Professional Documents
Culture Documents
by
Dr. Sebastian Sarwatt and Dr. Esther Mollel
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FAO 2006
3
CONTENTS
1. INTRODUCTION 5
8. REFERENCES 18
9. CONTACTS 19
Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profile 5
1. INTRODUCTION
sheep (Livestock census MOAC, 1984). Of the cattle about Table 2. Livestock population 19121984
142 000 are improved dairy types and 86 000 improved (millions)
beef. The majority are Shorthorn Zebu with about 200000 1912 1921 1965 1978 1984
Cattle 2.06 3.15 10.00 12.03 12.51
Ankole in Kagera region. There were 836000 draught oxen
Sheep } } 2.85 3.57 3.08
mainly in the Lake Zone and South West highlands. 4.39 3.41
Goats 4.25 5.53 6.04
Stock numbers have been increasing for the past 75 years } }
Adapted from livestock count, MOAC, 1984
(Table 2). Cattle increased by 2.7% per year from 1965
to 1978, but only by 0.75 from 1978 to 1984. The FAO production year books indicate that livestock
populations for the last 5 or 6 years have remained fairly static, although regional redistribution continues
to be an important feature and uncontrolled migrations from overgrazed parts of the north to the south
west continue. Marketed ruminant livestock products in 2004 were estimated at: milk 944000tonnes,
beef and veal 246330tonnes, mutton and lamb 10320tonnes, goat meat 30600tonnes. The major part
was from the traditional sector (PLDPT, 1984). Tanzania statistics for ruminant numbers, meat and milk
production and exports for the period 19962005 are shown in Table 3. In spite of increases in milk
production Tanzania needs to import dairy products (20823tonnes of milk equivalents in 2003 costing
some US$3751000)
Table 3. Tanzania statistics for ruminant numbers, meat and milk production and exports for the
period 19962005
1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005
Cattle nos (,000,000) 13.6 13.7 13.8 17.3 16.7 17.1 17.4 17.7 17.8 17.8
Sheep nos (,000,000) 3.6 3.6 3.6 3.5 3.5 3.5 3.5 3.5 3.5 3.5
Goats nos (,000,000) 10.4 10.7 11.0 11.6 11.9 12.1 12.3 12.6 12.6 12.6
Beef and veal prod. (,000 mt.) 194 193 198 215 225 230.5 246.3 246.3 246.3 246.3
Sheep meat prod. (,000 mt) 10.6 10.7 10.7 10.6 10.2 10.3 10.3 10.3 10.3 10.3
Goat meat prod. (,000 mt.) 26.6 26.9 27.2 28.8 29.4 30.4 30.6 31.2 30.6 30.6
Milk prod. (0,000) mt. 679 694.4 764.8 782.2 805.6 912.0 935.0 944.0 944.0* 944.0
Cattle exports (head) 0 1375 480 89 372 77 580 1997 3610 n.r.
Beef and veal exports(mt) 0 81 122 231 20 24 1 2 3 n.r.
Hides and skins exports (,000 mt) 2.6 7.6 7.5 7.1 7.1 8.9 11.1 11.3 9.5 n.r.
Milk equivalent imports (,000) 14.3 17.3 31.0 19.5 23.9 19.2 18.9 20.8 17.5 n.r.
Source: FAOSTAT, 2006
n.r.=no record
*of which cow milk 840000 and goat milk 104000tonnes.
a) Volcanic soils: are of high agricultural potential and livestock production tends to be restricted
to zero-grazing systems. They predominate in Arusha, Kilimanjaro and South west Highlands,
Kitulo plateau. At high and medium altitudes they are notable for the production of forage for dairy
production.
b) Light sandy soils: predominate in the coastal areas. Grazing is available during the rains but the
soils dry out rapidly thereafter and the forage has little worth.
c) Soils of granite/gneiss origin: are poor and occur mainly in mid-west especially in Mwanza and
Tabora.
d) Red soils: occupy most of central plateau. They produce good grazing in the limited rainy seasons
and the quality of herbage persists into the dry seasons.
e) Ironstone soils: found in the far west, mainly in Kagera, Kigoma and Sumbawanga. They are poor
and acidic but can be productive with inputs i.e. mulching and manuring.
f) The mbuga black vertisols are widespread and an important source of dry season grazing.
e) Arid: 30% of area: Unsuitable for agriculture, except with fertile soils and run- on rainfall.
