Ancient Egypt

Contents

1 Ancient Egypt 1
1.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.1.1 Predynastic period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.1.2 Early Dynastic Period (c. 30502686 BC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.1.3 Old Kingdom (26862181 BC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.1.4 First Intermediate Period (21811991 BC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.1.5 Middle Kingdom (21341690 BC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.1.6 Second Intermediate Period (16741549 BC) and the Hyksos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.1.7 New Kingdom (15491069 BC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.1.8 Third Intermediate Period (1069653 BC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.1.9 Late Period (672332 BC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.1.10 Ptolemaic period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.1.11 Roman period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.2 Government and economy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.2.1 Administration and commerce . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.2.2 Social status . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.2.3 Legal system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.2.4 Agriculture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.2.5 Natural resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.2.6 Trade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.3 Language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.3.1 Historical development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.3.2 Sounds and grammar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.3.3 Writing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.3.4 Literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.4 Culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.4.1 Daily life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.4.2 Cuisine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.4.3 Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.4.4 Art . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.4.5 Religious beliefs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.4.6 Burial customs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

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1.5 Military . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.6 Technology, medicine, and mathematics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
1.6.1 Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
1.6.2 Faience and glass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
1.6.3 Medicine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
1.6.4 Maritime technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
1.6.5 Mathematics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
1.7 Population . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
1.8 Legacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
1.9 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
1.10 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
1.11 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
1.12 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
1.13 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

2 History of Egypt 32
2.1 Prehistory (pre3100 BC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.2 Ancient Egypt (3100332 BC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2.2.1 Achaemenid rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2.2.2 Second Achaemenid conquest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2.3 Ptolemaic and Roman Egypt (332 BC641 AD) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2.3.1 Sassanid Egypt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
2.4 Arab and Ottoman Egypt (6411882) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
2.5 British Protectorate (18821953) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2.6 Republican Egypt (since 1953) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
2.6.1 Terrorist insurgency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
2.6.2 Civil unrest since 2011 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
2.7 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
2.8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

3 Prehistoric Egypt 41
3.1 Late Paleolithic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3.1.1 Wadi Halfa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3.1.2 Aterian Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3.1.3 Khormusan Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3.2 Mesolithic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3.2.1 Halfan culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
3.2.2 Qadan and Sebilian cultures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
3.2.3 Harian culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
3.3 Neolithic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
3.3.1 Lower Egypt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
3.3.2 Upper Egypt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
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3.4 Timeline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
3.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
3.6 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
3.7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
3.8 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

4 Early Dynastic Period of Egypt 50

4.1 Cultural evolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
4.2 First Pharaoh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
4.3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
4.4 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
4.5 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52

5 Old Kingdom of Egypt 53

5.1 Third Dynasty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
5.2 Fourth Dynasty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
5.3 Fifth Dynasty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
5.4 Sixth Dynasty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
5.5 Culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
5.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
5.7 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
5.8 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56

6 First Intermediate Period of Egypt 57

6.1 Events leading to the First Intermediate Period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
6.2 The 7th and 8th dynasties at Memphis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
6.3 Rise of the Heracleopolitan Kings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
6.4 Rise of the Theban kings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
6.5 The Ipuwer Papyrus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
6.6 The art and architecture of the First Intermediate Period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
6.7 End of the First Intermediate Period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
6.8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

7 Middle Kingdom of Egypt 60

7.1 Political history . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
7.1.1 Reunication under the Eleventh Dynasty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
7.1.2 Early 12th Dynasty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
7.1.3 Height of the Middle Kingdom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
7.1.4 Decline into the Second Intermediate Period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
7.2 Administration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
7.2.1 Provincial government . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
7.3 Agriculture and climate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
7.4 Art . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
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7.5 Literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
7.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
7.7 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67

8 Second Intermediate Period of Egypt 69

8.1 End of the Middle Kingdom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
8.2 Fifteenth dynasty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
8.3 Sixteenth dynasty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
8.4 Abydos dynasty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
8.5 Seventeenth dynasty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
8.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
8.7 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71

9 New Kingdom of Egypt 72

9.1 Eighteenth Dynasty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
9.2 Nineteenth Dynasty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
9.3 Twentieth Dynasty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
9.4 Image gallery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
9.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
9.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
9.7 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75

10 Third Intermediate Period of Egypt 76

10.1 Twenty-rst Dynasty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
10.2 Twenty-second and Twenty-third Dynasty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
10.3 Twenty-fourth Dynasty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
10.4 Twenty-fth Dynasty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
10.5 End of the Third Intermediate Period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
10.6 Historiography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
10.7 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
10.8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
10.8.1 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
10.9 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78

11 Late Period of ancient Egypt 79

11.1 26th Dynasty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
11.2 27th Dynasty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
11.3 28th30th Dynasties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
11.4 31st Dynasty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
11.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
11.6 Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80

12 History of Achaemenid Egypt 81

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12.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
12.2 Pharaohs of the 27th Dynasty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
12.3 Timeline of the 27th Dynasty (Achaemenid Pharaohs only) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
12.4 Historical sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
12.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
12.6 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
12.7 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82

13 Ptolemaic Kingdom 83
13.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
13.1.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
13.1.2 Establishment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
13.1.3 Ptolemy I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
13.1.4 Ptolemy II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
13.1.5 Ptolemy III . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
13.1.6 Decline of the Ptolemies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
13.1.7 Later Ptolemies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
13.1.8 Cleopatra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
13.1.9 Roman rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
13.2 Culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
13.2.1 Art . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
13.2.2 Religion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
13.2.3 Social situation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
13.2.4 Coinage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
13.2.5 Military . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
13.3 Cities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
13.3.1 Naucratis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
13.3.2 Alexandria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
13.3.3 Ptolemais . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
13.4 Demographics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
13.4.1 Arabs under the Ptolemies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
13.4.2 Jews under the Ptolemies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
13.5 Agriculture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
13.6 List of Ptolemaic rulers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
13.7 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
13.8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
13.9 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
13.10External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96

14 Roman Province of Egypt 97

14.1 Roman rule in Egypt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
14.2 Roman government in Egypt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
vi CONTENTS

14.3 Economy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
14.4 Military . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
14.5 Social structure in early Roman Egypt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
14.6 Christian Egypt (33 AD4th century) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
14.7 Later Roman Egypt (4th6th centuries) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
14.8 Episcopal sees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
14.9 Sassanian Persian invasion (619 AD) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
14.10Arab Islamic conquest (639646 AD) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
14.11Gallery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
14.12References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
14.13Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
14.14External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105

15 Diocese of Egypt 106

15.1 Administrative history . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
15.2 Praefecti Augustalii of the Diocese . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
15.3 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
15.4 Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107

16 Sasanian conquest of Egypt 108

16.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
16.2 Fall of Egypt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
16.3 Aftermath . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
16.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
16.5 Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108

17 Outline of ancient Egypt 109

17.1 What type of thing is Ancient Egypt? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
17.2 Geography of ancient Egypt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
17.2.1 Places . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
17.3 Government and politics of ancient Egypt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
17.3.1 Pharaohs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
17.3.2 Government Ocials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
17.3.3 Egyptian law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
17.3.4 Military of ancient Egypt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
17.4 General history of ancient Egypt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
17.4.1 History of ancient Egypt, by period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
17.4.2 History of ancient Egypt, by region . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
17.4.3 History of ancient Egypt, by subject . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
17.5 Egyptology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
17.5.1 Egyptologists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
17.5.2 Museums with ancient Egyptian exhibits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
CONTENTS vii

17.6 Culture of ancient Egypt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112

17.6.1 Architecture of ancient Egypt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
17.6.2 Religion in ancient Egypt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
17.6.3 Ancient Egyptian language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
17.7 Egyptian economy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
17.8 Scholars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
17.9 Publications about ancient Egypt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
17.10See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
17.11References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
17.12External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115

18 Cities of the ancient Near East 116

18.1 Mesopotamia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
18.1.1 Lower Mesopotamia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
18.1.2 Upper Mesopotamia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
18.2 Zagros ( West and South ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
18.2.1 Tepe Sialk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
18.3 Anatolia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
18.4 The Levant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
18.5 Arabian Peninsula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
18.6 Kerma (Doukki Gel) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
18.7 Horn of Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
18.8 Egypt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
18.9 Nomes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
18.9.1 Lower Egypt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
18.9.2 Upper Egypt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
18.10Lower Egypt (The Nile Delta) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
18.11Middle Egypt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
18.12Upper Egypt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
18.12.1 Northern Upper Egypt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
18.12.2 Southern Upper Egypt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
18.13Lower Nubia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
18.14Upper Nubia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
18.15The Oases and Mediterranean coast . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
18.16Sinai . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
18.17Eastern Desert . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
18.18Notes and references . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
18.19Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
18.20See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
18.21References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
18.22External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
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19 History of ancient Egypt 127

19.1 Chronology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
19.2 Neolithic Egypt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
19.2.1 Neolithic period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
19.2.2 Prehistoric Egypt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
19.3 Dynastic Egypt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
19.3.1 Early dynastic period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
19.3.2 Old Kingdom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
19.3.3 First Intermediate Period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
19.3.4 Middle Kingdom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
19.3.5 Second Intermediate Period and the Hyksos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
19.3.6 New Kingdom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
19.3.7 Third Intermediate Period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
19.3.8 Late Period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
19.3.9 Persian domination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
19.3.10 Ptolemaic dynasty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
19.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
19.5 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
19.5.1 Pharaonic Egypt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
19.5.2 Ptolemaic Egypt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
19.6 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138

20 List of ancient Egyptian sites 140

20.1 Nomes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
20.1.1 Lower Egypt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
20.1.2 Upper Egypt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
20.2 Lower Egypt (The Nile Delta) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
20.3 Middle Egypt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
20.4 Upper Egypt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
20.4.1 Northern Upper Egypt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
20.4.2 Southern Upper Egypt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
20.5 Lower Nubia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
20.6 Upper Nubia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
20.7 The Oases and Mediterranean coast . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
20.8 Sinai . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
20.9 Eastern Desert . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
20.10Notes and references . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
20.11Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145

21 4.2 kiloyear event 146

21.1 Evidence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
21.2 Aftermath . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
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21.2.1 Ancient Egypt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146

21.2.2 Mesopotamia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
21.2.3 Arabian peninsula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
21.2.4 Spain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
21.2.5 China . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
21.3 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
21.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
21.5 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
21.6 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148

22 5.9 kiloyear event 149

22.1 Cause . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
22.2 Eects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
22.3 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
22.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149

23 Abadiyeh 151

24 Achaemenid Empire 152

24.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
24.1.1 Achaemenid timeline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
24.1.2 Origin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
24.1.3 Formation and expansion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
24.1.4 Greco-Persian Wars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
24.1.5 Cultural phase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
24.1.6 Second conquest of Egypt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
24.1.7 Fall of the empire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
24.1.8 Descendants in later Iranian dynasties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
24.1.9 Causes of decline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
24.2 Government . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
24.3 Military . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
24.3.1 Military composition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
24.3.2 Infantry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
24.3.3 Cavalry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
24.3.4 Navy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
24.4 Culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
24.4.1 Languages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
24.4.2 Customs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
24.4.3 Religion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
24.4.4 Art and architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
24.4.5 Tombs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
24.5 Legacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
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24.6 Achaemenid kings and rulers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171

24.6.1 Unattested . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
24.6.2 Attested . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
24.7 Gallery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
24.8 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
24.9 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
24.10References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
24.11Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
24.12External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176

25 Ancient Egyptian agriculture 178

25.1 Farming systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
25.1.1 The Nile and eld planting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
25.1.2 Irrigation systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
25.1.3 Horticulture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
25.2 Crops grown . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
25.2.1 Food crops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
25.2.2 Industrial and ber crops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
25.3 Religion and agriculture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
25.3.1 Gods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
25.4 Notes and references . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
25.5 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
25.6 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180

26 Ancient Egyptian retainer sacrices 181

26.1 Historical context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
26.1.1 Egypts beliefs about the afterlife . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
26.1.2 Power of the Pharaoh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
26.2 Evidence for retainer sacrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
26.3 Reasons for Retainer sacrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
26.3.1 Pharaohs and nobles perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
26.3.2 Retainers perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
26.4 First dynasty retainer sacrices in general . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
26.5 Specic kings retainer sacrices from the rst dynasty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
26.5.1 King Aha . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
26.5.2 King Djer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
26.5.3 King Djet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
26.5.4 King Den . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
26.5.5 King Qaa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
26.6 Demographics of sacriced retainers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
26.7 Methods of sacrice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
26.8 Reasons for dwindling of retainer sacrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
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26.9 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183

26.10References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
26.11Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184

27 Annals of Thutmose III 185

27.1 Campaigns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
27.2 Historical signicance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
27.3 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
27.4 References and footnotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
27.5 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186

28 Balsam oil 187

28.1 Collection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
28.2 Composition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
28.3 Uses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
28.4 Allergy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
28.5 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
28.6 Alternate names . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
28.7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189

29 Beauty and cosmetics in ancient Egypt 191

29.1 Chemistry of ancient Egyptian cosmetics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
29.2 Medical uses of ancient Egyptian cosmetics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
29.3 Cosmetic palettes and jars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
29.4 Use of cosmetics in dierent social classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
29.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
29.6 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192

30 Bident 193
30.1 Etymology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
30.2 Historical uses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
30.3 In mythology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
30.4 In art . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
30.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
30.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
30.7 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195

31 Cemetery GIS 196

31.1 Mastabas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
31.2 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
31.3 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
31.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196

32 Egyptian blue 198

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32.1 Denition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198

32.2 History and background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
32.3 Composition and manufacture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
32.4 Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
32.5 Archaeological evidence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
32.6 Connections with other vitreous material and with metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
32.7 Occurrences outside of Egypt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
32.8 Modern applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
32.9 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
32.10References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
32.11Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
32.12External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203

33 EgyptianHittite peace treaty 204

33.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
33.1.1 Pre-Ramesses II relationship with the Hittites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
33.1.2 Battle of Kadesh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
33.1.3 Subsequent campaigns into Syria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
33.2 Texts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
33.2.1 Hittite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
33.2.2 Egyptian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
33.3 Content . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
33.4 Analysis-theories about the treaty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
33.5 Aims . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
33.5.1 Egyptian aims . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
33.5.2 Hittite aims . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
33.6 Aftermath . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
33.7 Text of the treaty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
33.8 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
33.9 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208

34 Clothing in ancient Egypt 210

34.1 Elements of Egyptian clothing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
34.2 Pharaohs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
34.3 Men . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
34.4 Women . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
34.5 Children . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
34.6 Wigs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
34.7 Jewelry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
34.8 Cosmetics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
34.9 Footwear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
34.10See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
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34.11References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
34.12External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212

35 Festival Songs of Isis and Nephthys 214

35.1 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214

36 Gardens of ancient Egypt 215

36.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
36.2 Palace gardens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
36.3 Pleasure gardens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
36.4 Temple gardens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
36.5 Funeral gardens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
36.6 Trees and plants in the Egyptian garden . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
36.7 Gallery of plants in the ancient Egyptian garden . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
36.8 Ponds and pools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
36.9 Shade, color and aroma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
36.10Gardening in Ancient Egypt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
36.11Gallery of gardens of Ancient Egypt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
36.12References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
36.13Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218

37 Giza East Field 219

37.1 Queens pyramids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
37.2 Cemetery G 7000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
37.3 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
37.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220

38 Giza West Field 221

38.1 Cemetery G1000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
38.2 Cemetery G 1100 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
38.3 Cemetery G 1200 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
38.4 Cemetery G 1400 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
38.5 Cemetery G 1500 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
38.6 Cemetery G 1600 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
38.7 Cemetery G 2100 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
38.8 Cemetery G 2300 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
38.9 Cemetery G 4000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
38.10Cemetery G 5000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
38.11Junker Cemetery East . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
38.12Steindor Cemetery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
38.13External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
38.14References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
xiv CONTENTS

39 The Greatest Pharaohs 223

39.1 In education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
39.2 4-part series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
39.3 Video release . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
39.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
39.5 Additional sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
39.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
39.7 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224

40 Homosexuality in ancient Egypt 225

40.1 Depictions of possible homosexuality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
40.1.1 Nyankh-khnum and Khnum-hotep . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
40.1.2 King Pepi II and his general ocer Sasenet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
40.1.3 Horus and Seth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
40.2 Ancient Egyptian views . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
40.3 Talmudic Literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
40.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
40.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
40.6 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227

41 Origins of the Hyksos 228

41.1 Hyksos 15th dynasty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
41.2 Origin hypotheses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
41.2.1 Manetho and Josephus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
41.2.2 Modern scholarship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
41.3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231

42 Index of ancient Egypt-related articles 232

42.1 09 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
42.2 A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
42.3 B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
42.4 C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
42.5 D . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
42.6 E . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
42.7 F . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
42.8 G . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
42.9 H . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
42.10I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
42.11J . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
42.12K . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
42.13L . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
42.14M . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
CONTENTS xv

42.15N . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
42.16O . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
42.17P . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
42.18Q . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
42.19R . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
42.20S . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
42.21T . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
42.22U . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
42.23V . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
42.24W . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
42.25X . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
42.26Y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
42.27Z . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
42.28See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272

43 Interregnum queen 273

44 Kings Highway 274

44.1 Route . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
44.2 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
44.2.1 Iron Age . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
44.2.2 Classical Antiquity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
44.2.3 Byzantine Period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
44.2.4 After the Muslim conquest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
44.3 In the Bible . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
44.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
44.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275

45 Mastaba 276
45.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
45.2 Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
45.3 Architectural Evolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
45.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277

46 Migdol 279
46.1 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279

47 Min 280
47.1 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280

48 Naharin 281
48.1 Literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
48.2 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
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49 Neo-Assyrian Empire 282

49.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
49.1.1 Middle Assyrian Empire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
49.2 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
49.2.1 Adad-nirari II (911-891 BC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
49.2.2 Shalmaneser III to Adad-nirari III (859783 BC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
49.2.3 Period of stagnation, 783745 BC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
49.3 Tiglath-Pileser III, 744727 BC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
49.3.1 Invasion of Israel (738 BC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
49.4 Sargonid dynasty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
49.4.1 Sargon II, 721705 BC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
49.4.2 Sennacherib, 705681 BC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
49.4.3 Esarhaddon, 681669 BC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
49.4.4 Ashurbanipal, 668627 BC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
49.5 Fall of Assyria, 627609 BC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
49.5.1 Environmental factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
49.6 Assyria after the fall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
49.7 Role of the Aramaic language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
49.8 Culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
49.9 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
49.10References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
49.11Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
49.12External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290

50 Nile Valley Civilizations 291

50.1 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291

51 Noph 292

52 North City, Amarna 293

52.1 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293

53 Nubia (Mesolithic) / Nile boat 294

53.1 Discovery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
53.2 Boat design / steering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
53.3 Mesolithic shing boats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
53.4 Naqada II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
53.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295

54 Ovis longipes palaeoaegyptiacus 297

54.1 Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297

55 Pharaohs in the Bible 298

55.1 Historical pharaohs: Taharqa, Necho and Apries/Hophra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
CONTENTS xvii

55.2 Conjectural pharaohs: Shishak and So . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298

55.3 Unidentied pharaohs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
55.3.1 Pharaohs in the Book of Genesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
55.3.2 Pharaohs in the Book of Exodus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
55.3.3 Pharaohs in the Books of Kings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
55.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
55.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
55.6 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300

56 Pharaonic Tayma inscription 302

56.1 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
56.2 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302

57 Portal:Ancient Egypt 303

58 Ancient Egyptian race controversy 304

58.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
58.2 Position of modern scholarship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
58.3 Specic current-day controversies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
58.3.1 Tutankhamun . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
58.3.2 Cleopatra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
58.3.3 Great Sphinx of Giza . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
58.3.4 Kemet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
58.3.5 Ancient Egyptian art . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
58.4 Historical hypotheses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
58.4.1 Black Egyptian hypothesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
58.4.2 Asiatic Race Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
58.4.3 Caucasian / Hamitic hypothesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
58.4.4 Turanid race hypothesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
58.4.5 Dynastic race theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
58.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
58.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
58.7 Works cited . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314

59 Black Egyptian Hypothesis 315

59.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
59.2 Position of modern scholarship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
59.3 Greek historians . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
59.4 Melanin samples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
59.5 Language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
59.6 Cultural practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
59.7 Biblical Ham, blackness, and Hams ospring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
59.8 Kemet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
xviii CONTENTS

59.9 Ancient art . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318

59.10Sculpture and the Sphinx . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
59.11Qustul artifacts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
59.12See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
59.13Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
59.14References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323

60 Rope stretcher 324

60.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324
60.2 The Egyptian rope trick . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324
60.3 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324
60.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324
60.5 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324
60.6 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324

61 Rosemarie and Dietrich Klemm Collection 325

61.1 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
61.2 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
61.3 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325

62 Sea Peoples 326

62.1 History of the concept . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326
62.2 Primary documentary records . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
62.2.1 Reign of Ramesses II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
62.2.2 Reign of Merneptah . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328
62.2.3 Reign of Ramesses III . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
62.2.4 Onomasticon of Amenope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
62.3 Other documentary records . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
62.3.1 Early Amarna age . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
62.3.2 Carchemish . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
62.3.3 Byblos obelisk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
62.3.4 Letters at Ugarit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
62.4 Hypotheses about identity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332
62.4.1 Regional migration historical context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332
62.4.2 Philistine hypothesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332
62.4.3 Minoan hypothesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
62.4.4 Greek migrational hypothesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
62.4.5 Trojan hypothesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334
62.4.6 Mycenaean warfare hypothesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334
62.4.7 Italian peoples hypotheses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334
62.4.8 Anatolian famine hypothesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
62.4.9 Invader hypothesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336
CONTENTS xix

62.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336

62.6 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336
62.7 Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342
62.7.1 Primary sources: Early publications of the theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342
62.7.2 Secondary sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342
62.8 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344

63 Sebakh 345
63.1 Composition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345
63.2 Aecting archaeology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345
63.3 Amarna . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345
63.4 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345
63.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345

64 Sheneset-Chenoboskion 346
64.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
64.2 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
64.3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
64.4 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347

65 Statue of Sekhmet 348

65.1 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348
65.2 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348

66 Therapeutae 349
66.1 Name . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
66.2 Philos account . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
66.3 Jewish monastic orders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
66.4 Early Christian interpretations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350
66.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350
66.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350
66.7 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
66.8 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351

67 Thinite Confederacy 352

67.1 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352
67.2 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352
67.3 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352

68 Jonathan Tokeley-Parry 353

68.1 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353

69 Tryph 354
69.1 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354
xx CONTENTS

69.2 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354

70 Tulle bi telli 355

70.1 Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355
70.2 Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355
70.3 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355
70.4 Uses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355
70.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356

71 Urban planning in ancient Egypt 357

71.1 Predynastic period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357
71.2 el-Lahun . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357
71.3 Deir el-Medina . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357
71.4 Amarna . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358
71.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359
71.6 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359

72 Uronarti 360
72.1 The fortress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360
72.2 Excavation History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360
72.3 Finds at Uronarti . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360
72.4 The Boundary Stela of Senusret III . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360
72.5 Uronarti History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361
72.6 Military sigicance of the fortress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361
72.7 Site FC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362
72.8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362
72.9 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362

73 Women in Ancient Egypt 363

73.1 Working women . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363
73.2 Pregnancy and childbirth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364
73.3 Women playing an ocial role at the highest levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364
73.4 Women in ancient Egyptian literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366
73.5 Women in ancient Egyptian art . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366
73.6 Divine image . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367
73.6.1 Gods Wives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368
73.7 Inuence of the image . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368
73.7.1 The rediscovery of ancient Egypt during the era of Napoleon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368
73.7.2 Modern images of women in ancient Egypt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368
73.8 The social and political position of women . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369
73.9 Family and marriage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370
73.10Known royal women (by chronological order) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370
73.11See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372
CONTENTS xxi

73.12Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372
73.12.1 Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372
73.13References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372
73.14External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373
73.15Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374
73.15.1 Text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374
73.15.2 Images . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 386
73.15.3 Content license . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404
Chapter 1

Ancient Egypt

For the British history magazine, see Ancient Egypt tablished himself as the new ruler of Egypt. This Greek
(magazine). Ptolemaic Kingdom ruled Egypt until 30 BC, when, un-
der Cleopatra, it fell to the Roman Empire and became a
Roman province.[3]
The success of ancient Egyptian civilization came partly
from its ability to adapt to the conditions of the Nile
River valley for agriculture. The predictable ooding and
controlled irrigation of the fertile valley produced sur-
plus crops, which supported a more dense population, and
social development and culture. With resources to spare,
the administration sponsored mineral exploitation of the
valley and surrounding desert regions, the early develop-
ment of an independent writing system, the organization
of collective construction and agricultural projects, trade
with surrounding regions, and a military intended to de-
feat foreign enemies and assert Egyptian dominance. Mo-
tivating and organizing these activities was a bureaucracy
of elite scribes, religious leaders, and administrators un-
The Great Sphinx and the pyramids of Giza are among the most
recognizable symbols of the civilization of ancient Egypt. der the control of a pharaoh, who ensured the coopera-
tion and unity of the Egyptian people in the context of an
elaborate system of religious beliefs.[4][5]
Ancient Egypt was a civilization of ancient Northeastern
Africa, concentrated along the lower reaches of the Nile The many achievements of the ancient Egyptians include
River in what is now the modern country of Egypt. It the quarrying, surveying and construction techniques
is one of six civilizations to arise independently. Egyp- that supported the building of monumental pyramids,
tian civilization followed prehistoric Egypt and coalesced temples, and obelisks; a system of mathematics, a prac-
around 3150 BC (according to conventional Egyptian tical and eective system of medicine, irrigation systems
chronology)[1] with the political unication of Upper and and agricultural production techniques, the rst known
Lower Egypt under the rst pharaoh Narmer (commonly planked boats,[6] Egyptian faience and glass technology,
referred to as Menes).[2] The history of ancient Egypt oc- new forms of literature, and the earliest known peace
curred in a series of stable kingdoms, separated by peri- treaty, made with the Hittites.[7] Egypt left a lasting
ods of relative instability known as Intermediate Periods: legacy. Its art and architecture were widely copied, and
the Old Kingdom of the Early Bronze Age, the Middle its antiquities carried o to far corners of the world. Its
Kingdom of the Middle Bronze Age and the New King- monumental ruins have inspired the imaginations of trav-
dom of the Late Bronze Age. elers and writers for centuries. A new-found respect for
antiquities and excavations in the early modern period by
Egypt reached the pinnacle of its power in the New King-
Europeans and Egyptians led to the scientic investiga-
dom, during the Ramesside period, where it rivalled the
tion of Egyptian civilization and a greater appreciation of
Hittite Empire, Assyrian Empire and Mitanni Empire, af-
its cultural legacy.[8]
ter which it entered a period of slow decline. Egypt was
invaded or conquered by a succession of foreign powers,
such as the Canaanites/Hyksos, Libyans, the Nubians, the
Assyrians, Babylonians, the Achaemenid Persians, and
the Macedonians in the Third Intermediate Period and
the Late Period of Egypt. In the aftermath of Alexander
the Great's death, one of his generals, Ptolemy Soter, es-

1
2 CHAPTER 1. ANCIENT EGYPT

1.1 History 1.1.1 Predynastic period

Main article: Predynastic Egypt
Main articles: History of ancient Egypt, History of Egypt, In Predynastic and Early Dynastic times, the Egyptian
and Population history of Egypt
The Nile has been the lifeline of its region for much

Mediterranean Sea
Jerusalem

Sea
Gaza

Dead
Damietta
Rosetta
Rafah
Alexandria Buto

Sais Tanis Pelusium

Naukratis Busiris
Avaris

NW
N

NE
Wadi Natrun Bubastis
W E
Nile Delta
SW

S
SE
Merimda Great Bitter
Lake
Heliopolis
Cairo
Giza
0 (km) 100

Sinai
0 (mi) 60

Saqqara
Memphis
Helwan
Dahshur

Faiyum
Lake
Moeri
s

Meydum
Lower Timna

Lahun Egypt
Herakleopolis Serabit al-Khadim
qaba
river

of A
Gu
Nile

lf

Bahariya Oasis
of

Gulf
S ue
z

Beni Hasan
Hermopolis
Amarna

Asyut
Badari
Eastern Desert
Qau

Western Desert Akhmim

Red Sea
Thinis
Abydos river
Nile Dendera
Quseir
Kharga Oasis Naqada Koptos at
Hammam
Wadi

Thebes
Dakhla Oasis Tod
(Luxor and Karnak)

Upper Hierakonpolis
Egypt Edfu

Kom Ombo
A typical Naqada II jar decorated with gazelles. (Predynastic
Aswan
First Cataract
Bernike
Period)
Dunqul Oasis

climate was much less arid than it is today. Large regions

Nabta Playa

Abu Simbel
Wad
i Alla
of Egypt were covered in treed savanna and traversed by
qi

herds of grazing ungulates. Foliage and fauna were far

Buhen

more prolic in all environs and the Nile region supported

Second Cataract Kush large populations of waterfowl. Hunting would have been
Wa
d

common for Egyptians, and this is also the period when

iG
ab
ga
ba

Nubian Desert
many animals were rst domesticated.[11]
Third Cataract

Kerma
riv
er
By about 5500 BC, small tribes living in the Nile valley
had developed into a series of cultures demonstrating rm
ile
N

Kawa

Fourth Cataract

Napata
control of agriculture and animal husbandry, and identi-
Gebel Barkal
Fifth Cataract

able by their pottery and personal items, such as combs,

bracelets, and beads. The largest of these early cultures in
Meroe
upper (Southern) Egypt was the Badari, which probably
originated in the Western Desert; it was known for its high
quality ceramics, stone tools, and its use of copper.[12]
Map of ancient Egypt, showing major cities and sites of the Dy-
nastic period (c. 3150 BC to 30 BC) The Badari was followed by the Amratian (Naqada I) and
Gerzeh (Naqada II) cultures,[13] which brought a number
of technological improvements. As early as the Naqada
of human history.[9] The fertile oodplain of the Nile I Period, predynastic Egyptians imported obsidian from
gave humans the opportunity to develop a settled agri- Ethiopia, used to shape blades and other objects from
cultural economy and a more sophisticated, centralized akes.[14] In Naqada II times, early evidence exists of
society that became a cornerstone in the history of hu- contact with the Near East, particularly Canaan and the
man civilization.[10] Nomadic modern human hunter- Byblos coast.[15] Over a period of about 1,000 years,
gatherers began living in the Nile valley through the end the Naqada culture developed from a few small farm-
of the Middle Pleistocene some 120,000 years ago. By ing communities into a powerful civilization whose lead-
the late Paleolithic period, the arid climate of Northern ers were in complete control of the people and resources
Africa became increasingly hot and dry, forcing the pop- of the Nile valley.[16] Establishing a power center at
ulations of the area to concentrate along the river region. Hierakonpolis, and later at Abydos, Naqada III leaders
1.1. HISTORY 3

expanded their control of Egypt northwards along the

Nile.[17] They also traded with Nubia to the south, the
oases of the western desert to the west, and the cultures
of the eastern Mediterranean and Near East to the east.[17]
Royal Nubian burials at Qustul produced artifacts bear-
ing the oldest-known examples of Egyptian dynastic sym-
bols, such as the white crown of Egypt and falcon.[18][19]
The Naqada culture manufactured a diverse selection of
material goods, reective of the increasing power and
wealth of the elite, as well as societal personal-use items,
which included combs, small statuary, painted pottery,
high quality decorative stone vases, cosmetic palettes, and
jewelry made of gold, lapis, and ivory. They also devel-
[27]
oped a ceramic glaze known as faience, which was used The Narmer Palette depicts the unication of the Two Lands.
well into the Roman Period to decorate cups, amulets,
and gurines.[20] During the last predynastic phase, the
Naqada culture began using written symbols that eventu- 1.1.3 Old Kingdom (26862181 BC)
ally were developed into a full system of hieroglyphs for
writing the ancient Egyptian language.[21] Main article: Old Kingdom of Egypt
Major advances in architecture, art, and technology were

1.1.2 Early Dynastic Period (c. 30502686

BC)

Main article: Early Dynastic Period of Egypt

The Early Dynastic Period was approximately contem-

porary to the early Sumerian-Akkadian civilisation of
Mesopotamia and of ancient Elam. The third-century
BC Egyptian priest Manetho grouped the long line of
pharaohs from Menes to his own time into 30 dynasties,
a system still used today.[22] He chose to begin his of- The Giza Pyramids
cial history with the king named Meni (or Menes in
Greek) who was believed to have united the two king- made during the Old Kingdom, fueled by the increased
doms of Upper and Lower Egypt (around 3100 BC).[23] agricultural productivity and resulting population, made
[28]
The transition to a unied state happened more gradually possible by a well-developed central administration.
than ancient Egyptian writers represented, and there is no Some of ancient Egypts crowning achievements, the
contemporary record of Menes. Some scholars now be- Giza pyramids and Great Sphinx, were constructed dur-
lieve, however, that the mythical Menes may have been ing the Old Kingdom. Under the direction of the
the pharaoh Narmer, who is depicted wearing royal re- vizier, state ocials collected taxes, coordinated irriga-
galia on the ceremonial Narmer Palette, in a symbolic act tion projects to improve crop yield, drafted peasants to
of unication.[24] In the Early Dynastic Period about 3150 work on construction projects, and [29]
established a justice
BC, the rst of the Dynastic pharaohs solidied control system to maintain peace and order.
over lower Egypt by establishing a capital at Memphis, Along with the rising importance of a central administra-
from which he could control the labour force and agri- tion arose a new class of educated scribes and ocials
culture of the fertile delta region, as well as the lucrative who were granted estates by the pharaoh in payment for
and critical trade routes to the Levant. The increasing their services. Pharaohs also made land grants to their
power and wealth of the pharaohs during the early dynas- mortuary cults and local temples, to ensure that these in-
tic period was reected in their elaborate mastaba tombs stitutions had the resources to worship the pharaoh af-
and mortuary cult structures at Abydos, which were used ter his death. Scholars believe that ve centuries of
to celebrate the deied pharaoh after his death.[25] The these practices slowly eroded the economic power of
strong institution of kingship developed by the pharaohs the pharaoh, and that the economy could no longer af-
served to legitimize state control over the land, labour, ford to support a large centralized administration.[30] As
and resources that were essential to the survival and the power of the pharaoh diminished, regional governors
growth of ancient Egyptian civilization.[26] called nomarchs began to challenge the supremacy of the
4 CHAPTER 1. ANCIENT EGYPT

trolled Lower Egypt in the north, while a rival clan based

in Thebes, the Intef family, took control of Upper Egypt
in the south. As the Intefs grew in power and expanded
their control northward, a clash between the two rival dy-
nasties became inevitable. Around 2055 BC the north-
ern Theban forces under Nebhepetre Mentuhotep II -
nally defeated the Herakleopolitan rulers, reuniting the
Two Lands. They inaugurated a period of economic and
cultural renaissance known as the Middle Kingdom.[35]

1.1.5 Middle Kingdom (21341690 BC)

Main article: Middle Kingdom of Egypt
The pharaohs of the Middle Kingdom restored the

Khafre Enthroned

pharaoh. This, coupled with severe droughts between

2200 and 2150 BC,[31] is assumed to have caused the
country to enter the 140-year period of famine and strife
known as the First Intermediate Period.[32]

1.1.4 First Intermediate Period (2181

1991 BC) Amenemhat III, the last great ruler of the Middle Kingdom

Main article: First Intermediate Period of Egypt

countrys prosperity and stability, thereby stimulating a
resurgence of art, literature, and monumental building
After Egypts central government collapsed at the end of projects.[36] Mentuhotep II and his Eleventh Dynasty suc-
the Old Kingdom, the administration could no longer sup- cessors ruled from Thebes, but the vizier Amenemhat I,
port or stabilize the countrys economy. Regional gover- upon assuming kingship at the beginning of the Twelfth
nors could not rely on the king for help in times of crisis, Dynasty around 1985 BC, shifted the nations capital to
and the ensuing food shortages and political disputes es- the city of Itjtawy, located in Faiyum.[37] From Itjtawy,
calated into famines and small-scale civil wars. Yet de- the pharaohs of the Twelfth Dynasty undertook a far-
spite dicult problems, local leaders, owing no tribute to sighted land reclamation and irrigation scheme to in-
the pharaoh, used their new-found independence to estab- crease agricultural output in the region. Moreover, the
lish a thriving culture in the provinces. Once in control military reconquered territory in Nubia that was rich in
of their own resources, the provinces became economi- quarries and gold mines, while laborers built a defensive
cally richerwhich was demonstrated by larger and bet- structure in the Eastern Delta, called the "Walls-of-the-
ter burials among all social classes.[33] In bursts of cre- Ruler", to defend against foreign attack.[38]
ativity, provincial artisans adopted and adapted cultural With the pharaohs having secured military and polit-
motifs formerly restricted to the royalty of the Old King- ical security and vast agricultural and mineral wealth,
dom, and scribes developed literary styles that expressed the nations population, arts, and religion ourished. In
the optimism and originality of the period.[34] contrast to elitist Old Kingdom attitudes towards the
Free from their loyalties to the pharaoh, local rulers be- gods, the Middle Kingdom experienced an increase in
gan competing with each other for territorial control and expressions of personal piety and what could be called a
political power. By 2160 BC, rulers in Herakleopolis con- democratization of the afterlife, in which all people pos-
1.1. HISTORY 5

sessed a soul and could be welcomed into the company The Egyptian Empire

C
Black Sea

as
15th century BC

pi
of the gods after death.[39] Middle Kingdom literature

an
HITTITE

Se
featured sophisticated themes and characters written in a EMPIRE

a
Sardes

condent, eloquent style.[34] The relief and portrait sculp- Mycenae

CI
LI
CI
A
ASSYRIA
Nineveh
Carchemish

ture of the period captured subtle, individual details that SYRIA

ME
Assur
Citium
SO
reached new heights of technical perfection.[40] Mediteranean Sea Byblos
Sidon
Kadesh
Damascus
PO
TA
MIA
Tyre

N
Babylon

AA
The last great ruler of the Middle Kingdom, Amenemhat Gaza
Nippur

CAN
Tanis
Avaris Ur
Pe
III, allowed Semitic-speaking Canaanite settlers from the LIBYA
Memphis
SINAI
Heliopolis
r
Gu sian
lf

e
Near East into the delta region to provide a sucient

Nil
Herakleopolis
ARABIA
EGYPTIAN
labour force for his especially active mining and building Abydos

Re
THEBES
campaigns. These ambitious building and mining activ-

d
Aswan
Elephantine I
ities, however, combined with severe Nile oods later in

Se
Abu Simbel

a
his reign, strained the economy and precipitated the slow EMPIRE
II

KUSH
decline into the Second Intermediate Period during the III IV

V
later Thirteenth and Fourteenth dynasties. During this Napata

decline, the Canaanite settlers began to seize control of VI

PUNT
the delta region, eventually coming to power in Egypt as (under Egyptian influence)

the Hyksos.[41]

1.1.6 Second Intermediate Period (1674

1549 BC) and the Hyksos The maximum territorial extent of ancient Egypt (15th century
BC)
Main article: Second Intermediate Period of Egypt

The New Kingdom pharaohs established a period of

Around 1785 BC, as the power of the Middle Kingdom unprecedented prosperity by securing their borders and
pharaohs weakened, a Western Asian people called the strengthening diplomatic ties with their neighbours, in-
Hyksos had already settled in the Eastern Delta town of cluding the Mitanni Empire, Assyria, and Canaan. Mili-
Avaris, seized control of Egypt, and forced the central tary campaigns waged under Tuthmosis I and his grand-
government to retreat to Thebes. The pharaoh was treated son Tuthmosis III extended the inuence of the pharaohs
as a vassal and expected to pay tribute.[42] The Hyksos to the largest empire Egypt had ever seen. Between their
(foreign rulers) retained Egyptian models of govern- reigns, Hatshepsut generally promoted peace and restored
ment and identied as pharaohs, thus integrating Egyp- trade routes lost during the Hyksos occupation, as well
tian elements into their culture. They and other invaders as expanding to new regions. When Tuthmosis III died
introduced new tools of warfare into Egypt, most notably in 1425 BC, Egypt had an empire extending from Niya
the composite bow and the horse-drawn chariot.[43] in north west Syria to the fourth waterfall of the Nile in
After their retreat, the native Theban kings found them- Nubia, cementing loyalties and opening access to critical
[45]
selves trapped between the Canaanite Hyksos ruling the imports such as bronze and wood.
north and the Hyksos Nubian allies, the Kushites, to the
south of Egypt. After years of vassalage, Thebes gath-
ered enough strength to challenge the Hyksos in a con-
ict that lasted more than 30 years, until 1555 BC.[42]
The pharaohs Seqenenre Tao II and Kamose were ulti-
mately able to defeat the Nubians to the south of Egypt,
but failed to defeat the Hyksos. That task fell to Kamoses
successor, Ahmose I, who successfully waged a series of
campaigns that permanently eradicated the Hyksos pres-
ence in Egypt. He established a new dynasty. In the New
Kingdom that followed, the military became a central pri-
ority for the pharaohs seeking to expand Egypts borders
and attempting to gain mastery of the Near East.[44]

1.1.7 New Kingdom (15491069 BC) Djeser-Djeseru is the main building of Hatshepsuts mortuary
temple complex at Deir el-Bahri; the building is an example of
Main article: New Kingdom of Egypt perfect symmetry that predates the Parthenon by a thousand
years
6 CHAPTER 1. ANCIENT EGYPT

The New Kingdom pharaohs began a large-scale building

campaign to promote the god Amun, whose growing cult
was based in Karnak. They also constructed monuments
to glorify their own achievements, both real and imag-
ined. The Karnak temple is the largest Egyptian temple
ever built.[46] The pharaoh Hatshepsut used such hyper-
bole and grandeur during her reign of almost twenty-two
years.[47] Her reign was very successful, marked by an ex-
tended period of peace and wealth-building, trading ex-
peditions to Punt, restoration of foreign trade networks,
and great building projects, including an elegant mortuary
temple that rivaled the Greek architecture of a thousand
years later, a colossal pair of obelisks, and a chapel at Kar-
nak. Despite her achievements, Amenhotep II, the heir
to Hatshepsuts nephew-stepson Tuthmosis III, sought to
erase her legacy near the end of his fathers reign and
throughout his, touting many of her accomplishments as
his.[48] He also tried to change many established tradi-
tions that had developed over the centuries, which some
suggest was a futile attempt to prevent other women from
becoming pharaoh and to curb their inuence in the king-
dom.
Around 1350 BC, the stability of the New Kingdom
seemed threatened further when Amenhotep IV ascended
the throne and instituted a series of radical and chaotic
reforms. Changing his name to Akhenaten, he touted
the previously obscure sun deity Aten as the supreme de-
ity, suppressed the worship of most other deities, and at- Four colossal statues of Ramesses II ank the entrance of his
tacked the power of the temple that had become domi- temple Abu Simbel
nated by the priests of Amun in Thebes, whom he saw
as corrupt.[49] Moving the capital to the new city of
and the Sea Peoples, a conjectured[53][54] confederation
Akhetaten (modern-day Amarna), Akhenaten turned a
of seafarers from the Aegean Sea. Initially, the military
deaf ear to events in the Near East (where the Hittites,
was able to repel these invasions, but Egypt eventually lost
Mitanni, and Assyrians were vying for control). He was
control of its remaining territories in southern Canaan,
devoted to his new religion and artistic style. After his
much of it falling to the Assyrians. The eects of exter-
death, the cult of the Aten was quickly abandoned, the
nal threats were exacerbated by internal problems such as
priests of Amun soon regained power and returned the
corruption, tomb robbery, and civil unrest. After regain-
capital to Thebes. Under their inuence the subsequent
ing their power, the high priests at the temple of Amun in
pharaohs Tutankhamun, Ay, and Horemheb worked to
Thebes accumulated vast tracts of land and wealth, and
erase all mention of Akhenatens heresy, now known as
their expanded power splintered the country during the
the Amarna Period.[50]
Third Intermediate Period.[55]
Around 1279 BC, Ramesses II, also known as Ramesses
the Great, ascended the throne, and went on to build more
temples, erect more statues and obelisks, and sire more 1.1.8 Third Intermediate Period (1069
children than any other pharaoh in history.[51] A bold mil- 653 BC)
itary leader, Ramesses II led his army against the Hittites
in the Battle of Kadesh (in modern Syria) and, after ght- Main article: Third Intermediate Period of Egypt
ing to a stalemate, nally agreed to the rst recorded
peace treaty, around 1258 BC.[52] With both the Egyp-
tians and Hittite Empire proving unable to gain the upper Following the death of Ramesses XI in 1078 BC,
hand over one another, and both powers also fearful of Smendes assumed authority over the northern part of
the expanding Middle Assyrian Empire, Egypt withdrew Egypt, ruling from the city of Tanis. The south was eec-
from much of the Near East. The Hittites were thus left totively controlled by the High Priests of Amun at Thebes,
compete unsuccessfully with the powerful Assyrians and who recognized Smendes in name only.[56] During this
the newly arrived Phrygians. time, Berber tribes from what was later to be called Libya
had been settling in the western delta, and the chieftains
Egypts wealth, however, made it a tempting target for of these settlers began increasing their autonomy. Libyan
invasion, particularly by the Libyan Berbers to the west, princes took control of the delta under Shoshenq I in 945
1.1. HISTORY 7

BC, founding the Libyan Berber, or Bubastite, dynasty invaded Egypt around 727 BC. Piye easily seized control
that ruled for some 200 years. Shoshenq also gained con- of Thebes and eventually the Nile Delta.[60] He recorded
trol of southern Egypt by placing his family members in the episode on his stela of victory. Piye set the stage
important priestly positions. for subsequent Twenty-fth dynasty pharaohs,[61] such
In the mid-ninth century BC, Egypt made a failed attempt as Taharqa, to reunite the Two lands of Northern and
to once more gain a foothold in Western Asia. Osorkon II Southern Egypt. The Nile valley empire was as large as
of Egypt, along with a large alliance of nations and peo- it had been since the New Kingdom.
ples, including Persia, Israel, Hamath, Phoenicia/Canaan, The Twenty-fth dynasty ushered in a renaissance pe-
the Arabs, Arameans, and neo Hittites among others, riod for ancient Egypt.[62] Religion, the arts, and archi-
engaged in the Battle of Karkar against the powerful tecture were restored to their glorious Old, Middle, and
Assyrian king Shalmaneser III in 853 BC. However, this New Kingdom forms. Pharaohs, such as Taharqa, built or
coalition of powers failed and the Neo Assyrian Empire restored temples and monuments throughout the Nile val-
continued to dominate Western Asia. ley, including at Memphis, Karnak, Kawa, Jebel Barkal,
[63]
Libyan Berber control began to erode as a rival native etc. It was during the Twenty-fth dynasty that there
dynasty in the delta arose under Leontopolis. Also, the was the rst widespread construction of pyramids (many
Nubians of the Kushites threatened Egypt from the lands in modern Sudan) in the Nile Valley since the Middle
[64][65][66]
to the south.[57] Kingdom.
Piye made various unsuccessful attempts to extend Egyp-
tian inuence in the Near East, then controlled by Assyria.
In 720 BC, he sent an army in support of a rebellion
against Assyria, which was taking place in Philistia and
Gaza. However, Piye was defeated by Sargon II and the
rebellion failed. In 711 BC, Piye again supported a re-
Chiefs of
volt against Assyria by the Israelites of Ashdod and was
the West
once again defeated by the Assyrian king Sargon II. Sub-
sequently, Piye was forced from the Near East.[67]
From the 10th century BC onwards, Assyria fought for
control of the southern Levant. Frequently, cities and
kingdoms of the southern Levant appealed to Egypt
for aid in their struggles against the powerful Assyr-
ian army. Taharqa enjoyed some initial success in
his attempts to regain a foothold in the Near East.
Taharqa aided the Judean King Hezekiah when Hezekiah
and Jerusalem was besieged by the Assyrian king,
Sennacherib. Scholars disagree on the primary reason
for Assyrias abandonment of their siege on Jerusalem.
Reasons for the Assyrian withdrawal range from con-
ict with the Egyptian/Kushite army to divine interven-
tion to surrender to disease.[68] Henry Aubin argues that
the Kushite/Egyptian army saved Jerusalem from the As-
syrians and prevented the Assyrians from returning to
capture Jerusalem for the remainder of Sennacheribs
life (20 years).[69] Some argue that disease was the pri-
mary reason for failing to actually take the city; however,
Senacheribs annals claim Judah was forced into tribute
regardless.[70]
Sennacherib had been murdered by his own sons for de-
stroying the rebellious city of Babylon, a city sacred to
all Mesopotamians, the Assyrians included. In 674 BC
Esarhaddon launched a preliminary incursion into Egypt;
however, this attempt was repelled by Taharqa.[71] How-
Around 730 BC Libyans from the west fractured the political ever, in 671 BC, Esarhaddon launched a full-scale inva-
unity of the country sion. Part of his army stayed behind to deal with rebel-
lions in Phoenicia, and Israel. The remainder went south
Drawing on millennia of interaction (trade, acculturation, to Rapihu, then crossed the Sinai, and entered Egypt.
occupation, assimilation, and war[58] ) with Egypt,[59] the Esarhaddon decisively defeated Taharqa, took Memphis,
Kushite king Piye left his Nubian capital of Napata and
8 CHAPTER 1. ANCIENT EGYPT
Thebes and all the major cities of Egypt, and Taharqa was
chased back to his Nubian homeland. Esarhaddon now
called himself king of Egypt, Patros, and Kush", and
returned with rich booty from the cities of the delta; he
erected a victory stele at this time, and paraded the cap-
tive Prince Ushankhuru, the son of Taharqa in Nineveh.
Esarhaddon stationed a small army in northern Egypt and
describes how All Ethiopians (read Nubians/Kushites) I
deported from Egypt, leaving not one left to do homage
to me.[72] He installed native Egyptian princes through-
out the land to rule on his behalf.[73] The conquest by
Esarhaddon eectively marked the end of the short lived
Kushite Empire.
However, the native Egyptian rulers installed by Esarhad-
don were unable to retain full control of the whole coun-
try for long. Two years later, Taharqa returned from Nu-
bia and seized control of a section of southern Egypt as
far north as Memphis. Esarhaddon prepared to return
to Egypt and once more eject Taharqa; however, he fell
ill and died in his capital, Nineveh, before he left As-
syria. His successor, Ashurbanipal, sent an Assyrian gen-
eral named Sha-Nabu-shu with a small, but well trained
army, which conclusively defeated Taharqa at Memphis
and once more drove him from Egypt. Taharqa died in
Nubia two years later.
Twenty-fth Dynasty
His successor, Tanutamun, also made a failed attempt to but Egypt was never able to permanently overthrow the
regain Egypt for Nubia. He successfully defeated Necho, Persians.[75]
the native Egyptian puppet ruler installed by Ashurban-
ipal, taking Thebes in the process. The Assyrians then
sent a large army southwards. Tantamani (Tanutamun)
was heavily routed and ed back to Nubia. The Assyrian
army sacked Thebes to such an extent it never truly recov-
ered. A native ruler, Psammetichus I was placed on the
throne, as a vassal of Ashurbanipal, and the Nubians were
never again to pose a threat to either Assyria or Egypt.[74]
1.1.9 Late Period (672332 BC)
Main articles: Late Period of ancient Egypt and History Alexander the Great without a ght.[76]
of Achaemenid Egypt
With no permanent plans for conquest, the Assyrians left
control of Egypt to a series of vassals who became known
as the Saite kings of the Twenty-sixth Dynasty. By 653
BC, the Saite king Psamtik I (taking advantage of the fact
that Assyria was involved in a erce war conquering Elam
and that few Assyrian troops were stationed in Egypt) was
able to free Egypt relatively peacefully from Assyrian vas-
salage with the help of Lydian and Greek mercenaries,
the latter of whom were recruited to form Egypts rst
navy. Psamtik and his successors however were careful
to maintain peaceful relations with Assyria. Greek inu-
ence expanded greatly as the city of Naukratis became
the home of Greeks in the delta.
In 609 BC Necho II went to war with Babylonia, the
Chaldeans, the Medians and the Scythians in an attempt
to save Assyria, which after a brutal civil war was being
overrun by this coalition of powers. However, the attempt
to save Egypts former masters failed. The Egyptians de-
layed intervening too long, and Nineveh had already fallen
and King Sin-shar-ishkun was dead by the time Necho
II sent his armies northwards. However, Necho easily
brushed aside the Israelite army under King Josiah but
he and the Assyrians then lost a battle at Harran to the
Babylonians, Medes and Scythians. Necho II and Ashur-
uballit II of Assyria were nally defeated at Carchemish
in Aramea (modern Syria) in 605 BC. The Egyptians re-
mained in the area for some decades, struggling with the
Babylonian kings Nabopolassar and Nebuchadnezzar II
for control of portions of the former Assyrian Empire in
The Levant. However, they were eventually driven back
into Egypt, and Nebuchadnezzar II even briey invaded
Egypt itself in 567 BC.[70] The Saite kings based in the
new capital of Sais witnessed a brief but spirited resur-
gence in the economy and culture, but in 525 BC, the
powerful Persians, led by Cambyses II, began their con-
quest of Egypt, eventually capturing the pharaoh Psamtik
III at the battle of Pelusium. Cambyses II then assumed
the formal title of pharaoh, but ruled Egypt from his home
of Susa in Persia (modern Iran), leaving Egypt under the
control of a satrapy. A few temporarily successful re-
volts against the Persians marked the fth century BC,
Following its annexation by Persia, Egypt was joined
with Cyprus and Phoenicia (modern Lebanon) in the
sixth satrapy of the Achaemenid Persian Empire. This
rst period of Persian rule over Egypt, also known as
the Twenty-seventh dynasty, ended after more than one-
hundred years in 402 BC, and from 380 to 343 BC the
Thirtieth Dynasty ruled as the last native royal house
of dynastic Egypt, which ended with the kingship of
Nectanebo II. A brief restoration of Persian rule, some-
times known as the Thirty-rst Dynasty, began in 343
BC, but shortly after, in 332 BC, the Persian ruler
Mazaces handed Egypt over to the Macedonian ruler
1.1. HISTORY 9

