Topics we gonna cover

Fluids and their Properties

Pressure and Head
Static Forces on Surfaces
Buoyancy
Motion of Fluid Particles and Streams
The Momentum Equation and its Applications
The Energy Equation and its Applications
Two-dimensional Ideal Flow
Dimensional Analysis and Similarity

Upaka Rathnayake (PhD)

206
 Dimensional analysis
Fluid mechanics basically has an experimental investigation of
the mechanisms of fluid flow
To determine the form of the dependence of one variable
upon a range of other controlling parameters in the absence
of an analytical solution it is necessary to undertake an
experimental investigation
Simply recording the effect of one variable on another with all
others held constant and repeating until all the possible
combinations are exhausted is not an option
Dimensional analysis allows the identification of groups of
variables whose interrelationships may be determined
experimentally.

Upaka Rathnayake (PhD) 207

 Dimensional analysis contd.
Dimensional analysis therefore offers a qualitative route to
the understanding of fluid flow mechanisms
The quantitative understanding is provided experimentally

Upaka Rathnayake (PhD) 208

 Dimensions and units
Any physical situation involving an object or a system may be
described in terms of its fundamental properties.
Fundamental properties are Mass (M), Length (L) and Time (T)
These properties of the system are fundamental and universal
and are known as its dimensions
While dimensions are universal, units are chosen as
convenient
We use SI units.(The International System of Units)
Physical property Density
Mass
Density
Volume

Upaka Rathnayake (PhD) 209

 Dimensions and units contd.
Units of density in SI Mass
Density
Volume
UnitsMass
UnitsDensity
UnitsVolume
kg 3 kg
UnitsDensity kgm or
m3 m3

Dimensions of density DimensionDensity DimensionMass

DimensionVolume
M
DimensionDensity
Dimension LengthWidth Height
M M 3
DimensionDensity
ML3
or
L
L L L
Upaka Rathnayake (PhD) 210
 Dimensions and units contd.
Dimensions usually written inside the bracket
For example
Dimensions of density - [M/L3] or [ML-3]

Brackets indicate that we are only interested in the qualitative

dimensions of the property and not its quantitative value
DimensionMass
Dimension2Density
DimensionVolume
M
Dimension2Density
Dimension LengthWidth Height
M M 3
Dimension2Density
ML3
or
L
L L L
Upaka Rathnayake (PhD) 211
 Dimensional reasoning, homogeneity and
dimensionless groups
Equation
Something 1 = Something 2
Equation must be numerically and dimensionally identical
Simple example
x y z
when x 1, y 2 and z 3

Numerically true
(but only if the dimensions of x, y and z are identical)

Upaka Rathnayake (PhD) 212

 Dimensional reasoning, homogeneity and
dimensionless groups contd.
Therefore,
1 elephant + 2 aero planes 3 days
1 meter + 2 meters = 3 meters

An equation is only dimensionally homogeneous if all the terms

have the same dimensions

a1m1 b1n1 c1 p1 a2m2 b2n2 c2 p2 ... X

Then,
a b c a2 b2 c2 X
1
m1 n1 p1
1 1
m2 n2 p2

Upaka Rathnayake (PhD) 213

 Dimensional reasoning, homogeneity and
dimensionless groups contd.
Dimensional homogeneity may be used to check the accuracy of
any equation, remembered or derived

Dimensionless groups?
Extended length
Strain
Length
Extended length Extended length
Strain
Length Length
L
Strain 1
L
Upaka Rathnayake (PhD) 214
 Fundamental and derived units and
dimensions
Area Length Width
Velocity Length Time
Area L L L2
Acceleration Velocity Time
Velocity L T LT 1
LT 1
Acceleration T
LT 2
Force Mass Acceleration
Force M LT 2 MLT 2

Angle Arc length Radius Angular velocity Angle Time

Angle L L0 1 Angular velocity 1T T 1
L

Angular acceleration Angular velocity Time

T 1
Angular acceleration T
T 2

Upaka Rathnayake (PhD) 215

Basic units

Upaka Rathnayake (PhD) 216

Units contd.

Upaka Rathnayake (PhD) 217

Units contd.

Upaka Rathnayake (PhD) 218

Dimensions

Upaka Rathnayake (PhD) 219

Upaka Rathnayake (PhD) 220
 Unit conversion (SI to SI)
Metric prefixes

English word
Prefix Symbol 1000m 10n Decimal Since[n 1]
short scale long scale
100000000
tera T 10004 1012 trillion billion 1960
0000
100000000 thousand
giga G 10003 109 billion 1960
0 million
mega M 10002 106 1000000 million 1960
kilo k 10001 103 1000 thousand 1795
hecto h 10002/3 102 100 hundred 1795
deca da 10001/3 101 10 ten 1795
10000 100 1 one
deci d 10001/3 101 0.1 tenth 1795
centi c 10002/3 102 0.01 hundredth 1795
milli m 10001 103 0.001 thousandth 1795
micro 10002 106 0.000001 millionth 1960
0.00000000 thousand
nano n 10003 109 billionth 1960
1 millionth
0.00000000
pico p 10004 1012 trillionth billionth 1960
0001(PhD)
Upaka Rathnayake 221
 Dimensional analysis by Indicial method

