Agitation of Non-Newtonian Fluids

A. 8. METZNER and R. E. OTTO

University of Delaware, Newark, Delaware

Since the shear rate of a non-Newtonian fluid is of importance in fixing the rheological tory work, but because of the importance
or viscometric behavior of such a material, the present study has been conoerned with the of non-Newtonian materials a study of
development of a general relationship between impeller speed and the shear rate of the these systems is long overdue. The
fluid. The resulting relationship was then used to interpret and correlate power-consump- purposes of the present investigation
tion data on three non-Newtonian fluids by use of a generalized form of the conventional
power-number-Reynolds-number plot for Newtonians. therefore were as follows: (1) establish-
Flat-bladed turbines from 2 to 8 in. in diameter were used exclusively. Tank diameters ment of the quantitative relationships
ranged from 6 to 22 in. and power inputs from 0.5 to 176 hp./l,OOO gal. The study en- between power consumption and the
compassed a 130-fold range of Reynolds numbers in the laminar and transition regions. geometric, kinematic, and fluid property
The results to date indicate that power requirements for the rapid mixing of non-New- parameters for non-Newtonian fluids;
tonian fluids are much greater than for comparable Newtonian materials. (2) qualitative study of rates and quality
of mixing in non-Newtonian systems to
shed some preliminary light on these
The literature in the field of agitation plexity of this problem has resulted in factors; and attaining (3) a quantitative
and mixing of fluids may be divided into little quantitative progress in this field method of approach in classification of
two general categories. First and most except in the mixing of particulate non-Newtonian fluids and ascertaining
extensive are the numerous papers dealing solids, and the literature, therefore, its relation t o mixing.
with the dependence of power consump- presents primarily qualitative guides as
tion upon geometric, kinematic, and opposed to the quantitative generaliza- REVIEW OF PRIOR ART
fluid-property parameters. The broad tions available for prediction of power
fundamental and applications studies of requirements. The most recent review by In the study of the agitation or mixing of
Mack, Miller, Oldshue, Rushton, and Rushton (LO) discusses progress in this fluids, the system which has received the
most attention consists of a single impeller
various coworkers (5, 8, 15, 21, 62, for field. centered in a cylindrical tank, as shown in
example) are representative of work of A major limitation of the prior art is Figure 1. The results of Newtonian power-
this nature. Studies of rates and quality that it deals almost exclusively with consumption studies are presented in terms
of mixing, and of the effect of agitator Newtonian fluids. The comparative sim- of dimensionless groups involving power
geometric variables on these factors plicity of Newtonian systems has made (Pgc/D5N3p)and a mixing Reynolds number
comprise the second group. The com- them the logical first choice for explora- (D2Np/p)or modifications of these. Below a
Reynolds number of 300 the Froude number
(DNZ/g), which measures the variation in
flow due to changes in the free surface, was
not important (22). The effects of geo-
metrical parameters other than the impeller
diameter [such as ( C / D ) , (TID),and
(BID)]were not important within the wide
ranges specified by previous workers.
The entire power-number-Reynolds-number
curve (Figure 2) has been divided into three
sections which are directly analogous t o the
familiar three regions of flow in a circular
pipe, i.e., the turbulent region in which
the power number (or friction factor) is
not greatly affected by Reynolds number,
the laminar region where power number and
Fig. 1. Mixing system. friction factor are inversely proportional to
Reynolds number, and the intermediate or
transition region. However, unlike the case
of flow in a round tube, the transition from
laminar to turbulent flow does not occur
over the narrow rangc of Reynolds numbers
between 2,000 and 4,000 (6) but extends
over the large range from 10 to 1,000, as
shown in Figure 2.
To date only three papers have been
concerned with the agitation-power require-
ments of non-Newtonian fluids. Brown and
Petsiavas (2) presented a power-number
plot for a Bingham-plastic type* of non-
Newtonian that makes use of the Bingham-
plastic Reynolds and Hedstrom numbers
(4, IS) t o correlate the data. Their vis-
cometric data, taken with a Brookfield
viscometer, indicated that their fluids
deviated appreciably from Bingham-plastic
Fig. 2. Power-number-Reynolds-number behavior, but for those few fluids which
curve for Newtonian fluids in a baffled closely approach the ideal Bingham plastic
tank (22). this method of attack can be reworked into

*Appendix A presents and discusses the classical

types of non-Newtonian behavior.