Typically on pasture dominated by Commiphora, Acacia and perennial grasses such as Cenchrus
ciliaris and Chloris spp. over 4 ha is required per stock unit and wild life is important. Burning
requires care but can be highly effective in bush control.
Traditional systems
Production systems are almost totally traditional; such systems produce 93% of the milk and 99% of the
red meat consumed in the country. They are subdivided into four types:
Pastoral systems. Nomadism or semi-nomadism. Crops are unimportant or absent. More than 20% of
the nations cattle herd and a large part of goat and sheep flock is in this sector and are managed for milk;
old and excess stock are sold, animals are slaughtered on special occasions. Cattle are bled for food but
this is declining. The Maasai steppe used to be the main pastoral zone now herders are migrating to central
and southern areas and cropping, which was unknown before, is increasing in importance in Maasailand
both as a source of food and a way to establish land rights. This system is under pressure due to:
1. Expansion of cultivation reducing the grazing area.
2. Over grazing and shifting cultivation reducing pasture productivity
3. Lack of land tenure rights by graziers.
Extensive Agropastoralism: accounts for about 25% of the cattle and embraces sheep and goats as
well. It involves interrelated crops and livestock and is found in low rainfall areas of Western (Shinyanga
and Tabora) and central zones (Dodoma and Singida) where shifting cultivation of sorghum is practised.
Herds of 10 to 25 cattle are common.
Intensive Agropastoralism: involves about 35% of the nations cattle. Cultivation of maize and cotton
using draught cattle is common (Shinyanga and Mwanza). Kagera banana, coffee-livestock systems are
of this type. Herd size ranges from 10100 head and sheep and goats are abundant. Livestock provide
manure for crops.
Smallholder Dairy and Beef systems: includes cattle under coconut in coastal regions, stall fed cross
bred dairy cattle, highlands tree crops with livestock (Arusha and Kilimanjaro) and peri-urban farming
on a part time basis (Dar-es- Salaam). Animals per household ranges from 1-8 in conjunction with crops
and small stock.
Commercial systems
The sector provides about 7% of milk and 1% of the beef marketed. The distinction between traditional
and commercial is difficult now days because produce is increasingly sold, not consumed by the
household. Commercial production systems are classified as:
Large scale specialist livestock farms; these are owned by private companies, government, and
parastatal companies or private individuals. They specialise in either beef or dairy production, with
exotic breeds. Herd size in ranches ranges between 100010000 of Boran stock. Ex-government dairy
farms (e.g. DAFCO) had 300400 exotic cows but numbers have been reduced for ease of management.
Livestock production with tree crops or sisal : cattle raising on crop residues or grazing on spare land
is practised to a limited degree.
Medium scale mixed farms: are private units with 100200 cattle and goats.
Small scale dairying: is expanding rapidly, it is commonest in Mbeya, Tanga, and Kilimanjaro and
around urban centres. Herd size ranges from 110 crossbreds (Boran x Friesian) sometimes pure Friesian
(where good management is available). Numbers may rise where fodder is adequate. This provides
Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profile 9
an entry into commercial integrated farming and profits can be high under good management. Other
commercial sub-sectors concentrate on monogastrics; i.e. swine in the parastatal sector and poultry in
the private sector.
Water: Seasonality of rainfall exacerbates the scarcity of drinking water. There is a lack of dams, shallow
wells and bores to store water for livestock and their owners. Lack of maintenance is another problem.
