new positions
try not to change this assignment during a rescue.) to further develop their skills and confidence. One
It may be necessary for someone to assume example of a non-critical incident would be a body
the duties of the Safety Officer who already has an recovery.
assignment, such as the Operations Chief, because you
just dont have the personnel available to cover all the
positions. If this is the case, the Safety Officer must
make an extra effort to ensure he doesnt get tunnel
vision on one aspect of his job and forget the others.
Everyone present should help out the Safety

Officer by asking for a safety check when they have
finished their assigned task or when something has been
changed.
Then...
Help out the Safety Office by not fiddling with
rigging once it has been approved. If you just cant
resist the temptation to mess with something that has
already been safety-checked, then you must get it re-
checked.
DO NOT...
Attempt to override a Stop command.
Tolerate unnecessary chatter during a rescue.
Notes:

Introduction to Rescue Forces and Safety Factors
Chapter 2: Introduction to Rescue Forces and

Saftey Factors
Many rescuers know what they believe but such as a shock force. (See the chart on the
not why they believe it. -Reed Thorne next page.)
Putting the T in Technical SBSD Rescue SSSF

Just what is technical rescue and what The San Bernardino County Sheriffs
makes it technical? More than one rescuer Department has established a 10:1 SSSF as
thinks that it means hes memorized: the the minimum acceptable standard for rope
breaking strength of rope and webbing, a rescue systems. If using single rope technique
z-rig (or maybe even a pig!), and a chart (SRT), a 15:1 ratio is required.
of knot strengths. Theres more to it than
that. Serious rescuers want to know more,
and many will state their basic concern as
How do I know the system I rig will hold
Safe Working Load
Safe Working Load (SWL) or working load
the load? One place to start acquiring that
limit (WLL), are stamped on some hardware
knowledge is to understand the forces at work
items. The minimum breaking strength is 5
in their rescue system.
times that rating. Check with manufacture to
be sure.
Safety Factors Breaking Strength
The primary means we have of The minimum breaking strength (MBS)
determining whether or not a system has is usually published by the manufacturer. It
sufficient strength is the Static Systems refers to that number which is equal to three
Safety Factor (SSSF). The SSSF is the ratio standard deviations below the average result
between the maximum expected static (not from a group of breaking strength tests. (Also,
moving) force and the breaking strength of known as 3 sigma testing.) This means that
your equipment. Always consider the weakest 99.73% of all equipment tested to failure,
link in your system to determine this ratio, will meet or exceed that number (MBS) in
strength.
For example, if the weakest link in your
system is a 27kN (6,000 lb) capacity carabiner Units of Measure
and the load youre lifting is 2kN (450 lbs), Modern rope rescue has abandoned the
then 27kN (6,000) divided by 2kN (450) is use of the English/U.S. units of measure and
a ratio of approximately 13.5 to 1. This is
considered a safety margin of 13 to 1 (always (Continued on page 2-3)
round down). It would be acceptable for
mountain or cave rescue, which uses a 10:1
SSSF.
Why is the SSSF so high? Stresses in a
system at rest are far less than those in a
system in motion
A SSSF of 10:1 provides approximately a
1.5:1 safety factor during dynamic events
Notes:

YIELD
DYNAMIC EVENT POINT DYNAMIC BREAKING
FORCE RANGE STRENGTH RANGE
E
L
* NOT TO SCALE!
NUMBERS ARE
O APPROXIMATE!
N
G
A
T
I STATIC BREAKING
STRENGTH (NO TIE)
O
N
5 10 15 20 25 30
2 kN STATIC 20kN STATIC BREAKING STREGNTH

APPLIED FORCE
FORCE (11.1mm ROPE WITH A TIE PLACED IN IT)
Safety Factor: Static or Dynamic?

A 10:1 SSSF results in less than 2:1 dynamic safety factor. For example, if the graph here
was for 11.1mm rope with a knotted static breaking strength of 20 kN, a 2 kN static applied
forcethe loadprovides a 10:1 SSSF. However, during a dynamic event, i.e. a 1 meter drop
on 3 meters of the low stretch rope we typically use will result in a peak dynamic force of
approximately 12-15 kN. This means in this example that the dynamic safety factor would
be 1.6:1- 1.3:1 (Note: These are general numbers used to illustrate this point. Your specific
rope will vary somewhat. Get firm, reliable test data on your rope and calculate your SSSF!
Now consider using a smaller rope with less static breaking strength and dropping the
same force on it. An 8mm rope with a static breaking strength of 15 kN and a knotted
breaking strength of 10 kN. Or 9mm rope with a knotted breaking strength of approximately
14 kN. Do you really want to go there? Or is our attitude, Hey, weve been using this for
years and nobody ever died on it! Well, not yet, anyway. But maybe youll continue to be
lucky! And then again, maybe not.
What is your team using for callout rope and to what uses are you putting it?
Notes:

(Continued from page 2-1)
moved to the use of SI Units (International A mass hanging statically from a rope
Systems of Units). The two categories of SI will cause a force (tension) to exist in the rope
units rescuers need to be aware of are base which is proportional to the mass and the
units and derived units. value of gravitational attraction at the location
where the mass is suspended. The tension
in the rope is the mg-force previously known
Base Units as weight and is expressed in newtons
Length [meters (m)]: How long is it? (N). The standard international value for the
Mass [kilograms (kg)]: A measure of the acceleration of gravity (g) is 9.806650 m/s2
quantity of matter, commonly confused [remember 32 feet per second per second]
and this is the assumed value often applied
with weight. Mass remains constant,
when mass is mistakenly equated for force.
regardless of the influence of gravity. The actual value of g ranges between 9.77
Time [seconds (s)]: This is the standard and 9.83 m/s2 over the surface of the earth
measure of time as weve always known it. and even more widely above and below the
(At least this didnt change!) surface. The mg force is not an intrinsic value
of an object but will vary depending on the
Derived Units buoyancy and the local gravity acting on the
Velocity [m/s]: How fast is it going? object.
Arnor Larson
Expressed as meters per second.
Acceleration [m/s2]: Expressed as meters
per second squared. For our purposes, Force, F=mg, in (kN)=mass (in kg) x
gravity is our acceleration. Gravity = acceleration due to gravity (in m/s2).
9.806654 m/s2, or about 10 m/s2, this is F=100 kg x 10 m/s2
the figure we will use for our calculations. F=1,000 kg x m/s2
Force [MA]: The action of one body F= 1,000 Newtons (N)
on another body. For our purposes F=1 kN
Acceleration is gravity (g) (A=m/s2). This
measures the amount of tension being
applied to your system and is defined as
mg, or mass times gravity. The unit of Field Figures
measure is Kilo Newtons. A Kilo Newton We use field figures to simplify calculations
approximately equals 225 pounds. and avoid the necessity of carrying electronic
calculators to a rescue. Some more field
But what does it mean?!
Field Figures for Safety Factor Calculations

Mass (lb) Mass (kg) Force (kN) Includes
225 100 1 1 rescuer + gear
450 200 2 1 rescuer + 1 subject + gear
675 300 3 2 rescuer + 1 subject + gear
Notes:

figures we will use to simply our SSSF Critical Point Test: Examines what
calculations are for software (i.e., ropes, happens to the patient, attendant, and
webbing, accessory cord, etc.). Placing a tie other rescuers if at any time during the
(knots, bends, or hitches.) in software reduces operation any single piece of equipment were
the strength of that item, and that reduction to suddenly fail. If there is no backup to
varies widely (but not significantly) depending that single item, then it is a critical point.
on many factors. For our purposes, we will use Examples of critical points:
the field figures of a strength loss of 1/3 for SRT rappel on a single anchor.
all ties, except the Ring Bend (Water Knot) in
webbing and the butterfly knot in rope, these Main and belay on a single anchor sling.
will cause a full 50% reduction in strength. Litter attendant suspended on a single
rope.
Software MBS* TIED
12.5mm......................... 40 kN 27 kN When would we ever suspend a litter
11.1 mm............ 27kN- 30 kN 20 kN attendant on a single rope? There are several
10 mm .......................... 25 kN 17 kN variations of litter rigging that use this setup,
9 mm............................. 20 kN 14 kN but it might also depend on the angle of the
8 mm.............. 12.5 kN-15 kN 10 kN slope.
7 mm............................. 10 kN 6.5 kN
6 mm............................ 7.5 kN 5 kN
1 (25mm) tubular.18- 20 kN 9-10 kN
1 (25mm) Milspec Type 18.26 kN 13 kN Slopes, Ropes, and Risk
In a search and rescue mission, are two
*All of these figures are approximate. MBS varies ropes always necessary? No. The Operations
according to manufacturer and testing methodology. Leader will have to make his decision based
on an assessment of the patient the slope, the
objective hazards, and the experience level of
More Definitions: To be more exact in our
his team.
discussions in the rest of this text. Well add a
few more definitions to avoid confusion. Flat (0% - 15%): Generally hiking/
carrying on a trail. A rope is hardly ever
called for on this type of litter evacuation.
Tension: Applying force to a rope.
Low Angle (15% - 40%): Moving onto
Shock Force: The tension applied to a steeper trails and cross country. On the
system in a sudden, catastrophic manner. lower slope angles a rope may not even be
Whistle Test: Examines what would necessary. But as slopes get steeper, belay
happen to the patient, attendant, and other ropes become a good idea and towards the
rescuers if at any time during an operation upper end of this range, a full two-rope
everyone were to let go. To test this system is required. There is a gray area,
sometime*, at the sound of a whistle have however, that calls for an assessment of
everyone let go of the rope and/or whatever the objective hazards present. You may
they happen to be holding at that instant and be able to get by with one rope, or good
hold up their hands. If nothing happens, you judgement may call for two!
doing it right!
Note: Never try this with a live person on

belay! Use only a dummy such as a Rescue
Randy during training exercises!!
Notes:

Steep Angle (40%- 60%): This has A chart is provided, that sets easy to
the most extreme risk because multiple understand guidelines for low-angle systems,
litter attendants are used. Stresses on based on the angle of slope, number of people
the system can be much higher than is on rope and the size of rope being used.
apparent. (See additional information on
following pages.)
High Angle (60%- 90%+): Truly vertical
litter work which can involve areas of free
hang. One litter attendant is normal. Two
may be used if you are willing to deal
with an extreme (3-person, 3 kN) rescue
load. However, this is not considered as
hazardous as the steep angle because of
this limit on the number of rescuers, which
limits the stress on your system.
Steep Angles = Caution!
Because the litter is not dangling in mid- HIGH ANGLE
air on a low-angle system, rescuers often
assume that they dont have to consider what
load they are putting on their system. This is
not true. As the angle of the slope increases,
so does the tension on the mainline. The San
Bernardino County Sheriffs Department has
established 10:1 as the static systems safety STEEP ANGLE
factor (SSSF), so there is a limit on how steep
a slope you can take a litter on using low-
angle techniques
LOW ANGLE
FLAT
0 - 15 15 - 40 40 - 60 60 - 90 (+)
MINIMUM RISK LOW RISK EXTREME RISK HIGH RISK

(ASSESS HAZARDS)
0-1 ROPE 2 ROPES
Notes:

How Steep is too Steep? [Ed. Note: The complete paper is
referenced in Appendix A: References.]
By Kirk and Katie Mauthner Rigging for
Rescue (Article condensed by Editors) We are indebted to Kirk and Katie
Litter transport up (or down) steep Mauthner of Rigging for Rescue in British
embankments is an often used rope rescue Columbia for their work in developing and
technique for transporting patients in over- publishing the following information.
the-side vehicle accidents. In mountainous
terrain, this technique may also be referred
to as a scree evacuation. Usually there are
three or four litter bearers and the mainline
is attached to the head end of the litter. While
there are several different ways to rig a litter
raise/lower on a slope, consideration must
be given to the escalating tension that the
mainline is subjected to as the slope angle
increases. If our objective is to operate at or
above a static systems safety factor (SSSF) of
10:1 [SBSD standard], then there is a limit on
how steep we can go using this technique.
Simple guidelines can be developed for a

10:1 SSSF by comparing the knotted breaking
strength of your rope to the resultant tension
in your mainline for changing levels of mass
and/or slope angle. The table shows the
resultant force for a given slope angle (in
degrees) and different sized rescue loads (kg).
The non-shaded areas in the table represent
acceptable levels of mainline tension (kN)
for a 10:1 SSSF using an 11.1 mm or larger
nylon kernmantle low-stretch rope, assuming
a knotted breaking strength of at least 22
kN, The yellow region shows acceptable
combinations of mass and slope angle for
a 12.5 mm mainline, assuming a knotted
breaking strength of approximately 33 kN.
Force levels that exceed 10:1 SSSF for both
11.1 mm and 12.5 mm main line ropes are
shown in the red regions of the table.
As an example, three litter bearers and a
patient (i.e. 4 people with a combined mass
of 400 kg), can maintain a 10:1 SSSF on
slopes to just under 35 using an 11.1 mm
mainline, then the maximum slope angle can
be increased (as expected) to just over 55,
but not to 60.
Notes:

Resultant Force (kN) for a given Slope Angle and Mass
Mass (kg)
Angle 200kg 300kg 400kg 500kg 600kg
(2 people) (3 people) (4 people) (5 people) (6 people)
0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
7/16 Rope
1/2 Rope.
5 0.17 0.26 0.34 0.43 0.51
10 0.34 0.51 0.68 0.85 1.02
15 0.51 0.76 1.02 1.27 1.52
20 0.67 1.01 1.34 1.68 2.01
25 0.83 1.24 1.66 2.07 2.49
Rope.
30 0.98 1.47 1.96 2.45 2.94
1/2
35 1.12 1.69 2.25 2.81 3.37
Degree of Slope or Percentage of Slope?
Rescuers will frequently use the terms degree and percent interchangeably
when talking about how steep a given slope is. The two terms mean entirely
different things.
Degree of Slope refers to the angle of the slope measured from zero degrees
(flat or level). A true vertical wall is a 90 slope.
Percentage of Slope refers to the amount of vertical distance of the slope divided
by the horizontal distance of the slope. A slope that rises 1 m in 1 m horizontal
distance is a 100% slope.
100% SLOPE = 45 SLOPE
Notes:

Forces and Angles (Force
Vectors)
The forces acting on the anchors and
equipment in rope rescue is not always
obvious. Understanding those forces, is a key
step in becoming a competent rope rescue
technician. How can we determine that our
system is safe and meets the Static System
Safety Factor of 10:1, if we cant predict the
forces that an individual anchor, or carabiner,
or other piece of gear will have to hold.
We need to know the forces acting on each
individual anchor and piece of equipment.
The rope only acts in tension, so the force

along it stays the same until a junction (knot,
prusik, etc.) is reached. It can pass through
multiple pulleys and will still have the same
tension (force) on it. The rope aligns itself
with the force, so it is easy to tell the direction
of pull. The force is the rescue load.
When we use a rope between two anchors,

as in a Load-Sharing Anchor, we pull on the
rope somewhere towards the middle of it and
form a V. When two anchors are sharing
a load, it does not mean that they are each
holding one half the weight of the load. The
angle that is formed at the V determines the
percent of the load that each anchor will see.
That percentage can range from about 50% The next place that we want to focus our
of the load per anchor with angles less than attention is the angles formed inside the
60, to over 500% of the load per anchor with webbing or rope loops that we use around
angles around 170 (see diagram below???). trees and rocks. This refers to the wrap and
Notice that the forces on each anchor is pull type anchors, as well as others. The
greater than or equal to the load, when the angles are formed at the V that we clip a
angle is 120 or more. carabiner into. The same force calculations
used in the Load-Sharing Anchor diagram
applies here, too. If the angle at the V is
less than 60, both legs of the loop will share
about half of the load. If the angle is greater
than 120, each leg is receiving more than the
load itself (see diagram above)
Notes:

The rules for Load-Sharing Anchors and Pretensioned Back-Ties in Chapter 6). When
anchor loops are: a rope passes through a pulley and changes
Keep the angles as small as you can. direction, the force on the pulley is increased.
The angle that the rope forms at the pulley
Try to keep the angles less than 90. allows us to determine the increased force
Do not exceed 120. seen by that pulley and its anchor. These
forces can vary from 0% of the load, for
a directional pulley that has the rope pass
Now we will address how forces act on straight through it at 180 (the rope is not
pulleys. A pulley is acted on by two forces, deflected), up to 200% of the load, when the
one pulling in each direction along the rope angle of the rope is 0 (see pulley diagram).
sections entering and leaving it. When the These forces are inversely proportional
rope is tensioned, the pulley will align itself (opposite) to the Load-Sharing Anchor
with the resultant force of these, so if you look diagram.
at the alignment of the pulley and carabiner
you can see the direction a force is acting on
them. Determine this direction before loading
the system whenever possible, especially
when you have to back-tie the anchor (see
Notes:

Notes:

Ropes and Devices
Chapter 3: Ropes and Devices

The title of this section is Ropes and Rope & Webbing Strength
Devices, but it might just as well be called It is impractical (or just showing off) to
Tools of the Trade. These are the items memorize precise software strengths for all
that you will use to effect a technical rescue, of the different cordage manufacturers, so
move around in the vertical environment, and the table below is provided as a general guide
protect yourself from typical rescue hazards. which has been accepted in many parts of the
rescue industry. We refer to these as field
figures and find that they are more than
Ropes adequate for virtually any technical rescue
Only static kernmantle rope (<5% work. Exact numbers were rounded off in
stretch) should be used. Kernmantle design order to simplify static system safety factor
consists of a central core or kern of parallel (SSSF) calculations.
fibers which supports the load. This core is
covered with a woven sheath or mantle. A
low-stretch rope typically stretches less than Software MBS* TIED
2% when a 2 kN force is applied. 12.5mm......................... 40 kN 27 kN
11.1 mm............ 27kN- 30 kN 20 kN
10 mm .......................... 25 kN 17 kN
9 mm............................. 20 kN 14 kN
8 mm.............. 12.5 kN-15 kN 10 kN
7 mm............................. 10 kN 6.5 kN
6 mm............................ 7.5 kN 5 kN
1 (25mm) tubular.18- 20 kN 9-10 kN
1 (25mm) Milspec Type 18.26 kN 13 kN
*All of these figures are approximate. MBS varies
according to manufacturer and testing methodology.
Remote area rescue usually uses an

11.1 mm (7/16) rope to conserve rescuer
energy, it is lighter than 1/2 rope! This is
acceptable as long as the 10:1 safety margin
is maintained. The fire services typically use
12.5 mm. (1/2) rope because of the NFPA
standards. Besides, they usually have a big
red truck handy to carry the stuff around.
Retire your rope at around the 10-year age
unless the wear on it becomes obvious sooner
or other conditions or situations have occurred
which required you to retire it, e.g., a major
shock force. For additional information on
evaluation of ropes, refer to Appendix C.
Notes:

Ropes and Devices
Some things that will affect rope strength Store nylon ropes away from acids and
are ties (commonly known as knots, bends sunlight. Dont toss your rope in the rear
and hitches), aging, getting it wet, and window of your car because it looks cool!
bending it over or around something (as over Before you throw a rope into your car
a carabiner). Here are field figures to use in trunk think; have you ever carried battery
calculation SSSF: jumper cables in that trunk?
Rope over a carabiner...... 1/4 Lower a rope down over the edge,
wherever possible. If you need to clear
Webbing over a carabiner.No loss
obstacles on the rock face below, throw
Ties.................................. 1/3 a coildont throw your rope in the rope
Wet (nylon)...................... 15%* bag. (By the way, make sure you tie off
For example, a 7/16 rope (11.1 mm) has one end before you put it over the edge!)
a field strength of 30 kN. When a tie is placed
in that rope (a knot, hitch or bend), you must Oddly enough, testing indicates that
subtract 1/3 of the strength of that rope, so as urine, including the fumes, is extremely
a result, the rope is now considered to have a destructive to rope. Are you storing your
strength of 20 kN, which is still adequate for rope in a barn near a lot of farm animals?
a two-person lead. However, if wet, that same Does your male cat spray?
rope is now going to experience a strength
loss of an additional 15%, so that same rope Do not leave knots in a rope. Prolonged
starts with a strength of 25.5 kN. Placing a
bending of the fibers will weaken them.
tie it will further reduce the strength of the
rope to 16.9 kN, which does not provide a Replace pre-rigged litter spiders frequently.
10:1 SSSF. It will be necessary to use a Prusk
Bypass or a larger rope to attain a 10:1 SSSF. Keep your ropes away from oil and grease.
Dont leave ropes on cement floors which

Rope Care may contain an acid residue.
Ropes are our life, treat them accordingly!
Ropes age too. While that rescue rope Bagging is the best storage method. Rope
is sitting on the shelf, it is aging just as is best stored in a cool, dark and dry place.
quickly as your training ropes, even if the Make sure the rope is dry before storing it
training ropes are getting more wear and in bags to prevent mildew. Ropes can also
tear: be hung on large wooden pegs.
If you want to make marks on a rope do

Never step on a rope! Not only is it bad not use a product that contains phenol. If
manners, this action can damage the the ink smells like Pine-Sol it should not
sheath if you trap the rope between be used, if the ink smells like alcohol it is
your boot and a sharp edge underneath. safe to use. Sanfords Rub-A-Dub laundry
Stepping on or into a rope stacked for a pen is okay, but Sanfords Sharpie marker
lowering operation could get you tangled is NOT. Check the ingredients! Some rope
up in a loop when the rope moves. (For manufacturers sell pens especially for this
your own protection you should always purpose.
know where your feet are when youre
working in the rope rescue environment!)
Notes:

Ropes and Devices
If ropes pass over rough edges, provide particularly if they are paler. This might be
padding to prevent abrasion. an indication of contact with chemicals. If in
doubt, throw if out! Regardless, retire your
Regularly wash dirt and grit off the webbing in the 5 to 7 year range.
rope with a rope washer. Contact
the manufacturer for specific
recommendations. Carabiners
Carabiners are metal connectors that link
the elements of the high angle system. They
Accessory/Prusik Cordage are also known as biners. crabs, or snap
The same considerations listed above links.
for rope apply to accessory or Prusik cord
because it is just a smaller rope.
If youre going to use Prusik Hitches, the

accessory cord you use should have a more
flexible sheath for increased friction or the
Prusik Hitches may not hold.
Generally, two cross sections of the Prusik

cord should equal the cross section of the
main line. 8 mm works quite well on 11.1 mm
and 12.5 mm rope. Some schools prefer you
to use 9 mm on a 12.5 mm rope.
Parts of a Carabiner
Webbing The basic parts of a carabiner include the
Webbing generally comes in two types, spine, hinge, gate and latch. In some places
flat and tubular. 1-inch tubular webbing is the knob on a locking carabiner which is
the most commonly used for rescue. Flat screwed shut to lock it is know as the ferrule,
webbing comes in a variety of types and sizes. or screwgate.
Most are designed for light duty use, such
as; pack manufacturing, accessory pouch,
straps, etc. Very few have the strength and
abrasion resistance required for rope rescue. Carabiner Shape
Always check the breaking strength and only Carabiners are manufactured in a wide
purchase from knowledgeable and reputable variety of shapes which are usually intended
companies. for a specific purpose.
Keep in mind that webbing is not a Oval: This design tends to place the load
kernmantle type construction like your rope, equally along the spine and gate sides of the
so the outside surface you can see is also the carabiner. Usually considered the weakest
load bearing structure. Examine the fibers design.
in the weave and retire your webbing if it
is severely abraded or broken at any point.
Discolored areas are also a danger flag,
Notes:

Ropes and Devices
D-Shapes: Designed to shift the load to A sleeve turns around a pin on the gate to
the spine and away from the gate side. Much move up and close over the nose. This is
stronger than the oval design. called an Acme Thread arrangement and
is the most commonly seen type.
Modified D: Provides the advantages of A locking-sleeve moves on screw threads
the D-shape plus permits the placement of over the nose of the carabiner to ensure
more than one piece of equipment in one end closure. This type is not seen too much
of the carabiner. (Take care not to load any anymore.
carabiner in three directions!) A spring-loaded sleeve makes a quarter
turn to unlock. This is convenient to use if
youre familiar with them, but some types
Pear-shaped: Has even more room at one come open very easily.
end of the carabiner. Also the best choice for
A sleeve moves downward over the hinge
Munter Hitch usage.
to hold the gate locked. This is not advised
for rescue work because the locking action
Non-Locking Carabiners is opposite to the majority of other locking
Non-locking carabiners have no carabiners.
special means of assuring that they
do not open at an undesirable time. Aluminum vs. Steel Carabiners
They consist simply of a spring- Most carabiners are constructed from
loaded gate that opens with very either aluminum or steel. Each have some
little effort. They are almost always advantages and disadvantages. The important
cheaper than the locking carabiners thing is to consider the strength requirement
and they are for the most part not of your particular application and whether
as strong. They are lighter and or not the carabiner can meet that strength
used mostly for sport climbing. They are not requirement.
generally recommended for use in rescue.
There are titanium carabiners available,

The only place where most people routinely but these have not been accepted in the
use a non-locking carbiner in rescue is for rescue community as yet and should not be
attaching tag line hangers for a highline. used.
Locking Carabiners
Locking carabiners
have a mechanism Carabiner Warnings
to ensure they dont Locking carabiners are not as strong when
come open accidentally. they are unlocked. Many of the newer
Remember, however, carabiners have strength ratings for
that if a gate is oriented different loading configurations stamped
up, vibration can cause directly on them. For example, a carabiner
the ferrule to rotate may be marked with the following ratings:
down and the gate would Locking carabiners can and do come open
then be unlocked. They
after being locked. When the gate is open,
are more expensive,
but stronger when closed and locked. Though some carabiners can lose up to 75% of
specific designs vary, most lockers usually their gate-closed strength.
fall into one of the following categorie:
Notes:

Ropes and Devices
Avoid cross-loading. If a carabiner is Parts of a Pulley
loaded across the short axis, it can fail at The wheel in the middle that turns is called
only a fraction of its rated strength. the sheave.
Avoid three-way loading. A carabiner is The side plates, or cheeks, are the sides
designed to be loaded across the long axis. of the device that make contact with the
If you add a third load vector it can fail at anchor (usually a carabiner). They are
only a fraction of its rated strength. usually the weakest part of the pulley.
In rescue pulleys, the side plates should
Screw Links rotate so that the pulley can be easily
There are many styles of screw-links, one applied to the rope anywhere along its
for almost any application. Many carrying length rather than threading the rope
harnesses require a D style link to secure through the pulley.
them. The familiar Pulleys with sealed ball bearing axles,
oval style is used in when new, are generally more efficient
place of a carabiner than pulleys with bushings.
for attaching devices
(rack, cows tail, QAS,
etc) to your harness. Specialized Pulleys
They are shorter than Prusik-Minding Pulley.
a carabiner and more The purpose of this
secure due to the very useful pulley is
thread pattern of the to permit the use of a
locking mechanism. Prusik Hitch as a belay
The tri-link is the best or pulley system ratchets
choice for tri -axial during the raising of
(three-way) loading
rescue loads. They can
situations. It maintains its full strength when
loaded this way. The Maillon Rapide, made be used with equal
in France, has 2 types; One is stamped with utility anywhere else in a
a working load limit (WLL), which is about rescue system.
1/5 of its rated breaking strength. The other Kootenay Carriage. This specialized
is stamped with the breaking strength in kN. pulley is best known for its use in highlines
Try to find the latter type, and be sure Mallion and can also function as a knot passing
Rapide is stamped on your quick-links along pulley. Also, the sheave can be locked
with strength rating. off by the use of special pins to allow the
pulley to be used as a high-strength tie-off.
Rated strength is 9,000 lbs, or about 40
Rescue Pulley kN.
Pulleys are mechanisms that use a truing Russ Anderson Knot-Passing Pulley.
wheel to reduce friction on a rope as it rounds This pulley was originally
a turn. In rescue, they serve primarily to
manufactured by SMC as a pulley
change the direction of a rope, e.g., in a
mechanical advantage system. Most - but not with enough room to pass bends.
all- rescue pulleys have a rated strength of They have recently added pins
about 6,000 pounds. Know the rated strength to allow you to lock the sheave
of your equipment! in the same manner as the Rock
Exotica Kootenay Carriage so it
can be used as a high strength
Notes:

Ropes and Devices
tie-off. Rated strength of this pulley is Closed Rappel Rack. A closed rack is
5,000 pounds, or just over 22 kN. Newer made from a U-shaped piece of stainless
models have upgraded strength, but check steel rod with a nut threaded onto the
to be sure you dont have an old one! end of each arm. The bottom of the U
Pulley Warnings
Avoid using carabiners in the place of
pulleys in rescue systems because in
general, carabiners cause too much
friction. One exception to this would be in
the construction of pre-tensioned back-ties,
is used as the attachment point. This is
where most rescue schools recommend or
the reverse of a standard rack. The closed
accept the use of carabiners.
style rack does not distort under rescue
Do not put two pulleys into the same
loads, but does require more skill to add or
carabiner. This will usually cause one of
subtract bars while under load.
the pulleys to be slightly cocked, which will
cause binding of the sheave and distortion
of the cheeks. The closed rappel racks come in personal
and rescue sizes, which mainly refer to
the width of rack. The personal racks will
Decenders usually be limited to a single rope, while
Rappel Racks the rescue version will accept two ropes.
Open Rappel Rack. The standard
rack is a long inverted U of stainless steel (Independent lab test show the nuts will
rod with an attachment eye at one end of come off with a 14,000 pound pull. Thats
the U and the other left open to allow the about 63 kN. For the faint of heart, it
rope to be inserted. The frame is springy should reassure them that the 11.1mm
and the bars are threaded onto it by rope theyre using will only take about 30
means of a hole drilled in one end of the kN before breaking!)
bars. Notice on the rack shown here that
the eye is solidly welded. Some racks have Note: Rappel racks should not be used to
a wrapped eye which can unwrap under belay loads. If the belayer drops enough
tensions as low as 800 lbs of force. The bars to permit the free passage of rope
wrapped eye should not be used. necessary during lowering there will
not be nearly enough friction to catch a
One drawback to open racks is that to falling load. During raising operations, it
have maximum control over the lowering is impossible to pull the rope up through
operation, the brakeman must have his a rappel rack with enough bars to provide
back to the operation. However, the main meaningful friction.
drawback to the open style rack is that
under extreme loads the frame will start to
distort, making it difficult to add or remove
bars to vary the friction.
Notes:

Ropes and Devices
Stop or Bobbin-Type Devices add friction, but they will not be discussed
Petzl Stop. A bobbin style descender here.)
with a squeeze ON and release OFF Cannot belay rescue loads. The myth
feature which is designed for personal persists that a Figure 8 can be used to
loads only. (Note: The Stops have been belay rescue loads despite numerous tests
used successfully for pick-off of stranded to the contrary. Do not use a Figure 8 for
climbers, but this is recommended for this purpose. It is unsafe.
advanced users only.) Twists the rope. As the rappeller
SRT Stop. An Australian-manufactured descends the rope, the Figure 8 imparts
version of the Petzl Stop, this heavier a high amount of twist into the rope.
design will stop the rappeller if the handle This can result in a wad of twisted rope
is released or squeezed hard. This device is at the bottom of the rappel. It can make
also designed for personal loads. life extremely miserable for anyone on a
rappel rack descending the rope afterwards
Warning! When using Stop devices, if the rappel involves a free hang area. It
descent must be controlled with the brake can also make life extremely miserable for
hand, not the handle. In order to activate anyone ascending the rope.
the Stop feature, the handle must be Rescuers should only use Figure 8s with
released, which is not a normal reaction ears. These will help prevent accidentally
in an emergency. The Stop feature is a locking off the device with a girth hitch.
convenience for temporarily stopping on
descent and not a safety for uncontrolled
rappel or poorly trained rappellers. If you Emergency Expedients
want your hand free during an extended Emergency expendients means exactly
pause on rope, your must lock off the Stop that, they are for emergency use only.
in accordance with [the manufacturers When all else fails, they will serve to get
instructions].2 you down the rope. However, these methods
are not acceptable as primary rope descent
techniques for rescuers in the vertical
Figure 8 environment.
The Figure 8 Mnter Hitch. This is also known as the
descender slows the
Italian Hitch or the Half Ring Bend. It
rappeller by applying
friction to the rope as can be used for short rappels but twists
it twists through the the rope severely and is difficult to tie
device. The Figure 8 off. If you must make a long rappel
is adequate in some using a Mnter hitch, use the Canadian,
respects but has several or doubled, version, which significantly
serious drawbacks for increases the amount of friction. This is the
the serious rope rescuer only recommended emergency expendient
when compared to rappel racks: rappel practice using a carabiner.
Carabiner Wrap. This technique is used
by the military a lot. Most survive its use;
Cannot vary friction. Once you rig the
a few do not. This is not what a carabiner
Figure 8 for rappel, youre stuck with the
was designed for. Use the right tool for the
same amount of friction from the top of the
job.
rappel to the bottom (There are ways to
Notes:

Ropes and Devices
Carabiner Brake Bars. Used in the old shock force can result in severe damage
days by mountaineers, this arrangement to the rope sheath and/or rope core,
improperly loads Carabiners. Again, this is and can completely sever the rope. Use
not what a carabiner was designed for. extreme caution when using mechanical
ascenders in a rescue system and never
use them as part of a belay system. (A
ASCENDERS soft interface is preferred.)
Ascenders are mechanical devices which
grip and hold the rope. They provide a much
greater level of safety for a person ascending HANDLED TYPE ASCENDERS
a rope by allowing the rope to move in only There are a number of
one direction through the ascender without excellent handled ascenders on
slipping back. Ascenders will grip on any type the market. Of the ascenders
of rope, but some may have restrictions in listed below, the Jumar is the
regard to the size of rope they can handle. only one that users tend to
If you are using an ascender, it should be back up with webbing. It is
commercially manufactured. unnecessary for the others.
Petzl
Mechanical ascenders, either handled or CMI
closed, depend on a rotating cam to grab or Clog
grip the rope. There are two types of cams: Jumar
Kong
Toothed cams have spike-like teeth. SRT
Most ascenders of this type can be put on
and off a rope with one hand. Toothed cam
ascenders should not be used in a rescue In general, expect a strength
system because a relatively minor shock load reduction in your system of about 66%
results in severe damage to the rope sheath. when using an ascender on synthetic
These can slip on muddy or icy ropes due rope.
to clogging of the teeth, but in practice this PMI-Petzl Technical Notes 1997
rarely happens.
Ridged cams have fewer, but larger,

rounded edges perpendicular to the direction
of travel This design squeezes the rope with
the ridges instead of sharp teeth and will
hold on icy and/or muddy ropes much more
securely than the toothed cam versions. The
drawback to this design is that they usually
need two hands to place them on or off a
rope.
Ridged cams ascenders should be

used with extreme caution in limited
rescue system applications because a
Notes:

Ropes and Devices
CLOSED TYPE ASCENDERS skull for impact protection. It is a good idea to
Gibbs Ascenders wear a helmet at all times during a technical
rescue, despite your assigned position.
Rock Exotica Rescucender
Hard-hat style helmets with a single chin
Rock Exotica Microcender strap are not secure if struck by a rock and
could pivot off the head. The hardhat-style
The Gibbs Ascender (right has a rated helmet usually has inferior aluminum or flimsy
strength of 5,400 pounds for only the plastic construction and should not be used for
stainless steel 1/2 version. One aluminum rope rescue work.
versions breaking strength is rated at 5,000
pounds and the #2 aluminum Gibbs is rated at You should also select a helmet with a
only 2,500 pounds, which is only 11.3 kN. The chin strap that will release under load. If you
warning concerning Gibbs in the PMI catalog have an accident and find yourself hanging by
states: Gibbs ascenders are designed for one your helmet (it happens) the strap will choke
person loads on an overhead fixed rope. Any you to death if you cannot release it. Some
mechanical ascender can severely damage older style straps can be rigged to release
or destroy the rope if overloaded or shock under load but others need to have the buckle
loaded. They should never be used to catch a assembly replaced. Get a qualified opinion if
load in a dynamic situation such as a belay. you have any doubts.
The Rock Exotica Rescucender has a rated Finally, your helmet should fit properly.
breaking strength of 6,000 pounds, or 27 Helmets perched up on top of a rescuers
kN. This device is more rope friendly but head like a pillbox hat on an organ grinders
can still sever or damage a rope under the monkey are unsafe. Helmets perched on top
right conditions. Regardless of type, extreme of hats are also not secure.
caution must be exercised when using
mechanical ascenders in any situation where
they could experience a shock load. Helmets, just like rope, webbing, and
harnesses, have a limited service life.
Petzl, Bullard, and the Joe Brown helmet
HELMETS manufacturers all recommended replacing
Whats your head worth? helmets in the 5-7 year range. Extensive
It is an accepted practice exposure to UV will shorten this to no more
throughout much of the than 5 years. Exposure to a severe impact
country to accept high-quality means the helmet should be replaced
climbing helmets, such as the immediately since this can cause damage
Petzl Ecrin Roc (shown here), which might not be readily apparent.
for rescue applications and
this is probably sufficient for
most rescuers.
A climbing grade or
better, professionally manufactured, CE/ANSI
approved helmet with a three-point strap
suspension system is recommended. Be sure
the strap behind your head (called the nape
strap) is secure. A good helmet should provide
for air circulation and be suspended off the
Notes:

Ropes and Devices
SEAT HARNESSES the extra padding due to all the time they
The harness is spend on rope, they rarely do in actual
a highly personal, practice. Take a look at the people who really
uniquely individual do spend a lot of time on rope in a wilderness
item of equipment setting such as sport climbers, big wall
used to secure climbers, and cavers and you wont find much
the rescuer at all in the way of padding. You will, however,
to the rope. A find highly efficient hardware and the actual
commercially load carried is usually a lot less. Look at the
sewn rescue numbers below and think about what you
harness: would really like to haul into the wilderness:
Is normally
easy to rig CMC-style padded harness with
Is comfortable while hanging in it. Roco chest harness connected
Commonly has double-pass-through buckle Large Figure 8 w/ears
designs.
Purcell Prusik set w/ spare Prusik slings
Usually has contrasting colored stitching to
indicate thread wear. 2 carabiners
Is not designed for absorbing shock forces. Total Approx 11.6 lbs
TYPES OF HARNESSES Petzl Fractio harness with

Harnesses generally fall into three classes. BMS micro rappel rack
Type I: This is essentially just a safety Complete Frog ascending system
belt. If a user falls, he ends up hanging Total Approx 3.8 lbs
from a belt around his middle. This is an
unacceptable item for rescuers, even if just
working the edge. There are some harnesses which have
Type II: This is the typical seat harness, not generally been regarded as rescue
harnesses but which have proven to be very
and is usually more than adequate for any
versatile in the vertical environment. The
rescue application. Petzl Super Avanti and Fractio are caving
Type III: This is whats known as a full harnesses which work very well with the Frog
body harness and is generally required to ascending system. The ABC Guide harness
meet NFPA fall protection standards. For is lightweight and compact and might well be
wilderness rescue, this is probably overkill. a good choice to save weight for teams hiking
in great distances for a rescue. The Black
Diamond Bod harness is great for alpine
RESCUE vs. SPORT applications. Finally, the Ultralight harness
Somehow, many rescue teams have come (by Gonzo Guano Gear of Austin, Texas) used
to believe that if it is not heavy and padded, by some teams locally is extremely light,
and it doesnt say rescue on it somewhere, compact, adjusts quickly, and is very fast
then it must not be a rescue harness. to don. It also can be worn without the leg
Consequently, they end up attempting to attachment strap for maximum comfort on
lighten their pack load by cutting back on the trail. (This strap must be attached before
hardware such as ascenders and thereby going on rope!)
sacrifice efficiency on rope in the process.
While some rescuers may talk about needing
Notes:

Ropes and Devices
attached to a
rescuers harness are
Always get a Buddy Check after putting on absolutely prohibited.
your harness. Trauma scissors, a
rescue hook knife/
guide knife are
HARNESS USAGE recommended.
Know and follow the manufactures Another alternative is
directions for your harness. the Gerber or SOG
Know the history (care and usage) of your multiplier-style tool,
harness. A swap meet may not be the best which has a knife blade. Be Careful!
place to buy a harnessor any other gear!
Be sure any seat harness is worn above EYE PROTECTION
your hipbones so you wont fall out if you Sunglasses and/or goggles are
invert while on rope. recommended. A lot of time, in rope
The gear loops on the side of your harness rescue, is spent looking up and a piece of
are not meant to be used as tie-ins. They pea gravel can really hurt if it hits you in
are only to be used for hanging gear! the eye. Not only that, but if youre busy
Use a figure eight follow-through knot to digging sand or dirt out of your eyes in the
tie directly into a belay line, rather than middle of a rescue operation, youre not
clipping into the belay line with a carabiner. paying attention to business and that can
If your main line fails and your fall is get you or another rescuer hurt.
arrested by the belay line, you might cross
load a carabiner used for tie-in and have it
fail when shock loaded (if youre using SRT HEADLAMP
this doesnt apply.) A durable and
Retire a harness the same as you would a compact headlamp
rope or webbing, if it gets old and worn. should be carried at
all times. It would
Most manufacturers seem to agree that 5-
be nice if all rescues
7 years is about the maximum safe life you could be finished
can expect from a harness. before nightfall, but
this is the real world.
OTHER PERSONAL EQUIPMENT Spare batteries
and bulbs are considered common sense.
A backup light source which can be helmet
CUTTING TOOL mounted is a really good idea in case you
A sharp knife is trash your primary light source. Have enough
dangerous around light to last through at least one night.
loaded ropes. The use
of sheath knives is a Battery life can be extended by turning the
dangerous practice and light off during brief rest periods or when
is strongly discouraged talking with a team member. A variable
as a rescue practice. output headlamp is another way to extend
Sheath knives headlamp light capability.
Notes:

Ropes and Devices
An alkaline battery, gel cell, or lead acid RADIO CHEST HARNESS
battery can provide as much as 20% more Recommended to keep your radio more
energy with brief periods of rest. accessible.
For a low-cost alternative, mount Protect your expensive communications
flashlights on your helmet with tool if you have to go over the side with it.
manufactured mounts (left), or with simple Carry an extra battery.
loops of bungie cord poked through vent
holes.
Some helmet manufactures dont have WHISTLES
a problem with drilling a couple of small Recommended as the low cost alternative
holes in their helmets to mount lights, for short distance communications.
check with your helmets manufacturer to
Know Your Gear!

be sure before you drill any holes.
There are LED headlights and flashlights on
the market that will run for over a week on
two AA batteries. This light is dimmer than
typical headlights, but might be sufficient
for trail work. Higher output lights are
probably needed for rope rescue work at
night.
FOOTWEAR
Boots with soles that provide adequate
traction are required.
Boots that provide ankle support are also
recommended.
GLOVES
Leather gloves provide excellent protection
for rappelling, ascending and litter
carrying.
Leather gloves are required when belaying
or handling any rope that has the potential
to come under tension. Since a rappeller is
on a tensioned rope, this means gloves are
required since the rappeller has to control
his descent by holding the tensioned rope.
While ascending, the climber is handling
ascenders, not the rope, so gloves are
optional. However, for those using Purcell
Prusiks or the Classic Three-Knot System,
gloves are strongly recommended!
Notes:

Ties: Knots, Hitches and Bends
Chapter 4: Ties: Knots, Hitches and Bends

Ties hold things together in most systems Characteristics
and the strength of a rope in good condition There are at six characterizes that taken
usually exceeds the demand placed on it, together, determine the relative value of a tie:
making tie strength or efficiency immaterial.
In technical rescue, however, ropes are often Strength
loaded to several times the usual working load Ease of Tying
and a tie may often become the weak link in a Ease of Inspection
system. Ease of Untying
Versatility
Compactness
Several ties have gained wide acceptance
in rescue, including the Bowline family,
the Figure Eight family, the Water Knot, The strength of the rope is reduced
the Double Fishermans Bend, the Prusik, significantly by most ties down to about 50-
the Clove Hitch and others. Each has its 80 percent, or approximately two-thirds
applications, some of which are suggested of the ropes original strength. This is due
throughout this text. to sharp bends in the rope created by the tie
and the angle at which the rope leaves the tie,
So, a 30kN rope is reduced to a 20kN rope by
Naming Conventions simply placing a tie in it.
Names of ties can be confusing, especially
when locally-invented names begin to work If a tie is tensioned abnormally it can
their way into the conversation. Is it a reduce the knotted strength of the rope
Grapevine Knot, a Double Fishermans significantly. For example, loading the working
Bend or a Monkeyfist Knot? end and the running end of a Figure 8 on a
Bight is an example of abnormally tensioning
To eliminate or reduce confusion, this text a knot. A tie that would normally result in
will follow the naming conventions found in only a 1/3 loss of strength in the rope might
the most recent edition of On Rope, by Bruce reduce the strength by more than half if
Smith and Allen Padgett. For a complete tensioned abnormally.
discussion on this subject On Rope (2nd Ed.)
is recommended as an excellent source of Other important factors in knot tying are
information. dressing knots so they are neat, which helps
maintain the maximum strength of the knot,
The strengths of the various ties will not and pre-tensioning (also called setting) a
be addressed except in the most general knot.
terms because the strength is determined by
the rope type, diameter and who is doing the Some sources say that because failure
testing under what conditions. does not occur inside the knot, dressing is
not important (and some testing would seem
to back this up). No matter what you might
personally believe, it is our policy to always
carefully dress a knot, if for no other reason
Notes:

than it makes the knot much easier to inspect Working End: The end of the rope that
during a safety check. is rigged or tied off to something, e.g., an
anchor.
Back-up Knots
Wherever appropriate, tie back-up knots
with the excess tail. Use an Overhand or Categories of Ties
Barrel Knot. A Half-Hitch is not an effective or Smith and Padgett have divided the usable
acceptable back-up knot. In general, it is not ties into four (4) new groups:
necessary to back-up the Figure Eight family
or the Ring Bend, provided you leave sufficient Anchors (end line knots).
tail on the tie. Always back up moving Mid-line riggings.
Bowlines, Square Knots, and Clove Hitches. Bends
Friction, belay and climbing hitches.
Terminology The first two are true knots that when

Bend: A tie that unites two rope ends. secured correctly, should not move or slide.
Bight: A doubled back section or rope, They are usually the best primary rigging
usually from somewhere in the middle of choice. The bends (which join two ends
the rope that does not cross itself. It forms together) have most of their use in preparing
a U slings and anchors. The last category,
Dressing: The orientation of all the parts friction, belay and climbing hitches all have
interchangeable applications which will be
so that they are all properly aligned,
discussed all through this text.
straightened, or bundled.
Finishing: The act of dressing and setting
a tie once it has been constructed. Anchor Knots (End-Line Knots)
Hitch: A group of ties that wrap or attach
to other objects or ropes. In almost every Bowline
hitch, when the object is removed, the tie The Bowline is a
multi-purpose knot
falls apart.
that for a while had the
Knot: a fixed, non-movable place on a undeserved reputation
piece of cordage that is achieved through as a death knot. Like
the use of turns, bends, and tie-offs. any other knot, it needs
Loop: A turn of the rope that crosses to be tied correctly. It is
itself. regaining favor among
Running End: The end of the rope several of the major
towards the load. rescue schools and is
Setting: Tightening all parts of the tie so considered perfectly acceptable as a knot in
that all of the rope parts touch, grab and this text.
cause friction upon other parts of the tie so
as to render it secure. The Bowline is a very efficient knot but has
Standing Part: All of the rope that is not been know to work itself loose under repeated
fastened at the rigging point. loadings, so it is best to back up the Bowline
Tie: A generic term encompassing all the with an Overhand or Barrel knot.
general categories of securing cordage,
including: knots, hitches, and bends.
Notes:

Mountaineering Bowline Two Loop Figure Eight
The Mountaineering Bowline is a variation This is one of the best knots to use when
of the Bowline which is said by some sources you need to distribute the load between 2 or
to be about five to eight percent stronger than more anchor points. It can also be used as an
the regular Bowline. It has two coils instead of end-line anchor knot.
the one used in a regular Bowline.
Figure Eight
This is a basic knot that forms the Figure
Eight on a Bight, the Figure Eight Follow
Through, Double Figure Eight and the In-line
Figure Eight. It can also be used as a stopper
knot in the end of a rope.
Figure Eight on a Bight

By forming a bight
near the end of a rope,
a simple non-slipping Figure Nine
loop can be formed for The Figure Nine Knot is better to use then
such things as hauling, the Figure Eight on ropes of less
life support or gear than 10mm. This knot unties
lifting. This knot, despite more easily and according to
its versatility, has two Warild, it is stronger than a
drawbacks. First, it can be Figure Eight (weve used this
very hard to untie after it knot quite a bit and it is distinctly
has been heavily loaded. easier to untie).
Second, its a bulky knot
that takes quite a bit of
rope to tie. It takes 180% Its biggest drawback is that it
more rope to tie a Figure takes a lot of rope to tie. It also
Eight on a Bight than it takes practice to tie correctly.
does to tie a Bowline (Smith and Padgett).
Mid-line Rigging Knots

Figure Eight Follow Through There is sometimes a need to tie a knot
The Figure Eight Follow Through is useful in the middle of a rope for a carabiner
for a primary end-line rigging around an attachment point. The following knots are
anchor, such as trees or other substantial specifically designed for mid-line applications.
anchor points Be careful not to abnormally tension mid-line
knots. Not all of them can be loaded in any
direction!
This knot is often incorrectly referred to by
some as the Figure Eight Bend, which is used
to join 2 ropes together.
Notes:

Two Loop Bowline on a Bight
The Bowline on a
Bight is another variation
of the Bowline. It has
high knot strength,
an extra coil and it is
impossible to untie
while it is still around an
anchor. Before loading,
the coils are fairly easy
to adjust to different
lengths and it is highly
recommended as a knot
to use for load sharing anchors.
Start the Butterfly knot by winding the
rope around your hand, coming from behind
and crossing back toward your wrist. Note the
Three Loop Bowline on a Bight X.
Another variation of the Bowline, the Three
Loop Bowling, is also known as the Double
Bowline. Pull the center loop out toward you to gain
some slack for a bight.
Butterfly
The Butterfly is a fairly complicated midline Tuck the bight under the other two loops
knot, although Smith and Padgett call it and pull it out toward the end of your fingers.
probably the best mid-line rigging knot.
Pull on the bight and the other ends of the
Its best feature is that it provides for rope.
multidirectional loading without compromising
the strength of the knot. However, the
Let go of the bight and pull on the two
efficiency of this knot is only about 50%,
ends of the rope to set the knot.
which is less than most other knots. This will
be an exception to the 1/3 field figure for
strength loss noted above.
In-line Figure Eight
The In-Line Figure Eight is a directional
The main drawback to this knot is that it knot. It will move through pulleys more easily
is very hard to untie after it has been heavily than most knots when employed in a running
tensioned. line.
However, this knot is very susceptible to

capsizing if loaded in the wrong direction.
Bends
These are end-to end ties which join two
pieces of rope together.
Notes:

knot to make it easier to untie.
Figure Eight Bend Beer Knot (Bend)
This is a simple variation of the Figure The Beer Knot is a variation of the Water
Eight Knot. Tie a Figure Eight Knot in the end Knot and is also known as the Internal Water
of one rope. With the running end of the other Knot. It was first presented in the U. S.,
rope, trace the Figure Eight backwards. When by Peter Ludwig from Austria and since it
you have finished, the ends of the two ropes is actually a self cinching tie, it is probably
should be sticking out of opposite side of the better described as a splice.
bend.
To make the Beer Knot, first tie an
This knot is far easier to untie after loading Overhand Knot in a piece of webbing. Then
heavily than the Double Overhand Bend. insert one end of the webbing into the hollow
part of the other end. After you have about
12 to 14 inserted, work the Overhand Knot
It is generally tied using rope, but can to the overlapping area and set the bend.
also be tied in webbing. It is stronger than
the Water Knot described below, failing at
about 80% of the webbings original strength. In tests conducted a PMI in 1995, the
However it is bulkier, difficult to set properly Beer Knot consistently maintained a breaking
and sloppy looking, which might offend some strength at about 80% of the original strength
people. of the webbing, so it is substantially stronger
than the Water Knot.
Water Knot
This is one of the most used and useful ties The Beer Knot is neat and compact, with
in rescue work. It is known by many names: no flopping loose ends, but it can be a bear to
Water Knot, Overhand Bend. tie! It is best used to fabricate slings.
It is one of the best ties for fastening Double Overhand Bend

webbing together, but it can be difficult to The Double Overhand Bend (also known
untie after heavy loading. as the Double Fishermans Knot and the
Grapevine Knot) is best used to form endless
loops of rope, e.g., Prusik loops. Half of this
This tie is relatively weak. Testing indicates bend, used as a safety knot during rescue
it preserves only about 50-60% of the work, is usually referred to as a Barrel Knot or
webbings breaking strength. Half a Double Fishermans
Several schools claim that it is not This bend is often used with rope.
necessary to back up a Water Knot, but we However, once it has been heavily loaded, it is
recommend you do so if there is a chance of it almost impossible to untie and we have heard
shifting under tension. When used in a wrap- of people having to cut their ropes apart
and-pull anchor, it is not necessary to back up (which of course, shortens both ropes). Use of
this bend. a Prusik Bypass helps to avoid this problem.
The Water Knot is a friction knot. Anything Another solution is to use another bend such
that reduces the friction weakens the knot. Do as the Figure Eight Bend, which is easier to
Not place anything, such as a carabiner, in the
Notes:

untie after loading.
Triple Overhand Bend Three-wrap Prusik Hitches are always used
The Triple Overhand Bend is very similar for rescue loads and whenever more friction is
to the Double Overhand Bend with an extra needed than a Two-wrap Prusik can provide.
turn around the rope. It has superior holding
power and testing indicates that it is as strong Webbing can be used to fabricate a
as the rope itself. However, if you load this Prusik Hitch, but it can take as many as four
knot heavily you will not be able to untie it at wraps to get it to hold and once loaded, it is
all. It is apparently the only acceptable bend
for tying Spectra cord together (Smith,
Padgett).
Friction Knots, Belay and Climbing

Knots
Prusik Hitch
The Prusik Hitch is primarily a gripping
friction tie and the one most often used. It is
extremely important that rescuers be able to
correctly tie this hitch and use it.
A rope, cord, or sling which is about 70%

of the diameter of the main climbing rope is
wrapped around the main climbing rope in
such a way that the Prusik cord grips the rope
and will not slide under tension. For 11.1 mm
ropes, use 8mm Prusik cord. For 12.5 mm
ropes, you can use 9 mm Prusik cord.
Prusik cords need to be made with fairly

supple rope. If it is too soft, it will bite into the
mainline deeply and will be difficult to break
loose. When there is no tension on the hitch,
it should slide up and down the main rope
freely.
It is important to become familiar with this

hitch early on in rope rescue training, since it
is used in many different situations.
Two-wrap Prusik Hitches are commonly

used in personal climbing systems.
Notes:

extremely hard to loosen. Connections Using a Soft Interface
Mnter Hitch (Prusik Bypass)
Originally called the Italian Whenever a knot is used in the end of
Hitch, this is a simple friction a rope to make a loop we know that the
hitch which is used for belay of strength of the rope is reduced about thirty
climbers. It is not acceptable percent. The use of a high strength tie-off
for rescue loads until such time (a Round Turn) at the anchor end eliminates
as testing proves it suitable. using a knot in many applications. However,
Since it fails the whistle test, a knot at the connection point cannot be
it is not really a suitable belay avoided all the time. By using a soft interface
technique for rescue. in conjunction with the knot, close to the full
strength of the rope can be reached.
The Double Mnter Hitch, sometimes

called the Canadian Mnter Hitch, but it is not After the chosen knot has been tied, take
responsive enough for use as a belay hitch. a loop made from about 1.35 m of 8 mm cord
and tie a Prusik Hitch around the standing
line. Attach the other end of the loop to your
Clove Hitch anchor. Tighten the Prusik Hitch so a loop of
The Clove Hitch is an excellent utility slack (about 8 inches) is in the standing line.
knot. It is often used in rigging for a number The rope should be placed in the carabiner
closest to the spine.
The Prusik Hitch will normally start to slip

when a force of about 7 kN is reached and will
sustain a total force of about 9.5 kN. At that
point the strength of the knot in the main line
comes into play, Between the Prusik Bypass
and the main line knot, the full strength of the
rope is almost completely restored.
of applications including patient packaging,
litter rigging and lashing bi-pods. There is
a left way and a right way to tie this hitch, The loop in the rope, created by the soft
depending on which way the tail of the rope interface, will also act as a poor mans
leaves the hitch. You simply need to think dynamometer and will visually indicate when
ahead and decide which way the hitch should a force of about 7 kN has been exceeded.
be oriented in case it matters. For example, However, this is not 100% reliable and
when rigging a bridle to the head of a litter you should attempt to avoid the possibility
for a vertical-orientation lift, youll need to of these high forces through good rigging
consider the hitch direction in order to have practices.
the rope come off the litter rail in the correct
direction.
This same concept can be used if you have
to join two ropes together using a Double
Overhand Bend. Back the bend up with a loop
tied from 2.5 m (8) of 8 mm accessory cord
that will place a three wrap Prusik Hitch on
each side of the bend.
Notes:

Practice this before you need it as one
side of the bypass hitch will be difficult to
tie for beginners. You can tie both Prusik
Hitches. Around your fist, put a stick in them
beforehand, and set the unit aside for use
when needed.
Slip the ends of the main lines through the
Prusik Hitches in place of the sticks before
you join the ropes with the Double Overhand
Bend. Tension the Prusik loop so it carries the
load rather than the Double Overhand bend.
If your only goal is to make the knot easier
to untie, join two ropes together with a Figure
Eight Bend - it is far easier to untie than a
Double Overhand Bend.
Quick-Release Prusik Hitch
The Quick-Release Prusik Hitch is basically
the same as a standard Prusik Hitch, except
that the Double Fishermans Bend used to
form the Prusik loop is positioned as the
bridge of the hitch.
Although it is nearly as strong as the

standard Prusik Hitch, the Quick-Release
Prusik Hitch is not as predictable in its
function, i.e., its ability to grip and hold, as
a standard Prusik Hitch. This presents some
problems in where you can use it.
The only place this version of the Prusik

Hitch can be used is the haul cam.
This Hitch is useful for a haul cam.
Notes:

Personal Vertical Skills
Chapter 5: Personal Vertical Skills

First of all, why is there any discussion of personal vertical skills in a basic rope rescue
manual or training course? The following quotation pretty well sums it up.
A Rope Rescue Technician is one who is trained in the necessary skills for rope rescue,
has shown that he is competent in the skills, and continuously trains to maintain these
skills. Before progressing to qualification in rescue skills, the person should have evidence
of some minimum personal vertical knowledge and skills. He should be able to:
Demonstrate the proper use and care of rope.

Demonstrate the proper use and care of other equipment employed in the high angle
environment.
Demonstrate the ability to tie correctly, confidently, and without hesitation those knots
necessary for effective and safe work in the vertical environment.
Demonstrate the ability to rig safe and secure anchors.
Demonstrate the ability to safely and confidently belay another person.
Demonstrate the ability to rappel safely, confidently, and under control; the ability to
stop and tie off a rappel device to operate safely with hands free of the rope and then
return to safe and controlled rappel; and the ability to operate on the rope with the body
in any position, including an inverted one.
Demonstrate the ability to ascend safely; the ability to tie correctly confidently,
and without hesitation a friction knot and how to use it; the uses and limitations of
mechanical ascenders; and the ability to safely ascend a fixed rope using either friction
knots or mechanical ascenders.
Demonstrate the ability while on rope to confidently and safely change over from
rappelling to ascending and from ascending to rappelling; and the ability to extricate
oneself from a jammed rappel device (or similar problem) without the use of a knife.
High Angle Rescue Techniques, by Tom Vines and Steve Hudson

Published by the National Association for Search and Rescue, 1989
The commonly-seen practice of rescuers in training taking the long way around a rock
face (on foot) to get back on rappel because they are incapable of ascending back up the rope
they just rappelled down is completely unacceptable. A professional rescuer must have strong
personal vertical skills on rope. Just being able to rappel may look to the inexperienced like a
spectacular act, but all it means is that someone can go down a rope, a skill which is routinely
taught to children and by itself is only a small part of vertical competency.
Notes:

True vertical competency means the ability Safety Near the Edge
to move up and down a rope at will, and being Improper safety precautions near an
able to deal with problems at any point along edge or on a steep slope are an invitation
the way. to disaster. What is an edge? An edge is a
place where you can fall and get hurt or killed.
Always remember that anyone, regardless of
Communications their experience or expertise, can fall over an
Safe rescues depend in large part on clear, edge if not properly secured.
concise communications. Personal movements
on rope is no different. What follows are the
standard, industry-accepted communications Definition. Near the edge is defined
for personal vertical skills: as one body length or 2 meters from the
edge, whichever is greater. This distance
will be increased if the area is slippery,
On Rope Within one body length of the muddy and/or slopes towards the edge.
rope, with the intention of rigging
Poor weather conditions can easily cause
in and rappelling or ascending.
this distance to be increased as well.
Off Rope De-rigged and out of the danger
zone at the top or the bottom of What is steep enough to rate safety
the drop.
precautions? Under some circumstances
On Belay? If using a belayer, ask if belayer a mere 30 slope is incredibly dangerous.
is ready to apply bottom belay. For example, it could be an ice chute with
(Phrased as a question from the exposed rock and no clean run-out. On the
climber/rappeller to the belayer.) other hand, many highway embankments
Belay On Response to On Belay meaning range from 35 to 40+ and in nice
ready to apply a bottom belay if weather pose no real hazard if you slip on
needed. (Phrased as a response the edge and take a little tumble. Use good
from the belayer to the climber.) judgment and common sense.
On Rappel Fully rigged in, QAS detached
and ready to rappel. Safety Perimeter. Establish a marked
Climbing Fully rigged in and ready to safety perimeter if possible; tape or
ascend. webbing will work well. At the very least,
Rock! Warning shouted when anything ensure everyone is aware of what you
is falling down towards those consider the point at which everyone must
below. be tied in.
OK Self-explanatory.
Quick Attachment Safety (QAS). (Also
Tension Called for when rappeller desires see Travel Restricts.) Everyone working
all slack taken out of the belay near the edge should be tied in to a safety
line.
line using a QAS. If they are the sole user
Slack Called for when the belay line of the safety line, they should also tie off
is too tight, possibly interfering short by tying a loop (such as Figure 8 on
with movement. a Bight) in the end of the safety line and
attaching the loop to their harness. If they
are the closest to the end of the line they
should tie off short even if other rescuers
Notes:

are using the line. Important: Adjust the Construction
length of the safety line at the anchor and 1. Construct a short leg loop Purcell Prusik
not the rescuer. A large bight of excess with the prusik cord. Instructions can be
safety line flopping around the foot of the found in Appendix E.
rescuer is a trip hazard. 2. Tie one end of the utility cord on to one
carabiner with a Clove Hitch, backed up
Horseplay. No horseplay near an edge, with a Double Overhand on itself (also
ever! No showing off, e.g., Safety? I dont known as a Half of a Double Fisherman).
need no stinkin safety Im a climber! This will be your anchor attachment. A
Clove Hitch is used because it provides
Clearing the edge. Clear the edge of rigidity for easy handling of the carabiner.
rockfall hazards before putting your rope 3. Attach the Purcell Prusik onto the utility
over the edge if possible. Clear the edge of cord using the small loop (versus the foot
potential rockfall hazards by moving rocks loops). Two wraps are sufficient.
and such away from the edge. Do not just 4. Attach a carabiner to the foot loops of
kick them over the edge, there may be the Purcell Prusik. Also clip this carabiner
people below you somewhere on the slope. on to the utility cord so it runs freely
Falling rocks can take erratic bounces through the carabiner. This carabiner
and strike a person under an overhang. will be your harness attachment. (You
Besides, isnt there a subject awaiting could substitute a quick link for this
rescue down there? carabiner.)
5. Tie the free end of the utility cord on to
Travel Restricts an exterior attachment point on the stuff
A travel restrict limits a rescuers mobility sack with any knot. Stuff the utility cord
for working on a cliff edge or other hazardous into the stuff sack starting at this end.
area, while providing manual adjustment and Alternatively, tie a stopper knot in the
hands-free operation. It is flexible, allowing end of the utility cord and simply stuff it
the rescuer to vary the safe distance quickly. into the stuff sack.
It also requires no attention once the safe 6. Stuff the two carabiners and Purcell
distance is set. Travel restricts are referred Prusik into the bag. Place the anchor
to locally as an AZTEK, for Arizona Travel attachment carabiner on top.
Restrict/Edge Kit, since the concept in its
current form was developed by Reed Thorne
of Sedona, Arizona. Use
1. Attach the stuff sack to your harness.
2. Take the anchor attachment carabiner
Parts: out of the stuff sack and clip it into your
One (1) 10m long, 8 mm diameter low anchor.
stretch rope (a.k.a. utility cord) 3. Clip the harness attachment carabiner
One (1) 2 m long, 6 mm diameter low into your harness.
stretch cord (a.k.a. prusik cord) 4. Untie the loose end from the stuff sack.
One (1) small stuff sack with an Tie it with a bowline or figure eight onto
attachment point for a harness. your harness.
Two (2) locking carabiners (20 kN or 5. Dress the Prusik Hitch which has become
stronger) loose in the stuff sack.
Notes:

6. Hold the Prusik Hitch in your hand and heading their way. It doesnt matter if it
allow it to slide on the utility cord. If the actually is a rock or not; either. If you drop
terrain is difficult to negotiate, unstable a carabiner, shouting Rock! is the best
or you are near the edge, only move the term to use.
prusik when you are in a solid stance. Do Dont look up when you hear ROCK.
not hold onto the prusik while moving in Despite the natural tendency to look up,
this situation, the prusik will not stop a this is the worst thing you can do in most
fall if you are holding it. cases. Your helmet covers the top of your
7. Walk to your working limit, allowing the head, not your face or your neck. By
utility cord to feed out of the bag. looking up, you have just exposed your
8. Tighten the Prusik Hitch. dental work and your eyes to the hazard.
9. Tie-off short by placing a figure 8 on a Get close to the face of the rock, get under
bight in the cord and attaching that to an overhang, tuck your entire body up
your harness with a separate carabiner. under your helmet so that only your toes
You are now in hands-free operation. are exposed, but dont start looking up
10. When going back toward your anchor, and thinking youre better off trying to
feed the utility cord back into the stuff dodge whats coming down. At the speed
sack to avoid a trip hazard. of a falling object, you have at best only a
second to spot it, assess its trajectory and
take evasive actionall this on a perhaps
Safety in a Fall Zone unstable surface.
A fall zone is any area in the rescue
environment where you have people working
above you. The obvious danger is that if they Falling rock, particularly down a rock face
drop something or dislodge objects such as can take wildly erratic bounces, much
rocks, the falling object(s) can come down in the manner of a pinball ricochetting
with great force. The following dos and donts between the bumpers. Even if youre
apply in a fall zone. watching a rock in this situation, you have
no guarantee you can dodge it if it decides
to take a wild bounce at you in the last
Wear a helmet at all times. Despite split second.
what your significant other or your
parents may think, your head is not nearly Note: There are situations where the
as hard as a rock or a carabiner. Anytime height of the drop is such that a lookout
you are near a fall zone wear a correctly can be employed just to warn of rock fall
adjusted, UIAA approved helmet suitable so people can move out of the way of
for rescue. Make sure the chinstrap is those falling rocks. These are situations
connected. where the rocks are in free fall for most
or all of the entire drop. However, in most
YELL ROCK! if something falls. NO cased, not looking up is by far the better
matter what your position on the team option.
is, and no matter where you are located
during a rescue, if you (or someone else) Clear a fall zone as quickly as you
knock something loose or drop something, can. The best way to avoid getting hit
yell Rock! as loudly as you can. This by a rock in a fall zone is not to be there.
alerts your fellow team members who Obvious, isnt it? However, everyone knows
might be below you that something is
Notes:

that spending some time in these areas is major problem. The only chance to prevent
unavoidable. You may have to enter a fall catastrophic failures is to have a separate
zone to get on the rope in order to ascend, belay line. Of course, the same mechanism
you may rappel into a fall zone and then which severed the main line might
have to get off rope before you can clear also sever the belay line, so Pad! Use
it, or you may have to enter it with your rebelays! Do whatever it takes to protect
patient in a litter. Just do your best to the main line!
spend no more time in a fall zone than is
absolutely necessary. Note: Dont yell Off Smith and Padgett (On Rope) have been
Rope until you are safely out of the fall unable to find a single case in the last
zone. 20+ years when a main line was actually
severed during a rappel. They also point
Rappelling out that a belay line on a free rappel is
Rappelling is a controlled descent on a often a disaster after about 10 feet
rope by using the friction of the rope against because it can twist around the main line
the body or through a descender. The key and trap the rappeller.
word in this definition of rappel that indicates
a persons competence is control. Long, On the other hand, the majority of rappel
bounding Hollywood rappels unnecessarily accidents have been caused by user error
stress your system, build up heat quickly in and injury or death might have been
the rappel device and risk loss of control. prevented by the use of a separate belay.
Remember that rappelling is DANGEROUS! You make the call.

Rappel accidents resulting in injury or death
are frighteningly common across the county. Cross-loaded carabiner. Pay attention
Being a search and rescue team member to your equipment at the main attachment
does not provide anyone with immunity to point to your harness. Make sure
accidents. Be Careful out there!
everything is properly aligned before
committing yourself to the rappel. If you
suddenly realize your main attachment
Ways to die while rappelling (and carabiner is cross loaded, attach your QAS
ways to prevent them) immediately, rappel until your weight is on
the QAS and uncross the loaded carabiner.
Anchor Fails. Having a backup anchor Align it properly, take your weigh off the
is a really good idea unless youre using QAS, remove it, and finish the rappel.
something bombproof! Of course, this is
not unique to rappelling. A separate belay Clothing or hair jams. The best cure is
on its own anchor solves this problem as prevention. Tie back long hair. Dont wear
well. loose clothes. If you get something stuck,
attempt to work it free without letting
Anchor sling severed. A backup anchor go of the rope. If you cant work it free,
or separate belay helps solve this problem. attach a QAS above the rappel device,
form a loop in the rope and step up in it
Rappel rope severed. If youre using while pushing up your QAS, which will
single rope technique (SRT), you have a result in your weight being transferred to
Notes:

the QAS and off the rappel device. Place a Weve also seen soft lock offs come
second point of attachment. Then you can loose, so a backup is a good idea for any
safely remove your rappel device and the rescuer on rope.
offending material.
Failure to properly rig rappel device.
Rappels off the end of the rope. Always
tie a good knot in the end of a rope before
rappelling on it. If the rope is too short,
despite what your buddy said, this will not Always get a Safety Check prior to going
pass through a stop device or a rappel on rappel.
rack. Those using Figure 8s will have to
watch more carefully because a knot can
pass through a Figure 8.
Rappel Technique
Dislodged rock (rockfall). This mainly Safe rappelling links good judgment
refers to what the guy above you is doing. with secure rigging, well-made rope, an
Dont fool around near the edge. Clear appropriate descending device securely
potential rock hazards before anyone attached to a strong fitted harness and
rappels. A falling rock can sever a rope learned technique.
or render a rappeller unconscious. Use
a conditional self-belay device (you are
familiar with and have confidence in such
Negotiating the Edge
After calling On Rappel! you can begin
as a Petzl Shunt, a Wild Country Hand, to rappel down the drop. Before committing
a Prusik Safety, Spelean Shunt, etc., or a yourself over the edge, make sure there is
bottom belay for all rappels so that even enough friction in your rappel device. While
if you get knocked out you might not moving backwards to the edge, be careful not
make the trip all the way to the bottom! to knock loose rocks that could fall and hit
Everyone is responsible for yelling ROCK those below.
if a rock or anything else falls.
To rappel over an easy edge, keep your
Rappel device unclips from unlocked
feet comfortably apart (about shoulder width)
carabiner. Simple. Lock that carabiner for balance, lean back, and simply walk
before rappelling. Who did your buddy backward over the edge. Once over the edge,
check before you went over the edge? keep your legs perpendicular to the rock face
Who was the Safety Officer? Attention to and walk backwards down the rock until you
detail can save your life or that of your reach the bottom.
friends.
Failure to rig a QAS while dealing with On undercut edges you can sit down to
get over the edge. It is awkward at best, but
a problem during rappel. Weve actually
works. Another method is to start with your
seen people get so involved with dealing heels on the edge, keep them there and lean
with a problem that they let go of their back until you are upside down and looking up
rappel rope so they could use both hands. at your feet. At this point, you flex your knees
to release your feet and assume a normal
rappel position.
Notes:

On free hangs, simply relax your legs and spreading them apart. Do this with your
hang naturally in the harness. Do not attempt control hand. Do not try to increase friction
to unnaturally keep your legs straight, it will by lifting the rope up with your brake hand.
unnecessarily tire you out and looks really You should be able to hold your position
funny to people who know what theyre doing. on the rope using only your control hand.
If you cannot, youre probably not using
By the way, save those fast, bouncing enough bars.
rappels (also known as Hollywood Rappels)
for car commercials and the like. Youre Proper positioning of the brake hand.
needlessly stressing your rope and your However, the brake hand is not there to
anchor system in addition to taking a chance hold the rope against the thigh to provide
on injuring yourself if you come back into the more friction, as is the case when using a
rock face backwards. Figure 8. It is simply there to make sure it
is far enough away that your dont suck a
glove into the rappel rack. Vary friction by
Controlling your Speed using the control hand to manipulate the
With a rappel rack, there are a couple of bars on the rappel rack. Never rappel with
ways to control your speed safely:
your brake hand in the small of your back.
Add/drop more bars. You can easily vary Tie-off while on Rappel
the amount of friction, and therefore the There are a couple of acceptable ways to
amount of control being exerted, on the tie off a rappel rack, depending on the type of
rope by adding or dropping the number of rack.
bars being used. On any rappel rack, do
not use less than four bars. Always start
with more bars than you think you will If youre using a standard rappel rack, you
need. If youre using a rappel rack with can wrap the rope around the top of the rack
and tie it off above with an overhand knot (1),
a hyper-bar, running the rope over the
or you can take a single wrap above and tie
bar will give you quite a bit of additional it off with two half-hitches on the short leg of
friction. the rack(s). To secure the half-hitches, clip the
bottom bar below them.
Control hand
(Cradling the rack)
If youre using a rack with a hyper-bar you
have a couple of options as well. The soft lock
involves a half twist in the rope looped over
the hyper-bar. A soft lock is one that could
conceivably come loose if rubbed the wrong
way. Full lock on a hyper-bar is accomplished
by adding an overhand knot to the soft lock.
Brake Hand Get proper instruction from qualified

Push the bars together/apart. You can instructors in these techniques before trying
increase/decrease the amount of friction them for the first time. Also, always practice
by simply pushing the bars together or new techniques near the ground.
Notes:

rope and are very familiar and comfortable
Ascending with several different
Ascending a rope (also known in various climbing systems, Angle of
circles as Prusiking, jugging or Jumaring) Inefficiency
you need to select
is essentially the opposite of rappelling and is one system and learn
a critical skill for vertical competency. It is the it well. Whatever
use of mechanical rope grab devices to safely system you choose,
and efficiently ascend a fixed rope. Friction it should provide you
knots (e.g., Prusiks) may also be used, but with a good angle of
they are slower and more energy-consuming. efficiency on rope,
Anyone who works int he vertical environment which means you
should be able to climb using prusiks. should be upright as
you ascend instead Poor
There are a number of different ways of leaning back. This Directed
to safely ascend a rope. This text will only applies more of your Force
address four of the most common systems in hard work to actually
very general terms and only mention a couple getting you up the
Optimum
of others in passing. rope! You also want Directed
a smooth ascending Energy
style without lunging
and jerking, which can cause unnecessary
Ascending System Essentials wear and tear on the rope, stress your
There are three essential criteria of any anchor(s), and you.
vertical ascending system:
1. a. If any one component fails the climber Quick Attachment Safety (QAS)
will not fall. There are several variations of the QAS.
b. If any one component fails the climber The most common is to attach a handled
ascender to the main attachment point of your
will not fall upside down (invert).
seat harness with a short piece of high stretch
c. If failure occurs a third quick 8 or 9 mm rope. The length of the QAS should
attachment safety (QAS) should be reach just above your rappel device. The QAS
readily available for attachment to can be used for several functions:
the rope. The QAS is an additional
mechanical ascender with a tether strap
attached to the climbers seat harness. At the top of a drop, as the climber/
2. System is regularly inspected and rappeller approaches the rope or rigging
maintained. point, the QAS should be attached to the
3. Solid understanding and careful use of the safety line, so that a slip or stumble wont
system, Practice! result in a fall over the edge.
While on rope, the QAS can be used to