Vol. 3, No. 1 A.1.Ch.E. Journal Page 3

a rigorous and convenient design method.
Magnusson (9) reported a procedure for
calculating the apparent viscosity of non-
Newtonian fluids in agitated tanks by
comparison with the power number curve
for a Newtonian fluid but presented no
method whereby such results might be
used for equipment design. Schultz-Grunow
(23) studied power requirements for the
agitation of slightly non-Newtonian fluids
in the laminar region and developed a cor-
relation by means of dimensional analysis.
Since fluid density was not included in the
analysis, this correlation cannot be used
outside the laminar region and may not
accurately predict the end of the laminar-
flow region. These are rather serious limita-
tions in view of the fact that little act,ual
mixing of non-Newtonian fluids appears t o
occur within the laminar region.
Summarizing, it may be concluded that
the prior art presents indications of several
different approaches t o the problem of
non-Newtonian power consumption in
agitated vessels. However, no useful equip-
ment-design methods have been developed
and no over-all physical understanding of
the problem has as yet been presented.
DESCRIPTION AND CLASSIFICATION OF
NON-NEWTONIAN FLUIDS
In view of the previously reported
( I d , I S ) limitations of the common
rheological classifications of non-New-
tonian behavior, the method of approach
suggested in this work is to define the
extent of non-Newtonian behavior by
the property n, as given by the power-law
equation:
7 = I@>"
Newtonian fluids are defined as those
materials which in laminar flow exhibit
a linear relationship between the imposed
shear stress and the resulting shear rate;
i.e.. n has a constant value of unity and
R is equal to p/qc where p is termed the
viscosity of the Newtonian fluid. Since
the property n is a measure of the type
of fluid behavior, it has been termed the
$ow-behavior index of a fluid (13).
Similarly, K may be considered to be a
$uid-consistency index.
Non-Newtonian fluids are those ma-
terials for which the flow-behavior index
is not equal to unity although it is
frequently a constant, or nearly so, over
wide ranges of shear rates. The fact that
is not a true constant-over all con-
ceivable ranges of shear rate-is fre-
quently irrelevant in view of the fact
that one needs a rheological equation
which correctly portrays only the fluid
behavior over the particular range of
shear rates which happen to be of interest
in a given engineering problem. The rigor
and utility with which a similar method
of approach has been applied to the
analogous problem of flow in pipes ( I d )
suggest its utility in the field of agitation.
As a matter of fact, for flow in pipes the
Page 4
property analogous t o n in Equation (1)
does not need to be a constant in order
for the analysis to be rigorous, but may
be allowed to vary with the shear rate
of the fluid. The problem of agitation of
fluids in vessels has been too complex to
enable a similar theoretical analysis t o
date, and one cannot yet say whether or
not the exponent n must be a constant
to make the approach a rigorous one.
From an engineering viewpoint it is
important to note that no fluids have
yet been found for which n changes
rapidly enough with shear rate to permit
an experimental analysis of this problem
or to reveal any discrepancies of data
attributable to this factor. Severs (25)
has suggested that studies using dilatant
fluids, for which n sometimes does change
rapidly with shear rate, would be
illuminating.
I n view of the mathematical simplicity
of Equation (1) it is remarkable that it
correlates rheological data as well as it
does. For example, the data of reference
3 are correlated a t least as perfectly by
Equation (1) as by the much more com-
plex Eyring-Powell equation used by
Stevens et al. This statement of fact may
be readily verified by simply plotting
both the rheological data and the Eyring-
Powell equation for each fluid (as given
by reference 3 ) on logarithmic coordinates
and comparing the fit obtained with that
obtainable by the simple straight line
which depicts Equation (1) on such
coordinates. The rheological data of the
fluids used in the present work (Figure 5 )
do not fall on a perfect straight line
over the entire range of shear rates for
which data are available, but for all
fluids except the 1.07, CMC the devia-
tion from such a straight line is less than
the scattering of the data points. Even
for this CMC gel the data which are
within the range of average shear rates
used in the agitation studies fall on a
perfect straight line.
DEVELOPMENT OF THE CORRELATION
The flow of a fluid about a mixing
impeller is complex, but the controlling
factors of the drag on an impeller blade
may be examined by comparison with
simpler flow situations. Figure 3 shows
the laminar flow of a fluid around a
sphere. There is no separation of the
flow and viscous dissipation of energy
is the controlling factor. The total force
on the sphere is due to two effects:
(1) the shearing forces on the surface
of the object (of magnitudes indicated
approximately by arrows tangent to the
surface on Figure 3) and (2) the differ-
ences in pressure between the front and
the rear of the sphere. These pressure
differences in turn are due to the viscous
dissipation of energy in the fluid stream
and are indicated by the arrows perpen-
dicular to the surface of sphere.
A.1.Ch.E. Journal
For a Newtonian fluid two thirds of the
drag is due to shear-stress forces on the
surface ( I 7 ) , the remainder being due to
differences in pressure caused by the
flow of material in the region of the
surface. For a flat plate of zero thickness
normal to the flow of fluid (Figure 4),
which may be assumed similar to a flat-
bladed turbine or paddle rotating in a
fluid, all the drag is due to differences in
pressure caused by the flow of the fluid
in the region of the object. as there is no
area along which the shear stress a t the
surface can exert a component causing a
net drag in the direction of the motion
of the fluid.* One may conclude from
this analogy that the study of such an
object moving through the fluid must
include the study of the fluid in the general
region of the object, since this determines
the viscous-energy dissipation and hence
the drag or power requirement.
In non-Newtonian technology, study
of the flow in this over-all region must
obviously include a consideration of the
shearing rates or shearing stresses. This
is a necessary consequence of the fact
that the response (viscosity) of these
fluids to an imposed stress is not a con-
stant but depends on the magnitude of
either the shearing rate or shearing stress.
Another way of arriving a t the same
conclusion is to note that no simple
equation for the relationship between
shear stress and shear rate [such as
Equation (l)]has been found which will
correlate such data over all conceivable
ranges of these variables. Therefore, it is
necessary to know at least approximately
the ranges into which the shear rates about
an impeller may fall and the variables
which determine or control these shear rates.
Figure 5 shows the shear-stress-shear-
rate relationships for the materials used.
Evaluation of the ratio of shear stress to
shear rate (apparent viscosity) a t a