Disease: Trypanosomiasis and tick borne diseases, especially East Coast Fever (Theileriosis), are the
main disorders affecting ruminants. Other diseases with high morbidity and affecting production include
Foot and Mouth Disease, Babesiosis (red water), Anaplasmosis and internal worms. Rinderpest is now
under control.
Scarcity of improved stock: Scarcity of breeding stock is a problem for the dairy sector.
Land tenure: legislation is complex and sometimes conflicting. Assurance that occupiers have security for
a certain period of time is minimal. Customary laws are confusing, worsen the situation and need reform.
Land use: grazing lands are exploited communally. This leads to overgrazing and an absence of
investment or improvement. Such problems are widespread in traditional grazing in many countries
and their solution is social and political, not technical. Attempts to establish grazing associations to
rationalise pasture use and development, have mostly failed, but remain an essential requirement.
Marketing, processing and transport: deterioration of primary and secondary market infrastructure,
holding grounds, stock routes, handling facilities and veterinary controls has contributed to restriction
of official marketed offtake of livestock. Problems of raw material supply, transport, maintenance of
processing plants, organisation, management and finance have hampered the processing of livestock
products. The livestock industry in Tanzania requires long distance transport of stock from production
areas to centres of consumption. The transport system is poor.
Input supply: the supply of essential imported inputs to the industry including drugs, acaricides,
vaccines and equipment has been recently alleviated by trade liberalisation, but problems of foreign
exchange, organisation and monitoring of stock persist.
Credit: previously credit was mainly channelled through co-operatives and parastatals, individual
loans were not favoured. Now limited individual loans are available, but the process is slow, inconvenient
and expensive. An accessible, supervised source of credit is necessary for small farmers, who depend on
crop and livestock production for living, to encourage the adoption of new ideas.
Chloris grassland is associated with tree or bush steppe in which Commiphora, Acacia and Adansonia
are the main trees. It is found between 450 and 1140metres under rainfalls of 380640mm. Dense
bush usually reduces grazing capacity considerably but bushes and shrubs contribute to a large extent
to stock feed in the dry season. Carrying capacity is low and lack of water and tsetse infestation limit
access in some areas. The main grasses are: Chloris roxburghiana, Latipes senegalensis, Enteropogon
macrostachyus, Tetrapogon sp., Cenchrus ciliaris and in parts Cymbopogon aucheri and Aristida
ascensionis.
Eragrostis grassland is an open, almost treeless savanna derived from intense cultivation; it occurs
along sandstone ridges on soils of low fertility. The grass cover is largely secondary. It occurs at an
altitude of 1400metres under relatively high rainfalls, 15001800mm. Grasses soon become coarse
and unpalatable. It is typical of the Bukoba sandstone areas. Carrying capacity at 3.25ha per head is
relatively high. The main grasses are: Eragrostis blepharoglumis, E. milbraedii, Hyparrhenia spp.,
Cymbopogon sp. and Setaria spp.
Hyperthelia dissoluta grassland is chiefly composed of tall grasses usually associated with Brachystegia
woodlands or a more open Commiphora woodland or Acacia spp. Soils are generally poor, sandy and
derived from granite. It occurs between 450 and 1500meters with rainfall of 7601200mm falling
between November and May. Most grasses are palatable when young but, if not heavily grazed, soon
become woody, especially Hyparrhenia and Andropogon. This type is characteristic of large areas of
western Tanzania and parts of the east and south. It is largely used for mixed farming. The main grasses
are: Hyperthelia dissoluta, Hyparrhenia filipendula, Pennisetum polystachyon, Eragrostis chaplieri, E.
patens, Setaria sphacelata and Chloris gayana.
Panicum - Hyparrhenia grassland is associated with woodland of varying density associated with
Acacia spp. (A. nigrescens is common). It occurs along the coast with a rainfall of 1000mm between
November and June. This type is also found at higher altitudes up to about 670 metres in areas of
high soil fertility but this is much used for cropping. Under good management its carrying capacity is
about five hectares per head. The main grasses are: Panicum maximum, Hyparrhenia rufa, Pennisetum
purpureum, Cymbopogon excavatus, Brachiaria mutica, Bothriochloa glabra, Echinochloa pyramidalis
and Chloris gayana.