Efficiency on Rope cross a rebelay or directional.
It is important that you learn to ascend
efficiently so that you dont waste time and
A QAS is very useful in change-overs, i.e.,
energy. Unless you spend a lot of time on
the act of changing from ascent to descent
and vice versa.
Notes:

It is routinely used to allow a climber to Croll with a long enough foot-loop so that
stop and rest while ascending a rope. when standing the Croll is no more than about
A QAS is recommended for almost all

systems, with the possible exception of the
Frog System, where a QAS is optional (Smith
and Padgett).
A cows tail is a device that attaches to
your harness and has a long and a short leg
with a loop on each end. A separate carabiner
is clipped into each loop. It is used while
passing knots and during other manuevers.
Ascending Systems
The following material is necessarily very
brief. For those who want to learn more on the
subject, or those who want a more in-depth
reference, On Rope, by Bruce Smith and Alan
Padgett, is the acknowledged source nation-
The Frog System is a sit-stand ascending system
wide.
2 inches below the top (handled) ascender.
The systems included in this text are the
most common ones found in rescue. One A safety line also runs from the top
common point between all of these systems ascender to the main attachment point on
that are addressed here is that the climber the seat harness. It can be one of the legs of
should always have two gripping points of your cows tail clipped into the bottom of the
attachment to the rope above the center of ascender or it could be an entirely separate
gravity at all times. For systems that dont cord. This safety line should be short enough
readily provide for this, rescuers should so that the top ascender can never be out
seriously consider adding a QAS to their of reach but not so short that it restricts the
personal equipment. upward push in
the sit part
of the sit/stand
Frog System cycle.
The Frog System is a sit/stand system
and could well be the most popular ascending Classic Three-
system in the world. It is virtually the only Knot System
system used in Europe. Cows Tail The Three-
Knot System
was developed
A chest ascender, typically the Petzl Croll, by caver Bill
is attached to the main attachment point Cuddington
of the seat harness and mounted as low in 1952. It is
as possible on the chest. It is held up by a essentially a
special chest harness. The cows tail, a 2-legged safety
strap, is a useful addition to a
sit-stand system.
A second ascender, usually a handled rescuers personal equipment. Purcell Prusiks or
ascender, is attached to the rope above the other adjustable
Notes:

prusiks work well for this system. (See Changeover
Appendix E for instructions on making Purcell A changeover is the act of changing from
Prusiks.) rappel to ascend while on rope, or vice versa.
Be careful to inspect your Prusik slings on This is a basic skill for the vertical rescuer.
a regular basis. During long ascents, you can
generate a lot of heat in the Prusiks if you
are not properly breaking the Prusik Hitches Each of the ascending systems has their
own peculiarities for changeover, so we will
not address specifics in this text. Once again,
get competent instruction prior to attempting
these skills.
When performing a changeover, it is

important to maintain at least two points of
contact with the rope at all times. If you are
climbing with a separate, non-tensioned belay,
this will count for one of these mandatory
points of contact.
as you move them up the rope and this will

Passing Knots
Passing knots on rope is not a commonly
actually burn your Prusk slings. You can tell
encountered problem for most vertical
when this has happened because they will
rescuers. However, there are times when it
show a brown, crusty area where they contact
may become necessary:
the main line rope.
Another danger of not breaking the Prusiks In remote areas a rescue team may find
is that you can burn or blister your hands that they dont have a single line long
as you push the Prusiks up the rope. Slow enough to reach a rescue subject and have
down, take your time and break the Prusik to join two lines together.
Hitches and you should not have any of these
problems. When you bend two ropes together that
rescuers will be rappelling or ascending on,
provide a safety loop and make that safety
The Three-Knot System is
loop as short as possible.
made much more comfortable
and efficient by the addition
of a connector strap between Due to rockfall, a rope being used for
the chest harness and the access in a rescue may be damaged. When
seat harness. This allows the the next rescuer gets to the damaged part,
climbers weight to transfer he can simply butterfly out the damaged
though the strap to the seat section and the rope will remain safe to
harness. use, but there is now a knot to negotiate.
Notes:

NOTE: Do not use the butterfly loop, which Passing a Knot on
contains the damaged section of rope, as a
safety loop. If you wish to have a safety loop Ascent
at this knot, place a Prusik loop on the rope Passing a knot on
above the butterfly knot, slide it down tight ascent is a simple matter.
against the knot and set it. Clip a cows tail into the
safety loop which hangs
out of the knot, and then
move each ascender past
Passing a Knot While Rappelling the knot one by one.
Passing a knot while rappelling is not as Once two ascenders
easy as passing one while ascending. A long are past the knot,
leg loop attached to an upper ascender and a the cows tail can be
cows tail is the best way to accomplish this undone and the climber
task. continues. For those
using systems without a
Descend until you are just above the knot. cows tail, attach the QAS
to the rope to provide
a minimum of two
Attach your ascender just above your attachments at all times
descender so that when you stand in while passing the knot.
the long leg-loop your descender will be
unweighted.
Passing a knot while ascending with the
Clip your long cows tail to the safety loop Three Knot/Purcell Prusik system requires the
that is hanging out of the knot. use of an extra Prusik loop.
While still standing undo your descender

from the rope. Notes and Other Cautions
Hang from the short cows tail and reattach Autostop Does Not Always...
your descender as close as possible below Very few autostop descenders are 100%
the knot. Lock off the rappel device. effective on all ropes. You should always be
very careful when using an autostop on an
Standing again in your leg-loop, unclip unknown new rope, slippery (icy, muddy,
your cows tail then hang from your etc.) rope or hard rope. Forcing the stop
descender and unclip the upper ascender. handle may work but the stop achieved is
not firm. When an autostop does not work
Your are now ready to continue your perfectly it still gives some breaking effect and
rappel. at the worst it simply functions as a normal
descender.
Notes:

Prohibited Descent Devices The entire question of self-belay is subject
The following are prohibited for use as to debate. Bottom line is probably your own
rescuer descent devices at this time: comfort zone.
Carabiner brake bars And Finally,

Crossed carabiners as brake bars Practice, Practice, Practice!!!
Whale tails
Carabiner wrap
Ascenders as Belay Devices

No mechanical ascender can be relied on
to withstand a Fall Factor 1 (80 kg) shock
load. Do not climb above a belay point while
an ascender is attached below and never use
mechanical ascenders as belay devices when
rigging or climbing. The use of mechanical
ascenders as belay devices continues to kill
people, dont do it!!!
Self-Belay with Prusiks

Bad Idea! Using a Prusik hitch for self
belay on rappel is a common practice in many
places. However, the rappeller is required
to tend the Prusik while on rappel. If a
problem develops, the rappeller is required to
deliberately let go of the Prusik hitch in order
for it to engage. The act of consciously letting
go when you get in trouble on rope is totally
contrary to human nature. In reality, many
people in this situation have actually ridden
the Prusik down to the bottom or to the first
outcropping which knocked their hand loose.
This can actually result in the Prusik wearing
away the flesh down to the bone. This hurts a
lot.
The Guides Rappel Belay, which involves

the use of a helical knot attached below the
rappel device and secured to a leg loop of the
harness is better but still has the risk that a
rappeller who panics might grip it during and
emergency and ride it down.
Notes:

Anchors
Chapter 6: Anchors
Anchoring is to rope rescue system what
a foundation is to a building. Without suitable
and secure anchors, the remainder of any
rope rescue system is in danger of failure,
no matter how well constructed or placed.
The specific kind of anchor point you will use
depends on the requirements of the physical
situation.
Anchors are used to secure ropes and

other elements of a rope rescue system to
something solid. The place where an anchor is
connected is called the anchor point. Anchor In Example 1, a single, massive bomb-
points can take a number of forms, including proof anchor point is being used to support
trees, rocks, or other natural anchors. They two completely different anchors, the main
could also be what are called artificial line system and the belay system. There
anchors placed by the rope rescue workers are two anchor systems here, so there is a
on scene. Examples of this type of anchor are backup. If the main line fails, the belay will
bolts, climbing style protection, stemples, catch the load. When using this setup, you
pickets, or even a vehicle. must be absolutely sure the anchor point will
not fail under any conceivable load. You may
have problems with rope management due to
REDUNDANCY close proximity of the two different systems
Create a redundant system but, do not and Example 2 may be a better choice.
sacrifice efficiency for redundancy. Rescue
systems have backups, but some people
tend to get carried away where anchors are
concerned. For most purposes, a single anchor
point will suffice, provided it is bombproof.
A bombproof anchor is one that will not fail
under any conceivable load. If there is the
slightest doubt as to an anchors ability to
withstand possible shock forces, it must be
backed up. (Your local protocols may dictate
that every anchor point be backed up,
bombproof or otherwise.)
The following are some example of

acceptable and unacceptable anchor systems.
In Example 2, two different anchor points
are supporting the two anchor systems, one
for the main line and one for the belay line.
Here also, the anchor points are considered to
be bombproof. But what if the anchor points
arent bombproof?
Notes:

Anchors
direction only. However, angles can seldom be
completely avoided.
As angles increase, the load on the

anchors (in multiple anchor system) or on
the components of a single anchor system
increase. The stress on a pair of components
can range from greater than the load itself
to only one-half the load, depending on the
angle involved.
In Example 3, we assume that the anchor Try to keep your angles less than 90
points for both the main line and the belay degrees and do not exceed 120 degrees.
systems are not considered bombproof. In this
example, each of the primary anchor points
will require a backup anchor point.
Example 4, is considered unacceptable

because this is actually a single
interconnected anchor system. The only way it
could be considered acceptable would be if the
backup anchor was bombproof. If that were
the case however, why not connect directly to
that bombproof anchor in the first place?
ANCHORS AND ANGLES

One point often not understood is that
angles affect the loading of anchor points and
portions of anchors.
Ideally, there would be no angles in an

anchor system; the load would be applied
directly to the anchor point and force exerted
on the anchor system would be in one
Notes:

Anchors
WHY SHOULDNT WE EXCEED
90 INTERIOR ANGLE WHEN
BUILDING AN ANCHOR?
Lets put some of the concepts covered

in the chapter on Rescue Forces and Safety
Factors to work.
1. Build an anchor around a tree with a 90

interior angle. BFT
2. The 1 tubular webbing (25mm) has a
strength of approximately 18kN.
3. Each leg has a strength rating of
approximately 18 kN.
4. The SSSF ratio that results is 12.5:1
because a 2kN load puts 1.5 kN load on
each leg (field figure is rounded up and
is only approximate) as shown in the
diagram.
Since our mandated minimum SSSF is

10:1, this meets our standards. Never guess 1.5 kN 90 1.5 kN
that your system meets or exceeds the 10:1
SSSF. Know that it is safe.
2 kN
Notes:

Anchors
ANCHORS AND may not be good anchors. The root system
may be shallow or incomplete. Trees in wet
TORQUE 20 8800 soil are also suspect.
The concept of
torque also needs to
be considered when Another consideration for trees is that
constructing an anchor some tree sap, particularly from pine trees,
system. Just about 15 6600 can contain phenol, which is extremely
everyone has heard that destructive to your ropes. So, you should pad
you should anchor low trees to protect the tree and to protect your
on trees, but why is rope and webbing.
that? Because the higher 10 4400
up the tree you anchor,
the greater the amount Boulders weighing several tons can be
of torque you apply to pulled over by the stresses generated in a
the base of the tree. On 5 2200 rescue system. A large boulder resting on
a truly large tree, this solid rock can slide, particularly if supported
may not matter, but his by a layer of sand, fine dirt, or ice.
formula demonstrates
how quickly you can get 0 440
into trouble: The best trees and rocks are those that are
so massive and firmly planted, that they wont
fail under the most extreme loads. These are
Distance x Applied Force =Torque known as bombproof or bomber anchors
and are sometimes called a BFT or BFR (thats
Big Fat Tree or Big Fat Rocks)
In this example a 2kN (450 pound force)
dramatically increases torque on the base
of the tree (or post/pole) for every 5 feet of ARTIFICIAL ANCHORS
distance you move the anchor up the pole.
It is a simple matter to cancel out this VEHICLES

force acting on your anchor through the use A vehicle can be used as an anchor point
of pretensioned back-ties. Done properly, in many over-the-side situations. There are
the entire force acting on your anchor from some basic considerations to keep in mind.
the side is effectively zero. Back-tying will be It is best to tie your anchor to an axle or to a
addressed later on in this text. certified tie-off point directly on the frame.
Under extreme rescue loads or under a

NATURAL ANCHORS shock force, a vehicle can be pulled out
The most common natural anchors are of position, especially on a dirt or gravel
trees and rocks around which we can wrap surface, and even more so on snow/ice.
rope or webbing. However, both of these have
You should back-tie a vehicle to prevent
potential for failure.
this. (See back-ties)
Keep ropes away from hot (mufflers and/or
Before using a tree as an anchor, examine exhaust lines) or greasy parts.
it carefully to make sure its alive and free Block wheels, etc.
of rot. However, even trees with sound wood Remove the keys from the ignition.
Notes:

Anchors
Use lock-out tags. Nuts or chocks are typically rated for about
Do not ever, under any circumstances, a 2-12 kN load at the best. Also look at the
use a vehicle for towing a load with live quality of the rock and likelihood that it will
persons (either rescuers or subjects) up a fail.
cliff, bridge, building, or anything else.
SPRING LOADED CAMMING
PRO DEVICES (SLCD)
Pro is a nickname for artificial protection, These are best placed in parallel sided
which are special types of hardware cracks (||) and are less dependent on the
specifically designed for creating anchor points direction of pull. Be aware that SLCD can
where there are no natural anchors. Many walk themselves out of reach in a crack and
types of pro are inserted into rocks or spaces become difficult to remove.
in rock. They include such hardware as nuts,
chocks, pitons, hexcentrics, and cams. Conversely, SLCD can also walk to a
wider spot in a crack and fall out. An ideal
placement is with 10-50% of the cam
Artificial anchors usually are not deployed. Never trust a placement with cams
as secure as good natural anchors. tipped (almost fully deployed/open) which
For these to be safe and secure, they allows little room for further expansion and
must be placed by a person who has a provides poor stability. Align the SLCD in
great deal of practice and skill in their the direction of the load. Never place rigid
use. stemmed units where the stem will protrude
over a lip when the SLCD is loaded.
Artificial anchors can often be used to
supplement natural anchors and for special Some SLCD are rated for about a 15 kN
uses such as pre-tensioned front-ties for load at best and many are rated for a lot less.
anchor focal points. Know your equipment and its rated strengths
before using these.
Because most nuts, chocks, cams and
other climbing hardware dont have significant Competent, hands-on instruction in
strength by themselves, they are usually used the use of these devices is mandatory
in multiples (2, 3 or more), as a set. Multiple before you attempt to use them for
sets are required for rope rescue anchors. anchoring any rescue system.
NUTS/CHOCKS PICKETS
These work well if you can find a A picket system is a series of metal stakes
constriction (V), but dont work as well driven into the ground. These are utilized in
in parallel sided (||) cracks. Theyre very soil when no rocks or other natural anchors
dependent on the direction of force applied, so are available and they are extremely time
consider the angles and force vectors involved consuming to set up. The optimum length
before a nut or chock is placed. The amount of is a 5 foot steel stake with 3 feet buried but
surface area in contact with the rock is critical. this is probably much more than enough for
Smaller sized nuts are not as strong due to most needs. Drive them in the ground at a 15
the smaller surface area in contact with the degree angle from perpendicular to the slope
rock and also the limitation on size of sling or and away from the direction of pull. Lash the
wire.
Notes:

Anchors
PITONS
Pitons are basically steel wedges, or
spikes, which are driven into cracks in the
rock and have a hole for carabiners. The use
of pitons for constructing anchor systems
requires training and practice in order to be
safe, and they must always be used with
caution. Pitons have severe limitations in soft
sandstone and must be used with extreme
caution.
Pitons are divided into two general types:

angles, whose holding power results from
wedging and blade compression, and blades,
whose holding power is derived from their
being wedged into tightly-fitting cracks. Blade
top of the front picket to the base of the pitons are described in terms of length and
next picket back. On the front picket, also lash thickness. They can be short or long and
from the base of the picket to the next picket thicknesses range from knifeblades through
back because this will help prevent failure thin and medium to thick. Angle pitons are
by the toe of the first picket kicking out. made in size from inch to 2 inches. There
After lashing, which can be done with 8 mm are also large sizes, referred to as bongs
accessory cord or webbing, use shorter stakes (for the sound they make clanging on a gear
(Spanish Windlass technique) to tighten rack).
and hold the lashing. At least 3 pickets must
be placed together as a set and multiple sets
The basic use of pitons sounds pretty
may be required.
simple in theory: find a crack, pound in a
piton that fits, attach your system, and do the
Pickets are extremely useful, but require rescue. (However, like many other things that
proper training to use safely. sound simple, they can be dangerous in the
hands of a rescuer who saw them used once
and now thinks hes an expert!)
Lost Arrow
Angle (standard) Pitons are utilized best if the direction of
force is applied perpendicular to the crack If
driven too deep in a bottoming crack (one that
Bugaboo is too shallow) they will loosen. Listen to the
Angle (wide) sound while driving. the piton for a change to
a higher pitch. So long as the pitch continues
Angle (shallow) to go higher, youre probably doing fine.
However, if the pitch becomes dull or lowers,
the placement is not safe. Test with a side
to side and outward pull. Pitons may cause
Leeper Z
permanent damage to the rock.
Notes:

Anchors
BOLTS Using a piece of rope, place at least two
Another commonly used type of anchor wraps around an upright object that does not
is known as the bolt, which is familiar to have any sharp corners. The objective is to
climbers and cavers. However, bolts are time- have the rope around the upright and absorb
consuming to place and it takes a great deal the tension of the load through friction so
of skill and practice to place them correctly. that the working end of the rope will have no
They also permanently deface the rock surface tension on it. It is interesting to note that on
where they are placed, so they may not be an a smaller diameter upright the rope will exert
option in some areas such as National Parks greater pressure on the uprights surface.
or Wilderness Areas. If the surface is very smooth three or more
wraps may be needed. The rope should not
cross in the turns. With the working end tie
Bolts are an advanced skill and will not be a Figure Eight on a Bight and clip it to the
addressed further. standing part of the rope with a carabiner.
Keep the tangent short but do not deflect the
standing part.
STEMPLES (CROSSBARS)
A less common anchor is known as the
stemple. This is a Do not use the Round Turn if the anchor
piece of timber or pipe point has sharp edges.
wedged across an
opening to create an Not Here!
anchor point around ANCHORING WITH WEBBING
which the anchor sling WRAP AND PULL METHOD
is placed. Skill and A Round Turn-style anchor can also be
practice are required to created with webbing. For
Place the ring
bend here
place stemples. rescue loads place two loops
Anchor Here!
Stemples are an of webbing around an upright.
advanced skill and Tie the ends together with Ring
will not be addressed Bend leaving 20 cm (8) tails to
further. allow for overhand safety knots
on each side if desired. (Local
ANCHOR VARIATIONS protocol may call for backup
knots, but they arent really Supports
=77
necessary.) Locate the bend kN
THE ROUND TURN on the load or front side of the Load

This variation is also known as a anchor where it can be easily
Tensionless Hitch or High-Strength Tie-off inspected and monitored, and pull a loop out
(HSTO). to clip a carabiner. Remember to:
No deflection/deviation Canvas wrap to

in the main line (the protect the tree Pad any abrasion points and all trees.
standing part of the line) Dont cross the webbing over itself in the
wraps.
Ensure the webbing is lying flat where it
goes around the anchor points.
Tangent area Make sure the webbing is in good
condition.
Load
Notes:

Anchors
Wrap Two, Pull One (W2P1) Make sure the The main and belay can each use two
interior angle, where the load attaches, is strands from the knot.
less than 90 degrees which would result in a
strength of about 25kN. PRE-TENSIONED BACK-TIES
Sometimes a marginal anchor can be made
suitable by back-tying it to another anchor.
Wrap Three, Pull Two. (W3P2) Use for A back-tie can also stabilize a focal point or
extreme rescue loads (more than two permit you to safely use a high anchor point
persons) and has a strength of up to about 50 on a tree. Backties are one of the secret
kN at 30 degrees. weapons of the competent rope rescue
technician!
If the bend is placed correctly, there will be Another consideration in regard to angles
little or no tension on it, which will make it a concerns the direction in which tension
lot easier to untie when you de-rig the anchor is being applied to your anchor system.
system. Ideally, tension should proceed in a straight
line through your entire anchor system. If,
however, your backup anchor points do not
align with the primary anchor, you should
Football Knot strive to keep the backup anchor(s) within
Double a rope. (You can also triple or
15of the centerline.
quadruple it)
Take the ends around the anchor. (One 15
end includes the rope ends and is primary anchor
treated as one piece of rope, the other
end is the bight formed as the rope was Build within
this area. 0 Load
doubled.)
Tie a Figure 8 Bend to join the ends.
Leaving at least 12-inches of rope ends 15
past the knot.
Dress and set the knot. Dont stress out To construct a pre-tensioned back-tie,
while dressing this knot, it is called a start by selecting a backup anchor point that
football knot, but try to align the strands is within 15 of the line extending from the
so it can easily be identified by the main or belay line through the anchor point
Safety Officer. Do set the knot as firmly you intend to back-tie. Tie a W3P2 anchor on
as you can. the backup anchor point. Tie another W3P2
anchor on the backup anchor point youre
USES: backing up. Make sure you interlace one or
To go around a large rock or tree. more loops of the webbing so that the load
Usually this will make a bomb-proof will still be connected to the back-tie if the
anchor. primary anchor point disintegrates! You can
ADVANTAGES: start from either anchor but we will describe
it from the primary anchor. Using a length of
Each strand is stronger that the knotted rope, tie a Figure Eight on a Bight and connect
strength of the rope/cord. (The rope is it to the primary anchor point W3P2 with a
not bent as sharply in the knot.) carabiner. Pass the rope through the carabiner
Each strand can be considered a on the backup anchor carabiner, then through
separate anchor. If the anchor is bomb- the carabiner attached to the primary anchor,
proof, and you use the 4-strand version. pass it through the carabiner attached to the
Notes:

Anchors
Interlaced regardless of its relationship to the rescue
Webbing
Focal subject, and after tying the anchor, run the
Point main line to the subject using deviations.
Pre-Tensioned Back Ties
Load
3:1
Load-Shaping
Anchor System
Two half
hitches or
Prusik hitch
backup anchor, Tie a prusik to the last strand

of rope and clip it to the carabiner, this will
allow you to tension the back tie. Go to the Focal Point
middle of your back-tie rope and vector it
(push and pull) to remove the slack. Go back
to the prusik and take in any slack rope. When
finished, tie two half hitches in the rope right
at the carabiner to secure it.
A major benefit of pre-tensioned back- Load Pre-tensioned
Front Ties
ties is that they qualify as back-up anchors,
which are required by quite a few rescue
organizations. Do not build a pre-tensioned
back-tie utilizing more than a 3:1 mechanical The anchor focal point concept is different
advantage since friction loss over the in that the rigging team leader looks for the
carabiners negates the additional mechanical best place to conduct the operation and then
advantage. (Note: Dont use pulleys for this designates a point in space as being the best
purpose.) for the anchor focal point. This might be
relatively simple, or it might be a spot hanging
out in midair where, at first glance, everyone
ANCHOR FOCAL POINT wonders just how in the world theyre going to
The concept of the anchor focal point rig that. Heres one way.
is beginning to gain favor in the world of
technical rescue. Up to now, most rescue
teams have looked for the best anchor After a patient has been located, the rigger
should look for a location that is relatively
flat and generally free of obstructions to
Pre-tensioned deploy the raising and lowering equipment. If
Back Ties directional pulleys are needed, their location
Primary Anchor or should also be determined.
Focal Point
Anchor leads should then be provided to
this spot and connected to the backside of a
rigging plate. You can use a Prusik by-pass on
each of the anchor leads to make the exact
Load
positioning of the focal point much easier. The
Notes:

Anchors
front of a rigging plate should be securely major problem with this concept.
tied off to a suitable anchor, possibly using a
pretensioned front-or back-tie. Have someone
vector the bundle of lines to allow increased Creating distributing anchor systems
pretensioning of the back-tie. Eliminate as when there are more than two anchor points
much rope stretch as possible. If a focal point looks creative is technologically impressive
is in place for a long time, rope creep will and resource intensive. However, in the long
loosen the back-ties and youll need to re- run, they are dangerous. If any one of the
tension them. anchors blows out, the likelihood is high that
the readjusting system will rip out another
or rip out all the other anchors. There are
The key to an anchor focal point is that situations that call for marginal anchors;
when it comes under load during lowering or however, for the [rigging] technician it should
hauling operations. It doesnt move. be a last option.
Smith & Padgett, On Rope, (2nd Ed.)
SELF-EQUALIZING ANCHORS
The concept behind a self-equalizing Think about the likelihood that youll need
anchor is that the load on the anchor points a major change in the direction of the main
will remain the same regardless of the line. You will often hear that you need to be
direction of pull. To put it briefly, they simply able to make lateral movements across a
dont work that way. Even using pulleys on rock face with the litter to reach a patient,
the carabiners, the load is never completely but think about just how much this would
equalized between the anchor points. A actually change the angle of the main line at
more proper term to use would be a load- the anchor itself. Not much. For that reason,
distributing anchor system. This anchor the load sharing anchor system is preferred
system will be discussed below. and recommended over the load distributing
anchor system. However, you must realize
LOAD SHARING AND LOAD that you may have to use either one
DISTRIBUTING ANCHOR depending on the situation.
SYSTEMS
There are two types of multiple point
anchor systems, the load sharing anchor LOAD DISTRIBUTING ANCHOR
system and the load distributing anchor SYSTEMS
system. The basic difference between the two The load distributing anchor system is
is that the load distributing anchor system generally formed of loops of webbing or rope
has moveable legs and will adjust somewhat attached to two or three anchor points. It will
under load while the load sharing anchor adjust or redistribute the load being exerted
system has legs of fixed length and will not on the anchor points to some extent if the
adjust. Of the two, the load sharing anchor direction of pull exterted by the load shifts.
system is generally preferred since it is less However, a load distributing anchor system
prone to catastrophic failure. never really equalizes the load on the anchor
points. If one anchor point should fail, the
remaining anchor points will be shock loaded
Load distributing/sharing anchor systems and will most likely fail. For this reason, load
were developed to permit the construction distributing anchors are not used for rescue
of a good anchor system from two or more systems.
marginal anchor points. Some schools have a
Notes:

Anchors
LOAD SHARING ANCHOR
Even Better
SYSTEMS
The load sharing anchor system has Best Better
multiple legs of fixed length. Failure of any
single leg will result in a minor readjustment
of the entire system.
You can make Poor

the legs of a load
sharing anchor
adjustable prior to
loading the system
by using rope for
the legs and placing
a Prusik bypass
(see photo below)
at each anchor
point. Place a
partial load on the
system and adjust
the legs until they
are close to being
equal in terms of
how much load they are bearing. This system to overcome poorly-placed anchors. You can
is not perfect, you will probably never be able achieve the same result with artificial high
to exactly equalize the load on the legs under directional pulleys mounted on a bipod or
field conditions, but you can get fairly close. a gin pole, but the principal is the same.
A tri-link is shown because a carabiner in that (Advanced training is required for artificial
position would be abnormally loaded, creating high directionals.)
an unsafe situation.
NO BFT/BFRs?
OTHER CONSIDERATIONS Run a single rope back through the brush
and tie a series of Long-Tailed Bowlines in line
FOR ANCHORS AND ANCHOR with the load. (Manzanita and Buck Brush
SYSTEMS are pretty strong!) You can adjust them easily
so that the load is shared almost equally
between all of the bushes employed in your
ANCHOR HIGH anchor system. Another method is to run your
If there is one single thing that will make rope through the brush. Use prusik hitches
getting a litter over the side easier (up or on the rope and attach the prusik loops to
down), it is to rig your focal point high. You the bushes. The cumulative strength will be
will be spared the complication of getting significant.
your litter spider past your edge rollers and
the typical heroics of edge tenders having
Notes:

Anchors
DONT DO THIS! BAD IDEA #4 USING PEOPLE
There are a number of really bad ideas FOR ANCHORS
when it comes to anchors Years ago, one of the authors witnessed
the use of two rescuers as an anchor for
another rescuer rappelling into a situation to
BAD IDEA #1: ANCHOR ROPES reach a patient. They did this despite the fact
FROM OLD ROPES that there was a BFR about 75 feet away that
Believe it or not, some teams in the past could easily have been used as a bombproof
have retired a main line due to its age, cut it anchor. In fact, the first team on scene had
into shorter lengths, and then designated it as already rigged that rock as an anchor and had
anchor rope which they then used to anchor the anchor point extended to the spot where
their rope rescue system. Whats wrong with the two rescuer/anchors planted their tails
this picture? If the rope is too old to use as a and dug their feet into loose shale about 5
mainline or belay line, then it is certainly too feet from the edge. This was on his very first
old to use as the foundation of your entire SAR mission and while he wondered about
rope system. Dont be lured by such lunacy, it, he figured they must know what theyre
destroy these ropes immediately upon their doing. Now he knows better... and so should
retirement or cut them into short lengths you!
suitable only for knot-tying practice and mark
them plainly.
Its also a bad idea to hang your retired BAD IDEA #5: WIDELY-SPREAD
ropes around for atmosphere, or whatever, ANCHOR POINTS INSIDE A LOOP
without plainly marking them as retired. Throwing a single loop, or a football anchor
system, around widely-spread marginal
anchor points to incorporate them in a single
BAD IDEA #2: EXTENDING system can be dangerous. Because you
will genrally exceed an interior angle of 90
ANCHOR SYSTEMS INSTEAD OF degrees somewhere in your shared anchor
ANCHOR POINTS system.
An easy way to reach multiple anchor Unless were talking about some really
points is to just make a large load distributing massive trees, such as Giant Sequoias, the
anchor system. However, if one of the possibility of a catastrophic failure of the
anchor points should fail, there will be an entire system is very possible. Question: if
unacceptable shock load to the entire system youre using the General Sherman Tree, or
as your loop adjusts itself to the new angle. something equally large, why incorporate
Extend the anchor points instead! more than one?
BAD IDEA #3: GIRTH HITCHING

YOUR ANCHOR POINTS
The girth hitch is simple and fast way to
anchor. It also can create very high stresses
on your anchor loop and causes excessive
wear to the webbing. It also decreases the
weight-bearing ability of the webbing by at
least 25%. Take the time to do your anchors
right.
Notes:

Belay
Chapter 7: Belay
INTRODUCTION #1: If a person wants a separate belay line
There are one or two things in technical during a mission, try to provide it for them
rescue almost guaranteed to generate if circumstances and available equipment
controversy and one of those is the subject permit.
of belay. However, beginning in 1990, with
the publication of the article Are We Really #2: If a person doesnt want a separate
On Belay? by John Dill of the National Park belay line, consider the situation. If the
Service, a decided change in the way the rappel is straightforward, the person is
technical rescue community thinks about experienced and no hazards are evident,
belay began to take place. Up to this point, it shouldnt be a problem. Conditional self
may people assumed that the Figure 8 device
belay might well be an option to consider
was acceptable for this function, but testing
demonstrated conclusively that this was not in this situation.
so. Despite this, some people still cling to
the notion that a Figure 8 is appropriate for a On the other hand, poor footing or rock fall
rescue load belay device. Even worse, some hazard might suggest the rappeller either
still teach that a Mnter Hitch is suitable for use a conditional self belay (Wild County
rescue belays. Hand/Petzl Shunt/Guides Rappel Belay), a
reliable autostop rappel device (such as the
Petzl Stop or SRT Stop), or a conditional
TO BELAY OR NOT TO BELAY? belay (bottom belay by another rescuer) to
That is the question! And discussions of provide some protection in case of a fall.
whether or not to belay persons on rappel/
ascend with a second line is another of those
subjects guaranteed to generate heated Belay Classification
discussion. Industry standards can, and do, Belay. To provide protection against a fall
go either way. Belays can cause trouble for by handling a tensionless rope (belay rope) in
the person on rope. In fact, if they twist such a manner that it may be taken in or let
around the mainline, they can effectively out as another person(s) climbs, rappels or
trap the climber/rappeller through friction. ascends a fixed rope or is raised, lowered or
But unbelayed rappels can end in disaster if transported, yet be secure enough to hold this
something goes wrong. load in case of failure of the main support.
So, whats the solution? The best Self Belay. To provide protection against
determination might be team policy, mutually a fall by the person(s) needing the protection
agreed on in advance. If your team requires moving their adjustable connection point
it, then that is the end of the discussion. along a fixed rope, that remains without
However, all rescuers should be adept at both tension until the fall, as they climb, rappel or
belayed ascent/descent as well single rope ascend a different fixed rope, or are raised,
technique (SRT). lowered or transported, by a separate rope.
Policy aside, there are a couple of helpful

guidelines you may wish to consider:
Notes:

Belay
Conditional Belay. To provide protection Auto Belay. (AKA Deadman Belay) A
against a fall by using a rope, that is already self activating belay that does not require a
under tension from part or all of the load, to positive action to engage it.
hold the load should failure occur in some
other part of the system.
Conditional Self Belay. To provide

protection against a fall by the use of a
conditional belay that is managed by the
person(s) needing the protection.
Notes:

Belay
PERSONAL LOAD BELAY
GENERAL
A personal load is defined as the weight
of a single rescuer only. The MRA considers
80 kg. (175 lb) as a one person climbing
load. NFPA considers a one person load for In the diagram above, the belayer is using
rescue purposes as 100 kg. (225 lb.). The a device secured to the main attachment
NFPA standard is usually more realistic given point of his harness. He is a link in the overall
the addition of personal equipment typically belay system and if the rappeller is injured, he
found with a rescuer. The following devices/ will have trouble doing anything immediately
techniques are considered suitable for a other than to just lower the injured rappeller
personal load belay. down. This might not be the optimum
solution. (This is a major problem with body
wrap belays and for that reason, the body
They are not acceptable for rescue load wrap is not a recommended technique for
belay. rescuers.) However, there is an easy way to
avoid this problem.
Munter Hitch: This technique severely
twists the rope and requires careful
attention on the part of the belayer. It is
easily reversible and best used with a large
modified D carabiner or one designed for
use with the Mnter Hitch, such as the
Petzl Attache.
Sticht Plate/ATC: These are personal belay
devices. They do not twist the rope but
also require careful attention on the part of
the belayer. They are easily reversible but In the second diagram, the belayer is
tend to get very hot in operation. anchored separately from the rappel device.
Grigri: This personal belay device is made In the event of a problem all he has to do is
by Petzl. It does not twist the rope. It lock off the belay line and deal with it because
requires careful attention on the part he is not part of the overall belay system
of the belayer when rigging. At least
one European study rated this the best
personal belay device in the world. BOTTOM BELAY
To provide a bottom belay, the belayer
stands at the foot of the drop and holds the
BELAYER POSITIONING bottom of the rope the rappeller is on. If the
To provide a belay, the belayer employs a person on rappel loses control, the belayer
belay device to catch the climber in case of a pulls down on the rope. The idea is that it
fall. But what if the belayer and climber are provides additional friction on the rappel
by themselves when the climber falls and the device by applying more tension to the rope
climber is somehow injured? Can the belayer below the person on rappel. This additional
provide any assistance to the climber? Not if friction will slow or even stop the person on
he has become a link in the belay system. rappel.
Notes:

Belay
Warning: As it is typically done, the determined that the human body is usually
belayer is standing in the fall zone, which is damaged when it experience a force of
potentially dangerous. One way to avoid this about 15 kN (approximately 3,375 lb). The
is to place a pulley at the foot, of the drop UIAA started with this figure and decreased
to redirect the main line out to a place of the acceptable limit to the current UIAA
safety (see diagram). Bottom belay is only standard of 12kN. It can be concluded
marginally effective once you have more than that all belay techniques and devices must
three hundred feet or rope in service due to allow a dissipation of force before 12 kN is
rope stretch. experienced or injury could easily occur.
Rappeler
For maximum safety the belay device
should also engage without attention. There
are two main reasons for this:
During a .75 second (3/4 of a second)

reaction time an object will travel 2.4
meters in free fall, less with friction. If a
Belayer belay depends on a fast reaction by the
Fall Zone belayer to catch a falling load, it wont
work. Testing has shown that the fastest
reaction times by most individuals average
more than 1 full second. By the time most
people react, the load will be moving far
RESCUE LOAD BELAY too fast to control.
GENERAL What if a swarm of bees (or something
A rescue load is defined as the weight similar) come along and drives everyone
of two persons plus equipment. The MRA off during a rescue operation? (Dont laugh
considers 200 kg(450 lb.) as a two person at the notion. The authors have personally
rescue load, and 280 kg(600lb.) as a three
seen it happen!)
person extreme rescue load.
A general rule is that the belay line
So, the belay should be able to pass the
normally only used for the belay function and
whistle test which asks, What happens to
it is not use in shifting the load. For example,
the patient, attendant, and other rescuers
during a change-over from a lowering
if everyone were to let go? To test this
operation to a handling operation, you should
sometime, at the sound of a whistle have
not hold the load with the belay line to take
everyone let go of the rope and hold up their
the average weight off the main line to switch
hands. If the belay holds, youre doing it right!
it from the rappel rack to the haul system. A
preferred alternative is to hold the load with
a Prusik loop attached to the same anchor as
the lowering device.
NEVER TRY THIS WITH A LIVE
PERSON ON BELAY! ONLY USE A
DUMMY SUCH AS A RESCUE RANDY
FORCES INVOLVED IN A BELAY DURING A TRAINING EVENT!
During World War II, for airborne
operations, testing by the US Army
Notes:

Belay
TANDEM PRUSIK BELAY other hand on the rope below the first hand
The Tandem Triple-Wrapped Prusik Belay is and pull the rope through the hand and the
one of the few belay techniques that pass the prusik. You should feel resistance and hear a
British Columbia Technical Rescue Committee rasping sound as you pull the rope through
(BCTRC) Rescue Belay Test. This test was the prusik.
designed as a very probable worst case
scenario that uses a one meter fall on three
meters of rope using a two kN (450lbf) rescue Connect the prusiks
load. The belay must catch the load and stop to the anchor with a
within one meter and generate less than 12kN locking carabiner (see
(2700lbf) maximum stopping force. The test diagram). When properly
is intended to simulate a mainline failure positioned and the load
as the litter attendant is backing over an distributed, the hitches
edge with a patient. Safe use of this system will be about 10 cm (4)
requires proper training and practice for skill apart.
development.
Belayers must be
To make the prusiks loops, use 8mm prusik very attentive and
accessory cord. Use two colors if available, keep the hitches snug
one for the long prusik and the other color but running smoothly.
for the short one. Cut two pieces of cord one A properly tied prusik
1.35 meters (53) and the other 1.65 meters hitch will make a slight
(65) long. Tie each of the prusik loops with a rasping sound as the
double overhand bend. rope is pulled through
it. Aggressive belaying skills and techniques
may be necessary in very wet, icy or muddy
Tie a three-wrap prusik hitch onto the conditions. However, a little extra work does
belay line with each loop. Wrap them in the not justify substituting mechanical ascenders
same direction so the bridge of both hitches for the prusiks.
unlock in the same direction. The longest
prusik is placed closest to the load.
Prusik hitches must be properly dressed to

perform reliably. A properly tied and dressed
three-wrap prusik has all six turns of cord in
firm contact with the rope and the loop end
does not contain the knot. Dress the hitches
by removing all of the slack out of the loops. When belaying a lowering operation, the
Using both hands, one on each side of a belayer should hold both hitches with one
prusik, start with the outside turns and feed hand (Hand A), at an angle. The other hand
the excess cord towards the inside turns then (Hand B) pulls out some belay rope and then
pull the loop. Repeat if necessary. Perform holds slight tension on the load, using a twist
a quick test to ensure the prusik is correct. of the wrist to form a bight of slack (see
Place one hand on the rope just below the diagram above). Do not wrap your thumbs
hitch. Keep a loose grip on the rope. Place the around the belay rope! If a fall occurs, you
could be injured. A minimum amount of slack
is desired, ideally 6-8 inches. As the load
Notes:

Belay
takes the slack, that hand (Hand B) rotates Proper Operation of the belay during a
and quickly slides up the rope toward the raising operation.
anchor to pull out another bight of slack. The
Tandem Triple-Wrapped Prusik Belay performs
best when the rope on the anchor side is Stand between the ropes that enter and
feeding in at an angle. When possible you exit the pulley and face the anchor.
should have your rope flaked out to the side of With one hand (Hand A) reach down and
the anchor and not in line with the anchor and grab the line that goes to the load and pull
load. The added friction of the rope passing so you can feel the load.
through the hitches, during a fall, will ensure The other hand (Hand B) will grip the rope
quick activation. exiting the pulley and close to the pulley.
As you pull up on the load side (Hand A),
When belaying a raising operation, both you will cause slack at the prusiks. This is
prusiks are held by one hand (Hand A). The the proper condition.
belay rope is gripped close to the prusiks with Pull the slack rope through the pulley(Hand
the other hand (Hand B) and is pulled through B).
them. Repeat. On a long raise the belayer Feel and listen for the rasping from the
may need help bringing up the rope. prusiks. This informs you that the prusiks
are tight enough.
A prusik minding pulley (PMP) can be As your hands approach each other, stop
incorporated into the belay. It does not help before they cross.
during a lowering operation, but can be Using the hand on the load side (Hand A),
helpful during a long raising operation. The reach across in front of you and hold the
preferred order of connection to the carabiner other rope with one or two fingers while
is long prusik, short prusik then the pulley still trapping the load-side rope.
(see diagram below). This allows you to slide your other hand
(Hand B) back up towards the pulley.
Then slide the hand on the load side (Hand
A) back down the rope (towards the load)
and grip and pull on the load.
Make sure the prusiks are minded by the

flat base of the pulley, during a raise, and not
up on one of the angled sides. The prusiks
could get sucked into the pulley and stop the
operation.
During all operations, the prusiks should

be checked and redressed every time an
operation stops. Also, the belayer must pay
close attention to the sound and feel of the
rope passing through the prusiks. When this
changes a STOP must be called, so they can
be redressed.
Notes:

Belay
Have a second set of prusiks available in Release Devices: A comparative Analysis
case of damage during a catch or for knot by Katie and Kirk Mauthner, Rigging for
passing. Rescue (December 1999.).
If the belayer is not attentive or the

mainline changes speed quickly, the hitches
will lock on the rope and cannot be released
under tension. (See Load-Releasing Hitch)
LOAD RELEASING HITCH (LRH)

To allow the release
of Tandem Prusik
Hitches while the belay
line is under tension,
place a load releasing
hitch above the tandem
Prusik Hitches (or
between the PMP and
the anchor) so they
can be released.
While originally
these hitches were
intended to act to some
degree as a shock
absorber and decrease
forces on the anchor,
further testing has
shown that this need
not be a consideration
with normal low stretch
rope.
The preferred LRH

is the Radium Release
Hitch. This hitch,
develop by Rigging
for Rescue in British
Columbia, exceeds
the accepted testing
model. (A handout
will be made available
during the class for
TRBC students. All
others should refer to
Notes:

Belay
HOW TO TIE THE RADIUM After years of effort on the part of
numerous manufacturers, a mechanical belay
RELEASE HITCH device has been developed which meets the
The only materials required are 10 m of 8 Belay Competence Drop Test Criteria of being
mm nylon low stretch kernmantle cord and 2 able to catch a 1 meter drop of a 280 kg (617
locking carabiners. lbm) rescue-sized load on to 3 m of 12.7 mm
kernmantle rescue rope, within 1 meter of
1. Tie a Figure 8 on a Bight and clip it into additional travel (pre-rebound), and with less
than 15 kN peak force. Key features of the
the load side carabiner on its spine side.
540Rescue Belay, designed by Rigging for
2. Clip the standing part of the cord up Rescue and made by Traverse Rescueinclude
through the anchor carabiner, back down
through the load carabiner, bring back
up to the anchor and tie a Mnter Hitch Very simple and easy to use, reducing
on to that anchor carabiner on its gate complexity and training time.
side. Ensure that the Mnter Hitch is in Symmetrical design allows for bi-
the release position with the in-feed rope directional loading.
towards the gate side of the carabiner. A Minimum 36kN (8,000 lbf) breaking
reasonable length for the hitch is 10 to 15 strength.
cm. Self-locking with sudden falls.
3. Secure the Radium Release Hitch Built-in release lever eliminates need for
using a bight to tie two half-hitch around release hitch.
the entire stem below the Mnter Hitch, Weights only 594 grams (less than a
and then back it up with an Overhand complete TPB setup).
on a Bight knot, again around the entire Force limiting, passes demanding rescue
system. belay competence criteria.
4. Tie a Figure 8 on a bight at the other Accepts 11.5-13 mm diameter kernmantle
end of the cord and clip it into a secure rescue ropes.
anchor.
The symmetrical design of the 540
540 Rescue Belay Device Rescue Belay allows bi-directional loading and
locking, thus either end of the rope
exiting the device may be used
as the load line. This reduces the
risk of an improperly loaded device
and increases operator efficiency.
The 540 Rescue Belay (patent
pending) is UL certified to NFPA
1983 (95 ed) for General Use.
Since the 540 Rescue

Belay has an integral release
mechanism, there is no need
for a separate release device or
hitch, such as is required with
the Tandem Prusik Belay. Again
this reduces complexity, rigging
Notes:

Belay
time, and a reduced chance of error. With the
540 Rescue Belay, the tension of a locked-
up belay is simply transferred back to the
mainline by using the built-in release lever.
However, while the 540 Rescue Belay
is a tremendous step forward in rescue
technology, all rescuers should remain familiar
with the construction and operation of the
Tandem Prusik Belay!
BELAY CONSIDERATIONS
Minimize the distance from the edge to the
belay station. Extend the anchor to that
point rather than run a belay an extended
distance.
Do not run the belay line through pulleys.
The added friction of running the belay line
over the ground is desired.
Never run a belay line over edge rollers.
Under shock forces, a suddenly tensioned
belay line can flip edge rollers with a great
deal of force, endangering anyone nearby.
Exercise caution around a belay line.
Ensure you are not going to come in
contact with the belay line should it
suddenly come under tension. Serious
injury could result!
Never belay without gloves!
DO NOT
Do not ever use camming devices in
your belay system. This applies to Gibbs
Ascenders, Rescucenders, or any of the
handled personal ascenders on the market.
The forces generated in a fall that must be
arrested by the belay system are such that
these devices can severely damage your
belay rope or even cut it altogether.
Do not use a rescue as an opportunity to
teach belay. Belay is not a skill to learn in
the middle of a rescue. Practice this skill in
training and ensure everyone knows how
to belay properly.
Notes:

Belay
Notes:

Main Line Systems
Chapter 8: Main Line Systems

OVERVIEW 3. Do not straddle the rope. Standing over
The main line is what supports the load. It or too close to a loaded rope exposes
has only two variations: lowering and raising. you to possible injury if the system fails
The main line should be placed where the and the rope goes flying through or by
operation is most convenient and safe for your legs. Standing over an unloaded
rescuers and their subject(s), but this may not rope can be upsetting or painful if the
always be possible. rope becomes suddenly loaded without
warning.
SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS Anchor
1. Do not step on the rope. Stepping on
rope can damage the sheath if you catch
the rope between your boot and a sharp
edge. Stepping on or into a rope stacked Outside
for a lowering operation could get you
tangled up in a loop when the rope
moves. For your own protection, you
should always know where your feet are
when youre working in the rope rescue
Obstacle
environment.
Directional
2. Do not get inside a loaded system. Inside
If youre inside a rope rescue system
when an anchor fails that is supporting
some portion of that system, such as The Edge
the anchor supporting the directional
pulley in the diagram at right, you could
be seriously injured when the system
adjusts. (Even with a properly functioning
belay, there will be some adjustment of
the system.) The rope is going to follow
the arrows to its new position (dashed
line) along the path of least resistance
and this will take place in a very fast and
violent manner. By the way, your body
does not count as resistance. There
are other dangers from a haul system
under tension when anchors, haul cams,
or other components slip or break. Be
aware of where you are in relation to
your system at all times and what could
happen if it readjusts.
Notes:

Main Line Systems
4. Protect the rope from sharp edges. The system. Traveling brake lowering systems are
sharper the bend in a rope, the more of an advanced skill and will not be addressed
its strength is lost due to the extreme further in this class (except for pick-offs).
stretching of the fibers on the outside
of the bend. A bend over a sharp edge
compounds the effects of abrasion and
could possibly cut a rope that is under
tension. A dynamic (shock) loading
further increases the possibility of cutting
the rope. Use edge pads and edge rollers
to protect the rope, or rig the rope so
that it doesnt contact the edge (e.g. use
a bipod).
LOWERING: GENERAL
A lowering system is usually very simple to
set up and operate. When you have a choice it
is generally preferred to lower a patient to the
ground rather than raise him because gravity
does the work! The system is simpler to set
up, the ride is smoother and since it places
far less stress on system components than a
hauling system, it is safer.
In the Technical Rescue Basics Course, we

will only use a rappel rack (also known as a
brake bar rack) for lowering systems.
There are two basic types of lowering
systems: the fixed brake lower and the
traveling brake lower.
Fixed Brake Lowering Systems. In a fixed

brake lowering system, the descender (the
brake is attached to the anchor) as in the
diagram on the facing page) and the rope is
fed through it. This is the most commonly
seen method.
Traveling Brake Lowering Systems. In a

traveling brake lowering system the descender
(the brake) is attached to the litter which
allows the rope to remain stationary. The litter
attendant operates and controls the brake.
A rappel is an example of a traveling brake
Notes:

Main Line Systems
PARTS OF A LOWERING SYSTEM
A lowering system is one of the simplest
systems to set up in technical rescue. It
consists of the main line, a brake bar rack,
a carabiner, and an anchor. (See diagram at
left.) To provide a means of passing knots and
changing over to a raising system, simply add
a Load Releasing Hitch with a long system
Prusik loop.
CONSIDERATIONS FOR A
LOWERING OPERATION
Be sure that your brakeman can handle the
load.
Be sure that you have enough rope to

reach the bottom of the drop. Tie off the
end of the rope to ensure it doesnt get
away from you. Have additional rope
available to lengthen the main line if you
anticipate needing it, but be sure you know
how to pass knots (bends) if you intend to
try this.
Be sure that the edge is well-padded with

canvas and/or edge rollers.
If you have additional people, assign

one to assist the brakeman with rope
management.
Notes:
1. For instructions on load releasing hitchers, see the chapter on Belay.

