ABSTRACT

This paper presents a non-isolated, high boost ratio dcdc converter with the
application for photovoltaic (PV) modules. The proposed converter utilizes a hybrid
transformer to incorporate the resonant operation mode into a traditional high boost ratio
active-clamp coupled-inductor pulse-width-modulation dc dc converter, achieving zero-
voltage-switching (ZcS) turn-on of active switches and zero-current-switching turn-off of
diodes. As a result of the inductive and capacitive energy being transferred simultaneously
within the whole switching period, power device utilization (PDU) is improved and magnetic
utilization (MU) is optimized.
The improved PDU allows reduction of the silicon area required to realize the power
devices of the converter. The optimized MU reduces the dc-bias of magnetizing current in the
magnetic core, leading to smaller sized magnetics. Since the magnetizing current has low dc-
bias, the ripple magnetizing current can be utilized to assist ZcS of main switch, while
maintaining low root mean- square (RMS) conduction loss. The voltage stresses on the active
switches and diodes are maintained at a low level and are independent of the wide changing
PV voltages as a result of the resonant capacitor in series in the energy transfer loop. The
experimental results based on 250Wprototype circuit show 97.7% peak efficiency and system
CEC efficiencies greater than 96.7% over 20 to 45 V input voltages. Due to the high
efficiency over wide power range, the ability to operate with a wide variable input voltage
and compact size, the proposed converter is an attractive design for PV module
applicationsThe simulation is carried over by the MATLAB-SIMULINK software. The
hardware design is implemented by AVR microcontroller circuit. The ATMega328
microcontroller is an easy to use yet powerful single board computer that has gained
considerable traction in the hobby as well as professional market. A prototype is developed
and tested to verify the performance of this proposed efficient solar power generation system.

i
TABLE OF CONTENTS

ii
CHAPTER TITLE PAGE
NO ABSTRACT v
NO
LIST OF TABLES ix
LIST OF FIGURES x
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS xi
1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 SCOPE OF THE PROJECT 1
1.2 EXISTING SYSTEM 2
1.3 DISADVANTAGES 3
1.4 PROPOSED SYSTEM 3
1.4.1 Advantages 4
1.4.2 Block diagram 4
2 LITERATURE REVIEW 6
3 PROJECT DESCRIPTION 9

iii
 3.1 GENERAL 9
3.2 MODULES NAME 9
3.3 MODULE DESCRIPTION 9
3.3.1 DC- DC Conversion 9
3.3.2 Conversion Methods 10
3.3.2.1 Linear 10
3.3.2.2 Switched modes conversion 10
3.3.2.1 Linear 10
3.3.2.2 Switched modes conversion 10
3.3.4 MPPT Control Technique 11
3.3.4.1 Perturb and observe(P&O) Method 11
3.3.4.2 HILL CLIMBING Conductance Method 12
3.3.5 Seven Level Inverter 13
3.4 MICROCONTROLLER ATMEGA 328 14
3.4.1 Microcontroller features 14
3.5 PIN CONFIGURATION 16
3.5.1 Pin Descriptions 17
3.6 THE ATMEL AVR 18
4 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM 20
4.1 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM OF THE PROJECT 20
4.2 OPERATION MODES 21
5 SIMULATION THEORY 23
5.1GENERAL 23
5.2 MATLAB HISTORY 23
5.3 SIMULINK 24
5.4 BUILDING THE MODEL 24
5.4.1 Selecting blocks 24
5.4.2 Navigating through the model hierarchy. 25
5.4.3 Managing signals and parameters 26
5.4.4 Simulating the model 26
5.4.5 Choosing a solver 27
5.4.6 Running the simulation 27
5.4.7 Analyzing simulation results 28

iv
 5.4.8 Viewing simulation results 28
5.4.9 Debugging the simulation 28
5.5 SIM POWER SYSTEMS 28
5.6 MODELING ELECTRICAL POWER SYSTEMS 30
5.7 MODELING CUSTOM COMPONENTS 30
5.8 CONNECTING TO HARDWARE 32
5.8.1 Running Simulations on Hardware 32
5.9 APPLICATIONS 33
6 SIMULATION RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 35
6.1 SIMULATION DESIGN 35
6.2 SIMULATION RESULTS 35
6.3 APPLICATIONS 40
7 CONCLUSION AND FUTURE ENHANCEMENT 41
7.1 CONCLUSION 41
7.2 FUTURE ENHANCEMENT 41
REFERENCES 42

LIST OF TABLES

TABLE PAGE
TITLE
NO NO
6.1 Comparison Between Perturb & Observe and Hill climbing when 39
implemented with seven level inverter

v
 LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE TITLE PAGE

NO NO

1.1(a) Seven Level Inverter 3

1.1(b) DC-DC power converter with PO algorithm 3
1.2 Proposed Block diagram of the seven level inverter with MPPT 4
Technique
3.1 Graph Power versus Voltage for Perturb and Observe Algorithm 12
3.2 Block Diagram of Hill climbing Algorithm 13
3.3 PIN Diagram of ATMEGA 328 16
4.1 Circuit Diagram of Proposed system 20
4.2 Waveforms of Operating modes 22
5.1 Commonly used blocks 25
5.2 Signal Attributes tab 26

vi
5.3 Model Explorer Window 27
5.4 SimPower System Libraries 31
5.5 Circuit Of Transmission Line 32
5.6 Same Circuit designed in Simulink window 32
5.7 Low cost target hardware 33
6.1 Simulation Diagram of Proposed MPPT Technique(Hill climbing) 35
6.2 PV panel input voltage 36
6.3 DC-DC Boost up voltage 36
6.4 Simulation result for Output Current( Using PO Algorithm) 37
6.5 Simulation result for Output Voltage( Using PO Algorithm) 37
6.6 Simulation result for Output Current(Using IC Algorithm) 38
6.7 Simulation result for Output Voltage (Using IC Algorithm) 38
6.8 Simulation result across Seven Level inverter Load 39

vii
 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

MPPT Maximum Power Point Tracking

PV array Photo Voltaic Array
PO Algorithm Perturb And Observe Algorithm
HC Algorithm Hill climbing Algorithm
THD Total Harmonic Distortions
PWM Pulse Width Modulation

xi
 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

The conventional power generation method faces problems like depletion of

fossil fuels and polluting the environment. Also because of the increasing demand and
energy crisis, worlds power production has shifted hugely towards renewable energy
systems. Additionally, the source is freely available and is pollution free. Solar PV is
one of the fast growing methodologies among the renewable energy systems
accounting for 1/3 of the worlds power production by 2030. In solar PV the major
factor to be overloaded is the low DC voltage produced from the solar panel and also
the non-uniform nature of the source. The power production is also affected due to
partial shading and panel mismatch.
Hence the project lies to provide a DC-DC converter with high step-up, low
cost and high efficiency. The boost converter is the preferred choice in earlier days
because of its high voltage gain and simple circuit structure. But the power level is
limited due to hard switching operation which also increases switching losses leading
to less efficiency. To increase the power level, power device parallel technology is one
of the solutions. However, this method cannot reduce the input and output current
ripples. Interleaved structure is another effective solution to increase the power level
which can minimize the current ripple, can reduce passive component size, can reduce
the passive component size, can improve the transient response and can realize the
thermal distribution. However, the power devices still operate at hard switching
leading to less efficiency.

The aim of this project is to achieve soft switching (ZCS of primary side and
ZVS of secondary side) of all semiconductor devices. The objective of this project is
to provide an efficient DC-DC conversion in Residential solar power system. A novel
secondary modulation technique is proposed to clamp the voltage across the primary
side devices and therefore eliminates the necessity for snubbers. Switching losses are

1
reduced significantly owing to Zero- Current Switching (ZCS) of primary switches
and Zero-Voltage Switching (ZVS) of Secondary switches. Soft switching is inherent,
load independent, and is maintained with wide variation of input voltage and power,
and thus is suitable for PV applications. The boost converter may be used in
conjunction with a high frequency transformer to boost the output voltage with the
advantage of providing isolation n between the input and output stage. Without
extreme duty cycle and high switch voltage stress that exists in the conventional boost
converter the proposed converter achieves high step-up, low cost, and high efficiency
front end DC-DC conversion thus suited for PV application. The boost converter is
usually the preferred choice in high power switching transformer applications
exceeding one kilowatt.
1.1.1 Power optimizers, Distributed MPP solutions:

We have seen how panel mismatch caused by shade across the cells as
well as other factors can lead to disproportionate losses of generation from the
array. We also see that at present, installers have addressed the panel mismatch
issue by avoiding the problem, such as designing around shade/not installing at
all, or installing a smaller array, which leads to lowered energy output.