given point showed for the 1.25% Car-
bopol solution a variation in apparent
viscosity from 134,000 centipoises a t a
shear rate of 1.5 see.? t o 1,100centipoises
a t 1,000 see.-'. With such a large varia-
tion in apparent viscosity one could not
make a one-point measurement of the
apparent viscosity indiscriminately and
expect to obtain a correlation when the
range of shear rates in the viscometer was
different from that of the shear rates in
the system being studied.
The mathematical description of a
non-Newtonian material may be accom-
plished by the use of an equation [such
as Equation (l)]relating the shear stress
to shear rate or, equally well, by the
*This analogy of flow over a flat plate a s com-
pared with flow past a mixing impeller is not com-
pletely exact as the postulated types of flow do not
include the radial components of velocity which are
parallel to the surface of the flat plate or impeller.
Such radial flow is necessary t.0 produce mixing.
This does not invalidate the argument, however,
because the drag due to radial flow does not produce
any forces perpendicular to the surface of the im-
peller and therefore does not directly affect the
torque felt b y the shaft and hence the power con-
sumption of the system.
March, 1957
 ratio of its shear stress to shear rate as a metric curve for the fluih (such as other materials are commonly, and
function of, say, shear rate. If one chooses Figure 5) to obtain the corresponding correctly, termed pseudoplastic.
the latter, one has a simple comparison average shear rate in the system. The The apparent viscosity of a given
with a Newtonian fluid because in the best value for the proportionality constant material at a particular shear rate wm
limiting case, a Newtonian, the ratio k in Equation (2), obtained in this determined by dividing the shear stress
of shear stress to shear rate is not a manner, was 13. Consideration was given by the particular shear rate. An important
function of shear rate. Of course, the to all fluids and T / D ratios studied in point to note here is that the shear rates
choice is arbitrary. The latter was chosen the laminar region. It may be noted in Figure 5 were not calculated by pre-
in this case to simplify the visualization that only data in the laminar region are suming a shear-stress-shear-rate relation-
of the behavior of the non-Newtonian useful for this purpose as power data ship, nor were they calculated by
fluid. outside the laminar region are insensitive assuming that the shear rates were those
I n order to pinpoint the shear-rate to viscosity. which a Newtonian fluid would exhibit
range in a mixing system, one may devise in the same viscometer. Both these
a means of measuring the apparent erroneous attacks, common in the litera-
RESULTS
viscosity of the system and then deter- ture, are not necessary at the present
mine its relation to the other variables of The non-Newtonian materials tested state of the art. (Cf. Appendix C.) The
the system. To define apparent viscosity were two colloidal suspensions, CMC or variation of the viscometric data with
one may consider two identical sets of sodium carboxymethylcellulose (Hercules temperature was shown to be negligible
mixing equipment, one of which contains Powder Company) and Carbopol 934 for the small variations in room tempera-
a Newtonian fluid and the other a non- (Goodrich Chemical Company) and a ture encountered and were not always
Newtonian. If these fluids are agitated suspension of Bttasol clay (Attapulgus recorded.
in the laminar region, with the same Mineral and Chemical C n p a n y ) . As Figure 7 shows the power correlation
impeller speed used in each, and one shown in Figure 5, two con1 ntrations of for all the materials tested. Of over 130
varies the viscosity of the Newtonian by CMC and of Carbopol nd one of data points taken, all but ten lie within
diluting it or thickening it so that the Attasol were used. On 2 logarithmic 15% of the curve drawn through the data.
power measured a t each impeller is the diagram such as Figure the linear The ranges of data were as follow:
same, then, because all variables are shear-stress-shear-rate re1 ,ionship of
identical, one may say that the average Impeller diameters 2 to 8 in.
Newtonian fluids appears I a straight Tank diameters 6 to 22 in.
viscosities are the same in both pieces of 45-deg. line (n = 1.00). 'I le deviation T/D 1.3 to 3.7 (laminar
equipment. Upon measuring the vis- from Newtonian behavior, ,herefore, is region)
cosity of the Newtonian fluid one knows indicated by the divergenci of the slope 2.0 to 5.5 (transition
the apparent viscosity of the non-New- from the value of unity. lttasol was region)
tonian existing under the given experi- accordingly the most nc -Newtonian Power input 0.5 to 176 hp./1,000
mental conditions. (n = 0.24) of the fluids te ed. Because gal.
The preceding experiment defines the all these materials were oj the pseudo- Speed 95 to 1,190 rev./min.
apparent viscosity in the system. It is plastic type the slopes of t h curves were Apparent viscosity 7 to 180 poises
necessary to determine its dependence on all less than unity. The 4ttasol-clay Reynolds number 2.0 to 270
the variables of the system. I n this paper suspensions of the concentra;ion studied Both baffled ( B = 0.1T) and unbaffled
it is assumed that the fluid motion in the are frequently termed Bingham plastic systems were studied. The equipment
general region of the impeller can always by the engineering literature and the used is described in Appendix R ; the
be characterized by an average shear
rate which is linearly related to the rota-
tional speed of the impeller, viz:
TABLE4. MIXING-RATE
DATA
Minimum Minimum
Run Fluid h.p./1,000 gal.* NRe+ TID
If this line of reasoning is followed, the Movement at wall of tank
only necessary fluid properties are the 2 2.0% CMC 40.2 87.4 2.95
apparent viscosity and density, although 14 Attasol 21.6 122. 2.95
the latter would not be expected to be a 3A 1.0% CMC 8.66 94.0 2.95
significant variable in the laminar region.
Until means are developed both for 12 Carbopol 50.0 49.0 1.97
measuring and averaging shear rates the t Carbopol 74.0 42.5 2.00
' evaluation of k in Equation (2) must be 15 Attasol 16.8 75.8 1.97
done indirectly.
In Figure 6 the power number for a 17 Attasol 5.09 32.4 1.48
2.5% CMC solution is plotted as a 13 Carbopol 27.7 9.8 1.33
function of impeller speed in the system
previously described. Since the compar-
Movement of fluid surface
able Newtonian data for this system are
known (22), the viscosity which a New- 3A 1.0% CMC 53.1 268. 2.95
tonian fluid would have under identical 8 1.0% CMC 17.3 81.7 3.00
conditions of speed and power consump-
15 Attasol 35.8 113. 1.97
tion in the same equipment can be 5 1.0% CMC 23.0 94.0 2.00
obtained merely- by- referring to the
Newtonian power-number curve. Accord- 17 Attasol 35.0 98.0 1.48
ing to the preceding arguments, this
must be identical to the apparent vis- Median of all: 25-35 50-100
cosity of the non-Newtonian. When the
apparent viscosity is thus Obtained'
*Minimum values at which fluid movement could first be observed visually.
reference may be made to the ViSCO- tRun taken in conjunction with run 10. See footnote ** in Tab!e 3 [footnote on page 61.