1.1.10 Ptolemaic period bellion, bitter family rivalries, and the powerful mob of
Alexandria that formed after the death of Ptolemy IV.[79]
In addition, as Rome relied more heavily on imports of
grain from Egypt, the Romans took great interest in the
political situation in the country. Continued Egyptian re-
volts, ambitious politicians, and powerful Syriac oppo-
nents from the Near East made this situation unstable,
leading Rome to send forces to secure the country as a
province of its empire.[80]

1.1.11 Roman period

Main article: History of Roman Egypt
Egypt became a province of the Roman Empire in 30

Alexander the Great, 100 BC 100 AD, 54.162, Brooklyn Mu-

seum

Main articles: History of Ptolemaic Egypt and Ptolemaic

Kingdom

In 332 BC, Alexander the Great conquered Egypt with lit-

tle resistance from the Persians and was welcomed by the
Egyptians as a deliverer. The administration established
by Alexanders successors, the Macedonian Ptolemaic
Kingdom, was based on an Egyptian model and based in
the new capital city of Alexandria. The city showcased
the power and prestige of Hellenistic rule, and became
a seat of learning and culture, centered at the famous
Library of Alexandria.[77] The Lighthouse of Alexandria
lit the way for the many ships that kept trade owing
through the cityas the Ptolemies made commerce and
revenue-generating enterprises, such as papyrus manu-
facturing, their top priority.[78]
Hellenistic culture did not supplant native Egyptian cul-
ture, as the Ptolemies supported time-honored traditions
in an eort to secure the loyalty of the populace. They
built new temples in Egyptian style, supported tradi-
tional cults, and portrayed themselves as pharaohs. Some The Fayum mummy portraits epitomize the meeting of Egyptian
traditions merged, as Greek and Egyptian gods were and Roman cultures.
syncretized into composite deities, such as Serapis, and
classical Greek forms of sculpture inuenced traditional BC, following the defeat of Marc Antony and Ptolemaic
Egyptian motifs. Despite their eorts to appease the Queen Cleopatra VII by Octavian (later Emperor Au-
Egyptians, the Ptolemies were challenged by native re- gustus) in the Battle of Actium. The Romans relied
10 CHAPTER 1. ANCIENT EGYPT

heavily on grain shipments from Egypt, and the Roman

army, under the control of a prefect appointed by the Em-
peror, quelled rebellions, strictly enforced the collection
of heavy taxes, and prevented attacks by bandits, which
had become a notorious problem during the period.[81]
Alexandria became an increasingly important center on
the trade route with the orient, as exotic luxuries were in
high demand in Rome.[82]
Although the Romans had a more hostile attitude than
the Greeks towards the Egyptians, some traditions such
as mummication and worship of the traditional gods
continued.[83] The art of mummy portraiture ourished,
and some Roman emperors had themselves depicted as
pharaohs, though not to the extent that the Ptolemies had.
The former lived outside Egypt and did not perform the
ceremonial functions of Egyptian kingship. Local ad-
ministration became Roman in style and closed to native
Egyptians.[83]
From the mid-rst century AD, Christianity took root in
Egypt and it was originally seen as another cult that could
be accepted. However, it was an uncompromising reli-
gion that sought to win converts from Egyptian Religion
and Greco-Roman religion and threatened popular reli-
gious traditions. This led to the persecution of converts to
Christianity, culminating in the great purges of Diocletian
starting in 303, but eventually Christianity won out.[84] In
391 the Christian Emperor Theodosius introduced leg-
islation that banned pagan rites and closed temples.[85]
Alexandria became the scene of great anti-pagan riots
with public and private religious imagery destroyed.[86]
As a consequence, Egypts native religious culture was
continually in decline. While the native population cer-
tainly continued to speak their language, the ability to
read hieroglyphic writing slowly disappeared as the role
of the Egyptian temple priests and priestesses diminished. The pharaoh was usually depicted wearing symbols of royalty
The temples themselves were sometimes converted to and power.
churches or abandoned to the desert.[87]

collecting and storing the nations wealth in a system of

1.2 Government and economy
1.2.1 Administration and commerce
The pharaoh was the absolute monarch of the country
and, at least in theory, wielded complete control of the
land and its resources. The king was the supreme military
commander and head of the government, who relied on a
bureaucracy of ocials to manage his aairs. In charge
of the administration was his second in command, the
vizier, who acted as the kings representative and coor-
dinated land surveys, the treasury, building projects, the
legal system, and the archives.[88] At a regional level, the
country was divided into as many as 42 administrative
regions called nomes each governed by a nomarch, who
was accountable to the vizier for his jurisdiction. The
temples formed the backbone of the economy. Not only
were they houses of worship, but were also responsible for
granaries and treasuries administered by overseers, who
redistributed grain and goods.[89]
Much of the economy was centrally organized and strictly
controlled. Although the ancient Egyptians did not use
coinage until the Late period,[90] they did use a type of
money-barter system,[91] with standard sacks of grain and
the deben, a weight of roughly 91 grams (3 oz) of copper
or silver, forming a common denominator.[92] Workers
were paid in grain; a simple laborer might earn 5 sacks
(200 kg or 400 lb) of grain per month, while a foreman
might earn 7 sacks (250 kg or 550 lb). Prices were
xed across the country and recorded in lists to facili-
tate trading; for example a shirt cost ve copper deben,
while a cow cost 140 deben.[92] Grain could be traded for
other goods, according to the xed price list.[92] During
the fth century BC coined money was introduced into
Egypt from abroad. At rst the coins were used as stan-
dardized pieces of precious metal rather than true money,
1.2. GOVERNMENT AND ECONOMY 11

but in the following centuries international traders came They were able to buy and sell, or work their way to free-
to rely on coinage.[93] dom or nobility, and usually were treated by doctors in
the workplace.[99] Both men and women had the right
to own and sell property, make contracts, marry and di-
1.2.2 Social status vorce, receive inheritance, and pursue legal disputes in
court. Married couples could own property jointly and
Egyptian society was highly stratied, and social status protect themselves from divorce by agreeing to marriage
was expressly displayed. Farmers made up the bulk of contracts, which stipulated the nancial obligations of
the population, but agricultural produce was owned di- the husband to his wife and children should the mar-
rectly by the state, temple, or noble family that owned the riage end. Compared with their counterparts in ancient
land.[94] Farmers were also subject to a labor tax and were Greece, Rome, and even more modern places around
required to work on irrigation or construction projects in the world, ancient Egyptian women had a greater range
a corve system.[95] Artists and craftsmen were of higher of personal choices and opportunities for achievement.
status than farmers, but they were also under state con- Women such as Hatshepsut and Cleopatra VII even be-
trol, working in the shops attached to the temples and came pharaohs, while others wielded power as Divine
paid directly from the state treasury. Scribes and o- Wives of Amun. Despite these freedoms, ancient Egyp-
cials formed the upper class in ancient Egypt, known as tian women did not often take part in ocial roles in the
the white kilt class in reference to the bleached linen administration, served only secondary roles in the tem-
garments that served as a mark of their rank.[96] The up- ples, and were not as likely to be as educated as men.[98]
per class prominently displayed their social status in art
and literature. Below the nobility were the priests, physi-
cians, and engineers with specialized training in their
eld. Slavery was known in ancient Egypt, but the ex-
tent and prevalence of its practice are unclear.[97]

Punishment in ancient Egypt.

Scribes were elite and well educated. They assessed taxes, kept
records, and were responsible for administration.

1.2.3 Legal system

Young Egyptian laborers treated by doctors after circumcision, as
a part of a rite of passage to citizenship.
The ancient Egyptians viewed men and women, including
people from all social classes except slaves, as essentially
equal under the law, and even the lowliest peasant was
entitled to petition the vizier and his court for redress.[98]
Although, slaves were mostly used as indentured servants.
The head of the legal system was ocially the pharaoh,
who was responsible for enacting laws, delivering jus-
tice, and maintaining law and order, a concept the an-
cient Egyptians referred to as Ma'at.[88] Although no legal
codes from ancient Egypt survive, court documents show
that Egyptian law was based on a common-sense view
of right and wrong that emphasized reaching agreements
and resolving conicts rather than strictly adhering to a
12 CHAPTER 1. ANCIENT EGYPT

complicated set of statutes.[98] Local councils of elders,

known as Kenbet in the New Kingdom, were responsi-
ble for ruling in court cases involving small claims and
minor disputes.[88] More serious cases involving murder,
major land transactions, and tomb robbery were referred
to the Great Kenbet, over which the vizier or pharaoh
presided. Plaintis and defendants were expected to rep-
resent themselves and were required to swear an oath
that they had told the truth. In some cases, the state
took on both the role of prosecutor and judge, and it
could torture the accused with beatings to obtain a con-
fession and the names of any co-conspirators. Whether
the charges were trivial or serious, court scribes docu-
mented the complaint, testimony, and verdict of the case
for future reference.[100]
Punishment for minor crimes involved either imposition
of nes, beatings, facial mutilation, or exile, depending
on the severity of the oense. Serious crimes such as
murder and tomb robbery were punished by execution,
carried out by decapitation, drowning, or impaling the
criminal on a stake. Punishment could also be extended to
the criminals family.[88] Beginning in the New Kingdom,
oracles played a major role in the legal system, dispens-
ing justice in both civil and criminal cases. The proce-
A tomb relief depicts workers plowing the elds, harvesting the
dure was to ask the god a yes or no question concern-
crops, and threshing the grain under the direction of an overseer,
ing the right or wrong of an issue. The god, carried by painting in the tomb of Nakht.
a number of priests, rendered judgment by choosing one
or the other, moving forward or backward, or pointing to
one of the answers written on a piece of papyrus or an
ostracon.[101]

1.2.4 Agriculture
Main article: Ancient Egyptian agriculture
See also: Ancient Egyptian cuisine and Gardens of an-
cient Egypt
A combination of favorable geographical features con-
tributed to the success of ancient Egyptian culture, the
most important of which was the rich fertile soil result-
ing from annual inundations of the Nile River. The an-
cient Egyptians were thus able to produce an abundance
of food, allowing the population to devote more time and
resources to cultural, technological, and artistic pursuits.
Land management was crucial in ancient Egypt because
taxes were assessed based on the amount of land a person
owned.[102]
Farming in Egypt was dependent on the cycle of the Nile
River. The Egyptians recognized three seasons: Akhet
(ooding), Peret (planting), and Shemu (harvesting). The
ooding season lasted from June to September, deposit-
ing on the rivers banks a layer of mineral-rich silt ideal
for growing crops. After the oodwaters had receded, the
growing season lasted from October to February. Farm-
ers plowed and planted seeds in the elds, which were ir-
rigated with ditches and canals. Egypt received little rain-
fall, so farmers relied on the Nile to water their crops.[103]
From March to May, farmers used sickles to harvest their
Measuring and recording the harvest is shown in a wall painting
in the tomb of Menna, at Thebes, Egypt (Eighteenth Dynasty).
crops, which were then threshed with a ail to separate
the straw from the grain. Winnowing removed the cha
from the grain, and the grain was then ground into our,
brewed to make beer, or stored for later use.[104]
The ancient Egyptians cultivated emmer and barley, and
several other cereal grains, all of which were used to
make the two main food staples of bread and beer.[105]
Flax plants, uprooted before they started owering, were
grown for the bers of their stems. These bers were split
along their length and spun into thread, which was used
to weave sheets of linen and to make clothing. Papyrus
growing on the banks of the Nile River was used to make
paper. Vegetables and fruits were grown in garden plots,
close to habitations and on higher ground, and had to be
watered by hand. Vegetables included leeks, garlic, mel-
ons, squashes, pulses, lettuce, and other crops, in addition
to grapes that were made into wine.[106]
1.2. GOVERNMENT AND ECONOMY 13

1.2.5 Natural resources

Further information: Mining industry of Egypt

Egypt is rich in building and decorative stone, copper

and lead ores, gold, and semiprecious stones. These
natural resources allowed the ancient Egyptians to build
monuments, sculpt statues, make tools, and fashion jew-
elry.[111] Embalmers used salts from the Wadi Natrun for
mummication, which also provided the gypsum needed
to make plaster.[112] Ore-bearing rock formations were
found in distant, inhospitable wadis in the eastern desert
Sennedjem plows his elds with a pair of oxen, used as beasts of and the Sinai, requiring large, state-controlled expedi-
burden and a source of food. tions to obtain natural resources found there. There were
extensive gold mines in Nubia, and one of the rst maps
known is of a gold mine in this region. The Wadi Ham-
mamat was a notable source of granite, greywacke, and
gold. Flint was the rst mineral collected and used to
make tools, and int handaxes are the earliest pieces of
Animals
evidence of habitation in the Nile valley. Nodules of the
mineral were carefully aked to make blades and arrow-
heads of moderate hardness and durability even after cop-
The Egyptians believed that a balanced relationship be- per was adopted for this purpose.[113] Ancient Egyptians
tween people and animals was an essential element of were among the rst to use minerals such as sulfur as cos-
the cosmic order; thus humans, animals and plants were metic substances.[114]
believed to be members of a single whole.[107] Animals,
both domesticated and wild, were therefore a critical The Egyptians worked deposits of the lead ore galena
source of spirituality, companionship, and sustenance at Gebel Rosas to make net sinkers, plumb bobs, and
to the ancient Egyptians. Cattle were the most impor- small gurines. Copper was the most important metal
tant livestock; the administration collected taxes on live- for toolmaking in ancient Egypt and was smelted [115]
in fur-
stock in regular censuses, and the size of a herd reected naces from malachite ore mined in the Sinai. Work-
the prestige and importance of the estate or temple that ers collected gold by washing the nuggets out of sediment
owned them. In addition to cattle, the ancient Egyptians in alluvial deposits, or by the more labor-intensive pro-
kept sheep, goats, and pigs. Poultry such as ducks, geese, cess of grinding and washing gold-bearing quartzite. Iron
and pigeons were captured in nets and bred on farms, deposits[116] found in upper Egypt were utilized in the Late
where they were force-fed with dough to fatten them. [108] Period. High-quality building stones were abundant in
The Nile provided a plentiful source of sh. Bees were Egypt; the ancient Egyptians quarried limestone all along
also domesticated from at least the Old Kingdom, and the Nile valley, granite from Aswan, and basalt and sand-
they provided both honey and wax. [109] stone from the wadis of the eastern desert. Deposits of
decorative stones such as porphyry, greywacke, alabaster,
The ancient Egyptians used donkeys and oxen as beasts of and carnelian dotted the eastern desert and were collected
burden, and they were responsible for plowing the elds even before the First Dynasty. In the Ptolemaic and
and trampling seed into the soil. The slaughter of a fat- Roman Periods, miners worked deposits of emeralds in
tened ox was also a central part of an oering ritual.[108] Wadi Sikait and amethyst in Wadi el-Hudi.[117]
Horses were introduced by the Hyksos in the Second In-
termediate Period, and the camel, although known from
the New Kingdom, was not used as a beast of burden 1.2.6 Trade
until the Late Period. There is also evidence to suggest
that elephants were briey utilized in the Late Period, but Main article: Ancient Egyptian trade
largely abandoned due to lack of grazing land.[108] Dogs, The ancient Egyptians engaged in trade with their foreign
cats and monkeys were common family pets, while more neighbors to obtain rare, exotic goods not found in Egypt.
exotic pets imported from the heart of Africa, such as li- In the Predynastic Period, they established trade with Nu-
ons, were reserved for royalty. Herodotus observed that bia to obtain gold and incense. They also established trade
the Egyptians were the only people to keep their animals with Palestine, as evidenced by Palestinian-style oil jugs
with them in their houses.[107] During the Predynastic and found in the burials of the First Dynasty pharaohs.[118]
Late periods, the worship of the gods in their animal form An Egyptian colony stationed in southern Canaan dates to
was extremely popular, such as the cat goddess Bastet and slightly before the First Dynasty.[119] Narmer had Egyp-
the ibis god Thoth, and these animals were bred in large tian pottery produced in Canaan and exported back to
numbers on farms for the purpose of ritual sacrice.[110] Egypt.[120]
14
Hatshepsuts trading expedition to the Land of Punt.
By the Second Dynasty at latest, ancient Egyptian trade
with Byblos yielded a critical source of quality timber not
found in Egypt. By the Fifth Dynasty, trade with Punt
provided gold, aromatic resins, ebony, ivory, and wild an-
imals such as monkeys and baboons.[121] Egypt relied on
trade with Anatolia for essential quantities of tin as well as
supplementary supplies of copper, both metals being nec-
essary for the manufacture of bronze. The ancient Egyp-
tians prized the blue stone lapis lazuli, which had to be
imported from far-away Afghanistan. Egypts Mediter-
ranean trade partners also included Greece and Crete,
which provided, among other goods, supplies of olive
oil.[122] In exchange for its luxury imports and raw ma-
terials, Egypt mainly exported grain, gold, linen, and pa-
pyrus, in addition to other nished goods including glass
and stone objects.[123]
1.3 Language
Main article: Egyptian language
1.3.1 Historical development
The Egyptian language is a northern Afro-Asiatic lan-
guage closely related to the Berber and Semitic lan-
guages.[124] It has the second longest history of any lan-
guage (after Sumerian), having been written from c. 3200
BC to the Middle Ages and remaining as a spoken lan-
guage for longer. The phases of ancient Egyptian are Old
Egyptian, Middle Egyptian (Classical Egyptian), Late
Egyptian, Demotic and Coptic.[125] Egyptian writings do
not show dialect dierences before Coptic, but it was
probably spoken in regional dialects around Memphis and
later Thebes.[126]
Ancient Egyptian was a synthetic language, but it became
more analytic later on. Late Egyptian developed pre-
xal denite and indenite articles, which replaced the Around the rst century AD, the Coptic alphabet started
older inectional suxes. There was a change from the to be used alongside the Demotic script. Coptic is a mod-
older verbsubjectobject word order to subjectverb ied Greek alphabet with the addition of some Demotic
CHAPTER 1. ANCIENT EGYPT
object.[127] The Egyptian hieroglyphic, hieratic, and de-
motic scripts were eventually replaced by the more pho-
netic Coptic alphabet. Coptic is still used in the liturgy of
the Egyptian Orthodox Church, and traces of it are found
in modern Egyptian Arabic.[128]
1.3.2 Sounds and grammar
Ancient Egyptian has 25 consonants similar to those of
other Afro-Asiatic languages. These include pharyngeal
and emphatic consonants, voiced and voiceless stops,
voiceless fricatives and voiced and voiceless aricates. It
has three long and three short vowels, which expanded
in Later Egyptian to about nine.[129] The basic word in
Egyptian, similar to Semitic and Berber, is a triliteral or
biliteral root of consonants and semiconsonants. Suxes
are added to form words. The verb conjugation corre-
sponds to the person. For example, the triconsonantal
skeleton S--M is the semantic core of the word 'hear';
its basic conjugation is sm, 'he hears. If the subject is
a noun, suxes are not added to the verb:[130] sm mt,
'the woman hears.
Adjectives are derived from nouns through a process that
Egyptologists call nisbation because of its similarity with
Arabic.[131] The word order is predicatesubject in ver-
bal and adjectival sentences, and subjectpredicate in
nominal and adverbial sentences.[132] The subject can be
moved to the beginning of sentences if it is long and is
followed by a resumptive pronoun.[133] Verbs and nouns
are negated by the particle n, but nn is used for adverbial
and adjectival sentences. Stress falls on the ultimate or
penultimate syllable, which can be open (CV) or closed
(CVC).[134]
1.3.3 Writing
Main articles: Egyptian hieroglyphs and Hieratic
Hieroglyphic writing dates from c. 3000 BC, and is com-
posed of hundreds of symbols. A hieroglyph can rep-
resent a word, a sound, or a silent determinative; and
the same symbol can serve dierent purposes in dier-
ent contexts. Hieroglyphs were a formal script, used on
stone monuments and in tombs, that could be as detailed
as individual works of art. In day-to-day writing, scribes
used a cursive form of writing, called hieratic, which
was quicker and easier. While formal hieroglyphs may
be read in rows or columns in either direction (though
typically written from right to left), hieratic was always
written from right to left, usually in horizontal rows. A
new form of writing, Demotic, became the prevalent writ-
ing style, and it is this form of writingalong with for-
mal hieroglyphsthat accompany the Greek text on the
Rosetta Stone.[136]
1.3. LANGUAGE 15

The Rosetta stone (ca 196 BC) enabled linguists to begin the pro-
cess of hieroglyph decipherment.[135]

Hieroglyphs on a funerary stela in Manchester Museum

signs.[137] Although formal hieroglyphs were used in a

ceremonial role until the fourth century, towards the end
only a small handful of priests could still read them. As
the traditional religious establishments were disbanded,
knowledge of hieroglyphic writing was mostly lost. At-
tempts to decipher them date to the Byzantine[138] and
Islamic periods in Egypt,[139] but only in 1822, after the The Edwin Smith surgical papyrus (c. 16th century BC) describes
discovery of the Rosetta stone and years of research by anatomy and medical treatments and is written in hieratic.
Thomas Young and Jean-Franois Champollion, were hi-
eroglyphs almost fully deciphered.[140]
1300 BC. Later Egyptian was spoken from the New King-
dom onward and is represented in Ramesside adminis-
1.3.4 Literature
trative documents, love poetry and tales, as well as in
Main article: Ancient Egyptian literature Demotic and Coptic texts. During this period, the tradi-
Writing rst appeared in association with kingship on tion of writing had evolved into the tomb autobiography,
labels and tags for items found in royal tombs. It was pri- such as those of Harkhuf and Weni. The genre known
marily an occupation of the scribes, who worked out of as Sebayt (instructions) was developed to communicate
the Per Ankh institution or the House of Life. The latter teachings and guidance from famous nobles; the Ipuwer
comprised oces, libraries (called House of Books), lab- papyrus, a poem of lamentations describing natural dis-
oratories and observatories.[141] Some of the best-known asters and social upheaval, is a famous example.
pieces of ancient Egyptian literature, such as the Pyramid The Story of Sinuhe, written in Middle Egyptian, might
and Con Texts, were written in Classical Egyptian, be the classic of Egyptian literature.[142] Also written at
which continued to be the language of writing until about this time was the Westcar Papyrus, a set of stories told
16 CHAPTER 1. ANCIENT EGYPT

to Khufu by his sons relating the marvels performed by

priests.[143] The Instruction of Amenemope is considered
a masterpiece of near-eastern literature.[144] Towards the
end of the New Kingdom, the vernacular language was
more often employed to write popular pieces like the
Story of Wenamun and the Instruction of Any. The for-
mer tells the story of a noble who is robbed on his way to
buy cedar from Lebanon and of his struggle to return to
Egypt. From about 700 BC, narrative stories and instruc-
tions, such as the popular Instructions of Onchsheshonqy,
as well as personal and business documents were written
in the demotic script and phase of Egyptian. Many stories
written in demotic during the Greco-Roman period were
set in previous historical eras, when Egypt was an inde-
pendent nation ruled by great pharaohs such as Ramesses
II.[145]

A painted depiction of Senet (in the tomb of Queen Nefertari,

Valley of the Queens, Thebes, Egypt), one of the worlds earliest
1.4 Culture known board games.

1.4.1 Daily life a kitchen with an open roof, which contained a grind-
stone for milling grain and a small oven for baking the
bread.[146] Walls were painted white and could be cov-
ered with dyed linen wall hangings. Floors were covered
with reed mats, while wooden stools, beds raised from the
oor and individual tables comprised the furniture.[147]
The ancient Egyptians placed a great value on hygiene
and appearance. Most bathed in the Nile and used a pasty
soap made from animal fat and chalk. Men shaved their
entire bodies for cleanliness; perfumes and aromatic oint-
ments covered bad odors and soothed skin.[148] Clothing
was made from simple linen sheets that were bleached
white, and both men and women of the upper classes
wore wigs, jewelry, and cosmetics. Children went with-
out clothing until maturity, at about age 12, and at this
age males were circumcised and had their heads shaved.
Mothers were responsible for taking care of the children,
while the father provided the familys income.[149]
Ostraca of hunting a lion with a spear, aided by a dog.

Statues depicting lower-class ancient Egyptian occupations.

Most ancient Egyptians were farmers tied to the land.

Their dwellings were restricted to immediate family
members, and were constructed of mud-brick designed The ancient Egyptians maintained a rich cultural heritage com-
to remain cool in the heat of the day. Each home had plete with feasts and festivals accompanied by music and dance.
1.4. CULTURE 17

Music and dance were popular entertainments for those

who could aord them. Early instruments included utes
and harps, while instruments similar to trumpets, oboes,
and pipes developed later and became popular. In the
New Kingdom, the Egyptians played on bells, cymbals,
tambourines, drums, and imported lutes and lyres from
Asia.[150] The sistrum was a rattle-like musical instrument
that was especially important in religious ceremonies.
The ancient Egyptians enjoyed a variety of leisure activ-
ities, including games and music. Senet, a board game
where pieces moved according to random chance, was
particularly popular from the earliest times; another sim-
ilar game was mehen, which had a circular gaming board.
Juggling and ball games were popular with children, and
wrestling is also documented in a tomb at Beni Hasan.[151]
The wealthy members of ancient Egyptian society en-
joyed hunting and boating as well.
The excavation of the workers village of Deir el-Madinah
has resulted in one of the most thoroughly documented
accounts of community life in the ancient world that spans
almost four hundred years. There is no comparable site in
which the organization, social interactions, working and
living conditions of a community were studied in such
detail.[152]

1.4.2 Cuisine
Karnak temples hypostyle halls are constructed with rows of
Main article: Ancient Egyptian cuisine thick columns supporting the roof beams.

Egyptian cuisine remained remarkably stable over time;

indeed, the cuisine of modern Egypt retains some strik-
ing similarities to the cuisine of the ancients. The staple
diet consisted of bread and beer, supplemented with veg-
etables such as onions and garlic, and fruit such as dates
and gs. Wine and meat were enjoyed by all on feast days
while the upper classes indulged on a more regular basis.
Fish, meat, and fowl could be salted or dried, and could
be cooked in stews or roasted on a grill.[153]

1.4.3 Architecture
The well preserved Temple of Horus at Edfu is an exemplar of
Main article: Ancient Egyptian architecture
Egyptian architecture.
The architecture of ancient Egypt includes some of the
most famous structures in the world: the Great Pyramids
of Giza and the temples at Thebes. Building projects lived in simple homes, while the palaces of the elite and
were organized and funded by the state for religious the pharaoh were more elaborate structures. A few sur-
and commemorative purposes, but also to reinforce the viving New Kingdom palaces, such as those in Malkata
wide-ranging power of the pharaoh. The ancient Egyp- and Amarna, show richly decorated walls and oors with
tians were skilled builders; using only simple but eec- scenes of people, birds, water pools, deities and geomet-
tive tools and sighting instruments, architects could build
ric designs.[155] Important structures such as temples and
large stone structures with great accuracy and precision tombs that were intended to last forever were constructed
that is still envied today.[154] of stone instead of mud bricks. The architectural ele-
The domestic dwellings of elite and ordinary Egyptians ments used in the worlds rst large-scale stone building,
alike were constructed from perishable materials such as Djoser's mortuary complex, include post and lintel sup-
mud bricks and wood, and have not survived. Peasants ports in the papyrus and lotus motif.
18 CHAPTER 1. ANCIENT EGYPT

The earliest preserved ancient Egyptian temples, such as
those at Giza, consist of single, enclosed halls with roof
slabs supported by columns. In the New Kingdom, ar-
chitects added the pylon, the open courtyard, and the en-
closed hypostyle hall to the front of the temples sanc-
tuary, a style that was standard until the Greco-Roman
period.[156] The earliest and most popular tomb architec-
ture in the Old Kingdom was the mastaba, a at-roofed
rectangular structure of mudbrick or stone built over an
underground burial chamber. The step pyramid of Djoser
is a series of stone mastabas stacked on top of each other.
Pyramids were built during the Old and Middle King-
doms, but most later rulers abandoned them in favor of
less conspicuous rock-cut tombs.[157] The Twenty-fth
dynasty was a notable exception, as all Twenty-fth dy-
nasty pharaohs constructed pyramids.[64][65][66]
artistic standardssimple lines, shapes, and at areas
of color combined with the characteristic at projection
of gures with no indication of spatial depthcreated a
sense of order and balance within a composition. Images
and text were intimately interwoven on tomb and tem-
ple walls, cons, stelae, and even statues. The Narmer
Palette, for example, displays gures that can also be read
as hieroglyphs.[159] Because of the rigid rules that gov-
erned its highly stylized and symbolic appearance, an-
cient Egyptian art served its political and religious pur-
poses with precision and clarity.[160]

1.4.4 Art

Egyptian Vase in Manchester Museum

Ancient Egyptian artisans used stone to carve statues and

ne reliefs, but used wood as a cheap and easily carved
The Bust of Nefertiti, by the sculptor Thutmose, is one of the most substitute. Paints were obtained from minerals such as
famous masterpieces of ancient Egyptian art. iron ores (red and yellow ochres), copper ores (blue and
green), soot or charcoal (black), and limestone (white).
Main article: Art of ancient Egypt Paints could be mixed with gum arabic as a binder and
pressed into cakes, which could be moistened with water
[161]
The ancient Egyptians produced art to serve functional when needed.
purposes. For over 3500 years, artists adhered to artistic Pharaohs used reliefs to record victories in battle, royal
forms and iconography that were developed during the decrees, and religious scenes. Common citizens had ac-
Old Kingdom, following a strict set of principles that re- cess to pieces of funerary art, such as shabti statues and
sisted foreign inuence and internal change.[158] These books of the dead, which they believed would protect
1.4. CULTURE 19

them in the afterlife.[162] During the Middle Kingdom,

wooden or clay models depicting scenes from everyday
life became popular additions to the tomb. In an attempt
to duplicate the activities of the living in the afterlife,
these models show laborers, houses, boats, and even mil-
itary formations that are scale representations of the ideal
ancient Egyptian afterlife.[163]
Despite the homogeneity of ancient Egyptian art, the
styles of particular times and places sometimes reected
changing cultural or political attitudes. After the in-
vasion of the Hyksos in the Second Intermediate Pe-
riod, Minoan-style frescoes were found in Avaris.[164] The
most striking example of a politically driven change in
artistic forms comes from the Amarna period, where g-
ures were radically altered to conform to Akhenaten's
revolutionary religious ideas.[165] This style, known as
Amarna art, was quickly and thoroughly erased af-
ter Akhenatens death and replaced by the traditional
forms.[166]

1.4.5 Religious beliefs

Main article: Ancient Egyptian religion
Beliefs in the divine and in the afterlife were in-

The Ka statue provided a physical place for the Ka to manifest

The Book of the Dead was a guide to the deceaseds journey in

the afterlife.
grained in ancient Egyptian civilization from its incep-
tion; pharaonic rule was based on the divine right of
kings. The Egyptian pantheon was populated by gods
who had supernatural powers and were called on for help
or protection. However, the gods were not always viewed
as benevolent, and Egyptians believed they had to be ap-
peased with oerings and prayers. The structure of this
pantheon changed continually as new deities were pro-
moted in the hierarchy, but priests made no eort to or-
ganize the diverse and sometimes conicting myths and
stories into a coherent system.[167] These various concep-
tions of divinity were not considered contradictory but
rather layers in the multiple facets of reality.[168]
Gods were worshiped in cult temples administered by
priests acting on the kings behalf. At the center of the
temple was the cult statue in a shrine. Temples were
not places of public worship or congregation, and only
on select feast days and celebrations was a shrine carry-
ing the statue of the god brought out for public worship.
Normally, the gods domain was sealed o from the out-
side world and was only accessible to temple ocials.
Common citizens could worship private statues in their
homes, and amulets oered protection against the forces
of chaos.[169] After the New Kingdom, the pharaohs role
as a spiritual intermediary was de-emphasized as reli-
gious customs shifted to direct worship of the gods. As
a result, priests developed a system of oracles to commu-
nicate the will of the gods directly to the people.[170]
The Egyptians believed that every human being was com-
posed of physical and spiritual parts or aspects. In addi-
tion to the body, each person had a wt (shadow), a ba
(personality or soul), a ka (life-force), and a name.[171]
The heart, rather than the brain, was considered the seat
of thoughts and emotions. After death, the spiritual as-
pects were released from the body and could move at will,
but they required the physical remains (or a substitute,
such as a statue) as a permanent home. The ultimate goal
of the deceased was to rejoin his ka and ba and become
one of the blessed dead, living on as an akh, or ef-
fective one. For this to happen, the deceased had to be
judged worthy in a trial, in which the heart was weighed
against a feather of truth. If deemed worthy, the de-
ceased could continue their existence on earth in spiritual
form.[172]
20 CHAPTER 1. ANCIENT EGYPT

Anubis was the ancient Egyptian god associated with mummi-

cation and burial rituals; here, he attends to a mummy.

painted cartonnage mummy cases. Actual preservation

Pharaohs tombs were provided with vast quantities of wealth,
such as the golden mask from the mummy of Tutankhamun.
1.4.6 Burial customs
Main article: Ancient Egyptian burial customs
practices declined during the Ptolemaic and Roman eras,
while greater emphasis was placed on the outer appear-
ance of the mummy, which was decorated.[174]
Wealthy Egyptians were buried with larger quantities of
luxury items, but all burials, regardless of social sta-
tus, included goods for the deceased. Beginning in the
New Kingdom, books of the dead were included in the
grave, along with shabti statues that were believed to per-
form manual labor for them in the afterlife.[175] Rituals in
which the deceased was magically re-animated accompa-
nied burials. After burial, living relatives were expected
to occasionally bring food to the tomb and recite prayers
on behalf of the deceased.[176]

The ancient Egyptians maintained an elaborate set of

burial customs that they believed were necessary to en- 1.5 Military
sure immortality after death. These customs involved
preserving the body by mummication, performing burial
Main article: Military of ancient Egypt
ceremonies, and interring with the body goods the de-
[162] The ancient Egyptian military was responsible for de-
ceased would use in the afterlife. Before the Old
Kingdom, bodies buried in desert pits were naturally pre-
served by desiccation. The arid, desert conditions were
a boon throughout the history of ancient Egypt for buri-
als of the poor, who could not aord the elaborate burial
preparations available to the elite. Wealthier Egyptians
began to bury their dead in stone tombs and use articial
mummication, which involved removing the internal or-
gans, wrapping the body in linen, and burying it in a rect-
angular stone sarcophagus or wooden con. Beginning
in the Fourth Dynasty, some parts were preserved sepa-
rately in canopic jars.[173]
By the New Kingdom, the ancient Egyptians had per-
fected the art of mummication; the best technique took
70 days and involved removing the internal organs, re- An Egyptian chariot.
moving the brain through the nose, and desiccating the
body in a mixture of salts called natron. The body was fending Egypt against foreign invasion, and for maintain-
then wrapped in linen with protective amulets inserted ing Egypts domination in the ancient Near East. The mil-
between layers and placed in a decorated anthropoid cof- itary protected mining expeditions to the Sinai during the
n. Mummies of the Late Period were also placed in Old Kingdom and fought civil wars during the First and
1.6. TECHNOLOGY, MEDICINE, AND MATHEMATICS 21

Second Intermediate Periods. The military was respon-

sible for maintaining fortications along important trade
routes, such as those found at the city of Buhen on the
way to Nubia. Forts also were constructed to serve as mil-
itary bases, such as the fortress at Sile, which was a base
of operations for expeditions to the Levant. In the New
Kingdom, a series of pharaohs used the standing Egyp-
tian army to attack and conquer Kush and parts of the
Levant.[177]
Typical military equipment included bows and arrows,
spears, and round-topped shields made by stretching
animal skin over a wooden frame. In the New King-
dom, the military began using chariots that had ear-
lier been introduced by the Hyksos invaders. Weapons
and armor continued to improve after the adoption of
bronze: shields were now made from solid wood with a
bronze buckle, spears were tipped with a bronze point,
and the Khopesh was adopted from Asiatic soldiers.[178]
The pharaoh was usually depicted in art and literature rid-
ing at the head of the army; it has been suggested that
at least a few pharaohs, such as Seqenenre Tao II and
his sons, did do so.[179] However, it has also been ar-
gued that kings of this period did not personally act as
frontline war leaders, ghting alongside their troops.[180]
Soldiers were recruited from the general population, but Glassmaking was a highly developed art.
during, and especially after, the New Kingdom, merce-
naries from Nubia, Kush, and Libya were hired to ght
core, which was then red. By a related technique, the an-
for Egypt.[181]
cient Egyptians produced a pigment known as Egyptian
Blue, also called blue frit, which is produced by fusing
(or sintering) silica, copper, lime, and an alkali such as
1.6 Technology, medicine, and natron. The product can be ground up and used as a
pigment.[183]
mathematics
The ancient Egyptians could fabricate a wide variety of
objects from glass with great skill, but it is not clear
1.6.1 Technology whether they developed the process independently.[184] It
is also unclear whether they made their own raw glass or
Main article: Ancient Egyptian technology merely imported pre-made ingots, which they melted and
nished. However, they did have technical expertise in
In technology, medicine, and mathematics, ancient Egypt making objects, as well as adding trace elements to con-
achieved a relatively high standard of productivity and so- trol the color of the nished glass. A range of colors could
phistication. Traditional empiricism, as evidenced by the be produced, including yellow, red, green, blue, purple,
Edwin Smith and Ebers papyri (c. 1600 BC), is rst cred- and white, and the glass could be made either transparent
ited to Egypt. The Egyptians created their own alphabet or opaque.[185]
and decimal system.

1.6.2 Faience and glass
Even before the Old Kingdom, the ancient Egyptians had
developed a glassy material known as faience, which they
treated as a type of articial semi-precious stone. Faience
is a non-clay ceramic made of silica, small amounts of
lime and soda, and a colorant, typically copper.[182] The
material was used to make beads, tiles, gurines, and
small wares. Several methods can be used to create
faience, but typically production involved application of
the powdered materials in the form of a paste over a clay
1.6.3 Medicine
Main article: Ancient Egyptian medicine
The medical problems of the ancient Egyptians stemmed
directly from their environment. Living and working
close to the Nile brought hazards from malaria and debil-
itating schistosomiasis parasites, which caused liver and
intestinal damage. Dangerous wildlife such as crocodiles
and hippos were also a common threat. The lifelong
labors of farming and building put stress on the spine and
joints, and traumatic injuries from construction and war-
22
Ancient Egyptian medical instruments depicted in a Ptolemaic pe-
riod inscription on the temple at Kom Ombo.
fare all took a signicant toll on the body. The grit and
sand from stone-ground our abraded teeth, leaving them
susceptible to abscesses (though caries were rare).[186]
The diets of the wealthy were rich in sugars, which
promoted periodontal disease.[187] Despite the attering
physiques portrayed on tomb walls, the overweight mum-
mies of many of the upper class show the eects of a life
of overindulgence.[188] Adult life expectancy was about
35 for men and 30 for women, but reaching adulthood
was dicult as about one-third of the population died in
infancy.[189]
Ancient Egyptian physicians were renowned in the an-
cient Near East for their healing skills, and some, such
as Imhotep, remained famous long after their deaths.[190]
Herodotus remarked that there was a high degree of spe-
cialization among Egyptian physicians, with some treat-
ing only the head or the stomach, while others were
eye-doctors and dentists.[191] Training of physicians took
place at the Per Ankh or House of Life institution, most
notably those headquartered in Per-Bastet during the New
Kingdom and at Abydos and Sas in the Late period.
Medical papyri show empirical knowledge of anatomy,
CHAPTER 1. ANCIENT EGYPT
injuries, and practical treatments.[192]
Wounds were treated by bandaging with raw meat, white
linen, sutures, nets, pads, and swabs soaked with honey to
prevent infection,[193] while opium thyme and belladona
were used to relieve pain. The earliest records of burn
treatment describe burn dressings that use the milk from
mothers of male babies. Prayers were made to the god-
dess Isis. Moldy bread, honey and copper salts were also
used to prevent infection from dirt in burns.[194] Garlic
and onions were used regularly to promote good health
and were thought to relieve asthma symptoms. Ancient
Egyptian surgeons stitched wounds, set broken bones, and
amputated diseased limbs, but they recognized that some
injuries were so serious that they could only make the pa-
tient comfortable until death occurred.[195]
Documented extent of Ancient Egyptian geographic knowledge
1.6.4 Maritime technology
Early Egyptians knew how to assemble planks of wood
into a ship hull and had mastered advanced forms of
shipbuilding as early as 3000 BC. The Archaeological In-
stitute of America reports that the oldest planked ships
known are the Abydos boats.[6] A group of 14 dis-
covered ships in Abydos were constructed of wooden
planks sewn together. Discovered by Egyptologist
David O'Connor of New York University,[196] woven
straps were found to have been used to lash the planks
together,[6] and reeds or grass stued between the planks
helped to seal the seams.[6] Because the ships are all
buried together and near a mortuary belonging to Pharaoh
Khasekhemwy, originally they were all thought to have
belonged to him, but one of the 14 ships dates to 3000
BC, and the associated pottery jars buried with the ves-
sels also suggest earlier dating. The ship dating to 3000
BC was 75 feet (23 m) long and is now thought to perhaps
have belonged to an earlier pharaoh. According to pro-
1.6. TECHNOLOGY, MEDICINE, AND MATHEMATICS 23

fessor O'Connor, the 5,000-year-old ship may have even once launched early voyages like Hatshepsut's Punt expe-
belonged to Pharaoh Aha.[196] dition onto the open ocean.[198] Some of the sites most
Early Egyptians also knew how to assemble planks of evocative evidence for the ancient Egyptians seafaring
wood with treenails to fasten them together, using pitch prowess include large ship timbers and hundreds of [198] feet
for caulking the seams. The "Khufu ship", a 43.6-metre of ropes, made from papyrus, coiled in huge bundles.
(143 ft) vessel sealed into a pit in the Giza pyramid com- And in 2013 a team of Franco-Egyptian archaeologists
plex at the foot of the Great Pyramid of Giza in the Fourth discovered what is believed to be the worlds oldest port,
Dynasty around 2500 BC, is a full-size surviving example dating back about 4500 years, from the time of King
Cheops on the Red Sea coast near Wadi el-Jarf (about
that may have lled the symbolic function of a solar bar-
que. Early Egyptians also knew how to fasten the planks 110 miles south of Suez).[199]
of this ship together with mortise and tenon joints.[6] In 1977, an ancient north-south canal dating to the Middle
Kingdom of Egypt was discovered extending from Lake
Timsah to the Ballah Lakes.[200] It was dated to the
Middle Kingdom of Egypt by extrapolating dates of an-
cient sites constructed along its course.[200][201]

1.6.5 Mathematics
Main article: Egyptian mathematics
The earliest attested examples of mathematical calcula-
Seagoing ship from Hateshepsuts Deir el-Bahari temple relief of
a Punt Expedition

Large seagoing ships are known to have been heavily used

by the Egyptians in their trade with the city states of the
eastern Mediterranean, especially Byblos (on the coast of
modern-day Lebanon), and in several expeditions down
the Red Sea to the Land of Punt.[197] In fact one of the
earliest Egyptian words for a seagoing ship is a Byblos
Ship, which originally dened a class of Egyptian seago-
ing ships used on the Byblos run; however, by the end of
the Old Kingdom, the term had come to include large
seagoing ships, whatever their destination.[197]
Astronomical chart in Senemuts tomb, 18th dynasty[202]

tions date to the predynastic Naqada period, and show a

fully developed numeral system.[203] The importance of
mathematics to an educated Egyptian is suggested by a
New Kingdom ctional letter in which the writer pro-
poses a scholarly competition between himself and an-
other scribe regarding everyday calculation tasks such
as accounting of land, labor, and grain.[204] Texts such
as the Rhind Mathematical Papyrus and the Moscow
Mathematical Papyrus show that the ancient Egyptians
could perform the four basic mathematical operations
addition, subtraction, multiplication, and divisionuse
fractions, compute the volumes of boxes and pyra-
mids, and calculate the surface areas of rectangles, tri-
angles, and circles. They understood basic concepts of
algebra and geometry, and could solve simple sets of
simultaneous equations.[205]
Mathematical notation was decimal, and based on hiero-
Early Nile Delta, showing relation of Lake Timsah to Ballah
Lakes. glyphic signs for each power of ten up to one million.
Each of these could be written as many times as nec-
In 2011 archaeologists from Italy, the United States, and essary to add up to the desired number; so to write the
Egypt excavating a dried-up lagoon known as Mersa number eighty or eight hundred, the symbol for ten or
Gawasis have unearthed traces of an ancient harbor that one hundred was written eight times respectively.[206] Be-
24 CHAPTER 1. ANCIENT EGYPT

cause their methods of calculation could not handle most
fractions with a numerator greater than one, they had to
write fractions as the sum of several fractions. For exam-
ple, they resolved the fraction two-fths into the sum of
one-third + one-fteenth. Standard tables of values facil-
itated this.[207] Some common fractions, however, were
written with a special glyphthe equivalent of the mod-
ern two-thirds is shown on the right.[208]
Ancient Egyptian mathematicians had a grasp of the prin-
ciples underlying the Pythagorean theorem, knowing, for
example, that a triangle had a right angle opposite the
hypotenuse when its sides were in a 345 ratio.[209] They
were able to estimate the area of a circle by subtracting
one-ninth from its diameter and squaring the result:
Area [( 8 9 )D]2 = ( 256 81 )r 2 3.16r 2 ,
Although the European colonial occupation of Egypt
destroyed a signicant portion of the countrys histor-
ical legacy, some foreigners left more positive marks.
Napoleon, for example, arranged the rst studies in
Egyptology when he brought some 150 scientists and
artists to study and document Egypts natural history,
which was published in the Description de l'gypte.[216]
In the 20th century, the Egyptian Government and ar-
chaeologists alike recognized the importance of cultural
respect and integrity in excavations. The Supreme Coun-
cil of Antiquities now approves and oversees all excava-
tions, which are aimed at nding information rather than
treasure. The council also supervises museums and mon-
ument reconstruction programs designed to preserve the
historical legacy of Egypt.

a reasonable approximation of the formula r 2 .[209][210]

The golden ratio seems to be reected in many Egyp-
tian constructions, including the pyramids, but its use
may have been an unintended consequence of the ancient
Egyptian practice of combining the use of knotted ropes
with an intuitive sense of proportion and harmony.[211] Tourists
riding a camel in front of Giza pyramids

1.7 Population
Main article: Population history of Egypt

1.8 Legacy
See also: Tourism in Egypt

The culture and monuments of ancient Egypt have left Frontispiece of

a lasting legacy on the world. The cult of the goddess Description de l'gypte, published in 38 vol-
Isis, for example, became popular in the Roman Em- umes between 1809 and 1829.
pire, as obelisks and other relics were transported back
to Rome.[212] The Romans also imported building mate-
rials from Egypt to erect Egyptian-style structures. Early
historians such as Herodotus, Strabo, and Diodorus Sicu- 1.9 See also
lus studied and wrote about the land, which Romans came
to view as a place of mystery.[213]
Arnold J. Toynbee
During the Middle Ages and The Renaissance, Egyptian
pagan culture was in decline after the rise of Christianity Glossary of ancient Egypt artifacts
and later Islam, but interest in Egyptian antiquity contin- Index of ancient Egypt-related articles
ued in the writings of medieval scholars such as Dhul-Nun
al-Misri and al-Maqrizi.[214] In the seventeenth and eigh- Outline of ancient Egypt
teenth centuries, European travelers and tourists brought
back antiquities and wrote stories of their journeys, lead-
ing to a wave of Egyptomania across Europe. This re- 1.10 Notes
newed interest sent collectors to Egypt, who took, pur-
chased, or were given many important antiquities.[215] [1] Chronology. Digital Egypt for Universities, University
1.10. NOTES 25

College London. Archived from the original on 16 March [26] Early Dynastic Egypt. Digital Egypt for Universities,
2008. Retrieved 25 March 2008. University College London. Archived from the original
on 4 March 2008. Retrieved 9 March 2008.
[2] Dodson (2004) p. 46
[27] Robins (1997) p. 32
[3] Clayton (1994) p. 217
[28] James (2005) p. 40
[4] James (2005) p. 8
[29] Shaw (2002) p. 102
[5] Manuelian (1998) pp. 67
[30] Shaw (2002) pp. 1167
[6] Ward, Cheryl. "Worlds Oldest Planked Boats",
inArchaeology (Volume 54, Number 3, May/June 2001). [31] Fekri Hassan. The Fall of the Old Kingdom. British
Archaeological Institute of America. Broadcasting Corporation. Retrieved 10 March 2008.