Bypass diodes in the junction box shorted across strings of cells and
modules can nominally mitigate to a certain degree the effect of mismatch by
diverting the current around shaded cells and thereby reducing the voltage
losses through the module. However, this is an insufficient solution, all panels
today are already equipped with bypass diodes, and although they prevent entire
strings of panels from dropping out completely, we can see from the data that
there are still sizeable disproportionate losses of energy harvested.

1.1 EXISTING SYSTEM

Of the high boost ratio dcdc converter topologies presented, the
uses of coupled-inductor are attractive due to the fact that only one

2
magnetics is required and low voltage active switches can be utilized. The
reason that the primary side active switches of the high boost ratio
converters have low voltage stress comes from the transformer effect of
the coupled inductors. Since the primary active switches have low voltage
stresses, the circuits can use low voltage MOSFETs that generally have a
low Rds(on) and fast switching speed, decreasing both the conduction and
switching losses. To further reduce the switching losses, active-clamp
techniques have been widely used, A zero-voltage-switching (ZVS) high
boost ratio active-clamp coupled-inductor (ACCI) converter.
1.3 EXISTING SYSTEM DISADVANTAGES

1. Switching loss.
2. The power loss at switching has to be improved so that the efficiency of power will
be improved.
3. maximum efficient output is not attained.

1.4 PROPOSED SYSTEM

In this project, a high boost ratio ZVS/ZCS dcdc converter with hybrid transformer
is presented to achieve high system level efficiency over wide input voltage and power
ranges. By adding a small resonant capacitor and a resonant diode into the previous ACCI
converter, a hybrid operation mode which combines pulse-width-modulation (PWM) and
resonant power conversions, is introduced into the proposed high boost ratio converter. This
converter utilizes a hybrid transformer that combines the modes where the transformer
operates under normal conditions and where it operates as a coupled-inductor to transfer the
energy to high voltage side improving the utilization of the magnetic core. The dc-bias of the
magnetizing current can be effectively reduced and smaller sized magnetics can be utilized.
Due to the low dc-bias of the magnetizing current the proposed converter can be designed
with small magnetizing inductance allowing bidirectional magnetizing current flow to
achieve ZVS of main switch while maintaining low RMS conduction loss. The output diodes
in the proposed converter can achieve zero-current-switching (ZCS) turn-off because the
resonant currents resonate back to zero at the switching transitions
1.4.1.NEAR STATE PWM SWITCHING

3
 The proposed technique is the NSPWM control, which omits the open-
zero vectors and employs three adjacent voltage vectors to synthesize the output
reference voltage. Vshoot can still be inserted to boost the output voltage. The
utilized voltage vectors are changed every 60 throughout the space. Compared
to the MCB control method the sections rotate 30 in clockwise. Moreover, only
one-leg shoot-through vectors are used in order to reduce switching events, and
are changed every 120 to assure equal current stress of each leg during shoot-
through zero vectors, that isVa shoot for 30 to 150, Vb shoot for 150 to 180
and 180 to 90, and Vb shoot for 90 to 30.

The voltage utilization level can be indicated by the modulation

index mi (mi = Vm/(2Vb /), where Vm is the magnitude of the reference voltage
vector). Modulation index within the linear area for NSPWM control is based
on modulation index[0.61, 0.907]. Therefore, mi stays in the high modulation
index section, leading to lower harmonic distortion of the output waveforms
than the remote-state PWM(RSPWM) control , which include OPWM and
EPWM control

1.4.2 Advantages
1. Output Power efficiency is improved by using Maximum power point tracking
algorithm which helps to overcome the shading effects of PV panel.
2. Switching losses are reduced in the proposed system.
3. Total Harmonic presents at the inverter can be reduced gradually.
4. The performance of the system is improved.

4
1.4.3 Block diagram

Dc/dc boost
conveter inveter

load

battery

Zvs/zcs circuit

Solar panel

Mppt algorthim

Micro controller

Figure.1.2. Proposed Block diagram of the proposed system

Figure.1.2 shows the Block diagram of the proposed solar power generation system.
The proposed solar power generation system is composed of a solar cell array with Hill
climbing Maximum power point tracking algorithm, a dcdc power converter, ATMega 328
Microcontroller, Battery and an seven level inverter section. The solar cell array is connected

5
to the dcdc power converter, and the dcdc power converter is a boost converter that
incorporates a transformer with a turn ratio of 2:1.

CHAPTER 2

LITRATURE REVIEW

PV POWER SYSTEM USING MAXIMUM POWER POINT TRACKING

(INCREMENTCONDUCTANCEALGORITHM)
Moammed Ali Khalifa et.al(2014) demonstrated the comparative study between Boost and
Cuk DC-DC converter using maximum power point tracking (MPPT) hill climbing (ICA)
algorithm. Cuk converter use for comparative. Few parameters such as voltage, current and
time response at different combination has been measured. Matlab simulink software was
applied for performance evaluation on energy point. Simulation was considered different
solar irradiance and temperature variations. And simulation results showed that cuk converter
better than boost in terms of time response and the ripple voltage.

PERFORMANCE COMPARISON OF FIVE LEVEL INVERTER WITH

PERTURB AND OBSERVE MPPT & INCREMENTALCONDUCTANCE
MPPT ALGORITHM
Thasreef H et.al(2014 presented the performance comparison of a single-phase multi string
five level photovoltaic inverter topology with a novel Sinusoidal Pulse Width
Modulated(SPWM) control scheme employing perturb and observe Maximum Power Point
Tracking (MPPT) algorithm and incremental conductance MPPT algorithm. The new SPWM
is implemented with two reference signals that were identical to each other with an offset that
was equivalent to the amplitude of the triangular carrier signal were used to generate PWM
signals for the inverter switches. The performance comparison of proposed system is verified
through simulation model. The total harmonic distortion (THD) of inverter is reduced from
39% to 28% and operates at better power factor under rapidly changing atmospheric
condition with incremental conductance MPPT algorithm compared to perturb and observe
MPPT method.

6
A NOVEL SEVEN LEVEL MULTILEVEL INVERTER WITH
PHOTOVOLTAIC CELL
Reddiprasanna et.al(2013)presented an H-bridge inverter topology with reduced number of
switches is which produces same number of levels as that of a conventional cascaded
multilevel inverter. The proposed system consists of three sources connected in cascade with
one source is PV cell and the other two are DC sources. Sinusoidal pulse width modulation
technique is used to control the switches of inverter. This technique reduces the complexity of
the control circuit, cost and leads to less total harmonic distortion (THD). In this paper,
Proposed novel seven level multilevel inverter with photovoltaic cell topology is validated
through simulation using MATLAB/SIMULINK and the results are presented.

CASCADED MULTILEVEL INVERTER TOPOLOGIES FOR

PHOTOVOLTAIC POWER GENERATION SYSTEMS
Jaydeep Lakwal et.al(2013) presented the MATLAB based simulation on simulink platform is
presented for Single Phase Cascaded symmetric Multilevel Inverter for 5 levels. Theoretical
study is done for the classification of multilevel inverter. And also the study is done for the
classification of modulation scheme for multilevel inverter. Modulation scheme used for
single phase symmetric multilevel inverter is fixed frequency multicarrier pulse width
modulation with phase opposite disposition. A comparative study is done for 5, 9, 15, and 25-
levels Symmetric Cascaded Multilevel Inverter relevant to harmonics and its harmonic
content in Load Voltage and Load Current. The circuit diagram and simulation results with
comparative study of total harmonic distortions (THD) are presented.
A NOVEL TOPOLOGY FOR MULTILEVEL INVERTER WITH
REDUCED NUMBER OF SWITCHES
Hulusi KaracaIn (2013) This paper, a novel multilevel inverter topology with the decreased
number of power switches is proposed, and its modulation technique is introduced. This
multilevel inverter structure consists of the level module units to enhance the level of the
output voltage. Since a level module unit consists of only a DC voltage source and a

7
bidirectional switch, this structure allows a reduction of the system cost and size.
Effectiveness of the proposed topology has been demonstrated by analysis and simulation

A GRID CONNECTED PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEM WITH A

MULTILEVEL INVERTER AND A LE-BLANC TRANSFORMER
Fernol et.al(2012) presented a novel power conversion structure for grid-connected
photovoltaic applications is presented. This structure is based on a multilevel inverter and on
a LeBlanc transformer. The proposed multilevel power converter uses two single-phase
voltage source inverters and a four wire voltage source inverter. The Le-Blanc transformer is
connected at the output of the multilevel inverter. The configuration of the PV system is
based on the multi-string technology. The structural design of this new power converter
allows a seven level shaped output voltage wave at the output of the multilevel inverter. To
control this power converter a sliding mode controller with a vectorial modulator is used.
This control system allows obtaining a fast a robust response for the multilevel inverter.
Several experimental results are presented, confirming the expected performance of the
proposed power conversion structure.