Vol. 3, No. 1 A.1.Ch.E. Journal Page 5

detailed dimensions of the equipment
and the experimental data are tabulated
in Tables 1 to 4.*
DISCUSSION OF RESULTS
Laminar Region
With the exception of 1.0% CMG and
the Attasol suspension, Table 3 and
Figure 7 show that all fluids were studied
in the laminar region in a t least one run.
The agreement between the data and
the conventional Newtonian correlating
curve is good.
Transition Region
In general, the gradual development of
turbulence and departure from laminar
behavior may be stated to be due to the
formation of eddies. Consideration of the
flow properties of the pseudoplastic
ventional orm, and since Newtonian
systems leave the laminar region a t a
power number of 7.1 no conceivable
change in Reynolds number could shift
the curve to coincide with the usual
Newtonian behavior, shown as a dashed
line in Figure 7. Furthermore, the data
indicate that baffling had no effect on
power consumption under the conditions
evaluated; hence this extension of the
laminar region was found to be common
to baffled as well as to unbaffled systems. speed for a given non-Newtonian fluid,
The more gradual transition from laminar
to turbulent flow for pseudoplastic
fluids has also been shown to occur in
flow through pipes ( l a ) , and Brown and
Petsiavas ( 2 ) noted the same behavior
in independent mixing studies.
Validity of Assumptions
The correlation of Figure 7 confirms between shear rate a,nd impeller speed
the basic assumption made [Equation
(2)] regarding the relationship between
shear rate and impeller speed, at least
over the range of variables investigated
and the other two papers (9,2.9) either
did not measure the rheological properties
of the fluid or worked with only slightly
non-Newtonian systems. One may, how-
ever, cite the work of Magnusson (9)to
extend the generality of the unique rela-
tionship between average shear rate and
rotational speed of the impeller, as
follows.
Equation (2) implies that scale-up of
a model should be carried out at constant
so that the flow properties of the fluid
may be identical in the prototype and
the model. Figure 7 proves this for the
flat-bladed turbines of the present work,
and Magnusson's data confirm this for
two X-shaped paddles with diameters
of 2.8 and 6.2 in. It may be concluded
that since the same type of relationship

- I-
-\
Fig. 3. Flow of a Newtonian fluid about a
sphere.
fluids used in this work shows that their
apparent viscosity must increase with
increasing distance from the impeller, in
view of the lower velocities, hence shear
rates, of the fluids as they leave the vicin-
ity of the impeller. A small volume of fluid
leaving the high-shear-rate region near
the impeller therefore encounters progres-
sively more viscous material. This, in
turn, would cause a depressive effect on
the propagation of eddies. The last factor
would tend to decrease the rapidity with
which the power-number-Reynolds-num-
ber curve begins to diverge from the
45-deg. line of the laminar region as the
fluid becomes more non-Newtonian in the
direction of greater pseudoplasticity (n
approaching zero). The net result of this
behavior should be an extension of the
laminar region to Reynolds numbers
above 10 or to power numbers below 7.1,
the point at which Newtonian fluids
enter the transition region. Figure 7
shows that such a retardation was
indeed observed. It must be emphasized
that this extension of the laminar region
is not due to the particular form of the
Reynolds number chosen in this work.
The power number is used in its con-
~~
and in both the laminar and transition
regions. The conclusion that the average
shear rate, hence apparent viscosity, of
the non-Newtonian fluid depends only
on the rotational speed of the impeller
may not, a t first glance, appear to be
obvious. However, supporting evidence
mag also be obtained from Equation (10)
for-the shear rate a t the bob of a vis- Fig. 4. Flow of a Newtonian fluid about a
cometer in an infinite fluid. In this case flat plate.
the rate of shear also depends only on
the rotational speed, and not on dimen-
sions of the bob. In the laminar region holds for two greatly different types of
the analogy between a viscometer bob impellers, as well as for various different
and the impeller of a mixer is rather fluids, it appears to be of general utility.
close, since as a matter of fact, many No data are available, however, to con-
commercial viscometers employ bobs firm the constancy of k at a value of 13.0
which are geometrically similar to mixing for systems other than those discussed
impellers. In both the laminar and tran- here. In particular, k might be expected
sition regions investigated in this work to vary with the flow-behavior index n
the impellers generally behaved as though of the fluid, which was not varied widely
in an infinite fluid since changing the in the present studies. [Cf. Equation
distance between the tip of the impeller (lo).] It should be noted in passing that
and the wall of the tank (i.e., changing scale-up procedures cannot be carried
the T / D ratio) had no effect on power out in the usual sense of the term, how-
consumption. As will be discussed later, ever, because the Reynolds numbers will
this is in agreement with extensive work not be identical in the prototype and
on Newtonian fluids. However, as the model when N , p, and p, are all held
T / D ratio decreases toward unity, i.e., constant.
as the diameter of the impeller approaches
that of the tank, a point must eventually Ranges of Variables
be reached where the shear rate, hence The power range encompassed in this
power consumption, is a t least partly study was higher than the range which
dependent on either the T / D ratio is used industrially for Newtonian fluids
(clearance between impeller and tank (16), because pseudoplastic non-New-
wall) or the peripheral speed of the tonian fluids are inherently more difficult
impeller or both. It appears plausible to agitate. Since the exact power require-
that a t T / D ratios close to unity the ments for different levels of mixing rate
shear rate a t the impeller may take a are not yet known for these materials, the
mathematical form similar to that for a power input was varied over an extremely
bob-and-cup viscometer, Equation (6). wide range to ensure applicability of the
Recorrelation of data in previous results 60 industrial conditions.
papers on non-Newtonian-fluid agitation While the range of Reynolds numbers