[7] Clayton (1994) p. 153 [32] Clayton (1994) p. 69

[8] James (2005) p. 84 [33] Shaw (2002) p. 120

[9] Shaw (2002) pp. 17, 6769 [34] Shaw (2002) p. 146

[35] Clayton (1994) p. 29

[10] Shaw (2002) p. 17
[36] Shaw (2002) p. 148
[11] Ikram, Salima (1992). Choice Cuts: Meat Production in
Ancient Egypt. University of Cambridge. p. 5. ISBN 978- [37] Clayton (1994) p. 79
90-6831-745-9. LCCN 1997140867. OCLC 60255819.
Retrieved 22 July 2009. [38] Shaw (2002) p. 158

[12] Hayes (1964) p. 220 [39] Shaw (2002) pp. 17982

[13] Childe, V. Gordon (1953), New Light on the Most Ancient [40] Robins (1997) p. 90
Near East, (Praeger Publications)
[41] Shaw (2002) p. 188
[14] Barbara G. Aston, James A. Harrell, Ian Shaw (2000).
[42] Ryholt (1997) p. 310
Paul T. Nicholson and Ian Shaw editors. Stone, in An-
cient Egyptian Materials and Technology, Cambridge, 5 [43] Shaw (2002) p. 189
77, pp. 4647. Also note: Barbara G. Aston (1994).
Ancient Egyptian Stone Vessels, Studien zur Archolo- [44] Shaw (2002) p. 224
gie und Geschichte Altgyptens 5, Heidelberg, pp. 2326.
(See on-line posts: and .) [45] James (2005) p. 48

[15] Patai, Raphael (1998), Children of Noah: Jewish Seafar-
ing in Ancient Times (Princeton Uni Press)
[16] Chronology of the Naqada Period. Digital Egypt for
Universities, University College London. Archived from
the original on 28 March 2008. Retrieved 9 March 2008.
[17] Shaw (2002) p. 61
[18] Emberling, Geo (2011). Nubia: Ancient Kingdoms of
Africa. New York: Institute for the Study of the Ancient
World. p. 8. ISBN 978-0-615-48102-9.
[19] The Qustul Incense Burner.
[20] Faience in dierent Periods. Digital Egypt for Universi-
ties, University College London. Archived from the orig-
inal on 30 March 2008. Retrieved 9 March 2008.
[21] Allen (2000) p. 1
[22] Clayton (1994) p. 6
[23] Shaw (2002) pp. 7880
[24] Clayton (1994) pp. 1213
[25] Shaw (2002) p. 70
[46] Bleiberg (editor), Edward (2005). Ancient Egypt 2675-
332 BCE: Architecture and Design. Arts and Humanities
Through the Eras. 1.
[47] Hatshepsut. Digital Egypt for Universities, Univer-
sity College London. Archived from the original on 18
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[48] Clayton (1994) p. 108
[49] Aldred (1988) p. 259
[50] Cline (2001) p. 273
[51] With his two principal wives and large harem, Ramesses
II sired more than 100 children. Clayton (1994) p. 146
[52] Tyldesley (2001) pp. 767
[53] Killebrew 2013, p. 2. Quote: First coined in
1881 by the French Egyptologist G. Maspero (1896),
the somewhat misleading term Sea Peoples encom-
passes the ethnonyms Lukka, Sherden, Shekelesh, Teresh,
Eqwesh, Denyen, Sikil / Tjekker, Weshesh, and Peleset
(Philistines). [Footnote: The modern term Sea Peoples
refers to peoples that appear in several New Kingdom
Egyptian texts as originating from islands (tables 1-2;
Adams and Cohen, this volume; see, e.g., Drews 1993,
26 CHAPTER 1. ANCIENT EGYPT

57 for a summary). The use of quotation marks in as- [67] A. Leo Oppenheim (1964), Ancient Mesopotamia
sociation with the term Sea Peoples in our title is in-
tended to draw attention to the problematic nature of this [68] Aubin, Henry T. (2002). The Rescue of Jerusalem. New
commonly used term. It is noteworthy that the designa- York, NY: Soho Press, Inc. pp. 613. ISBN 1-56947-
tion of the sea appears only in relation to the Sherden, 275-0.
Shekelesh, and Eqwesh. Subsequently, this term was ap-
plied somewhat indiscriminately to several additional eth- [69] Aubin, Henry T. (2002). The Rescue of Jerusalem. New
nonyms, including the Philistines, who are portrayed in York, NY: Soho Press, Inc. pp. 152153. ISBN 1-56947-
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the reigns of Merenptah and Ramesses Ill (see, e.g., San-
[70] Georges Roux (1964), Ancient Iraq
dars 1978; Redford 1992, 243, n. 14; for a recent review
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out quotation marks.]" 0.
[54] The End of the Bronze Age: Changes in Warfare and
[72] George Roux - Ancient Iraq
the Catastrophe Ca. 1200 B.C., Robert Drews, p4861
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Peoples occurred ca. 1200 B.C. is supposedly based on
Egyptian inscriptions, one from the reign of Merneptah [74] Georges Roux (1964), Ancient Iraq, pp 330332
and another from the reign of Ramesses III. Yet in the in-
scriptions themselves such a migration nowhere appears. [75] Shaw (2002) p. 383
After reviewing what the Egyptian texts have to say about
'the sea peoples, one Egyptologist (Wolfgang Helck) re- [76] Shaw (2002) p. 385
cently remarked that although some things are unclear,
[77] Shaw (2002) p. 405
eins ist aber sicher: Nach den agyptischen Texten haben
wir es nicht mit einer 'Volkerwanderung' zu tun. Thus [78] Shaw (2002) p. 411
the migration hypothesis is based not on the inscriptions
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[55] James (2005) p. 54 [80] James (2005) p. 62
[56] Cerny (1975) p. 645
[81] James (2005) p. 63
[57] Emberling, Geo (2011). Nubia: Ancient Kingdoms of
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[121] Shaw (2002) p. 322 [153] Manuelian (1998) pp. 399400

[122] Manuelian (1998) p. 145 [154] Clarke (1990) pp. 947

[123] Harris (1990) p. 13 [155] Badawy (1968) p. 50

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 28 CHAPTER 1. ANCIENT EGYPT

[157] Dodson (1991) p. 23 [188] Filer (1995) p. 21

[158] Robins (1997) p. 29 [189] Figures are given for adult life expectancy and do not re-
ect life expectancy at birth. Filer (1995) p. 25
[159] Robins (1997) p. 21
[190] Filer (1995) p. 39
[160] Robins (2001) p. 12
[191] Strouhal (1989) p. 243
[161] Nicholson (2000) p. 105
[192] Stroual (1989) pp. 24446
[162] James (2005) p. 122
[193] Stroual (1989) p. 250
[163] Robins (1998) p. 74
[194] Peanac M; Janji Z; Komarcevi A; Paji M;
[164] Shaw (2002) p. 216 Dobanovacki D; Miskovi SS (MayJun 2013). Burns
treatment in ancient times. Medicinski pregled. 66 (56):
[165] Robins (1998) p. 149
2637. doi:10.1016/s0264-410x(02)00603-5. PMID
[166] Robins (1998) p. 158 23888738.

[167] James (2005) p. 102 [195] Filer (1995) p. 38

[168] "The Oxford Guide: Essential Guide to Egyptian Mythol- [196] Schuster, Angela M.H. "This Old Boat", 11 December
ogy", edited by Donald B. Redford, p. 106, Berkley 2000. Archaeological Institute of America.
Books, 2003, ISBN 0-425-19096-X [197] Shelley Wachsmann, Seagoing Ships and Seamanship in
[169] James (2005) p. 117 the Bronze Age Levant (Texas A&M University Press,
2009), p. 19.
[170] Shaw (2002) p. 313
[198] Egypts Ancient Fleet: Lost for Thousands of Years, Dis-
[171] Allen (2000) pp. 79, 945 covered in a Desolate Cave. Discover Magazine.

[172] Wasserman, et al. (1994) pp. 1503 [199] Most Ancient Port, Hieroglyphic Papyri Found. DNews.

[173] Mummies and Mummication: Old Kingdom. Digital [200] Shea, William H. A Date for the Recently Discovered
Egypt for Universities, University College London. Re- Eastern Canal of Egypt, in Bulletin of the American
trieved 9 March 2008. Schools of Oriental Research',' No. 226 (April 1977), pp.
3138.
[174] Mummies and Mummication: Late Period, Ptolemaic,
Roman and Christian Period. Digital Egypt for Universi- [201] See Suez Canal.
ties, University College London. Archived from the orig-
[202] Full version at Met Museum
inal on 30 March 2008. Retrieved 9 March 2008.
[203] Understanding of Egyptian mathematics is incomplete
[175] Shabtis. Digital Egypt for Universities, University Col-
due to paucity of available material and lack of exhaustive
lege London. Archived from the original on 24 March
study of the texts that have been uncovered. Imhausen et
2008. Retrieved 9 March 2008.
al. (2007) p. 13
[176] James (2005) p. 124
[204] Imhausen et al. (2007) p. 11
[177] Shaw (2002) p. 245
[205] Clarke (1990) p. 222
[178] Manuelian (1998) pp. 36667
[206] Clarke (1990) p. 217
[179] Clayton (1994) p. 96
[207] Clarke (1990) p. 218
[180] Shaw, Garry J. (2009). The Death of King Seqenenre
[208] Gardiner (1957) p. 197
Tao. Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt.
45. [209] Strouhal (1989) p. 241
[181] Shaw (2002) p. 400 [210] Imhausen et al. (2007) p. 31
[182] Nicholson (2000) p. 177 [211] Kemp (1989) p. 138
[183] Nicholson (2000) p. 109 [212] Siliotti (1998) p. 8

[184] Nicholson (2000) p. 195 [213] Siliotti (1998) p. 10

[185] Nicholson (2000) p. 215 [214] El-Daly (2005) p. 112

[186] Filer (1995) p. 94 [215] Siliotti (1998) p. 13

[187] Filer (1995) pp. 7880 [216] Siliotti (1998) p. 100

1.11. REFERENCES
1.11 References
Aldred, Cyril (1988). Akhenaten, King of Egypt.
London, England: Thames and Hudson. ISBN 0-
500-05048-1.
Allen, James P. (2000). Middle Egyptian: An In-
troduction to the Language and Culture of Hiero-
glyphs. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University
Press. ISBN 0-521-77483-7.
Badawy, Alexander (1968). A History of Egyptian
Architecture. Vol III. Berkeley, California: Univer-
sity of California Press. ISBN 0-520-00057-9.
Billard, Jules B. (1978). Ancient Egypt: Discover-
ing its Splendors. Washington D.C.: National Geo-
graphic Society.
Cerny, J (1975). Egypt from the Death of Ramesses
III to the End of the Twenty-First Dynasty' in The
Middle East and the Aegean Region c.13801000
BC. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
ISBN 0-521-08691-4.
Clarke, Somers; R. Engelbach (1990). Ancient
Egyptian Construction and Architecture. New York,
New York: Dover Publications, Unabridged Dover
reprint of Ancient Egyptian Masonry: The Build-
ing Craft originally published by Oxford University
Press/Humphrey Milford, London, (1930). ISBN
0-486-26485-8.
Clayton, Peter A. (1994). Chronicle of the
Pharaohs. London, England: Thames and Hudson.
ISBN 0-500-05074-0.
Cline, Eric H.; O'Connor, David Kevin (2001).
Amenhotep III: Perspectives on His Reign. Ann Ar-
bor, Michigan: University of Michigan Press. p.
273. ISBN 0-472-08833-5.
Dodson, Aidan (1991). Egyptian Rock Cut Tombs.
Buckinghamshire, UK: Shire Publications Ltd.
ISBN 0-7478-0128-2.
Dodson, Aidan; Hilton, Dyan (2004). The Complete
Royal Families of Ancient Egypt. London, England:
Thames & Hudson. ISBN 0-500-05128-3.
El-Daly, Okasha (2005). Egyptology: The Missing
Millennium. London, England: UCL Press. ISBN
1-84472-062-4.
Filer, Joyce (1996). Disease. Austin, Texas: Uni-
versity of Texas Press. ISBN 0-292-72498-5.
Gardiner, Sir Alan (1957). Egyptian Grammar: Be-
ing an Introduction to the Study of Hieroglyphs. Ox-
ford, England: Grith Institute. ISBN 0-900416-
35-1.
29
Hayes, W. C. (October 1964). Most Ancient
Egypt: Chapter III. The Neolithic and Chalcolithic
Communities of Northern Egypt. JNES (No. 4
ed.). 23 (4): 217272. doi:10.1086/371778.
Imhausen, Annette; Robson, Eleanor; Dauben,
Joseph W.; Plofker, Kim & Berggren, J. Lennart
(2007). Katz, V. J., Jr., ed. The Mathematics of
Egypt, Mesopotamia, China, India, and Islam: A
Sourcebook. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
ISBN 0-691-11485-4.
James, T.G.H. (2005). The British Museum Concise
Introduction to Ancient Egypt. Ann Arbor, Michi-
gan: University of Michigan Press. ISBN 0-472-
03137-6.
Kemp, Barry (1991). Ancient Egypt: Anatomy of
a Civilization. London, England: Routledge. ISBN
0-415-06346-9.
Killebrew, Ann E. (2013), The Philistines and
Other Sea Peoples in Text and Archaeology, So-
ciety of Biblical Literature Archaeology and bibli-
cal studies, Society of Biblical Lit, 15, ISBN 978-
1-58983-721-8
Lichtheim, Miriam (1975). Ancient Egyptian Liter-
ature, vol 1. London, England: University of Cali-
fornia Press. ISBN 0-520-02899-6.
Lichtheim, Miriam (1980). Ancient Egyptian Liter-
ature, A Book of Readings. Vol III: The Late Period.
Berkeley, California: University of California Press.
Loprieno, Antonio (1995a). Ancient Egyptian: A
linguistic introduction. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge
University Press. ISBN 0-521-44849-2.
Loprieno, Antonio (1995b). Ancient Egyptian and
other Afroasiatic Languages. In Sasson, J. M. Civ-
ilizations of the Ancient Near East. 4. New York,
New York: Charles Scribner. pp. 21372150.
ISBN 1-56563-607-4.
Loprieno, Antonio (2004). Ancient Egyptian and
Coptic. In Woodward, Roger D. The Cambridge
Encyclopedia of the Worlds Ancient Languages.
Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. pp.
160192. ISBN 0-521-56256-2.
Lucas, Alfred (1962). Ancient Egyptian Materials
and Industries, 4th Ed. London, England: Edward
Arnold Publishers. ISBN 1-85417-046-5.
Mallory-Greenough, Leanne M. (2002). The Ge-
ographical, Spatial, and Temporal Distribution of
Predynastic and First Dynasty Basalt Vessels. The
Journal of Egyptian Archaeology. London, Eng-
land: Egypt Exploration Society. 88: 6793.
doi:10.2307/3822337. JSTOR 3822337.
30
Manuelian, Peter Der (1998). Egypt: The World
of the Pharaohs. Bonner Strae, Cologne Ger-
many: Knemann Verlagsgesellschaft mbH. ISBN
3-89508-913-3.
McDowell, A. G. (1999). Village life in ancient
Egypt: laundry lists and love songs. Oxford, Eng-
land: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-814998-
0.
Meskell, Lynn (2004). Object Worlds in Ancient
Egypt: Material Biographies Past and Present (Mate-
rializing Culture). Oxford, England: Berg Publish-
ers. ISBN 1-85973-867-2.
Midant-Reynes, Batrix (2000). The Prehistory
of Egypt: From the First Egyptians to the First
Pharaohs. Oxford, England: Blackwell Publishers.
ISBN 0-631-21787-8.
Nicholson, Paul T. (2000). Ancient Egyptian Mate-
rials and Technology. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge
University Press. ISBN 0-521-45257-0.
Oakes, Lorna (2003). Ancient Egypt: An Illustrated
Reference to the Myths, Religions, Pyramids and
Temples of the Land of the Pharaohs. New York,
New York: Barnes & Noble. ISBN 0-7607-4943-4.
Robins, Gay (2000). The Art of Ancient Egypt.
Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University
Press. ISBN 0-674-00376-4.
Ryholt, Kim (January 1997). The Political Situ-
ation in Egypt During the Second Intermediate Pe-
riod. Copenhagen, Denmark: Museum Tuscu-
lanum. ISBN 87-7289-421-0.
Scheel, Bernd (1989). Egyptian Metalworking and
Tools. Haverfordwest, Great Britain: Shire Publica-
tions Ltd. ISBN 0-7478-0001-4.
Shaw, Ian (2003). The Oxford History of Ancient
Egypt. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.
ISBN 0-19-280458-8.
Siliotti, Alberto (1998). The Discovery of Ancient
Egypt. Edison, New Jersey: Book Sales, Inc. ISBN
0-7858-1360-8.
Strouhal, Eugen (1989). Life in Ancient Egypt. Nor-
man, Oklahoma: University of Oklahoma Press.
ISBN 0-8061-2475-X.
Tyldesley, Joyce A. (2001). Ramesses: Egypts
greatest pharaoh. Harmondsworth, England: Pen-
guin. pp. 7677. ISBN 0-14-028097-9.
Vittman, G. (1991). Zum koptischen Sprachgut
im gyptisch-Arabisch. Wiener Zeitschrift fr die
Kunde des Morgenlandes. Vienna, Austria: Institut
fr Orientalistik, Vienna University. 81: 197227.
CHAPTER 1. ANCIENT EGYPT
Walbank, Frank William (1984). The Cambridge
ancient history. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Uni-
versity Press. ISBN 0-521-23445-X.
Wasserman, James; Faulkner, Raymond Oliver;
Goelet, Ogden; Von Dassow, Eva (1994). The Egyp-
tian Book of the dead, the Book of going forth by day:
being the Papyrus of Ani. San Francisco, California:
Chronicle Books. ISBN 0-8118-0767-3.
Wilkinson, R. H. (2000). The Complete Temples of
Ancient Egypt. London, England: Thames and Hud-
son. ISBN 0-500-05100-3.
1.12 Further reading
Baines, John & Jaromir Malek (2000). The Cultural
Atlas of Ancient Egypt (revised ed.). Facts on File.
ISBN 0-8160-4036-2.
Bard, KA (1999). Encyclopedia of the Archaeology
of Ancient Egypt. NY, NY: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-
18589-0.
Grimal, Nicolas (1992). A History of Ancient Egypt
(in German). Blackwell Books. ISBN 0-631-
19396-0.
Helck, Wolfgang; Otto, Eberhard, eds. (1972
1992). Lexikon der gyptologie. O. Harrassowitz.
ISBN 3-447-01441-5.
Lehner, Mark (1997). The Complete Pyramids.
London: Thames & Hudson. ISBN 0-500-05084-
8.
Redford, Donald B., ed. (2001). The Oxford Ency-
clopedia of Ancient Egypt. Oxford University Press.
ISBN 0-19-510234-7.
Wilkinson, R.H. (2003). The Complete Gods and
Goddesses of Ancient Egypt. London: Thames and
Hudson. ISBN 0-500-05120-8.
1.13 External links
BBC History: Egyptiansprovides a reliable gen-
eral overview and further links
Ancient History Encyclopedia on Egypt
Ancient Egyptian Science: A Source Book Door
Marshall Clagett, 1989
Ancient Egyptian Metallurgy A site that shows the
history of Egyptian metalworking
Napoleon on the Nile: Soldiers, Artists, and the Re-
discovery of Egypt, Art History.
1.13. EXTERNAL LINKS 31

Ancient Egyptmaintained by the British Museum,

this site provides a useful introduction to Ancient
Egypt for older children and young adolescents

Digital Egypt for Universities. Outstanding schol-

arly treatment with broad coverage and cross refer-
ences (internal and external). Artifacts used exten-
sively to illustrate topics.

Priests of Ancient Egypt In-depth-information

about Ancient Egypts priests, religious services and
temples. Much picture material and bibliography.
In English and German.

Ancient Egypt

UCLA Encyclopedia of Egyptology

Ancient Egypt and the Role of Women by Dr Joann
Fletcher
Chapter 2

History of Egypt

The history of Egypt has been long and rich, due to the vate Egypt fell under British control in 1882 following the
ow of the Nile river, with its fertile banks and delta. Its Anglo-Egyptian War. After the end of World War I and
rich history also comes from its native inhabitants and following the Egyptian revolution of 1919, the Kingdom
outside inuence. Much of Egypts ancient history was of Egypt was established. While a de facto independent
a mystery until the secrets of ancient Egyptian hiero- state, the United Kingdom retained control over foreign
glyphs were deciphered with the discovery and help of aairs, defense, and other matters. British occupation
the Rosetta Stone. The Great Pyramid of Giza is the lasted until 1954, with the Anglo-Egyptian agreement of
only one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World still 1954.
standing. The Lighthouse of Alexandria, one of the other
The modern Republic of Egypt was founded in 1953, and
Seven Wonders, is gone. The Library of Alexandria was with the complete withdrawal of British forces from the
the only one of its kind for centuries. Suez Canal in 1956, it marked the rst time in 2300 years
Human settlement in Egypt dates back to at least 40,000 that Egypt was both fully independent and ruled by na-
BC with Aterian tool manufacturing. Ancient Egyptian tive Egyptians. President Gamal Abdel Nasser (president
civilization coalesced around 3150 BC with the polit- from 1956 to 1970) introduced many reforms and cre-
ical unication of Upper and Lower Egypt under the ated the short-lived United Arab Republic (with Syria).
rst pharaoh of the First Dynasty, Narmer. Predomi- His terms also saw the Six-Day War and the creation of
nately native Egyptian rule lasted until the conquest by the international Non-Aligned Movement. His succes-
the Achaemenid Empire in the sixth century BC. sor, Anwar Sadat (president from 1970 to 1981) changed
In 332 BC, Macedonian ruler Alexander the Great con- Egypts trajectory, departing from many of the political,
quered Egypt as he toppled the Achaemenids and es- and economic tenets of Nasserism, re-instituting a multi-
tablished the Hellenistic Ptolemaic Kingdom, whose rst party system, and launching the Intah economic policy.
ruler was one of Alexanders former generals, Ptolemy He led Egypt in the Yom Kippur War of 1973 to regain
I Soter. The Ptolemies had to ght native rebellions Egypts Sinai Peninsula, which Israel had occupied since
the Six-Day War of 1967. This later led to the Egypt
and were involved in foreign and civil wars that led to
the decline of the kingdom and its nal annexation by Israel Peace Treaty.
Rome. The death of Cleopatra ended the nominal inde- Recent Egyptian history has been dominated by events
pendence of Egypt resulting in Egypt becoming one of following nearly thirty years of rule by former president
the provinces of the Roman Empire. Hosni Mubarak. The Egyptian revolution of 2011 de-
Roman rule in Egypt (including Byzantine) lasted from posed Mubarak and resulted in the rst democratically
30 BC to 641 AD, with a brief interlude of control by the elected president in Egyptian history, Mohamed Morsi.
Sasanian Empire between 619-629, known as Sasanian Unrest after the 2011 revolution and related disputes led
Egypt. After the Muslim conquest of Egypt, parts of to the 2013 Egyptian coup d'tat.
Egypt became provinces of successive Caliphates and
other Muslim dynasties: Rashidun Caliphate (632-661),
Umayyad Caliphate (661750), Abbasid Caliphate (750- 2.1 Prehistory (pre3100 BC)
909), Fatimid Caliphate (909-1171), Ayyubid Sultanate
(11711260), and the Mamluk Sultanate (1250-1517).
In 1517, Ottoman sultan Selim I captured Cairo, absorb- Main articles: Prehistoric Egypt and Population history
ing Egypt into the Ottoman Empire. of Egypt

Egypt remained entirely Ottoman until 1867, except dur-

ing French occupation from 1798 to 1801. Starting in There is evidence of petroglyphs along the Nile terraces
1867, Egypt became a nominally autonomous tributary and in desert oases. In the 10th millennium BC, a cul-
state called the Khedivate of Egypt. However, Khedi- ture of hunter-gatherers and shermen was replaced by a
grain-grinding culture. Climate changes and/or overgraz-

32
2.3. PTOLEMAIC AND ROMAN EGYPT (332 BC641 AD)
ing around 6000 BC began to desiccate the pastoral lands
of Egypt, forming the Sahara. Early tribal peoples mi-
grated to the Nile River, where they developed a settled
agricultural economy and more centralized society.[1]
By about 6000 BC, a Neolithic culture rooted in the Nile
Valley.[2] During the Neolithic era, several predynastic
cultures developed independently in Upper and Lower
Egypt. The Badari culture and the successor Naqada
series are generally regarded as precursors to dynastic
Egypt. The earliest known Lower Egyptian site, Mer-
imda, predates the Badarian by about seven hundred
years. Contemporaneous Lower Egyptian communities
coexisted with their southern counterparts for more than
two thousand years, remaining culturally distinct, but
maintaining frequent contact through trade. The earliest
known evidence of Egyptian hieroglyphic inscriptions ap-
peared during the predynastic period on Naqada III pot-
tery vessels, dated to about 3200 BC.[3]
2.2 Ancient Egypt (3100332 BC)
Main articles: Ancient Egypt and History of ancient
Egypt 2.2.1
A unied kingdom was founded 3150 BC by King
The Great Sphinx and the Pyramids of Giza, built during the Old
Kingdom.
Menes, leading to a series of dynasties that ruled Egypt
for the next three millennia. Egyptian culture ourished
during this long period and remained distinctively Egyp-
tian in its religion, arts, language and customs. The rst
two ruling dynasties of a unied Egypt set the stage for
the Old Kingdom period, c. 27002200 BC., which con-
structed many pyramids, most notably the Third Dynasty
pyramid of Djoser and the Fourth Dynasty Giza Pyra-
mids.
The First Intermediate Period ushered in a time of polit-
ical upheaval for about 150 years.[4] Stronger Nile oods
and stabilization of government, however, brought back
renewed prosperity for the country in the Middle King- Main articles: Ptolemaic Kingdom and Egypt (Roman
dom c. 2040 BC, reaching a peak during the reign of province)
33
Pharaoh Amenemhat III. A second period of disunity
heralded the arrival of the rst foreign ruling dynasty in
Egypt, that of the Semitic-speaking Hyksos. The Hyksos
invaders took over much of Lower Egypt around 1650 BC
and founded a new capital at Avaris. They were driven
out by an Upper Egyptian force led by Ahmose I, who
founded the Eighteenth Dynasty and relocated the capi-
tal from Memphis to Thebes.
The New Kingdom, c. 15501070 BC, began with the
Eighteenth Dynasty, marking the rise of Egypt as an
international power that expanded during its greatest ex-
tension to an empire as far south as Tombos in Nubia, and
included parts of the Levant in the east. This period is
noted for some of the most well known Pharaohs, includ-
ing Hatshepsut, Thutmose III, Akhenaten and his wife
Nefertiti, Tutankhamun and Ramesses II. The rst histor-
ically attested expression of monotheism came during this
period as Atenism. Frequent contacts with other nations
brought new ideas to the New Kingdom. The country
was later invaded and conquered by Libyans, Nubians and
Assyrians, but native Egyptians eventually drove them out
and regained control of their country.[5]
Achaemenid rule
In the sixth century BC, the Achaemenid Empire con-
quered Egypt. The entire Twenty-seventh Dynasty of
Egypt, from 525 BC to 402 BC, save for Petubastis
III, was an entirely Persian-ruled period, with the
Achaemenid kings being granted the title of pharaoh.
The Thirtieth Dynasty was the last native ruling dynasty
during the Pharaonic epoch. It fell to the Persians again
in 343 BC after the last native Pharaoh, King Nectanebo
II, was defeated in battle.
2.2.2 Second Achaemenid conquest
The Thirty-rst Dynasty of Egypt, also known as the
Second Egyptian Satrapy, was eectively a short-living
province of the Achaemenid Empire between 343 BC to
332 BC.
After an interval of independence, during which three
indigenous dynasties reigned (the 28th, 29th and 30th
dynasty), Artaxerxes III (358338 BC) reconquered the
Nile valley for a brief second period (343332 BC),
which is called the Thirty-rst Dynasty of Egypt, thus
starting another period of pharaos of Persian origin.
2.3 Ptolemaic and Roman Egypt
(332 BC641 AD)
34 CHAPTER 2. HISTORY OF EGYPT

2.3.1 Sassanid Egypt

Sasanian Egypt (known in Middle Persian sources as
Agiptus) refers to the brief rule of Egypt and parts of
Libya by the Sasanian Empire, which lasted from 619 to
629, until the Sasanian rebel Shahrbaraz made an alliance
with the Byzantine emperor Heraclius and had control
over Egypt returned to him.

2.4 Arab and Ottoman Egypt (641

1882)
Main articles: History of Muslim Egypt and History of
Ottoman Egypt
The Byzantines were able to regain control of the coun-

The Greek Ptolemaic queen Cleopatra and her son by Julius Cae-
sar, Caesarion, at the Dendera Temple complex.

The Ptolemaic Kingdom was a powerful Hellenistic state

extending from southern Syria in the east, to Cyrene to
the west, and south to the frontier with Nubia. Alexandria
became the capital city and a center of Greek culture and
trade. To gain recognition by the native Egyptian pop-
ulace, they named themselves as the successors to the
Pharaohs. The later Ptolemies took on Egyptian tradi-
tions, had themselves portrayed on public monuments in
Egyptian style and dress, and participated in Egyptian re-
ligious life.[6][7]
The last ruler from the Ptolemaic dynasty was Cleopatra,
who committed suicide following the burial of her lover
Mark Antony, who had died in her arms (from a
self-inicted stab wound) after Augustus had captured
Alexandria and her mercenary forces had ed.
Selim I (14701520), conquered Egypt
The Ptolemies faced rebellions of native Egyptians, often
caused by an unwanted regime, and were involved in for- try after a brief Persian invasion early in the 7th century,
until 63942, when Egypt was invaded and conquered by
eign and civil wars that led to the decline of the kingdom
and its annexation by Rome. Nevertheless, Hellenistic the Islamic Empire by the Muslim Arabs. When they de-
culture continued to thrive in Egypt well after the Muslim
feated the Byzantine Armies in Egypt, the Arabs brought
conquest. Sunni Islam to the country. Early in this period, Egyp-
Christianity was brought to Egypt by Mark the Evange- tians began to blend their new faith with indigenous be-
[8]
list in the rst century. Diocletian's reign marked the liefs and practices, leading to various Su orders that have
transition from the Roman to the Byzantine era in Egypt, ourished to this day.[8] These earlier rites had survived
[10]
when a great number of Egyptian Christians were per- the period of Coptic Christianity.
secuted. The New Testament had by then been trans- Muslim rulers nominated by the Islamic Caliphate re-
lated into Egyptian. After the Council of Chalcedon in mained in control of Egypt for the next six centuries, with
AD 451, a distinct Egyptian Coptic Church was rmly Cairo as the seat of the Caliphate under the Fatimids.
established.[9] With the end of the Kurdish Ayyubid dynasty, the
2.5. BRITISH PROTECTORATE (18821953) 35

in Istanbul as his viceroy in Egypt; the title implied subor-

dination to the Sultan but this was in fact a polite ction:
Ottoman power in Egypt was nished and Muhammad
Ali, an ambitious and able leader, established a dynasty
that was to rule Egypt until the revolution of 1952. In
later years, the dynasty became a British puppet.[15]
His primary focus was military: he annexed Northern Su-
dan (18201824), Syria (1833), and parts of Arabia and
Anatolia; but in 1841 the European powers, fearful lest
he topple the Ottoman Empire itself, forced him to re-
turn most of his conquests to the Ottomans, but he kept
the Sudan and his title to Egypt was made hereditary. A
more lasting result of his military ambition is that it re-
quired him to modernize the country. Eager to adopt the
military (and therefore industrial) techniques of the great
powers, he sent students to the West and invited train-
ing missions to Egypt. He built industries, a system of
canals for irrigation and transport, and reformed the civil
service.[15]
The introduction in 1820 of long-staple cotton, the Egyp-
tian variety of which became notable, transformed its
agriculture into a cash-crop monoculture before the end
of the century. The social eects of this were enor-
mous: land ownership became concentrated and many
foreigners arrived, shifting production towards interna-
tional markets.[15]
The Hanging Church of Cairo, rst built in the 3rd or 4th century,
is one of the most famous Coptic Orthodox churches in Egypt.

2.5 British Protectorate (1882

Mamluks, a Turco-Circassian military caste, took con-
1953)
trol about AD 1250. By the late 13th century, Egypt
linked the Red Sea, India, Malaya, and East Indies.[11] Main articles: History of Egypt under the British and
They continued to govern the country until the conquest History of modern Egypt
of Egypt by the Ottoman Turks in 1517, after which it be- British indirect rule lasted from 1882, when the British
came a province of the Ottoman Empire. The mid-14th- succeeded in defeating the Egyptian Army at Tel el-Kebir
century Black Death killed about 40% of the countrys in September and took control of the country, to the 1952
population.[12] Egyptian revolution which made Egypt a republic and
After the 15th century, the Ottoman invasion pushed when British advisers were expelled.
the Egyptian system into decline. The defensive Muhammad Ali was succeeded briey by his son Ibrahim
militarization damaged its civil society and economic (in September 1848), then by a grandson Abbas I (in
institutions.[11] The weakening of the economic system November 1848), then by Said (in 1854), and Isma'il (in
combined with the eects of plague left Egypt vulnera- 1863). Abbas I was cautious. Said and Ismail were am-
ble to foreign invasion. Portuguese traders took over their bitious developers, but they spent beyond their means.
trade.[11] Egypt suered six famines between 1687 and The Suez Canal, built in partnership with the French, was
1731.[13] The 1784 famine cost it roughly one-sixth of its completed in 1869. The cost of this and other projects
population.[14] had two eects: it led to enormous debt to European
The brief French invasion of Egypt led by Napoleon banks, and caused popular discontent because of the
Bonaparte began in 1798. The expulsion of the French onerous taxation it required. In 1875 Ismail was forced to
in 1801 by Ottoman, Mamluk, and British forces was fol- sell Egypts share in the canal to the British Government.
lowed by four years of anarchy in which Ottomans, Mam- Within three years this led to the imposition of British
luks, and Albanians who were nominally in the service and French controllers who sat in the Egyptian cabinet,
of the Ottomans wrestled for power. Out of this chaos, and, with the nancial power of the bondholders [16]
behind
the commander of the Albanian regiment, Muhammad them, were the real power in the Government.
Ali (Kavalali Mehmed Ali Pasha) emerged as a domi- Local dissatisfaction with Ismail and with European in-
nant gure and in 1805 was acknowledged by the Sultan trusion led to the formation of the rst nationalist group-
36 CHAPTER 2. HISTORY OF EGYPT

constitution in 1923 based on a parliamentary system.

Saad Zaghlul was popularly elected as Prime Minister
of Egypt in 1924. In 1936, the Anglo-Egyptian Treaty
was concluded. Continued instability due to remaining
British inuence and increasing political involvement by
the king led to the dissolution of the parliament in a mili-
tary coup d'tat known as the 1952 Revolution. The Free
Ocers Movement forced King Farouk to abdicate in
support of his son Fuad.
British military presence in Egypt lasted until 1954.[21]

2.6 Republican Egypt (since 1953)

Main articles: History of the Republic of Egypt and
History of modern Egypt
On 18 June 1953, the Egyptian Republic was de-

Nationalists demonstrating in Cairo, 1919

Celebrating the signing of the Camp David Accords: Menachem

ings in 1879, with Ahmad Urabi a prominent gure. In Begin, Jimmy Carter, Anwar Al Sadat.
1882 he became head of a nationalist-dominated ministry
committed to democratic reforms including parliamen- clared, with General Muhammad Naguib as the rst Pres-
tary control of the budget. Fearing a reduction of their ident of the Republic. Naguib was forced to resign in
control, Britain and France intervened militarily, bom- 1954 by Gamal Abdel Nasser the real architect of the
barding Alexandria and crushing the Egyptian army at 1952 movement and was later put under house ar-
the battle of Tel el-Kebir.[17] They reinstalled Ismails son
rest. Nasser assumed power as President in June 1956.
Tewk as gurehead of a de facto British protectorate.[18]British forces completed their withdrawal from the occu-
In 1914, the Protectorate was made ocial, and the ti- pied Suez Canal Zone on 13 June 1956. He nationalized
tle of the head of state, which in 1867 had changed from the Suez Canal on 26 July 1956, prompting the 1956 Suez
pasha to khedive, was changed again to sultan, to repu- Crisis.
diate the vestigial suzerainty of the Ottoman sultan, who In 1958, Egypt and Syria formed a sovereign union
was backing the Central powers in the First World War. known as the United Arab Republic. The union was
Abbas II was deposed as khedive and replaced by his un- short-lived, ending in 1961 when Syria seceded, thus end-
cle, Hussein Kamel, as sultan.[19] ing the union. During most of its existence, the United
In 1906, the Dinshaway Incident prompted many neutral Arab Republic was also in a loose confederation with
Egyptians to join the nationalist movement. After the North Yemen (formerly the Mutawakkilite Kingdom of
First World War, Saad Zaghlul and the Wafd Party led Yemen) known as the United Arab States.
the Egyptian nationalist movement to a majority at the In the 1967 Six Day War, Israel invaded and occupied
local Legislative Assembly. When the British exiled Za- Egypts Sinai Peninsula and the Gaza Strip, which Egypt
ghlul and his associates to Malta on 8 March 1919, the had occupied since the 1948 ArabIsraeli War. Three
country arose in its rst modern revolution. The revolt years later (1970), President Nasser died and was suc-
led the UK government to issue a unilateral declaration ceeded by Anwar Sadat. Sadat switched Egypts Cold
of Egypts independence on 22 February 1922.[20] War allegiance from the Soviet Union to the United
The new government drafted and implemented a States, expelling Soviet advisors in 1972. He launched
2.6. REPUBLICAN EGYPT (SINCE 1953) 37

the Intah economic reform policy, while clamping down During this period, Al-Gama'a al-Islamiyya was given
on religious and secular opposition. support by the governments of Iran and Sudan, as well
[32]
In 1973, Egypt, along with Syria, launched the October as al-Qaeda. The Egyptian government received sup-
War, a surprise attack against the Israeli forces occupy- port during that time from the United States.[32]
ing the Sinai Peninsula and the Golan Heights. It was
an attempt to regain part of the Sinai territory that Israel
2.6.2 Civil unrest since 2011
had captured six years earlier. Sadat hoped to seize some
territory through military force, and then regain the rest
Main article: Egyptian crisis (201114)
of the peninsula by diplomacy. The conict sparked an
international crisis between the US and the USSR, both
of whom intervened. The second UN-mandated cease-
re halted military action. While the war ended with a Revolution
military stalemate, it presented Sadat with a political vic-
tory that later allowed him to regain the Sinai in return Main article: Egyptian revolution of 2011
for peace with Israel.[22]
Sadat made a historic visit to Israel in 1977, which led In 2003, the Kefaya (Egyptian Movement for Change),
to the 1979 peace treaty in exchange for Israeli with- was launched to oppose the Mubarak regime and to es-
drawal from Sinai. Sadats initiative sparked enormous tablish democratic reforms and greater civil liberties.
controversy in the Arab world and led to Egypts expul-
sion from the Arab League, but it was supported by most
Egyptians.[23] On 6 October 1981, Sadat and six diplo-
mats were assassinated while observing a military parade
commemorating the eighth anniversary of the October
1973 War. He was succeeded by Hosni Mubarak.

2.6.1 Terrorist insurgency

Main article: Terrorism in Egypt

In 1980s, 1990s, and 2000s, terrorist attacks in Egypt be- Celebrations in Tahrir Square after Omar Suleiman's statement
came numerous and severe, and began to target Copts and announcing Hosni Mubarak's resignation
foreign tourists as well as government ocials.[24] Some
scholars and authors have credited Islamist writer Sayyid On 25 January 2011, widespread protests began against
Qutb, who was executed in 1967, as the inspiration for Mubaraks government. The objective of the protest was
the new wave of attacks.[25][26] the removal of Mubarak from power. These took the
The 1990s saw an Islamist group, al-Gama'a al-Islamiyya, form of an intensive campaign of civil resistance sup-
engage in an extended campaign of violence, from the ported by a very large number of people and mainly con-
murders and attempted murders of prominent writers and sisting of continuous mass demonstrations. By 29 Jan-
intellectuals, to the repeated targeting of tourists and for- uary, it was becoming clear that Mubaraks government
eigners. Serious damage was done to the largest sector of had lost control when a curfew order was ignored, and the
Egypts economytourism[27] and in turn to the gov- army took a semi-neutral stance on enforcing the curfew
ernment, but it also devastated the livelihoods of many of decree. Some protesters, a very small minority in Cairo,
the people on whom the group depended for support.[28] expressed views against what they deemed was foreign in-
terference, highlighted by the then-held view that the U.S.
Victims of the campaign against the Egyptian state from administration had failed to take sides, as well as linking
1992-1997 exceeded 1,200[29] and included the head the administration with Israel.[33]
of the counter-terrorism police (Major General Raouf
Khayrat), a speaker of parliament (Rifaat el-Mahgoub), On 11 February 2011, Mubarak resigned and ed
dozens of European tourists and Egyptian bystanders, and Cairo. Vice President Omar Suleiman announced that
over 100 Egyptian police.[30] Mubarak had stepped down and that the Egyptian mil-
itary would assume control of the nations aairs in the
At times, travel by foreigners in parts of Upper Egypt was short term.[34][35] Jubilant celebrations broke out in Tahrir
severely restricted and dangerous.[31] Square at the news.[36] Mubarak may have left Cairo for
On 17 November 1997, 62 people, mostly tourists, were Sharm el-Sheikh the previous night, before or shortly af-
killed near Luxor. The assailants trapped the people in ter the airing of a taped speech in which Mubarak vowed
the Mortuary Temple of Hatshepsut. he would not step down or leave.[37]
38 CHAPTER 2. HISTORY OF EGYPT

On 13 February 2011, the high level military command of pose strict Islamic practices, while Muslim Brotherhood
Egypt announced that both the constitution and the par- backers threw their support behind Morsi.[46]
liament of Egypt had been dissolved. The parliamentary The move was criticized by Mohamed ElBaradei, the
election was to be held in September.[38] leader of Egypts Constitution Party, who stated Morsi
A constitutional referendum was held on 19 March 2011. today usurped all state powers & appointed himself
On 28 November 2011, Egypt held its rst parliamentary Egypts new pharaoh on his Twitter feed.[47][48] The
election since the previous regime had been in power. move led to massive protests and violent action through-
Turnout was high and there were no reports of vio- out Egypt.[49] On 5 December 2012, Tens of thousands
lence, although members of some parties broke the ban of supporters and opponents of Egypts president clashed,
on campaigning at polling places by handing out pam- hurling rocks and Molotov cocktails and brawling in
phlets and banners.[39] There were however complaints Cairos streets, in what was described as the largest vio-
of irregularities.[40] lent battle between Islamists and their foes since the coun-
trys revolution.[50] Six senior advisors and three other of-
cials resigned from the government and the countrys
Morsis presidency leading Islamic institution called on Morsi to stem his
powers. Protesters also clamored from coastal cities to
desert towns.[51]
Main article: Timeline of the Egyptian Crisis under
Mohamed Morsi Morsi oered a national dialogue with opposition lead-
ers but refused to cancel a 15 December vote on a draft
constitution written by an Islamist-dominated assembly
The rst round of a presidential election was held in Egypt
that has ignited two weeks of political unrest.[51]
on 23 and 24 May 2012. Mohamed Morsi won 25%
of the vote and Ahmed Shak, the last prime minister A constitutional referendum was held in two rounds on
under deposed leader Hosni Mubarak, 24%. A second 15 and 22 December 2012, with 64% support, and 33%
round was held on 16 and 17 June. On 24 June 2012, against. It was signed into law by a presidential decree
the election commission announced that Mohamed Morsi issued by Morsi on 26 December 2012. On 3 July 2013,
had won the election, making him the rst democratically the constitution was suspended by order of the Egyptian
elected president of Egypt. According to ocial results, army.
Morsi took 51.7 percent of the vote while Shak received On 30 June 2013, on the rst anniversary of the elec-
48.3 percent. In August, 2013, former Israeli negotiator tion of Morsi, millions of protesters across Egypt took to
Yossi Beilin wrote that an Egyptian ocial had told him the streets and demanded the immediate resignation of
that the true results were the opposite, but the military the president. On 1 July, the Egyptian Armed Forces is-
gave the presidency to Morsi out of fear of unrest.[41] sued a 48-hour ultimatum that gave the countrys political
On 8 July 2012, Egypts new president Mohamed Morsi parties until 3 July to meet the demands of the Egyptian
announced he was overriding the military edict that dis- people. The presidency rejected the Egyptian Armys
solved the countrys elected parliament and he called law- 48-hour ultimatum, vowing that the president would pur-
makers back into session.[42] sue his own plans for national reconciliation to resolve
the political crisis. On 3 July, General Abdel Fattah
On 10 July 2012, the Supreme Constitutional Court of
el-Sisi, head of the Egyptian Armed Forces, announced
Egypt negated the decision by Morsi to call the na-
that he had removed Morsi from power, suspended the
tions parliament back into session.[43] On 2 August 2012,
constitution and would be calling new presidential and
Egypts Prime Minister Hisham Qandil announced his
Shura Council elections and named Supreme Constitu-
35-member cabinet comprising 28 newcomers includ-
tional Court's leader, Adly Mansour as acting president.
ing four from the inuential Muslim Brotherhood, six
Mansour was sworn in on 4 July 2013.
others and the former military ruler Mohamed Hus-
sein Tantawi as the Defence Minister from the previous
Government.[44]
After Morsi
On 22 November 2012, Morsi issued a declaration im-
munizing his decrees from challenge and seeking to pro- Main article: Post-coup unrest in Egypt (20132014)
tect the work of the constituent assembly drafting the new
constitution.[45] The declaration also requires a retrial of
those accused in the Mubarak-era killings of protesters, During the months after the coup d'tat, a new constitu-
who had been acquitted, and extends the mandate of tion was prepared, which took eect on 18 January 2014.
the constituent assembly by two months. Additionally, After that, presidential and parliamentary elections have
the declaration authorizes Morsi to take any measures to be held within 6 months.
necessary to protect the revolution. Liberal and secular On 24 March 2014, 529 Morsis supporters were
groups previously walked out of the constitutional con- sentenced to death, while the trial of Morsi himself
stituent assembly because they believed that it would im- was still ongoing.[52] Having delivered a nal judgement,
2.8. REFERENCES
492 sentences were commuted to life imprisonment with [14] "Icelandic Volcano Caused Historic Famine In Egypt,
only 37 death sentences being upheld. Study Shows". ScienceDaily. 22 November 2006
On 28 April, another mass trial took place with 683 [15] Nejla M. Abu Izzeddin, Nasser of the Arabs, published c.
Morsi supporters sentenced to death for killing 1 police 1973, p 2.
ocer.[53]
In 2015, Egypt participated in the Saudi Arabian-led in-
tervention in Yemen.[54]
2.7 See also
Timeline of Cairo
Timeline of Alexandria
2.8 References
[1] Midant-Reynes, Batrix. The Prehistory of Egypt: From
the First Egyptians to the First Kings. Oxford: Blackwell
Publishers.
[2] The Nile Valley 60004000 BC Neolithic. The British
Museum. 2005. Archived from the original on 14 Febru-
ary 2009. Retrieved 21 August 2008.
[3] Bard, Kathryn A. Ian Shaw, ed. The Oxford Illustrated
History of Ancient Egypt. Oxford: Oxford University
Press, 2000. p. 69.
[4] The Fall of the Egyptian Old Kingdom. BBC. 17 Febru-
ary 2011. Retrieved 3 November 2011.
[5] The Kushite Conquest of Egypt. Ancientsudan.org. Re-
trieved 25 August 2010.
[6] Bowman, Alan K (1996). Egypt after the Pharaohs 332
BC AD 642 (2nd ed.). Berkeley: University of Califor-
nia Press. pp. 2526. ISBN 0-520-20531-6.
[7] Stanwick, Paul Edmond (2003). Portraits of the Ptolemies:
Greek kings as Egyptian pharaohs. Austin: University of
Texas Press. ISBN 0-292-77772-8.
[8] Egypt. Berkley Center for Religion, Peace, and World
Aairs. Retrieved 14 December 2011. See drop-down
essay on Islamic Conquest and the Ottoman Empire
[9] Kamil, Jill. Coptic Egypt: History and Guide. Cairo:
American University in Cairo, 1997. p. 39
[10] El-Daly, Okasha. Egyptology: The Missing Millennium.
London: UCL Press
[11] Abu-Lughod, Janet L. (1991) [1989]. The Mideast
Heartland. Before European Hegemony: The World Sys-
tem A.D. 12501350. New York: Oxford University
Press. pp. 243244. ISBN 978-0-19-506774-3.
[12] Egypt Major Cities, U.S. Library of Congress
[13] Donald Quataert (2005). The Ottoman Empire, 1700
1922. Cambridge University Press. p. 115. ISBN 0-
521-83910-6.
39
[16] Nejla M. Abu Izzeddin, Nasser of the Arabs, p 2.
[17] Anglo French motivation: Derek Hopwood, Egypt: Poli-
tics and Society 19451981 (London, 1982, George Allen
& Unwin), p. 11
[18] De facto protectorate: Joan Wucher King, Historical Dic-
tionary of Egypt (Metuchen, New Jersey, USA: Scare-
crow, 1984), p. 17
[19] James Jankowski, Egypt, A Short History, p. 111
[20] Jankowski, op cit., p. 112
[21] Egypt. CIA- The World Factbook. Retrieved 2 February
2011. Partially independent from the UK in 1922, Egypt
acquired full sovereignty with the overthrow of the British-
backed monarchy in 1952.
[22] USMC Major Michael C. Jordan (1997). The 1973
Arab-Israeli War: Arab Policies, Strategies, and Cam-
paigns. GlobalSecurity.org. Retrieved 20 April 2009.
[23] Vatikiotis, p. 443
[24] Murphy, Caryle Passion for Islam : Shaping the Modern
Middle East: the Egyptian Experience, Scribner, 2002, p.4
[25] Murphy, Caryle Passion for Islam : Shaping the Mod-
ern Middle East: the Egyptian Experience, Scribner, 2002,
p.57
[26] Kepel, Gilles, Muslim Extremism in Egypt by Gilles Kepel,
English translation published by University of California
Press, 1986, p. 74
[27] Solidly ahead of oil, Suez Canal revenues, and remit-
tances, tourism is Egypts main hard currency earner at
$6.5 billion per year. (in 2005) ... concerns over tourisms
future Archived 24 September 2013 at the Wayback Ma-
chine.. Retrieved 27 September 2007.
[28] Gilles Kepel, Jihad, 2002
[29] Lawrence Wright, The Looming Tower (2006), p.258
[30] Timeline of modern Egypt. Gemsos-
lamism.tripod.com. Retrieved 2011-02-12.
[31] As described by William Dalrymple in his book From the
Holy Mountain (1996, ISBN 0 00 654774 5) pp. 434-54,
where he describes his trip to the area of Asyut in 1994.
[32] Uppsala Conict Data Program, Conict Encyclopedia,
The al-Gama'a al-Islamiyya insurgency, viewed 2013-05-
03, http://www.ucdp.uu.se/gpdatabase/gpcountry.php?
id=50&regionSelect=10-Middle_East#
[33] Malaysia Egypt Protest Pictures & Photos. AP
Photo/Lai Seng Sin. 31 January 2011. Archived from
the original on 24 August 2013.
40 CHAPTER 2. HISTORY OF EGYPT

[34] Kirkpatrick, David D. (11 February 2010). Mubarak
Steps Down, Ceding Power to Military. The New York
Times. Retrieved 11 February 2011.
[35] Egypt crisis: President Hosni Mubarak resigns as leader.
BBC. 11 February 2010. Retrieved 11 February 2011.
[53] Egypt sentences 683 to death in latest mass trial of dissi-
dents. The Washington Post. 28 April 2015.
[54] "Egypt and Saudi Arabia discuss maneuvers as Yemen
battles rage". Reuters. 14 April 2015.

[36] Mubarak Resigns As Egypts President, Armed Forces To

Take Control Hungton Post/AP, 11 February 2011

[37] Mubarak Flees Cairo for Sharm el-Sheikh. CBS News.

11 February 2011. Retrieved 15 May 2012.

[38] Egyptian Parliament dissolved, constitution suspended.

BBC. 13 February 2011. Retrieved 13 February 2011.

[39] Egypts Historic Day Proceeds Peacefully, Turnout High

For Elections. NPR. 28 November 2011. Last Retrieved
29 November 2011.

[40] Daniel Pipes and Cynthia Farahat (24 January 2012).

Don't Ignore Electoral Fraud in Egypt. Daniel Pipes
Middle East Forum.

[41] Yossi Beilin (18 August 2013). "'Morsi didn't win the
elections". Israel Hayom.

[42] Fahmy, Mohamed (9 July 2012). Egypts president calls

back dissolved parliament. CNN. Retrieved 8 July 2012.

[43] Watson, Ivan (10 July 2012). Court overrules Egypts

president on parliament. CNN. Retrieved 10 July 2012.

[44] Egypt unveils new cabinet, Tantawi keeps defence post.

3 August 2012.

[45] Egypts President Mursi assumes sweeping powers.

BBC News. 22 November 2012. Retrieved 23 Novem-
ber 2012.

[46] Rallies for, against Egypt presidents new powers. Asso-

ciated Press. 23 November 2012. Retrieved 23 Novem-
ber 2012.

[47] Twitter / ELBaradei. 22 November 2012. Retrieved 23

November 2012.