NEW CASCADED H-BRIDGE MULTILEVEL INVERTER TOPOLOGY

WITH REDUCED NUMBER OF SWITCHES AND SOURCES
Kavitha.M et.al(2012) presented mainly focused on the design and implementation of new
topology in a single phase five level cascaded H-bridge multilevel inverter by using only a
five switches and two DC power source. The main objective of this paper is to increase
number of levels with a low number of switches and sources at the output without adding any
complexity to the power circuit. The main merit of the new topology is to reduce the lower
total harmonic distortion, lower electromagnetic interference generation and high output
voltage. In this paper, various carrier pulse width modulation techniques are proposed, which
can minimize the total harmonic distortion and enhances the output voltages from proposed
work of five level inverter. The various switching topologies of single-phase five level
cascaded H-bridge multilevel inverters have been analyzed in this paper. It is justified that the
new topology can be recommended to single phase five level Cascaded H-bridge inverter for
better performance in comparison with conventional method. The simulation is done by Mat
Lab 8.0 version software.
CHAPTER 3

8
 PROJECT DESCRIPTION

3.1 GENERAL

The main advantages of solar power generation with seven level technologies are the
reduced switches, lower distortion, higher efficiency, and the more versatile cooking surfaces.
Solar inverters are mainly used in grid systems. Multilevel power conversion has become
increasingly popular in recent years due to advantages of high power quality waveforms, low
electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) concerns, low switching losses, and high-voltage
capability.

3.2 MODULES NAME

Solar array
DC-DC conversion
MPPT Controller(Hill climbing algorithm)
Seven level Inverter

3.3 MODULE DESCRIPTION

3.3.1 DC- DC conversion

A DC-to-DC converter is an electronic circuit which converts a source of direct

current (DC) from one voltage level to another. It is a class of power converter. DC to DC
converters are important in portable electronic devices such as cellular phones and laptop
computers, which are supplied with power from batteries primarily. Such electronic devices
often contain several sub-circuits, each with its own voltage level requirement different from
that supplied by the battery or an external supply (sometimes higher or lower than the supply
voltage). Additionally, the battery voltage declines as its stored power is drained. Switched
DC to DC converters offer a method to increase voltage from a partially lowered battery
voltage thereby saving space instead of using multiple batteries to accomplish the same thing.

3.3.2. Conversion Methods

9
3.3.2.1 Linear
Linear regulators can only output at lower voltages from the input. They are very
inefficient when the voltage drop is large and the current is high as they dissipate heat equal
to the product of the output current and the voltage drop; consequently they are not normally
used for large-drop high-current applications. The inefficiency wastes power and requires
higher-rated, and consequently more expensive and larger, components. The heat dissipated
by high-power supplies is a problem in itself as it must be removed from the circuitry to
prevent unacceptable temperature rises.

3.3.2.2 Switched-modes Conversion

Electronic switch-mode DC to DC converters convert one DC voltage level to
another, by storing the input energy temporarily and then releasing that energy to the output
at a different voltage. The storage may be in either magnetic field storage components or
electric field storage components (capacitors). This conversion method is more power
efficient (often 75% to 98%) than linear voltage regulation (which dissipates unwanted power
as heat). This efficiency is beneficial to increasing the running time of battery operated
devices.

3.3.2.3 Magnetic
In these DC to DC converters, energy is periodically stored into and released from a
magnetic field in an inductor or a transformer, typically in the range from 300 kHz to 10
MHz. By adjusting the duty cycle of the charging voltage (that is, the ratio of on/off time),
the amount of power transferred can be controlled.

3.3.3 Solar Panel

A solar panel (photovoltaic module or photovoltaic panel) is a packaged,

interconnected assembly of solar cells, also known as photovoltaic cells. The solar panel can
be used as a component of a larger photovoltaic system to generate and supply electricity in
commercial and residential applications. Because a single solar panel can produce only a
limited amount of power, many installations contain several panels. A photovoltaic system
typically includes an array of solar panels, an inverter, and sometimes a battery and
interconnection wiring.

10
3.3.4 MPPT Control Technique
The weather and load changes cause the operation of a PV system to vary almost all
the times. A dynamic tracking technique is important to ensure maximum power is obtained
from the photovoltaic arrays. The following methods are the most fundamental MPPT
Technique, and they can be developed using micro controllers.
The MPPT Technique operates based on the truth that the derivative of the output
power (P) with respect to the panel voltage (V) is equal to zero at the maximum power point.
In the literature, various MPP algorithms are available in order to improve the performance of
photovoltaic system by effectively tracking the MPP. However, most widely used MPPT
Technique are considered here, they are:
1. Perturb and Observe (P&O)
2. Hill climbing (In Cond)
3. Constant Voltage Method.

3.3.4.1 Perturb and Observe (P&O) Method

The most commonly used MPPT Technique is P&O method. This Technique uses
simple feedback arrangement and little measured parameters. In this approach, the module
voltage is periodically given a perturbation and the corresponding output power is compared
with that at the previous perturbing cycle. In this algorithm a slight perturbation is introduce
to the system. This perturbation causes the power of the solar module various. If the power
increases due to the perturbation then the perturbation is continued in the same direction.
After the peak power is reached the power at the MPP is zero and next instant decreases and
hence after that the perturbation reverses as shown in Figure 2.1.
When the stable condition is arrived the algorithm oscillates around the peak power
point. In order to maintain the power variation small the perturbation size is remain very
small. The technique is advanced in such a style that it sets a reference voltage of the module
corresponding to the peak voltage of the module. A PI controller then acts to transfer the
operating point of the module to that particular voltage level and this technique is very
popular and simple.

11
 Figure 3.1. Graph Power versus Voltage for Perturb and Observe Algorithm

3.3.4.2 Hill climbing Method

The Hill climbing (IC) algorithm is based on the observation that the following
equation holds at the MPP.

[dIPV/dVPV] + [IPV/VPV]=0 (1)

where IPV and VPV are the PV array current and voltage, respectively.
When the optimum operating point in the P-V plane is to the right of the MPP, we
have (dIPv/dvPv)+(IPV/VPV)<0, whereas when the optimum operating point is to the left of the
MPP, we have (dIpv/dVpv)+(Ipv/Vpv)>0.
The MPP can thus be tracked by comparing the instantaneous conductance Ipv/Vpv to
the hill climbing dIpv/dVpv. Therefore the sign of the quantity (dIpv/dVpv)+(Ipv/Vpv)
indicates the correct direction of perturbation leading to the MPP. Once MPP has been
reached, the operation of PV array is maintained at this point and the perturbation stopped
unless a change in dIpv is noted. In this case, the algorithm decrements or increments Vref to
track the new MPP. The increment size determines how fast the Maximum power point is
tracked.
Through the IC algorithm it is therefore theoretically possible to know when the MPP
has been reached, and thus when the perturbation can be stopped. The IC method offers good
performance under rapidly changing atmospheric conditions. There are two main different IC

12
methods available in the literature. The classic IC algorithm (ICa) requires the same
measurements shown in Fig.10, in order to determine the perturbation direction a
measurement of the voltage Vpv and a measurement of the current Ipv.
The Two-Model MPPT Control (ICb) algorithm combines the CV and the ICa
methods: if the irradiation is lower than 30% of the nominal irradiance level the CV method
is used, other way the ICa method is adopted. Therefore this method requires the additional
measurement of solar irradiation S as shown in Fig.3.2

Figure 3.2.Block Diagram of Hill climbing Algorithm

3.3.5 Seven Level Inverter

A power inverter, or inverter, is an electrical power converter that changes direct
current (DC) to alternating current (AC). The input voltage, output voltage, and frequency are
dependent on design. Static inverters do not use moving parts in the conversion process.
Some applications for inverters include converting high-voltage direct current electric utility
line power to AC, and deriving AC from DC power sources such as batteries.

The seven-level inverter is composed of a capacitor selection circuit and a full-bridge

power converter, which are connected in cascade. The operation of the seven level inverter
can be divided into the positive half cycle and the negative half cycle of the utility. For ease
of analysis, the power electronic switches and diodes are assumed to be ideal, while the
voltages of both capacitors C1 and C2 in the capacitor selection circuit are constant and equal
to Vdc/3 and 2Vdc/3, respectively. Since the output current of the solar power generation
system will be controlled to be sinusoidal and in phase with the utility voltage, the output
current of the seven-level inverter is also positive in the positive half cycle of the utility. The
operation of the seven-level inverter in the positive half cycle of the utility can be further
divided into four modes.