1 2
Example of proving S ut at
2

Try Example 8.2 page 269

Upaka Rathnayake (PhD) 222

Dimensional analysis by the group method
Indicial method is rather lengthy if there are a large number of
variables
It was therefore necessary to develop a more generalized
methodology that would lead directly to a set of
dimensionless groupings whose number could be determined
in advance by a scrutiny of the matrix formed from the
variables considered to be relevant to the investigation and
the relevant dimensions necessary to describe those
variables.
Such a technique was developed in the early years of the
twentieth century and is known as the Buckingham
method.

Upaka Rathnayake (PhD) 223

Dimensional analysis by the group method contd.
Example 8.3
Determine the number of dimensionless groups expected to
be formed from the variables involved in the flow of fluid
external to a solid body. (nv-nD)?
The force acting, F, may be expected to be a function of flow
velocity v, density , dynamic viscosity , and body
characteristic length L.
The matrix formed in the applicable dimensions of mass,
length and time from the five applicable variables is as follows

Upaka Rathnayake (PhD) 224

Dimensional analysis by the group method contd.
Example 8.4
The variables controlling the motion of a floating vessel through
the surrounding fluid are the drag force F, the vessels speed v, its
length l, the density and dynamic viscosity of the fluid and the
acceleration due to gravity g. Derive an expression for F by
dimensional analysis.

Upaka Rathnayake (PhD) 225

 Geometric Similarity
Two geometrical objects are called similar if they both have the
same shape.
More precisely, one is similar to the result of a uniform scaling
(enlarging or shrinking) of the other

A
a A a

B
b B b

Model tests - The first requirement for model testing is a strict

adherence to the principle of geometric similarity
model must be an exact geometric replica of the prototype

Upaka Rathnayake (PhD) 226

 Geometric Similarity contd.

Model tests - The first requirement for model testing is a strict

adherence to the principle of geometric similarity
Exemptions
Not fully applied to river models, where distortion of the vertical
scale is necessary to obtain meaningful results because it is
necessary to keep the relationship between wave properties and
depth correct.
Generally, it may be assumed that geometric similarity is
achieved in model testing.

Upaka Rathnayake (PhD) 227

 Dynamic similarity
The definition of dynamic similarity is that the forces which act
on corresponding masses in the model and prototype shall be in
the same ratio throughout the area of flow modeled

F1 f1

f2
F1 f1
F2
F2 f 2
If this similarity is achieved, then it follows that the flow pattern
will be identical for the model and the prototype flow fields.
Upaka Rathnayake (PhD) 228
 Dynamic Similarity contd.
The most common dimensionless groups
Consider a general, hypothetical flow situation where the
pressure change p between two points is dependent on mean
velocity v, length L, density and viscosity , bulk modulus K,
surface tension and gravitational acceleration g

P f v, L, , , K , , g

Five dimensionless groups

P vL v v 2
v
f1 , , ,
1 v 2
K gL
2

Upaka Rathnayake (PhD) 229

 Dynamic Similarity contd.

P vL v v2
v
f1 , , ,
1 v 2
K gL
2
P
Pressure coefficient; CP
1 v 2
v2
2 Webber number (We)
vL
Reynolds number (Re) v
Froude number (Fr)
v gL
Mach number (Ma)
K

CP f1 Re, Ma, We, Fr

Upaka Rathnayake (PhD) 230

 Dynamic Similarity contd.
CP f1 Re, Ma, We, Fr
Pressure coefficient - dependent upon the other
dimensionless groups (Re, Ma, We & Fr).
Thus if the values of the Re, Ma, We and Fr groups were
identical for a prototype and its scale model, i.e. thereby
conforming to geometric similarity, it would follow that the
pressure coefficient would also be equal for the model and
the prototype

Upaka Rathnayake (PhD) 231

 Dynamic Similarity contd.
Reynolds number (Re)
The ratio of inertia and viscous forces
general definition is important in understanding the wide
influence of Reynolds number

Froude number (Fr)

The ratio of a characteristic velocity to a gravitational wave
velocity
Equivalently be defined as the ratio of a body's inertia to
gravitational forces
In flows dominated by gravitational effects, (notably free
surface flows) dynamic similarity requires that the ratio of
inertia to gravitational forces remains constant
Upaka Rathnayake (PhD) 232
 Dynamic Similarity contd.
Froude number (Fr)
A comparison of Froude and Reynolds numbers indicates immediately that
if the same fluid is used for both prototype and model, it is impossible to
have equivalence of both at the same time between a model and a
prototype flow condition

Mach number (Ma)