Panicum - Cenchrus grassland consists of patches within the thicket which is comprised mainly of
species of Combretum, Grewia, Maerua, Boscia and Acacia. It occurs between 750 and 1350metres
with a rainfall of 380760mm between December and April. It is a very palatable and also contains
many browse plants which are relished by both stock and game. This type is characteristic of large
areas of the central plateau. The main grasses are: Panicum maximum, Cenchrus ciliaris, Bothriochloa
insculpta, Brachiaria brizantha and Cynodon nlemfuensis. Many annuals are present in the early stages
of succession after clearing and persist long afterwards including: Chloris virgata, C. pycnothrix, Setaria
pallida-fusca, Dactyloctaenium aegyptium and Urochloa panicoides.
Pennisetum clandestinum (often associated with Themeda triandra and Pennisetum schimperi) grassland
is open with grass 4590cm high or sometimes short, dense and associated with Trifolium semipilosum;
dominance depends on fire, soil fertility and grazing intensity. It occurs at medium to high altitudes,
15002400m, under bimodal rainfalls of 7501500mm. This is excellent pasture but because it is
in areas of high agricultural potential much has been put under crop. The main species are Pennisetum
clandestinum, P. schimperi, Themeda triandra, Exotheca abyssinica, Pennisetum catabasis, Panicum
12 Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profile
trichocladum, Andropogon pratensis, Digitaria scalarum and Eleusine jaegeri. In cultivated areas
Digitaria scalarum can be a serious pest.
Themeda - Loudetia grassland is derived from forest in highland areas, often on deep red loam above
1400m with rainfall over 760mm distributed from December to June. The quality of the grazing is good
but this land has a high potential for crops. The main grasses are: Themeda trianda, Loudetia simplex,
Hyparrhenia nyassae, H. hirta, Melinis minutiflora, Trachypogon spicatus, Eragrostis racemosa and
Elyonurus argenteus.
An open, often almost treeless savanna with scattered trees of Acacia drepanolobium occurs on red and
black soils and some flood-plain areas between 4501200m under rainfalls of 640900mm. It provides
good grazing if well managed. The main grasses are: Themeda triandra, Bothriochloa insculpta,
Heteropogon contortus, Hyperthelia dissoluta, Cynodon nlemfuensis and Pennisetum mezianum.
Crop residues: residues of maize, sorghum, millets and beans account for about 8% of the livestock.
In addition, residues from wheat, cassava, groundnuts, bananas and processing residues from the sugar,
coffee, sisal and cashew processing are locally significant. In general, field cereal residues are low in
protein, DCP three% and energy 1.90McalME/Kg, and require either treatment or supplementation.
Cereals: are used for human food, spoilt or poor quality grain is fed to pigs, poultry and dairy cattle. If
production increases more will be available for animal feed.
Root crops: cassava production is about 1 500 000 tonnes per year while that of sweet potatoes is
34000tonnes; a little is used for animal feed.
Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profile 13
Milling by-products: cereal by-products are fed directly or sold for compounding.
Oil press residues: oil cakes of cotton, groundnut, sunflower, coconut and sesame are the most
important supplementary sources of protein and energy for livestock.
Molasses: a valuable energy supplement as well as increasing the palatability of feeds. The price is
increasing due to competition with the alcohol industry in some areas like Kilimanjaro and Arusha.
Meals from animal by-products: blood, meat and bones from the slaughter industry provide bone and
blood meal. It is estimated that 200tonnes are produced annually.
Fish meal: Tanzanias fishmeal factory has a capacity of 5000tonnes annually but has never produced
more than 1500tonnes. This product is in high demand.