13
3.4 MICRO CONTROLLER - ATMEGA 328

ATmega32 is a low-power CMOS 8-bit microcontroller based on the AVR enhanced

RISC architecture. By executing powerful instructions in a single clock cycle, the ATmega32
achieves throughputs approaching 1 MIPS per MHz allowing the system designed to
optimize power consumption versus processing speed.

3.4.1 Microcontroller Features

8-bit Microcontroller with 32KBytes In-System Programmable Flash

High-performance, Low-power Atmel AVR 8-bit Microcontroller

Advanced RISC Architecture

131 Powerful Instructions Most Single-clock Cycle Execution

32 8 General Purpose Working Registers

Fully Static Operation

Up to 16 MIPS Throughput at 16MHz

On-chip 2-cycle Multiplier

High Endurance Non-volatile Memory segments

32Kbytes of In-System Self-programmable Flash program memory

1024Bytes EEPROM

2Kbytes Internal SRAM

Write/Erase Cycles: 10,000 Flash/100,000 EEPROM

Data retention: 20 years at 85C/100 years at 25C

Optional Boot Code Section with Independent Lock Bits

In-System Programming by On-chip Boot Program True Read-While-Write Operation

Programming Lock for Software Security

14
 JTAG (IEEE std. 1149.1 Compliant) Interface

Boundary-scan Capabilities According to the JTAG Standard

Extensive On-chip Debug Support

Programming of Flash, EEPROM, Fuses, and Lock Bits through the

Peripheral Features

Two 8-bit Timer/Counters with Separate Prescalers and Compare

One 16-bit Timer/Counter with Separate Prescaler, Compare Mode, and

Capture Mode

Real Time Counter with Separate Oscillator

Four PWM Channels

8-channel, 10-bit ADC 8 Single-ended Channels

Byte-oriented Two-wire Serial Interface

Programmable Serial USART

Master/Slave SPI Serial Interface

Programmable Watchdog Timer with Separate On-chip Oscillator

On-chip Analog Comparator

Special Microcontroller Features

Power-on Reset and Programmable Brown-out Detection

Internal Calibrated RC Oscillator

External and Internal Interrupt Sources

Six Sleep Modes: Idle, ADC Noise Reduction, Power-save

I/O and Packages

15
 - 32 Programmable I/O Lines

40-pin PDIP, 44-lead TQFP, and 44-pad QFN/MLF

Operating Voltages

2.7V - 5.5V for ATmega32L

4.5V - 5.5V for ATmega32

Speed Grades

0 - 8MHz for ATmega32L

0 - 16MHz for ATmega32

3.5 PIN CONFIGURATION

Figure 3.3 PIN Diagram of ATMEGA 328

3.5.1 Pin Descriptions

VCC Digital supply voltage.

GND Ground.

16
Port A (PA7-PA0) Port A serves as the analog inputs to the A/D Converter. Port A also serves
as an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port, if the A/D Converter is not used. Port pins can provide
internal pull-up resistors (selected for each bit). The Port A output buffers have symmetrical
drive characteristics with both high sink and source capability. When pins PA0 to PA7 are
used as inputs and are externally pulled low, they will source current if the internal pull-up
resistors are activated. The Port A pins are tri-stated when a reset condition becomes active,
even if the clock is not running.

Port B (PB7-PB0) Port B is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pull-up resistors
(selected for each bit). The Port B output buffers have symmetrical drive characteristics with
both high sink and source capability. As inputs, Port B pins that are externally pulled low will
source current if the pull-up resistors are activated. The Port B pins are tri-stated when a reset
condition becomes active, even if the clock is not running.

Port C (PC7-PC0) Port C is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pull-up resistors
(selected for each bit). The Port C output buffers have symmetrical drive characteristics with
both high sink and source capability. As inputs, Port C pins that are externally pulled low will
source current if the pull-up resistors are activated. The Port C pins are tri-stated when a reset
condition becomes active, even if the clock is not running. If the JTAG interface is enabled,
the pull-up resistors on pins PC5 (TDI), PC3 (TMS) and PC2 (TCK) will be activated even if
a reset occurs. The TD0 pin is tri-stated unless TAP states that shift out data are entered.

Port D (PD7-PD0) Port D is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pull-up resistors
(selected for each bit). The Port D output buffers have symmetrical drive characteristics with
both high sink and source capability. As inputs, Port D pins that are externally pulled low will
source current if the pull-up resistors are activated. The Port D pins are tri-stated when a reset
condition becomes active, even if the clock is not running

RESET Reset Input. A low level on this pin for longer than the minimum pulse length will
generate a reset, even if the clock is not running.

XTAL1 Input to the inverting Oscillator amplifier and input to the internal clock operating
circuit.

XTAL2 Output from the inverting Oscillator amplifier.

17
AVCC is the supply voltage pin for Port A and the A/D Converter. It should be externally
connected to VCC, even if the ADC is not used. If the ADC is used, it should be connected to
VCC through a low-pass filter.

AREF AREF is the analog reference pin for the A/D Converter.

3.6 THE ATMEL AVR

AVR core combines a rich instruction set with 32 general purpose working registers.
All the 32 registers are directly connected to the Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU), allowing two
independent registers to be accessed in one single instruction executed in one clock cycle.
The resulting architecture is more code efficient while achieving throughputs up to ten times
faster than conventional CISC microcontrollers. The ATmega32 provides the following
features: 32Kbytes of In-System Programmable Flash Program memory with Read-While-
Write capabilities, 1024bytes EEPROM, 2Kbyte SRAM, 32 general purpose I/O lines, 32
general purpose working registers, a JTAG interface for Boundary scan, On-chip Debugging
support and programming, three flexible Timer/Counters with compare modes, Internal and
External Interrupts, a serial programmable USART, a byte oriented Two-wire Serial Interface,
an 8-channel, 10-bit ADC with optional differential input stage with programmable gain
(TQFP package only), a programmable Watchdog Timer with Internal Oscillator, an SPI
serial port, and six software selectable power saving modes. The Idle mode stops the CPU
while allowing the USART, Two-wire interface, A/D Converter, SRAM; Timer/Counters, SPI
port, and interrupt system to continue functioning. The Power-down mode saves the register
contents but freezes the Oscillator, disabling all other chip functions until the next External
Interrupt or Hardware Reset.

In Power-save mode, the Asynchronous Timer continues to run, allowing the user to
maintain a timer base while the rest of the device is sleeping. The ADC Noise Reduction
mode stops the CPU and all I/O modules except Asynchronous Timer and ADC, to minimize
switching noise during ADC conversions. In Standby mode, the crystal/resonator Oscillator is
running while the rest of the device is sleeping. This allows very fast start-up combined with
low-power consumption. In Extended Standby mode, both the main Oscillator and the
Asynchronous Timer continue to run. The device is manufactured using Atmels high density
nonvolatile memory technology. The On chip ISP Flash allows the program memory to be
reprogrammed in-system through an SPI serial interface, by a conventional nonvolatile

18
memory programmer, or by an On-chip Boot program running on the AVR core. The boot
program can use any interface to download the application program in the Application Flash
memory.

Software in the Boot Flash section will continue to run while the Application Flash
section is updated, providing true Read-While-Write operation. By combining an 8-bit RISC
CPU with In-System Self-Programmable Flash on a monolithic chip, the Atmel ATmega32 is
a powerful microcontroller that provides a highly-flexible and cost-effective solution to many
embedded control applications. The Atmel AVR ATmega32 is supported with a full suite of
program and system development tools including: C compilers, macro assemblers, program
debugger/simulators, in-circuit emulators, and evaluation kits.