The ratio of fluid velocity to the local sonic velocity
If the flow results in compressibility effects, i.e. the assumption of
constant density is no longer supportable
Becomes important to include the effects of the elastic forces
acting, and therefore, the appropriate force ratio would be between
inertia and elasticity
Mach number equivalence is a necessity in modeling air flows
where compressibility effects are important
Upaka Rathnayake (PhD) 233
 Dynamic Similarity contd.
Weber number (We)
The ratio of inertia to surface tension forces
Often useful in analyzing fluid flows where there is an
interface between two different fluids, especially
for multiphase flows with strongly curved surfaces

Pressure, stres and force coefficients

Pressure Cp, lift CL, drag CD, skin friction Cf
In the development of the dimensional analysis methodology, it
is useful to be able to relate pressure differences or flow-induced
forces to the flow parameters via a series of non-dimensional
groupings
Upaka Rathnayake (PhD) 234
 Model studies for flows without a free surface.
Introduction to approximate similitude at high Reynolds
numbers
Free surface effects are absent in bounded flows
This definition includes both pipes or ducts flowing full and
the flow around submerged bodies, such as aircraft,
submarines or buildings
If the flows involved are low then compressibility effects may
be ignored and the requirement to hold Mach number
constant between the prototype and model may be relaxed
In these cases, therefore, the analysis presented would
dictate an equivalence of Reynolds number.
However, strict adherence to Reynolds number equivalence
may prove inappropriate and unduly costly.

Upaka Rathnayake (PhD) 235

Example 9.1

Example 9.2

Upaka Rathnayake (PhD) 236

 Zone of dependence of Mach number
Mach number becomes significant in flow situations where the
ratio of flow velocity to sonic velocity exceeds about 0.25 to 0.3.
It is normally difficult to satisfy both Reynolds number and Mach
number equality simultaneously and so it is important that testing
decisions are made based on previous experience of the type of
flow to be investigated.
For example, if the viscous motion of a fluid close to a boundary in
supersonic flow is to be investigated, then Reynolds number
equivalence would be the criterion, but if the object of the
investigation is the flow conditions through the shock wave pattern
around a body, then Mach number equivalence is paramount.
Mach and Reynolds number equivalence may be achieved if it is
possible to vary the fluid density conditions between the model and
prototype.
Upaka Rathnayake (PhD) 237
Example 9.3

Upaka Rathnayake (PhD) 238

 Significance of the pressure coefficient
The pressure coefficient was defined by the a dimensionless
groups judged to define the flow condition.
Therefore it follows that, if dynamic similarity is achieved, the
values of pressure coefficient measured in model tests will
also apply to the prototype.
This is essential in relating both pressure changes in the
model and prototype flow conditions and determining the
forces acting on the prototype.
This second calculation involves multiplying the pressure
coefficient by an appropriate area, e.g. the projected wing
area in an aircraft model investigation where the model lift
and drag forces would have been measured via the lift and
drag component balances of the wind tunnel instrumentation.
Upaka Rathnayake (PhD) 239
Significance of the pressure coefficient contd.
Example 9.1, if the pressure difference between two points on
the surface of the missile had been 5.0 N m2, then the pressure
difference on the model would have been given by

Upaka Rathnayake (PhD) 240

Example 9.4

Upaka Rathnayake (PhD) 241

 Model studies in cases involving free
surface flow
In free surface model studies the effect of gravity becomes
important and the governing parameter is Froude number.
Generally the prototypes, i.e. large spillways, have Reynolds
numbers large enough to be operating out of the range of
dependence on Re; however, the model may be of such a size that,
when Froude number equivalence is set up, the model Reynolds
number is small enough to produce viscous effects not
representative of the prototype.
For this reason, the model must be large enough to place its
Reynolds number above the viscous loss dependence level.
One problem with free surface flow cases is that, generally, the
same fluid is used for the model as for the prototype, so that the
convenient expedient of substituting air for water in internal flows
cannot be copied. Upaka Rathnayake (PhD) 242
Example 9.5

Upaka Rathnayake (PhD) 243

Similarity applied to rotodynamic machines
Dimensional analysis to fans and pumps yields relationships of
the form

P - Shaft power
Q - Volume flow rate
Ps - Pressure rise across the unit rotating at speed N, and of
diameter D.

The fluid type is defined by density and viscosity , while the

detail dimensions of the machine are a, b, c with surface
roughness k.
Upaka Rathnayake (PhD) 244
Similarity applied to rotodynamic machines
contd.
For geometrically similar machines operating at high Reynolds numbers, so
that the term /ND2 = Re becomes irrelevant, the expressions reduce to

Thus, for model testing to be valid, each of these groups should have identical
values for the model and the prototype.
Flow Q M


ND 3
M
Q P ND
3
P

Pressure rise (pumps) and pressure drop (turbines)

Ps M

N D
2 2
M

Ps P N D
2 2
P

Power supplied (pumps) and power generated (turbines) P

M

N D 3 5
M

P N D
P
3 5
P

Upaka Rathnayake (PhD) 245

Similarity applied to rotodynamic machines
contd.

Example 9.4

Upaka Rathnayake (PhD) 246