Traditionally, official interest concentrated on arable subsistence crops such as maize, sorghum, cassava,
and as sources of income, cotton, coffee, pyrethrum and tea. Much of the land is natural grassland but this
has often been abused. Evidence of mismanagement is frequently seen in overgrazed, eroded grassland,
often with severe bush encroachment. The pattern of agriculture is changing slowly as farmers realise
the value of their grasslands; awareness of the importance of pasture and fodder is notably increasing
among small commercial dairy farmers. As milk prices increase the tendency is for farmers to look for
cheaper concentrates but these are often hard to come by but Urio and Ekern (1990) consider pasture,
properly utilised, to be the cheapest feed for ruminants
maximum can be used as can Giant Setaria, Setaria sphacelata var. splendida. Setaria is noted as being
a favourite of coffee farmers in the Kilimanjaro region (van Rensburg 1969). These grasses which have
been used in Tanzania for many years and were researched locally and are well suited to smallholdings,
usually as supplementary feed for dairy stock, since they are vegetatively propagated and are easy to
harvest and feed - they have none of the field-size constraints of the pasture forages. Elephant Grass, if
properly managed, will stay green far into the dry season.
Fertiliser application
Application of fertilisers to natural swards has produced variable results (Kapinga and Shayo, 1990)
and responses varied with species but generally all responded to fertiliser. When 15.9kg/ha of fertiliser
Phosphorus was applied, P. purpureum gave the highest yields in terms of both dry matter and crude
protein content and the lowest response was from P. maximum. Despite the improvement which can be
made by the use of fertilisers, smallholder dairy farmers do not use them (Kapinga and Shayo, 1990)
because of costs and a belief that chemical fertilisers destroy soil fertility.
Active Radiation (PAR) to dry matter (Ludlow and Wilson, 1971 as cited by Njau, 2000) and therefore
the growth rate and dry matter yield is reduced (Smith and Whiteman, 1983 in Njau, 2000).
The growth and dry matter yield of some pasture species are less affected by shade (Partridge, 1996
cited in Njau, 2000). This has been a base for screening shade resistant pastures (Smith and Whiteman,
1983 as cited by Njau, 2000). Shade resistant forages include grasses Ischaemum indicum, Brachiaria
milliiformis, B. humidicola, B. brizantha, B. mutica and legumes Desmodium heterophyllum, Mimosa
pudica and Centrosema pubescens.
To utilise the land under coconut effectively and get more income farmers are advised to integrate
livestock with coconut plantations or do intercropping in fertile soils (Chipungahelo et al., 1997 cited in
Njau, 2000). In Tanzania grazing under coconuts was proposed by Sethi (1953, cited in Njau, 2000) in
Tanga and later by Childs and Groom (1964). Its merits were realised when Tanga dairy farm was started
in the neglected coconut plantation after the Second World War. Cattle controlled weeds and recycled
soil fertility. Coconut yields increased by 60% and milk yield doubled (Childs and Groom, 1964).
More integration of livestock is expected because by 1992 there were 2254dairy cattle in Tanga and
more heifers were being distributed by the Tanga Small Scale Dairy Development project. According
to Schoepf (1997 in Njau, 2000) there were 25000dairy cattle in Dar es salaam and due to the land
pressure the farmers have moved to peri-urban coconut plantations in Coast and Bagamoyo districts.
The good road network and high demand for milk in coastal towns encourages many people to expand
dairy enterprises. Advantages of cattle under coconuts include increased farm income by selling the nuts
and livestock products, reduced weed competition and weed control costs, better land use and fertility
recycling.
Most research on forage and pastures is done by parastatal organisations and research centres under
the Ministry of Agriculture and Corporation (MOAC). The organisation has various research stations
representing the different ecological zones within the country. Such stations include Mpwapwa
Livestock Production Research Institute, Kongwa Pasture Research station, West Kilimanjaro
Research Centre, Malya Research Centre and Tanga Livestock Research Centre. Sokoine University
of Agriculture (SUA), Tengeru Livestock Training Institute and Uyole Agricultural Centre are among
other institutions, which are also actively engaged in pasture/forage and other feed resource research.