[48] Birnbaum, Michael (22 November 2012). Egypts

President Morsi takes sweeping new powers |pub-
lisher"Washington Post. The Washington Post. Retrieved
23 November 2012.

[49] Spencer, Richard (23 November 2012). Violence breaks

out across Egypt as protesters decry Mohammed Morsis
constitutional 'coup'". The Daily Telegraph. London. Re-
trieved 23 November 2012.

[50] Egypt Sees Largest Clash Since Revolution. Wall Street

Journal. 6 December 2012. Retrieved 8 December 2012.

[51] Fleishman, Jerey (6 December 2012). Morsi refuses to

cancel Egypts vote on constitution. Los Angeles Times.
Retrieved 8 December 2012.

[52] Czech News Agency (2014-03-24). Soud s islamisty

v Egypt: Na popravit pjde vce ne 500 Mursho
stoupenc". IHNED.cz. Retrieved 2014-03-24.
Chapter 3

Prehistoric Egypt

The prehistory of Egypt spans the period from earliest and an Egyptian form of the Clactonian. Within the 50-
human settlement to the beginning of the Early Dynastic foot terrace was developed Acheulean. Originally re-
Period of Egypt around c. 3100 BC, starting with the rst ported as Early Mousterian but since changed to Lev-
Pharaoh, Narmer for some egyptologists, Aha for others, alloisean, other implements were located in the 30-foot
(also known as Menes). This Predynastic era is tradition- terrace. The 15- and 10-foot terraces saw a more devel-
ally equivalent to the nal part of the Neolithic period oped version of the Levalloisean, also initially reported as
beginning c. 6000 BC and corresponds to the Naqada III an Egyptian version of Mousterian. Finally, tools of the
period. Egyptian Sebilian technology and an Egyptian version of
the Aterian technology were also located.[5]
The dates of the Predynastic period were rst dened be-
fore widespread archaeological excavation of Egypt took
place, and recent nds indicating very gradual Predy-
nastic development have led to controversy over when 3.1.1 Wadi Halfa
exactly the Predynastic period ended. Thus, the term
"Protodynastic period", sometimes called the Zero Dy- Some of the oldest known buildings were discov-
nasty, has been used by scholars to name the part of the ered in Egypt by archaeologist Waldemar Chmielewski
period which might be characterized as Predynastic by along the southern border near Wadi Halfa.[2] They
some and Early Dynastic by others. were mobile structureseasily disassembled, moved,
The Predynastic period is generally divided into cultural and reassembledproviding hunter-gatherers with semi-
[2]
periods, each named after the place where a certain type permanent habitation.
of Egyptian settlement was rst discovered. However,
the same gradual development that characterizes the Pro-
todynastic period is present throughout the entire Predy- 3.1.2 Aterian Industry
nastic period, and individual cultures must not be inter-
preted as separate entities but as largely subjective divi-
Main article: Aterian
sions used to facilitate study of the entire period.
The vast majority of Predynastic archaeological nds
Aterian tool-making reached Egypt c. 40,000 BC.[2]
have been in Upper Egypt, because the silt of the Nile
River was more heavily deposited at the Delta region,
completely burying most Delta sites long before modern
times.[1] 3.1.3 Khormusan Industry

The Khormusan industry in Egypt began between 40,000

3.1 Late Paleolithic and 30,000 BC.[2] Khormusans developed advanced tools
not only from stone but also from animal bones and
hematite.[2] They also developed small arrow heads re-
The Late Paleolithic in Egypt started around 30,000
sembling those of Native Americans,[2] but no bows have
BC.[2] The Nazlet Khater skeleton was found in 1980 and
been found.[2] The end of the Khormusan industry came
dated in 1982 from nine samples ranging between 35,100
around 16,000 B.C. with the appearance of other cultures
and 30,360 years.[3] This specimen is the only complete
in the region, including the Gemaian.[6]
modern human skeleton from the earliest Late Stone Age
in Africa.[4]
Excavation of the Nile has exposed early stone tools. The
earliest of these lithic industries were located within the 3.2 Mesolithic
100-foot terrace, and were Chellean, primitive Acheulean

41
42 CHAPTER 3. PREHISTORIC EGYPT

3.2.1 Halfan culture may have been the original culture which spread Proto-
Semitic languages throughout Mesopotamia.[15]
Main article: Halfan culture

The Halfan culture ourished along the Nile Valley of 3.3 Neolithic
Egypt and Nubia between 18,000 and 15,000 BC, though
one Halfan site dates to before 24,000 BC.[lower-alpha 1] 3.3.1 Lower Egypt
People survived on a diet of large herd animals and the
Khormusan tradition of shing. Greater concentrations Faiyum A culture
of artifacts indicate that they were not bound to sea-
sonal wandering, but settled for longer periods.[9] They 10 20 30 40 50

are viewed as the parent culture of the Ibero-Maurusian

industry,[lower-alpha 1] which spread across the Sahara and Elamitic?
North Semitic
into Spain. The Halfan culture was derived in turn from >5000BP

the Khormusan,[lower-alpha 2][11] which depended on spe- Berber

Egyptian

cialized hunting, shing, and collecting techniques for

North Afroasiatic
survival. The primary material remains of this culture heartland
>7500 BP
are stone tools, akes, and a multitude of rock paintings.
Beja itic
em
th S
3.2.2 Qadan and Sebilian cultures Chadic
Nile Cushitic
Sou

East
West East Cushitic
Main article: Qadan Culture Masa Cushitic
Central
Afroasiatic
homeland
>10,000 BP

About twenty archaeological sites in upper Nubia give ev- Omotic

idence for the existence of a grain-grinding Mesolithic
culture called the Qadan Culture, which practiced wild
grain harvesting along the Nile during the beginning of South Cushitic
the Sahaba Daru Nile phase, when desiccation in the
Sahara caused residents of the Libyan oases to retreat into Expansion of Afroasiatic languages. The second stage shows the
the Nile valley.[12] formation of Semitic languages.
Qadan peoples developed sickles and grinding stones to
aid in the collecting and processing of these plant foods Continued expansion of the desert forced the early an-
prior to consumption.[2] However, there are no indications cestors of the Egyptians to settle around the Nile more
of the use of these tools after around 10,000 BC, when permanently and adopt a more sedentary lifestyle.
hunter-gatherers replaced them.[2] The period from 9000 to 6000 BC has left very little
In Egypt, analyses of pollen found at archaeological sites in the way of archaeological evidence. Around 6000
[16]
indicate that the Sebilian culture (also known as the Esna BC, Neolithic settlements appear all over Egypt. Stud-
[17] [18][19][20][21][22]
culture) were gathering wheat and barley. Domesticated ies based on morphological, genetic,
[13][23][24][25][26]
seeds were not found (modern wheat and barley origi- and archaeological data have attributed
[12]
nated in Asia Minor and Canaan ). It has been hypoth- these settlements to migrants from the Fertile Crescent
esized that the sedentary lifestyle used by farmers led to in the Near East returning during the Egyptian and North
increased warfare, which was detrimental to farming and African Neolithic, bringing agriculture to the region.
brought this period to an end.[12] However, other regions in Africa independently devel-
oped agriculture at about the same time: the Ethiopian
highlands, the Sahel, and West Africa.[27]
3.2.3 Harian culture Some morphological and post-cranial data has linked the
earliest farming populations at Fayum, Merimde, and El-
Main article: Harian Badari, to Near Eastern populations.[28][29][30] However,
the archaeological data also suggests that Near Eastern
The Harians are viewed as migrating out of the domesticates were incorporated into a pre-existing forag-
Fayyum[lower-alpha 3] and the Eastern Deserts of Egypt dur- ing strategy and only slowly developed into a full-blown
ing the late Mesolithic to merge with the Pre-Pottery Ne- lifestyle, contrary to what would be expected from set-
olithic B (PPNB)[lower-alpha 3] culture, whose tool assem- tler colonists from the Near East.[lower-alpha 4][32][33] Fi-
blage resembles that of the Harian. This assimilation nally, the names for the Near Eastern domesticates im-
led to the Circum-Arabian Nomadic Pastoral Complex, a ported into Egypt were not Sumerian or Proto-Semitic
group of cultures that invented nomadic pastoralism, and loan words,[34] which further diminishes the likelihood
3.3. NEOLITHIC 43

of a mass immigrant colonization of lower Egypt during 3.3.2 Upper Egypt

the transition to agriculture.[35]
Weaving is evidenced for the rst time during the Faiyum
A Period. People of this period, unlike later Egyptians,
buried their dead very close to, and sometimes inside,
their settlements.[36]
Although archaeological sites reveal very little about this
time, an examination of the many Egyptian words for
city provide a hypothetical list of reasons why the
Egyptians settled. In Upper Egypt, terminology indi-
cates trade, protection of livestock, high ground for ood
refuge, and sacred sites for deities.[37]

Merimde culture

Main article: Merimde culture

From about 5000 to 4200 BC the Merimde culture, so far

only known from a big settlement site at the edge of the
Western Delta, ourished in Lower Egypt. The culture
has strong connections to the Faiyum A culture as well as
the Levant. People lived in small huts, produced a simple
undecorated pottery and had stone tools. Cattle, sheep, Predynastic artifacts: clockwise from top left: a Bat gurine,
a Naqada jar, an ivory gurine, a diorite vase, a int knife, a
goats and pigs were held. Wheat, sorghum and barley
cosmetic palette.
were planted. The Merimde people buried their dead
[38]
within the settlement and produced clay gurines. The
rst Egyptian lifesize head made of clay comes from
Merimde.[39]

Tasian culture
El Omari culture
Main article: Tasian culture
The El Omari culture is known from a small settlement
near modern Cairo. People seem to have lived in huts,
but only postholes and pits survive. The pottery is undec- The Tasian culture was the next in Upper Egypt. This cul-
orated. Stone tools include small akes, axes and sickles. ture group is named for the burials found at Der Tasa, on
Metal was not yet known.[40] Their sites were occupied the east bank of the Nile between Asyut and Akhmim.
from 4000 BC to the Archaic Period.[41] The Tasian culture group is notable for producing the
earliest blacktop-ware, a type of red and brown pottery
that is painted black on the top and interior.[36] This pot-
Maadi culture tery is vital to the dating of Predynastic Egypt. Because
all dates for the Predynastic period are tenuous at best,
The Maadi culture (also called Buto Maadi culture) is the WMF Petrie developed a system called Sequence Dating
most important Lower Egyptian prehistoric culture con- by which the relative date, if not the absolute date, of any
temporary with Naqada I and II phases in Upper Egypt. given Predynastic site can be ascertained by examining its
The culture is best known from the site Maadi near Cairo, pottery.
but is also attested in many other places in the Delta to the As the Predynastic period progressed, the handles on
Fayum region. pottery evolved from functional to ornamental. The de-
Copper was known, and some copper adzes have been gree to which any given archaeological site has func-
found. The pottery is simple and undecorated and shows, tional or ornamental pottery can also be used to deter-
in some forms, strong connections to Southern Israel. mine the relative date of the site. Since there is little
People lived in small huts, partly dug into the ground. dierence between Tasian ceramics and Badarian pot-
The dead were buried in cemeteries, but with few burial tery, the Tasian Culture overlaps the Badarian range
goods. The Maadi culture was replaced by the Naqada III signicantly.[43] From the Tasian period onward, it ap-
culture; whether this happened by conquest or inltration pears that Upper Egypt was inuenced strongly by the
is still an open question.[42] culture of Lower Egypt.[44]
44 CHAPTER 3. PREHISTORIC EGYPT

Badarian culture

Main article: Badarian culture

The Badarian culture, from about 4400 to 4000 BC,[45]

is named for the Badari site near Der Tasa. It followed
the Tasian culture, but was so similar that many consider
them one continuous period. The Badarian Culture con-
tinued to produce the kind of pottery called Blacktop-
ware (albeit much improved in quality) and was assigned
Sequence Dating numbers 21 - 29.[43] The primary dif-
ference that prevents scholars from merging the two peri-
ods is that Badarian sites use copper in addition to stone
and are thus chalcolithic settlements, while the Neolithic
Tasian sites are still considered Stone Age.[43]
Badarian int tools continued to develop into sharper
and more shapely blades, and the rst faience was
developed.[46] Distinctly Badarian sites have been located
from Nekhen to a little north of Abydos.[47] It appears that
the Fayum A culture and the Badarian and Tasian Periods
overlapped signicantly; however, the Fayum A culture
was considerably less agricultural and was still Neolithic
in nature.[46][48]
Female Figure, ca. 35003400 B.C.E. Terracotta, painted, 11
Naqada culture 5 2 in. (29.2 14 5.7 cm). Brooklyn Museum

Main article: Naqada culture cosmetic palettes appear in this period, but the workman-
ship is very rudimentary and the relief artwork for which
they were later known is not yet present.[52][53]
Amratian culture (Naqada I) Main article: Amratian
culture Gerzean culture (Naqada II) Main article: Gerzean
The Amratian culture lasted from about 4000 to 3500 culture
BC.[45] It is named after the site of El-Amra, about 120 The Gerzean culture, from about 3500 to 3200 BC,[45]
km south of Badari. El-Amra is the rst site where is named after the site of Gerzeh. It was the next stage
this culture group was found unmingled with the later
in Egyptian cultural development, and it was during this
Gerzean culture group, but this period is better attested time that the foundation of Dynastic Egypt was laid.
at the Naqada site, so it also is referred to as the Naqada
Gerzean culture is largely an unbroken development out
I culture.[46] Black-topped ware continues to appear, but of Amratian Culture, starting in the delta and moving
white cross-line ware, a type of pottery which has been
south through upper Egypt, but failing to dislodge Am-
decorated with close parallel white lines being crossed by ratian culture in Nubia.[54] Gerzean pottery is assigned
another set of close parallel white lines, is also found at
values from S.D. 40 through 62, and is distinctly dierent
this time. The Amratian period falls between S.D. 30 and from Amratian white cross-lined wares or black-topped
39 in Petries Sequence Dating system.[49] ware.[49] Gerzean pottery was painted mostly in dark red
Newly excavated objects attest to increased trade be- with pictures of animals, people, and ships, as well as
tween Upper and Lower Egypt at this time. A stone vase geometric symbols that appear derived from animals.[54]
from the north was found at el-Amra, and copper, which Also, wavy handles, rare before this period (though oc-
is not mined in Egypt, was imported from the Sinai, casionally found as early as S.D. 35) became more com-
or possibly Nubia. Obsidian[50] and a small amount of mon and more elaborate until they were almost com-
gold[49] were both denitely imported from Nubia. Trade pletely ornamental.[49]
with the oases also was likely.[50] Gerzean culture coincided with a signicant decline in
New innovations appeared in Amratian settlements as rainfall,[55] and farming along the Nile now produced the
precursors to later cultural periods. For example, the vast majority of food,[54] though contemporary paintings
mud-brick buildings for which the Gerzean period is indicate that hunting was not entirely forgone. With in-
known were rst seen in Amratian times, but only in creased food supplies, Egyptians adopted a much more
small numbers.[51] Additionally, oval and theriomorphic sedentary lifestyle and cities grew as large as 5,000.[54]
3.3. NEOLITHIC 45

A typical Naqada II pot with ship theme

Diorite vase from Gerzean or Neqada II period, approx 12 inches
(30 cm)

It was in this time that Egyptian city dwellers stopped

building with reeds and began mass-producing mud pears in this period can only have been obtained from
bricks, rst found in the Amratian Period, to build their Asia Minor.[54]
cities.[54] In addition, Egyptian objects are created which clearly
Egyptian stone tools, while still in use, moved from mimic Mesopotamian forms, although not slavishly.[57]
bifacial construction to ripple-aked construction. Cop- Cylinder seals appear in Egypt, as well as recessed panel-
per was used for all kinds of tools,[54] and the rst copper ing architecture, the Egyptian reliefs on cosmetic palettes
weaponry appears here.[47] Silver, gold, lapis, and faience are clearly made in the same style as the contemporary
were used ornamentally,[54] and the grinding palettes Mesopotamian Uruk culture, and the ceremonial mace
used for eye-paint since the Badarian period began to be heads which turn up from the late Gerzean and early Se-
adorned with relief carvings.[47] mainean are crafted in the Mesopotamian pear-shaped
[55]
The rst tombs in classic Egyptian style were also built, style, instead of the Egyptian native style.
modeled after ordinary houses and sometimes composed The route of this trade is dicult to determine, but con-
of multiple rooms.[50] Although further excavations in the tact with Canaan does not predate the early dynastic, so
Delta are needed, this style is generally believed to origi- it is usually assumed to have been by water.[58] During
nate there and not in Upper Egypt.[50] the time when the Dynastic Race Theory was still pop-
Although the Gerzean Culture is now clearly identied as ular, it was theorized that Uruk sailors circumnavigated
being the continuation of the Amratian period, signicant Arabia, but a Mediterranean route, probably by middle-
amounts of Mesopotamian inuences worked their way men through Byblos is more likely, as evidenced by the
into Egypt during the Gerzean which were interpreted presence of Byblian objects in Egypt.[58]
in previous years as evidence of a Mesopotamian ruling The fact that so many Gerzean sites are at the mouths
class, the so-called Dynastic Race, coming to power over of wadis which lead to the Red Sea may indicate some
Upper Egypt. This idea no longer attracts academic sup- amount of trade via the Red Sea (though Byblian trade
port. potentially could have crossed the Sinai and then taken
Distinctly foreign objects and art forms entered Egypt to the Red Sea).[59] Also, it is considered unlikely that
during this period, indicating contacts with several parts something as complicated as recessed panel architecture
of Asia. Objects such as the Gebel el-Arak knife han- could have worked its way into Egypt by proxy, and at
dle, which has patently Mesopotamian relief carvings on least a small contingent of migrants is often suspected.[58]
it, have been found in Egypt,[56] and the silver which ap- Despite this evidence of foreign inuence, Egyptologists
46
generally agree that the Gerzean Culture is still predom-
inantly indigenous to Egypt.
Protodynastic Period (Naqada III) Main article:
Naqada III
The Naqada III period, from about 3200 to 3000 BC,[45]
is generally taken to be identical with the Protodynastic
period, during which Egypt was unied.
Naqada III is notable for being the rst era with
hieroglyphs (though this is disputed by some), the rst
regular use of serekhs, the rst irrigation, and the rst
appearance of royal cemeteries.[60]
The relatively auent Maadi suburb of Cairo is built over
the original Naqada stronghold.[61]
3.4 Timeline
(All dates are approximate)
Late Paleolithic, from 40th millennium BC
Aterian tool-making[2]
Semi-permanent dwellings in Wadi Halfa [2]
Tools made from animal bones, hematite, and
other stones[2]
Neolithic, from 11th millennium BC
c. 10,500 BC: Wild grain harvesting along
the Nile, grain-grinding culture creates worlds
earliest stone sickle blades[2] roughly at end of
Pleistocene
c. 8000 BC: Migration of peoples to the Nile,
developing a more centralized society and set-
tled agricultural economy
c. 7500 BC: Importing animals from Asia to
Sahara
c. 7000 BC: Agricultureanimal and
cerealin East Sahara
c. 7000 BC: in Nabta Playa deep year-round
water wells dug, and large organized settle-
ments designed in planned arrangements
c. 6000 BC: Rudimentary ships (rowed,
single-sailed) depicted in Egyptian rock art
c. 5500 BC: Stone-roofed subterranean cham-
bers and other subterranean complexes in
Nabta Playa containing buried sacriced cat-
tle
c. 5000 BC: Alleged archaeoastronomical
stone megalith in Nabta Playa.
c. 5000 BC: Badarian: furniture, tableware,
models of rectangular houses, pots, dishes,
cups, bowls, vases, gurines, combs
CHAPTER 3. PREHISTORIC EGYPT
c. 4400 BC: nely-woven linen fragment[62]
Inventing prevalent, from 4th millennium BC
By 3400 BC:
Cosmetics
Donkey domestication
(Meteoric) iron works[63]
Mortar (masonry)
c. 4000 BC:
early Naqadan trade[64] (see Silk Road)
4th millennium BC: Gerzean tomb-building,
including underground rooms and burial of
furniture and amulets
4th millennium BC: Cedar imported from
Lebanon[65]
c. 3900 BC: An aridication event in the
Sahara leads to human migration to the Nile
Valley[66]
c. 3500 BC: Lapis lazuli imported from
Badakshan and / or Mesopotamia (see Silk
Road)
c. 3300 BC: Double reed instruments and lyres
(see Music of Egypt)
c. 3500 BC: Senet, worlds oldest-(conrmed)
board game
c. 3500 BC: Faience, worlds earliest-known
glazed ceramic beads
c. 3100 BC: Pharaoh Narmer or possibly Hor-
Aha unied Upper and Lower Egypt
3.5 See also
5.9 kiloyear event
Prehistoric North Africa
3.6 Notes
[1] The earliest Halfan is dated to 20,000 BP. Although one
site was dated to 24,000 BP it was in error.[7] Since the
earliest Ibero-Maurusian is dated to 21,000 BP[8] it is
more likely that both the Halfan and the Ibero-Maurusian
are descended from a common ancestor.
[2] The Khormusan is dened as a Middle Palaeolithic indus-
try while the Halfan is dened as an Epipalaeolithic indus-
try. According to scholarly opinion the Khormusan and
the Halfan are viewed as separate and distinct cultures.[10]
[3] According to scholarly opinion the Harian culture is de-
rived from the Natuan culture in which the only char-
acteristic that distinguishes it from the Natuan is the
Harif point. It is viewed as an adaptation of Natuan
3.7. REFERENCES
hunter gatherers to the Negev and Sinai.[13] The Harian
are thought to have lasted only about three hundred years,
then vanishing, followed by a thousand year hiatus during
which the Negev and Sinai regions were uninhabitable.[13]
Since the Harian culture ended c. 12,000 BP[14] there
could be no possible connection with the PPNB which be-
gan c. 10,500 BP.
[4] Settler colonists from the Near East would most likely
have merged with the indigenous cultures resulting in a
mixed economy with the agricultural aspect of the econ-
omy increasing in frequency through time, which is what
the archaeological record more precisely indicates. Both
pottery, lithics, and economy with Near Eastern char-
acteristics, and lithics with African characteristics are
present in the Fayum A culture.[31]
3.7 References
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[2] Ancient Egyptian Culture: Paleolithic Egypt. Emu-
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2012.
[3] Dental Anthropology (PDF). Anthropology.osu.edu.
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[4] Bouchneba, L.; Crevecoeur, I. (2009). The inner
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[6] Nicolas-Christophe Grimal. A History of Ancient Egypt.
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[7] Wendorf, Fred; Schild, Romuald; Haas, Herbert (1979).
A New Radiocarbon Chronology for Prehistoric Sites in
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[8] Bailey, Geo N.; Callow, Paul, eds. (1986). Stone-
Age Prehistory: Studies in Memory of Charles McBurney.
Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521257732.
[9] David C. Scott. Upper Paleolithic 30,000-10,000
Archived 12 January 2010 at the Wayback Machine.
[10] Prehistory of Nubia. Numibia.net. Retrieved 2013-10-
25.
[11] Reynes, Midant-Beatrix (2000). The Prehistory of Egypt:
From the First Egyptians to the First Pharohs. Wiley-
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[12] Grimal, Nicolas (1988). A History of Ancient Egypt. Li-
brairie Arthme Fayard. p. 21.
47
[13] Bar Yosef, Ofer (1998). The Natuan Culture
in the Levant, Threshold to the Origins of Agricul-
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evan4>3.0.co;2-7.
[14] Richter, Tobias; et al. (2011). Interaction be-
fore Agriculture: Exchanging Material and Sharing
Knowledge in the Final Pleistocene Levant. Cam-
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[15] Juris, Zarins (November 1990). Early Pastoral No-
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[16] Redford, Donald B (1992). Egypt, Canaan, and Israel in
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[17] Brace, C. Loring; Seguchi, Noriko; Quintyn, Con-
rad B.; Fox, Sherry C.; Nelson, A. Russell; Mano-
lis, Sotiris K.; Qifeng, Pan (2006). The question-
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to European craniofacial form. Proceedings of the
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doi:10.1073/pnas.0509801102. PMC 1325007 . PMID
16371462.
[18] Chicki, L; Nichols, RA; Barbujani, G; Beaumont, MA
(2002). Y genetic data support the Neolithic demic
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(17): 1100811013. Bibcode:2002PNAS...9911008C.
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12167671.
[19] Estimating the Impact of Prehistoric Admixture on
the Genome of Europeans, Dupanloup et al., 2004.
Mbe.oxfordjournals.org. Retrieved 1 May 2012.
[20] Semino, O; Magri, C; Benuzzi, G; et al. (May
2004). Origin, Diusion, and Dierentiation of Y-
Chromosome Haplogroups E and J: Inferences on the Ne-
olithization of Europe and Later Migratory Events in the
Mediterranean Area, 2004. Am. J. Hum. Genet. 74:
102334. doi:10.1086/386295. PMC 1181965 . PMID
15069642.
[21] Cavalli-Sforza (1997). Paleolithic and Neolithic lineages
in the European mitochondrial gene pool. Am J Hum
Genet. 61: 24754. doi:10.1016/S0002-9297(07)64303-
1. PMC 1715849 . PMID 9246011. Retrieved 1 May
2012.
[22] Chikhi (21 July 1998). Clines of nuclear
DNA markers suggest a largely Neolithic an-
cestry of the European gene. PNAS. 95 (15):
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doi:10.1073/pnas.95.15.9053. PMC 21201 . PMID
9671803. Retrieved 1 May 2012.
[23] Zvelebil, M. (1986). Hunters in Transition: Mesolithic So-
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48
[24] Bellwood, P. (2005). First Farmers: The Origins of Agri-
cultural Societies. Malden, MA: Blackwell.
[25] Dokldal, M.; Broek, J. (1961). Physical Anthropol-
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Anthropology. 2 (5): 455477. doi:10.1086/200228.
[26] Zvelebil, M. (1989). On the transition to farming in Eu-
rope, or what was spreading with the Neolithic: a reply
to Ammerman (1989)". Antiquity. 63 (239): 379383.
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[27] Diamond, Jared (1999). Guns, Germs, and Steel. New
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[28] Smith, P. (2002) The palaeo-biological evidence for ad-
mixture between populations in the southern Levant and
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the Levant: Interrelations from the 4th through the Early
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[29] Keita, S.O.Y. (2005). Early Nile Valley Farmers from
El-Badari: Aboriginals or European Agro-Nostratic
Immigrants? Craniometric Anities Considered With
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[30] Kemp, B. 2005 Ancient Egypt Anatomy of a Civilisa-
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[31] Shirai, Noriyuki (2010). The Archaeology of the First
Farmer-Herders in Egypt: New Insights into the Fayum Epi-
palaeolithic. Archaeological Studies Leiden University.
Leiden University Press.
[32] Wetterstrom, W. (1993). Shaw, T.; et al., eds. Archaeol-
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[33] Rahmani, N. (2003). Le Capsien typique et le Cap-
sien suprieur. Cambridge Monographs in Archaeology.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press (57).
[34] Keita, S. O. Y.; Boyce, A. J. (2005). Genetics, Egypt
and History: Interpreting Geographical Patterns of a Y-
Chromosome Variation. History in Africa. 32: 22146.
doi:10.1353/hia.2005.0013.
[35] Ehret, C; Keita, SOY; Newman, P (2004). The
Origins of Afroasiatic a response to Diamond and
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doi:10.1126/science.306.5702.1680c. PMID 15576591.
[36] Gardiner, Alan (1964). Egypt of the Pharaohs. Oxford:
University Press. p. 388.
[37] Redford, Donald B. (1992). Egypt, Canaan, and Israel in
Ancient Times. Princeton: University Press. p. 8.
[38] Eiwanger, Josef (1999). Merimde Beni-salame. In
Bard, Kathryn A. Encyclopedia of the Archaeology of An-
cient Egypt. London/New York. pp. 501505.
[39] picture of the Merimde head (in German).
Auswaertiges-amt.de. Archived from the original
on 2 March 2012. Retrieved 1 May 2012.
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[40] Mortensen, Bodil (1999). el-Omari. In Bard, Kathryn
A. Encyclopedia of the Archaeology of Ancient Egypt.
London/New York. pp. 592594.
[41] El-Omari. EMuseum. Minkato: Minnesota State Uni-
versity. Archived from the original on 15 June 2010.
[42] Seeher, Jrgen (1999). Ma'adi and Wadi Digla. In
Bard, Kathryn A. Encyclopedia of the Archaeology of An-
cient Egypt. London/New York. pp. 455458.
[43] Gardiner, Alan, Egypt of the Pharaohs (Oxford: Univer-
sity Press, 1964), p. 389.
[44] Grimal, Nicolas. A History of Ancient Egypt. p.35. Li-
brairie Arthme Fayard, 1988.
[45] Shaw, Ian, ed. (2000). The Oxford History of Ancient
Egypt. Oxford University Press. p. 479. ISBN 0-19-
815034-2.
[46] Grimal, Nicolas. A History of Ancient Egypt. p.24. Li-
brairie Arthme Fayard, 1988
[47] Gardiner, Alan, Egypt of the Pharaohs (Oxford: Univer-
sity Press, 1964), p. 391.
[48] Newell, G.D. A re-examination of the Badarian Culture
Academia.edu, 2012
[49] Gardiner, Alan, Egypt of the Pharaohs (Oxford: Univer-
sity Press, 1964), p. 390.
[50] Grimal, Nicolas. A History of Ancient Egypt. p. 28. Li-
brairie Arthme Fayard, 1988
[51] Redford, Donald B. Egypt, Canaan, and Israel in Ancient
Times. Princeton: University Press, 1992, p. 7.
[52] Gardiner, Alan, Egypt of the Pharaohs. Oxford: Univer-
sity Press, 1964, p. 393.
[53] Newell, G. D., The Relative chronology of PNC I
(Academia.Edu: 2012)
[54] Redford, Donald B. Egypt, Canaan, and Israel in Ancient
Times. (Princeton: University Press, 1992), p. 16.
[55] Redford, Donald B. Egypt, Canaan, and Israel in Ancient
Times. (Princeton: University Press, 1992), p. 17.
[56] Shaw, Ian. & Nicholson, Paul, The Dictionary of Ancient
Egypt, (London: British Museum Press, 1995), p. 109.
[57] Redford, Donald B. Egypt, Canaan, and Israel in Ancient
Times. (Princeton: University Press, 1992), p. 18.
[58] Redford, Donald B. Egypt, Canaan, and Israel in Ancient
Times. (Princeton: University Press, 1992), p. 22.
[59] Redford, Donald B. Egypt, Canaan, and Israel in Ancient
Times. (Princeton: University Press, 1992), p. 20.
[60] Naqada III. Faiyum.com. Retrieved 1 May 2012.
[61] http://www.ucl.ac.uk/museums-static/digitalegypt/
neolithic/maadi.html
[62] linen fragment. Digitalegypt.ucl.ac.uk. Retrieved 1
May 2012.
3.8. EXTERNAL LINKS 49

[63] Iron beads were worn in Egypt as early as 4000 B.C., but
these were of meteoric iron, evidently shaped by the rub-
bing process used in shaping implements of stone, quoted
under the heading Columbia Encyclopedia: Iron Age at
Iron Age, Answers.com. Also, see History of ferrous met-
allurgy#Meteoric iron"Around 4000 BC small items,
such as the tips of spears and ornaments, were being fash-
ioned from iron recovered from meteorites attributed
to R. F. Tylecote, A History of Metallurgy (2nd edition,
1992), page 3.

[64] Shaw (2000), p. 61

[65] Egypt: Hierakonpolis, A Feature Tour Egypt Story.

Touregypt.net. Retrieved 1 May 2012.

[66] Brooks, Nick (2006). Cultural responses to

aridity in the Middle Holocene and increased
social complexity. Quaternary International.
151 (1): 2949. Bibcode:2006QuInt.151...29B.
doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2006.01.013.

3.8 External links

Encyclopdia Britannica: ship, from Encyclop-
dia Britannica Premium Service
Ancient Egyptian History - A comprehensive and
concise educational website focusing on the basic
and the advanced in all aspects of Ancient Egypt

Faium.com homepage
Before the Pyramids: The Origins of Egyptian Civ-
ilization - Oriental Institute
Chapter 4

Early Dynastic Period of Egypt

For the period of the same name in Mesopotamia, see be known as the Two Lands. The pharaohs established
Early Dynastic Period (Mesopotamia) a national administration and appointed royal governors.
Warning: Page using Template:Infobox former country The buildings of the central government were typically
with unknown parameter country (this message is open-air temples constructed of wood or sandstone. The
shown only in preview). earliest Egyptian hieroglyphs appear just before this pe-
riod, though little is known of the spoken language they
represent.
The Archaic or Early Dynastic Period of Egypt is the
era immediately following the unication of Upper and
Lower Egypt c. 3100 BC. It is generally taken to in-
clude the First and Second Dynasties, lasting from the end 4.1 Cultural evolution
of the Naqada III archaeological period until about 2686
BC, or the beginning of the Old Kingdom.[1] With the
First Dynasty, the capital moved from Thinis to Memphis
with a unied Egypt ruled by an Egyptian god-king. Aby-
dos remained the major holy land in the south. The
hallmarks of ancient Egyptian civilization, such as art,
architecture and many aspects of religion, took shape dur-
ing the Early Dynastic period.

A plate created during the Early Dynastic period of Ancient

Egypt. It depicts a man on a boat alongside a Hippopotamus
and a Crocodile

By about 3600 BC, neolithic Egyptian societies along the

Nile had based their culture on the raising of crops and
the domestication of animals.[2] Shortly after 3600 BC
Egyptian society began to grow and advance rapidly to-
ward rened civilization.[3] A new and distinctive pottery,
which was related to the pottery in the Southern Levant,
appeared during this time. Extensive use of copper be-
came common during this time.[3] The Mesopotamian
process of sun-dried bricks, and architectural building
Damaged basalt head of a foreigner, from a door socket. Early
Dynastic Period, 1st to 2nd Dynasties. From Thebes, Egypt. The
principlesincluding the use of the arch and recessed
Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology, London walls for decorative eectbecame popular during this
time.[3]
Before the unication of Egypt, the land was settled with Concurrent with these cultural advances, a process of
autonomous villages. With the early dynasties, and for unication of the societies and towns of the upper Nile
much of Egypts history thereafter, the country came to River, or Upper Egypt, occurred. At the same time the

50
4.2. FIRST PHARAOH 51

societies of the Nile Delta, or Lower Egypt also under-

went a unication process.[3] Warfare between Upper and
Lower Egypt occurred often.[3] During his reign in Upper
Egypt, King Narmer defeated his enemies on the Delta
and merged both the Kingdom of Upper and Lower Egypt
under his single rule.[4] Narmer is shown on palettes wear-
ing the double crown, composed of the lotus ower rep-
resenting Upper Egypt and the papyrus reed representing
Lower Egypt - a sign of the unied rule of both parts
of Egypt which was followed by all succeeding rulers.
In mythology, the unication of Egypt is portrayed as
the falcon-god, called Horus and identied with Lower
Egypt, as conquering and subduing the god Set, who was
identied with Upper Egypt.[5] Divine kingship, which
would persist in Egypt for the next three millennia, was
rmly established as the basis of Egypts government.[6]
The unication of societies along the Nile has also been
Thinis
linked to the drying of the Sahara.
Memphis
Funeral practices for the peasants would have been the Nekhen
same as in predynastic times, but the rich demanded Thebes
something more. Thus, the Egyptians began construction Naqada
of the mastabas which became models for the later Old Map of Egypt showing important sites that were occu-
Kingdom constructions such as the Step pyramid. Cereal pied during the Early Dynastic Period (clickable map)
agriculture and centralization contributed to the success
of the state for the next 800 years.
It seems certain that Egypt became unied as a cultural
and economic domain long before its rst king ascended 4.2 First Pharaoh
to the throne in the lower Egyptian city of Memphis
where the dynastic period did originate. This would last
According to Manetho, the rst monarch of the unied
for many centuries. Political unication proceeded grad-
Upper and Lower Egypt was Menes, who is now identi-
ually, perhaps over a period of a century or so as local dis-
ed with Narmer. Indeed, Narmer is the earliest recorded
tricts established trading networks and the ability of their
First Dynasty monarch: he appears rst on the king lists
governments to organize agriculture labor on a larger
of Den and Qa'a.[8] This shows that Narmer was recog-
scale increased, divine kingship may also have gained
nized by the rst dynasty kings as an important found-
spiritual momentum as the cults of gods like Horus, Set
ing gure. Narmer is also the earliest king associated to
and Neith associated with living representatives became
the symbols of power over the two lands (see in particu-
widespread in the country.[7]
lar the Narmer Palette, a votive cosmetic palette show-
It was also during this period that the Egyptian writing ing Narmer wearing the crowns of Upper and Lower
system was further developed. Initially Egyptian writing Egypt) and may therefore be the rst king to achieve the
had been composed primarily of a few symbols denoting unication. Consequently, the current consensus is that
amounts of various substances. By the end of the 3rd Menes and Narmer refer to the same person.[3] Al-
dynasty it had been expanded to include more than 200 ternative theories hold that Narmer was the nal king of
symbols, both phonograms and ideograms.[6] the Naqada III period[5] and Hor-Aha is to be identied
with Menes.

4.3 References
[1] Shaw, Ian, ed. (2000). The Oxford History of Ancient
Egypt. Oxford University Press. p. 479. ISBN 0-19-
815034-2.

[2] Carl Roebuck, The World of Ancient Times (Charles

Scribners Sons Publishing: New York, 1966) p. 51.

[3] Carl Roebuck, The World of Ancient Times (Charles

Scribners Sons: New York, 1966) p. 52-53.
52 CHAPTER 4. EARLY DYNASTIC PERIOD OF EGYPT

[4] Carl Roebuck, The World of Ancient Times (Charles

Scribners Sons Publishers: New York, 1966), p. 53.

[5] Carl Roebuck, The World of Ancient Times, p. 53.

[6] Kinnaer, Jacques. Early Dynastic Period (PDF). The

Ancient Egypt Site. Retrieved 4 April 2012.

[7] The Penguin Historical Atlas of Ancient Egypt pg 22-23

(1997) By Bill Manley

[8] Qa'a and Merneith lists http://xoomer.virgilio.it/

francescoraf/hesyra/Egyptgallery03.html

4.4 Further reading

Shaw, Ian (2003). The Oxford History of Ancient
Egypt. UK: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-
19-280458-7.

Wilkinson, Toby (2001). Early Dynastic Egypt:

Strategies, Society and Security. New York: Rout-
ledge. ISBN 0-415-26011-6.
Wengrow, David (2006). The Archaeology of Early
Egypt: Social Transformations in North-East Africa,
c. 10,000 to 2,650 BC. New York: Cambridge Uni-
versity Press. ISBN 0-521-83586-0.

4.5 External links

Narmer Palette
Chapter 5

Old Kingdom of Egypt

Old Kingdom redirects here. For other uses, see Old
Kingdom (disambiguation).
Warning: Page using Template:Infobox former country
with unknown parameter country (this message is
shown only in preview).
number of pyramids constructed at this time as burial
places for Egypts kings. For this reason, the Old King-
dom is frequently referred to as the Age of the Pyra-
mids.

The Old Kingdom is the name given to the period in the 5.1 Third Dynasty
third millennium BC when Egypt attained its rst con-
tinuous peak of civilization the rst of three so-called
Kingdom periods (followed by the Middle Kingdom
and New Kingdom) which mark the high points of civ-
ilization in the lower Nile Valley. The term itself was
coined by eighteenth-century historians and the distinc-
tion between the Old Kingdom and the Early Dynastic
Period is not one which would have been recognized by
Ancient Egyptians. Not only was the last king of the Early
Dynastic Period related to the rst two kings of the Old
Kingdom, but the 'capital', the royal residence, remained
at Ineb-Hedg, the Ancient Egyptian name for Memphis.
The basic justication for a separation between the two
periods is the revolutionary change in architecture ac-
companied by the eects on Egyptian society and econ- The Pyramid of Djoser at Saqqara.
omy of large-scale building projects.[1]
The Old Kingdom is most commonly regarded as the pe- The rst king of the Old Kingdom was Djoser (sometime
riod from the Third Dynasty through to the Sixth Dynasty between 2691 and 2625 BC) of the third dynasty, who
(26862181 BC). Many Egyptologists also include the ordered the construction of a pyramid (the Step Pyramid)
Memphite Seventh and Eighth Dynasties in the Old King- in Memphis necropolis, Saqqara. An important person
dom as a continuation of the administration centralized at during the reign of Djoser was his vizier, Imhotep.
Memphis. While the Old Kingdom was a period of inter-
nal security and prosperity, it was followed by a period of
disunity and relative cultural decline referred to by Egyp-
tologists as the First Intermediate Period.[2] During the
Old Kingdom, the king of Egypt (not called the Pharaoh
until the New Kingdom) became a living god who ruled
absolutely and could demand the services and wealth of
his subjects.[3]
Under King Djoser, the rst king of the Third Dynasty of
the Old Kingdom, the royal capital of Egypt was moved to
Memphis, where Djoser established his court. A new era
of building was initiated at Saqqara under his reign. King
Djosers architect, Imhotep is credited with the develop-
ment of building with stone and with the conception of
the new architectural formthe Step Pyramid.[3] Indeed, Temple of Djoser at Saqqara
the Old Kingdom is perhaps best known for the large

53
54 CHAPTER 5. OLD KINGDOM OF EGYPT

The Great Sphinx of Giza in front of the Great Pyramid of Giza.

(25582532 BC) may have quarrelled. The latter built

Head of a King, ca. 2650-2600 BC, Brooklyn Museum; The
earliest representations of Egyptian Kings are on a small scale.
From the 3rd dynasty, statues were made showing the ruler life-
size; this head wearing the crown of Upper Egypt even surpasses
human scale.[4]
the second pyramid and (in traditional thinking) the
Sphinx in Giza. Recent reexamination of evidence has
led Egyptologist Vassil Dobrev to propose that the Sphinx
had been built by Djedefra as a monument to his father
Khufu.[7] Alternatively, the Sphinx has been proposed to
be the work of Khafra and Khufu himself.
There were military expeditions into Canaan and Nubia,
with Egyptian inuence reaching up the Nile into what
is today the Sudan.[8] The later kings of the Fourth Dy-
nasty were king Menkaure (25322504 BC), who built
the smallest pyramid in Giza, Shepseskaf (25042498
BC) and, perhaps, Djedefptah (24982496 BC).

It was in this era that formerly independent ancient Egyp-

tian states became known as nomes, under the rule of the
king. The former rulers were forced to assume the role of
governors or otherwise work in tax collection. Egyptians
in this era worshipped their king as a god, believing that
he ensured the annual ooding of the Nile that was nec-
essary for their crops. Egyptian views on the nature of
time during this period held that the universe worked in
cycles, and the king on earth worked to ensure the stabil-
ity of those cycles. They also perceived themselves as a
specially selected people.[5]

5.2 Fourth Dynasty

The Old Kingdom and its royal power reached a zenith
under the Fourth Dynasty (26132494 BC), which began
with Sneferu (26132589 BC). Using more stones than
any other king, he built three pyramids: a now collapsed
pyramid in Meidum, the Bent Pyramid at Dahshur, and
the Red Pyramid, at North Dahshur. However, the full
development of the pyramid style of building was reached
not at Saqqara, but during the building of the great pyra-
mids at Giza.[6]
Sneferu was succeeded by his son, Khufu (25892566
BC) who built the Great Pyramid of Giza. After Khufus Khufu, the builder of the Great Pyramid at Giza.
death, his sons Djedefra (25662558 BC) and Khafra
5.4. SIXTH DYNASTY 55

5.3 Fifth Dynasty bled. Planks and the superstructure were tightly tied and
bound together.

5.4 Sixth Dynasty

During the sixth dynasty (23452181 BC) the power
of pharaoh gradually weakened in favor of powerful
nomarchs (regional governors). These no longer be-
longed to the royal family and their charge became hered-
itary, thus creating local dynasties largely independent
from the central authority of the king. However, Nile
ood control was still the subject of very large works, in-
cluding especially the canal to Lake Moeris around 2300
BC, which was likely also the source of water to the Giza
pyramid complex centuries earlier.
Internal disorders set in during the incredibly long reign
of Pepi II (22782184 BC) towards the end of the dy-
nasty. His death, certainly well past that of his intended
heirs, might have created succession struggles. The coun-
try slipped into civil wars mere decades after the close of
Pepi IIs reign.
The nal blow was the 22nd century BC drought in the
region that resulted in a drastic drop in precipitation. For
at least some years between 2200 and 2150 BC, this pre-
vented the normal ooding of the Nile.[11]
Late Period statue of Imhotep, Muse du Louvre.
Whatever its cause, the collapse of the Old Kingdom was
followed by decades of famine and strife. An important
The Fifth Dynasty (24942345 BC) began with Userkaf inscription on the tomb of Ankhti, a nomarch during the
(24942487 BC) and was marked by the growing impor- early First Intermediate Period, describes the pitiful state
tance of the cult of sun god Ra. Consequently, less eorts of the country when famine stalked the land.
were devoted to the construction of pyramid complexes
than during the 4th dynasty and more to the construction
of sun temples in Abusir. Userkaf was succeeded by his
son Sahure (24872475 BC) who commanded an expedi- 5.5 Culture
tion to Punt. Sahure was in turn succeeded by Neferirkare
Kakai (24752455 BC) who was either Sahures son Egypts Old Kingdom (Dynasties 36, ca. 26492150
or his brother, in which case he might have usurped BC) was one of the most dynamic periods in the develop-
the throne at the expense of Prince Netjerirenre.[9] He ment of Egyptian art. During this period, artists learned
was followed by two shadowy short-lived kings Neferefre to express their cultures worldview, creating for the rst
(24552453 BC) and Shepseskare, the latter possibly a time images and forms that endured for generations. Ar-
son of Sahure.[10] Shepseskare was deposed by Nefere- chitects and masons mastered the techniques necessary to
fres brother Nyuserre Ini (24452421 BC). build monumental structures in stone.[12]
The last kings of the dynasty were Menkauhor Kaiu Sculptors created the earliest portraits of individuals and
(24212414 BC), Djedkare Isesi (24142375 BC) and the rst lifesize statues in wood, copper, and stone. They
nally Unas (23752345), the earliest ruler to have the perfected the art of carving intricate relief decoration and,
pyramid texts inscribed in his pyramid. through keen observation of the natural world, produced
Egypts expanding interests in trade goods such as ebony, detailed images of animals, plants, and even landscapes,
incense such as myrrh and frankincense, gold, copper recording the essential elements of their world for eternity
and other useful metals inspired the ancient Egyptians to in scenes painted and carved on the walls of temples and
build suitable ships for navigation of the open sea. They tombs.[12]
traded with Lebanon for cedar and travelled the length of These images and structures had two principal functions:
the Red Sea to the Kingdom of Puntpossibly modern to ensure an ordered existence and to defeat death by pre-
day Somaliafor ebony, ivory and aromatic resins. Ship serving life into the next world. To these ends, over a
builders of that era did not use pegs (treenails) or metal period of time, Egyptian artists adopted a limited reper-
fasteners, but relied on rope to keep their ships assem- toire of standard types and established a formal artistic
56 CHAPTER 5. OLD KINGDOM OF EGYPT

canon that would dene Egyptian art for more than 3,000
years, while remaining exible enough to allow for subtle
variation and innovation. Although much of their artistic
eort was centered on preserving life after death, Egyp-
tians also surrounded themselves with objects to enhance
their lives in this world, producing elegant jewelry, nely
carved and inlaid furniture, and cosmetic vessels and im-
plements made from a wide range of materials.
5.8 External links
The Fall of the Egyptian Old Kingdom from BBC
History
Middle East on The Matrix: Egypt, The Old King-
dom Photographs of many of the historic sites
dating from the Old Kingdom

Old Kingdom of Egypt- Aldokkan

5.6 References
[1] Malek, Jaromir. 2003. The Old Kingdom (c. 2686
2160 BCE)". In The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt,
edited by Ian Shaw. Oxford and New York: Oxford Uni-
versity Press. ISBN 978-0192804587, p.83

[2] Carl Roebuck, The World of Ancient Times, pp. 55 & 60.

[3] Carl Roebuck, The World of Ancient Times, p. 56.

[4] Bothmer, Bernard (1974). Brief Guide to the Department

of Egyptian and Classical Art. Brooklyn, NY: Brooklyn
Museum. p. 22.

[5] Herlin, Susan J. (2003). Ancient African Civilizations

to ca. 1500: Pharaonic Egypt to Ca. 800 BC. p. 27.
Archived from the original on August 23, 2003. Retrieved
23 January 2017.

[6] Carl Roebuck, The World of Ancient Times, p. 57.

[7] Vassil Dobrev, French Institute, Cairo, link 1, link 2

[8] p.5, 'The Collins Encyclopedia of Military History' (4th

edition, 1993), Dupuy & Dupuy.

[9] Miroslav Verner: The Pyramids, Grove Press. New York,

2001

[10] Miroslav Verner: Archaeological Remarks on the 4th and

5th Dynasty Chronology, Archiv Orientln, Volume 69:
2001

[11] Jean-Daniel Stanley; et al. (2003). Nile ow failure at the

end of the Old Kingdom, Egypt: Strontium isotopic and
petrologic evidence. Geoarchaeology. 18 (3): 395402.
doi:10.1002/gea.10065.

[12] Select Egypt. selectegypt.com.

5.7 Further reading

Jaromir Malek, In the Shadow of the Pyramids:
Egypt During the Old Kingdom, University of Ok-
lahoma Press, 1986. ISBN 0-8061-2027-4

Egyptian Art in the Age of the Pyramids, New York,

Metropolitan Museum of Art, 1999. ISBN 0-
87099-906-0 (catalogue for travelling exhibition of
the same name)
Chapter 6

First Intermediate Period of Egypt

Warning: Page using Template:Infobox former country in power of the provincial nomarchs. Towards the end of
with unknown parameter country (this message is the Old Kingdom the positions of the nomarchs had be-
shown only in preview). come hereditary, so families often held onto the position
of power in their respective provinces. As these nomarchs
grew increasingly powerful and inuential, they became
The First Intermediate Period, often described as [7]
a dark period in ancient Egyptian history, spanned more independent from the king. They erected tombs
in their own domains and often raised armies. The rise
approximately one hundred twenty-ve years, from c.
21812055 BC, after the end of the Old Kingdom. It of these numerous nomarchs inevitably created conicts
[1]
between neighboring provinces, often resulting in intense
included the seventh, eighth, ninth, tenth, and part of the
eleventh dynasties. Very little monumental evidence sur- rivalries and warfare between them. A third reason for
vives from this period, especially towards the beginning the dissolution of centralized kingship that is mentioned
of the era. The First Intermediate Period was a dynamic was the low levels of the Nile inundation which may have
time in history where rule of Egypt was roughly divided resulted in a drier climate and lower [8] crop yields bring-
between two competing power bases. One of those bases ing about famine across ancient Egypt; see 4.2 kiloyear
resided at Heracleopolis in Lower Egypt, a city just south event.
of the Faiyum region. The other resided at Thebes in
Upper Egypt.[2] It is believed that during this time, the
temples were pillaged and violated, their existing artwork
was vandalized, and the statues of kings were broken
or destroyed as a result of this alleged political chaos.[3]
These two kingdoms would eventually come into conict,
6.2 The 7th and 8th dynasties at
with the Theban kings conquering the north, resulting in Memphis
reunication of Egypt under a single ruler during the sec-
ond part of the eleventh dynasty.
The seventh and eighth dynasties are often overlooked be-
cause very little is known about the rulers of these two
periods. Manetho, a historian and priest from the Ptole-
6.1 Events leading to the First In- maic era, describes 70 kings who ruled for 70 days.[9]
This is most likely an exaggeration to describe the disor-
termediate Period ganization of the kingship during this time period. The
seventh dynasty may have been an oligarchy comprising
The fall of the Old Kingdom is often described as a pe- powerful ocials of the sixth dynasty based in Memphis
riod of chaos and disorder by some literature in the First who attempted to retain control of the country.[10] The
Intermediate Period, but mostly by literature written in eighth dynasty rulers, claiming to be the descendants of
successive eras of ancient Egyptian history. The causes the sixth dynasty kings, also ruled from Memphis.[11] Lit-
that brought about the downfall of the Old Kingdom are tle is known about these two dynasties since very little
numerous, but some are merely hypothetical. One rea- textual or architectural evidence survives to describe the
son that is often quoted is the extremely long reign of period. However, a few artifacts have been found, includ-
Pepi II, the last major pharaoh of the 6th Dynasty. He ing scarabs that have been attributed to king Neferkare II
ruled from his childhood until he was very elderly (at of the seventh dynasty as well as a green jasper cylinder
least into his seventies, and possibly into his nineties), of Syrian inuence which has been credited to the eighth
outliving many of his heirs and therefore, created prob- dynasty.[12] Also, a small pyramid believed to have been
lems with succession in the royal household.[4] Thus, the constructed by King Ibi of the eighth dynasty has been
regime of the Old Kingdom disintegrated amidst this identied at Saqqara.[13] Several kings, such as Iytjenu are
disorganization.[5][6] Another major problem was the rise only once attested and their position remains unknown.