might appear desirable to extend the covered was only l3O-fold, it is the range
Tabular material has been deposited as document results of this work; however, sufficiently in which viscous, highly non-Newtonian
5119 with the American Documentation Institute,
Photoduplication Service, Library of Congress,
Washington 25, D. C.. and may be obtained for
detailed tabulations of experimental data fluids are most likely to be agitated. With
$1.25 for photoprints or 35-mm. microfilm. were not available from one source ( 2 ) less viscous non-Newtonians the range

Page 6 A.1.Ch.E. Journal March, 1957

may be extended to higher Reynolds must be a function of (d2N2-np)/gcK Although decreasing the T / D ratio to
numbers, but usually the same highly and n. The function of n h a n n o t be nearly unity would almost certainly
non-Newtonian character is not observed evaluated for mixing work at present but reduce the Reynolds numbers, and hence
in such less viscous systems. the assumption that it is the same as in the power required for complete move-
the pipe-flow case, i.e. power number is a ment of the fluid, it appears questionable
Effect of Geometric Variables function of [(D2N2-np)/gcK] [8(n/6n+ 2 ) n ] whether this power reduction would be
The position of the impeller did not or ( D W - * p ) / y , yields a Reynolds number great enough to bring the power con-
critically affect power consumption when which is numerically proportional to the sumption at a given mixing rate down to
vortices were not formed. Vortices could (D2Np)/pa reported here. Further, more the level of Newtonian fluids. Most of
be formed, however, if the impeller were extensive data are needed to determine the data of Table 4 do, however, show an
placed closer to the surface than specified whether use of the generalized Reynolds appreciable decrease in power required
in Appendix B. number in mixing work is of widespread to mix a given fluid completely (as
No consistent effects due to baffling or generality or merely a coincidence in the defined by movement at the tank wall)
T / D ratios greater than 2 were found, case of the present data. as T / D is decreased. Such complete
which is in agreement with the work of fluid turnover does not, on the other
Rushton et al. (22).Hirsekorn and Miller Quality of Mixing hand, imply higher shear rates, as these
(6) report that in the laminar region The type of flow or the quality of are probably affected adversely by use
T / D can be made much smaller than the mixing is, of course, the end result of the of larger impellers (lower T / D ratios)
value of 2 reported by Rushton. Runs choice of a given agitator. However, as and lower rotational speeds, as shown by
13 and 17, with T / D ratios of 1.33 and mentioned before, the logical procedure Equation ( 2 ) . Thus it is more difficult
1.45 respectively, indicate that these for studying agitation is first to determine to obtain simultaneously both high rates

100

lL
a
v)

E 10
w
[L
z 5
(L

$ 2
v)

05
1 2 5 1 0 100 1000 10,000
100
N
SHEAR RATE, SEC.-
Fig. 6. Power number vs. impeller speed
Fig. 5. Flow curves of fluids used. for 2.5% CMC.

conclusions are valid also for non- the amount of power dissipation and of fluid turnover and high shear rates in
Newtonian materials in both the laminar then to turn to the more complex problem these non-Newtonian systems without
and transition regions. However, the of mixing patterns and rates. The high power requirements.
number of data points available is too measures of the rates of mixing studied Until really definitive data become
small to support such a conclusion to date (Table 4) are, therefore, qualita- available, adoption of the median values
firmly. tive. Nevertheless, several important of power input and Reynolds numbers
conclusions may be drawn at this time given in Table 4 is suggested as the
Similarity to Pipe Flow
concerning the comparative rates of criterion below which mixing will fre-
An interesting similarity appears to mixing of Newtonian and non-Newtonian quently be ineffective in these non-
exist between the means of correlating fluids at a given power input per unit Newtonian systems. Some confirmation
pipe-flow data and mixing-power-con- volume of fluid. of these high power-input levels may be
sumption data which suggests an alter- Hirsekorn and Miller (5) found that obtained from.industria1 practice: in one
nate means of correlation for the latter. particles could be suspended in viscous installation the mixing of non-Newtonian
For a non-Newtonian fluid which obeys Newtonian fluids during agitation within fluids is in the range of 5 to 50 hp./1,000
Equation (1) it may be readily shown the laminar region (NRabelow 10). The gal. in full-scale equipment, while pilot
that the friction factor for pipe flow is a maximum power input required to plant work (indicative of future opera-
+
function of (DnVz72-.)/gcK.8(n/6n 2)., suspend the particles was 6.0 hp./1,000 tions) ranges from 50 to 160 hp./1,000
which is a special form of the generalized gal. of fluid. While the data of Table 4 gal. This industrial experience also
number (DVz-p)/y proposed for pipe- are very irregular in the sense that indicates that to date no enormously
flow work ( I d ) . One will notice that these Reynolds numbers and power require- improved agitator or system designs
groups both degenerate to the usual ments for movement of all the fluid vary which might be particularly suitable for
Reynolds number for Newtonian fluids widely, in only one case out of thirteen the non-Newtonian fluids described here
( K = p/g, and n = 1.00). Application was reasonably complete fluid movement have been developed. Fundamentally,
of dimensional analysis to the mixing attained in the laminar region and, again this problem arises because the apparent
problem (with the only important length in only one case, was any fluid movement viscosity of a pseudoplastic fluid in-
dimension assumed to be the impeller a t the tank wall noticeable a t power creases with distance from the impeller;
diameter) shows that the power number inputs as low as 6.0 hp./l,OOO gal. hence the fluib tends to set up, or

Vol. 3, No. 1 A.1.Ch.E. Journal Page 7

 100 as well as non-Newtonian fluids requires
80
quantitative study.
60 4. Extension of the present work to a
40
greater variety of non-Newtonian fluids,
including dilatant materials, should be of
considerable interest to prove conclusively
whether or not the value of k [Equation (2)]
depends on the flow behavior index of the
fluid and whether the generalized Reynolds
number is truly applicable to correlation of
power-consumption data for all fluids.