Current research is on:
Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profile 17
Sokoine University of Agriculture. Brachiaria pasture improvement through fertilization and oversowing
legumes under the Department of Animal Science and Production [Contact address dasp@suanet.ac.tz
or svsarwatt@yahoo.com ].
Gliricidia establishment under smallholder farming systems research, Turiani, Morogoro by Sarwatt,
S.V., Lekule, F.P. and Mwenda, G. (on-going) [Contact address surude@suanet.ac.tz or svsarwatt@
yahoo.com].
Effect of leguminous tree leaves a nitrogen additive to Pennisetum purpureum silage. MSc research
project by Tesha M.W. (1999).
Effect of high rates of fertiliser and longer harvesting periods on seed production, dry matter yield and
chemical composition of Stylosanthes guianensis and S. hamata at Morogoro; MSc research project by
Liumba, A.M.N. (1999).
Mpwapwa Livestock Training Institute and research in Central zone [Contact address: LPRI-Mpwapwa
P.O. Box 202, Mpwapwa]: Introduction and evaluation of pasture species for oversowing in natural
pastures and undersowing with cereal crops in the semi-arid areas of central Tanzania. The initial
screening is done on-station and later on-farm for the most promising species.
Establishment of intensive feed gardens (farmer participatory research).
Improvement of livestock feeds by introduction of dual-purpose legumes (Intercropping cereals
with dual-purpose legumes in Berege village).
Oversowing of legumes into natural pastures in central Tanzania as a method of pasture
improvement.
Improved grasses and legumes as feed resources for central Tanzania. Doctoral dissertation by
Mero, R.N. (1997).
Browse leaves and pods as ruminant feed in central Tanzania. MSc. Dissertation by Shayo, C.
(1998).
Legume forage conservation in Singida region. The research has been conducted through the LPRI (see
the above address):
The potential of local shrubs as feed for livestock and the mineral content of some soil licks in
central Tanzania.
The role of trees and shrubs in livestock production in central Tanzania: a study of nutritive value
during the dry season.
Evaluation of watermelon as source of water, and watermelon seeds and Acacia pods as source of
feed protein supplement for dairy cows in central Tanzania. Management of improved cattle in the
smallholder system in Central Tanzania. Use of crop residues for dry season feeding
Performance of pasture species under farmer management conditions in Berege and Chalinze
villages.
Uyole Agricultural Research Station and southern highlands zone pasture activities [Contact address:
ARI, Uyole Mbeya, P.O. Box 400, Mbeya]: Pasture seed production, Leucaena forage in farming
18 Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profile
systems, Forage utilization by livestock, Screening of temperate and sub-tropical and multipurpose
browse species for adaptation to southern highland conditions for on-farm integration with cereals.
Range monitoring, improvement by sod seeding, grazing management and bush control methods at
Kongwa Pasture Research Station.
Tanga [Contact address: Livestock Research Centre, P.O. Box 5016, Tanga]: Screening of forage grasses
and legumes for the coastal humid zone.
Extension: there have been too few workers in agricultural extension sufficiently competent to advise
farmers on pasture development and grazing management. Where there have been extension staff their
interaction with pasture research has been minimal.
Availability of farm inputs and input-output delivery channels: Shortage of pasture seed has been
a major limitation to sown pasture in Tanzania (Lwoga et al., 1984). Several research stations and
parastatal livestock farms have been producing (uncertified) pasture seed, but lack of funds has stifled
the development and expansion of this important activity. There is insufficient demand to support
commercial production.
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9. CONTACTS
This profile was drafted in October 2000 by Dr. Sebastian Sarwatt and Esther Mollel, who will undertake
periodic updating.
20 Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profile
Esther L. Mollel,
Department of Animal Science
Sokoine University of Agriculture,
P.O. Box 3004, Morogoro, Tanzania,
Phone: 255-023-604617 (office)
Fax 255-023-604562
E-mail: dasp@suanet.ac.tz or simaloi_mollel@yahoo.com
[It was edited by J. M. Suttie in 2000 and livestock data modified by S.G. Reynolds in August 2006.]