57
58
6.3 Rise of the Heracleopolitan
Kings
Some time after the obscure reign of the seventh
and eighth dynasties kings, a group of rulers arose in
Heracleopolis in Lower Egypt.[9] These kings comprise
the ninth and tenth dynasties, each with nineteen listed
rulers. The Heracleopolitan kings are conjectured to have
overwhelmed the weak Memphite rulers to create the
ninth dynasty, but there is virtually no archaeology elu-
cidating the transition, which seems to have involved a
drastic reduction in population in the Nile Valley.
The founder of the ninth dynasty, Akhthoes or Akhtoy,
is often described as an evil and violent ruler, most no-
tably in Manethos writing. Possibly the same as Wahkare
Khety I, Akhthoes was described as a king who caused
much harm to the inhabitants of Egypt, was seized with
madness, and was eventually killed by a crocodile.[14]
This may have been a fanciful tale, but Wahkare is listed
as a king in the Turin Canon. Kheti I was succeeded by
Kheti II, also known as Meryibre. Little is certain of his
reign, but a few artifacts bearing his name survive. It may
have been his successor, Kheti III, who would bring some
degree of order to the Delta, though the power and inu-
ence of these ninth dynasty kings was seemingly insignif-
icant compared to the Old Kingdom pharaohs.[15]
A distinguished line of nomarchs arose in Siut (or Asyut),
a powerful and wealthy province in the south of the Her-
acleopolitan kingdom. These warrior princes maintained
a close relationship with the kings of the Heracleopoli-
tan royal household, as evidenced by the inscriptions in
their tombs. These inscriptions provide a glimpse at the
political situation that was present during their reigns.
They describe the Siut nomarchs digging canals, reduc-
ing taxation, reaping rich harvests, raising cattle herds,
and maintaining an army and eet.[14] The Siut province
acted as a buer state between the northern and southern
rulers, and the Siut princes would bear the brunt of the
attacks from the Theban kings.
6.4 Rise of the Theban kings
It has been suggested that an invasion of Upper Egypt oc-
curred contemporaneously with the founding of the Her-
acleopolitan kingdom, which would establish the The-
ban line of kings, constituting the eleventh and twelfth
dynasties.[16] This line of kings is believed to have been
descendants of Intef or Inyotef, who was the nomarch
of Thebes, often called the keeper of the Door of the
South.[17] He is credited for organizing Upper Egypt into
an independent ruling body in the south, although he him-
self did not appear to have tried to claim the title of king.
However, his successors in the eleventh and twelfth dy-
nasty would later do so for him.[18] One of them, Intef
II, begins the assault on the north, particularly at Abydos.
CHAPTER 6. FIRST INTERMEDIATE PERIOD OF EGYPT
Intef III completes this attack on the north and eventu-
ally captures Abydos, moving into Middle Egypt against
the Heracleopolitan kings.[19] The rst three kings of the
eleventh dynasty (all named Intef) were, therefore, also
the last three kings of the First Intermediate Period and
would be succeeded by a line of kings who were all called
Mentuhotep. Mentuhotep II, also known as Nebhepetra,
would eventually defeat the Heracleopolitan kings around
2033 BC and unify the country to continue the eleventh
dynasty, bringing Egypt into the Middle Kingdom.[19]
6.5 The Ipuwer Papyrus
The emergence of what is considered literature by mod-
ern standards seems to have occurred during the First In-
termediate Period, with a owering of new literary gen-
res in the Middle Kingdom.[20] A particularly important
piece is the Ipuwer Papyrus, often called the Lamenta-
tions of Ipuwer or the Admonitions of Ipuwer, which al-
though not dated to this period by modern scholarship
may refer to the First Intermediate Period and record a
decline in international relations and a general impover-
ishment in Egypt.[21]
6.6 The art and architecture of the
First Intermediate Period
As stated above, the First Intermediate Period in Egypt
was generally divided into two main geographical and po-
litical regions, one centered at Memphis and the other at
Thebes. The Memphite kings, although weak in power,
held on to the Memphite artistic traditions that had been
in place throughout the Old Kingdom. This was a sym-
bolic way for the weakened Memphite state to hold on
to the vestiges of glory in which the Old Kingdom had
reveled.[22] On the other hand, the Theban kings, phys-
ically isolated from Memphis, had no access to these
Memphite artworks and thus, were able to craft new artis-
tic styles that reected the creativity of the artists who
were no longer controlled by the state.[23]
The building projects of the Heracleopolitan kings in
the North were very limited. Only one pyramid be-
lieved to belong to King Merikare (20652045 BC) is
mentioned to be somewhere at Saqqara. Also, private
tombs that were built during the time pale in compari-
son to the Old Kingdom monuments, in quality and size.
There are still relief scenes of servants making provi-
sions for the deceased as well as the traditional oering
scenes which mirror those of the Old Kingdom Memphite
tombs. However, they are of a lower quality and are much
simpler than their Old Kingdom parallels.[24] Wooden
rectangular cons were still being used, but their decora-
tions became more elaborate during the rule of the Hera-
cleopolitan kings. New Con Texts were painted on the
6.8. REFERENCES
interiors, providing spells and maps for the deceased to
use in the afterlife.
The rise of the Theban kings around 2123 BC brought
about an original more provincial style of art. This new
style is often described as clumsy and unrened and may
have been due to the lack of skilled artisans. However,
the artworks that survived show that the artisans took on
new interpretations of traditional scenes. They employed
the use of bright colors in their paintings and changed and
distorted the proportions of the human gure. This dis-
tinctive style was especially evident in the rectangular slab
stelae found in the tombs at Naga el-Deir.[25] In terms of
royal architecture, the Theban kings of the early eleventh
dynasty constructed rock cut tombs called sa tombs at
El-Tarif on the west bank of the Nile. This new style
of mortuary architecture consisted of a large courtyard
with a rock-cut colonnade at the far wall. Rooms were
carved into the walls facing the central courtyard where
the deceased were buried, allowing for multiple people to
be buried in one tomb.[26] The undecorated burial cham-
bers may have been due to the lack of skilled artists in the
Theban kingdom.
6.7 End of the First Intermediate
Period
The end of the First Intermediate Period is placed at
the time when Mentuhotep II of the eleventh dynasty de-
feated the Heracleopolitan kings of Lower Egypt and re- [19] James Henry Breasted, Ph.D., A History of the Ancient
united Egypt under a single ruler.
6.8 References
[1] Kathryn A. Bard, An Introduction to the Archaeology of
Ancient Egypt (Malden: Blackwell Publishing, 2008), 41.
[2] Gardiner, Alan (1961) Egypt of the Pharaohs (Oxford
University Press), 107-109.
[3] Breasted, James Henry. (1923) A History of the Ancient
Egyptians Charles Scribners Sons, 133.
[4] Kinnaer, Jacques. The First Intermediate Period (PDF).
The Ancient Egypt Site. Retrieved 4 April 2012.
[5] Gardiner, Alan (1961) Egypt of the Pharaohs (Oxford
University Press), 110.
[6] Rothe, et al., (2008) Pharaonic Inscriptions From the
Southern Eastern Desert of Egypt, Eisenbrauns
[7] Breasted, James Henry. (1923) A History of the Ancient
Egyptians Charles Scribners Sons, 117-118.
[8] Malek, Jaromir (1999) Egyptian Art (London: Phaidon
Press Limited), 155.
[9] Sir Alan Gardiner, Egypt of the Pharaohs (Oxford: Ox-
ford University Press, 1961), 107.
59
[10] Hayes, William C. The Scepter of Egypt: A Background
for the Study of the Egyptian Antiquities in The Metropoli-
tan Museum of Art. Vol. 1, From the Earliest Times to the
End of the Middle Kingdom, p. 136, available online
[11] Breasted, James Henry. (1923) A History of the Ancient
Egyptians Charles Scribners Sons, 133-134.
[12] Baikie, James (1929) A History of Egypt: From the Ear-
liest Times to the End of the XVIIIth Dynasty (New York:
The Macmillan Company), 218.
[13] Bard, Kathryn A. (2008) An Introduction to the Archae-
ology of Ancient Egypt (Malden: Blackwell Publishing),
163.
[14] James Henry Breasted, Ph.D., A History of the Ancient
Egyptians (New York: Charles Scribners Sons, 1923),
134.
[15] Baikie, James (1929) A History of Egypt: From the Ear-
liest Times to the End of the XVIIIth Dynasty (New York:
The Macmillan Company), 224.
[16] Baikie, James (1929) A History of Egypt: From the Ear-
liest Times to the End of the XVIIIth Dynasty (New York:
The Macmillan Company), 221.
[17] Baikie, James (1929) A History of Egypt: From the Ear-
liest Times to the End of the XVIIIth Dynasty (New York:
The Macmillan Company), 135.
[18] Baikie, James (1929) A History of Egypt: From the Ear-
liest Times to the End of the XVIIIth Dynasty (New York:
The Macmillan Company), 245.
Egyptians (New York: Charles Scribners Sons, 1923),
136.
[20] Kathryn A. Bard, An Introduction to the Archaeology
of Ancient Egypt (Malden: Blackwell Publishing, 2008),
174-175.
[21] Gregory Mumford, Tell Ras Budran (Site 345): Dening
Egypts Eastern Frontier and Mining Operations in South
Sinai during the Late Old Kingdom (Early EB IV/MB I),
Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research,
No. 342 (May, 2006), pp. 13-67, The American Schools
of Oriental Research. Article Stable URL:
[22] Jaromir Malek, Egyptian Art (London: Phaidon Press
Limited, 1999), 159.
[23] Jaromir Malek, Egyptian Art (London: Phaidon Press
Limited, 1999), 160-161.
[24] Jaromir Malek, Egyptian Art (London: Phaidon Press
Limited, 1999), 156.
[25] Jaromir Malek, Egyptian Art (London: Phaidon Press
Limited, 1999), 161.
[26] Jaromir Malek, Egyptian Art (London: Phaidon Press
Limited, 1999), 162.
Chapter 7

Middle Kingdom of Egypt

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with unknown parameter country (this message is
shown only in preview).

The Middle Kingdom of Egypt (also known as The

Period of Reunication) is the period in the history
of ancient Egypt between circa 2050 BC and 1800 BC,
stretching from the reunication of Egypt under the im-
pulse of Mentuhotep II of the Eleventh Dynasty to the
end of the Twelfth Dynasty. Some scholars also include
the Thirteenth Dynasty of Egypt wholly into this period
as well, in which case the Middle Kingdom would nish
c. 1650, while others only include it until Merneferre Ay
c. 1700 BC, last king of this dynasty to be attested in
both Upper and Lower Egypt. During the Middle King-
dom period, Osiris became the most important deity in
popular religion.[1]
The period comprises two phases, the 11th Dynasty,
which ruled from Thebes and the 12th Dynasty onwards
which was centered on el-Lisht.

7.1 Political history

7.1.1 Reunication under the Eleventh Dy-
nasty
Further information: Eleventh dynasty of Egypt
After the collapse of the Old Kingdom, Egypt entered
a period of weak Pharaonic power and decentralization
called the First Intermediate Period.[2] Towards the end
of this period, two rival dynasties, known in Egyptology
as the Tenth and Eleventh, fought for power over the en-
tire country. The Theban 11th Dynasty only ruled south-
ern Egypt from the rst cataract to the Tenth Nome of
Upper Egypt.[3] To the north, Lower Egypt was ruled by
the rival 10th Dynasty from Herakleopolis.[3] The strug-
gle was to be concluded by Mentuhotep II, who ascended
the Theban throne in 2055 B.C.[4] During Mentuhotep
IIs fourteenth regnal year, he took advantage of a revolt
in the Thinite Nome to launch an attack on Herakleopo-
lis, which met little resistance.[3] After toppling the last
rulers of the 10th Dynasty, Mentuhotep began consolidat-
An Osiride statue of the rst pharaoh of the Middle Kingdom,
Mentuhotep II
ing his power over all Egypt, a process which he nished
by his 39th regnal year.[2] For this reason, Mentuhotep II
is regarded as the founder of the Middle Kingdom.[5]
Mentuhotep II commanded military campaigns south as
far as the Second Cataract in Nubia, which had gained its
independence during the First Intermediate Period. He
also restored Egyptian hegemony over the Sinai region,
which had been lost to Egypt since the end of the Old
Kingdom.[6] To consolidate his authority, he restored the
cult of the ruler, depicting himself as a god in his own
lifetime, wearing the headdresses of Amun and Min[7] He
died after a reign of 51 years, and passed the throne to his
son, Mentuhotep III.[6]
Mentuhotep III reigned for only twelve years, during
which he continued consolidating Theban rule over the
whole of Egypt, building a series of forts in the eastern

60
7.1. POLITICAL HISTORY 61

Delta region to secure Egypt against threats from Asia.[6]

He also sent the rst expedition to Punt during the Mid-
dle Kingdom, by means of ships constructed at the end
of Wadi Hammamat, on the Red Sea.[8] Mentuhotep III
was succeeded by Mentuhotep IV, whose name signif-
icantly is omitted from all ancient Egyptian king lists.[9]
The Turin Papyrus claims that after Mentuhotep III came
seven kingless years.[10] Despite this absence, his reign
is attested from a few inscriptions in Wadi Hammamat
that record expeditions to the Red Sea coast and to quarry
stone for the royal monuments.[9] The leader of this expe-
dition was his vizier Amenemhat, who is widely assumed
to be the future pharaoh Amenemhet I, the rst king of
the 12th Dynasty.[11][12]
Mentuhotep IVs absence from the king lists has
prompted the theory that Amenemhet I usurped his
throne.[12] While there are no contemporary accounts of
this struggle, certain circumstantial evidence may point
to the existence of a civil war at the end of the 11th
dynasty.[9] Inscriptions left by one Nehry, the Haty-a of
Hermopolis, suggest that he was attacked at a place called
Shedyet-sha by the forces of the reigning king, but his
forces prevailed. Khnumhotep I, an ocial under Amen-
emhet I, claims to have participated in a otilla of 20 ships
to pacify Upper Egypt. Donald Redford has suggested
these events should be interpreted as evidence of open
war between two dynastic claimants.[13] What is certain
is that, however he came to power, Amenemhet I was not The head of a statue of Senusret I.
of royal birth.[12]

kingdom after centuries of chaos.[16]

7.1.2 Early 12th Dynasty
Propaganda notwithstanding, Amenemhet never held the
Main article: Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt absolute power commanded in theory by the Old King-
From the 12th dynasty onwards, pharaohs often kept dom pharaohs. During the First Intermediate Period, the
well-trained standing armies, which included Nubian governors of the nomes of Egypt, nomarchs, gained con-
contingents. These formed the basis of larger forces siderable power.[19] Their posts had become hereditary,
which were raised for defence against invasion, or for ex- and some nomarchs entered into marriage alliances with
peditions up the Nile or across the Sinai. However, the the nomarchs of neighboring nomes.[19] To strengthen
Middle Kingdom was basically defensive in its military his position, Amenemhet required registration of land,
strategy, with fortications built at the First Cataract of modied nome borders, and appointed nomarchs directly
the Nile, in the Delta and across the Sinai Isthmus.[14] when oces became vacant, but acquiesced to the no-
Early in his reign, Amenemhet I was compelled to cam- march system, probably [20] in order to placate the nomarchs
paign in the Delta region, which had not received as much who supported his rule. This gave the Middle King-
attention as upper Egypt during the 11th Dynasty. [15] dom a more feudal organization than Egypt had before or
[21]
In addition, he strengthened defenses between Egypt would have afterward.
and Asia, building the Walls of the Ruler in the East In his 20th regnal year, Amenemhat established his son
Delta region.[16] Perhaps in response to this perpetual Senusret I as his coregent,[21] establishing a practice
unrest, Amenemhat I built a new capital for Egypt in which would be used repeatedly throughout the rest of the
the north, known as Amenemhet Itj Tawy, or Amen- Middle Kingdom and again during the New. In Amen-
emhet, Seizer of the Two Lands.[17] The location of this emhets 30th regnal year, he was presumably murdered
capital is unknown, but is presumably near the citys in a palace conspiracy. Senusret, campaigning against
necropolis, the present-day el-Lisht.[16] Like Mentuhotep Libyan invaders, rushed home to Itjtawy to prevent a
II, Amenemhet bolstered his claim to authority with takeover of the government.[22] During his reign he con-
propaganda.[18] In particular, the Prophecy of Neferty tinued the practice of directly appointing nomarchs,[23]
dates to about this time, which purports to be an oracle and undercut the autonomy of local priesthoods by build-
of an Old Kingdom priest, who predicts a king, Amen- ing at cult centers throughout Egypt.[24] Under his rule,
emhet I, arising from the far south of Egypt to restore the Egyptian armies pushed south into Nubia as far as the sec-
62 CHAPTER 7. MIDDLE KINGDOM OF EGYPT

ond cataract, building a border fort at Buhen and incor-

porating all of lower Nubia as an Egyptian colony.[25] To
the west, he consolidated his power over the Oases, and
extended commercial contacts into Syrio-Palestine as far
as Ugarit.[26] In his 43rd regnal year, Senusret appointed
Amenemhet II as junior coregent, and died in his 46th.[27]
The reign of Amenemhat II has been often characterized
as largely peaceful,[26] but record of his genut, or day-
books, have cast doubt on that assessment.[28] Among
these records, preserved on temple walls at Tod and
Memphis, are descriptions of peace treaties with cer-
tain Syrio-Palestinian cities, and military conict with
others.[28] To the south, Amenemhet sent a campaign
through lower Nubia to inspect Wawat.[26] It does not ap-
pear that Amenemhet continued his predecessors pol-
icy of appointing Nomarchs, but let it become heredi-
tary again.[23] Another expedition to Punt dates to his
reign.[28] In his 33rd regnal year, he appointed his son
Senusret II coregent.[29]
Evidence for military activity of any kind during the reign
of Senusret II is non-existent.[30] Senusret instead appears
to have focused on domestic issues, particularly the ir-
rigation of the Faiyum. This multi-generational project
aimed to convert the Faiyum oasis into a productive swath
of farmland.[30] Senusret eventually placed his pyramid at
the site of el-Lahun, near the junction of the Nile and the Statue head of Senusret III
Fayuums major irrigation canal, the Bahr Yussef.[31] He
reigned only fteen years,[32] which is evidenced by the
incomplete nature of many of his constructions.[30] His Domestically, Senusret has been given credit for an ad-
son Senusret III succeeded him. ministrative reform which put more power in the hands
of appointees of the central government, instead of re-
gional authorities.[33] Egypt was divided into three waret,
or administrative divisions: North, South, and Head of
7.1.3 Height of the Middle Kingdom the South (perhaps Lower Egypt, most of Upper Egypt,
and the nomes of the original Theban kingdom during
Senusret III was a warrior-king, often taking to the eld the war with Herakleopolis, respectively).[37] Each region
himself. In his sixth year, he re-dredged an Old King- was administrated by a Reporter, Second Reporter, some
dom canal around the rst cataract to facilitate travel to kind of council (the Djadjat), and a sta of minor o-
upper Nubia.[33] He used this to launch a series of brutal cials and scribes.[37] The power of the Nomarchs seems
campaigns in Nubia in his sixth, eighth, tenth, and six- to drop o permanently during his reign, which has been
teenth years.[33] After his victories, Senusret built a series taken to indicate that the central government had nally
of massive forts throughout the country to establish the suppressed them, though there is no record that Senusret
formal boundary between Egyptian conquests and uncon- ever took direct action against them.[33]
quered Nubia at Semna.[33] The personnel of these forts
were charged to send frequent reports to the capital on Senusret III had a lasting legacy as a warrior Pharaoh.
the movements and activities of the local Medjay natives, His name was Hellenized by later Greek historians as
some of which survive, revealing how tightly the Egyp- Sesostris, a name which was then given to a conation[38] of
[34]
tians intended to control the southern border. Medjay Senusret and several New Kingdom warrior pharaohs.
were not allowed north of the border by ship, nor could In Nubia, Senusret [39]
was worshiped as a patron God by
they enter by land with their ocks, but they were per- Egyptian settlers. The duration of his reign remains
mitted to travel to local forts in order to trade. [35]
Af- something of an open question. His son Amenemhet III
ter this, Senusret sent one more campaign in his 19th began reigning after Senusrets 19th regnal year, which
year, but turned back due to abnormally low Nile lev- has been widely considered Senusrets highest attested
[40]
els, which endangered his ships. [33]
One of Senusrets date. However, a reference to a year 39 on a fragment
soldiers also records a campaign into Palestine, perhaps found in the construction debris of Senusrets mortuary
against Shechem, the only reference to a military cam- temple has suggested the possibility of a long coregency
[41]
paign against a location in Palestine from the entirety of with his son.
Middle Kingdom literature.[36] The reign of Amenemhat III was the height of Middle
7.1. POLITICAL HISTORY 63

Kingdom economic prosperity. His reign is remarkable

for the degree to which Egypt exploited its resources.
Mining camps in the Sinai, which had previously been
used only by intermittent expeditions, were operated on
a semi-permanent basis, as evidenced by the construction
of houses, walls, and even local cemeteries.[42] There are
25 separate references to mining expeditions in the Sinai,
and four to expeditions in wadi Hammamat, one of which
had over 2,000 workers.[43] Amenemhet reinforced his
fathers defenses in Nubia[44] and continued the Faiyum
land reclamation system.[45] After a reign of 45 years,
Amenemhet III was succeeded by Amenemhet IV,[42]
whose nine-year reign is poorly attested.[46] Clearly by
this time, dynastic power began to weaken, for which
several explanations have been proposed. Contemporary
records of the Nile ood levels indicate that the end of the
reign of Amenemhet III was dry, and crop failures may
have helped to destabilize the dynasty.[45] Further, Amen-
emhet III had an inordinately long reign, which tends
to create succession problems.[47] The latter argument
perhaps explains why Amenemhet IV was succeeded by
Sobekneferu, the rst historically attested female king of
Egypt.[47] Sobekneferu ruled no more than four years,[48]
and as she apparently had no heirs, when she died the
Twelfth Dynasty came to a sudden end as did the Golden
Age of the Middle Kingdom.

7.1.4 Decline into the Second Intermediate

Period

After the death of Sobeknefru, the throne may have

passed to Sekhemre Khutawy Sobekhotep,[49][50] though
in older studies Wegaf, who had previously been the
Great Overseer of Troops,[51] was thought to have reigned
next.[52] Beginning with this reign, Egypt was ruled by a
series of ephemeral kings for about ten to fteen years.[53]
Ancient Egyptian sources regard these as the rst kings of
the Thirteenth Dynasty, though the term dynasty is mis-
leading, as most kings of the thirteenth dynasty were not
related.[54] The names of these short-lived kings are at-
tested on a few monuments and grati, and their succes-
sion order is only known from the Turin Canon, although A kneeling statue of Sobekhotep V, one of the pharaohs from the
even this is not fully trusted.[53] declining years of the Middle Kingdom.

After the initial dynastic chaos, a series of longer reign-

ing, better attested kings ruled for about fty to eighty
years.[53] The strongest king of this period, Neferhotep
I, ruled for eleven years and maintained eective control
of Upper Egypt, Nubia, and the Delta,[55] with the pos-
sible exceptions of Xois and Avaris.[56] Neferhotep I was
even recognized as the suzerain of the ruler of Byblos,
indicating that the Thirteenth Dynasty was able to retain
much of the power of the Twelfth Dynasty, at least up to
his reign.[56] At some point during the 13th dynasty, Xois
and Avaris began governing themselves,[56] the rulers of
Xois being the Fourteenth Dynasty, and the Asiatic rulers
of Avaris being the Hyksos of the Fifteenth Dynasty. Ac-
cording to Manetho, this latter revolt occurred during the
reign of Neferhoteps successor, Sobekhotep IV, though
there is no archaeological evidence.[57] Sobekhotep IV
was succeeded by the short reign of Sobekhotep V, who
was followed by Wahibre Ibiau, then Merneferre Ai.
Wahibre Ibiau ruled ten years, and Merneferre Ai ruled
for twenty three years, the longest of any Thirteenth Dy-
nasty king, but neither of these two kings left as many at-
testations as either Neferhotep or Sobekhotep IV.[58] De-
spite this, they both seem to have held at least parts of
lower Egypt. After Merneferre Ai, however, no king left
his name on any object found outside the south.[58] This
begins the nal portion of the thirteenth dynasty, when
southern kings continue to reign over Upper Egypt, but
64 CHAPTER 7. MIDDLE KINGDOM OF EGYPT

when the unity of Egypt fully disintegrated, the Middle

Kingdom gave way to the Second Intermediate Period.[59]

7.2 Administration
When the Eleventh Dynasty reunied Egypt it had to cre-
ate a centralized administration such as had not existed
in Egypt since the downfall of the Old Kingdom govern-
ment. To do this, it appointed people to positions which
had fallen out of use in the decentralized First Interme-
diate Period. Highest among these was the Vizier.[60]
The vizier was the chief minister for the king, handling
all the day-to-day business of government in the kings
place.[60] This was a monumental task, therefore it would
often be split into two positions, a vizier of the north, and
a vizier of the south. It is uncertain how often this oc-
Clay model of a Middle Kingdom house. Muse du Louvre.
curred during the Middle Kingdom, but Senusret I clearly
had two simultaneously functioning viziers.[60] Other po-
sitions were inherited from the provincial form of govern- developed during the Fifth and Sixth Dynasties, when the
ment at Thebes used by the Eleventh Dynasty before the various powers of Old Kingdom provincial ocials began
reunication of Egypt.[61] The Overseer of Sealed Goods to be exercised by a single individual.[63] At roughly this
became the countrys treasurer, and the Overseer of the time, the provincial aristocracy began building elaborate
Estate became the Kings chief steward.[61] These three tombs for themselves, which have been taken as evidence
positions and the Scribe of the Royal Document, proba- of the wealth and power which these rulers had acquired
bly the kings personal scribe, appear to be the most im- as Nomarchs.[63] By the end of the First Intermediate Pe-
portant posts of the central government, judging by the riod, some nomarchs ruled their nomes as minor poten-
monument count of those in these positions.[61] tates, such as the nomarch Nehry of Hermopolis, who
Beside this, many Old Kingdom posts which had lost dated inscriptions by his own regnal year.[60]
their original meaning and become mere honorics were When the Eleventh Dynasty came to power, it was nec-
brought back into the central government.[60] Only high- essary to subdue the power of the Nomarchs if Egypt
ranking ocials could claim the title Member of the Elite, was to be reunied under a central government. The rst
which had been applied liberally during the First Interme- major steps towards that end took place under Amen-
diate Period.[61] emhet I. Amenemhet made the city, not the nome, the
This basic form of administration continued throughout center of administration, and only the haty-a, or mayor,
the Middle Kingdom, though there is some evidence for of the larger cities would be permitted to carry the title
a major reform of the central government under Senusret of Nomarch.[23] The title of Nomarch continued to be
III. Records from his reign indicate that Upper and Lower used until the reign of Senusret III,[23] as did the elab-
Egypt were divided into separate waret and governed orate tombs indicative of their power, after which they
by separate administrators.[23] Administrative documents suddenly disappear.[64] This has been interpreted several
and private stele indicate a proliferation of new bureau- ways. Traditionally, it has been believed that Senusret
cratic titles around this time, which have been taken as III took some action to suppress the nomarch families
evidence of a larger central government.[62] Governance during his reign.[65] Recently, other interpretations have
of the royal residence was moved into a separate divi- been proposed. Detlef Franke has argued that Senusret
sion of government.[23] The military was placed under II adopted a policy of educating the sons of nomarchs in
the control of a chief general.[23] However, it is possible the capital and appointing them to government posts. In
that these titles and positions were much older, and sim- this way, many provincial families may have been bled
ply were not recorded on funerary stele due to religious dry of scions.[23] Also, while the title of Great Over-
conventions.[62] lord of the Nome disappeared, other distinctive titles of
the nomarchs remained. During the First Intermedi-
ate Period, individuals holding the title of Great Over-
7.2.1 Provincial government lord also often held the title of Overseer of Priests.[66]
In the late Middle Kingdom, there exist families hold-
Decentralization during the First Intermediate Period left ing the titles of mayor and overseer of priests as hered-
the individual Egyptian provinces, or Nomes, under the itary possessions.[64] Therefore, it has been argued that
control of powerful families who held the hereditary title the great nomarch families were never subdued, but were
of Great Chief of the Nome, or Nomarch.[63] This position simply absorbed into the Pharaonic administration of the
7.5. LITERATURE 65

country.[64] While it is true that the large tombs indicative

of nomarchs disappear at the end of the twelfth dynasty,
grand royal tombs also disappear soon thereafter due to
general instability surrounding the decline of the Middle
Kingdom.[64]

7.3 Agriculture and climate

It was I who brought forth grain, the grain god loved me,
the Nile adored me from his every source;
One did not hunger during my years, did not thirst;
they sat content with all my deeds, remembering me fondly;
and I set each thing rmly in its place.[67]
extract from the Instructions of Amenemhat
Throughout the history of ancient Egypt, the annual
ooding of the Nile River to inundate the elds on its
banks was relied upon to feed the population. There is
evidence that the collapse of the previous Old Kingdom
may have been due in part to low ood levels, resulting
in famine.[68] This trend appears to have been reversed
during the early years of the Middle Kingdom, with rel-
atively high water levels recorded for much of this era,
with an average inundation of 19 meters above its non-
ood levels.[69] The years of repeated high inundation lev-
els correspond to the most prosperous period of the Mid-
dle Kingdom, which occurred during the reign of Amen- Head and Torso of a Noblewoman, ca. 18441837 B.C.E. 59.1.
emhat III.[70] This seems to be conrmed in some of the Brooklyn Museum
literature of the period, such as in the Instructions of
Amenemhat, where the king tells his son how agriculture
prospered under his reign.[67] of the eyebrows dips towards the root of the nose, the ar-
ticial eyebrows in low relief are absolutely straight above
the inner corners of the eyes, a feature which places the
bust early in Dynasty XII. Around 1900 B.C. these arti-
7.4 Art cial eyebrows, too, began to follow the natural curve and
dipped toward the nose.[75]
One of the innovations in sculpture that occurred during
the Middle Kingdom was the block statue, which would
continue to be popular through to the Ptolemaic age al-
most 2,000 years later.[71] Block statues consist of a man 7.5 Literature
squatting with his knees drawn up to his chest and his
arms folded on top his knees. Often, these men are wear- Richard B. Parkinson and Ludwig D. Morenz write that
ing a wide cloak that reduces the body of the gure to a ancient Egyptian literaturenarrowly dened as belles-
simple block-like shape.[72] Most of the detail is reserved lettres (beautiful writing)were not recorded in writ-
for the head of the individual being depicted. In some ten form until the early Twelfth dynasty of the Mid-
instances the modeling of the limbs has been retained by dle Kingdom.[76] Old Kingdom texts served mainly to
the sculptor.[73] There are two basic types of block stat- maintain the divine cults, preserve souls in the after-
ues: ones with the feet completely covered by the cloak life, and document accounts for practical uses in daily
and ones with the feet uncovered.[74] life. It was not until the Middle Kingdom that texts were
This statue to the right speaks well for the equality of gen- written for the purpose of entertainment and intellectual
[77]
der in ancient Egypt that a private lady could have a sculp- curiosity. Parkinson and Morenz also speculate that
ture made for herself. The heavy tripartite wig frames written works of the Middle Kingdom were transcriptions
the broad face and passes behind the ears, thus giving the of the oral literature of the Old Kingdom.[78] It is known
impression of forcing them forward. They are large in that some oral poetry was preserved in later writing; for
keeping with the ancient Egyptian ideal of beauty; the example, litter-bearers songs were preserved as[77] written
same ideal required small breasts, and also in this respect verses in tomb inscriptions of the Old Kingdom.
the sculpture is no exception. Whereas the natural curve It is also thought that the growth of the middle class and
66 CHAPTER 7. MIDDLE KINGDOM OF EGYPT

a growth in the number of scribes needed for the ex- [16] Shaw. (2000) p. 158
panded bureaucracy under Senusret II helped spur the
development of Middle Kingdom literature,.[48] Later an- [17] Arnold. (1991) p. 14.
cient Egyptians considered the literature from this time as [18] Grimal. (1988) p. 159
classic.[48] Stories such as the Tale of the shipwrecked
sailor and the Story of Sinuhe were composed during [19] Gardiner. (1964) p. 128.
this period, and were popular enough to be widely copied
afterwards.[48] Many philosophical works were also cre- [20] Grimal. (1988) p. 160
ated at this time, including the Dispute between a man [21] Gardiner. (1964) p. 129.
and his Ba where an unhappy man converses with his soul,
The Satire of the Trades in which the role of the scribe [22] Shaw. (2000) p. 160
is praised above all other jobs, and the magic tales sup-
[23] Shaw. (2000) p. 175
posedly told to the Old Kingdom pharaoh Khufu in the
Westcar Papyrus.[48] [24] Shaw. (2000) p. 162
Pharaohs of the Twelfth through Eighteenth Dynasty are
[25] Shaw. (2000) p. 161
credited with preserving for us some of the most interest-
ing of Egyptian papyri: [26] Grimal. (1988) p. 165

1950 BC: Akhmim Wooden Tablet [27] Murnane. (1977) p. 5.

1950 BC: Heqanakht papyri [28] Shaw. (2000) p. 163

1800 BC: Berlin papyrus 6619 [29] Murnane. (1977) p. 7.

1800 BC: Moscow Mathematical Papyrus [30] Shaw. (2000) p. 164

1650 BC: Rhind Mathematical Papyrus [31] Gardiner. (1964) p. 138.

1600 BC: Edwin Smith papyrus [32] Grimal. (1988) p. 166

1550 BC: Ebers papyrus [33] Shaw. (2000) p. 166

[34] Gardiner. (1964) p. 136.

7.6 References [35] Gardiner. (1964) p. 135.

[36] Redford. (1992) p. 76

[1] David, Rosalie (2002). Religion and Magic in Ancient
Egypt. Penguin Books. p. 156 [37] Hayes. (1953) p. 32
[2] Grimal. (1988) p. 156 [38] Shaw and Nicholson. (1995) p. 260
[3] Grimal. (1988) p. 155 [39] Aldred. (1987) p.129
[4] Shaw. (2000) p. 149
[40] Wegner. (1996) p. 250
[5] Habachi. (1963) pp. 16-52
[41] Wegner. (1996) p. 260
[6] Grimal. (1988) p. 157
[42] Grimal. (1988) p. 170
[7] Shaw. (2000) p. 151
[43] Grajetzki. (2006) p. 60
[8] Shaw. (2000) p. 156
[44] Shaw. (2000) p. 168
[9] Redford. (1992) p. 71.
[45] Shaw. (2000) p. 169
[10] Gardiner. (1964) p. 124.
[46] Shaw. (2000) p. 170
[11] Redford. (1992) p. 72.
[47] Grimal. (1988) p. 171
[12] Gardiner. (1964) p. 125.

[13] Redford. (1992) p.74 [48] Shaw. (2000) p. 171

[14] p5. 'The Collins Encyclopedia of Military History', (4th [49] K.S.B. Ryholt: The Political Situation in Egypt during
edition, 1993), Dupuy & Dupuy. the Second Intermediate Period, c.18001550 BC, Carsten
Niebuhr Institute Publications, vol. 20. Copenhagen:
[15] Arnold. (1991) p. 20. Museum Tusculanum Press, 1997
7.7. BIBLIOGRAPHY 67

[50] Darrell D. Baker: The Encyclopedia of the Pharaohs: 7.7 Bibliography

Volume I - Predynastic to the Twentieth Dynasty 3300
1069 BC, Stacey International, ISBN 978-1-905299-37- Aldred, Cyril (1987). The Egyptians. Thames and
9, 2008
Hudson.
[51] Grajetzki. (2006) p. 66 Arnold, Dorothea (1991). Amenemhet I and the
Early Twelfth Dynasty at Thebes. Metropolitan
[52] Grimal. (1988) p. 183
Museum Journal. 26. doi:10.2307/1512902.
[53] Grajetzki. (2006) p. 64 Bell, Barbara (1975). Climate and the History of
Egypt: The Middle Kingdom. American Journal of
[54] Grajetzki. (2006) p. 65
Archaeology. Archaeological Institute of America.
[55] Grajetzki. (2006) p. 71 79 (3): 223269. JSTOR 503481.

[56] Shaw. (2000) p. 172

Foster, John L. (2001). Ancient Egyptian Literature:
An Anthology. University of Texas Press. ISBN 0-
[57] Grajetzki. (2006) p. 72 292-72527-2.

[58] Grajetzki. (2006) p. 74 Gardiner, Alan (1964). Egypt of the Pharaohs. Ox-
ford University Press.
[59] Grajetzki. (2006) p. 75
Grajetzki, Wolfram (2006). The Middle Kingdom of
[60] Shaw. (2000) p. 174 Ancient Egypt. Gerald Duckworth & Co. Ltd. ISBN
0-7156-3435-6.
[61] Grajetzki. (2006) p. 21
Grimal, Nicolas (1988). A History of Ancient Egypt.
[62] Richards. (2005) p. 7 Librairie Arthme Fayard.

[63] Trigger, Kemp, O'Connor, and Lloyd. (1983) p. 108

Habachi, Labib (1963). King Nebhepetre Men-
thuhotep: his monuments, place in history, deica-
[64] Trigger, Kemp, O'Connor, and Lloyd. (1983) p. 112 tion and unusual representations in form of gods.
Annales du Service des Antiquits de l'gypte. 19:
[65] Grimal. (1988) p. 167 1652.

[66] Trigger, Kemp, O'Connor, and Lloyd. (1983) p. 109 Hayes, William (1953). Notes on the Govern-
ment of Egypt in the Late Middle Kingdom.
[67] Foster. (2001) p. 88 Journal of Near Eastern Studies. 12: 3139.
doi:10.1086/371108.
[68] Bell. (1975) p. 227
Morenz, Ludwid D. (2003), Literature as a Con-
[69] Bell. (1975) p. 230 struction of the Past in the Middle Kingdom,
in Tait, John W., 'Never Had the Like Occurred':
[70] Bell. (1975) p. 263 Egypts View of Its Past, translated by Martin Wor-
thington, London: University College London, In-
[71] Teeter. (1994) p. 27
stitute of Archaeology, an imprint of Cavendish
[72] Bothmer, 94. Publishing Limited, pp. 101118, ISBN 1-84472-
007-1
[73] Shaw, Block Statue.
Murnane, William J. (1977). Ancient Egyptian
[74] Late Period, 45. Coregencies. Studies in Ancient Oriental Civiliza-
tion. The Oriental Institute of the University of
[75] Bothmer, Bernard (1974). Brief Guide to the Department Chicago. 40.
of Egyptian and Classical Art. Brooklyn, NY: Brooklyn
Museum. p. 36. Redford, Donald (1992). Egypt, Canaan, and Israel
in Ancient Times. Princeton University Press. ISBN
[76] Parkinson 2002, pp. 4546, 4950, 5556; Morenz 2003, 0-691-00086-7.
p. 102; see also Simpson 1972, pp. 36 and Erman 2005,
pp. xxiv-xxv. Richards, Janet (2005). Society and Death in Ancient
Egypt. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-
[77] Morenz 2003, p. 102. 84033-3.

[78] Parkinson 2002, pp. 4546, 4950, 5556; Morenz 2003, Shaw, Ian; Nicholson, Paul (1995). The Dictionary
p. 102. of Ancient Egypt. Thames and Hudson.
68 CHAPTER 7. MIDDLE KINGDOM OF EGYPT

Shaw, Ian (2000). The Oxford history of an-

cient Egypt. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-
280458-8.

Teeter, Emily (1994). Egyptian Art. Art Insti-

tute of Chicago Museum Studies. The Art Institute
of Chicago. 20 (1): 1431. doi:10.2307/4112949.
JSTOR 4112949.

Trigger, B.; Kemp, Barry; O'Connor, David; Lloyd,

Alan (1983). Ancient Egypt: A Social History. Cam-
bridge University Press.
Wegner, Josef (1996). The Nature and Chronology
of the Senwosret III-Amenemhat III Regnal Succes-
sion: Some Considerations Based on New Evidence
from the Mortuary Temple of Senwosret III at Aby-
dos. Journal of Near Eastern Studies. 55: 249279.
doi:10.1086/373863.
Chapter 8

Second Intermediate Period of Egypt

Warning: Page using Template:Infobox former country Salitis

with unknown parameter country (this message is
shown only in preview). Sakir-Har

Khyan
The Second Intermediate Period marks a period when
Ancient Egypt fell into disarray for a second time, be- Apophis, c. 1590? BC1550 BC
tween the end of the Middle Kingdom and the start of
the New Kingdom. Khamudi, c. 15501540 BC
It is best known as the period when the Hyksos made
their appearance in Egypt and whose reign comprised the The Fifteenth Dynasty of Egypt was the rst Hyksos dy-
Fifteenth dynasty. nasty, ruled from Avaris, without control of the entire
land. The Hyksos preferred to stay in northern Egypt
since they inltrated from the north-east. The names
and order of kings is uncertain. The Turin King list in-
8.1 End of the Middle Kingdom dicates that there were six Hyksos kings, with an ob-
scure Khamudi listed as the nal king of the Fifteenth
The Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt came to an end at the Dynasty[3] (line X.21 of the cited web link clearly pro-
end of the 19th century BC with the death of Queen vides this summary for the dynasty: "6 kings function-
Sobekneferu (18061802 BC).[1] Apparently she had no ing 100+X years"). The surviving traces on the X gure
heirs, causing the twelfth dynasty to come to a sudden appears to give the gure 8 which suggests that the sum-
end, and, with it, the Golden Age of the Middle Kingdom; mation should be read as 6 kings ruling 108 years.
it was succeeded by the much weaker Thirteenth Dynasty.
Some scholars argue there were two Apophis kings
Retaining the seat of the twelfth dynasty, the thirteenth
named Apepi I and Apepi II, but this is primarily due
dynasty ruled from Itjtawy (Seizer-of-the-Two-Lands)
to the fact there are two known prenomens for this king:
near Memphis and Lisht, just south of the apex of the
Awoserre and Aqenenre. However, the Danish Egyptolo-
Nile Delta.
gist Kim Ryholt maintains in his study of the Second In-
The Thirteenth Dynasty is notable for the accession termediate Period that these prenomens all refer to one
of the rst formally recognised Semitic-speaking king, man, Apepi, who ruled Egypt for 40+X years.[4] This
Khendjer (Boar). The Thirteenth Dynasty proved un- is also supported by the fact that this king employed a
able to hold on to the entire territory of Egypt, how- third prenomen during his reign: Nebkhepeshre.[5] Apepi
ever, and a provincial ruling family of Western Asian de- likely employed several dierent prenomens throughout
scent in Avaris, located in the marshes of the eastern Nile various periods of his reign. This scenario is not unprece-
Delta, broke away from the central authority to form the dented, as later kings, including the famous Ramesses
Fourteenth Dynasty.[1] II and Seti II, are known to have used two dierent
prenomens in their own reigns.

8.2 Fifteenth dynasty

8.3 Sixteenth dynasty
Main article: Fifteenth Dynasty of Egypt
Main article: Sixteenth Dynasty of Egypt
The Fifteenth Dynasty dates approximately from 1650 to
1550 BC.[2] Known rulers of the Fifteenth Dynasty are The Sixteenth Dynasty ruled the Theban region in Upper
as follows:[2] Egypt[6] for 70 years.[7]

69
70 CHAPTER 8. SECOND INTERMEDIATE PERIOD OF EGYPT
Of the two chief versions of Manetho's Aegyptiaca, Dy- 8.4 Abydos dynasty
nasty XVI is described by the more reliable[8] Africanus
(supported by Syncellus)[9] as shepherd [hyksos] kings, Main article: Abydos Dynasty
but by Eusebius as Theban.[8]
Ryholt (1997), followed by Bourriau (2003), in recon-
structing the Turin canon, interpreted a list of Thebes-
based kings to constitute Manetho's Dynasty XVI, al-
though this is one of Ryholts most debatable and far-
reaching conclusions.[8] For this reason other scholars
do not follow Ryholt and see only insucient evidence for
the interpretation of the Sixteenth Dynasty as Theban.[10]
The continuing war against Dynasty XV dominated the
short-lived 16th dynasty. The armies of the 15th dy-
nasty, winning town after town from their southern en-
emies, continually encroached on the 16th dynasty terri-
tory, eventually threatening and then conquering Thebes
itself. In his study of the second intermediate period, the
egyptologist Kim Ryholt has suggested that Dedumose
I sued for a truce in the latter years of the dynasty,[7]
but one of his predecessors, Nebiryraw I, may have been
more successful and seems to have enjoyed a period of
peace in his reign.[7]
Famine, which had plagued Upper Egypt during the late
13th dynasty and the 14th dynasty, also blighted the 16th
dynasty, most evidently during and after the reign of
Neferhotep III.[7]
Thebes (Luxor Temple pictured) was the capital of many of the
Dynasty XVI pharaohs.
From Ryholts reconstruction of the Turin canon, 15
kings of the dynasty can now be named, ve of whom ap-
pear in contemporary sources.[6] While most likely rulers
based in Thebes itself, some may have been local rulers
from other important Upper Egyptian towns, including
Abydos, El Kab and Edfu.[6] By the reign of Nebiriau I,
the realm controlled by the 16th dynasty extended at least
as far north as Hu and south to Edfu.[7][11] Not listed in
the Turin canon (after Ryholt) is Wepwawetemsaf, who
left a stele at Abydos and was likely a local kinglet of the
Abydos Dynasty.[6]
Ryholt gives the list of kings of the 16th dynasty as shown
in the table below.[12] Others, such as Helck, Vander-
sleyen, Bennett combine some of these rulers with the
Seventeenth dynasty of Egypt. The estimated dates come
from Bennetts publication.[13]
The Abydos Dynasty may have been a short-lived lo-
cal dynasty ruling over part of Upper Egypt during the
Second Intermediate Period in Ancient Egypt and was
contemporary with the Fifteenth and Sixteenth Dynas-
ties, approximately from 1650 to 1600 BC.[14] The exis-
tence of an Abydos Dynasty was rst proposed by Detlef
Franke[15] and later elaborated on by Egyptologist Kim
Ryholt in 1997. The existence of the dynasty may have
been vindicated in January 2014, when the tomb of
the previously unknown pharaoh Seneb Kay was discov-
ered in Abydos.[14] The dynasty tentatively includes four
rulers: Wepwawetemsaf, Pantjeny, Snaaib,[16] and Seneb
Kay.
The royal necropolis of the Abydos Dynasty was found
in the southern part of Abydos, in an area called Anubis
Mountain in ancient times. The rulers of the Abydos Dy-
nasty placed their burial ground adjacent to the tombs of
the Middle Kingdom rulers.[14]
8.5 Seventeenth dynasty
Main article: Seventeenth Dynasty of Egypt
Around the time Memphis and Itj-tawy fell to the Hyk-
sos, the native Egyptian ruling house in Thebes declared
its independence from Itj-tawy, becoming the Seven-
teenth Dynasty. This dynasty would eventually lead the
war of liberation that drove the Hyksos back into Asia.
The Theban-based Seventeenth Dynasty restored numer-
ous temples throughout Upper Egypt while maintaining
peaceful trading relations with the Hyksos kingdom in the
north. Indeed, Senakhtenre Ahmose, the rst king in the
line of Ahmoside kings, even imported white limestone
from the Hyksos-controlled region of Tura to make a gra-
nary door at the Temple of Karnak. However, his succes-
sors the nal two kings of this dynasty Seqenenre
Tao and Kamose are traditionally credited with defeat-
ing the Hyksos in the course of the wars of liberation.
With the creation of the Eighteenth Dynasty around 1550
BC the New Kingdom period of Egyptian history begins
with Ahmose I, its rst pharaoh, completing the expul-
sion of the Hyksos from Egypt and placing the country,
once again, under centralised administrative control.
8.6 References
[1] Kim S. B. Ryholt, The Political Situation in Egypt during
the Second Intermediate Period, c.1800-1550 B.C., Mu-
seum Tusculanum Press, Carsten Niebuhr Institute Publi-
cations 20. 1997, p.185
8.7. BIBLIOGRAPHY 71

[2] Shaw, Ian, ed. (2000). The Oxford History of Ancient
Egypt. Oxford University Press. p. 481. ISBN 0-19-
815034-2.
[3] Turin Kinglist Accessed July 26, 1006
[4] Kim Ryholt, The Political Situation in Egypt during the
Second Intermediate Period c.1800-1550 B.C. by Mu-
seum Tuscalanum Press. 1997. p.125
James, T.G.H. Egypt: From the Expulsion of the
Hyksos to Amenophis I. Chapter 8, Volume II of
The Cambridge Ancient History. Revised Edition,
1965.
Kitchen, Kenneth A., Further Notes on New King-
dom Chronology and History, Chronique d'Egypte,
63 (1968), pp. 313324.

[5] Kings of the Second Intermediate Period University Col- Oren, Eliezer D. The Hyksos: New Historical and
lege London; scroll down to the 15th dynasty Archaeological Perspectives Philadelphia, 1997.

[6] Bourriau 2003: 191 Ryholt, Kim. The Political Situation in Egypt during
the Second Intermediate Period c.1800-1550 B.C.,
[7] Ryholt 1997: 305 Museum Tuscalanum Press, 1997. ISBN 87-7289-
421-0
[8] Bourriau 2003: 179
Van Seters, John. The Hyksos: A New Investigation.
[9] Cory 1876
New Haven, 1966.
[10] see for example, Quirke, in Maree: The Second Intermedi-
ate Period (Thirteenth - Seventeenth Dynasties, Current Re-
search, Future Prospects, Leuven 2011, Paris Walpole,
MA. ISBN 978-9042922280, p. 56, n. 6

[11] Darrell D. Baker: The Encyclopedia of the Pharaohs:

Volume I - Predynastic to the Twentieth Dynasty 3300
1069 BC, Stacey International, ISBN 978-1-905299-37-
9, 2008, pp. 256-257

[12] Kings of the Second Intermediate Period 16th dynasty

(after Ryholt 1997)

[13] Chris Bennet, A Genealogical Chronology of the Seven-

teenth Dynasty, Journal of the American Research Center
in Egypt, Vol. 39 (2002), pp. 123-155

[14] Giant Sarcophagus Leads Penn Museum Team in Egypt

To the Tomb of a Previously Unknown Pharaoh. Penn
Museum. January 2014. Retrieved 16 Jan 2014.

[15] Detlef Franke: Zur Chronologie des Mittleren Reiches. Teil

II: Die sogenannte Zweite Zwischenzeit Altgyptens, In Ori-
entalia 57 (1988), p. 259

[16] Ryholt, K.S.B. (1997). The Political Situation in Egypt

During the Second Intermediate Period, C. 1800-1550 B.C.
Museum Tusculanum Press. p. 164. ISBN 8772894210.

8.7 Bibliography
Von Beckerath, Jrgen. Untersuchungen zur poli-
tischen Geschichte der zweiten Zwischenzeit in
gypten, gyptologische Forschungen, Heft 23.
Glckstadt, 1965.

Gardiner, Sir Alan. Egypt of the Pharaohs. Oxford,

1964, 1961.