ACKNOWLEDGMENl

The authors would like to thank J. Y.

Oldshue and the Mixing Equipment Com-
pany for their assistance in designing
equipment and J. H. Rushton and J. Y.
I e 4 6 8 10 20 40 w eo IM) eoo 44) Oldshue for reviewing the manuscript. The
-
DN~ Attapulgus Clay and Mineral Company
r. and Continental Diamond Fibre Company
Fig. 7. Power-number-Reynolds-number curve for non-Newtonian fluids; all points in are to be thanked.for donating test materials
the crowded regions not shown. and equipment, respectively. This work
was sponsored by the Office of Ordnance
Research, U. S. Army.

remain motionless, under conditions 2. From viscometric data (shear stress vs. NOTATION
where a Kewtonian fluid is mixed rela- shear rate) for the fluid in question, la is
tively completely. Therefore the problem calculated at the above-average shear rate. NoTn:-since the final correlation is
is somewhat alleviated by use of multiple 3. The Reynolds number (DzNp)/pais then based on dimensionless groups, any con-
calculated and the corresponding power sistent set of units may be used. The units
impellers inside a single tank and by use number read from Figure 7. given in the following table refer to those
of very low T / D ratios in the industrial used by the authors in the data tables unless
examples cited. As the procedure is empirical, extrap- specific units are given.
olation of the variables beyond the
Design Procedure ranges covered cannot be recommended. B = width of baffles, ft.
Within the laminar region (NRe < 20 C = height of impeller off bottom of
when n ranges between about 0.25 and CONCLUSIONS AND SUMMARY tank, ft.
0.45, and N R e < 10 when n = 1.00) D = impeller diameter or bob diam-
1. The assumption that average fluid eter, ft.
conditions are sufficiently well defined for shear rates are related only to impeller
the mixing equation, which is somewhat speed has led to an understanding and g = gravitational acceleration, ft./
analogous t o Poiseuilles law for friction correlation of the power requirements for sec.2
in a round tube, to be written as sug- agitation of non-Newtonian fluids. The gc = conversion factor, (lb. mass)(ft.)/
gested by Rushton and Oldshue (2f). quantitative relationships, which are ap- (lb. force)(sec.z)
This equation is the same for Newtonian plicable to both Newtonian and non- h = height of viscometer bob, ft.
and non-Newtonian fluids: K = fluid property in Equation (l),
Newtonian fluids over the ranges of (lb. force) (sec.m/sq. ft.)
N, = 71/NR, (3) variables investigated, represent a simple k = proportionality constant, dimen-
generalization of the well-known Tesults sionless
Substitution of the definitions of the from Newtonian systems.
Reynolds numbers used in this work gives L = length of pipe or capillary, ft.
2. The laminar region may extend N = rotational speed, rev./sec.
71cl, DzNz to higher Reynolds numbers in pseudo- N , = power number, dimensionless, Pgc
P= (4) plastic fluids than in Newtonian systems. /D5N3p
9. 3. Preliminary qualitative observa- N R e = Reynolds number, dimensionless,
It has been suggested that these tions indicate that more power is required taken as ( D z N p ) / p a
equations are particularly useful for for the rapid mixing of highly non- n = flow-behavior index, dimension-
design purposes. The constant given was Newtonian systems than for Newtonian less
developed for hlixco turbines with six fluids.
flat blades and is dependent on the
particular type of impeller used. As RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FURTHER WORK n = d In (ApD/4L)
d In (8&/7rD3)
would be expected from the analogous
1. Although data were taken on 8-in.
problem of flow in tubes (f2), highly impellers, the limitations of the present ,tr = -d In (2tl7rD;h)
non-Newtonian fluids with a flow-be- equipment did not allow high rotational d In ( 4 ~ N / - l l/sz)
havior index n near zero show a smaller speeds for these larger systems. Therefore,
change of power with impeller speed in order to approach plant-scale conditions P = power, (ft.)(lb. force)/sec.
than do Newtonian fluids (n = 1.00), more closely one must extend the data to p = pressure, lb. force/sq. ft.
since pa decreases as N increases. larger and more powerful mixing systems. Q = flow rate, cu. ft./sec.
Under any flow Conditions the recom- 2. In some commercial installations the T = radius, ft.
mended procedure for estimating power T / D ratio may be smaller than the values S = scale reading, Ib. force
consumption once the type, size, and studied in the present work. Limited data s = D,/Di
indicate that the power consumption may
speed of the impeller have all been not be significantly affected by such changes, T = tank diameter, ft.
fixed may be reviewed as follows: but this influence of small values of T / D t = torque, ft.(lb. force)
1. Knowing N , one may evaluate kN should be investigated further for both u = point velocity, ft./sec.
[Equation (2)] to determine the average Newtonian and non-Newtonian fluids. V = volumetric average velocity, ft./
shear rate in the system. 3. The quality of mixing of Newtonian see.