CHAPTER 4

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

19
4.1 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM OF THE PROJECT

Figure 4.1. Circuit Diagram of Proposed system

Figure. 3.1 shows the circuit diagram of the proposed converter. C is the input capacitor; HT
is the hybrid transformer with the turns ratio 1:n; S1 is the active MOSFET switch; D1 is the
clamping diode, which provides a current path for the leakage inductance of the hybrid
transformer when S1 is OFF, Cc captures the leakage energy from the hybrid transformer and
transfers it to the resonant capacitor Cr by means of a resonant circuit composed of Cc , Cr ,
L r , and Dr ; L r is a resonant inductor, which operates in the resonant mode; and Dr is a
diode used to provide an unidirectional current flow path for the operation of the resonant
portion of the circuit. Cr is a resonant capacitor, which operates in the hybrid mode by having
a resonant charge and linear discharge. The turn on of Dr is determined by the state of the
active switch S1. Do is the output diode similar to the traditional coupled inductor boost
converter and Co is the output capacitor. Ro is the resistive load . The full-bridge power
converter further converts this three-level dc voltage to a seven-level ac voltage that is
synchronized with the utility voltage. In this way, the proposed solar power generation
system generates a sinusoidal output current that is in phase with the utility voltage and is fed
into the utility, which produces a unity power factor. As can be seen, this new seven-level
inverter contains only six power electronic switches, so the power circuit is simplified.

4.2 OPERATION MODES

The new topology can be effectively broken down into four distinct operating modes,
shown in below.

20
STATE I
Mode 1 [t0, t1]: In this period , MOSFET S1 is ON, the magnetizing inductor of the hybrid
transformer is charged by
input voltage, Cr is charged by Cc , and the secondary reflected input voltage nVin of the
hybrid transformer together by the resonant circuit composed of secondary side of the hybrid
transformer, Cr , Cc , Lr ,and Dr . The current in MOSFET S1 is the sum of the resonant
current and linear magnetizing inductor current.

STATE II
Mode 2 [t1, t2]:At time t1 , MOSFET S1 is turned OFF, the clamping diode D1 is turned ON
by the leakage energy stored in the hybrid transformer during the time period that the
MOSFET is ON and the capacitor Cc is charged which causes the voltage on the MOSFET to
be clamped..

STATE III
Mode 3 [t2 ,t3 ]: At time t2 , the capacitor Cc is charged to the point that the output
diode Do is forwarded biased. The energy stored in the magnetizing inductor and capacitor Cr
is being transferred to the load and the clamp diode D1 continues to conduct while Cc
remains charged.

21
STATE IV
Mode 4 [t3, t4]: At time t3 , diode D1 is reversed biased and the energy stored in magnetizing
inductor of the hybrid transformer and in capacitor Cr is simultaneously transferred to the
load. During the steady-state operation, the charge through capacitor Cr must satisfy charge
balance.

STATE V
Mode 5 [t4, t0]: The MOSFET S1 is turned ON at time t4. Due to the leakage effect of the
hybrid transformer, theoutput diode current io will continue to flow for a short time and the
output diode Do will be reversed biased attime t0 ; then the next switching cycle starts.

Figure 4.2.Waveforms of Operating modes

22
 CHAPTER 5

4.1. SYSTEM SPECIFICATION

4.1.1.SOFTWARE REQUIREMENTS

Matlab 2013a

MATLAB is a high-level language and interactive environment for

numerical computation, visualization, and programming. Simulink, developed
by MathWorks, is a data flow graphical programming language tool for
modeling, simulating and analyzing multidomain dynamic systems.
SimPowerSystems, the part of SIMULINK provides component libraries and
analysis tools for modeling and simulating electrical power systems.
SimPowerSystems was developed by Hydro-Qubec of Montreal.

4.1.2.HARDWARE REQUIREMENTS
Power MOSFET : IRF840

Driver IC : IR2112

Capacitor : 470uF (25V) ; 1000uF

23
 Controller: PIC16F877A

Regulators: LM7805 ; LM7812

Diodes : 1N4000 ; 1N5408

PV Panel : 12V

4.1.3. SOFTWARE DESCRIPTION

4.1.3.1 MATLAB LANGUAGE

This is a high-level matrix/array language with control flow statements,

functions, data structures, input/output, and object-oriented programming
features. It allows both "programming in the small" to rapidly create quick and
dirty throw-away programs, and "programming in the large" to create complete
large and complex application programs.

4.1.3.2 FRONT END

MATLAB is a high-performance language for technical computing. It

integrates computation, visualization, and programming in an easy-to-use
environment where problems and solutions are expressed in familiar
mathematical notation.

4.1.3.3 FEATURES

MATLAB is used to calculate the following operations

Math and computation

Algorithm development
Modeling, simulation, and prototyping
Data analysis, exploration, and visualization
Scientific and engineering graphics
Application development, including graphical user interface
building

24
MATLAB is an interactive system whose basic data element is an array that
does not require dimensioning. This allows you to solve many technical
computing problems, especially those with matrix and vector formulations, in a
fraction of the time it would take to write a program in a scalar no interactive
language such as C or FORTRAN.

The name MATLAB stands for matrix laboratory. MATLAB was

originally written to provide easy access to matrix software developed by the
LINPACK and EISPACK projects. Today, MATLAB uses software developed
by the LAPACK and ARPACK projects, which together represent the state-of-
the-art in software for matrix computation.

MATLAB has evolved over a period of years with input from many users.
In university environments, it is the standard instructional tool for introductory
and advanced courses in mathematics, engineering, and science. In industry,
MATLAB is the tool of choice for high-productivity research, development, and
analysis.MATLAB features a family of application-specific solutions called
toolboxes. Very important to most users of MATLAB, toolboxes allow you to
learn and apply specialized technology.

MATHEMATICAL ALGORITHMS

TRANSFORMS
When data of any kind is recorded, it hardly ever reveals its true nature
from the point you are standing at. Transforms made on the data perform the
task of changing this standpoint.A basic transform in our physical world is a
transform from the time-domain to the frequency-domain and vice versa. Our
ears for example are made to find out the frequencies and phases of the sound
signal. The frequencies are used to understand the message, the phases carry
information which is mostly used for spatial hearing (low frequencies only). It
is clear that such transforms have a high analytical value.

25
BASIS FUNCTIONS
The idea of a having basis function is that any signal can be described as
a weighed sum of a family of functions. These functions are the basis functions
of the transform. Transforms are often just changes from one basis function to
another, although other transform types exist. For example in cryptology it is
not practical to have a codebook, but rather use other mathematical methods
for performing the transform.

SOME POSSIBLE BASIS FUNCTION CONDITIONS

Depending on the features of the transform, the basis functions have to
fulfill different requirements. These conditions allow for a number of nice
mathematical tricks. Some conditions are presented here a couple of other ones
pop up when we look into the wavelet requirements.

ORTHOGONALITY
From an analysis point of view, it is practical that a set of functions is
orthogonal. For a set of functions f1...fn,orthogonality on a given interval a x
b requires that the correlation between different functions is zero. The denotes
the Kronecker delta-function.
b

f x f
a
n m
( x )dx (m n)

Orthogonal basis functions describe the signal explicitly. In other words,

there exists only one possible transform for each signal, when such functions
are used. Orthogonal basis functions are also a good choice for compression
tasks.

REDUNDANCY
Not all transforms aim on analyzing the signal afterwards. If we want to
protect the data against errors, it might be rational to add redundancy. In these
cases, the choice of basis functions leads to a redundant set, where only certain

26
basis functions exist, and others are forbidden. In case of an error, the basis
function can be corrected to the nearest legal one according to the distance
metric of the function space.

COMMAND WINDOW

Use the Command Window to enter variables and run functions and M-files.

COMMAND HISTORY

Lines you enter in the Command Window are logged in the Command History
window. In the Command History, you can view previously used functions, and
copy and execute selected lines. To save the input and output from a MATLAB
session to a file, use the diary function.

RUNNING EXTERNAL PROGRAMS

You can run external programs from the MATLAB Command Window. The
exclamation point character! is a shell escape and indicates that the rest of the
input line is a command to the operating system. This is useful for invoking
utilities or running other programs without quitting MATLAB. On Linux, for
example,!emacs magik.m invokes an editor called emacs for a file named
magik.m. When you quit the external program, the operating system returns
control to MATLAB.

LAUNCH PAD

MATLAB's Launch Pad provides easy access to tools, demos, and

documentation.

HELP BROWSER

27
 Use the Help browser to search and view documentation for all your
Math Works products. The Help browser is a Web browser integrated into the
MATLAB desktop that displays HTML documents. To open the Help browser,
click the help button in the toolbar, or type help browser in the Command
Window. The Help browser consists of two panes, the Help Navigator, which
you use to find information, and the display pane, where you view the
information.

4.1.4. HARDWARE DESCRIPTION

PIC MICROCONTROLLER

DEVICE OVERVIEW
There are four devices (PIC16F873, PIC 16F874, PIC16F876 and
PIC16F877) covered by this datasheet. The PIC16F876/873 devices come in 28-
pin packages and the PIC16F877/874 devices come in 40-pin packages. The
parallel slave port is not implemented on the 28-pin devices.

WHY PIC16F877A MICROCONTROLLER?