Hayes, William C. Egypt: From the Death of

Ammenemes III to Seqenenre II. Chapter 2, Vol-
ume II of The Cambridge Ancient History. Revised
Edition, 1965.
Chapter 9

New Kingdom of Egypt

New Kingdom redirects here. For other uses, see New Thutmose III (the Napoleon of Egypt) expanded
Kingdom (disambiguation). Egypts army and wielded it with great success to con-
Warning: Page using Template:Infobox former country solidate the empire created by his predecessors. This re-
with unknown parameter country (this message is sulted in a peak in Egypts power and wealth during the
shown only in preview). reign of Amenhotep III. During the reign of Thutmose III
(ca. 14791425 BC), Pharaoh, originally referring to the
kings palace, became a form of address for the person
The New Kingdom of Egypt, also referred to as the [4]
Egyptian Empire, is the period in ancient Egyptian who was king.
history between the 16th century BC and the 11th century One of the best-known 18th Dynasty Pharaohs is Amen-
BC, covering the Eighteenth, Nineteenth, and Twentieth hotep IV, who changed his name to Akhenaten in honor
Dynasties of Egypt. Radiocarbon dating places the ex- of the Aten and whose exclusive worship of the Aten is of-
act beginning of the New Kingdom between 15701544 ten interpreted as historys rst instance of monotheism.
BC.[1] The New Kingdom followed the Second Interme- Akhenatens religious fervor is cited as the reason why he
diate Period and was succeeded by the Third Intermediate was subsequently written out of Egyptian history. Under
Period. It was Egypts most prosperous time and marked his reign, in the 14th century BC, Egyptian art ourished
the peak of its power.[2] and attained an unprecedented level of realism. (See
The later part of this period, under the Nineteenth and Amarna Period.)
Twentieth Dynasties (12921069 BC) is also known as Towards the end of the 18th Dynasty, the situation had
the Ramesside period. It is named after the eleven changed radically. Aided by Akhenatens apparent lack
pharaohs that took the name of Ramesses I, founder of of interest in international aairs, the Hittites had gradu-
the 19th Dynasty. ally extended their inuence into Phoenicia and Canaan to
become a major power in international politicsa power
Possibly as a result of the foreign rule of the Hyksos dur-
ing the Second Intermediate Period, the New Kingdom that both Seti I and his son Ramesses II would need to
saw Egypt attempt to create a buer between the Levant deal with during the 19th dynasty.
and Egypt, and attained its greatest territorial extent.
Similarly, in response to very successful 17th century at-
tacks by the powerful Kingdom of Kush,[3] the New King- 9.2 Nineteenth Dynasty
dom felt compelled to expand far south into Nubia and
hold wide territories in the Near East. Egyptian armies Main article: Nineteenth Dynasty of Egypt
fought Hittite armies for control of modern-day Syria.
Ramesses II (the Great) sought to recover territories
in the Levant that had been held by the 18th Dynasty.
His campaigns of reconquest culminated in the Battle of
9.1 Eighteenth Dynasty Kadesh, where he led Egyptian armies against those of
the Hittite king Muwatalli II. Ramesses was caught in
Main article: Eighteenth dynasty of Egypt historys rst recorded military ambush, although he was
able to rally his troops and turn the tide of battle against
The Eighteenth Dynasty contained some of Egypts most the Hittites thanks to the arrival of the Ne'arin. The out-
famous Pharaohs, including Ahmose I, Hatshepsut, come of the battle was undecided with both sides claim-
Thutmose III, Amenhotep III, Akhenaten and ing victory at their home front, ultimately resulting in a
Tutankhamun. Queen Hatshepsut concentrated on peace treaty between the two nations.
expanding Egypts external trade by sending a commer- Ramesses II was also famed for the huge number of chil-
cial expedition to the land of Punt. dren he sired by his various wives and concubines; the

72
9.4. IMAGE GALLERY 73

tomb he built for his sons, many of whom he outlived, ground and also arrested global tree growth for almost two
in the Valley of the Kings has proven to be the largest full decades until 1140 BC.[8] One proposed cause is the
funerary complex in Egypt. Hekla 3 eruption of the Hekla volcano in Iceland but the
His immediate successors continued the military cam- dating of this remains disputed.
paigns, although an increasingly troubled courtwhich Rameses IIIs death was followed by years of bickering
at one point put a usurper (Amenmesse) on the throne among his heirs. Three of his sons ascended the throne
made it increasingly dicult for a pharaoh to eectively successively as Ramesses IV, Rameses VI and Rameses
retain control without incident. VIII. Egypt was increasingly beset by droughts, below-
normal ooding of the Nile, famine, civil unrest and of-
cial corruption. The power of the last pharaoh of the
dynasty, Ramesses XI, grew so weak that in the south
the High Priests of Amun at Thebes became the de facto
rulers of Upper Egypt, and Smendes controlled Lower
Egypt even before Rameses XIs death. Smendes eventu-
ally founded the Twenty-First dynasty at Tanis.

9.4 Image gallery

Egyptian
and Hittite Empires, around the time of the Battle
of Kadesh.

Relief of a Nobleman, ca.

9.3 Twentieth Dynasty 1295-1070 B.C.E. Brooklyn Museum

Main article: Twentieth Dynasty of Egypt

The last great pharaoh from the New Kingdom is widely

considered to be Ramesses III, a Twentieth Dynasty
pharaoh who reigned several decades after Ramesses
II.[5]
In the eighth year of his reign the Sea Peoples invaded Queen Ahmose-Nefertari
Egypt by land and sea. Ramesses III defeated them in
two great land and sea battles (the Battle of Djahy and
the Battle of the Delta). He incorporated them as subject
peoples and settled them in Southern Canaan although
there is evidence that they forced their way into Canaan.
Their presence in Canaan may have contributed to the
formation of new states, such as Philistia, in this region
after the collapse of the Egyptian Empire. He was also
compelled to ght invading Libyan tribesmen in two ma- Hatshepsut as a Sphinx. Daughter
jor campaigns in Egypts Western Delta in his sixth year of Thutmose I, she ruled jointly as her stepsons
and eleventh year respectively.[6] (Thutmose III) co-regent. She soon took the throne
The heavy cost of this warfare slowly drained Egypts for herself, and declared herself pharaoh.
treasury and contributed to the gradual decline of the
Egyptian Empire in Asia. The severity of the dicul-
ties is indicated by the fact that the rst known labor
strike in recorded history occurred during the 29th year of
Ramesses IIIs reign, when the food rations for Egypts fa-
vored and elite royal tomb-builders and artisans in the vil-
lage of Deir el Medina could not be provisioned.[7] Some- Queen Hatshepsuts Temple
thing in the air prevented much sunlight from reaching the at Deir el-Bahari, was called Djeser-Djeseru, mean-
74 CHAPTER 9. NEW KINGDOM OF EGYPT

ing the Holy of Holies, in ancient times.

Akhenaten

Thutmosis III, a military man and

member of the Thutmosid royal line is commonly
called the Napoleon of Egypt. His conquests of the
Levant brought Egypts territories and inuence to
its greatest extent.

Bust of Nefertiti. The wife of

Akhenaten, she held position as co-regent with
Akhenaten. She may also have ruled as pharaoh in
her own right as she is one of few candidates for the
identity of Pharaoh Neferneferuaten.

Colossi of Memnon. Representing

Amenhotep III, this statue sits outside Luxor.

Tutankhamuns mask. King

Tutankhamun, son of Akhenaten, restored Egypt
to its former religion. Though he died young and
was not considered signicant in his own time, the
1922 discovery of his KV62 intact tomb by Howard
Carter, made him relevant as a symbol of ancient
Egypt in the modern world.
Tiye, born a commoner, became queen
through her marriage to Amenhotep III. In the New
Kingdom, women gained inuence in court, and
Tiye soon helped run aairs of state for both her
husband and son during their reigns.

Detail Temple of Rameses II

Akhenaten, born Amenhotep IV,

was the son of Queen Tiye. He rejected the old
Egyptian religion and went about promoting the Nefertaris Temple at Abu
Aten as a supreme deity. Simbel
9.7. EXTERNAL LINKS 75

World. Michael D. Coogan, ed. Oxford University Press.

1998.

[5] Eric H. Cline and David O'Connor, eds. Ramesses III:

The Life and Times of Egypts Last Hero (University of
Michigan Press; 2012)
Giant Ramses II [6] Nicolas Grimal, A History of Ancient Egypt, Blackwell
Books, 1992. p.271

[7] William F. Edgerton, The Strikes in Ramses III's

Twenty-Ninth Year, JNES 10, no. 3 (July 1951), pp.
137145.

[8] Frank J. Yurco, End of the Late Bronze Age and Other
Abu Simbel Temple of Crisis Periods: A Volcanic Cause, in Gold of Praise:
Studies on Ancient Egypt in Honor of Edward F. Wente,
Ramesses II
ed: Emily Teeter & John Larson, (SAOC 58) 1999, pp.
456-458.

9.7 External links

Middle East on the Matrix: Egypt, The New King-
domPhotographs of many of the historic sites dat-
ing from the New Kingdom
Abu Simbel
New Kingdom of Egypt - Aldokkan

King Tutanhkamun Guardian Statue

9.5 See also

History of ancient Egypt

The Stonemason Ostracon

9.6 References
[1] Christopher Bronk Ramsey et al., Radiocarbon-Based
Chronology for Dynastic Egypt, Science 18 June 2010:
Vol. 328. no. 5985, pp. 1554-1557.

[2] Shaw, Ian, ed. (2000). The Oxford History of Ancient

Egypt. Oxford University Press. p. 481. ISBN 0-19-
815034-2.

[3] Alberge, Dalya. Tomb reveals Ancient Egypts humili-

ating secret. The Times. Retrieved 2003. Check date
values in: |access-date= (help)

[4] Redmount, Carol A. Bitter Lives: Israel in and out of

Egypt. p. 89-90. The Oxford History of the Biblical
Chapter 10

Third Intermediate Period of Egypt

Warning: Page using Template:Infobox former country

with unknown parameter 2 = thumb (this message is
shown only in preview).
Warning: Page using Template:Infobox former country
with unknown parameter country (this message is
shown only in preview).

The Third Intermediate Period of Ancient Egypt be-

gan with the death of Pharaoh Ramesses XI in 1070 BC,
ending the New Kingdom, and was eventually followed
by the Late Period. Various points are oered as the be-
ginning for the latter era, though it is most often regarded
as dating from the foundation of the Twenty-Sixth Dy- Nuri pyramids
nasty by Psamtik I in 664 BC, following the expulsion
of the Nubian rulers of the Twenty-Fifth Dynasty by the
Assyrians under King Assurbanipal. XI's day, the Twentieth dynasty of Egypt was losing its
grip on power in the city of Thebes, whose priests were
The period was one of decline and political instability, becoming increasingly powerful. After his death, his suc-
coinciding with the Late Bronze Age collapse of civiliza- cessor Smendes I ruled from the city of Tanis, but was
tions in the Near East and Eastern Mediterranean (includ- mostly active only in Lower Egypt which they controlled.
ing the Greek Dark Ages). It marked by division of the Meanwhile, the High Priests of Amun at Thebes eec-
state for much of the period and conquest and rule by for- tively ruled Middle and Upper Egypt in all but name.[1]
eigners. But many aspects of life for ordinary Egyptians However, this division was less signicant than it seems,
changed relatively little. since both priests and pharaohs came from the same fam-
ily.

10.2 Twenty-second and Twenty-

third Dynasty
The country was rmly reunited by the Twenty-Second
Dynasty founded by Shoshenq I in 945 BC (or 943 BC),
who descended from Meshwesh immigrants, originally
from Ancient Libya. This brought stability to the coun-
try for well over a century, but after the reign of Osorkon
II, particularly, the country had eectively shattered in
25th Dynasty two states with Shoshenq III of the Twenty-Second Dy-
nasty controlling Lower Egypt by 818 BC while Takelot
II and his son Osorkon (the future Osorkon III) ruled
Middle and Upper Egypt. In Thebes, a civil war en-
10.1 Twenty-rst Dynasty gulfed the city between the forces of Pedubast I, who had
proclaimed himself Pharaoh versus the existing line of
The period of the Twenty-First Dynasty is characterized Takelot II/Osorkon B. These two factions squabbled con-
by the countrys fracturing kingship. Even in Ramesses sistently and the conict was only resolved in Year 39 of

76
10.5. END OF THE THIRD INTERMEDIATE PERIOD
Shoshenq III when Osorkon B comprehensively defeated
his enemies. He proceeded to found the Upper Egyptian
Libyan Twenty-Third Dynasty of Osorkon III Takelot
III Rudamun, but this kingdom quickly fragmented af-
ter Rudamuns death with the rise of local city states un-
der kings such as Peftjaubast of Herakleopolis, Nimlot of
Hermopolis, and Ini at Thebes.
10.3 Twenty-fourth Dynasty
Main article: Twenty-fourth dynasty of Egypt
The Nubian kingdom to the south took full advantage
of this division and political instability. Prior to Piye's
Year 20 campaign into Egypt, the previous Nubian ruler
Kashta had already extended his kingdoms inu-
ence over into Thebes when he compelled Shepenupet,
the serving Divine Adoratice of Amun and Takelot IIIs
sister, to adopt his own daughter Amenirdis, to be her
successor. Then, 20 years later, around 732 BC his suc-
cessor, Piye, marched North and defeated the combined
might of several native Egyptian rulers: Peftjaubast, Os-
orkon IV of Tanis, Iuput II of Leontopolis and Tefnakht
of Sais.
10.4 Twenty-fth Dynasty
Piye established the Twenty-Fifth Dynasty and appointed
the defeated rulers as his provincial governors. He was
succeeded rst by his brother, Shabaka, and then by his
two sons Shebitku and Taharqa respectively. The re-
united Nile valley empire of the 25th dynasty was as
large as it had been since the New Kingdom. Pharaohs,
such as Taharqa, built or restored temples and monu-
ments throughout the Nile valley, including at Memphis,
Karnak, Kawa, Jebel Barkal, etc.[2][3] The 25th dynasty
ended with its rulers retreating to their spiritual home-
land at Napata. It was there (at El-Kurru and Nuri) that all
25th dynasty pharaohs are buried under the rst pyramids
to be constructed in the Nile valley in millennia.[4][5][6][7]
The Napatan dynasty led to the Kingdom of Kush, which
ourished in Napata and Meroe until at least the 2nd cen-
tury AD.[4]
The international prestige of Egypt had declined consid-
erably by this time. The countrys international allies
had fallen rmly into the sphere of inuence of Assyria
and from about 700 BC the question became when, not
if, there would be war between the two states. Despite
Egypts size and wealth, Assyria had a greater supply
of timber, while Egypt had a chronic shortage, allow-
ing Assyria to produce more charcoal needed for iron-
smelting and thus giving Assyria a greater supply of iron
weaponry. This disparity became critical during the As-
syrian invasion of Egypt in 670 BC.[8] Consequently,
77
Pharaoh Taharqa's reign, and that of his successor and
cousin Tantamani, were lled with constant conict with
the Assyrians. In 664 BC the Assyrians delivered a mor-
tal blow, sacking Thebes and Memphis.
10.5 End of the Third Intermediate
Period
Upper Egypt remained for a time under the rule of Tanta-
mani, whilst Lower Egypt was ruled from 664 BC by the
Twenty-Sixth Dynasty, client kings established by the As-
syrians who nevertheless managed to successfully bring
about Egypts political independence during the time of
troubles facing the Assyrian empire. In 656 BC Psamtik
I occupied Thebes and became Pharaoh, the King of Up-
per and Lower Egypt, bringing increased stability to the
country in a 54-year reign from the city of Sais. Four
successive Saite kings continued guiding Egypt into an-
other period of peace and prosperity from 610 to 525 BC.
Unfortunately for this dynasty, a new power was growing
in the Near East Persia. Pharaoh Psamtik III had suc-
ceeded his father Ahmose II for only 6 months before
he had to face the Persian Empire at Pelusium. The Per-
sians had already taken Babylon and Egypt was no match.
Psamtik III was defeated and briey escaped to Memphis,
before he was ultimately imprisoned and, later, executed
at Susa, the capital of the Persian king Cambyses, who
now assumed the formal title of Pharaoh.
10.6 Historiography
The historiography of this period is disputed for a vari-
ety of reasons. Firstly there is a dispute about the util-
ity of a very articial term that covers an extremely long
and complicated period of Egyptian history. The Third
Intermediate period includes long periods of stability as
well as chronic instability and civil conict: its very name
rather clouds this fact. Secondly there are signicant
problems of chronology stemming from several areas:
rst, there are the diculties in dating common to all
of Egyptian chronology but these are compounded due
to synchronisms with Biblical Archaeology that also con-
tain heavily disputed dates. Finally, some Egyptologists
and biblical scholars, such as Kenneth Kitchen, or David
Rohl have novel or controversial theories about the family
relationships of the dynasties comprising the period.
10.7 See also
Late Bronze Age collapse
78 CHAPTER 10. THIRD INTERMEDIATE PERIOD OF EGYPT

10.8 References 10.9 External links

[1] Kenneth A. Kitchen, The Third Intermediate Period in
Egypt (1100650 BC), 3rd edition, 1986, Warminster:
Aris & Phillips Ltd, p.531
[2] Bonnet, Charles (2006). The Nubian Pharaohs. New
York: The American University in Cairo Press. pp. 142
154. ISBN 978-977-416-010-3.
Allen, James, and Marsha Hill. Egypt in the Third
Intermediate Period (1070712 B.C.)", In Heil-
brunn Timeline of Art History. New York: The
Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000. (October
2004)
Images

[3] Diop, Cheikh Anta (1974). The African Origin of Civiliza-

tion. Chicago, Illinois: Lawrence Hill Books. pp. 219
Artabase.net: Face from a Con
221. ISBN 1-55652-072-7. Artabase.net: Right Hand from an Anthropoid Cof-
n
[4] Emberling, Geo (2011). Nubia: Ancient Kingdoms of
Africa. New York, NY: Institute for the Study of the An-
cient World. p. 10. ISBN 978-0-615-48102-9.

[5] Mokhtar, G. (1990). General History of Africa. Califor-

nia, USA: University of California Press. pp. 161163.
ISBN 0-520-06697-9.

[6] Emberling, Geo (2011). Nubia: Ancient Kingdoms of

Africa. New York: Institute for the Study of the Ancient
World. pp. 911. ISBN 978-0-615-48102-9.

[7] Silverman, David (1997). Ancient Egypt. New York: Ox-

ford University Press. pp. 3637. ISBN 0-19-521270-3.

[8] Shillington, Kevin (2005). History of Africa. Oxford:

Macmillan Education. p. 40. ISBN 0-333-59957-8.

10.8.1 Bibliography

Dodson, Aidan Mark. 2001. Third Intermedi-

ate Period. In The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient
Egypt, edited by Donald Bruce Redford. Vol. 3 of
3 vols. Oxford, New York, and Cairo: Oxford Uni-
versity Press and The American University in Cairo
Press. 388394.

Kitchen, Kenneth Anderson. [1996]. The Third In-

termediate Period in Egypt (1100650 BC). 3rd ed.
Warminster: Aris & Phillips Limited.

Myliwiec, Karol. 2000. The Twighlight of An-

cient Egypt: First Millennium B.C.E. Translated by
David Lorton. Ithaca and London: Cornell Univer-
sity Press.

Porter, Robert M., A Network of 22nd-26th Dynasty

Genealogies, JARCE 44 (2008), 153-157.

Taylor, John H. 2000. The Third Intermediate Pe-

riod (1069664 BC). In The Oxford History of An-
cient Egypt, edited by Ian Shaw. Oxford and New
York: Oxford University Press. 330368.
Chapter 11

Late Period of ancient Egypt

The Late Period of ancient Egypt refers to the last two human-headed birds on his shoulders, holding a snake
owering of native Egyptian rulers after the Third In- in each hand, and standing atop crocodiles.[1]:16
termediate Period from the 26th Saite Dynasty into
Achaemenid Persian conquests and ended with the con-
quest by Alexander the Great and establishment of the
Ptolemaic Kingdom. It ran from 664 BC until 332 BC.
Libyans and Persians alternated rule with native Egyp-
tians, but traditional conventions continued in the
arts.[1]:16
It is often regarded as the last gasp of a once great culture,
during which the power of Egypt steadily diminished.

11.1 26th Dynasty

The Twenty-Sixth Dynasty, also known as the Saite Dy-
nasty after Sais, reigned from 672 BC to 525 BC, and
consisted of six pharaohs. Canal construction from the
Nile to the Red Sea began.
One major contribution from the Late Period of ancient
Egypt was the Brooklyn Papyrus. This was a medical
papyrus with a collection of medical and magical reme-
dies for victims of snakebites based on snake type or
symptoms.[1]:55

Figure of Pataikos, 664-30 BC - Brooklyn Museum

11.2 27th Dynasty

Main article: Twenty-seventh Dynasty of Egypt

The First Achaemenid Period (525404 BC) period

saw Egypt conquered by an expansive Achaemenid Em-
pire under Cambyses. A total of eight pharaohs from this
dynasty ruled over Egypt.
Egypt 664-332 BC - Brooklyn Museum
The initial period of Achaemenid Persian occupation
Artwork during this time was representative of animal when Egypt (Old Persian: Mudrya) became a
cults and animal mummies. This image shows the god satrapy, known today as the Twenty-seventh Dynasty of
Pataikos wearing a scarab beetle on his head, supporting Egypt.

79
80 CHAPTER 11. LATE PERIOD OF ANCIENT EGYPT

11.3 28th30th Dynasties Fragments of Manetho (Aegyptiaca)

Flavius Josephus (Antiquities of the Jews)

The Twenty-Eighth Dynasty consisted of a single king,
Amyrtaeus, prince of Sais, who rebelled against the Per-
sians. He left no monuments with his name. This dynasty
reigned for six years, from 404 BC to 398 BC.
The Twenty-Ninth Dynasty ruled from Mendes, for the
period from 398 BC to 380 BC.
The Thirtieth Dynasty took their art style from the
Twenty-Sixth Dynasty. A series of three pharaohs ruled
from 380 BC until their nal defeat in 343 BC led to the
re-occupation by the Persians. The nal ruler of this dy-
nasty, and the nal native ruler of Egypt until nearly 2,300
years later, was Nectanebo II.

11.4 31st Dynasty

Main article: Thirty-rst Dynasty of Egypt

There was a Second Achaemenid Period of the Thirty-

First Dynasty (343332 BC), and consisted of four
pharaohs: Artaxerxes III (343338 BC), Artaxerxes
IV(338336 BC), Khababash (338335 BC), and Darius
III (336332 BC).

11.5 References
[1] Bleiberg, Edward (2013). Soulful Creatures: Animal
Mummies in Ancient Egypt. Brooklyn Museum.

11.6 Sources
Roberto B. Gozzoli: The Writing of History in An-
cient Egypt During the First Millennium BCE (ca.
1070-180 BCE). Trend and Perspectives, London
2006, ISBN 0-9550256-3-X

Lloyd, Alan B. 2000. The Oxford History of An-

cient Egypt, edited by Ian Shaw. Oxford and New
York: Oxford University Press. 369-394

Quirke, Stephen. 1996 Who were the Pharaohs?",

New York: Dover Publications. 71-74

Primary sources

Herodotus (Histories)

Fragments of Ctesias (Persica)

Thucydides (History of the Peloponnesian War)

Diodorus Siculus (Bibliotheca historica)

Chapter 12
History of Achaemenid Egypt
The Twenty-seventh Dynasty of Egypt (notated Dy-
nasty XXVII, alternatively 27th Dynasty or Dynasty
27), also known as the First Egyptian Satrapy was ef-
fectively a province (satrapy) of the Achaemenid Persian
Empire between 525 BC to 404 BC. It was founded by
Cambyses II, the King of Persia, after his conquest of
Egypt and subsequent crowning as Pharaoh of Egypt, and
was disestablished upon the rebellion and crowning of
Amyrtaeus as Pharaoh.
12.1 History
The last pharaoh of the 26th Dynasty, Psamtik III, was
defeated by Cambyses II at the battle of Pelusium in the
eastern Nile delta in May of 525 BC. Cambyses was
crowned Pharaoh of Egypt in the summer of that year
at the latest, beginning the rst period of Persian rule
over Egypt (known as the 27th Dynasty). Egypt was
then joined with Cyprus and Phoenicia to form the sixth
satrapy of the Achaemenid Empire, with Aryandes as the
local satrap (provincial governor).
As Pharaoh of Egypt, Cambyses reign saw the scal re-
sources of traditional Egyptian temples diminished con-
siderably. One decree, written on papyrus in demotic
script ordered a limitation on resources to all Egyptian
temples, excluding Memphis, Heliopolis and Wenkhem
(near Abusir). Cambyses left Egypt sometime in early
522 BC, dying en route to Persia, and was nominally
succeeded briey by his younger brother Bardiya, al-
though contemporary historians suggest Bardiya was ac-
tually Gaumata, an impostor, and that the real Bardiya
had been murdered some years before by Cambyses, os-
tensibly out of jealousy. Darius I, suspecting this imper-
sonation, led a coup against Bardiya in September of
that year, overthrowing him and being crowned as King
and Pharaoh the next morning.
As the new Persian King, Darius spent much of his time
quelling rebellions throughout his empire. Sometime in
late 522 BC or early 521 BC a local Egyptian prince led
a rebellion and declared himself Pharaoh Petubastis III.
The main cause of this rebellion is uncertain, but the
Ancient Greek military historian Polyaenus states that it
81
was oppressive taxation imposed by the satrap Aryandes.
Polyaenus further writes that Darius himself marched to
Egypt, arriving during a period of mourning for the death
of the sacred Herald of Ptah bull. Darius made a procla-
mation that he would award a sum of one hundred talents
to the man who could produce the next Herald, impress-
ing the Egyptians with his piety such that they ocked en
masse to his side, ending the rebellion.[1]
Darius took a greater interest in Egyptian internal aairs
than Cambyses. He reportedly codied the laws of Egypt,
and notably completed the excavation of a canal system at
Suez, allowing passage from the Bitter Lakes to the Red
Sea, much preferable to the arduous desert land route.
This feat allowed Darius to import skilled Egyptian la-
borers and artisans to construct his palaces in Persia. The
result of this was a minor brain drain in Egypt, due to the
loss of these skilled individuals, creating a demonstra-
ble lowering of quality in Egyptian architecture and art
from this period. Nevertheless Darius was more devoted
to supporting Egyptian temples than Cambyses, earning
himself a reputation for religious tolerance in the region.
In 497 BC, during a visit by Darius to Egypt, Aryandes
was executed for treason, most likely for attempting to is-
sue his own coinage, a visible attempt to distance Egypt
from the rest of the Persian Empire.[2][3] Darius died in
486 BC, and was succeeded by Xerxes I.
Upon the accession of Xerxes, Egypt again rebelled,
this time possibly under Psamtik IV, although dierent
sources dispute that detail. Xerxes quickly quelled the
rebellion, installing his brother Achaemenes as satrap.
Xerxes ended the privileged status of Egypt held un-
der Darius, and increased supply requirements from the
country, probably to fund his invasion of Greece. Fur-
thermore Xerxes promoted the Zoroastrian god Ahura
Mazda at the expense of traditional Egyptian dieties,
and permanently stopped the funding of Egyptian mon-
uments. Xerxes was murdered in 465 BC by Artabanus,
beginning a dynastic struggle that ended with Artaxerxes
I being crowned the next King and Pharaoh.
In 460 BC another major Egyptian rebellion took place,
led by a Libyan chief named Inaros II, substantially as-
sisted by the Athenians of Greece.[4] Inaros defeated an
army led by Achaemenes, killing the satrap in the process,
and took Memphis, eventually exerting control over large
82 CHAPTER 12. HISTORY OF ACHAEMENID EGYPT

parts of Egypt. Inaros and his Athenian allies were nally 12.5 References
defeated by a Persian army led by general Megabyzus in
454 BC and consequently sent into retreat. Megabyzus [1] Smith, Andrew. Polyaenus: Stratagems - Book 7. www.
promised Inaros no harm would come of him or his fol- attalus.org. Retrieved 2017-02-25.
lowers if he surrendered and submitted to Persian au-
[2] electricpulp.com. DARIUS iii. Darius I the Great En-
thority, terms Inaros agreed to. Nevertheless Artaxerxes
cyclopaedia Iranica. www.iranicaonline.org. Retrieved
eventually had Inaros executed, although exactly how and
2017-02-25.
when is a matter of dispute.[5] Artaxerxes died in 424 BC.
[3] Klotz, David (19 September 2015). UCLA Encyclopedia
Artaxerxes successor, Xerxes II only ruled for forty-ve
of Egyptology - Persian Period. Retrieved 25 February
days, being murdered by his brother Sogdianus. Sogdi-
2017.
anus was consequently murdered by his brother Ochus,
who became Darius II.[6] Darius II ruled from 423 BC to [4] Thucydides. History of the Peloponnesian War.
404 BC, and nearing the end of his reign a rebellion led
[5] Photius. Photius excerpt of Ctesias Persica (2)". www.
by Amyrtaeus took place, potentially beginning as early
livius.org. Retrieved 2017-02-25.
as 411 BC. In 405 BC Amyrtaeus, with the help of Cretan
mercenaries expelled the Persians from Memphis, declar- [6] S. Zawadzki, The Circumstances of Darius IIs Acces-
ing himself Pharaoh the next year and ending the 27th sion in Jaarbericht Ex Oriente Lux 34 (1995-1996) 45-
Dynasty. Darius IIs successor, Artaxerxes II made at- 49
tempts to begin an expedition to retake Egypt, but due
to political diculty with his brother Cyrus the Younger,
abandoned the eort. Artaxerxes II was still recognized 12.6 External links
as the rightful Pharaoh in some parts of Egypt as late as
401 BC, although his sluggish response to the situation Persian Period from the UCLA Encyclopedia of
allowed Egypt to solidify its independence. Egyptology
During the period of independent rule three indigenous
dynasties reigned: the 28th, 29th, and 30th Dynasty.
Artaxerxes III (358 BC) reconquered the Nile valley for 12.7 See also
a brief second period (343 BC), which is called the 31st
Dynasty of Egypt. Thirty-rst Dynasty of Egypt (343 BC332 BC)
also known as the 2nd Egyptian Satrapy.

12.2 Pharaohs of the 27th Dynasty

Main article: List of pharaohs

The pharaohs of the 27th Dynasty ruled for approxi-

mately one hundred and twenty one years, from 525 BC
to 404 BC.

12.3 Timeline of the 27th Dynasty

(Achaemenid Pharaohs only)

12.4 Historical sources

Herodotus (Histories)

Fragments of Ctesias (Persica)

Thucydides (History of the Peloponnesian War)

Diodorus Siculus (Bibliotheca historica)

Fragments of Manetho (Aegyptiaca)

Flavius Josephus (Antiquities of the Jews)

Chapter 13

Ptolemaic Kingdom

Warning: Page using Template:Infobox former country

with unknown parameter country (this message is
shown only in preview).

The Ptolemaic Kingdom (/tlme.k/; Ancient Greek:

, Ptolemak basilea)[4] was a
Hellenistic kingdom based in Egypt. It was ruled by the
Ptolemaic dynasty which started with Ptolemy I Soter's
accession after the death of Alexander the Great in 323
BC and which ended with the death of Cleopatra VII and
the Roman conquest in 30 BC.
The Ptolemaic Kingdom was founded in 305 BC by
Ptolemy I Soter, who declared himself Pharaoh of Egypt
and created a powerful Hellenistic dynasty that ruled an
area stretching from southern Syria to Cyrene and south
to Nubia. Alexandria became the capital city and a major
center of Greek culture and trade. To gain recognition by
the native Egyptian populace, they named themselves the
successors to the Pharaohs. The later Ptolemies took on
Egyptian traditions by marrying their siblings, had them-
selves portrayed on public monuments in Egyptian style
and dress, and participated in Egyptian religious life. The
Ptolemies had to ght native rebellions and were involved
in foreign and civil wars that led to the decline of the king-
dom and its nal annexation by Rome. Hellenistic culture
continued to thrive in Egypt throughout the Roman and
Byzantine periods until the Muslim conquest. Bust of Ptolemy I Soter, king of Egypt (305 BC282 BC) and
founder of the Ptolemaic dynasty

13.1 History
The era of Ptolemaic reign in Egypt is one of the most
well documented time periods of the Hellenistic Era; a
wealth of papyri written in Greek and Egyptian of the
time have been discovered in Egypt.[5]
13.1.1 Background
In 332 BC, Alexander the Great, King of Macedon in-
vaded the Achaemenid satrapy of Egypt.[6] He visited
Memphis, and traveled to the oracle of Amun at the Oasis
of Siwa. The oracle declared him to be the son of Amun.
He conciliated the Egyptians by the respect he showed
for their religion, but he appointed Macedonians to vir-
tually all the senior posts in the country, and founded a
new Greek city, Alexandria, to be the new capital. The
wealth of Egypt could now be harnessed for Alexanders
conquest of the rest of the Persian Empire. Early in 331
BC he was ready to depart, and led his forces away to
Phoenicia. He left Cleomenes as the ruling nomarch to
control Egypt in his absence. Alexander never returned
to Egypt.

83
84 CHAPTER 13. PTOLEMAIC KINGDOM

but it was with another female, Berenice IV. Cleopatra

VII ocially co-ruled with Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopa-
tor, Ptolemy XIV, and Ptolemy XV, but eectively, she
ruled Egypt alone.
The early Ptolemies did not disturb the religion or the
customs of the Egyptians, and indeed built magnicent
new temples for the Egyptian gods and soon adopted the
outward display of the Pharaohs of old. During the reign
of Ptolemies II and III thousands of Macedonian veter-
ans were rewarded with grants of farm lands, and Mace-
donians were planted in colonies and garrisons or settled
themselves in the villages throughout the country. Upper
Egypt, farthest from the centre of government, was less
immediately aected, even though Ptolemy I established
the Greek colony of Ptolemais Hermiou to be its cap-
ital. But within a century Greek inuence had spread
through the country and intermarriage had produced a
large Greco-Egyptian educated class. Nevertheless, the
Greeks always remained a privileged minority in Ptole-
maic Egypt. They lived under Greek law, received a
Greek education, were tried in Greek courts, and were
citizens of Greek cities.

A bust depicting King Ptolemy II Philadelphus 309246 BC 13.1.3 Ptolemy I

13.1.2 Establishment The rst part of Ptolemy I's reign was dominated by
the Wars of the Diadochi between the various successor
Following Alexanders death in Babylon in 323 BC,[7] a states to the empire of Alexander. His rst object was
succession crisis erupted among his generals. Initially, to hold his position in Egypt securely, and secondly to in-
Perdiccas ruled the empire as regent for Alexanders half- crease his domain. Within a few years he had gained con-
brother Arrhidaeus, who became Philip III of Macedon, trol of Libya, Coele-Syria (including Judea), and Cyprus.
and then as regent for both Philip III and Alexanders in- When Antigonus, ruler of Syria, tried to reunite Alexan-
fant son Alexander IV of Macedon, who had not been ders empire, Ptolemy joined the coalition against him. In
born at the time of his fathers death. Perdiccas appointed 312 BC, allied with Seleucus, the ruler of Babylonia, he
Ptolemy, one of Alexanders closest companions, to be defeated Demetrius, the son of Antigonus, in the battle
of Gaza.
satrap of Egypt. Ptolemy ruled Egypt from 323 BC, nom-
inally in the name of the joint kings Philip III and Alexan-
In 311 BC, a peace was concluded between the combat-
der IV. However, as Alexander the Greats empire disin- ants, but in 309 BC war broke out again, and Ptolemy
tegrated, Ptolemy soon established himself as ruler in his occupied Corinth and other parts of Greece, although he
own right. Ptolemy successfully defended Egypt against lost Cyprus after a sea-battle in 306 BC. Antigonus then
an invasion by Perdiccas in 321 BC, and consolidated his tried to invade Egypt but Ptolemy held the frontier against
position in Egypt and the surrounding areas during the him. When the coalition was renewed against Antigonus
Wars of the Diadochi (322301 BC). In 305 BC, Ptolemy in 302 BC, Ptolemy joined it, but neither he nor his army
took the title of King. As Ptolemy I Soter (Saviour), he were present when Antigonus was defeated and killed at
founded the Ptolemaic dynasty that was to rule Egypt for Ipsus. He had instead taken the opportunity to secure
nearly 300 years. Coele-Syria and Palestine, in breach of the agreement as-
All the male rulers of the dynasty took the name signing it to Seleucus, [8]
thereby setting the scene for the fu-
Ptolemy, while princesses and queens preferred the ture Syrian Wars. Thereafter Ptolemy tried to stay out
names Cleopatra, Arsinoe and Berenice. Because the of land wars, but he retook Cyprus in 295 BC.
Ptolemaic kings adopted the Egyptian custom of mar- Feeling the kingdom was now secure, Ptolemy shared
rying their sisters, many of the kings ruled jointly with rule with his son Ptolemy II by Queen Berenice in 285
their spouses, who were also of the royal house. This cus- BC. He then may have devoted his retirement to writing
tom made Ptolemaic politics confusingly incestuous, and a history of the campaigns of Alexanderwhich unfor-
the later Ptolemies were increasingly feeble. The only tunately was lost but was a principal source for the later
Ptolemaic Queens to ocially rule on their own were work of Arrian. Ptolemy I died in 283 BC at the age of
Berenice III and Berenice IV. Cleopatra V did co-rule, 84. He left a stable and well-governed kingdom to his
13.1. HISTORY 85

son.

13.1.4 Ptolemy II
Ptolemy II Philadelphus, who succeeded his father as
King of Egypt in 283 BC,[9] was a peaceful and cul-
tured king, and no great warrior. He did not need to
be, because his father had left Egypt strong and prosper-
ous. Three years of campaigning at the start of his reign
(called the First Syrian War) left Ptolemy the master of
the eastern Mediterranean, controlling the Aegean islands
(the Nesiotic League) and the coastal districts of Cilicia,
Pamphylia, Lycia and Caria. However, some of these ter-
ritories were lost near the end of his reign as a result of the
Second Syrian War. In the 270s BC, Ptolemy II defeated
the Kingdom of Kush in war, gaining the Ptolemies free
access to Kushite territory and control of important gold-
mining areas south of Egypt known as Dodekasoinos.[10] Coin depicting King Ptolemy III. Ptolemaic Egypt.
As a result, the Ptolemies established hunting stations
and ports as far south as Port Sudan, from where raid-
ing parties containing hundreds of men searched for war thers in that he patronised the native Egyptian religion
elephants.[10] Hellenistic culture would acquire an impor- more liberally: he left larger traces among the Egyptian
tant inuence on Kush at this time.[10] monuments. In this his reign marks the gradual Egyp-
Ptolemys rst wife, Arsinoe I, daughter of Lysimachus, tianisation of the Ptolemies.
was the mother of his legitimate children. After her re-
pudiation he followed Egyptian custom and married his
sister, Arsinoe II, beginning a practice that, while pleas- 13.1.6 Decline of the Ptolemies
ing to the Egyptian population, had serious consequences
in later reigns. The material and literary splendour of
the Alexandrian court was at its height under Ptolemy
II. Callimachus, keeper of the Library of Alexandria,
Theocritus and a host of other poets, gloried the Ptole-
maic family. Ptolemy himself was eager to increase the
library and to patronise scientic research. He spent lav-
ishly on making Alexandria the economic, artistic and
intellectual capital of the Hellenistic world. It is to the
academies and libraries of Alexandria that we owe the
preservation of so much Greek literary heritage.
Ptolemaic Empire in 200 BC. Also showing neighboring powers.
13.1.5 Ptolemy III
In 221 BC, Ptolemy III died and was succeeded by his son
Ptolemy III Euergetes (the benefactor) succeeded his Ptolemy IV Philopator, a weak and corrupt king under
father in 246 BC. He abandoned his predecessors pol- whom the decline of the Ptolemaic kingdom began. His
icy of keeping out of the wars of the other Macedonian reign was inaugurated by the murder of his mother, and he
successor kingdoms, and plunged into the Third Syrian was always under the inuence of royal favourites, male
War with the Seleucids of Syria, when his sister, Queen and female, who controlled the government. Neverthe-
Berenice, and her son were murdered in a dynastic dis- less, his ministers were able to make serious preparations
pute. Ptolemy marched triumphantly into the heart of to meet the attacks of Antiochus III the Great on Coele-
the Seleucid realm, as far as Babylonia, while his eets in Syria, and the great Egyptian victory of Raphia in 217 BC
the Aegean made fresh conquests as far north as Thrace. secured the kingdom. A sign of the domestic weakness of
This victory marked the zenith of the Ptolemaic power. his reign was the rebellions by native Egyptians that took
Seleucus II Callinicus kept his throne, but Egyptian eets away over half the country for over 20 years. Philopator
controlled most of the coasts of Asia Minor and Greece. was devoted to orgiastic religions and to literature. He
After this triumph Ptolemy no longer engaged actively in married his sister Arsino, but was ruled by his mistress
war, although he supported the enemies of Macedon in Agathoclea.
Greek politics. His domestic policy diered from his fa- Ptolemy V Epiphanes, son of Philopator and Arsino,
86
Ring of Ptolemy VI Philometor as Egyptian pharaoh. Louvre protectorate of Rome, which had by now absorbed most
Museum.
was a child when he came to the throne, and a series of
regents ran the kingdom. Antiochus III of The Seleucid
Empire and Philip V of Macedon made a compact to
seize the Ptolemaic possessions. Philip seized several is-
lands and places in Caria and Thrace, while the battle of
Panium in 200 BC transferred Coele-Syria from Ptole-
maic to Seleucid control. After this defeat Egypt formed
an alliance with the rising power in the Mediterranean,
Rome. Once he reached adulthood Epiphanes became
a tyrant, before his early death in 180 BC. He was suc-
ceeded by his infant son Ptolemy VI Philometor.
In 170 BC, Antiochus IV Epiphanes invaded Egypt and
deposed Philometor. In some versions of the Bible, the
book of I Macabees 1:16-19, translates the passage as:
Now when the kingdom was established
before Antiochus, he thought to reign over
Egypt that he might have the dominion of two
realms. Wherefore he entered into Egypt with
a great multitude, with chariots, and elephants,
and horsemen, and a great navy, and made war
against Ptolemy king of Egypt: but Ptolemy
was afraid of him, and ed; and many were
wounded to death. Thus they got the strong
cities in the land of Egypt and he took the spoils
thereof.
Philometors younger brother (later Ptolemy VIII Euer- but their relationship soon degenerated. Cleopatra was
getes II) was installed as a puppet king. When Antiochus stripped of authority and title by Ptolemy XIIIs advisors.
withdrew, the brothers agreed to reign jointly with their Fleeing into exile, she would attempt to raise an army to
CHAPTER 13. PTOLEMAIC KINGDOM
sister Cleopatra II. They soon fell out, however, and quar-
rels between the two brothers allowed Rome to interfere
and to steadily increase its inuence in Egypt. Eventually
Philometor regained the throne. In 145 BC he was killed
in the Battle of Antioch.
13.1.7 Later Ptolemies
Philometor was succeeded by yet another infant, his son
Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator. But Euergetes soon re-
turned, killed his young nephew, seized the throne and
as Ptolemy VIII soon proved himself a cruel tyrant. On
his death in 116 BC he left the kingdom to his wife
Cleopatra III and her son Ptolemy IX Philometor Soter
II. The young king was driven out by his mother in 107
BC, who reigned jointly with Euergetess youngest son
Ptolemy X Alexander I. In 88 BC Ptolemy IX again re-
turned to the throne, and retained it until his death in 80
BC. He was succeeded by Ptolemy XI Alexander II, the
son of Ptolemy X. He was lynched by the Alexandrian
mob after murdering his stepmother, who was also his
cousin, aunt and wife. These sordid dynastic quarrels left
Egypt so weakened that the country became a de facto
of the Greek world.
Ptolemy XI was succeeded by a son of Ptolemy IX,
Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos, nicknamed Auletes, the
ute-player. By now Rome was the arbiter of Egyptian
aairs, and annexed both Libya and Cyprus. In 58 BC
Auletes was driven out by the Alexandrian mob, but the
Romans restored him to power three years later. He died
in 51 BC, leaving the kingdom to his ten-year-old son,
Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator, who reigned jointly with
his 17-year-old sister and wife, Cleopatra VII.
13.1.8 Cleopatra
Cleopatra VII ascended the Egyptian throne at the age of
eighteen upon the death of her father, Ptolemy XII Neos
Dionysos. She reigned as queen philopator and pharaoh
with various male co-regents from 51 to 30 BC when she
died at the age of 39.
The demise of the Ptolemies power coincided with the
rise of the Roman Empire. Having little choice, and wit-
nessing one city after another falling to Macedon and the
Seleucid empire, the Ptolemies chose to ally with the Ro-
mans, a pact that lasted over 150 years. During the rule of
the later Ptolemies, Rome gained more and more power
over Egypt, and was eventually declared guardian of the
Ptolemaic dynasty. Cleopatras father, Ptolemy XII, paid
vast sums of Egyptian wealth and resources in tribute to
the Romans in order to secure his throne. After his death,
Cleopatra and her younger brother inherited the throne,
13.1. HISTORY 87

Coin of Cleopatra VII, with her egy[11]

reclaim the throne.

Julius Caesar left Rome for Alexandria in 48 BC in or-
der to quell the looming civil war, as war in Egypt, which Relief of Ptolemaic Queen Cleopatra VII and Caesarion, Den-
was one of Romes greatest suppliers of grain and other dera Temple, Egypt.
expensive goods, would have had a detrimental eect on
trade. During his stay in the Alexandrian palace, he re-
ceived 22-year-old Cleopatra, allegedly carried to him donations of Alexandria ceremony in autumn of 34 BC
in secret wrapped in a carpet. She counted on Caesars in which Tarsus, Cyrene, Crete, Cyprus, and Israel were
support to alienate Ptolemy XIII. With the arrival of Ro- all to be given as client monarchies to Antonys children
man reinforcements, and after the battles in Alexandria, by Cleopatra. In his will Antony expressed his desire to
Ptolemy XIII was defeated at the Battle of the Nile. He be buried in Alexandria, rather than taken to Rome in the
later drowned in the river, although the circumstances of event of his death, which Octavian used against Antony,
his death are unclear. sowing further dissent in the Roman populace.
In the summer of 47 BC, having married her younger Octavian was quick to declare war on Antony and Cleopa-
brother Ptolemy XIV, Cleopatra embarked with Caesar tra while public opinion of Antony was low. Their naval
for a two-month trip along the Nile. Together, they vis- forces at Actium, where the forces of Marcus Vipsanius
ited Dendara, where Cleopatra was being worshiped as Agrippa defeated the navy of Cleopatra and Antony. Oc-
pharaoh, an honor beyond Caesars reach. They became tavian waited for a year before he claimed Egypt as a Ro-
lovers, and she bore him a son, Caesarion. In 45 BC, man province. He arrived in Alexandria and easily de-
Cleopatra and Caesarion left Alexandria for Rome, where feated Mark Antonys remaining forces outside the city.
they stayed in a palace built by Caesar in their honor. Facing certain death at the hands of Octavian, Antony at-
In 44 BC, Caesar was murdered in Rome by several tempted suicide by falling on his own sword. He survived
Senators. With his death, Rome split between support- briey, however, and was taken to Cleopatra, who had
ers of Mark Antony and Octavian. When Mark Antony barricaded herself in her mausoleum, where he died soon
seemed to prevail, Cleopatra supported him and, shortly after.
after, they too became lovers and eventually married in
Knowing that she would be taken to Rome to be paraded
Egypt (though their marriage was never recognized by in Octavians triumph (and likely executed thereafter),
Roman law, as Antony was married to a Roman woman). Cleopatra and her handmaidens committed suicide on 12
Their union produced three children; the twins Cleopatra
August, 30 BC. Legend and numerous ancient sources
Selene and Alexander Helios, and another son, Ptolemy claim that she died by way of the venomous bite of an
Philadelphos. asp, though others state that she used poison, or that Oc-
Mark Antonys alliance with Cleopatra angered Rome tavian ordered her death himself.
even more. Branded a power-hungry enchantress by the Caesarion, her son by Julius Caesar, nominally succeeded
Romans, she was accused of seducing Antony to further Cleopatra until his capture and supposed execution in the
her conquest of Rome. Further outrage followed at the weeks after his mothers death. Cleopatras children by
88 CHAPTER 13. PTOLEMAIC KINGDOM

Antony were spared by Octavian and given to his sister education and civic life largely remained Greek through-
(and Antonys Roman wife) Octavia Minor, to be raised out the Roman period. The Romans, like the Ptolemies,
in her household. Their daughter Cleopatra Selene was respected and protected Egyptian religion and customs,
eventually married through arrangement by Octavian into although the cult of the Roman state and of the Emperor
the Mauretanian royal line. Through her ospring the was gradually introduced.
Ptolemaic line intermarried back into the Roman nobil- Around 25 BC, the Greek geographer, philosopher and
ity. historian, Strabo sailed up the Nile until reaching Philae,
With the deaths of Cleopatra and Caesarion, the dynasty after which point there is little record of his proceedings
of Ptolemies and the entirety of pharaonic Egypt came to until AD 17.[12]
an end. Alexandria remained capital of the country, but
Egypt itself became a Roman province.
13.2 Culture
13.1.9 Roman rule
Ptolemy I, perhaps with advice from Demetrius of
Phalerum, founded the Museum and Library of Alexan-
dria.[13] The Museum was a research centre supported by
the king. It was located in the royal sector of the city.
The scholars were housed in the same sector and funded
by the Ptolemaic rulers.[13] The chief librarian served also
as the crown princes tutor.[14] For the rst hundred and
fty years of its existence this library and research centre
drew the top Greek scholars.[14] It was a key academic,
literary and scientic centre.[15]
Greek culture had a long but minor presence in Egypt
long before Alexander the Great founded the city of
Alexandria. It began when Greek colonists, encour-
aged by the many Pharaohs, set up the trading post of
Naucratis, which became an important link between the
Greek world and Egypts grain. As Egypt came under for-
eign domination and decline, the Pharaohs depended on
the Greeks as mercenaries and even advisors. When the
Persians took over Egypt, Naucratis remained an impor-
tant Greek port and the colonist population were used as
mercenaries by both the rebel Egyptian princes and the
Persian kings, who later gave them land grants, spread-
ing the Greek culture into the valley of the Nile. When
Alexander the Great arrived, he established Alexandria
on the site of the Persian fort of Rhakortis. Following
Bust of Roman Nobleman, ca. 30 BC 50 AD, 54.51, Brooklyn Alexanders death, control passed into the hands of the
Museum
Lagid (Ptolemaic) dynasty; they built Greek cities across
their empire and gave land grants across Egypt to the vet-
Main article: Aegyptus (Roman province)
erans of their many military conicts. Hellenistic civiliza-
tion continued to thrive even after Rome annexed Egypt
In 30 BC, following the death of Cleopatra VII, the after the battle of Actium and did not decline until the
Roman Empire declared that Egypt was a province Islamic conquests.
(Aegyptus), and that it was to be governed by a prefect
selected by the Emperor from the Equestrian class and
not a governor from the Senatorial order, to prevent in- 13.2.1 Art
terference by the Roman Senate. The main Roman inter-
est in Egypt was always the reliable delivery of grain to Further information: Hellenistic art
the city of Rome. To this end the Roman administration Hellenistic art is richly diverse in subject matter and in
made no change to the Ptolemaic system of government, stylistic development. It was created during an age char-
although Romans replaced Greeks in the highest oces. acterized by a strong sense of history. For the rst time,
But Greeks continued to sta most of the administrative there were museums and great libraries, such as those
oces and Greek remained the language of government at Alexandria and Pergamon. Hellenistic artists copied
except at the highest levels. Unlike the Greeks, the Ro- and adapted earlier styles, and also made great innova-
mans did not settle in Egypt in large numbers. Culture, tions. Representations of Greek gods took on new forms.
13.2. CULTURE 89

Ptolemaic gold stater coin depicting war elephants Quadrigia

Cyrenaica

Also prominent in Hellenistic art are representations of

Ptolemaic Queen (Cleopatra VII?), 50-30 BC, 71.12, Brooklyn Dionysos, the god of wine and legendary conqueror of
Museum the East, as well as those of Hermes, the god of com-
merce. In strikingly tender depictions, Eros, the Greek
personication of love, is portrayed as a young child.