Page 8 A.1.Ch.E. Journal March, 1957

y = generalized viscosity coefficient,
Y = (qcK)/g.(6y 4- 2/n)., 1b.
mass/(ft.) (see.%-n )
A = difference of
pa = apparent viscosity, lb. mass/(ft.)
(see.)
p = density, Ib. mass/cu. ft.
7 = shear stress, Ib. force/sq. ft.
Subscripts
i = bob wall
0 = cup wall
LITERATURE CITED
1. Alves, G. E., D. F. Boucher, and R. L.
Pigford, Chem. Eng. Progr., 48, 385
(1952).
2. Brown, G. A., and D. N. Petsiavas,
paper presented a t New York A.1.Ch.E.
Meeting (December, 1954).
3. Christiansen, E. B., N. W. Ryan, and
W. E. Stevens, A.1.Ch.E. Journal, 1,
544 (1955).
4. Hedstrom, B. 0. A,, Ind. Eng. Chem.,
44, 651 (1952).
5. Hirsekorn, F. S., and S. A. Miller,
Chem. Eng. Progr., 49, 459 (1953).
6. Hunsaker, J. C., and B. G. Rightmire,
Engineering Applications of Fluid
Mechanics, McGraw-Hill Book Com-
pany, Inc., New York (1947).
7. Krieger, I. M., and S. H. Maron, J .
A p p l . Phys., 25, 72 (1954).
8. Mack, D. E., and V. W. Uhl, Chem.
Eng., 54, 119 (1947).
9. Magnusson, Karl, Iva. (Sweden),23, 56
(1952).
10. Matthews, T. A., 11, private com-
munication (April 29, 1954).
11. Metzner, A . B., Chenz. Eng. Progr., 50,
27 (1954).
12. --, and J. C. Reed, A.Z.Ch.E.
Journal, 1, 434 (1955).
13. Metzner, A. B., in Advances in
Chemical Engineering, Vol. I, Aca-
demic Press, Inc., New York (1956).
14. Mooney, Melvin, J. Rheol., 2, 210
(1931).
15. OConnell, F. P., and D. E. Mack,
Chem. Eng. Progr., 46, 358 (1950).
16. Oldshue, J. Y., grivate communication
I _
(1954).
17. Otto. R. E.. Ph.D. thesis. Univ. Dela-
ware: Sew&k (1957).
18. Reed, J. C., M.Ch.E. thesis, Univ.
Dekawdre, Newark (1954).
19. Reiner, M., Deformation and Flow,
H. K. Lewis and Compmy, London
(1949).
20. Rushton, J. H., Ind. Eng. Chem., 47,
582 (1955).
21. -- and J. Y. Oldshue, Chem Eng.
Progr., 49, 161 and 267 (1953).
22. Rushton, J. H., E. W. Costich, and
H. J. Everett, Chem. Eng. Progr., 46,
395 and 467 (1950).
23. Schultz-Grunow, F., Chem. Zng. Tech.,
26, 18 (1954).
24. Severs, E. T., and J. M. Austin, Ind.
25. -
Eng. Chem., 46, 2369 (1954).
APPENDIX
, private communication (1956).
A. Definitions of Non-Newtonian Behavior
Figure 5 illustrates on arithmetic coordi-
nates the classical definitions used by
Vol. 3, No. 1
rheologists. These definitions are based on
the relationship between the shearing stress
imposed on a fluid, 7, and the resulting
shear rate, duldr, as measured in various
kinds of viscometers. Newtunian fluids
show the familiar straight-line relationship,
the slope of the line being defined as the
viscosity of the fluid. A Bingham-plastic
fluid is defined as one which also shows a
linear relationJhip between shear stress and
shear rate, but the relationship does not pass
through the origin. Pseudoplastic and dila-
tant fluids do not show a linear relationship.
Figure 9 shows the equivalent logarithmic
plot.
For the Newtonian fluid the ratio of
shear stress divided by shear rate is a
constant and defined as the viscosity of
the fluid. For the non-Newtonian, the
equivalent, or apparent, viscosity is not
a constant. Instead the ratio of shear stress
divided by shear rate changes with shear
rate. For Bingham-plastic and pseudoplastic
materials this ratio decreases with increas-
ing values of shear rate; for dilatant
materials it increases.
There are two other kinds of non-
Newtonian behavior, termed thixotropy and
rheopezy. The apparent viscosities of
thixotropic and rheopectic fluids depend
on the time of shear as well as on rate of
shear. These two kinds of behavior have
been too complex to study and, since they
are of less frequent industrial importance,
will not be discussed here. Industrially,
pseudoplastic behavior is probably more
important than the other types of non-
Newtonian behavior combined.
All the foregoing definitions are restricted
t o materials which do not exhibit elastic re-
covery or viscoelasticity. That is to say,
once they have been sheared there is no
tendency for the fluid to return to its original
shape or configuration. The necessity of this
assumption may prove to be a more serious
limitation of the present work than the
assumed absence of thixotropy and rheo-
pexy but cannot be dealt with until the
engineering problems of design for pseudo-
plastic, Bingham-plastic, and dilatant be-
havior hsve been well-developed.
BINGHAM
PLASTIC
/A SHEAR RATE
PSEUDOPLASTIC
$!-
Fig. 8. Fluid characteristics (arithmetic
scale).
A.1.Ch.E. Journal
These classincations are discussed in
more detail elsewhere (I, 4, 11, 13, 19, for
example). Many engineering publications
have been concerned with fluids which were
believed to be of the Bingham-plastic type.
At the beginning of the present experi-
mental program extensive determinations
of the shear-stress-shear-rate relationships
of fluids which have been claimed to be
Bingham plastics led to the conclusion that
true Bingham plltstics probably exist only
very rarely, if at all. Except for a few
specially prepared materials this type of
behavior broke down over shear-rate ranges
greater than about 1:lOO.
B. Experimental Apparatus and Procedure
The mixing equipment used in this work
is shown in Figures 10 and 11. It consisted
of a x-hp. variable-speed motor, four
Mixco Standard flat-bladed turbines (Mix-
ing Equipment Go.), and four cylindrical