PIC is a new family of microcontrollers. It is an embedded controller. PIC
microcontroller contains several families. They are classified as three
categories.
1. Low end family:
it has 33 instructions. For example, PIC12XXX
2. Mid range family:
It has 35 instructions. For example,PIC16XXX
3. High end family:
It has 77 instructions. For example,PIC17XXX and PIC18XXX

ARCHITECTURE

28
Two types of architecture are followed
1. Van-Neumann architecture:
The width of address and data bus is same.
2. Howard architecture:
The bus width of address and data may not be same. Pipelining is
possible here. Microcontrollers have built-in peripherals, they are:
1. Memory
a. Program Memory (e.g. PROM, flash memory)
b. Data memory (e.g. RAM, EEPROM)
2.I/O Ports
3.Timers
4.A/D
5.USART
6.Interrupt controllers
7.PWM capture

29
 Fig 4.1.4 Pin diagram of PIC16F877A

PERIPHERAL FEATURES
The PIC16F877A has five serial ports namely A, B,C, D and E. It has five
parallel ports namely:

1. PSP(parallel slave port 8-bit wide)

2. SSP(serial synchronous port)
3. MSP(master serial synchronous port)
4. I2C(inter integrated circuit)
5. SPI(serial peripheral interface)

256 x 8 bytes data memory

8k x 14 words program memory
It has three timers
o Timer 0-8 bit timer
o Timer 1-16 bit timer
o Timer 2-8 bit timer
12 bit 10 Channel
o 12 bit accuracy
o No external hardware multiplexer is needed

sleep mode processor

o no power will be consumed during ideal condition

Built in temperature sensor

30
 Built in RAM and EPROM
RAM is used to control ADC.MSB is stored in RAM when LSB is
Outputted.

PWM:
Two captures compare PWM module. PWM is used as DAC.
Programmable low voltage detection circuitry.
USART(universal synchronous asynchronous receiver and transmitter)
It converts serial data into parallel and vice versa. for instrumentation
Standard MAX-485 data converter should be used. This external data converter
amplifies the incoming 5v (from PIC) by four times and gives 20v Output i.e.
-10v to +10v.similarly,incoming 20v(from PIC) is reduced as 5v by the same
MAX 485 converter. MAX 485 can be replaced by MAX 232 for Computer
standard. this is known as Quaver-puller action

PORTA AND TRISA REGISTER

PORTA is a 6-bit wide, bi-directional port. The corresponding data
direction register is TRISA. Setting a TRISA bit (=1) will make the
corresponding PORTA pin an input (i.e.. put the corresponding output driver in
a Hi-Impedance mode). Clearing a TRISA bit (=0) will make the corresponding
PORTA pin an output(i.e. put the contents of the output latch on the selected
pin).
Reading the PORTA register reads the status of the pins, whereas
Writing to it will write to the port latch. All write operations are read-modify-
write operations.
Therefore, a write to a port implies that the port pins are read, the value is
modified and then written to the port data latch.
Pin RA4 is multiplexed with the Timer0 module clock input to become

31
the RA4/T0CK1 pin. The RA4/T0CK1 pin is a Schmitt trigger input and an
open drain output.
All other PORT A pins have TTL input levels and full CMOS
output drivers. Other PORTA pins have TTL input levels and full CMOS output
drivers. Other PORTA pins are multiplexed with analog inputs and analog
VREF input. The operation of each pin is selected by clearing/setting the control
bits in the ADCON1 register(A/D Control Register1).

4.1.5 FEASIBILITY STUDY

Technology and system feasibility

The assessment is based on an outline design of system requirements in

terms of Input, Processes, Output, Fields, Programs, and Procedures. This can
be quantified in terms of volumes of data, trends, frequency of updating, etc. in
order to estimate whether the new system will perform adequately or not.
Technological feasibility is carried out to determine whether the company has
the capability, in terms of software, hardware, personnel and expertise, to handle
the completion of the project.

Economic feasibility

Economic analysis is the most frequently used method for evaluating the
effectiveness of a new system. More commonly known as cost/benefit analysis,
the procedure is to determine the benefits and savings that are expected from a
candidate system and compare them with costs. If benefits outweigh costs, then
the decision is made to design and implement the system. An entrepreneur must
accurately weigh the cost versus benefits before taking an action.

32
Cost Based Study: It is important to identify cost and benefit factors, which
can be categorized as follows: 1. Development costs; and 2. Operating costs.
This is an analysis of the costs to be incurred in the system and the benefits
derivable out of the system.

Time Based Study:

This is an analysis of the time required to achieve a return on

investments. The benefits derived from the system. The future value of a project
is also a factor.

As per the cost based study this system requires the designing and
implementing environment as listed below

1. MATLAB 2. Embedded C 3. MS-Office Access

Legal feasibility
Determines whether the proposed system conflicts with legal
requirements, e.g. a data processing system must comply with the local software
Protection Acts. This system satisfies all the legal requirements and it also
complying with the local data protection act.

33
 CHAPTER 6

SIMULATION THEORY

5.1 GENERAL

MATLAB (matrix laboratory) is a numerical computing environment and fourth-

generation programming language. Developed by MATHWORKS, MATLAB allows matrix
manipulations, plotting of functions and data, implementation of algorithms, creation of user
interfaces, and interfacing with programs written in other languages, including C, C++, Java,
and Fortran. Although MATLAB is intended primarily for numerical computing, an optional
toolbox uses the MUPAD symbolic engine, allowing access to symbolic computing
capabilities. An additional package, SIMULINK, adds graphical multi-domain simulation and
Model-Based Design for dynamic and embedded systems.

In 2004, MATLAB had around one million users across industry and academia.
MATLAB users come from various backgrounds of engineering, science, and economics.
MATLAB is widely used in academic and research institutions as well as industrial
enterprises.

5.2 MATLAB HISTORY

CLEVE MOLER, the chairman of the computer-science department at the University

of New Mexico, started developing MATLAB in the late 1970s. He designed it to give his

34
students, access to LINPACK and EISPACK without them having to learn Fortran. It soon
spread to other universities and found a strong audience within the applied mathematics
community. Jack Little, an engineer, was exposed to it during a visit Moler made to Stanford
University in 1983. Recognizing its commercial potential, he joined with Moler and Steve
Bangert. They rewrote MATLAB in C and founded MathWorks in 1984 to continue its
development. These rewritten libraries were known as JACKPAC. In 2000, MATLAB was
rewritten to use a newer set of libraries for matrix manipulation, LAPACK. MATLAB was
first adopted by researchers and practitioners in control engineering, Little's specialty, but
quickly spread to many other domains. It is now also used in education, in particular the
teaching of linear algebra and numerical analysis, and is popular amongst scientists involved
in image processing.

5.3 SIMULINK

Simulink, developed by MathWorks, is a commercial tool for modeling, simulating and

analyzing multi-domain dynamic systems. Its primary interface is a graphical block
diagramming tool and a customizable set of block libraries. It offers tight integration with the
rest of the MATLAB environment and can either drive MATLAB or be scripted from it.
Simulink is widely used in control theory and digital signal processing for multi-domain
simulation and Model-Based Design.

Simulink is a block diagram environment for multi-domain simulation and Model-

Based Design. It supports system-level design, simulation, automatic code generation, and
continuous test and verification of embedded systems.Simulink provides a graphical editor,
customizable block libraries, and solvers for modeling and simulating dynamic systems. It is
integrated with MATLAB, enabling you to incorporate MATLAB algorithms into models and
export simulation results to MATLAB for further analysis.

5.4 BUILDING THE MODEL

Simulink provides a set of predefined blocks that you can combine to create a detailed
block diagram of your system. Tools for hierarchical modeling, data management, and
subsystem customization enable you to represent even the most complex system concisely
and accurately.

35
5.4.1 Selecting Blocks

Continuous and discrete dynamics blocks, such as Integration and Unit Delay
Algorithmic blocks, such as Sum, Product, and Lookup Table

Structural blocks, such as Mux, Switch, and Bus Selector

We can build customized functions by using these blocks or by incorporating

hand-written MATLAB, C, Fortran, or Ada code into the model. The custom blocks
can be stored in their own libraries within the Simulink Library Browser.

Figure 5.1. Commonly used blocks

Simulink add-on products let you incorporate specialized components for aerospace,
communications, PID control, control logic, signal processing, video and image processing,
and other applications. Add-on products are also available for modeling physical systems
with mechanical, electrical, and hydraulic components.