A detail of the Nile mosaic of Palestrina, showing Ptolemaic Head of an Egyptian Ocial, ca. 50 BC. Diorite, 16 5/16 x 11
Egypt circa 100 BC 1/4 x 13 7/8 in. (41.4 x 28.5 x 35.2 cm). Brooklyn Museum

Most of the Ptolemaic magical stele were connected with

The popular image of a nude Aphrodite, for example, re- matters of health. They were commonly of limestone;
ects the increased secularization of traditional religion. the Greeks tended to use marble or bronze for private
90
sculpture. The most striking change in depiction of g-
ures is the range from idealizing to nearly grotesque real-
ism in portrayal of men. Previously Egyptian depictions
tended toward the idealistic but sti, not with an attempt
at likeness. Likeness was still not the goal of art under
the Ptolemies. The inuence of Greek sculpture under
the Ptolemies was shown in its emphasis on the face more
than in the past. Smiles suddenly appear. Toward the end
of the Ptolemaic period, the headdress sometimes gives
way to tousled hair.
One signicant change in Ptolemaic art is the sudden re-
appearance of women, who had been absent since about
the Twenty-sixth Dynasty. Some of this must have been
due to the importance of women, such as the series of
Cleopatras, who acted as co-regents or sometimes occu-
pied the throne by themselves. Although women were
present in artwork, they were shown less realistically than
men in this era. Even with the Greek inuence on art, the
notion of the individual portrait still had not supplanted The traditional table for oerings disappeared from re-
Egyptian artistic norms during the Ptolemaic Dynasty.
Ways of presenting text on columns and reliefs became longer portrayed with tails in attempt to make them more
formal and rigid during the Ptolemaic Dynasty.
Bronze allegorical group of a Ptolemy (identiable by his when others gained control over one district and ruled
diadem) overcoming an adversary, in Hellenistic style, ca early as a line of native pharaohs. This was only curtailed
2nd century BC (Walters Art Museum)
13.2.2 Religion
When Ptolemy I Soter made himself king of Egypt, he
created a new god, Serapis, which was a combination
of two Egyptian gods: Apis and Osiris, plus the main
Greek gods: Zeus, Hades, Asklepios, Dionysos, and He-
lios. Serapis had powers over fertility, the sun, corn, fu-
CHAPTER 13. PTOLEMAIC KINGDOM
nerary rites, and medicine. Many people started to wor-
ship this god. In the time of the Ptolemies, the cult of
Serapis included the worship of the new Ptolemaic line
of pharaohs. Alexandria supplanted Memphis as the pre-
eminent religious city. Ptolemy I also promoted the cult
of the deied Alexander, who became the state god of the
Ptolemaic kingdom; the Ptolemies eventually associated
themselves with the cult as gods.
The wife of Ptolemy II, Arsinoe II, was often depicted in
the form of the Greek goddess Aphrodite, but she wore
the crown of lower Egypt, with rams horns, ostrich feath-
ers, and other traditional Egyptian indicators of royalty
and/or deication. She wore the vulture headdress only
on the religious portion of a relief. Cleopatra VII, the last
of the Ptolemaic line, was often depicted with character-
istics of the goddess Isis. She often had either a small
throne as her headdress or the more traditional sun disk
between two horns.[16]
liefs during the Ptolemaic period. Male gods were no
humanlike.
The wealthy and connected of Egyptian society seemed
to put more stock in magical stela during the Ptolemaic
period. These were religious objects produced for pri-
vate individuals, something uncommon in earlier Egyp-
tian times.
13.2.3 Social situation
The Greeks now formed the new upper classes in Egypt,
replacing the old native aristocracy. In general, the
Ptolemies undertook changes that went far beyond any
other measures that earlier foreign rulers had imposed.
They used the religion and traditions to increase their
own power and wealth. Although they established a pros-
perous kingdom, enhanced with ne buildings, the native
population enjoyed few benets, and there were frequent
uprisings. These expressions of nationalism reached a
peak in the reign of Ptolemy IV Philopator (221205 BC)
nineteen years later when Ptolemy V Epiphanes (205
181 BC) succeeded in subduing them, but the underlying
grievances continued and there were riots again later in
the dynasty.
Family conicts aected the later years of the dy-
nasty when Ptolemy VIII Euergetes II fought his brother
Ptolemy VI Philometor and briey seized the throne. The
struggle was continued by his sister and niece (who both
became his wives) until they nally issued an Amnesty
Decree in 118 BC.
13.3. CITIES 91

However, with the decline of royal power, they gained

inuence and became common in the military.
The Ptolemies used the great wealth of Egypt to their
advantage by hiring vast amounts of mercenaries from
across the known world. Black Ethiopians are also known
to have served in the military along with the Galatians,
Mysians and others.
With their vast amount of territory spread along the East-
ern Mediterranean such as Cyprus, Crete, the islands of
Example of a large Ptolemaic bronze coin minted during the reign the Aegean and even Thrace, the Ptolemies required a
of Ptolemy V. large navy to defend these far-ung strongholds from en-
emies like the Seleucids and Macedonians.
13.2.4 Coinage
Ptolemaic Egypt was noted for its extensive series of 13.3 Cities
coinage in gold, silver and bronze. It was especially
noted for its issues of large coins in all three metals,
most notably gold pentadrachm and octadrachm, and sil-
ver tetradrachm, decadrachm and pentakaidecadrachm.
This was especially noteworthy as it would not be until the
introduction of the Guldengroschen in 1486 that coins of
substantial size (particularly in silver) would be minted in
signicant quantities.

13.2.5 Military

Hellenistic soldiers in tunic, 100 BC, detail of the Nile mosaic of

Palestrina.

Main article: Ptolemaic Army

Ptolemaic Egypt, along with the other Hellenistic states

outside of the Greek mainland after Alexander the Great,
had its armies based on the Macedonian phalanx and fea- Egyptian faience torso of a king, for an applique on wood
tured Macedonian and native troops ghting side by side.
The Ptolemaic military was lled with diverse peoples While ruling Egypt, the Ptolemaic Dynasty built many
from across their territories. At rst most of the military Greek settlements throughout their Empire, to either
was made up of a pool of Greek settlers who, in exchange Hellenize new conquered peoples or reinforce the area.
for military service, were given land grants. These made Egypt had only three main Greek citiesAlexandria,
up the majority of the army. Naucratis, and Ptolemais.

With the many wars the Ptolemies were involved in, their
pool of Macedonian troops dwindled and there was little
Greek immigration from the mainland so they were kept
in the royal bodyguard and as generals and ocers. Na-
tive troops were looked down upon and distrusted due to
their disloyalty and frequent tendency to aid local revolts.
13.3.1 Naucratis
Of the three Greek cities, Naucratis, although its com-
mercial importance was reduced with the founding of
Alexandria, continued in a quiet way its life as a Greek
92 CHAPTER 13. PTOLEMAIC KINGDOM

city-state. During the interval between the death of

Alexander and Ptolemys assumption of the style of king,
it even issued an autonomous coinage. And the number
of Greek men of letters during the Ptolemaic and Roman
period, who were citizens of Naucratis, proves that in the
sphere of Hellenic culture Naucratis held to its traditions.
Ptolemy II bestowed his care upon Naucratis. He built a
large structure of limestone, about 330 feet (100 m) long
and 60 feet (18 m) wide, to ll up the broken entrance
to the great Temenos; he strengthened the great block of
chambers in the Temenos, and re-established them. At
the time when Sir Flinders Petrie wrote the words just
quoted the great Temenos was identied with the Hel-
lenion. But Mr. Edgar has recently pointed out that the
building connected with it was an Egyptian temple, not a
Greek building. Naucratis, therefore, in spite of its gen-
eral Hellenic character, had an Egyptian element. That
the city ourished in Ptolemaic times we may see by
the quantity of imported amphorae, of which the han-
dles stamped at Rhodes and elsewhere are found so abun-
dantly. The Zeno papyri show that it was the chief port
of call on the inland voyage from Memphis to Alexandria,
as well as a stopping-place on the land-route from Pelu-
sium to the capital. It was attached, in the administrative
system, to the Sate nome.

Alexander the Great, 356 BC 323 BC Brooklyn Museum

13.3.2 Alexandria
Main article: Alexandria
A major Mediterranean port of Egypt, in ancient times
and still today, Alexandria was founded in 331 BC by
Alexander the Great. According to Plutarch, the Alexan-
drians believed that Alexander the Greats motivation to tained several hundred thousand volumes and housed and
build the city was his wish to found a large and populous employed scholars and poets. A similar scholarly com-
Greek city that should bear his name. Located 20 miles plex was the Museum (Mouseion, hall of the Muses).
(32 km) west of the Niles westernmost mouth, the city During Alexandrias brief literary golden period, c.
was immune to the silt deposits that persistently choked 280240 BC, the Library subsidized three poets
harbors along the river. Alexandria became the capi- Callimachus, Apollonius of Rhodes , and Theocritus
tal of the Hellenized Egypt of King Ptolemy I (reigned whose work now represents the best of Hellenistic liter-
323283 BC). Under the wealthy Ptolemaic dynasty, the ature. Among other thinkers associated with the Library
city soon surpassed Athens as the cultural center of the or other Alexandrian patronage were the mathematician
Hellenic world. Euclid (ca. 300 BC), the inventor Archimedes (287 BC
c. 212 BC), and the polymath Eratosthenes (ca. 225
Laid out on a grid pattern, Alexandria occupied a stretch [17]
of land between the sea to the north and Lake Mareotis BC).
to the south; a man-made causeway, over three-quarters Cosmopolitan and ourishing, Alexandria possessed a
of a mile long, extended north to the sheltering island varied population of Greeks, Egyptians and other Ori-
of Pharos, thus forming a double harbor, east and west. ental peoples, including a sizable minority of Jews, who
On the east was the main harbor, called the Great Har- had their own city quarter. Periodic conicts occurred
bor; it faced the citys chief buildings, including the royal between Jews and ethnic Greeks. According to Strabo,
palace and the famous Library and Museum. At the Great Alexandria had been inhabited during Polybius lifetime
Harbors mouth, on an outcropping of Pharos, stood the by local Egyptians, foreign mercenaries and the tribe of
lighthouse, built c. 280 BC. Now vanished, the lighthouse the Alexandrians, whose origin and customs Polybius
was reckoned as one of the Seven Wonders of the World identied as Greek.
for its unsurpassed height (perhaps 460 feet); it was a The city enjoyed a calm political history under the
square, fenestrated tower, topped with a metal re bas- Ptolemies. It passed, with the rest of Egypt, into Roman
ket and a statue of Zeus the Savior. hands in 30 BC, and became the second city of the Ro-
The Library, at that time the largest in the world, con- man Empire.
13.4. DEMOGRAPHICS 93

13.3.3 Ptolemais

Main article: Ptolemais Hermiou

The second Greek city founded after the conquest of

Egypt was Ptolemais, 400 miles (640 km) up the Nile,
where there was a native village called Pso, in the nome
called after the ancient Egyptian city of Thinis. If
Alexandria perpetuated the name and cult of the great
Alexander, Ptolemais was to perpetuate the name and
cult of the founder of the Ptolemaic time. Framed in
by the barren hills of the Nile Valley and the Egyptian
sky, here a Greek city arose, with its public buildings
and temples and theatre, no doubt exhibiting the regular
architectural forms associated with Greek culture, with
a citizen-body Greek in blood, and the institutions of a
Greek city. If there is some doubt whether Alexandria
possessed a council and assembly, there is none in regard
to Ptolemais. It was more possible for the kings to al-
low a measure of self-government to a people removed
at that distance from the ordinary residence of the court.
We have still, inscribed on stone, decrees passed in the
assembly of the people of Ptolemais, couched in the reg-
ular forms of Greek political tradition: It seemed good
to the boule and to the demos: Hermas son of Doreon,
of the deme Megisteus, was the proposer: Whereas the
prytaneis who were colleagues with Dionysius the son of
Musaeus in the 8th year, etc.

A stele of Dioskourides, dated 2nd century BC, showing a Ptole-

maic thureophoros soldier. It is a characteristic example of the
13.4 Demographics Romanization of the Ptolemaic army.

The Ptolemaic kingdom was diverse in the people who

settled and made Egypt their home at this time. Dur-
ing this period, Macedonian troops under Ptolemy I
Soter were given land grants and brought their families
encouraging tens of thousands of Greeks to settle the
country making themselves the new ruling class. Na-
tive Egyptians continued having a role, albeit a small
one, in the Ptolemaic government--mostly in lower posts-
-and outnumbered the foreigners. During the reign of
the Ptolemaic Pharaohs, many Jews were imported from
neighboring Judea by the thousands for being renowned
ghters and established an important presence there.
Other foreign groups settled during this time and even
Galatian mercenaries were invited. Of the aliens who
had come to settle in Egypt, the ruling group, Greeks,
were the most important element. They were partly
spread as allotment-holders over the country, forming so-
cial groups, in the country towns and villages, side by side
with the native population, partly gathered in the three
Greek cities the old Naucratis, founded before 600
BC (in the interval of Egyptian independence after the
expulsion of the Assyrians and before the coming of the
Persians), and the two new cities, Alexandria by the sea,
and Ptolemais in Upper Egypt. Alexander and his Seleu-
cid successors founded many Greek cities all over their
dominions.
Greek culture was so much bound up with the life of the
city-state that any king who wanted to present himself to
the world as a genuine champion of Hellenism had to do
something in this direction, but the king of Egypt, whilst
as ambitious as any to shine as a Hellene, would nd
Greek cities, with their republican tradition and aspira-
tions to independence, inconvenient elements in a coun-
try that lent itself, as no other did, to bureaucratic cen-
tralization. The Ptolemies therefore limited the number
of Greek city-states in Egypt to Alexandria, Ptolemais,
and Naucratis.
Outside of Egypt, they had Greek cities under their
dominionincluding the old Greek cities in the Cyre-
naica, in Cyprus, on the coasts and islands of the
Aegean but they were smaller than the three big ones
in Egypt. There were indeed country towns with names
such as Ptolemais, Arsinoe, and Berenice, in which Greek
communities existed with a certain social life; there were
similar groups of Greeks in many of the old Egyptian
towns, but they were not communities with the political
forms of a city-state. Yet if they had no place of political
assembly, they would have their gymnasium, the essential
94
sign of Hellenism, serving something of the purpose of a
university for the young men. Far up the Nile at Ombi
a gymnasium of the local Greeks was found in 136135
BC, which passed resolutions and corresponded with the
king. Also, in 123 BC, when there was trouble in Upper
Egypt between the towns of Crocodilopolis and Hermon-
this, the negotiators sent from Crocodilopolis were the
young men attached to the gymnasium, who, according
to the Greek tradition, ate bread and salt with the nego-
tiators from the other town. All Greek dialects of the
Greek world gradually became assimilated in the Koine
Greek dialect that was the common language of the Hel-
lenistic world. Generally the Greeks of Ptolemaic Egypt
felt like representatives of a higher civilization yet were
curious about the native culture of Egypt.
13.4.1 Arabs under the Ptolemies
Arab nomads of the eastern desert penetrated in small
bodies into the cultivated land of the Nile, as they do to-
day. The Greeks called all the land on the eastern side
of the Nile Arabia, and villages were to be found here
and there with a population of Arabs who had exchanged
the life of tent-dwellers for that of settled agriculturists.
Apollonius tells of one such village, Pos, in the Mem-
phite nome, two of whose inhabitants send a letter on
September 20, 152 BC. The letter is in Greek; it had to
be written for the two Arabs by the young Macedonian
Apollonius, the Arabs apparently being unable to write.
Apollonius writes their names as Myrullas and Chalbas,
the rst probably, and the second certainly, Semitic. A
century earlier Arabs farther west, in the Faym, orga-
nized under a leader of their own, and working mainly as
herdsmen on the dorea of Apollonius the dioiketes; but
these Arabs bear Greek and Egyptian names.
In 1990, more than 2,000 papyri written by Zeno of
Caunus from the time of Ptolemy II Philadelphus were
discovered, which contained at least 19 references to
Arabs in the area between the Nile and the Red Sea,
and mentioned their jobs as police ocers in charge of
ten person units, while some others were mentioned as
shepherds.[18]
Arabs in the Ptolemaic kingdom had provided camel con-
voys to the armies of some Ptolemaic leaders during their
invasions, but they didn't have allegiance towards any of
the kingdoms of Egypt or Syria, and also managed to raid
and attack both sides of the conict between the Ptole-
maic Kingdom and its enemies.[19][20]
13.4.2 Jews under the Ptolemies
The Jews who lived in Egypt had originally immigrated
from Israel. The Jews absorbed Greek, the dominant lan-
guage of Egypt at the time, while heavily mixing it with
Hebrew[21] It was during this period that the Septuagint,
the Greek translation of the Jewish scriptures, appeared.
CHAPTER 13. PTOLEMAIC KINGDOM
The Septuagint was written by Seventy Jewish Translators
under royal compulsion during Ptolemy IIs reign.[22] This
is conrmed by historian Flavius Josephus, who writes
that Ptolemy, desirous to collect every book in the habit-
able earth, applied Demetrius Phalereus to the task of or-
ganizing an eort with the Jewish high priests to translate
the Jewish books of the Law for his library.[23] This testi-
mony of Josephus places the origins of the Septuagint in
the 3rd century BC, as that is the time when Demetrius
and Ptolemy II lived. According to Jewish Legend, the
seventy translators wrote their translations independently
from memory, and the resultant works were identical at
every letter.
13.5 Agriculture
The early Ptolemies increased cultivatable land through
irrigation and introduced crops such as cotton and better
wine-producing grapes. They also increased the availabil-
ity of luxury goods through foreign trade. They enriched
themselves and absorbed Egyptian culture. Ptolemy and
his descendants adopted Egyptian royal trappings and
added Egypts religion to their own, worshiping Egyp-
tian gods and building temples to them, and even being
mummied and buried in sarcophagi covered with hiero-
glyphs.
13.6 List of Ptolemaic rulers
Main article: List of Ptolemaic rulers
13.7 See also
Antipatrid dynasty
Antigonid dynasty
Cup of the Ptolemies
Greco-Bactrian Kingdom
Hellenistic period
History of Egypt
Kingdom of Pontus
Indo-Greeks
Library of Alexandria
Lighthouse of Alexandria
Seleucid Empire
13.9. FURTHER READING
13.8 References
[1] Buraselis, Stefanou and Thompson ed; The Ptolemies, the
Sea and the Nile: Studies in Waterborne Power.
[2] Buraselis, Stefanou and Thompson ed; The Ptolemies, the
Sea and the Nile: Studies in Waterborne Power.
[3] North Africa in the Hellenistic and Roman Periods, 323
BC to AD 305, R.C.C. Law, The Cambridge History of
Africa, Vol. 2 ed. J. D. Fage, Roland Anthony Oliver,
(Cambridge University Press, 1979), 154.
[4] Diodorus Siculus, Bibliotheca historica, 18.21.9
[5] Lewis, Naphtali (1986). Greeks in Ptolemaic Egypt: Case
Studies in the Social History of the Hellenistic World. Ox-
ford: Clarendon Press. pp. 5. ISBN 0-19-814867-4.
[6] Department of Ancient Near Eastern Art. The
Achaemenid Persian Empire (550330 B.C.)". In
Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. New York:
The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000. http://
www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/acha/hd_acha.htm (Octo-
ber 2004) Source: The Achaemenid Persian Empire
(550330 B.C.) | Thematic Essay | Heilbrunn Timeline
of Art History | The Metropolitan Museum of Art
[7] Hemingway, Colette, and Sen Hemingway. The
Rise of Macedonia and the Conquests of Alexander
the Great. In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History.
New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000
. http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/alex/hd_alex.htm
(October 2004) Source: The Rise of Macedonia and the
Conquests of Alexander the Great | Thematic Essay | Heil-
brunn Timeline of Art History | The Metropolitan Mu-
seum of Art
[8] Grabbe, L. L. (2008). A History of the Jews and Judaism
in the Second Temple Period. Volume 2 The Coming of
the Greeks: The Early Hellenistic Period (335 175 BC).
T&T Clark. ISBN 978-0-567-03396-3.
[9] Ptolemy II Philadelphus [308-246 BC. Mahlon H. Smith.
Retrieved 2010-06-13.
[10] Burstein (2007), p. 7
[11] Cleopatra: A Life
[12] http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/e/roman/texts/
strabo/17a3*.html
[13] Peters (1970), p. 193
[14] Peters (1970), p. 194
[15] Peters (1970), p. 195f
[16] Antiquities Experts. Egyptian Art During the Ptolemaic
Period of Egyptian History. Antiquities Experts. Re-
trieved 17 June 2014.
[17] Phillips, Heather A., The Great Library of Alexandria?".
Library Philosophy and Practice, August 2010
[18] Arabs in Antiquity: Their History from the Assyrians to
the Umayyads, Prof. Jan Retso, Page: 301
95
[19] A History of the Arabs in the Sudan: The inhabitants of
the northern Sudan before the time of the Islamic invasions.
The progress of the Arab tribes through Egypt. The Arab
tribes of the Sudan at the present day, Sir Harold Alfred
MacMichael, Cambridge University Press, 1922, Page: 7
[20] History of Egypt, Sir John Pentland Mahay, Pages: 20-
21
[21] Solomon Grayzel A History of the Jews p. 56
[22] Solomon Grayzel A History of the Jews pp. 56-57
[23] Flavius Josephus Antiquities of the Jews Book 12 Ch. 2
13.9 Further reading
Bingen, Jean. Hellenistic Egypt. Edinburgh: Ed-
inburgh University Press, 2007 (hardcover, ISBN
0-7486-1578-4; paperback, ISBN 0-7486-1579-2).
Hellenistic Egypt: Monarchy, Society, Economy, Cul-
ture. Berkeley: University of California Press,
2007 (hardcover, ISBN 0-520-25141-5; paperback,
ISBN 0-520-25142-3).
Bowman, Alan Keir. 1996. Egypt After the
Pharaohs: 332 BCAD 642; From Alexander to the
Arab Conquest. 2nd ed. Berkeley: University of
California Press
Burstein, Stanley Meyer (December 1, 2007). The
Reign of Cleopatra. University of Oklahoma Press.
ISBN 0806138718. Retrieved April 6, 2015.
Chauveau, Michel. 2000. Egypt in the Age of
Cleopatra: History and Society under the Ptolemies.
Translated by David Lorton. Ithaca: Cornell Uni-
versity Press
Ellis, Simon P. 1992. Graeco-Roman Egypt. Shire
Egyptology 17, ser. ed. Barbara G. Adams. Ayles-
bury: Shire Publications, ltd.
Hlbl, Gnther. 2001. A History of the Ptolemaic
Empire. Translated by Tina Saavedra. London:
Routledge Ltd.
Lloyd, Alan Brian. 2000. The Ptolemaic Period
(33230 BC)". In The Oxford History of Ancient
Egypt, edited by Ian Shaw. Oxford and New York:
Oxford University Press. 395421
Susan Stephens, Seeing Double. Intercultural Poetics
in Ptolemaic Alexandria (Berkeley, 2002).
A. Lampela, Rome and the Ptolemies of Egypt. The
development of their political relations 273-80 B.C.
(Helsinki, 1998).
Peters, F. E. (1970). The Harvest of Hellenism. New
York: Simon & Schuster.
J. G. Manning, The Last Pharaohs: Egypt Under the
Ptolemies, 305-30 BC (Princeton, 2009).
96 CHAPTER 13. PTOLEMAIC KINGDOM

13.10 External links

Map of Ptolemaic Egypt
Chapter 14

Roman Province of Egypt

Warning: Page using Template:Infobox former subdivi- Africa under Roman rule
sion with unknown parameter continent (this message
is shown only in preview).

The Roman province of Egypt (Latin: Aegyptus,

pronounced [ajpts]; Greek: Aigyptos
[ yptos]) was established in 30 BC after Octavian
(the future emperor Augustus) defeated his rival Mark
Antony, deposed his lover Queen Cleopatra VII and an-
nexed the Ptolemaic Kingdom of Egypt to the Roman
Empire. The province encompassed most of modern-day
Egypt except for the Sinai Peninsula (which would later
be conquered by Trajan). Aegyptus was bordered by the
provinces of Creta et Cyrenaica to the West and Iudaea
(later Arabia Petraea) to the East.
The province came to serve as a major producer of grain
for the empire and had a highly developed urban econ-
omy. Aegyptus was by far the wealthiest Eastern Roman
The
province.[1][2] In Alexandria, its capital, it possessed the
Roman Empire during the reign of Hadrian (117 138).
largest port, and the second largest city, of the Roman
Two legions were deployed in the imperial province of
Empire.
gyptus (Egypt) in the year 125.

14.1 Roman rule in Egypt As a province, Egypt was ruled by a uniquely styled Au-
gustal prefect, instead of the traditional senatorial gover-
nor of other Roman provinces. The prefect was a man of
Maps of Roman Egypt equestrian rank and was appointed by the Emperor. The
rst prefect of Aegyptus, Gaius Cornelius Gallus, brought
Upper Egypt under Roman control by force of arms, and
established a protectorate over the southern frontier dis-
trict, which had been abandoned by the later Ptolemies.
The second prefect, Aelius Gallus, made an unsuccessful
expedition to conquer Arabia Petraea and even Arabia
Felix. The Red Sea coast of Aegyptus was not brought
under Roman control until the reign of Claudius. The
third prefect, Gaius Petronius, cleared the neglected
canals for irrigation, stimulating a revival of agriculture.
Petronius even led a campaign into present-day central
Sudan against the Kingdom of Kush at Meroe, whose
queen Imanarenat had previously attacked Roman Egypt.
Failing to acquire permanent gains, in 22 BC he razed the
city of Napata to the ground and retreated to the north.
From the reign of Nero onward, Aegyptus enjoyed an
Northern

97
98 CHAPTER 14. ROMAN PROVINCE OF EGYPT

era of prosperity which lasted a century. Much trouble 14.2 Roman government in Egypt
was caused by religious conicts between the Greeks and
the Jews, particularly in Alexandria, which after the de- Further information: List of governors of Roman Egypt
struction of Jerusalem in 70 became the world centre of
Jewish religion and culture. Under Trajan a Jewish re-
volt occurred, resulting in the suppression of the Jews of As Rome overtook the Ptolemaic system in place for ar-
Alexandria and the loss of all their privileges, although eas of Egypt, they made many changes. The eect of the
they soon returned. Hadrian, who twice visited Aegyptus, Roman conquest was at rst to strengthen the position of
founded Antinopolis in memory of his drowned lover the Greeks and of Hellenism against Egyptian inuences.
Antinous. From his reign onward buildings in the Greco- Some of the previous oces and names of oces un-
Roman style were erected throughout the country. der the Hellenistic Ptolemaic rule were kept, some were
changed, and some names would have remained but the
Under Antoninus Pius oppressive taxation led to a revolt function and administration would have changed.
in 139, of the native Egyptians, which was suppressed
only after several years of ghting. This Bucolic War, The Romans introduced important changes in the admin-
led by one Isidorus, caused great damage to the economy istrative system, aimed at achieving a high level of e-
and marked the beginning of Egypts economic decline. ciency and maximizing revenue. The duties of the pre-
Avidius Cassius, who led the Roman forces in the war, fect of Aegyptus combined responsibility for military se-
declared himself emperor in 175, and was acknowledged curity through command of the legions and cohorts, for
by the armies of Syria and Aegyptus. the organization of nance and taxation, and for the ad-
ministration of justice.
On the approach of Marcus Aurelius, Cassius was de-
posed and killed and the clemency of the emperor re- The reforms of the early 4th century had established the
stored peace. A similar revolt broke out in 193, when basis for another 250 years of comparative prosperity in
Pescennius Niger was proclaimed emperor on the death Aegyptus, at a cost of perhaps greater rigidity and more
of Pertinax. The Emperor Septimius Severus gave a con- oppressive state control. Aegyptus was subdivided for ad-
stitution to Alexandria and the provincial capitals in 202. ministrative purposes into a number of smaller provinces,
and separate civil and military ocials were established;
Caracalla (211217) granted Roman citizenship to all the praeses and the dux.
Egyptians, in common with the other provincials, but this
was mainly to extort more taxes, which grew increasingly By the middle of the 6th century the emperor Justinian
onerous as the needs of the emperors for more revenue was eventually forced to recognize the failure of this pol-
grew more desperate. icy and to combine civil and military power in the hands
of the dux with a civil deputy (the praeses) as a counter-
There was a series of revolts, both military and civil- weight to the power of the church authorities. All pre-
ian, through the 3rd century. Under Decius, in 250, the tense of local autonomy had by then vanished. The pres-
Christians again suered from persecution, but their re- ence of the soldiery was more noticeable, its power and
ligion continued to spread. The prefect of Aegyptus in inuence more pervasive in the routine of town and vil-
260, Mussius Aemilianus, rst supported the Macriani, lage life.
Gallienus usurpers, and later, in 261, become a usurper
himself, but was defeated by Gallienus.Poeo
Zenobia, queen of Palmyra, took the country away
from the Romans when she conquered Aegyptus in 269, 14.3 Economy
declaring herself the Queen of Egypt also. This warrior
queen claimed that Egypt was an ancestral home of hers
through a familial tie to Cleopatra VII. She was well edu-
Beyond these places, the erce winters
and great ice formations make travelling
hard, and by the powers of the gods,
LAKE
MAEOTIS these places are unexplored
ARAL
ROMANS

cated and familiar with the culture of Egypt, its religion,

SEA
EUXINE SEA CASPIAN
SEA
GREEKS

BACTRIA

and its language. She lost it later when the Roman em- MEDITERRANEAN SEA
Laodicea

Diospolis
Apologou PERSIA
ARACHOSIA
Alexandria
Bucephalus
THY
Thinae

ERS
S
peror, Aurelian, severed amicable relations between the
Petra Charax Spasinos
BERB
Mios hormos
Lefki komi GEDROSIA
PERSIAN Minnagara
LIBYA GULF Oraea SCYTHIA
AR

ARABIA
AB

Ommana Barbaricon
IC

Ganges

two countries and retook Egypt in 274following an un-

Berenice
GU

Calxi island
Ozene
CH
LF

ARIACA
Ptolemais of Island
Barygaza
RYS
Asikh
E
Zenobian
the Hunt Supara
Calliena
Paethena
ERS Moskha Simylla Tagara
BERB Safar Sabbatha
Meroe Adulis Mandagora

successful four-month siege of the defenses of Zenobia

Cani
Palepatmae
Muza Melizigara DAKINABADES
Bizantion
Sopatma
us Island Toparon
Axumites Aden Dioscurid

OPIA Avalites Tiranosboas Puduki

ETHI Cape Elephant Argalu
Mosylon Naura
Malao Tyndis Camara
Mundus Cape of
Spices

and only by waiting until her food supplies became ex-

Muziris
Tave Nelcynda
Colkhi
ERS Periplous
BERB
Cape Comari
M Oponi
EU
CYEN
i island
Taproban

Land route

hausted. Periplous of the ERYTHRAEAN SEA

Sarapion

Roman Kingdom of Aksum

Erythraean Sea
Nikon
King Zoscales
Empire

Pyralax
islands
Himyarite Nabataean kingdom
King Eleazus
AN
IA
s island
Kingdom
AZ

Two generals based in Aegyptus, Probus and Domitius

Menuthra
King Charibael

Indo-Scythian
Cheras
1st century AD Rapta Kingdom
King Nambanus

Domitianus, led successful revolts and made themselves

Pandian Damirica
Parthian
Others
Empire
Aromatic

emperors. Diocletian captured Alexandria from Domi- Spices

Wine
Ivory

Metals
owers

Silk
Beyond these places, the unexplored ocean

tius in 298 and reorganised the whole province. His edict curves around towards the west and mingles
with the western sea Gold Cloth
Precious
stones

of 303 against the Christians began a new era of persecu-

tion. This was the last serious attempt to stem the steady Roman trade with India started from Aegyptus according to the
growth of Christianity in Egypt, however. Periplus of the Erythraean Sea (1st century).
14.5. SOCIAL STRUCTURE IN EARLY ROMAN EGYPT 99

The economic resources that this imperial government imperialism looked farther aeld, attempting expansion
existed to exploit had not changed since the Ptolemaic pe- to the east and to the south. Most of the early Roman
riod, but the development of a much more complex and troops stationed there were Greco-Macedonians and na-
sophisticated taxation system was a hallmark of Roman tive Egyptians once part of the dissolved Ptolemaic army
rule. Taxes in both cash and kind were assessed on land, nding service for Rome. Eventually Romans or Roman-
and a bewildering variety of small taxes in cash, as well ized people were a majority.
as customs dues and the like, was collected by appointed
ocials.
A massive amount of Aegyptuss grain was shipped 14.5 Social structure in early Ro-
downriver (north) both to feed the population of man Egypt
Alexandria and for export to the Roman capital. Despite
frequent complaints of oppression and extortion from the
taxpayers, it is not obvious that ocial tax rates were very
high.
The Roman government had actively encouraged the
privatization of land and the increase of private enterprise
in manufacture, commerce, and trade, and low tax rates
favored private owners and entrepreneurs. The poorer
people gained their livelihood as tenants of state-owned
land or of property belonging to the emperor or to wealthy
private landlords, and they were relatively much more
heavily burdened by rentals, which tended to remain at
a fairly high level.
Overall, the degree of monetization and complexity in the
economy, even at the village level, was intense. Goods
were moved around and exchanged through the medium
of coin on a large scale and, in the towns and the larger
villages, a high level of industrial and commercial activity
developed in close conjunction with the exploitation of
the predominant agricultural base. The volume of trade,
both internal and external, reached its peak in the 1st and
2nd centuries.
By the end of the 3rd century, major problems were ev-
ident. A series of debasements of the imperial currency
had undermined condence in the coinage,[3] and even Bust of Roman Nobleman, c. 30 BC50 AD, Brooklyn Museum
the government itself was contributing to this by demand-
ing more and more irregular tax payments in kind, which See also: Fayum mummy portraits
it channeled directly to the main consumers, the army per-
sonnel. Local administration by the councils was careless,
The social structure in Aegyptus under the Romans was
recalcitrant, and inecient; the evident need for rm and
both unique and complicated. On the one hand, the
purposeful reform had to be squarely faced in the reigns
Romans continued to use many of the same organiza-
of Diocletian and Constantine I.
tional tactics that were in place under the leaders of
the Ptolemaic period. At the same time, the Romans
saw the Greeks in Aegyptus as Egyptians, an idea
14.4 Military that both the native Egyptians and Greeks would have
rejected.[4] To further compound the whole situation,
This wealthiest of provinces could be held militarily by Jews, who themselves were very Hellenized overall, had
a very small force; and the threat implicit in an embargo their own communities, separate from both Greeks and
on the export of grain supplies, vital to the provisioning native Egyptians.[4]
of the city of Rome and its populace, was obvious. In- The Romans began a system of social hierarchy that re-
ternal security was guaranteed by the presence of three volved around ethnicity and place of residence. Other
Roman legions (later reduced to two, then one Legio II than Roman citizens, a Greek citizen of one of the Greek
Traiana) stationed at the grand capital Alexandria. Each cities had the highest status, and a rural Egyptian would
of these numbered around 5000 strong, and several units be in the lowest class.[5] In between those classes was the
of auxiliaries. metropolite, who was almost certainly of Hellenic ori-
In the rst decade of Roman rule the spirit of Augustan gin. Gaining citizenship and moving up in ranks was very
100
Possible depiction of the province of Egypt from the Hadrianeum
in Rome
dicult and there were not many available options for
ascendancy.[6]
One of the routes that many followed to ascend to another
caste was through enlistment in the army. Although only
Romans citizens could serve in the legions, many Greeks
found their way in. The native Egyptians could join the
auxiliary forces and attain citizenship upon discharge.[7]
The dierent groups had dierent rates of taxation based
on their social class. The Greeks were exempt from the
poll tax, while Hellenized inhabitants of the nome capitals
were taxed at a lower rate than the native Egyptians, who
could not enter the army, and paid the full poll tax.[8]
The social structure in Aegyptus is very closely linked
to the governing administration. Elements of central-
ized rule that were derived from the Ptolemaic period
lasted into the 4th century. One element in particular
was the appointment of strategoi to govern the nomes,
the traditional administrative divisions of Egypt. Boulai,
or town councils, in Egypt were only formally consti-
tuted by Septimius Severus. It was only under Diocletian
later in the 3rd century that these boulai and their of-
cers acquired important administrative responsibilities
for their nomes. The Augustan takeover introduced a
system of compulsory public service, which was based
on poros (property or income qualication), which was
wholly based on social status and power. The Romans
also introduced the poll tax which was similar to tax
CHAPTER 14. ROMAN PROVINCE OF EGYPT
rates that the Ptolemies levied, but the Romans gave spe-
cial low rates to citizens of metropolises.[9] The city of
Oxyrhynchus had many papyri remains that contain much
information on the subject of social structure in these
cities. This city, along with Alexandria, shows the diverse
set-up of various institutions that the Romans continued
to use after their takeover of Egypt.
Just as under the Ptolemies, Alexandria and its citizens
had their own special designations. The capital city en-
joyed a higher status and more privileges than the rest of
Egypt. Just as it was under the Ptolemies, the primary
way of becoming a citizen of Roman Alexandria was
through showing when registering for a deme that both
parents were Alexandrian citizens. Alexandrians were the
only Egyptians that could obtain Roman citizenship.[10]
If a common Egyptian wanted to become a Roman citi-
zen he would rst have to become an Alexandrian citizen.
The Augustan period in Egypt saw the creation of urban
communities with Hellenic landowning elites. These
landowning elites were put in a position of privilege and
power and had more self-administration than the Egyp-
tian population. Within the citizenry, there were gymna-
siums that Greek citizens could enter if they showed that
both parents were members of the gymnasium based on
a list that was compiled by the government in 45 AD.[11]
The candidate for the gymnasium would then be let into
the ephebus. There was also the council of elders known
as the gerousia. This council of elders did not have a
boulai to answer to. All of this Greek organization was
a vital part of the metropolis and the Greek institutions
provided an elite group of citizens. The Romans looked
to these elites to provide municipal ocers and well-
educated administrators.[11] These elites also paid lower
poll-taxes than the local native Egyptians, fellahin. It
is well documented that Alexandrians in particular were
able to enjoy lower tax-rates on land.[12]
These privileges even extended to corporal punishments.
Romans were protected from this type of punishment
while native Egyptians were whipped. Alexandrians, on
the other hand, had the privilege of merely being beaten
with a rod.[13] Although Alexandria enjoyed the great-
est status of the Greek cities in Egypt, it is clear that the
other Greek cities, such as Antinoopolis, enjoyed privi-
leges very similar to the ones seen in Alexandria.[14] All
of these changes amounted to the Greeks being treated as
an ally in Egypt and the native Egyptians were treated as
a conquered race.
The Gnomon of the Idios Logos shows the connection
between law and status. It lays out the revenues it deals
with, mainly nes and conscation of property, to which
only a few groups were apt. The Gnomon also conrms
that a freed slave takes his former masters social status.
The Gnomon demonstrates the social controls that the
Romans had in place through monetary means based on
status and property.
14.7. LATER ROMAN EGYPT (4TH6TH CENTURIES) 101

14.6 Christian Egypt (33 AD4th Alexandria in 326 after the First Council of Nicaea re-
jected Ariuss views. The Arian controversy caused years
century) of riots and rebellions throughout most of the 4th century.
In the course of one of these, the great temple of Serapis,
the stronghold of paganism, was destroyed. Athanasius
The Patriarchate of Alexandria is held to be founded by
was alternately expelled from Alexandria and reinstated
Mark the Evangelist around 33. The historian Helmut
as its Archbishop between ve and seven times.
Koester has suggested, with some evidence, that the
Christians in Egypt were originally predominantly inu- Egypt had an ancient tradition of religious speculation,
enced by gnosticism until the eorts of Demetrius of enabling a variety of controversial religious views to
Alexandria gradually brought the beliefs of the majority thrive there. Not only did Arianism ourish, but other
into harmony with the rest of Christianity. While the col- doctrines, such as Gnosticism and Manichaeism, either
lective embarrassment over their origins would explain native or imported, found many followers. Another reli-
the lack of details for the rst centuries of Christianity gious development in Egypt was the monasticism of the
in Egypt, there are too many gaps in the history of Ro- Desert Fathers, who renounced the material world in or-
man times to claim that our ignorance in this situation is der to live a life of poverty in devotion to the Church.
a special case. Egyptian Christians took up monasticism with such en-
The ancient religion of Egypt put up surprisingly little re- thusiasm that the Emperor Valens had to restrict the num-
sistance to the spread of Christianity. Possibly its long ber of men who could become monks. Egypt exported
history of collaboration with the Greek and Roman rulers monasticism to the rest of the Christian world. An-
of Egypt had robbed its religious leaders of authority. Al- other development of this period was the development of
ternatively, the life-arming native religion may have be- Coptic, a form of the Ancient Egyptian language written
gun to lose its appeal among the lower classes as a burden with the Greek alphabet supplemented by several signs
of taxation and liturgic services instituted by the Roman to represent sounds present in Egyptian which were not
emperors reduced the quality of life. present in Greek. It was invented to ensure the correct
pronunciation of magical words and names in pagan texts,
In a religious system which views earthly life as eternal,
the so-called Greek Magical Papyri. Coptic was soon
when earthly life becomes strained and miserable, the de-
adopted by early Christians to spread the word of the
sire for such an everlasting life loses its appeal. Thus, the
gospel to native Egyptians and it became the liturgical
focus on poverty and meekness found a vacuum among
language of Egyptian Christianity and remains so to this
the Egyptian population. In addition, many Christian
day.
tenets such as the concept of the trinity, a resurrection
of deity and union with the deity after death had close
similarities with the native religion of ancient Egypt. Or
it may simply have been because branches of the native 14.7 Later Roman Egypt (4th6th
religion and Christianity had converged to a point where
their similarities made the change a minor one.
centuries)
By 200 it is clear that Alexandria was one of the great
Christian centres. The Christian apologists Clement of
Alexandria and Origen both lived part or all of their lives
in that city, where they wrote, taught, and debated.
With the Edict of Milan in 313, Constantine I ended the
persecution of Christians. Over the course of the 5th cen-
tury, paganism was suppressed and lost its following, as
the poet Palladius bitterly noted. It lingered underground
for many decades: the nal edict against paganism was is-
sued in 435, but grati at Philae in Upper Egypt proves
worship of Isis persisted at its temples into the 6th cen-
tury. Many Egyptian Jews also became Christians, but
many others refused to do so, leaving them as the only
sizable religious minority in a Christian country. A map of the Near East in 565, showing Byzantine Egypt and its
neighbors.
No sooner had the Egyptian Church achieved freedom
and supremacy than it became subject to a schism and
prolonged conict which at times descended into civil Further information: Diocese of Egypt
war. Alexandria became the centre of the rst great
split in the Christian world, between the Arians, named The reign of Constantine also saw the founding of
for the Alexandrian priest Arius, and their opponents, Constantinople as a new capital for the Roman Empire,
represented by Athanasius, who became Archbishop of and in the course of the 4th century the Empire was di-
102 CHAPTER 14. ROMAN PROVINCE OF EGYPT

vided in two, with Egypt nding itself in the Eastern Em- in Egyptian religious life today.[15] Egypt and Syria re-
pire with its capital at Constantinople. Latin, never well mained hotbeds of Miaphysite sentiment, and organised
established in Egypt, would play a declining role with resistance to the Chalcedonian view was not suppressed
Greek continuing to be the dominant language of gov- until the 570s.
ernment and scholarship. During the 5th and 6th cen- Egypt nevertheless continued to be an important eco-
turies the Eastern Roman Empire, today known as the nomic center for the Empire supplying much of its agri-
Byzantine Empire, gradually transformed itself into a culture and manufacturing needs as well as continuing to
thoroughly Christian state whose culture diered signi- be an important center of scholarship. It would supply
cantly from its pagan past.
the needs of Byzantine Empire and the Mediterranean as
The fall of the Western Empire in the 5th century fur- a whole. The reign of Justinian (482565) saw the Em-
ther isolated the Egyptian Romans from Romes culture pire recapture Rome and much of Italy from the barbar-
and hastened the growth of Christianity. The triumph of ians, but these successes left the empires eastern ank
Christianity led to a virtual abandonment of pharaonic exposed. The Empires bread basket now lacked for
traditions: with the disappearance of the Egyptian priests protection.
and priestesses who ociated at the temples, no-one
could read the hieroglyphs of Pharaonic Egypt, and its
temples were converted to churches or abandoned to the 14.8 Episcopal sees
desert.
The Eastern Empire became increasingly oriental in Ancient episcopal sees of the Roman province of Aegyp-
style as its links with the old Grco-Roman world faded. tus Primus (I) listed in the Annuario Ponticio as titular
The Greek system of local government by citizens had sees, [16] suragans of the Patriarchate of Alexandria :
now entirely disappeared. Oces, with new Byzan-
tine names, were almost hereditary in the wealthy land- Agnus
owning families. Alexandria, the second city of the em-
pire, continued to be a centre of religious controversy and Andropolis (Kherbeta)
violence.
Butus (near Desuq? Com-Casir?)
Cyril, the patriarch of Alexandria, convinced the citys
governor to expel the Jews from the city in 415 with the Cleopatris (Sersina)
aid of the mob, in response to the Jews alleged night-
time massacre of many Christians. The murder of the Coprithis (Cabrit, Cobrit)
philosopher Hypatia in March 415 marked the nal end Hermopolis Parva
of classical Hellenic culture in Egypt. Another schism in
the Church produced a prolonged civil war and alienated Letopolis
Egypt from the Empire.
Phatanus (El-Batanu, El-Batnu)
The new religious controversy was over the nature of
Jesus of Nazareth. The issue was whether he had two Mariotes (Lake Mariout)
natures, human and divine, or a combined one (from His
Menelaite (Idku)
humanity and divinity). This may seem an arcane dis-
tinction, but in an intensely religious age it was enough Metelis (Kom el-Ghoraf)
to divide an empire. The Miaphysite controversy arose
after the First Council of Constantinople in 381 and con- Naucratis
tinued until the Council of Chalcedon in 451, which ruled
in favour of the position that Jesus was In two natures Nicius (Ibshadi)
due to confusing Miaphytism (combined) with Mono- Onuphis (Menouf)
phystism (single).
Petra in Aegypto (Hagar-En-Nauatiyeh)
The Monophysite belief was not held by the miaphysites
as they stated that Jesus was out of two natures in one Sais
nature called, the Incarnate Logos of God. Many of
the miaphysites claimed that they were misunderstood, Taua (Thaouah? near Ebiar?)
that there was really no dierence between their posi-
Terenuthis
tion and the Chalcedonian position, and that the Coun-
cil of Chalcedon ruled against them because of politi- Thois (Tideh)
cal motivations alone. The Church of Alexandria split
from the Churches of Rome and Constantinople over this
Ancient episcopal sees of the Roman province of Aegyp-
issue, creating what would become the Coptic Ortho-
tus Secundus (II) listed in the Annuario Ponticio as
dox Church of Alexandria, which remains a major force
titular sees :[16]
14.10. ARAB ISLAMIC CONQUEST (639646 AD) 103

Busiris (Abu-Sir) a state of both religious and political alienation from the
Empire when a new invader appeared.
Cabasa (Chahbas-Esch-Choada)
Cynopolis in Aegypto (Banm Ben)
*Diospolis Inferior (*Tell el-Balamun)
14.10 Arab Islamic conquest (639
646 AD)
Pachnemunis (Kom el-Khanziri)
Phragonis (Tell-El-Faran, Cm-Faran)
Schedia
Sebennytus (Sebennytos)
Xois

14.9 Sassanian Persian invasion

(619 AD) The Mediterranean world in 650, after the Arabs had conquered
Egypt and Syria from the Byzantines.

Main article: Muslim conquest of Egypt

An army of 4,000 Arabs led by Amr Ibn Al-Aas was sent

by the Caliph Umar, successor to Muhammad, to spread
Islamic rule to the west. Arabs crossed into Egypt from
Palestine in December 639, and advanced rapidly into
the Nile Delta. The Imperial garrisons retreated into the
walled towns, where they successfully held out for a year
or more.
The Byzantine Empire by 626, after Heraclius had reconquered
Syria, Palestine and Egypt from the Sassanid Empire. The Arabs sent for reinforcements, and in April 641 they
besieged and captured Alexandria. The Byzantines as-
Main articles: RomanPersian Wars and Sasanian Egypt sembled a eet with the aim of recapturing Egypt, and
won back Alexandria in 645. The Muslims retook the
The Persian conquest of Egypt, beginning in AD 619 city in 646, completing the Muslim conquest of Egypt.
or 618, was one of the last Sassanid triumphs in the Thus ended 975 years of Grco-Roman rule over Egypt.
Roman-Persian Wars against Byzantium. From 619 -
628, they incorporated Egypt once again within their ter-
ritories, the previous (much longer) time being under the 14.11 Gallery
Achaemenids. Khosrow II Parvz had begun this war
in retaliation for the assassination of Emperor Maurice
(582602) and had achieved a series of early successes,
culminating in the conquests of Jerusalem (614) and
Alexandria (619).
A Byzantine counteroensive launched by Emperor
Heraclius in the spring of 622 shifted the advantage, and
the war was brought to an end by the fall of Khosrow on
Mummy Mask of a Man, early
25 February 628 (Frye, pp. 16770). The Egyptians had
1st century AD, 72.57, Brooklyn Museum
no love of the emperor in Constantinople and put up little
resistance. Khosrows son and successor, Kavadh II re
(ry), who reigned until September, concluded a peace
treaty returning territories conquered by the Sassanids to
the Eastern Roman Empire.
The Persian conquest allowed Miaphysitism to resurface
in the open in Egypt, and when imperial rule was restored
by Emperor Heraclius in 629, the Miaphysites were per- Funerary masks uncovered
secuted and their patriarch expelled. Egypt was thus in in Fayoum, 1st century.
104
Hadrian coin celebrating
gyptus Province, struck c. 135. In the obverse,
Egypt is personied as a reclining woman holding
the sistrum of Hathor. Her left elbow rests on a
basket of grain, while an ibis stands on the column
at her feet.
Zenobia coin reporting her
title as queen of Egypt (Augusta), and showing
her diademed and draped bust on a crescent. The
obverse shows a standing gure of Ivno Regina
(Juno) holding a patera in her right hand and a
sceptre in her left hand, with a peacock at her feet
and a brilliant star on the left.
14.12 References
[1] Egypt (page 102)
[2] The Inheritance of Rome
[3] Christiansen, Erik (2004). Coinage in Roman Egypt: The
Hoard Evidence. Aarhus University Press.
[4] Turner, E. G. (1975). Oxyrhynchus and Rome.
Harvard Studies in Classical Philology. 79: 124 [p. 3].
JSTOR 311126.
[5] Alston, Richard (1997). Philos In Flaccum: Ethnic-
ity and Social Space in Roman Alexandria. Greece and
Rome. Second Series. 44 (2): 165175 [p. 166].
doi:10.1093/gr/44.2.165.
[6] Lewis, Naphtali (1995). Greco-Roman Egypt: Fact or
Fiction?". On Government and Law in Roman Egypt. At-
lanta: Scholars Press. p. 145.
[7] Bell, Idris H. (1922). Hellenic Culture in Egypt.
Journal of Egyptian Archaeology. 8 (3/4): 139155 [p.
148]. JSTOR 3853691.
[8] Bell, p.148
[9] Lewis, p.141
[10] Sherwin-White, A. N. (1973). The Roman Citizenship.
Oxford: Clarendon Press. p. 391.
[11] Turner, E. G. Roman Oxyrhynchus. Journal of Egyp-
tian Archaeology. 38: 7893 [p. 84]. JSTOR 3855498.
[12] Delia, Diana (1991). Alexandrian Citizenship During the
Roman Principate. Atlanta: Scholars Press. p. 31.
CHAPTER 14. ROMAN PROVINCE OF EGYPT
[13] Delia, pp.3132
[14] Delia, p.32
[15] Egypt. Berkley Center for Religion, Peace, and World
Aairs. Retrieved 2011-12-14. See drop-down essay on
Islamic Conquest and the Ottoman Empire
[16] Annuario Ponticio 2013 (Libreria Editrice Vaticana 2013
ISBN 978-88-209-9070-1), Sedi titolari, pp. 819-1013
14.13 Further reading
Angold, Michael. 2001. Byzantium : the bridge
from antiquity to the Middle Ages. 1st US Edition.
New York : St. Martins Press
Bowman, Alan Keir. 1996. Egypt After the
Pharaohs: 332 BCAD 642; From Alexander to the
Arab Conquest. 2nd ed. Berkeley: University of
California Press
Bowman, Alan K. and Dominic Rathbone. Cities
and Administration in Roman Egypt. The Journal
of Roman Studies 82 (1992): 107-127. Database
on-line. JSTOR, GALILEO; accessed October 27,
2008
Chauveau, Michel. 2000. Egypt in the Age of
Cleopatra: History and Society under the Ptolemies.
Translated by David Lorton. Ithaca: Cornell Uni-
versity Press
El-Abbadi, M.A.H. The Gerousia in Roman
Egypt. The Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 50
(December 1964): 164-169. Database on-line. JS-
TOR, GALILEO; accessed October 27, 2008.
Ellis, Simon P. 1992. Graeco-Roman Egypt. Shire
Egyptology 17, ser. ed. Barbara G. Adams. Ayles-
bury: Shire Publications Ltd.
Hill, John E. 2003. Annotated Translation of the
Chapter on the Western Regions according to the
Hou Hanshu. 2nd Draft Edition.
Hill, John E. 2004. The Peoples of the West from the
Weilue by Yu Huan : A Third Century Chinese
Account Composed between 239 and 265 CE Draft
annotated English translation.
Hlbl, Gnther. 2001. A History of the Ptolemaic
Empire. Translated by Tina Saavedra. London:
Routledge Ltd.
Lloyd, Alan Brian. 2000. The Ptolemaic Period
(33230 BC)". In The Oxford History of Ancient
Egypt, edited by Ian Shaw. Oxford and New York:
Oxford University Press. 395421
14.14. EXTERNAL LINKS 105

Peacock, David. 2000. The Roman Period (30

BCAD 311)". In The Oxford History of Ancient
Egypt, edited by Ian Shaw. Oxford and New York:
Oxford University Press. 422445
Riggs, Christina, ed. (2012). The Oxford Handbook
of Roman Egypt. Oxford University Press. ISBN
978-0-19-957145-1.