Main Line Systems
USING A BRAKE BAR KNOT PASSING
(RAPPEL) RACK THROUGH THE
Current practice favors using LOWERING SYSTEM
only stainless steel bars in rescue.
Warn the litter tender that
Pure aluminum brake bars may
generally create more friction but youre going to be passing a
wear excessively, absorb more knot.
heat, and transfer aluminum oxide Stop the lowering with the
to equipment and clothing. knot a short distance from the
brake bar rack. Leave enough
rope to lock off the rack.
Remember to engage ALL Lock off the rack.
available bars before using a Attach the anchored load
rack and check that the rope is
releasing hitch (LRH)
threaded properly.
Prusik loop to the main
line below the rack. Push it
When using a traditional rack, as far forward toward the
always pass the rope over the first load as possible. A quick
bar when you rig the rack, do not release Prusik attachment is
thread the rope between the first acceptable in this application.
bar and the frame. Unlock and disconnect the
rack, move the knot to just
The improved U-shaped rack below the rack and lock off
(diagram shown here) is the the rack again.
standard width of SMC-style Slowly release the LRH until
racks and can be equipped with a the rack is again taking the
hyper-bar that extends from both load.
sides of the frame to give added Take the LRH Prusik off the
control and make tie-off simpler. main line.
A double hyper-bar version with Unlock the brake bar rack and
heavy gauge stainless steel bars complete the lower.
is manufactured by BMS and is comparably
Re-tie the LRH.
priced to the traditional racks. Hyper-bars can
also be retrofitted on open-style racks.
In general, a brake bar rack fitted with a

hyper-bar will not need more than four bars
rigged to start a lowering unless you are faced
with an extremely long lower, e.g., in excess
of 100 m.
Notes:

Main Line Systems
MECHANICAL ADVANTAGE good idea: First, using too much mechanical
advantage will result in your haul team having
SYSTEM: GENERAL to haul a lot of rope with very little movement
of the load accomplished, wasting valuable
time and wearing out your rescuers for little
Mechanical advantage (MA) gain. Secondly, too much MA means you
is the relationship of how much will have trouble detecting changes in the
load can be moved to the amount resistance of the load to the force generated
of force it takes to move it. MA is by the haul team. You can overstress your
generally divided in to three types. system very easily in this case and cause a
Ideal, Theoretical, and Actual. catastrophic failure of your system.
If at any time you are hauling on an MA

Mechanical advantage (MA) systems are system and the load will not move, STOP!
necessary because accidents dont always If at any time you are hauling on an MA
take place where it is simply a matter of system and suddenly the load resistance
lowering the subject/patient to the ground. increases, STOP!
It will become necessary, sooner or later, for
a rescue team to raise a patient from a lower In either case above, it is critical that you
place to safety. Some examples canyons, identify why youre encountering unexpected
gorges, mine shafts, caves, and cliffs. So, in resistance rather than just bull-headedly
general there are two basic reasons to use an attempting to overcome it with brute force. If
MA system: you continue to pull, you can easily cause a
failure of all or part of your system. Main lines
have been cut because poorly-trained rescue
To make the raising more convenient/safer.
teams attempted to overcome load resistance
To make the raising easier. by adding more mechanical advantage and
more haulers. In one well-known case, the
CONVENIENCE AND SAFETY main line was wedged in a crack and they
The knowledge and skills to properly ended up cutting the main line at the haul
employ MA systems means that a rescue team cam.
can rig the MA system in a place that is safer
and more convenient. Some reasons for doing
this might include: CLASSIFICATION OF MA
Closer to emergency vehicles/highway SYSTEMS
Away from rockfall
Away from bystanders/media IDEAL MECHANICAL ADVANTAGE
At a shorter drop Ideal Mechanical Advantage (IMA) assumes
there are no losses in mechanical advantage
due to factors such as pulley friction, ropes
EASIER rubbing, bending or unbending. Whenever
MA systems make the job of raising a you put together an MA system in the field,
load easier because they spread the work this is usually how you refer to the MA system
over time. However, do not use any more youre building. It is what you would have in a
mechanical advantage than you actually need. perfect, frictionless world.
There are a couple of reasons why this is a
Notes:

Main Line Systems
THEORETICAL MECHANICAL HOW TO HAUL
ADVANTAGE A haul team should pull smoothly on the
Theoretical Mechanical Advantage (TMA) is rope. Avoid heave-ho pulling on the haul
the MA based on your calculations that allow system. This can cause the litter to bounce
for friction and other losses of advantage. and can create a sawing action of the main
This is not normally a field technique at the line on any protrusions. It is also very
basic level, but is sometimes taken into uncomfortable for the litter attendant and
consideration during advanced operations by the patient!
teams with higher levels of training. Your haul team should attempt to do their
haul from a standing or sitting position
rather than walking unless youve got a
ACTUAL MECHANICAL good flat surface with no trip hazards. A
ADVANTAGE haul team should not run!
Actual Mechanical Advantage (AMA) is Attempt to rig so that there is no rope
the mechanical advantage you actually end dragging during the haul and reset
up with after reality subtracts friction and operations.
other losses of advantage. This is the MA you Secure loose gear in a central and out-
actually have in the real world. This requires
of-the-way location. Some people like to
measuring procedures and is of little practical
benefit in the real world. attach to the haul line using mechanical
ascenders or Prusiks in order to gain a
better grip. The problem with this is that
EFFICIENCY IN MECHANICAL it prevents them from feeling changes
in the resistance offered by the load. If
ADVANTAGE SYSTEMS something got stuck, they wouldnt be
The size of a pulley should be four
able to feel it as quickly. This also works
times the diameter of the rope to maintain
maximum efficiency (generally about 85%). fine until it is time to reset, then you will
The size of your pulley also has implications usually see them fighting to get the things
for your rope strength, although this concept off the line, which slows the operation. Be
has recently been coming under increased sure it is really necessary to use them,
scrutiny (as of year 2001). However, until otherwise just dont.
proven otherwise, we will continue to use the
rule that to maintain the knotted strength
of your rope as it runs through the system.
Beware, some 2 pulleys are turned out of 2
stock and the tread is actually only about 1.5.
In order to maintain the full strength of the
rope across a pulley as well as minimize the
loss of efficiency, that pulley needs to be 8-10
times the diameter of the rope. A Kootenay
Carriage meets this requirement.
Notes:

Main Line Systems
TYPES OF MA SYSTEMS RULES FOR SIMPLE PULLEY
There are three types of mechanical SYSTEMS
advantage systems: Simple, Compound and If all of the traveling (moving) pulleys in
Complex, with some simple rules to help you
a system move toward the anchor at the
define each type.
same speed, it is a simple pulley system.
If the end of the rope is fastened to the
THE ULTIMATE SIMPLE MA anchor, the mechanical advantage is even,
as in a 2:1 rescue system.
SYSTEM If the end of the rope is fastened to the
First things first. What if you need to load, the mechanical advantage is an odd
raise a load up a hillside to the road where
number, as in a 3:1 rescue system.
the ambulance is waiting for the accident
victim(s). You have your rescue team, If a pulley is attached to the anchor and
two engine companies from the local fire its is the last one the rope passes through
department, and about 23 assorted by- before it gets to the haul team, then it is a
standers. As you dump out all your gear and change of direction (CD) pulley and adds
start discussing the possible MA systems nothing to the system except friction. CD
which will accomplish the task of getting the pulleys are used for convenience.
patient to the road, Bubba from the local The number of pulleys plus 1 in a simple
tavern is overheard saying, Well shoot, why system tells you the mechanical advantage
dont they just pull em up? We got enough of the system. Do not count a CD pulley
people here to pull the car up too! As the when making this calculation.
silence decends on your command group and Avoid using more than five pulleys in a
you look at each other
system. The friction of that many pulleys
will start to cancel out the mechanical
Why not? A 1:1 MA system is the ultimate advantage of your pulley system
in simplicity, all you need is a progress
capture method and enough strong arms.
How many is enough? For a 1:1 mechanical
advantage system, use one person for every
50 pounds of load plus one person for every
3:1 4:1
50 feet of vertical distance.
150 lb. load 50 feet = 4 people

LOAD LOAD
Notes:

Main Line Systems
RULES FOR COMPOUND PULLEY Compound systems will need reset people
at each reset station during use if offset
SYSTEMS anchors are used.
Any time you have a combination of
two or more simple
pulley systems 9:1 COMPLEX PULLEY
acting on each other, SYSTEMS
it is considered a Complex pulley
compound pulley systems do not follow any
system. Here are some of the rules for simple
ideas that can help or compound pulley
keep things simple. systems. Any pulley
system that has pulleys
Compound systems moving toward the load is
must be multiplied complex.
together, not added. A
3:1 acting on a 2:1 is LOAD
a 6:1 MA system, not LOAD COMMON RESCUE ?!:1
a 5:1. SYSTEMS
The most common rescue systems are
Always try to have the larger MA system either 1:1, 2:1, 3:1, or combinations of the
act on the smaller MA system so that last two mechanical advantage systems. In
you will have fewer resets. For example, this text, well only touch on these systems.
the 3:1 acting on We strongly recommend additional training
in order to become fully proficient in MA
the 2:1 mentioned 32:1 systems.
above would be more
efficient than if the 2:1
acted on the 3:1. HAUL CAMS
Use a three-wrap Prusik Hitch for the
The greatest MA haul system, tied with 8 mm rope. The quick
that can be achieved release version of the Prusik Hitch with the
using the fewest Double Overhand Bend forming the bridge is
number of pulleys is also a good choice. The Prusik Hitch is chosen
a combination of 2:1 because it will usually slip when a force of
systems, as shown LOAD about 7 kN is applied. During a haul sequence,
here. For example, the if it does slip, STOP the operation immediately
greatest MA you can and determine what the problem is. Have
several extra Prusik loops available, as this
achieve with 3 pulleys is 8:1 (2:1 acting on
loop many start to glaze after about 100 m of
a 2:1 acting on a 2:1, or 2 x 2 x 2 = 8). hauling and resetting.
The traveling pulleys in a compound
system will move toward the anchor, but
at different speeds, so anchors should
be offset so that the simple systems will
collapse at the same time.
Notes:

Main Line Systems
An alternative is to use a Rescucender older terms including ratchet cam, safety
in place of the hitch. In informal tests, the cam, ratchet Gibbs, and others. PCD more
Rescucender generally slipped about 10 cm accurately describes the function of the
(4) whenever a pulley load reached about device.
5.33 kN (1200 lb.) The Rescucenders success
varies, however, with different brands of rope.
A PCD may take one of several forms, but
the most common in use today is a single
If you have problems with a Rescucender Triple-Wrapped Prusik Hitch incorporated
binding when used as a haul cam, it can be into the main line (in odd MA systems).
connected with a soft link using 0.55 m (18 When set up in this manner, the PCD is self-
in) of 8 mm rope. tending and functions automatically. Do not
use Quick Release Prusiks in this role as their
performance is much less predictable than a
If you are using a Rescuecender for a haul standard Prusik Hitch.
cam, the PCD (see below) should be placed
between the haul cam and the load. If you
are using a Prusik for a haul cam, PCD can be A less-preferred alternative is to use a
placed between the haul cam and the anchor. Rescucender, with a Load Releasing Hitch for
shock absorbsion, in place of a Prusik Hitch.
Gibbs Ascender should not be used.
Gibbs ascenders are not recommended for
use in rope rescue at this time, although for
personal use, they are just fine. A PCD should be kept in line with the
mainline and a short distance from its anchor
for maximum efficiency.
PROGRESS CAPTURE DEVICE
(PCD) Do NOT use Tandem Triple-Wrapped
Whenever you raise a load, regardless Prusiks (TTWP) here. That is totally
of the MA system used, the last thing you unnecessary and creates excessive friction
want to happen is to have that load slip back in your system. The only places TTWP
down. The progress capture device, or PCD, are needed are in your belay system and
is how you keep the load from slipping back. attaching the tensioning system to a highline
This term is generic and replaces several track rope!
PCD
The location of the PCD on the mainline will
be in large part determined by the haul cam.
If you are using a Prusik hitch haul cam, the
PCD can be placed between the haul cam and
3WP the anchor. If you are using a Rescucender
haul cam (a hard interface), then the PCD is
better located between the haul cam and the
load.
If the PCD is located between the haul cam

and the load, then it will most likely have to
be tended. (If you are using a Rescucender,
Notes:

Main Line Systems
then it may be possible to attach a short
bungie cord to the PCD to make it self-
tending.) When utilizing a tended PCD, when
the command SET is given, the progress
capture device tender must pull all the slack
out of the line as the device is set, otherwise
the load will settle and progress will be lost.
Ideally, there should not be any slack to
remove.
RAISING A LOAD
GENERAL
Raising a load is one of the most
dangerous operations in rope rescue do to
several factors:
Raising the load generates higher forces on

your system than a lowering operation.
Accidental jamming of the system can
cause catastrophic failure.
Good communications are essential.
The raise is done in increments rather than
a single non-stop operation as is usually
the case with a lowering operation.
Notes:

Main Line Systems
1:1 MECHANICAL ADVANTAGE
SYSTEM
This is the simplest of the mechanical
advantage systems in that there is no actual
mechanical advantage. It is a direct pull
and often called the Georgia Haul or the
Armstrong Technique. The use of directional
pulleys to allow a better place for your haul
team is optional.
Dont be quick to dismiss this technique. If

you have lots of extra people and not a lot of
distance to raise the load, why not put 8 or 10
people on the load and just pull it up? It may
be a lot faster than putting together a fancy
haul system!
It is mandatory to have a PCD (progress

Capture Device in order to ensure the load
doesnt slip back down for any reason.
Use one person for every 50 pounds of
load and one person for every 50 feet of rope
length.
150 lb. load 50 feet =4 people hauling

250 lb. load 150 feet =8 people hauling
400 lb load 100 feet =10 people hauling
600 lb. load 50 feet = 13 people hauling
Notes:

Main Line Systems
SYSTEM UTILIZING THE MAIN
LINE (INTERNAL)
In order to have a 2:1 mechanical
advantage, a pulley is attached to the load
and it travels with the load towards the
anchor. Now only half as much effort is
required to raise the load, but over twice the
distance. This means that if the load was 25
down, then 50 of rope was hauled to raise the
load that 25.
This is a Simple 2:1 mechanical

advantage system with the Haul Team pulling
directly on the main line.
Watch for abrasion on the rope on the

static (non-moving) side
Another consideration for this particular

simple 2:1 system is that it requires enough
rope to reach from the anchor to the load
and back up to the haul team. This may not
be practical. In addition, as the load comes
up, the two ropes running down from a
diminishing V that has an annoying tendency
to catch on anything it can. You can avoid this
by constructing a simple 2:1
that acts on the main line (see
next page)
Notes:

Main Line Systems
SYSTEM ACTING ON THE MAIN
LINE (EXTERNAL)
Alternatively, you can have a simple 2:1
MA system acting on the mainline via a prusik.
This avoids problems with obstacles snagging
the traveling pulley as it comes up because
the pulley can stay on top rather than over
the edge.
The Haul Team is not pulling directly on

the main line, but on the MA system which is
attached to (acting on) the main line. This is
also known as a ganged system.
This
takes much
less rope
than the
simple 2:1
mechanical
advantage
system
utilizing the
main line
Notes:

Main Line Systems
SYSTEM (INTERNAL)
In order to have a 3:1 MA system there
must be two pulleys. The first pulley, when
following the main line away from
the load, is attached to the anchor.
The main line is directed back
towards the load and the second
pulley is attached to the main line
with a prusik and travels with the
load towards the anchor system.
This has often been referred to as
a Z-Rig, which does not properly
describe the system.
This 3:1 MA system consists of a pulley

system incorporating the main line. It is also
possible to construct a simple 3:1 mechanical
advantage system that acts on the main line.
When hauling on this system, try to keep

the haul line parallel to the main line in
order to maintain the maximum mechanical
advantage. (This is true in most haul
systems.)
Notes:

Main Line Systems
SYSTEM (EXTERNAL)
A compound 4:1 (a simple 2:1 acting
on a simple 2:1) is another one of the
most commonly used rescue mechanical
advantage systems. It is often referred to
as a Piggyback system or Pig for short,
although this does nothing to properly
describe the system. The example shown
there is acting on the main line.
Notes:

Main Line Systems
THE T-METHOD FOR the pulley system. Whenever a rope with one
T makes a 180 change of direction around a
CALCULATING MECHANICAL pulley, then whatever that pulley is connected
ADVANTAGE to receives two units of T. If two units of T
Have you ever witnessed a situation where were delivered to that same pulley, then it
a group of rescuers stand around and argue would generate four units of T instead. Where
what the MA is for the pulley system they units of T converge, add them together and
just constructed? It happens far more often continue to trace the T through the system
than we like to think. Whenever you see this with the new value.
happen, it is a dead giveaway that the people
may have memorized common systems,
but they do not understand how mechanical To summarize:
advantage works! And forget about that 1. Assign one unit of tension to where you
Theoretical Mechanical Advantage that was pull on the pulley system.
mentioned earlier! 2. Follow the rope through the pulley
system and when your encounter a
junction, apply the principle of tension
TENSION distribution. Keep track of all units of
In the chapter on rescue forces we defined tension through to the load.
tension as the act of applying force to a 3. Total all units of tension that reach the
rope. Whenever a haul team pulls on the load; the Ideal Mechanical Advantage is
rope, they are therefore applying tension
the ratio between this total an the initial
to that rope. You could measure specific
amounts of tension, but it would complicate one unit of tension.
your calculations quite a bit. So to keep things Some examples follow:
simple, we assign one unit of tension (T) to
where you (or your entire haul team) pull on 1:1 IMA
the MA system. If you then follow that unit 1T
of T through the pulley system to the load,
1T
ideal mechanical advantage (IMA) can be
determined by keeping track of how that initial
T is distributed 2:1 IMA
throughout 1T 1T
the system. 2T
Compare the 1T
amount of T
1T
delivered to the 3:1 IMA
load to the initial 1T 1T 1T+2T=3
input unit of T. 2T
1T
1T 2T
The key to 1T 1T
understanding
the T-method
4:1 IMA
is to realize
what happens 2T 4T
to the tension 3T 1T
in the rope as it 1T 2T
moves through
1T
1T
Notes:

Main Line Systems
MA SYSTEMS- FINAL THOUGHTS for pulleys, Gibbs cams for PCD/Belay or
Friction: Make your manual haul system as Figure 8s for belay run a very high risk of
free of friction as you can because friction catastrophic failure. The fact that much
can cost you all the advantage you gained. of this equipment is expensive should not
Use rope pads, edge rollers and directional be a consideration when the life of the
pulleys as needed. rescuer(s) and/or the patient is at stake.
Is More Better? No, Increased mechanical Manual Haul vs. Winches/Capstans: Manual
advantage also increases the risks to the haul systems are easier to monitor and
patient and to the rescuers. Use only control. With a powered winch, if you jam
the amount of mechanical advantage the system it will continue to haul until
necessary to meet the need. you shut it off, or something/somebody
breaks. While there are clutch equipped
Keep it Safe & Simple (KISS): Avoid the winches, failure of the clutch could cause
temptation to rig a complicated MA system catastophic failure. In the case of a
when less complicated alternatives exist. capstan system, the same considerations
Youve got all this knowledge and it is apply. If the system becomes jammed,
almost irresistible to go for the fancy unless the operator is extremely well-
solution! One instructor from Texas attuned to what is going on, it will continue
calls this tendency the technological to haul. In any event, the basic parts
imperative, i.e., when faced with a of a haul system must still be present,
situation that will permit the use of a including a belay and a PCD. If these are
high-tech and a low-tech solution, the less not present, then the haul system fails the
experienced rescuer will resort to the high whistle test, which states that everyone
tech solution as the preferred alternative! must be able to let go of the system
Even if it uses twice the gear and three simultaneously without the load falling.
times the time to rig it!
Training: Proper application requires hours
Stuck Systems: Any part of your manual of practice as a team. You and your team
haul system can become jammed, must be alert, well coordinated and aware
including the main line, external haul line, of the dangers involved. Minimize your
or the litter itself. If you continue to haul, risks through proper training from qualified
youll place unacceptable loads on your instructors.
system and something will fail. Be ready
to reverse direction and lower the load if Pre-rigged Haul Systems. When you really
the litter tender cannot free the system. boil down the arguments for pre-rigged
This can be done by lowering with the haul haul systems, there seems to really be
system, but be careful not to increase the two main reasons for setting your gear up
tension on the system. Someone will have this way, and the authors believe both to
to release and hold the PCD during this be completely inappropriate: (1) They are
operation. faster, or (2) they compensate for a lack
of training.
Equipment: A SAR team should use state
of the art equipment. Teams using dynamic
rope in manual haul systems, or carabiners
Notes:

Main Line Systems
We believe in a sense of urgency when
dealing with a rescue, but there is a limit.
Is this really necessary after the several
hours it took to respond to the site? Is
there time to check the system Is this
safe?
A lack of training? What if the rigging

guru fails to make it to the call-out? How
does the rest of the team (who are not
properly trained) actually know that what
comes out of the bag is actually rigged
correctly? Is this safe?
A pre-rigged rescue system can be equated

to having a single tool-for example, a
hammer in your toolbox. If all you have
is a hammer, then you will tend to look at
every problem as a nail! Is this safe?
There is no substitute for proper training.

If a rescuer is not willing to take the time to
learn MA systems, and if he is not willing to
take the time to practice MA systems and
maintain his proficiency, then he should not be
involved in technical rescue because he is not
safe.
Notes:

Patients and Litters
Chapter 9: Patients & Litters

Patient packaging is an essential part of STOKES LITTER
any rescue because all the fancy rigging in Stokes has become a generic term which
the world is useless if you cannot deliver your includes all of the military basket-style litters.
patient, the rescue subject, to the medical aid Various manufacturers include: CMC, Traverse
community in the best shape possible. In the Rescue, Colonial, Junkin, and others.
emergency medical aid world of the city, you
will often hear medical personnel talking about
the Golden Hour, during which they feel the These litters usually have a wire mesh
patient has the best chance for recovery if he shell which is very uncomfortable for the
can be delivered to an emergency room. patient. Nylon litter inserts are recommended
as a replacement to the wire mesh and
provide increased patient comfort. Even a
In the wilderness setting of rope rescue, an Thinsolite pad is better than nothing and
hour or more may be spent just getting to the provides substantial insulation.
base or the top of the cliff where the patient
is located. In some rescue environments,
such as in cave rescue or alpine rescue under Some Stokes are manufactured with
extreme weather conditions, it might be a break-apart design which facilitates
better to talk about a Golden Day because backpacking the litter in to a remote site,
it just might take that long to reach a patient. but presents draw backs in terms of litter
In one extreme case, it took four days of strength. All older-style break-apart litters
highly technical rigging and over 150 people that depend on pins should be backed up
to extricate a single patient a distance of less with 8mm rope or webbing, and they should
than a mile. be used with extreme caution in advanced
technical rescue operations such as highlines.
A newer design marketed by Traverse Rescue
In all of this, how you prepare the patient is exceptionally strong and need not be
for movement in the rescue litter will have backed up in this manner, but simply safety
a direct bearing on how well your patient checked for proper assembly. The structural
survives the trip! weak point of many older Stokes-type litters,
particularly aluminum litters, is the top rail so
the U.S. Coast Guard recommends wrapping
The patient was having a bad time before a piece of 1 tubular webbing around that rail
you arrived and being carried in a litter can for added security. Many companies have no
be difficult and uncomfortable. One of the first data on the strength of this rail and on a low-
things you have to consider for his ride out is angle, slope evacuation a rescue team will
which litter to use. often have as many as 5 or 6 people attached
to this rail, although this is not necessary or
recommended.
RESCUE LITTERS
Rescue litters permit the stable transport
of a patient in a rugged environment without
aggravation their injuries. In almost every
case, the best litter to use for an evacuation is
the first litter to reach the patient.
Notes:

JUNKIN OR FERNO- The litter ends fold over the head and feet
to provide a secure, protective cocoon for the
WASHINGTON STYLE PLASTIC patient. There is a smaller version for children
BASKET LITTERS known as the Pediatric or PED SKED.
This design is not generally as strong
as the Stokes-type litter, but works well for
cliff rescue applications. It also slides easier All attachments to the litter are made
over snow and scree because of the smooth through built-in inch brass grommets.
bottom, although users should realize that The design incorporates systems for both
sliding any plastic litter on rock will soon ruin horizontal and vertical-oriented vertical
it. When rigging this litter make sure to tie evacuations and although it was not primarily
into the metal rail and not just the plastic designed for this purpose, it has proven quite
material. Here too, the break-apart design of adept in this role. One of the best features
some of these litters facilitates backpacking of the SKED is that it rolls up into a canvas
the litter into a remote site, but presents backpack carrier, which is extremely portable
a drawback in terms of litter strength for by a single person.
advanced technical rescue operations such
as highlines. These break-apart litters should
The SKED has some drawbacks. Since it
always be backed up with 8 mm rope.
is so flexible, it tends to bend at both ends.
In addition, you must use an OSS with the
Do not leave this litter (or any other litter, shoulder board to prevent the sides from
for that matter!) exposed to ultraviolet light squeezing the patient.
for long periods of time. Storing your plastic
litters on top of your rescue truck may look
really cool but it is really a bad idea. The LITTER ACCESSORIES
older models were extremely sensitive to HYPOTHERMIA BAGS
sunlight and would become very brittle. Newer If youre dealing with a rescue in extreme
versions have supposedly fixed this problem environmental conditions, one accessory
with advanced plastics, but it is still a good worth looking at is a hypothermia bag. Ideally,
idea to protect your litters from sunlight and a good hypothermia bag will be waterproof.
other elements. Wiggys, Inc. of Grand Junction, Colorado,
makes a superior hypothermia bag which is
waterproof, allowing easy cleanup. The top
SKED/OSS LITTER half is bright orange in color, which provides
The SKED litter is essentially a drag sheet greater visibility in dismal conditions. The
made from heavy duty plastic. It is designed top half can be removed completely for easy
to be used with the Oregon Spine Splint (OSS patient placement. It includes airway access,
II). side openings for IVs, central flap openings
on the top and bottom for catheter placement
and patient relief on a long carryout. Straps
The SKED litter has proven to be an
for 10 carriers are attached and a backboard
excellent choice for use in caves and other
and/or ground pad can be placed either in
confined space situations. In fact, the SKED
or out of the bag. It weights only 8 pounds.
was primarily designed as a confined space
During training events in the snow, mock
rescue litter. Easy to follow instructions
patients have pleaded to have the bag (which
accompany each SKED.
was being used in conjunction with the
HeatPac) vented in order to cool off!
Notes:

HEATPAC MEDICAL CONSIDERATIONS
Another patient care item that is nice for This section will be kept short. Rescuers
extreme winter conditions is the Norwegian should obtain proper training in first aid in
made HeatPac. This is small, lightweight and order to properly deal with medical aspects
simple to operate. It burns a small charcoal during a rescue.
briquette and is powered by a single D-Cell
flashlight battery. It delivers 50-200 watts of
heat for a period of 620 hours on a single The following medical considerations
briquette. When used in combination with a (which should be familiar to all rescuers)
good vapor and thermal barrier, such as the must be made as a minimum before moving a
hypothermia bag described above, patients rescue subject, and must continue during the
should be warm and dry for the trip out, no course of the rescue as well.
matter what the conditions. - Airway
Does the subject have a clear airway?
Do you need to maintain the airway during
LITTER SHIELDS the rescue?
One item that can help protect a patient, Does he have objects in the mouth that
particularly in low angle, scree slope
need to be removed (gum, dentures,
evacuation, is the litter shield. This add-on,
made of Lexan, fits many litters and protects tobacco)?
the patients face, head and neck from bad Is he vomiting, or is the potential for
weather, brush, dirt, falling rocks and debris vomiting there? How will you clear it if
without compromising access to the head for necessary?
monitoring and treatment. They are a little
pricey, but experience with this item has - Breathing
proven it to be very effective. CMC Rescue Is the subject breathing on his own?
markets this device Will you be able to monitor breathing
during the course of the rescue?
Will you need to perform rescue breathing
OREGON SPINE SPLINT (OSS II) before and during the rescue?
The OSS II is a spine immobilizer for use
with the SKED Stretcher, backboards, or other - Circulation
patient transfer devices such as the Stokes or
Does the subject have a pulse?
plastic basket style litters. The OSS II will fit
inside the rolled up SKED Stretcher inside the Will you be able to monitor the pulse
standard backpack/carrying case. This item during the course of the rescue?
is particularly useful if your Stokes litter has Is CPR necessary?
the build-in leg dividers and you need a short Will CPR be possible during the rescue if
backboard for spine immobilization. needed?
AND
Proper training by qualified instructors is - Shock
required in order to properly use this device.
Does the subject show signs of shock?
Note: The Kedrick Extrication Device (KED) What must be done immediately to treat
is very similar but has no shoulder board. for shock?
PATIENT PACKAGING
Notes:

- Bleeding PACKAGING PROCEDURES
Is there life-threatening bleeding? The following procedure would be used for
How can you stop it? the most extreme conditions found in a cave,
mine or other high hazard area; but can be
- Spinal Injury (Many emergencies in modified as necessary for other situations.
the vertical environment relate to spinal This is only one way to package a patient!
injury.) There are other ways which also work well! In
Is there a possibility of spinal injury? addition, the nature of the patients injuries
will affect how you package the patient.
Should a cervical collar be used before the
subject is moved? (Do you carry a SAM
Splint to improvise a C-Collar?)
Should you secure the subject to a
backboard before moving him?
PACKAGING IN A LITTER
The patient should be tied into the litter
(to hold him into the litter), and into the rope
system in the event of a litter failure. This
packaging will be done in the same manner
for both horizontal-and vertical-orientation
litter evacuations.
Before beginning to package the patient,

be sure the litter is absolutely secure. If it is
anywhere near the edge, have the litter on a
belay line which is locked off. If possible have
the litter on level ground or at least situated
so that the patients head is uphill (unless
medical conditions exist to contradict this).
Vapor and Insulation Barriers. If you dont
have the high tech gear discussed earlier,
The patient should be fitted with a harness, youll have to improvise protection for your
helmet and eye/face protection for safety. Also patient.
consider shading, insulation and padding. The
patient will also be more secure in the litter if
extra gear and clothing is used to pack around Using the first available litter, place a vapor
the body. Pad pressure points created by the barrier down first. This can be a plastic tarp
tie-ins and remember that cold, high altitude laid diagonally, with a point at the head, foot,
conditions can very easily cause frostbite and/ and at the sides. Next lay down a blanket(s)
or hypothermia. as a thermal barrier, also in a diagonal
fashion. In extreme cold conditions where
hypothermia is a concern, place a pad or
similar material down for the patient to lie on
as well.
Notes:

The biggest challenge in
packaging the patient is to use
a method that allows securing
the patient without having to cut
holes in the vapor barrier which
could allow water to contact the
patient.
Patient Foot Loops. If the

litter could be anything but
perfectly horizontal, the patient
will be far more comfortable and
secure-feeling if the can feel
pressure against the bottom
of his feet. There are several
variations of foot loops which are
effective and fairly easy to tie.
Some of the plastic basket litters
have a foot stop as standard
equipment.
Patient Seat Harness. If the

patient is not already wearing a
serviceable seat harness, make
one for him out of 1 inch tubular
webbing. The 20 foot-long piece
carried in the 24-hour SAR pack
will do nicely. Make sure you system so that the patient does not move.
have removed all excess personal equipment
from the patient. It wouldnt do have him
lie on his canteen for the next several hours Patient Chest Harness. It may be
while you carry him out to the highway! necessary to put a chest harness on the
patient if he cannot wear a seat harness. For
example, a broken pelvis might prevent the
Patient Hasty Tie-In. To prevent the application of a seat harness. One method
patient from slipping up or down in the for a chest harness is to use a 3.5 m (11)
litter, do a hasty tie-in using two 12 lengths piece of webbing and tie an Overhand Knot
of 1 webbing. Find the midpoint of each at the midpoint. Wrap one tail, pass it over
piece of webbing and girth hitch each to the a shoulder, under the webbing across the
patients seat harness at the main attachment back, and back across the opposite shoulder.
carabiner or D-ring. Form a V: with one piece Complete an Overhand Bend Follow-Through
of webbing leading up to attach to the sides of with both tails.
the litter even with the patients head. Tie the
ends of the second piece of webbing forming a
V leading down to attach to the sides of the
litter below the patients knees. Tie this V
very snugly to eliminate all slack in the tie-in
Notes:

Additional Security. To ensure the patient and plenty of security for the patient is now
is completely immobilized and protected in the available.
litter, it is advisable to add one or two pieces
of additional webbing and lace the patient up.
OTHER PROTECTION
Provide the patient with a helmet if airway
Lower webbing lacing. Using a 20 piece of maintenance is not a problem. A helmet may
webbing, find the midpoint. Place the midpoint also aggravate neck injuries. It is mandatory
on the ankles and begin lacing the webbing that some sort of eye protection be provided.
towards the waist. As you get close to the Even a speck of dirt can hurt a lot if it hits the
waist area, secure the ends with half hitches eye. Let the patient decide whether or not
or a Truckers hitch. their arms are to be secured, but only if they
are conscious, cooperative, and the situation
Upper webbing lacing. Using a 20 ft piece permits! Padding in various places, such as
of webbing, find the midpoint. Place the behind the knees, under the neck, and the
midpoint on the navel and begin lacing the small of the back is also appropriate. The
webbing towards the head. As you approach head can be secured with duct tape, but dont
the head area be careful not to compromise put duct tape in direct contact with the skin.
the neck, i.e. dont choke your patient or
otherwise obstruct his breathing! Testing the Packaging. The test for a
properly secured patient is to stand the
litter on end. If the patient slips down the
SEAT BELT TIE-IN? packaging is inadequate.
Many litters have installed straps with
automobile seat belt-style buckles to secure
the patient. These open far too easily for
true security. However, a new buckle design
based on a buckle style that has been in use
in parachuting for years that offers quick
on-and-off tie in, excellent adjustability,
Notes:

Notes:

NOTE: Dont do this test on a patient. Since a pre-rigged litter spiders will be
Try it only on fellow team members during left tied, it violates the rule which states
practice sessions to determine whether or not that you should not be leaving knots tied
the packaging is done correctly. in rope. Pre-rigged litter spiders should be
inspected carefully after every use and worn
or damaged components should always be
ALTERNATE PATIENT TIE-IN replaced immediately. They probably should
Another option for patient tie-in provides not be kept in service more than 3-5 years,
more support, especially over the shoulders, and less if used frequently.
and has the added benefit of permitting the
patient to sit up in the litter and remain fully
secured at the same time. The four legs of the spider (which could be
adjustable) hang from the main attachment
point of the spider (a delta quick-link is
In the illustration shown at right, the preferred but it could be an extra large steel
patients seat harness has been omitted for carabiner, rigging plate or O ring) and attach
clarity Just like rescuers, a patient has two to the litter rail with large carabiners. These
points of contract to the rescue system. carabiners are always oriented so the gate is
The tie-in to the litter is his primary point of on the inside and the blocking screw rotates
contact. The seat harness is his backup. down. The main and belay lines are connected
to the main attachment point of the spider by
interwoven or interlocking long tail bowlines*.
To finish off this tie-in and provide more The main line tail is for use of the litter
security., you could lace the patient in with attendant and the belay line tail is tied to the
webbing, or use the Traverse-style seat belts head of the litter as a backup.
over the vapor barrier/insulation.
One of the tails of the bowline will become
the second attachment point for the litter
attendant. The other will attach to the head
PREPARING THE LITTER FOR of the litter and then to the patient as his
RAISING OR LOWERING secondary attachment point. Be sure when
There are a number of commercially attaching the tail to the head of the litter
available litter harnesses, or spiders, for to leave some slack between the main
rigging the litter which work fairly well for attachment point (MAP) and the litter rail
raising or lowering the litter. With the proper in case the litter needs lowering during the
materials and a little time you can make your course of the operation.
own pre-rig. It is also possible to rig hasty
spiders on scene from rope or webbing, which
costs considerably less than the commercial DUTIES OF THE LITTER
variety
ATTENDANT
The litter attendant has several important
One thing to remember about litter spiders tasks during a raising or a lowering operation.
is that you can adjust them down, i.e., The litter attendant must:
extended them, fairly easily. But shortening
them while a patient is in the litter can be
difficult to impossible! Therefore always begin Make sure the patient is not having
with the litter spider as short as possible and additional medical problems. If this
adjust it (by lengthening) as needed.
Notes:

happens, the litter attendant is going to
have to deal with them in addition to his
other duties. It might even be necessary to
have a 2nd litter attendant rappel down (or
ascend up!) on another rope to assist the
primary litter attendant.
Note: Before doing this, consider whether

or not it would not be simply quicker to
finish the raising operation and attend to
the patient on top!
Keep the litter from hanging up or

snagging on obstacles. The most difficult
obstacle are overhangs. The litter
attendant must take whatever actions
are necessary to keep the litter moving,
including climbing up on to the litter if
necessary.
The litter attendant must communicate

with and reassure the patient, who is
probably anxious. If you talk to the patient
and let him know whats going on, you can
alleviate this anxiety.
LITTER ATTENDANT
Notes:

Notes:

Notes:

POSITIONING
Litter attendant positioning is very Lift the litter with your legs. Not Your Back!
important. The litter attendant must be ready
to move to the best position to control the Use a shoulder strap or litter wheel to
litter. For that reason a litter attendant must make the task more bearable.
be physically fit, agile, capable of aggressively
solving problems, and very comfortable On rough terrain pass the litter between
working in the vertical environment. This is no bearers. Personnel should move forward as
place for timid souls!
the litter is passed off. (If you are behind
the litter you are in the wrong place, i.e.,
One variation that works well on some you arent in a position to help move the
slopes is to clip in to the rigging point at litter forward in rough terrain.
the top of the litter (but not sitting on the
patient). In this position, you can hold the Pre-plan and create lowering and/or belay
litter away from the cliff face by pulling back stations for the litter on steep or exposed
on the litter rails closest to the cliff. This slopes.
position also protects the litter attendant in
the event of a main line failure. Why? Because
Anyone can yell Stop, but only the Team
in the normal position the litter will drop onto
the attendants legs. Any protruding shelf for Leader says Go.
them to catch on will result in catastrophic
injury to the attendant. If the attendant is Front personnel call out footing hazards
on top, this cannot happen. In addition, by that the rear members cant see.
having the attendant on top, it makes it easier
to bring the litter up over some edges if high Switch sides of the litter frequently to
directionals are not available. prevent muscle fatigue.
LITTER HANDLING LITTER TEAM ORGANIZATION

Why a section on litter handling in a rope Just like everything else in rescue, a litter
rescue text? One of the most physically team should be organized. The basic positions
demanding aspects of rescue is the evacuation are:
of the rescue subjects litter. Litter handling
requires teamwork to accomplish safely. Some
guidelines are provided here: TEAM LEADER
Somebody has to be in charge. No matter
what you call this person, the Evac Team
Use teams with a minimum of 6-8 persons. Leader, the Litter Team Leader or whatever
Designate a medical attendant who should your local practices dictate, a single person
be positioned near the head of the patient. should be the designated leader of the
operation. The team leader decides, delegates
Decide on and flag the easiest route before and directs. Everyone else needs to keep the
evacuation. If you have the resources, chatter to a minimum.
designate a route finding team.
MEDICAL ATTENDANT
Notes:

Somebody has to watch the patient you as total strangers take your life in their
carefully at all times. However, the Medic is handswouldnt you be nervous?
not in charge of the operation. The Medic
cannot watch the patient, and monitor and
direct the activities of everyone else. The LITTER HANDLING
operation is, however, extremely responsive to
the Medics needs, because those are driven TECHNIQUES
almost entirely by the needs of the patient. There are several different methods of
moving a litter safely, depending on the
terrain.
Be careful of your Medic. He is paying a lot
of attention to the patient and is less attuned
to the hazards of the trail, so will need extra STANDARD CARRY
consideration. A team of 6 to 8 rescuers is distributed
around the litter, 3 or 4 to a side. Normally,
the person at the front of the left side is in
If you have 2 or more medics, consider charge and directs the activities of the others.
rotating them so one is always rested and
ready to take over if needed.
This method has the advantages of being
fast, little teamwork is required, and it usually
LITTER BEARERS gives the patient a comfortable ride. It has
Somebody has to carry the litter! Helpful the disadvantage of being very tiring for the
hint: Pair your rescuers according to size. A handlers, putting a constant strain on selected
64 rescuer should not be carrying the litter muscles. Ground vision is difficult, especially
on the opposite side from a 52 rescuer! Both at night, and a handler can easily trip over a
will be exhausted much more quickly than rock resulting in the patient being dropped.
necessary.
PATIENT If a litter handler starts to fall, he should
Sounds obvious, doesnt it? However, you call Stop! and let go of the litter. The Stop
should always remember that this person is command is to prevent the litter team from
with you at all times. Even when they appear running over the falling team member and
unconscious, they might be overhearing injuring him needlessly.
everything you say. Refers to them by name.
Avoid the impersonal use of it, him, or
her, the patient, or the litter, when More than one team will be needed if the
referring to this person. And dont refer to distance to carry the litter is more than the
your patient as the victim. team can cover in about 15 to 20 minutes.
Team leapfrogging is a good method to use
on long evacuations. One team will take the
Dont forget to talk to the patient; let them
know what is going on. This will help alleviate
or lower their anxieties.
Put yourself in the place of the patient;

tied in, cant move, cant protect yourself,
maybe cant even scratch your nose, or for
the most part, see what is going on around
Notes:

litter for a given distance while the other team Done correctly, this provides a very stable
goes ahead to rest and pre-plan the next and secure ride for the patient in the litter.
stretch. At the pass off point the first team
will advance to the next point for rest and
planning. TURTLE CARRY
The Turtle Carry is most useful for
negotiating very narrow passages, e.g., a
This can extend everyones endurance slot canyon or long space between two large
quite a bit. Try to avoid making the distances boulders.
too far. Extended rest periods can be harmful
if people are allowed to cool off to the point
of becoming chilled and then asked to carry a To accomplish the Turtle Carry, one hardy
litter using cold muscles. (or heroic?) soul with gloves, kneepads and a
sense of humor gets on his hands and knees
and the litter is balanced on his back. Two
CATERPILLER/LAP PASS other litter handlers are positioned at the
head and the foot of the litter where they
Once in a while, youll find a place where mainly balance and guide the litter. They can
the footing is too unstable or there is an take some of the weight of the litter, but the
obstacle that prevents the litter team from majority is carried by the Turtle underneath.
just blasting on through with the litter. Falling This will also be done with two Turtles
becomes a possible hazard, but things arent
steep enough or high enough to justify the This is very slow and can be painful for
time and effort to construct a rope lowering or the Turtle, but is sometimes the only option
hauling system. The Caterpillar, or Lap Pass, available.
becomes a good option.
When you reach the obstacle area, the STRAP CARRY

litter pauses while every extra person lines A strap carry is very useful to prolong
up on the route ahead of the difficult terrain your endurance on long carry-outs. Fashion
or obstacles. They from two lines facing each a loop from your webbing and girth hitch it
other about the width of the litter apart and on the litter rail. Bring the loop up and over
alternate (in other words, they arent all your shoulder that is next to the litter, across
opposite each other). They usually sit down your back and slip the loop over your other
and try to make themselves as stable as shoulder.
possible. When everyone is set, you pass the
litter down between the two lines. As the litter
If you start to fall, you can twist out of the
passes a person, he gets up and carefully but
loop by turning away from the litter.
quickly moves around the line in the direction
of travel and gets set to pass the litter again.
TAG LINES
Be careful in moving around! Youre doing Once in a while, youll come upon a
this because the ground is unstable or steep!
Notes:

place where it is too low and narrow to do
a standard carry, lap pass, or even a turtle.
For example, some deadfalls in canyons can
be extremely dense and offer what is very
nearly a confined space challenge. When this
happens, you may have no option but to use
tag lines to drag the litter through.
Using your 1 inch tubular webbing or a

length of 8mm accessory rope, tie to the head
and foot of the litter. Crawl through the tight
spot dragging the free end of the tag line.
When you get to the other end, pull the litter
through with the tag line.
The tag line tied to the other end of the

litter is to help control it in case you have any
downward slope to the ground. It would be
rough on the patient if the litter went sliding
down the slope out of control!
Tag lines are also very useful during low

angle maneuvers and some short, i.e., 10 ft or
less, steep angle maneuvers.
FINAL THOUGHTS
Treat each case as a medical emergency
and take all reasonable medical precautions.
For example, if youre dealing with a patient
who has taken a severe fall, it is crazy not
to do C-spine on him. Does he have leg
pain? Why not splint the leg? You cannot
get into trouble by treating these symptoms
appropriately, but you can get into a lot of
trouble by failing to take proper steps.
Do no more harm!
Notes:

Notes:

One-Rope Rescue
Chapter 10: One-Person Rescue

Once in a while, you may be faced with THE BELAY QUESTION
a situation that calls for the use of a single In some one-person rescue situations, a
rescuer to access and evacuate a subject to a belay may be desirable, but it may not always
place of safety. This procedure is also known be feasible. In some cases, it could even
as a pickoff or buddy rescue and is done endanger the rescuer and the subject.
without the use of a litter. The pick-off is
only done to rescue uninjured or only slightly
injured persons. The only reason to attempt a Whether or not to use a belay is based on
pick-off on a seriously injured person would be the people involved, resources available and
that the subjects injuries are so serious that the situation.
he cannot wait for a litter operation.
The ability to make this kind of decision
There are four basic options at the basic will only come with experience and practice
level of competence which are listed here. in different environments and under varying
Advanced skills would include the ability to conditions.
pick-off an unconscious patient!
PROCEDURES
Pick-off. The rescuer reaches the subject Before going over the edge or up the rope
and after attaching the subject to his to access the subject, you will need to take
rappel device, rappels with the subject to three things with you for the subject:
the bottom.
SRT Pick-off. The rescuer reaches the A helmet

subject and rigs a lowering system on A pick-off strap
his main line which he uses to lower the A harness
subject to the bottom.
If the subject is already wearing a helmet
Assisted (Panorama) Pick-off. The rescuer and/or a harness, this will lighten your load
is lowered to the subject by the rescue considerably. A pick-off strap is simply a piece
team and after securing the subject to his of rope or webbing that you use to connect
main attachment point, is lowered with the the subject to you. It can be a simple Prusik
loop or a manufactured pick-off strap that
subject to the bottom by the rescue team.
provides some mechanical advantage if you
need to lift the subject a short distance.
Assist. If the person is just stuck, has
on a harness, and is capable of following
directions, lower him to the ground. Be A pick-off should take no more than 10
careful! This is a judgment call for you. minutes from the beginning to having the
Variations include accessing the patient patient on the ground. Otherwise, medical
from below on a separate rope or climbing problems can begin to have a significant
up the patients rope and passing him impact.
to rig a lowering station. (The latter
procedure is an advanced technique typical
in cave rescue.)
Notes:

One-Rope Rescue
MEDICAL CONSIDERATIONS Obviously, it is important to get the subject
Many one-person rescues wont involve down as rapidly as possible, consistent with
any of the medical considerations mentioned rescuer safety. However, once down, DO NOT
in the chapter on patient packaging, but they remove the harness or all the pent-up toxic
must by evaluated. Ask yourself if it would be blood will be released into the blood stream
better to do a mid-face litter packaging or if and could result in death. If at all possible, let
the patients medical condition permits a pick- properly trained medical personnel deal with
off. this problem.
There is another little-known but critical PICK-OFF

medical aspect of a one-person rescue that The pick-off of a cooperative subject is
every rescuer should be aware of any time a actually a fairly simple procedure. In the
subject is stuck on-rope: harness pathology. following scenario, you have rigged a second
rope near the subject, but not close enough
for him to grab.
HARNESS PATHOLOGY
In the 1990s a number of rope rescues
turned into recoveries after the patients Rappel to a position just above the subject.
Harnesses were removed. There was an Attach your QAS, stop and tie off.
obvious connection between people hanging Lean over and attach the pick-off strap to
motioness in harnesses and death. Pathology the subjects harness. The other end of
or death can be harness-induced when a this should be clipped on to the bottom of
person has been forced to sit motionless in a your rappel device. Do not clip the pick-off
harness for an extended period of time. The strap to the main attachment point of your
harness acts as a tourniquet allowing blood
harness unless there is no other option!
toxins to build up.
Attach an etrier or foot-loop to your QAS.
Have the subject step up on the etrier.
Then, with the removal of the harness, Disconnect the subjects attachment to his
this acidic blood slams into the heart, which rope. (Ascending system or a descender.)
can cause cardiac arrest. The medical Have the subject slowly ease himself
term is called compartmental syndrome down on the etrier or the foot-loop until
or crush syndrome because there is his weight is on the pick-off strap which is
compartmentalizing of the body fluids. connected to your descender.
Detach and stow your QAS and the etrier/
This condition has been known to occur foot-loop.
after only ten minutes of sitting motionless in Unlock your descender.
a harness. If a climber is immobilized on rope Rappel with the subject to the bottom.
in a horizontal position, serious complications Have the subject lie down as you reach the
can occur. Within three to five minutes the ground so you can descend far enough to
person could lose consciousness and will be get your weight off the system.
unable to help himself. The solution to this
threat is to treat each injured or helpless
person hanging on a rope as a critical
situation.
Notes:

One-Rope Rescue
SRT PICK-OFF Have the subject slowly ease himself down
An SRT pick-off of an uncooperative on the etrier or the foot-loop until his
subject is a little more complex procedure. weight is on the rope which is tied off to
The main disadvantage of the SRT pick-off the extra descending device.
is that if the subject becomes unconscious, Disconnect the pick-off strap which is
he may bang into things on the way down or connected from the subject to your
even become hung up on an obstacle. descender. Stow the pick-off strap.
Detach and stow the etrier/foot-loop which
In the following scenario, you have again is attached to your QAS.
rigged a second rope near the subject, but Unlock the rope on the extra descender.
not close enough for him to grab. You will Lower the patient to the ground using
need a second rappel device and a means of standard fixed-brake lowering technique.
attaching it to the rope. There needs to be at Make sure the large bight in your rope
least 15 feet of your rope on the ground. does not get entangled with the subject as
you lower him.
Once the subject is on the ground, de-rig
Rappel to a position just above the subject.
the extra descending device and remove it
Attach your QAS, stop and tie off.
from the rope. Stow it securely.
Lean over and attach the pick-off strap to
Detach and stow your QAS.
the subjects harness. The other end of this
Unlock your descender.
should be clipped into the bottom of your
Rappel to the bottom.
rappel devices. Do not clip the pick-off
strap to the main attachment point of your
harness!
Attach the spare rappel device to your rope
above your tied-off descender and below
your QAS.
Pull up the end of your rope.
Tie a Figure Eight on a Bight at the end of
your rope.
Attach the end of your rope to the subjects
main attachment point on his harness
using a carabiner through the Figure Eight
on a Bight.
Rig the rope through the extra descending
device so is no slack between the device
and where the end of the rope is attached
to the subjects seat harness.
Tie off the extra descending device.
Attach an etrier or foot-loop to your QAS.
Have the subject step up on the etrier.
Disconnect the subjects attachment to his
rope. (Ascending system or a descender.)
Notes:

One-Rope Rescue
ASSISTED PICK-OFF The belayer ties off the MA system and
returns to the belay system. When ready,
(PANORAMA PICK-OFF) he calls down to the rescuer Belay On.
The assisted pick-off of a cooperative
subject described here is a great option The rescuer then rappels to the bottom
because it provides a fully-belayed rescue, yet with the subject. As the rescuer reaches
requires only two rescuers and actually takes the ground, he should have the subject sit
very little time to set up. down so he can descend far enough to get
their combined weight off the system.
The rescue team sets up a main line to an

anchor that terminates in an in-line simple
5:1 MA system with a PCD. Tie off the MA
system. The remainder of the main line
is carried in a rope bag by the rescuer,
who rappels to the victim. The rescuer is
belayed.
The belayer sets up the belay, which is tied
to the rescuers main attachment point.
This is a standard tandem triple-wrap
Prusik belay, or a 540 Rescue Belay device
(if available).
The rescuer rappels to a position just
above the subject.
The rescuer leans over to attach a pick-
off strap to the subjects harness. The
other end of this should be clipped into the
rescuers rappel rack.
Attach a long Purcell Prusik to the belay
line just above the rescuer. Clip this into
the subjects harness also, to provide two
points of attachment to the rescue system.
The belayer topside ties off the belay
system.
The belayer then lifts both the rescuer and
subject with the in-line 5:1 MA system
on the rescuers main line to take the
weight off of the subjects system. (Serious
students will quickly note that there is
enough gear shown to increase the MA
system very quickly if the subject is too
heavy to lift on a 5:1 MA system!)
The rescuer then disconnects the subjects
attachment to his rope. (Ascending system
or a descender.)
Notes:

Appendix A: References
References in alphabetical order by author(s).
BOOKS OR TEXTS
Fundamentals of Search and Rescue, Cooper, LaValla & Stoffel
High Angle Technical Rescue, Hudson & Vines, NASAR, 1989
Manuel of U.S.Cave Rescue Techniques, Steve Hudson, Editor, Second Edition
Technical Rescue Riggers Guide, Rich Lipke, Second Edition, 1998
Mountaineering: The Freedom of the Hills, The Mountaineers, (Third Edition), September
1997
Basic Technical Rescue, Ken Phillips, National Park Services, Sixth Edition April 2001
Wilderness Search and Rescue, Tim J. Setnicka
Becoming a Rope Technician, Bruce Smith, On Rope 1, Inc.
On Rope, Allen Padgett and Bruce Smith, First Edition
On Rope, Bruce Smith and Allen Padgett, Second Edition
Team Skills Rescue Seminar (Intermediate), Reed Thorne, Ropes That Rescue, Ltd.
Urban & Industrial Rigging for Rescue, John Olson & Reed Thorne, 1993-1994
Vertical, Alan Warild
TECHNICAL PAPERS
Considerations for Technical Rescue, Kenneth Laidlaw
The T-method for Pulley System, Rigging for Rescue-Notes, Kirk and Katie Mauthner, 1996
The Purcell Prusik System, Rigging for Rescue-Notes, Kirk and Katie Mauthner, 1997
Belay Definitions, Rigging for Rescue-Notes, Kirk and Katie Mauthner, 1996
How Steep is Too Steep, Rigging for Rescue-Notes, Kirk and Katie Mauthner, 1996
The Kootenay Highline System, Rigging for Rescue-Notes, Kirk and Katie Mauthner, 1997
Radium Release Hitch (3:1 Variation), Rigging for Rescue-Notes, Kirk and Katie Mauthner,
1999
ARTICLES
Rescue System Testing (summary), British Columbia Council of Technical Rescue, 1990
Are You REALLY On Belay? , John T. Dill, National Park Service, Response Magazine, 1990
The Carabiner Story; Steve Hudson & Loui Clem, Fire-Rescue Magazine, May 1997
The Load Releasing Hitch, NCRC Newsletter July October 1988
A Young Persons Guide to Pulley Systems, Reed Thorne, ITRS 2000
Notes:
Technical Rescue Basics A-1

Notes:
A-2 San Bernardino County Sheriff s Department

Appendix B: Terms
Appendix B: Terms
Abrasion: The damaging wear on rope and Backing-Up: The creation of an additional
other gear caused by their rubbing against independent anchor, or anchors, to sustain the
harder material. high angle system should initial anchors fail.
Actual Mechanical Advantage (AMA): The Backing up may be to the same anchor point if
actual observed and/or measured mechanical it is very solid, or to additional anchor points.
advantage when the pulley system is pulled Back-Up Knot: A knot used to secure the
on. This is what you get in the real world and tail of another knot. Also known as a Safety,
requires measuring devices. Not really any Keeper or Stopper Knot.
practical benefit. Belay: The securing of a person with a rope
Anchor: The process of attaching the system to keep him from falling and causing him
to secure points so that the system will not harm.
fail. Belayer: The person who performs the belay.
Anchor Point: A single secure connection for Belay Plate: A metal plate containing one
an anchor. It will range in size from a piece of or more slots for a rope that is used with a
hardware wedged in the crack of a rock to a carabiner to create friction on the rope for a
large tree or rock. belay.
Anchor System: Multiple anchor points Bend: A knot that joins two ropes.
rigged in such a way that together they
provide a bombproof anchor. Bight: The open loop in a rope formed when
it is doubled back on itself.
Artificial Anchors: The use of specifically
designed hardware to create anchors where Bolts: Metal devices used to create
good natural anchors do not exist. permanent anchors in rock. Because they
permanently deface the rock and take time
Ascenders: Rope grab devices used by to place, they have limited application in high
individuals to ascend a fixed rope or, with angle activities.
specific types of ascenders, used in the
creation of hauling systems. There are two Bombproof: An anchor that will not fail under
categories of ascenders: any conceivable load.
(1) handled ascenders which are normally Brakeman: Person who operates the braking
used for no more than one persons device that controls the rate of descent of a
body weight and litter.
(2) cams which are used both as personal Brake Bar Rack: A descending device
ascenders and for hauling systems. consisting of a U- shaped metal bar to which
are attached several metal bars through which
Ascending: A means of traveling up a fixed the rope is threaded, resulting in friction on
rope with the use of either mechanical devices the rope. Some racks are restricted for use
or friction knots that are attached with slings as personal rappelling devices only, while
to the users body. other may also be used for rescue lowering.
Ascender Sling (tether): Attachments of Also commonly known as a Rappel Rack or
webbing or rope that connect a person to his Rack.
ascenders. Brake Hand: The hand, usually the dominant
Back-Tie: Rope or strap extending from the one, that grasps the rope to help control the
anchor to a point of security further away. speed of descent during a rappel.
Notes:
Technical Rescue Basics B-1

Appendix B: Terms
Cams: (1) A generic term for an ascender Chicken Loop: A safety loop that fits around
that grips the rope through pressure and the ankle to secure the foot loop and prevent
teeth. Some cams are spring-loaded to assist the foot from slipping out of the foot loop
in this function. should an upper connection fail and the
(2) Devices used in climbing for protection or person ascending fall over backwards.
in anchoring and which lodge in a rock crack Descenders: Metal devices that, through
through offset camming action. friction on the rope, create a braking action
(3) Sometimes refer to the function rather for a controlled rappel or lowering.
than a specific device, as in a Prusik being Directional: A technique for repositioning a
used as a haul cam. rope at a more favorable angle than would
Carabiners: Metal snap links used to connect exist using only its anchor.
elements of a rope rescue system. Sometimes Dynamic Rope: See High-Stretch Rope.
(outside of the United States) spelled Edge Rollers: In-line, free-turning rollers
karabiner. that are anchored at an edge of a cliff or
Also know as biners or crabs. building to reduce rope friction.
Type 1: Oval carabiners, automatically Efficiency: The measure of friction loss
closes, non-locking. (Includes D, modified calculated as the output force over the input
D, and pear-shaped styles.) force, expressed as a percent (e.g., 1/ .95
Type 2: Oval carabiners with a locking =95%).
sleeve. (Includes D, modified D, and pear- Emergency Seat Harness: A temporary, tied
shaped style.) harness to be used when a manufactured,
Type 3: Automatic locking carabiners. sewn seat harness is not available.
Single action locking. Fall Factor: A calculation used to estimate
Type 4: Automatic locking carabiners. the impact of forces on a rope when it is
Double action such as the Petzl AmD ball subjected to stopping a falling person.
lock. Ferrule: The knob on a locking carabiner
Type 5: All screwlinks. which is twisted to lock or unlock the
carabiner. Located on the gate between the
Carabiner Wrap: A rappel technique that hinge and the latch.
uses several ropes wraps around a carbiners
spine to create friction and control the Figure 8 Descender: A device used for
descent. It is not considered a safe and secure rappelling. It is the general shape of an 8,
technique for rappelling and is never to be with a large ring to create friction on the rope
used to rappel more than one person. and a smaller ring for attaching to a seat
harness.
Change-over: To transfer from an ascending
mode to a rappelling mode or from a Focal: A place where rigging is directed. This
rappelling mode to an ascending mode. spot could be in a free space and utilize guys,
Considered a basic personal vertical skill. pretensioned back-ties, front-ties, and gin
poles. Also known as a focal point.
Chest Harness: A type of harness worn
around the chest for upper body support. It Foundation Knot: A simple knot that is tied
should never be used as the only source of as the first step in tying a more complicated
support. knot. Examples of foundation knots include
the overhand and the simple Figure 8.
Notes:
B-2 San Bernardino County Sheriff s Department

Appendix B: Terms
Full Body Harness: A type of harness that Ideal Mechanical Advantage (IMA): The
offers both pelvic and upper body support as mechanical advantage of a pulley system
one unit. This is a Class III harness. without taking into account friction and other
Gate: The opening of a carabiner. factors.
Guide Hand: The hand, usually not the Impact Forces: The kN force you will
dominant one, that cradles the rope to help in experience on the body during a fall.
balancing the rappeller. Could also be referring to the impact force
experienced by a belay anchor should the
Handled Ascenders: Ascenders with frames mainline fail and the belay catches the load.
large enough to accommodate built-in handles
that can be comfortably gripped with the Kernmantle: A rope design consisting of
hands. Most handled ascenders have toothed two elements an interior core (kern) which
cams which grip the rope. supports the major portion of the load on the
rope, and an outer, sheath (mantle) which
Hauling System, 1:1: A procedure for serves primarily to protect the core and also
hauling where the force needed to haul is supports an minor portion of the load.
roughly the same as the load being hauled.
Also known as a: Georgia Haul or the: Litter Captain: The person during an
Armstrong Technique. evacuation who manages the litter team
and coordinates litter movement with other
Haul Cam: The device (either a Prusik or a members of the rescue team.
mechanical device such as a Rescucender)
that attaches the pulley system to the Litter Tenders (Low Angle): The persons
mainline, which is attached to the load. who physically manage the litter during slope
evacuation.
Haul Team: The group of persons who
provide the power to raise the load. Litter Tender/Attendant (High Angle):
The person who rappels alongside the litter
Helmet: Head covering that protects against as it is being lowered in order to assist in the
head injury both from falling objects and rescue. This person may also be attached
from head impact. When used in this manual, directly to the litter. Duties may include
helmet indicates head protection specifically medical assessment and/or primary treatment
designed for rescue work. of the rescue subject, assistance in getting the
High Angle: The rope rescue environment litter over the edge, assistance in handling the
in which one must be secured with rope and litter on the vertical face, and in loading the
other equipment to keep from falling. subject into the litter.
High Stretch Rope: A type of rope designed Load Distributing Anchor: An anchor
to stretch enough to reduce the shock on the established from two or more anchor points
climber and anchor system. Usually employed that:
in rock climbing and mountaineering. Typical (1) attempts to maintain near equal loading
high-stretch rope can stretch as much as 6 to on the anchor points despite direction
15 percent. changes by the mainline rope, and
High Strength Tie-Off: Maintains the full (2) attempts to reestablish near-equal
strength of the rope. Constructed by wrapping loading on remaining anchor points
the main line around an upright anchor such if any one of them fails. This anchor
as a tree twice to create friction and tying the system was formerly known as a self-
end back on the main line. Also known as a equalizing anchor, which is incorrect.
Round Turn.
Notes:

Appendix B: Terms
Load Sharing Anchor: An anchor established NATRS: North American Technical Rescue
from two or more anchor points that: Symposium. An annual gathering, sponsored
(1) shares the loading on the anchor points by NASAR, of persons interested in new
to some extent, developments in technical rescue.
(2) has legs of fixed length, NFPA: National Fire Protection Association.
A national organization that sets safety
(3) is considering all the points together, standards, among them life safety equipment
bombproof However, if all the various for fire fighters.
anchor points are considered marginal,
the failure of any one of them could Non-Locking Carabiners: A carabiner
result in catastrophic failure of the without a means of securing its gate shut.
entire system. Packaging: The placing of a rescue subject
Locking Carabiner: A carabiner with a in a litter so that the primary medical
locking sleeve on its gate side that secures considerations are cared for and the subject is
the gate shut. physically established in the litter.
Locking Off: The technique of jamming a Pendulum: To swing on a rope from side to
rope into a descender or tying off securely so side.
that the rappeller can stop the descent and Piton: A slender metal wedge, with an eye for
operates hands free on rope. attachment, that is driven into a rock crack for
Low Stretch Rope: A type of rope designed climbing protection or for anchoring.
for low stretch. It is used in applications such Progress Capture Devices: An attachment
as rescue, rappelling, ascending where a to the main line which prevents it from
high stretch rope would be a disadvantage slipping back as it is hauled up. Can be a
and where no falls, or very short falls, are selfminding ratchet (consisting of a PMP or a
expected before being caught by the rope. Prusik Loop) incorporated in the haul system
Low stretch rope typically will stretch no more or an independent unit elsewhere on the
than 1 to 5 percent under normal use. mainline. Also known as a Safety Cam or
Manner of Function: The method in which a Ratchet Cam.
particular piece of equipment was designed to Prusik: A continuous loop of rope which a
be used. Prusik knot is tied.
Mechanical Advantage (MA): The ratio of Pulley: A device with a free-turning, grooved
the load to the pull required to lift the load. metal wheel (sheave) used to reduce rope
e.g., if .5 kN of force is required to raise a 2 friction while changing the direction of the
kN load, the MA is said to be 4 to 1, or 4:1. rope, and with side plates which from a becket
MA is gained at the cost of endurance because for a carabiner attachment.
even though less force is required to raise Pulley System: A combination of fixed and
the load, it is required over a greater time/ moving pulleys used to create mechanical
distance. advantage.
Mnter Hitch: A type of running knot that Rappelling: The controlled descent of a rope
slips around a carabiner to create friction using the friction of the rope against ones
against itself. It is commonly used in belay in body or through a descender.
personal loads. Also known as an Italian Hitch
or Half Ring Bend. Rappel Rack: See Brake Bar Rack.
Notes:

Appendix B: Terms
Ratchet Prusik: A Prusik used to hold the Self-Equalizing Anchor (SEA): Improper
main line while the haul team resets the and obsolete term. See load-distributing
pulley system so that progress is not lost. anchor.
(See also Progress Capture Device or PCD.) Self-Minding Ratchet: The use of a Prusik
Reset: As a pulley system is activated, it Minding Pulley to mind the Progress Capture
collapses to the point where one or more of Device (PCD) Prusik, thus eliminating the
the traveling pulleys meet a stationary pulley. need for a rescuer to mind it.
At this point, the load cannot be pulled up Single Rope Techniques (SRT): Ascending
any further. Reset describes the act of re- and descending on a single rope.
expanding the pulley system to its original
size so that hauling may continue. Slope Evacuation: The movement of a
rescue subject over terrain that is so rugged
Reset or Throw Distance: The distance that or angled that it requires the litter to be
a pulley system collapses between resets. safetied with a rope. This implies controlling
Rock Climbing: Ascending while making the litters descent with a braking device and
direct contract with the rock and commonly its ascent with a hauling system.
using rope and other equipment for safety in Software: A category of rescue equipment
the event of a fall. that is not hardware, such as rope and
Rope Handler: The person in a lowering webbing.
operation who assists the brakeman with rope Static Rope: See Low-Stretch Rope.
management.
Static System Safety Factor: The Safety
Rope Rescue: The performing of rescue in Factor calculated with all components of the
an environment where the use of rope and system at rest. The minimum allowable SSSF
related equipment is necessary. for San Bernardino County Sheriff SAR teams
Safety Belt: A belt-like harness worn around is 10:1.
the waist to prevent falls from elevated Stationary (fixed) Pulleys: Those pulleys in
positions. It should never be used as sole a pulley system that do not move during an
means of suspension. This is a Class I harness evolution.
and they are outlawed for rope rescue
applications. Stopper Knot: A knot that helps provide
security in rope work. Examples would be a
Safety Cam: See Progress Capture Device. simple Figure Eight tied in the bottom end of
Safety Factor: The ratio between the a rope to prevent a person from rappelling off
maximum load expected on a rope and the the end or tied in the top end of the rope to
ropes breaking strength. The larger the ratio, prevent it from accidentally slipping through
the greater the safety factor. The minimum equipment.
allowable SSSF for San Bernardino County System: The combination of all the various
Sheriff SAR teams is 10:1. elements, including rope, hardware, anchors,
Safety Knot: See Back-up knot. etc., used in the rope rescue environment.
Seat Harness: A system of nylon or Technical Rescuer: See Rope Rescue.
polyester webbing that wraps and supports Theoretical Mechanical Advantage (TMA):
the pelvic region to attach the wearer to the The estimated actual mechanical advantage
rope or other protection in the rope rescue (see AMA) that is calculated bases on friction
environment. Also known as a Class II losses.
harness.
Notes:

Appendix B: Terms
Traveling (moving) Pulley (s): Those
pulleys in a pulley system that move during
an evolution.
Tying Off Short: A safety technique that
creates an extra point of attachment during
ascending by tying the person directly into the
end of the main line rope. Should also be used
by personnel working near an edge as edge
tenders.
UIAA: The Union of International Alpine
Associations. An organization that sets
performance standards for ropes, harnesses,
ice axes, helmets, and carabiners to be used
by climbers and mountaineers.
Notes:

Appendix C: Department Standards and Industry Ratings and Standards
Appendix C: Department Standards and Industry

Ratings & Standards
This Appendix lists current industry rating NFPA: The National Fire Protection
and standards that are found on equipment Association develops standards and operating
labeling, and current standards of the San guidelines for the fire service. NFPA 1983
Bernardino County Sheriffs Department. Standard on Fire Service Life Safety Rope,
Harnesses, and Hardware covers high angle
rescue equipment used on the fire ground.
ASTM: American Society for Testing
and Materials is the larges standard setting
organization in the world and not-for-profit U.I.A.A.: Union International DAssociation
corporation. They provide a forum for the DAlpinisme. One of the original groups that
development of voluntary test methods. All established common test procedures and
actions are conducted through full consensus minimum recreational standards for rope,
of the membership. The F-32 committee, helmet, harnesses, ice axes, and carabiners.
which is comprised of members of the SAR The UIAA serves merely in an advisory
community, is currently working on standards capacity.
for search and rescue.
Cordage Institute: The cordage Institute
C.E.N.: European Community Law has develops standards using the voluntary
dictated that climbing equipment be subject consensus process, promotes the safe use
to uniform C.E.N. standards in order to be of rope, publishes a Technical Manual and
distributed in European Market countries. other important literature, holds Technical
C.E.N. has adopted common labeling, Meetings to focus on the technology needs
terminology, and strength ratings for all of the industry. The Cordage Institute is a
classes of products. Equipment is marked not-for-profit corporation and depends on
CE. manufacturers in the industry, as well as
companies serving industry members, to
support and actively participate through the
D.I.N.: Deutsches Institut Fur Normung is payment of dues and the volunteering of
the German institute that establishes safety members time. There is a Technical Executive
standards for mountaineering equipment. Committee which manages the technical
Climbing equipment must meet D.I.N. agenda of the Institute. CI 1801-98 is titled
Standard and be marked as such to be sold in Low Stretch and Static Kernmantle Life Safety
Germany. Rope and is the source of definitions on
static, low and high stretch rope used in
this text.
ISO 9002: International Standards
Organization Category 9002 (design and
manufacture). To qualify, certain test
methods, standard quality control procedures, ROPE RESCUE OVERSIGHT
and documentation must be met. Any product COMMITTEE
manufactured in an ISO certified factory can Mission: The Rope Rescue Oversight
be traced back to a specific product batch. Committee shall bi-annually review each
search and rescue unit affiliated with the
San Bernardino County Sheriffs Department
Notes:
Technical Rescue Basics C-1

Appendix C: Department Standards and Industry Ratings and Standards
that engages in any level of rope rescue to STANDARDS
ensure that the techniques and equipment Acceptable rescue schools have been
used by each unit meet basic safety standards listed in The Tracker and announced at the
established in the search and rescue industry. SAR Council. The Volunteer Forces Unit
The Committee shall not impose the doctrine maintains the current list of approved schools
of any specific search and rescue organization, and instructors. If there are any questions,
rather, its mission is simply to inspect Contact Volunteer Forces Unit at (909) 387-
for fundamentally unsafe techniques and 0641.
equipment.
SAR standards that RROC will follow

The Sheriffs priorities are in this order: are general practices as taught in basic
Rescuer Safety technical rescue schools, not industrial or fire
Subject or Victim Safety standards. We are specifically talking about
the wilderness rescue environment.
The end result of these priorities will be
to minimize liability. This is incidental to
the safety of the rescuers going on rope.
If the committee achieves nothing else
with this process, it would like to raise the
consciousness of the teams to the point where
they dont extend themselves past their
capabilities in an actual rescue.
There is consensus on evaluation

procedures develop within the committee.
Since the Evaluators must be able to

defend their evaluations, they must be familiar
with various rope rescue methodologies.
This also implies they have a responsibility
to carry on a personal program of continuing
education.
All evaluations will be above board,

documented, thorough and consistent.
Evaluators are not there to teach, but to

evaluate safety. Certification as a rope rescue
instructor is a separate process. Membership
on the RROC does not mean a person is a
certified rope rescue instructor.
Notes:
C-2 San Bernardino County Sheriff s Department

Appendix D: Control Officer Checklist
A
ppendix
D:
C O
ontrol fficer Checklist

O , , O , ,
. .

A S-.

C , W S-?
A S-.
C , W S-?

M L,
D S D F

S

M L,
D S D F

I
S C,
C S W S?. S

. S

M L
,
I
S C,
C S W S?.
S
.
M L
M L
,

H T H, H S , H F, S, S
H T L .
M L
WHEN EVOLUTION IS COMPLETE AND PERSONNEL
ON THE MAIN LINE ARE NO LONGER H T H, H S , H F, S, S
EXPOSED TO FALL HAZARD H T L .

WHEN EVOLUTION IS COMPLETE AND PERSONNEL
ON THE MAIN LINE ARE NO LONGER
EXPOSED TO FALL HAZARD

San Bernardino County Sheriffs Dept. Ver. 1 (4/27/00)
Technical Rescue Basics D-1

Appendix D: Control Officer Checklist

Load (w/ # of people)

P-M-P

Pulley

Edge

Rope connection

Prusik hitch

Edge protection

;

San Bernardino County Sheriffs Dept. Ver. 1 (4/27/00)

D-2 San Bernardino County Sheriff s Department

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Technical

Technical rescue is inherently dangerous. Personnel

Technical rescue is a very dynamic field and what

This manual contains directive statements which

All drawings and illustrations copyright 1998 - 2009

NO REPRODUCTION WITHOUT EXPRESS

San Bernardino County Sheriff s Department

Chapter 1: Incident Command System and Organization for Rescue............................................................... 1-1

Chapter 2: Introduction to Rescue Forces and Safety Factors........................................................................... 2-1

Chapter 3: Ropes and Devices........................................................................................................................... 3-1

Chapter 4: Ties: Knots, Hitches and Bends....................................................................................................... 4-1

Chapter 5: Personal Vertical Skills.................................................................................................................... 5-1

Chapter 6: Anchors............................................................................................................................................ 6-1

Chapter 7: Belay................................................................................................................................................ 7-1

Chapter 8: Main Line Systems........................................................................................................................... 8-1

Chapter 9: Patients and Litters........................................................................................................................... 9-1

Chapter 10: One-Person Rescue...................................................................................................................... 10-1

Appendix A: References................................................................................................................................... A-1

Appendix C: Department Standards and Industry Ratings and Standards........................................................C-1

Appendix D: Control Officer Checklist............................................................................................................ D-1

Technical Rescue Basics I

II San Bernardino County Sheriff s Department

Technical Rescue Basics III

IV San Bernardino County Sheriff s Department

Chapter 1: I C S and Organization for Rescue

Technical Rescue Basics 1-1

SAFETY PUBLIC INFO

1-2 San Bernardino County Sheriff s Department

Although a Safety Officer may exercise

Technical Rescue Basics 1-3

Advanced Level Rope Rescue Operations (SBSD)

Voice & Whistle Signals for Rescue

Means something or somebody is moving up or

Means something or somebody is moving down

Used at the end of a climb, rappel, raise or lower to

A general emergency call. Its use may indicate

A Long Whistle Blast is 3 seconds in duration.

Technical Rescue Basics 1-5

1-6 San Bernardino County Sheriff s Department

Technical Rescue Basics 1-7

Everyone present should help out the Safety

1-8 San Bernardino County Sheriff s Department

Chapter 2: Introduction to Rescue Forces and

Putting the T in Technical SBSD Rescue SSSF

Technical Rescue Basics 2-1

2 kN STATIC 20kN STATIC BREAKING STREGNTH

Safety Factor: Static or Dynamic?

2-2 San Bernardino County Sheriff s Department

Field Figures for Safety Factor Calculations

Technical Rescue Basics 2-3

Note: Never try this with a live person on

2-4 San Bernardino County Sheriff s Department

MINIMUM RISK LOW RISK EXTREME RISK HIGH RISK

Technical Rescue Basics 2-5

Simple guidelines can be developed for a

2-6 San Bernardino County Sheriff s Department

Degree of Slope or Percentage of Slope?

Technical Rescue Basics 2-7

The rope only acts in tension, so the force

When we use a rope between two anchors,

2-8 San Bernardino County Sheriff s Department

Technical Rescue Basics 2-9

2-10 San Bernardino County Sheriff s Department