To build a model as shown in Figure.4.1 by dragging blocks from the Simulink Library
Browser into the Simulink Editor, we then connect these blocks with signal lines to establish
mathematical relationships between system components. Graphical formatting tools, such as
smart guides and smart signal routing, help we control the appearance of the model as
webuild it. We can add hierarchy by encapsulating a group of blocks and signals as a
subsystem in a single block.

36
 The Simulink Editor gives a complete control over what we see and use within the
model. For example, we can add commands and submenus to the editor and context menus.
We can also add a custom interface to a subsystem or model by using a mask that hides the
subsystem's contents and provides the subsystem with its own icon and parameter dialog box.

5.4.2 Navigating through the Model Hierarchy

The Explorer bar and Model Browser in Simulink helpsto navigate the model. The
Explorer bar indicates the level of hierarchy that we are currently viewing and lets we can
move up and down the hierarchy. The Model Browser provides a complete hierarchical tree
view of your model, and like the Explorer bar, can be used to move through the levels of
hierarchy.

5.4.3 Managing Signals and Parameters

Simulink models contain both signals and parameters. Signals are time-varying data
represented by the lines connecting blocks. Parameters are coefficients that define system
dynamics and behavior.Simulink helps to determine the following signal and parameter
attributes as shown in Figure.4.3:

Data typesingle, double, signed, or unsigned 8-, 16- or 32-bit integers;

Boolean; enumeration; or fixed point
Dimensionsscalar, vector, matrix, N-D, or variable-sized arrays

Complexityreal or complex values

Minimum and maximum range, initial value, and engineering units

37
 Figure 5.2 Signal Attributes tab

5.4.4 Simulating the Model

We can simulate the dynamic behavior of the system and view the results as the
simulation runs. To ensure simulation speed and accuracy, Simulink provides fixed-step and
variable-step ODE solvers, a graphical debugger, and a model profiler.

Figure 5.3 Model Explorer Window

5.4.5 Choosing a Solver

Solvers as shown in Figure.4.5 are numerical integration algorithms that compute the
system dynamics over time using information contained in the model. Simulink provides
solvers to support the simulation of a broad range of systems, including continuous-time
(analog), discrete-time (digital), hybrid (mixed-signal), and multirate systems of any size.

These solvers can simulate stiff systems and systems with discontinuities. We can
specify simulation options, including the type and properties of the solver, simulation start
and stop times, and whether to load or save simulation data. We can also set optimization and
diagnostic information. Different combinations of options can be saved with the model.

5.4.6 Running the Simulation

We can run your simulation interactively from the Simulink Editor or

systematically from the MATLAB command line. The following simulation modes are
available:

38
 Normal (the default), which interpretively simulates the model
Accelerator, which increases simulation performance by creating and executing
compiled target code but still provides the flexibility to change model parameters
during simulation

Rapid Accelerator, which can simulate models faster than Accelerator mode by
creating an executable that can run outside Simulink on a second processing core

To reduce the time required to run multiple simulations, we can run those simulations in
parallel on a multi-core computer or computer cluster.

5.4.7 Analyzing Simulation Results

After running a simulation, we can analyze the simulation results in MATLAB and
Simulink. Simulink includes debugging tools to help to understand the simulation behavior.

5.4.8 Viewing Simulation Results

We can visualize the simulation behavior by viewing signals with the displays and
scopes provided in Simulink. We can also view simulation data within the Simulation Data
Inspector, where we can compare multiple signals from different simulation runs. Scope is
the block in Simulink by which we can measure and view the voltage, current, and power in
electrical domain. Figure.4.6 shows the output of a multilevel converter through scope.

Alternatively, we can build custom HMI displays using MATLAB, or log signals to
the MATLAB workspace to view and analyze the data using MATLAB algorithms and
visualization tools.

5.4.9 Debugging the Simulation

Simulink supports debugging with the Simulation Stepper, which lets we step back
and forth through your simulation viewing data on scopes or inspecting how and when the
system changes states. With the Simulink debugger we can step through a simulation one
method at a time and examine the results of executing that method. As the model simulates,
you can display information on block states, block inputs and outputs, and block method
execution within the Simulink Editor.

39
5.5 SIM POWER SYSTEMS

SimPowerSystems provides component libraries and analysis tools for modeling

and simulating electrical power systems. The libraries include models of electrical power
components, including three-phase machines, electric drives, and components for
applications such as flexible AC transmission systems (FACTS) and renewable energy
systems. Harmonic analysis, calculation of total harmonic distortion (THD), load flow, and
other key electrical power system analyses are automated. SimPowerSystems was developed
by Hydro-Qubec of Montreal.
We can add mechanical, hydraulic, pneumatic, and other components to the model
using Simscape and test them all in a single simulation environment. To deploy models to
other simulation environments, including hardware-in-the-loop (HIL) systems,
SimPowerSystems supports C-code generation.
Starting with MathWorks Release 13, SimPowerSystems and SimMechanics of the
Physical Modeling product family work together with Simulink to model electrical,
mechanical, and control systems. Electrical power systems are combinations of electrical
circuits and electromechanical devices like motors and generators. Engineers working in this
discipline are constantly improving the performance of the systems. Requirements for
drastically increased efficiency have forced power system designers to use power electronic
devices and sophisticated control system concepts that tax traditional analysis tools and
techniques. Further complicating the analysts role is the fact that the system is often so
nonlinear that the only way to understand it is through simulation.
Land-based power generation from hydroelectric, steam, or other devices is not the
only use of power systems. A common attribute of these systems is their use of power
electronics and control systems to achieve their performance objectives. SimPowerSystems
was designed to provide a modern design tool that allows scientists and engineers to rapidly
and easily build models that simulate power systems.
SimPowerSystems uses the Simulink environment, allowing you to build a model
using simple click and drag procedures. Not only can you draw the circuit topology rapidly,
but your analysis of the circuit can include its interactions with mechanical, thermal, control,
and other disciplines. This is possible because all the electrical parts of the simulation interact
with the extensive Simulink modeling library. Since Simulink uses MATLAB as its
computational engine, designers can also use MATLAB toolboxes and Simulink blocksets.

40
SimPowerSystems and SimMechanics share a special Physical Modeling block and
connection line interface.
Users can rapidly put SimPowerSystems to work. The libraries contain models of
typical power equipment such as transformers, lines, machines, and power electronics.
These models are proven ones coming from textbooks, and their validity is based on
the experience of the Power Systems Testing and Simulation Laboratory of Hydro-Qubec, a
large North American utility located in Canada.
The capabilities of SimPowerSystems for modeling a typical electrical grid are
illustrated in demonstration files. And for users who want to refresh their knowledge of
power system theory, there are also self-learning case studies.

5.6 MODELING ELECTRICAL POWER SYSTEMS

With SimPowerSystems, we build a model of a system just as we would assemble a
physical system. The components in the model are connected by physical connections that
represents ideal conduction paths. This approach describes the physical structure of the
system rather than deriving and implementing the equations for the system. From the model,
which closely resembles a schematic, SimPowerSystems automatically constructs the
differential algebraic equations (DAEs) that characterize the behavior of the system. These
equations are integrated with the rest of the Simulink model.
We can use the sensor blocks in SimPowerSystems to measure current and voltage in
your power network, and then pass these signals into standard Simulink blocks. Source
blocks enable Simulink signals to assign values to the electrical variables current and voltage.

5.7 MODELING CUSTOM COMPONENTS

SimPowerSystems enables to model custom components by using the fundamental
elements included in its libraries and by combining these elements with Simulink
blocks.Components provided in SimPowerSystems as shown in Figure 5.4 include:
Electrical elements: Linear and saturable transformers; arrestors and breakers; and
transmission line models.
Electric machinery: Models of synchronous, permanent magnet synchronous, and DC
machines; excitation systems; and models of hydraulic and steam turbine-governor systems
Power electronics: Diodes, simplified and complex thyristors, GTOs, switches, IGBT
models, and universal bridges that allow selection of standard bridge topologies

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Control and measurement: Voltage, current, and impedance measurements; RMS
measurements; active and reactive power calculations; timers, multimeters, and Fourier
analysis; HVDC control; total harmonic distortion; and abc-to-dq0 and dq0-to-abc
transformations

Figure 5.4. Simpower system Libraries

Electrical sources: To implement sinusoidal current source, sinusoidal voltage source,

generic battery model, Controlled AC Current and Voltage sources, DC Voltage Source. To
implement three-phase voltage source with programmable time variation of amplitude, phase,
frequency, and harmonics, and to implement three-phase source with internal R-L impedance.
Three-phase components: RLC loads and branches; breakers and faults; pi-section lines;
voltage sources; transformers; synchronous and asynchronous generators; and motors,
analyzers, and measurements
Electric Drives and Other Application Libraries
SimPowerSystems provides the following specialized application libraries:
Flexible AC Transmission Systems (FACTS): Phasor models of flexible AC transmission
systems
Distributed Resources: Phasor models of wind turbines.
Electric Drives: Editable models of electric drives that include detailed descriptions of the
motor, converter, and controller for each drive. The Electric Drives library includes
permanent magnet, synchronous, and asynchronous (induction) motors. The converters and
controllers implement the most common strategies for controlling the speed and torque for
these motors, such as direct-torque control and field-oriented control. SimPowerSystems

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supports the development of complex, self-contained power systems, such as those in
automobiles, aircraft, manufacturing plants, and power utility applications.Thus users can
rapidly put SimPowerSystems to work.