tanks. To measure torque accurately, the
motor was mounted on a large ball-bearing
ring fixed in a cast-aluminum plate; the
motor rotated freely with very little friction.
The reaction torque developed by the
motor in driving the turbine was taken
from the motor by a torque ring attached
to the motor hesd and transferred by a
small, essentially frictionless pulley to a
dynamometer scale. The turbine shaft was
fitted inside a special hollow shaft provided
on the motor by the manufacturer (Mixco)
so that the shaft height was variable.
Turbine speeds were measured by an
electric tachometer geared to the motor
shaft.
Four cylindrical flat-bottomed tanks 6,
8.2, 11.6, and 22 in. in diameter were used
in this work. The smallest was a beaker,
the next two were Pyrex tanks, and the final
one was a 55-gal. drum. All tanks except
the smallest one were fitted with four
removable baffles with a width of one tenth
of the tznk diameter.
The impellers which were used had
diameters of 2, 4, 6, and 8 in. The ratios of
the width and length of the impeller blades
relative to their diameter were 1:5 and 1:4
respectivcly. With the smallest flat-bladed
turbine the torque readings were too low
1001
v)
K
I
I 10
SHEAR RATE 9
0
Fig. 9. Fluid characteristics (logarithmic
scale).
Page 9
for the dynemometer scale; hence a torque
table was improvised from a dead-weight
tester connected through a system of
pulleys to a fmaller spring scale.
I n order not to vury a large number of
geometric varizbles a t on-e, the fluid
level in the tanks was maintained a t one
Fig. 10. Mixing equipment.
Fig. 11. Impellers and viscoinetric equipment.
Page 10
tank diameter. The impeller was placed a t
one impeller diameter off the bottom of
the tank unless this placement brought the
impeller withln one impeller diameter of
the fluid surface. In this case the impeller
was centered halfway between the liquid
surface and the tank bottom.
Rheological properties were measured
both on a Stormer rotational viscometer
and with a capillary-tube viscometer
(Figure 1I). The capillary-tube viscometer
was an instrument used for the extrusion of
plastics (24).
The fluid to be tested was placed in a
stainless steel pressure chamber and ex-
truded under pressure from a capillary tube
mounted in the bottom of the chamber.
The flow rate of the fluid was measured by
use of a stop watch and a weighing balance.
The extrusion pressure was supplied by a
nitrogen cylinder and was measured on
laboratory test gauges. During the experi-
mental runs the pressure chamber was
surrounded by water to control the tem-
perature.
The Stormer viscometer was modified in
that a smooth-walled cylinder was used
for the cup. End effects on the bob were
corrected by calculation of the equivalent
bob height from data taken with National
Bureau of Standards calibrated oils. This
equivalent bob height was about 25%
greater than the actual height. The fact
that the data (Figure 5 and Table 2) from
both instruments coincide within experi-
mental error supports the adequacy of this
procedure for accounting for end effects in
the rotational viscometer as well as for
the absence of any similar problems with
the capillary-tube viscometer.
Detailed equipment dimensions are given
in Table 1.
C. Viscometry
General equations (which do not require
the presumption of a shear-stress-shear-rate
relationship) have been reported in the
literature; these were used exclusively t o
interpret the viscometric measurements.
A.1.Ch.E. Journal
For the rotational viscometer, Krieger
and Maron ( 7 ) have succeeded in writing
an infinite series which converges rapidly
for cup-to-bob diameter ratios of less than
1.2:l. Their equations are
Shear stress a t the bob:
7. =
2 t
P D,h
Shear rate a t the bob:
_-du -
dr - - 1,s [l
1 47rN + h($ - 1)
n r f is evaluated a t the shear stress calcu-
lated by means of Equation (5). The
instrument constants h.1 and k z are
k, = c2s2-2(1 + $Ins);
s2 - 1
k 2 -----I ns (7)
6s2
I n any one run n is the slope of a
logarithmic plot of the torqne plotted
against rotational speed, as all other factors
in n are constant.
Rabinowitschs solution of the motion of
fluids flowing through a pipe or capillary
tube gives upon rearrangement (18)
7 = -APD
- -
4L (8)
--[-I
du 32Q 3n
dr - 7rD3 +1 (9)
Again n must be evaluated a t the corre-
sponding shear stress given in Equation (8).
For a given capillary tube n is found from
a logarithmic plot of pressure drop vs. flow
rate.
Another general equation given
by
Krieger and Maron ( 7 ) is of use in vis-
cometric equipment approximating a long
cylinder rotating in an infinite fluid:
Brookfield viscometers (Brookfield Engi-
neering Laboratories) may fall into this
category, depending on the shapes of the
bobs user The shear stress is given by
Equation ( 5 ) .One cannot use the Brookfield
conversion factors to determine the appar-
ent viscosity directly because the formulas
supplied with the instrument are for
Newtonian fluids (n = 1.00). However,
since a Brookfield has several speeds n
can be obtained from a logarithmic plot of
scale reading vs. rotational speed, and the
shear rates calculated by means of Equation
(10).
For a power-function non-Newtonian
[Equation (I)]:
n = n z riff. (11)
Presented at A.I.Ch.E. Detroit meeting
March, 1957