Figure 5.5. Circuit of a transmission line

Figure 5.6. Same circuit designed in Simulink window

5.8 CONNECTING TO HARDWARE

We can connect the Simulink model to hardware for rapid prototyping, hardware-in
the-loop (HIL) simulation, and deployment on an embedded system.

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5.8.1 Running Simulations on Hardware

Simulink provides built-in support for prototyping, testing, and running models on
low-cost target hardware, including Arduino, LEGO MINDSTORMS NXT, PandaBoard,
and BeagleBoard. We can design algorithms in Simulink for control systems, robotics, audio
processing, and computer vision applications and see them perform in real time.

Simulink provides built-in support for prototyping, testing, and running models on
low-cost target hardware, including Arduino, LEGO MINDSTORMS NXT, and
BeagleBoard as shown in Figure.4.6.

Figure 5.7. low-cost target hardware

With Real-Time Windows Target, we can run Simulink models in real time on
Microsoft Windows PCs and connect to a range of I/O boards to create and control a real-
time system as shown in Figure.4.6. To run the model in real time on a target computer, we can
use xPC Target for HIL simulation, rapid control prototyping, and other real-time testing
applications. See xPC Target Turnkey for available target computer hardware. Simulink
models can be configured and made ready for code generation. By using Simulink with add-
on code generation products, you can generate C and C++, HDL, or PLC code directly from
your model.

5.9 APPLICATIONS

A number of MathWorks and third-party hardware and software products are available
for use with Simulink. For example, Stateflow extends Simulink with a design environment
for developing state machines and flow charts. Coupled with Simulink Coder, another
product from MathWorks, Simulink can automatically generate C source code for real-time
implementation of systems. As the efficiency and flexibility of the code improves, this is

44
becoming more widely adopted for production systems, in addition to being a popular tool for
embedded system design work because of its flexibility and capacity for quick iteration.
Embedded Coder creates code efficient enough for use in embedded systems.

xPC Target together with x86-based real-time systems provides an environment to

simulate and test Simulink and Stateflow models in real-time on the physical system.
Embedded Coder also supports specific embedded targets, including Infineon C166,
Motorola68HC12, Motorola MPC 555, TI C2000, TI C6000, RenesasV850 and Renesas
SuperH.

With HDL Coder, also from MathWorks, Simulink and Stateflow can automatically
generate synthesizable VHDL and Verilog.Simulink Verification and Validation enables
systematic verification and validation of models through modeling style checking,
requirements traceability and model coverage analysis.

Simulink Design Verifier uses formal methods to identify design errors like integer
overflow, division by zero and dead logic, and generates test case scenarios for model
checking within the Simulink environment. The systematic testing tool TPT offers one way to
perform formal test- verification and validation process to stimulate Simulink models but also
during the development phase where the developer generates inputs to test the system. By the
substitution of the Constant and Signal generator blocks of Simulink the stimulation becomes
reproducible.

SimEvents adds a library of graphical building blocks for modeling queuing systems
to the Simulink environment. It also adds an event-based simulation engine to the time-based
simulation engine in Simulink.

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 CHAPTER 6

SIMULATION RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

6.1 SIMULATION DESIGN

Figure 6.1 Simulation Diagram of Proposed Technique

46
 The major inputs for the proposed PV model were solar irradiation, PV panel
temperature and voltage and current informations. The I-V output characteristics for the PV
model are shown in following simulation results.

6.2. SIMULATION RESULTS

The major inputs for the proposed PV model where solar radiation, PV panel
temperature, voltage and current informations. The I-V output characteristics of the PV
model are shown in following simulation results.

Figure 6.2 PV panel input voltage Vin=45

Figure 6.3 DC-DC Boost up voltage

Figure 6.4 Simulation result for Output Current( Using PO Algorithm), Iout=1.1A

47
From the above Simulation result performances, the output voltage and output current of
proposed algorithm are evaluated at different simulation period. According to the simulation
period variations, the output power of the photovoltaic system is varied. Also, the output
power of the proposed MPPT system is evaluated.

Table 6.1: PERFORMANCE COMPARISON

Existing converter Proposed converter using

Converters
using HT NSPWM
Efficiency
Input Output Input output
THD(%) - 17.6 - 10
Power in Watts 30.199 24.583 30.199 25.5424
Voltage in
230 201.5 230 208.8
Volts
Current in Amps 0.1313 0.1120 0.1313 0.1228
Efficiency 81.15 % 84.58%

From the simulation show that voltage input for both controller is
almost the same. Perturb and Observe Controller shows a not stable condition.
During the simulation the current and voltage decrease rapidly and lastly came
to same value at the initial stage. From the simulation result is shows that
controller that connected with Boost converter which will give a stable output
is the hill climbing controller.
6.3 APPLICATIONS
Solar based grid systems

AC drives

HVDC

Industrial applications

48
 Electric Vehicles

CHAPTER 7
CONCLUSION
7.1 CONCLUSION
This project presents highly efficient high boost ratio hybrid transformer DC-DC
converter for photovoltaic module applications with following features and benefits:
This converter transfers the capacitive and inductive energy simultaneously to increase the
total power delivery reducing losses in the system.
The conduction loss in MOSFET is reduced as a result of the low-input RMS current and
switching loss is reduced with a lower turn-off current.
With these improved performances, the converter can maintain high efficiency under low
output power and low-input voltage conditions.

REFERENCES

1) E. Miller, Smart grids a smart idea?, Renewable Energy Focus Magazine, vol. 10,
pp. 62-67, Sep.-Oct. 2009.

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2) H. Yang, Z. Wei, and L. Chengzh, Optimal design and technoeconomic analysis of a
hybrid solar-wind power generation system, Applied Energy, vol. 86, pp. 163-169,
Feb. 2009.

3) S. Dihrab, and K. Sopian, Electricity generation of hybrid PV/wind systems in Iraq,

Renewable Energy, vol. 35, pp. 1303-1307, Jun. 2010.

4) J.P. Reichling, and F.A. Kulacki, Utility scale hybrid wind-solar thermal electrical
generation: a case study for Minnesota, Energy, vol. 33, pp.626-638, Apr. 2008.

5) O. Ekren, B.Y. Ekren, and B. Ozerdem, Break-even analysis and size optimization
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Applied Energy, vol.86, pp. 1043-1054, July-August 2009.

6) M.I.M. Ridzuan, M. Imran Hamid And Makbul Anwari Modeling and Simulation of
Synchronizing System for Grid-Connected PV/Wind Hybrid Generation.

7) Sweeka Meshram, Ganga Agnihotri and Sushma Gupta Modeling of Grid Connected
DC Linked PV/Hydro Hybrid System Electrical and Electronics Engineering: An
International Journal (ELELIJ) Vol 2, No 3, August 2013.

8) E. M. Natsheh, Member, IEEE, A. Albarbar, Member, IEEE, and J. Yazdani, Member,

IEEE Modeling and Control for Smart Grid Integration of Solar/Wind Energy
Conversion System.

9) Yann Riffonneau, Seddik Bacha, Member, IEEE, Franck Barruel, and Stephane Ploix
Optimal Power Flow Management for Grid Connected PV Systems With Batteries
IEEE Transactions on Sustainable Energy, Vol. 2, No. 3, July 2011.

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10) V.Srikanth, A. Naveen kumar Power Quality Improvement Techniques In Hybrid
Systems A Review International Journal Of Engineering And Computer Science
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11) Luigi Galotto Jr., Moacyr Aureliano Gomes de Brito, Leonardo Poltronieri Sampaio,
Guilherme de Azevedo Melo, and Carlos Alberto Canesin, Senior Member, IEEE
Evaluation of the Main MPPT Techniques for Photovoltaic Applications IEEE
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12) Yoash Levron and Doron Shmilovitz, Member, IEEE Maximum Power Point
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