14.14 External links

Detailed Map of Aegyptus
Chapter 15

Diocese of Egypt

This article is about the Byzantine administrative cir- Libya Superior or Pentapolis, under a praeses
cumscription. For the Anglican ecclesiastical diocese,
see Anglican Diocese of Egypt. Parallel to the civil administration, the Roman army
Warning: Page using Template:Infobox former subdivi- in Egypt had been placed under a single general and
sion with unknown parameter continent (this message military governor styled dux (dux Aegypti et Thebaidos
is shown only in preview). utrarumque Libyarum) in the Tetrarchy. Shortly after
the creation of Egypt as a separate diocese (between
The Diocese of Egypt (Latin: Dioecesis Aegypti, Greek: 384 and 391), the post evolved into the comes limitis
) was a diocese of the later Roman Aegypti, who was directly responsible for Lower Egypt,
Empire (from 395 the Eastern Roman Empire), incorpo- while the subordinate dux Thebaidis was in charge of
rating the provinces of Egypt and Cyrenaica. Its capital Upper Egypt (Thebais). In the middle of the 5th cen-
was at Alexandria, and its governor had the unique title tury, however, the latter was also promoted to the rank of
of praefectus augustalis (Augustal Prefect, of the rank comes (comes Thebaici limitis).[4] The two ocers were
vir spectabilis; previously the governor of the imperial responsible for the limitanei (border garrison) troops sta-
'crown domain' province Egypt) instead of the ordinary tioned in the province, while until the time of Anastasius
vicarius. The diocese was initially part of the Diocese I the comitatenses eld army came under the command
of the East, but in ca. 380, it became a separate entity, of the magister militum per Orientem, and the palatini
which lasted until its territories were nally overrun by (guards) under the two magistri militum praesentales in
the Muslim conquest of Egypt in the 640s. Constantinople.[5]
The comes limitis Aegypti enjoyed great power and inu-
ence in the diocese, rivalling that of the praefectus au-
15.1 Administrative history gustalis himself. From the 5th century, the comes is at-
tested as exercising some civilian duties as well, and from
Egypt was formed into a separate diocese in about 381.[1] 470 on, the oces of comes and praefectus[6]augustalis
According to the Notitia Dignitatum, which for the East- were sometimes combined in a single person.
ern part of the Empire dates to ca. 401, the diocese came This tendency to unite civil and military authority was for-
under a vicarius of the praetorian prefecture of the East, malized by Justinian I in his 539 reform of Egyptian ad-
with the title of praefectus augustalis, and included six ministration. The diocese was eectively abolished, and
provinces:[2][3] regional ducates established, where the presiding dux et
augustalis was placed above the combined civil and mili-
[6][7]
Aegyptus (western Nile delta), originally established tary authority:
in the early 4th century as Aegyptus Iovia, under a
praeses dux et augustalis Aegypti, controlling Aegyptus I and
Aegyptus II
Augustamnica (eastern Nile delta), originally estab-
lished in the early 4th century as Aegyptus Herculia, dux et augustalis Thebaidis, controlling Thebais su-
under a corrector perior and Thebais inferior

Arcadia (central), established ca. 397 and having
previously briey listed in the 320s as Aegyptus Mer-
curia, under a praeses
Thebais (southern), under a praeses
Libya Inferior or Libya Sicca, under a praeses
Augustamnica I and Augustamnica II were likewise
probably the relevant portion of the edict is de-
fective were placed under a single dux et au-
gustalis
in the two Libyan provinces, the civil governors were
subordinated to the respective dux

106
15.3. NOTES 107

Arcadia remained under its praeses, probably subor- 15.3 Notes

dinated to the dux et augustalis Thebaidos, and a dux
et augustalis Arcadiae does not appear until after the [1] Palme 2007, p. 245.
Persian occupation of 619629.
[2] Palme 2007, pp. 245246.

[3] Notitia Dignitatum, in partibus Orientis, I

15.2 Praefecti Augustalii of the Dio- [4] Palme 2007, p. 247.
cese [5] Palme 2007, pp. 247248.

[6] Palme 2007, p. 248.

Taken from the Prosopography of the Later Roman Em-
pire (except for Theognostus): [7] Hendy 1985, pp. 179180.

[8] Duchesne, Louis (1909): Early History of the Christian

Eutolmius Tatianus (367-370) Church. From Its Foundation to the End of the Fifth Cen-
tury. Volume III: The Fifth Century Read Books, 2008,
Olympius Palladius (370-371) p. 550. ISBN 978-1-4437-7159-7

Aelius Palladius (371-374)

15.4 Sources
Publius (c. 376)
Hendy, Michael F. (1985). Studies in the Byzan-
Bassianus (c. 379) tine Monetary Economy c. 3001450. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-24715-2.
Hadrianus (c. 379)
Palme, Bernhard (2007). The Imperial Presence:
Government and Army. In Bagnall, Roger S. Egypt
Iulianus (c. 380)
in the Byzantine World, 300-700. Cambridge Uni-
versity Press. pp. 244270. ISBN 0521871379.
Antoninus (381-382)

Palladius (382)

Hypatius (383)

Optatus (384)

Florentius (384-386)

Paulinus (386-387)

Eusebius (387)

Flavius Ulpius Erythrius (388)

Alexander (388-390)

Evagrius (391)

Hypatius (392)

Potamius (392)

Orestes (415)

Theognostus (c. 482)[8]

Petrus Marcellinus Felix Liberius (c. 539-542)

Chapter 16
Sasanian conquest of Egypt
Between 618 and 621 AD, the Sassanid Persian army de-
feated the Byzantine forces in Egypt and occupied the
province. The fall of Alexandria, the capital of Roman
Egypt, marked the rst and most important stage in the
Sassanid campaign to conquer this rich province, which
eventually fell completely under Persian rule within a cou-
ple of years. A good account of the event is given by
Butler. [2]
16.1 Background
The Persian shah, Khosrau II, had taken advantage of
the internal turmoil of the East Roman Empire after the
overthrow of Emperor Maurice by Phocas to attack the
Roman provinces in the East. By 615, the Persians had
driven the Romans out of northern Mesopotamia, Syria
and Palestine. Determined to eradicate Roman rule in
Asia, Khosrau turned his sight on Egypt, the East Roman
Empires granary.[3]
16.2 Fall of Egypt
The Persian invasion of Egypt began either in 617 or 618,
but little is known about the particulars of this campaign,
since the province was practically cut o from the re-
maining Roman territories.[4] The Persian army headed
for Alexandria, where Nicetas, Heraclius cousin and lo-
cal governor, was unable to oer eective resistance. He
and the Chalcedonian patriarch, John V, ed the city to
Cyprus.[3] According to the Khuzistan Chronicle, Alexan-
dria was then betrayed to the Persians by a certain Peter
in June 619.[5][6]
After the fall of Alexandria, the Persians gradually ex-
tended their rule southwards along the Nile.[4] Sporadic
resistance required some mopping-up operations, but by
621, the province was securely in Persian hands.[7]
16.3 Aftermath
Egypt would remain in Persian hands for 10 years, run
108
by general Shahrbaraz from Alexandria.[1] As the Roman
emperor, Heraclius, reversed the tide and defeated Khos-
rau, Shahrbaraz was ordered to evacuate the province,
but refused. In the end, Heraclius, trying both to recover
Egypt and to sow disunion amongst the Persians, oered
to help Shahrbaraz seize the Persian throne for himself.
An agreement was reached, and in the summer of 629,
the Persian troops began leaving Egypt.[1]
16.4 References
[1] Howard-Johnston (2006), p. 124
[2] A. J. Butler, The Arab Conquest of Egypt, (1902).
Reprinted (1978) by Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-
19-821678-5
[3] Frye (1993), p. 169
[4] Dodgeon et al. (2002), p. 196
[5] Dodgeon et al. (2002), pp. 196, 235
[6] Howard-Johnston (2006), pp. 10, 90
[7] Howard-Johnston (2006), p. 99
16.5 Sources
Dodgeon, Michael H.; Greatrex, Georey; Lieu,
Samuel N. C. (2002). The Roman Eastern Frontier
and the Persian Wars (Part I, 226363 AD). Rout-
ledge. pp. 19697. ISBN 0-415-00342-3.
Frye, R. N. (1993). The Political History of Iran
under the Sassanids. In Yarshater, Ehsan; Bailey,
Harold. The Cambridge History of Iran. Cambridge
University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-20092-9.
Howard-Johnston, James (2006). East Rome, Sasa-
nian Persia And the End of Antiquity: Historiograph-
ical And Historical Studies. Ashgate Publishing.
ISBN 0-86078-992-6.
Chapter 17

Outline of ancient Egypt

The following outline is provided as an overview of a top- Abydos

ical guide to ancient Egypt:
Alexandria
Ancient Egypt ancient civilization of eastern North
Africa, concentrated along the lower reaches of the Nile Al Fayyum/Atef-Pehu
River in what is now the modern country of Egypt.
Amarna/Akhetaten
Egyptian civilization coalesced around 3150 BCE (ac-
cording to conventional Egyptian chronology)[1] with the Aswan
political unication of Upper and Lower Egypt under
the rst pharaoh.[2] The many achievements of the an- Asyut
cient Egyptians include the quarrying, surveying and
Avaris
construction techniques that facilitated the building of
monumental pyramids, temples, and obelisks; a sys- Beni Hasan
tem of mathematics; a practical and eective system of
medicine; irrigation systems and agricultural production Bubastis
techniques; the rst known ships;[3] Egyptian faience and Buhen
glass technology; new forms of literature; and the earliest
known peace treaty.[4] Busiris (Lower Egypt)
Buto
17.1 What type of thing is Ancient Dahshur
Egypt? Deir el-Bahri
Deir el-Madinah
Ancient Egypt can be described as:
Edfu
an ancient civilization
El-Lahun
a Bronze Age civilization
Elephantine/Abu/Yebu
part of ancient history
Gebel el-Silsila
Gerzeh
17.2 Geography of ancient Egypt
Giza
17.2.1 Places Gaza

See also: Architecture of ancient Egypt Heliopolis/Annu/Iunu

Luxor

Abu Gorab Memphis/Ineb Hedj

Abu Mena Rosetta

Abu Rawash Saqqara
Abu Simbel Tanis/Djanet

109
110 CHAPTER 17. OUTLINE OF ANCIENT EGYPT

Thebes/Niwt/Waset 17.4 General history of ancient

Thinis Egypt

more... History of ancient Egypt

17.4.1 History of ancient Egypt, by period

17.3 Government and politics of
ancient Egypt Prehistoric Egypt The Prehistory of Egypt spans
the period of earliest human settlement to the be-
ginning of the Early Dynastic Period of Egypt in ca.
17.3.1 Pharaohs 3100 BCE.

Pharaoh An article about the history of the title
Pharaoh with descriptions of the regalia, crowns
and titles used.
List of pharaohs This article contains a list of the
pharaohs of Ancient Egypt, from the Early Dynastic
Period before 3000 BCE through to the end of the
Ptolemaic Dynasty
Ancient Egyptian royal titulary
17.3.2 Government Ocials
Naqada I or Amratian culture - a cultural pe-
riod in the history of predynastic Upper Egypt,
which lasted approximately from 4000 to 3500
BCE.
Naqada II or Gerzeh culture - The Gerzean is
the second of three phases of the Naqada Cul-
ture, and so is called Naqada II. It begins circa
3500 BCE lasting through circa 3200 BCE.
Naqada III or Semainean culture - Naqada III
is the last phase of the Naqadan period of
ancient Egyptian prehistory, dating approxi-
mately from 3200 to 3100 BCE.

Early Dynastic Period of Egypt The Archaic or

Vizier (Ancient Egypt) The vizier was the high-
est ocial in Ancient Egypt to serve the king, or
pharaoh during the Old, Middle, and New King-
doms.
Viceroy of Kush The Lower Nubian Kush was a
province of Egypt from the 16th century BCE to
eleventh century BCE. During this period it was
ruled by a viceroy who reported directly to the Egyp-
tian Pharaoh.
Treasurer (Ancient Egypt) The treasurer was re-
sponsible for products coming to the royal palace.
They were the main economical administrator of the
royal belongings.
17.3.3 Egyptian law
Egyptian law
17.3.4 Military of ancient Egypt
Military of ancient Egypt
Early Dynastic Period of Egypt immediately fol-
lows the unication of Lower and Upper Egypt c.
3100 BCE. It is generally taken to include:
The First dynasty of Egypt
The Second dynasty of Egypt
Old Kingdom The name given to the period in the
3rd millennium BCE when Egypt attained its rst
continuous peak of civilization in complexity and
achievement the rst of three so-called Kingdom
periods, which mark the high points of civilization
in the lower Nile Valley. This time period includes:
The Third dynasty of Egypt
The Fourth dynasty of Egypt
The Fifth dynasty of Egypt
The Sixth dynasty of Egypt
First Intermediate Period of Egypt This pe-
riod is often described as a dark period in ancient
Egyptian history, spanning approximately 140 years
after the end of the Old Kingdom from ca. 2181-
2055 BCE [5] It included:

Ancient egyptian warfare The Seventh and eighth dynasties of Egypt

The Ninth dynasty of Egypt
Chariotry in ancient Egypt
The Tenth dynasty of Egypt
Ancient Egyptian Navy Part of the Eleventh dynasty of Egypt
17.5. EGYPTOLOGY 111

Middle Kingdom of Egypt The period in the his-
tory of ancient Egypt between 2055 BCE and 1650
BCE This period includes:
Later part of the Eleventh dynasty of Egypt
The Twelfth dynasty of Egypt
The Thirteenth dynasty of Egypt
The Fourteenth dynasty of Egypt
Some writers include the Thirteenth and Fourteenth dy-
nasties in the Second Intermediate Period.
The Twenty-eighth dynasty of Egypt consisted
of a single king, Amyrtaeus, prince of Sais,
who rebelled against the Persians. This dy-
nasty lasted 6 years, from 404 BC to 398 BC.
The Twenty-ninth dynasty of Egypt ruled from
Mendes, for the period from 398 BC to 380
BC.
The Thirtieth Dynasty consisted of a series of
three pharaohs ruling from 380 BC until their
nal defeat in 343 BC lead to the re-occupation
by the Persians.

Graeco-Roman Period
Second Intermediate Period of Egypt (Hyksos)
a period when Ancient Egypt fell into disarray for a Arab Conquest
second time, between the end of the Middle King-
dom and the start of the New Kingdom. It is best
known as the period when the Hyksos made their 17.4.2 History of ancient Egypt, by region
appearance in Egypt and whose reign comprised
History of Alexandria
The Fifteenth dynasty of Egypt
The Sixteenth dynasty of Egypt.
17.4.3 History of ancient Egypt, by subject
New Kingdom of Egypt Also referred to as the
Egyptian Empire is the period in ancient Egyptian Military history of Ancient Egypt
history between the 16th century BCE and the 11th
Battle of Kadesh
century BCE, covering:

The Eighteenth dynasty of Egypt

The Nineteenth dynasty of Egypt
The Twentieth dynasty of Egypt.
Third Intermediate Period The time in Ancient
Egypt from the death of Pharaoh Ramesses XI in
1070 BCE to the foundation of the Twenty-Sixth
Dynasty by Psamtik I in 664 BCE
17.5 Egyptology
Egyptology study of ancient Egyptian history, language,
literature, religion, architecture and art from the 5th mil-
lennium BC until the end of its native religious practices
in the 4th century AD. A practitioner of the discipline is
an Egyptologist.

This period includes:

17.5.1 Egyptologists
The Twenty-rst dynasty of Egypt Egyptologist a practitioner of egyptology
The Twenty-second dynasty of Egypt
The Twenty-third dynasty of Egypt Margaret Benson
The Twenty-fourth dynasty of Egypt Alan Gardiner
The Twenty-fth dynasty of Egypt
Zahi Hawass
Late Period of ancient Egypt
Main articles: History of Persian Egypt and History Salima Ikram
of Achaemenid Egypt
William Matthew Flinders Petrie

Alan Gardiner
The Twenty-sixth dynasty of Egypt, also
known as the Saite Period, lasted from 672 Auguste Mariette
BCEto 525 BCE.
E. A. Wallis Budge
The Twenty-seventh dynasty of Egypt The
First Persian Period (525 BC - 404 BC), this douard Naville
period saw Egypt conquered by an expansive
Persian Empire under Cambyses. Edward R. Ayrton
112 CHAPTER 17. OUTLINE OF ANCIENT EGYPT

Bob Brier Ghosts in ancient Egyptian culture

Edwin Smith (Egyptologist) Homosexuality in ancient Egypt

Flinders Petrie Pectoral (Ancient Egypt)

Symbols of ancient Egypt
17.5.2 Museums with ancient Egyptian ex- Ankh
hibits
Djed
Egypt Wadjet
Was scepter
Cairo Museum of Egyptian Antiquities
Uraeus
Luxor Museum Pschent
Luxor Mummication Museum Hedjet
Deshret
France Atef
Reserve head
Louvre
Technology of ancient Egypt

Germany Chariotry in ancient Egypt

Obelisk building technology in ancient Egypt
Egyptian Museum of Berlin
Stone quarries of ancient Egypt
Urban planning in ancient Egypt
Italy
Ancient Egyptian technology
Museo Egizio, Turin Ancient Egyptian medicine
Ancient Egyptian units of measurement
Palermo Archeological Museum
Egyptian mathematics
Ancient Egyptian multiplication
United Kingdom

British Museum 17.6.1 Architecture of ancient Egypt

Petrie Museum of Egyptology
Ancient Egyptian architecture
Ashmolean Museum
Block statue (Egyptian)
United States of America False door

Metropolitan Museum of Art Step pyramid

Brooklyn Museum
Buildings and structures

Abu Simbel
17.6 Culture of ancient Egypt
Benben
Art of ancient Egypt
Deir el-Bahri
Amarna art
Colossi of Memnon
Dance in ancient Egypt
Egyptian pyramids L
Calendar
Bent Pyramid
Cats in ancient Egypt Black Pyramid
Cuisine of ancient Egypt Giza pyramid complex
17.6. CULTURE OF ANCIENT EGYPT 113

Great pyramid of Giza Nun and Naunet

Other major deities
Sphinx
Amun
Karnak Temple Anubis
Lighthouse of Alexandria Apep
Apis
Library of Alexandria
Aten
Luxor temple Bast
Hathor
Mastaba
Horus
Ramesseum Khepri
Serdab Chons
Ma'at
Min
17.6.2 Religion in ancient Egypt
Neith
Ancient Egyptian religion Ptah
Ra
Death Sekhmet
Sobek
Ancient Egyptian burial customs
Thoth
Canopic jars
Wepwawet
Mummy
Deied concepts
Ancient Egyptian funerary texts Chons
Book of Caverns Hapy
Book of Gates Ma'at
Book of the Dead Min
Book of the Earth Renenutet
Book of the Netherworld Shai
Books of Breathing Hu
Mortuary temple Sia
Ancient Egyptian oering formula War deities
Ancient Egyptian retainer sacrices Anhur
Bast
Egyptian mythology
Maahes
Ancient Egyptian creation myths Pakhet
Egyptian pantheon Sekhmet
Ennead Other deities
Atum Bes
Shu Chnum
Tefnut Seker
Geb Seshat
Nut (Nuit) Tawaret
Osiris Montu
Isis Nepthys
Set Bastet
Nephthys Ammit
Ogdoad of Hermopolis Bes
Amun and Amunet
Religious concepts
Huh and Hauhet
Kuk and Kauket Ba
114 CHAPTER 17. OUTLINE OF ANCIENT EGYPT

Ka 17.8 Scholars
Akh
Egyptologists
Duat
Margaret Benson
Atenism
Alan Gardiner
Egyptian soul
Zahi Hawass
Ennead
Salima Ikram
William Matthew Flinders Petrie
17.6.3 Ancient Egyptian language Alan Gardiner
Auguste Mariette
Ancient Egyptian language
E. A. Wallis Budge
Stages of ancient Egyptian language douard Naville
Edward R. Ayrton
Archaic Egyptian before 2600 BC, the lan-
Bob Brier
guage of the Early Dynastic Period. Egyptian
writing in the form of labels and signs has been Edwin Smith (Egyptologist)
dated to 3200 BC. Flinders Petrie
Old Egyptian 2686 BC 2181 BC, the lan-
guage of the Old Kingdom
Middle Egyptian 2055 BC 1650 BC, char-
17.9 Publications about ancient
acterized the Middle Kingdom (2055 BC Egypt
1650 BC), but endured through the early 18th
Dynasty until the Amarna Period(1353 BC), Ancient Egypt (magazine)
and continued on as a literary language into the
4th century AD. Ancient Egyptian Hieroglyphs: A Practical Guide
Late Egyptian 1069 BC 700 BC, character- Hieroglyphics: The Writings of Ancient Egypt
ized the Third Intermediate Period (1069 BC
700 BC), but started earlier with the Amarna The Hieroglyphs of Ancient Egypt
Period (1353 BC).
Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt
Demotic 7th century BC 5th century AD,
from the Late Period through Roman times Reading Egyptian Art: A Hieroglyphic Guide to An-
cient Egyptian Painting and Sculpture
Coptic 1st century AD 17th century AD,
from early Roman times to early modern times

Egyptian writing
17.10 See also
Hieroglyphs Outline of classical studies
Hieratic
Egyptian calendar
Demotic
Beautiful festival of the valley
Ancient Egyptian literature
Transliteration of Ancient Egyptian Egyptian burial rituals and protocol

Racial characteristics of ancient Egyptians

Writing in Ancient Egypt
Ancient Egyptian race controversy

Ancient Egypt in the Western imagination

17.7 Egyptian economy
Ancient Egyptian Boats (First Dynasty) Abydos
Foreign contacts of ancient Egypt Ancient Egyptian Deities in popular culture

Palace economy Ancient Egyptian cattle

17.12. EXTERNAL LINKS 115

Ancient Egyptian units of measurement

Ancient Egyptians (TV series)

Architecture and sculptures of Ancient Egypt

Cities of ancient Egypt

Glossary of Ancient Egypt artifacts

List of portraiture oerings with Ancient Egyptian

hieroglyphs

Portraiture in Ancient Egypt

Ancient Egyptian lists

List of ancient Egypt topics

List of ancient Egyptian dynasties

List of ancient Egyptian palettes

List of ancient Egyptian papyri

List of ancient Egyptian scribes

List of ancient Egyptian sites

List of ancient Egyptians

Adjectival and demonymic forms of regions in
Greco-Egyptian antiquity

17.11 References
[1] Chronology. Digital Egypt for Universities, University
College London. Retrieved 25 March 2008.

[2] Dodson (2004) p. 46

[3] Ward, Cheryl. "Worlds Oldest Planked Boats", in

Archaeology (Volume 54, Number 3, May/June 2001).
Archaeological Institute of America.

[4] Clayton (1994) p. 153

[5] Kathryn A. Bard, An Introduction to the Archaeology of

Ancient Egypt (Malden: Blackwell Publishing, 2008), 41.

17.12 External links

Chapter 18

Cities of the ancient Near East

The earliest cities in history appear in the ancient Near

East. The area of the ancient Near East covers roughly
that of the modern Middle East; its history begins in the
4th millennium BC and ends, depending on the inter-
pretation of the term, either with the conquest by the
Achaemenid Empire in the 6th century BC or that by
Alexander the Great in the 4th century BC.
The largest cities of the Bronze Age Near East housed
several tens of thousands. Memphis in the Early Bronze
Age with some 30,000 inhabitants was the largest city of
the time by far. Ur in the Middle Bronze Age is esti-
mated to have had some 65,000 inhabitants; Babylon in
the Late Bronze Age similarly had a population of some
5060,000, while Niniveh had some 2030,000, reaching
100,000 only in the Iron Age (ca. 700 BC).
The KI determinative was the Sumerian term for a
city or city state.[1] In Akkadian and Hittite orthogra-
phy, URU became a determinative sign denoting a city,
or combined with KUR land the kingdom or terri-
tory controlled by a city, e.g. LUGAL KUR
URU
Ha-at-ti the king of the country of (the city of)
Hatti".

18.1 Mesopotamia
Further information: Geography of Mesopotamia and
Mesopotamia

18.1.1 Lower Mesopotamia

(ordered from north to south)

Eshnunna (Tell) Kutha (Tell Ibrahim)

Diniktum Jemdet Nasr (NI.RU)
Tutub (Khafajah) Kish (Tell Uheimir & Ingharra)
Der (Tell Aqar, Durum?) Babilim (Babylon)
Sippar (Tell Abu Habbah) Borsippa (Birs Nimrud)
Sippar-Amnanum (Tell ed-Der) Mashkan-shapir (Tell Abu Duwari)

116
18.1. MESOPOTAMIA 117

Dilbat (Tell ed-Duleim) Urfa

Nippur (Afak) Shanidar cave

Marad (Tell Wannat es-Sadum) Urkesh (Tell Mozan)

Adab (Tell Bismaya) Tell Leilan (Shekhna, Shubat-Enlil)

Isin (Ishan al-Bahriyat) Tell Arbid

Kisurra (Tell Abu Hatab) Harran

Shuruppak (Tell Fara) Chagar Bazar

Bad-tibira (Tell al-Madineh?) Itabalhum

Zabalam (Tell Ibzeikh) Kahat (Tell Barri)

Umma (Tell Jokha) Tell el Fakhariya (Washukanni?)

Girsu (Tello or Telloh) Hadatu

Lagash (Tell al-Hiba) Carchemish (Djerabis)

Urum (Tell Uqair) Til Barsip

Uruk (Warka) Tell Chuera

Larsa (Tell as-Senkereh) Mumbaqat (Tall Munbqa, also Ekalte (Mum-

baqat))
Ur (Tell al-Muqayyar)
Al-Rawda
Kuara (Tell al-Lahm)
Nabada l Beydar)
Eridu (Tell Abu Shahrain)
Nagar (Tell Brak)
Tell al-'Ubaid
Telul eth-Thalathat
Akshak
Tepe Gawra
Akkad
Tell Arpachiyah (Tepe Reshwa)

18.1.2 Upper Mesopotamia Shibaniba (Tell Billa)

Tarbisu (Sherif Khan)
Nineveh (Ninua)
Qatara or Karana (Tell al-Rimah)
Tell Hamoukar
Dur Sharrukin (Khorsabad)
Tell Shemshara
Arbil (Urbilim, Arba-Ilu)
Tell Taya
Tell Hassuna
Balawat (Imgur-Enlil)
Tell es-Sweyhat
Map of Syria in the second millennium BC Nimrud (Kalhu)
(ordered from north to south) Emar (Tell Meskene)
118 CHAPTER 18. CITIES OF THE ANCIENT NEAR EAST

Qal'at Jarmo 18.2.1 Tepe Sialk

Arrapha Susa

Kar-Tukulti-Ninurta Kabnak (Haft Tepe)

Dur Untash (Chogha Zanbil)

Assur
Shahr-i-Sokhte
Shubat-Enlil
Pasargadai
Ekallatum
Naqsh-e Rustam
Nuzi (Yorghan Tepe, Gasur)
Estakhr (Istakhr)
Tell al-Fakhar (Kuruhanni?) Parsa (Persepolis)
Terqa (Tell Ashara) Tall-i Bakun

Doura Europos Anshan (Tall-i Malyan or Tepe Malyan)

Mari (Tell Hariri) Konar Sandal

Shimashki (Kerman)
Haradum (Khirbet ed-Diniyeh)
Tepe Yahya
Tell es Sawwan
Marhasi (Warae, Marhai, Marhashi, Parhasi,
Nerebtum or Kiti (Tell Ishchali) Barhasi)

Tell Agrab

Dur-Kurigalzu (Aqar Quf)

18.3 Anatolia

Shaduppum (Tell Harmal)

Seleucia

Ctesiphon (Taq Kisra)

Zenobia (Halabiye)

Zalabiye

Hatra
Settlements of Bronze Age Anatolia, based on Hittite records.

18.2 Zagros ( West and South ) (ordered from north to south)

(ordered from north to south) Miletus

Sfard (Sardis)
Hamedan ( Ecbatana or Hegmataneh )
Nicaea
Takht-i-Suleiman
Sapinuwa
Behistun
Yazilikaya
Godin Tepe
Alaca Hyk
Awan Maat Hyk

Chogha Mish Alishar Hyk

18.4. THE LEVANT 119

Hattusa Bet Shemesh (house of Shamash)

Ilios (Wilusa, Ilion, Troas, Troy) Bet-el

Kanesh (Nesa, Kltepe) Bethsaida (later name of the capital of Geshur; et-
Tell)
Arslantepe (Malatya)
Bezer (Bosra in Syria)
ayn (Amed, Diyarbakir)
Byblos (Gubla, Kepen)
Sam'al (Zincirli Hyk)
Dan, former Laish (Tel Dan, Tell el-Qadi)
atalhyk
Damascus (Dimasqu, Dimashq)
Beycesultan
Deir Alla (Pethor?)
Karatepe
Dhiban (Dibon)
Tushhan (Ziyaret Tepe)
Dor (D-jr, Dora)
Adana
Ebla (Tell Mardikh)
Tarsus
En Gedi, also Hazazon-tamar (Tel Goren)
Zephyrion (Mersin)
Enfeh (Ampi)
Gzlkule
Ekron (Tel Miqne, Khirbet el-Muqanna)
Sultantepe
Et-Tell (Ai?)
Attalia (Antalya)
Gath

Gaza
18.4 The Levant
Gezer
In alphabetical order: Gibeah (Tell el-Ful?)

Acco (Acre) Gomorrah

Admah (one of the ve cities of the plain) Hamath (Hama, Epiphania)

Adoraim (Adora, Dura) Hazor

Alalah (Alalakh) Hebron

Aleppo Jawa

Aphek (Antipatris, Tell Ak) Jericho (Tell es-Sultan)

Arad (Arad Rabbah?; Tel Arad)

Jerusalem (Jebus, City of David, Zion)
Arqa (Arkat)
Jezreel
Arwad (island o Tartus; Aradus, Arvad, Arphad,
Ruad Island) Kabri (one of several cities called Rehov)
Ashdod Kadesh Barnea
Ashkelon Kedesh (Qadesh in Galilee)
Baalbek (Heliopolis) Khirbet Kerak (Tel Bet Yerah; later Al-Sinnabra)
Batroun (Botrys) Khirbet el-Qom (Makkedah/Maqqedah)
Beersheba (Tel Sheva, Tell es-Seba) Khirbet Qeiyafa (Sha'arayim? / Neta'im?)

Beth Shean (Beth Shan) Kir of Moab (Kerak)

120 CHAPTER 18. CITIES OF THE ANCIENT NEAR EAST

Ugarit (Ras Shamra)

Umm el-Marra

Zeboim

Zemar (Sumura, Sumur)

Zoara (Zoar, Bela)

18.5 Arabian Peninsula

Main article: Ancient towns in Saudi Arabia

Kumidi (Kamid al lawz)

Lachish (Tel Lachish, Tell ed-Duweir)
Megiddo (Tel Megiddo, Tell el-Mutesellim)
Qatna (Tell Mishrifeh)
Rabat Amon (Hellenistic Philadelphia)
The Arabian Peninsula and the Horn of Africa, separated by just
Rehov (Jordan Valley) (Tel Rehov) a few miles of the Red Sea, have a history of related settlements,
especially near the coast.
Samaria (Shomron)
Sarepta
Bakkah (Mecca)
Sharuhen (Tell el-Far'ah South?, Tell el-'Ajjul?, Tel
Haror?) Barbar Temple

Shiloh Dedan (Al-`Ula)

Sidon Dibba Al-Hisn

Sodom Dumat Al-Jandal (Dumah)

Tadmor (Palmyra) Eudaemon

Tall Zira'a aram

Tell Balata (Shechem) Kaminahu (Kamna)

Tell el-Hesi (Eglon?) Lihyan

Tell Kazel Qal'at al-Bahrain

Tell Qarqur (Karkar?) Qarnwu (Krna)

Tell Tweini (Gibala?) Mada'in Saleh (Al-Hijr, el Hijr, and Hegra)

Tirzah (Tell el-Farah North) Ma'rib

Tyros (Tylos, Tyre) irw

18.9. NOMES 121

Tayma (Tema)
Tell Abraq
Ubar (Aram, Iram, Irum, Irem, Erum)
Yathrib (Medina)

18.6 Kerma (Doukki Gel)

Jebel Barkal
Napata
Mero
Aksum (Axum)
The nomes of Ancient Egypt, in lower Egypt

18.7 Horn of Africa

Adulis
Keskese
Matara
Qohaito
Sembel
Yeha

18.8 Egypt
Main article: List of ancient Egyptian sites

This is a list of ancient Egyptian sites, throughout all

of Egypt and Nubia. Sites are listed by their classical
name whenever possible, if not by their modern name,
and lastly with their ancient name if no other is available.

18.9 Nomes
A nome is a subnational administrative division of An-
cient Egypt.

18.9.1 Lower Egypt

18.9.2 Upper Egypt

Nome 1: Land of the arch or To Khentit: the frontier The nomes of Ancient Egypt, in upper Egypt
(Ta-Seti)
Nome 2: Throne of Horus Nome 4: The sceptre

Nome 3: The rural (Shrine) Nome 5: The two falcons

122 CHAPTER 18. CITIES OF THE ANCIENT NEAR EAST

Nome 6: The crocodile Khufus Pyramid (Great Pyramid)

Khafres Pyramid
Nome 7: Sistrum
Menkaures Pyramid
Nome 8: Great lands Great Sphinx of Giza
Nome 9: Minu (Min) Heliopolis (Modern: "Tell Hisn", Ancient:
"Iunu")
Nome 10: Cobra
Letopolis (Modern: "Ausim", Ancient:
Nome 11: The Set animal (Seth) "Khem")
Nome 12: Viper mountain Hermopolis Parva (Modern: "El-Baqliya" Ancient:
"Ba'h")
Nome 13: Upper pomegranate tree (Upper
Sycamore and Viper) Iseum (Modern: "Behbeit el-Hagar", Ancient:
"Hebyt")
Nome 14: Lower pomegranate tree (Lower
Sycamore and Viper) Kom el-Hisn (Ancient: "Imu" or "Yamu")
Nome 15: Hare Leontopolis (Yahudiya) (Modern: "Tell el-
Yahudiya", Ancient: "Nay-Ta-Hut")
Nome 16: Oryx
Leontopolis (Modern: "Tell el-Muqdam")
Nome 17: The black dog (Jackal)
Nome 18: Falcon with spread wings (Nemty) Naukratis (Modern: "el-Gi'eif", "el-Niqrash",el-
Nibeira")
Nome 19: The pure sceptre (Two Sceptres)
Memphite Necropolis (Memphis)
Nome 20: Upper laurel (Southern Sycamore)
Abu Ghurab
Nome 21: Lower laurel (Northern Sycamore) Abusir (Busiris)
Nome 22: Knife Pyramid of Neferefre
Pyramid of Neferirkare
Pyramid of Nyuserre
18.10 Lower Egypt (The Nile Pyramid of Sahure
Delta) Sun temple of Nyuserre
Sun temple of Userkaf
Alexandria Dahshur
Great Library of Alexandria Bent Pyramid
Pharos of Alexandria Black Pyramid
Pompeys Pillar Red Pyramid
White Pyramid
Athribis (Modern: "Tell Atrib", Ancient: "Hut-
Heryib" or "Hut-Tahery-Ibt") Helwan
Mit Rahina
Avaris (Modern: "Tell el-Dab'a", Ancient: "Pi-
Ri'amsese") Saqqara
Sekhemkhet's Buried Pyramid
Behbeit el-Hagar
Gisr el-mudir
Bilbeis Haram el-Shawaf
Bubastis (Modern: "Tell Basta", Ancient: "Bast") Mazghuna
Pyramid of Ibi
Busiris (Modern: "Abu Sir Bana") Pyramid of Khendjer
Buto (Modern: "Tell el-Fara'in", Ancient: "Pe") Pyramid of Teti
Pyramid of Unas
Cairo (or near Cairo)
Pyramid of Userkaf
Abu Rawash Step Pyramid of Djoser
Giza Necropolis (Giza Plateau) Southern South Saqqara pyramid
18.12. UPPER EGYPT 123

Zawyet el'Aryan el-'Amarna (Ancient: "Akhetaten")

Mendes (Modern: "Tell el-Rub'a", Ancient: "'An- el-Sheikh Sa'id

pet")
Faiyum
Tell Tebilla
Crocodilopolis (Hellenistic: "Arsinoe")
Qantir / El-Khata'na
el-Lahun
Sais (Modern: "Sa el-Hagar", Ancient: "Zau") el-Lisht
Saft el-Hinna (Ancient: "Per-Sopdu") Hawara
Herakleopolis Magna (Modern: "Ihnasiyyah
Sebennytos (Modern: "Samannud", Ancient: "Tjeb-
al-Madinah", Ancient: "Henen-Nesut")
nutjer")
Kom Medinet Ghurab
Shagamba
Meidum
Suwa Sidment el-Gebel
Taposiris Magna (Modern: "Abusir") Seila
Tarkhan
Tanis (Modern: "San el-Hagar", Ancient:
"Djan'net") Hermopolis Magna (Modern: "El Ashmunein", An-
cient: "Khmun")
Tell el-Maskhuta (Ancient: "Tjeku")
Hebenu (Modern: "Kom el-Ahmar")
Tell el-Rataba
Beni Hasan
Tell el-Sahaba
Speos Artemidos (Modern: "Istabl 'Antar")
Tell Nabasha
Zawyet el-Maiyitin
Tell Qua'
Hur (Ancient: "Herwer")
Terenuthis (Modern: "Kom Abu Billo")
Lykopolis (Modern: "Asyut", Ancient: "Zawty")
Thmuis (Modern: "Tell el-Timai")
Meir
Tura
Oxyrhynchus (Modern: "el-Bahnasa", Ancient:
Xois (Modern: "Sakha") "Per-Medjed")

Sharuna
18.11 Middle Egypt Tuna el-Gebel

The area from about Al Fayyum to Asyut is usually re-

ferred to as Middle Egypt. 18.12 Upper Egypt
Akoris (Modern: "Tihna el-Gebel") 18.12.1 Northern Upper Egypt
Fraser Tombs
Abydos (Ancient: "Abedju")
Ankyronpolis (Modern: "el-Hiba", Ancient: "Teud-
joi") el-'Araba el Madfuna
Kom el-Sultan
Antinoopolis (Modern: "el-Sheikh 'Ibada")
Umm el-Qa'ab
Deir el-Bersha Shunet ez Zebib
Deir el-Gabrawi Osireion

Dishasha Apollinopolis Parva (Modern: "Qus", Ancient:

"Gesa" or "Gesy")
Dja (Modern: "Medinet Madi" Ancient: "Nar-
mouthis") Qus Necropolis
124 CHAPTER 18. CITIES OF THE ANCIENT NEAR EAST

Antaeopolis (Modern: "Qaw el-Kebir", Ancient: Gebel el-Silsila (Ancient: "Kheny")

"Tjebu" or "Djew-Qa")
Hermonthis (Modern: "Armant", Ancient: "Iuny")
Ar Raqqinah (Known as "Reqaqnah")
Hierakonpolis (Modern: "Kom el-Ahmar", Ancient:
Athribis (Modern: "Wannina", Ancient: "Hut- "Nekhen")
Repyt")
Kom al-Ahmar Necropolis
Beit Khallaf
Kom Ombo
Tentyris (Modern: "Dendera", Ancient: "Iunet" or
"Tantere") Ombos (Modern: "Kom Ombo", Ancient:
"Nubt")
Temple of Hathor
Latopolis (Modern: "Esna", Ancient: "Iunyt, Senet,
Diospolis Parva (Modern: "Hiw", Ancient: "Hut- Tasenet")
Sekhem")
Medamud
el-Hawawish
Thebes (Modern: "Luxor", Ancient: "Niwt-rst" or
el-Salamuni "Waset")

Khemmis or Panopolis (Modern: "Akhmin", An- Deir el-Medina

cient: "Ipu" or "Khent-Min") Temple of Hathor
Gebel el-Haridi Workmens Village
Workmens Tombs
Khenoboskion (Modern: "el-Qasr", "el-Saiyad")
Shrine to Meretseger & Ptah
Koptos (Modern: "Qift", Ancient: "Gebtu") Deir el-Bahri
Naga ed-Der Mortuary Temple of Hatshepsut
Mortuary Temple of Mentuhotep II
Nag' el-Madamud (Ancient: "Mabu") Mortuary Temple of Thotmose III
Ombos (Naqada) (Modern: "Naqada", Ancient: el-Malqata
"Nubt") Palace of Amenhotep III
Shanhr Deir el-Shelwit
Karnak (Ancient: "Ipet-Isut")
18.12.2 Southern Upper Egypt Temple of Amenhotep IV
Precinct of Amon-Re
Aphroditopolis (Modern: "Gebelein", Ancient: Precinct of Montu
"Per-Hathor") Precinct of Mut
Apollinopolis Magna (Modern: "Edfu", Ancient: Luxor (Ancient: "Ipet-Resyt")
"Djeba, Mesen") Temple of Amun
Aswan Medinet Habu
Mortuary Temple & Palace of Ramesses
Agilkia Island
III
Elephantine Island Mortuary Temple of Ay & Horemheb
New Kalabsha Mortuary Temple of Amenhotep III
Northern Granite Quarries Colossi of Memnon
Philae Island Mortuary Temple of Merneptah
Qubbet el-Hawa Mortuary Temple of Ramesses IV
Sehel Island Mortuary Temple of Thutmose IV
Southern Granite Quarries Mortuary Temple of Thutmose III
el-Mo'alla (Ancient: "Hefat") Qasr el-'Aguz
Eileithyiaspolis (Modern: "el-Kab", Ancient: Temple of Thoth
"Nekheb") Qurna
18.14. UPPER NUBIA 125

Mortuary Temple of Seti I Pselchis (Modern: "el-Dakka", Ancient: "Pselqet")

Tombs of the Nobles Temple of Dakka
el-Assasif
el-Khokha Talmis (Modern: "Kalabsha")
el-Tarif Beit el-Wali
Dra' Abu el-Naga'
Temple of Derr
Qurnet Murai
Gerf Hussein
Sheikh Abd el-Qurna
Ramesseum (Mortuary Temple of Ramesses Qasr Ibrim
II)
Wadi es-Sebua
Valley of the Kings (Modern: "Wadi el-
Muluk") Taphis (Modern: "Tafa")
Valley of the Queens (Modern: "Biban el-
Tutzis (Modern: "Dendur")
Harim")
Tzitzis (Modern: "Qertassi")
Tuphium (Modern: "Tod", Ancient: "Djerty")

18.13 Lower Nubia 18.14 Upper Nubia

'Amara East

'Amara West[2]

Abahuda (Abu Oda)

Aksha (Serra West)

Askut Island

Buhen

Dabenarti

Dibeira

Dorginarti Island

Faras

Gebel el-Shams

Gebel Barkal
Map of Nubia Kor

Kumma
Amada
Meinarti Island
Abu Simbel
Qustul
Contra Pselchis (Modern: "Quban", Ancient:
"Baki") Semna

Debod Semna South

el-Lessiya Serra East

Mi'am (Modern: "'Aniba") Shalfak

Primis (Modern: "Qasr Ibrim") Uroarti Island

126 CHAPTER 18. CITIES OF THE ANCIENT NEAR EAST

18.15 The Oases and Pelusium (Sin)

Mediterranean coast Rud el-'Air

Siwa Oasis Serabit el-Khadim

Aghurmi Tell Kedwa

el-Zeitun Wadi Maghareh

Gebel el-Mawta
Qaret el-Musabberin
18.17 Eastern Desert
Umm el-'Ebeida
Bahriya Oasis Wadi Hammamat

el-Qasr
el-Bawiti 18.18 Notes and references
el-Hayz
[1] Electronic Pennsylvania Sumerian Dictionary (EPSD)
Farafra Oasis
[2] The British Museum, Amara West: investigating life in an
'Ain el-Wadi Egyptian town
el-Qasr
el-Dakhla Oasis 18.19 Bibliography
Amheida
Atlas of Ancient Egypt, John Baines & Jaromir
Balat
Malek, America University of Cairo Press, 2002
Deir el-Hager
el-Qasr
Kellis (Modern: "Ismant el-Kharab") 18.20 See also
Mut el-Kharab
City-state
Qaret el-Muzawwaqa
Sumerian King List
el-Kharga Oasis
Historical cities
Baris
Gebel el-Teir Short chronology timeline

Hibis List of oldest continuously inhabited cities

Kysis (Modern: "Dush")
Nadurs
18.21 References
Qasr el-Ghueida
Qasr Zaiyan
18.22 External links
Mediterranean Coast
Geospatial: Mapping Iraqs Ancient Cities
Zawiyet Umm el-Rakham
Ancient cities grew pretty much like modern ones,
say scientists (February 2015), Christian Science
18.16 Sinai Monitor

Aqaba
Arsinoe
Eilat (Elath)
Kuntillet Ajrud
Chapter 19

History of ancient Egypt

The history of ancient Egypt spans the period from the 19.2 Neolithic Egypt
early prehistoric settlements of the northern Nile valley
to the Roman conquest, in 30 BC. The Pharaonic Pe-
19.2.1 Neolithic period
riod is dated from the 32nd century BC, when Upper and
Lower Egypt were unied, until the country fell under
The Nile has been the lifeline for Egyptian culture since
Macedonian rule, in 332 BC.
nomadic hunter-gatherers began living along it during the
Pleistocene. Traces of these early people appear in the
form of artifacts and rock carvings along the terraces of
19.1 Chronology the Nile and in the oases. To the Egyptians the Nile meant
life and the desert meant death, though the desert did pro-
Note For alternative 'revisions to the chronology of vide them protection from invaders.
Egypt, see Egyptian chronology. Along the Nile in the 12th millennium, an Upper Pale-
olithic grain-grinding culture using the earliest type of
sickle blades had replaced the culture of hunting, shing,
Egypts history is split into several dierent periods ac-
and hunter-gatherers using stone tools. Evidence also in-
cording to the ruling dynasty of each pharaoh. The dating
dicates human habitation and cattle herding in the south-
of events is still a subject of research. The conservative
western corner of Egypt near the Sudan border before the
dates are not supported by any reliable absolute date for
8th millennium BC.
a span of about three millennia. The following is the list
according to conventional Egyptian chronology. Despite this, the idea of an independent bovine domesti-
cation event in Africa must be abandoned because subse-
quent evidence gathered over a period of thirty years has
Prehistoric Egypt (Prior to 3100 BC)
failed to corroborate this.[1]
Naqada III (the protodynastic period"; approxi- The oldest-known domesticated cattle remains in Africa
mately 31003000 BC) are from the Faiyum c. 4400 BC.[2] Geological evidence
and computer climate modeling studies suggest that nat-
Early Dynastic Period (FirstSecond Dynasties) ural climate changes around the 8th millennium began
to desiccate the extensive pastoral lands of North Africa,
Old Kingdom (ThirdSixth Dynasties) eventually forming the Sahara by the 25th century BC.

First Intermediate Period (Seventh and Eighth Continued desiccation forced the early ancestors of the
Eleventh Dynasties) Egyptians to settle around the Nile more permanently and
forced them to adopt a more sedentary lifestyle. How-
Middle Kingdom (TwelfthThirteenth Dynasties) ever, the period from 9th to the 6th millennium BC has
left very little in the way of archaeological evidence.
Second Intermediate Period (Fourteenth
Seventeenth Dynasties)
19.2.2 Prehistoric Egypt
New Kingdom (EighteenthTwentieth Dynasties)
Main article: Prehistoric Egypt
Third Intermediate Period (also known as the Further information: Naqada
Libyan Period; Twenty-rstTwenty-fth Dynas- The Nile valley of Egypt was basically uninhabitable un-
ties) til the work of clearing and irrigating the land along the
banks was started.[3] However it appears that this clear-
Late Period (Twenty-sixthThirty-rst Dynasties) ance and irrigation was largely under way by the 6th mil-

127
128
A Gerzeh culture vase decorated with gazelles, on display at the
Louvre.
lennium. By that time, Nile society was already engaged
in organized agriculture and the construction of large
buildings.[4]
At this time, Egyptians in the southwestern corner of
Egypt were herding cattle and also constructing large
buildings. Mortar was in use by the 4th millennium.
The people of the valley and the Nile Delta were self-
sucient and were raising barley and emmer, an early va-
riety of wheat, and stored it in pits lined with reed mats.[5]
They raised cattle, goats and pigs and they wove linen and
baskets.[5] Prehistory continues through this time, vari-
ously held to begin with the Amratian culture.
Between 5500 BC and the 31st century BC, small settle-
ments ourished along the Nile, whose delta empties into
the Mediterranean Sea.
The Tasian culture was the next to appear; it existed
in Upper Egypt starting about 4500 BC. This group
is named for the burials found at Deir Tasa, a site on
the east bank of the Nile between Asyut and Akhmim.
The Tasian culture is notable for producing the earliest
blacktop-ware, a type of red and brown pottery painted
black on its top and interior.[6]
The Badari culture, named for the Badari site near Deir
Tasa, followed the Tasian; however, similarities mean
many avoid dierentiating between them at all. The
Badari culture continued to produce the kind of pot-
tery called blacktop-ware (although its quality was much
improved over previous specimens), and was assigned
the sequence dating numbers between 21 and 29.[7] The
signicant dierence, however, between the Tasian and
Badari, which prevents scholars from completely merg-
CHAPTER 19. HISTORY OF ANCIENT EGYPT
ing the two, is that Badari sites are Chalcolithic while the
Tasian sites remained Neolithic and are thus considered
technically part of the Stone Age.[7]
The Amratian culture is named after the site of el-Amreh,
about 120 kilometres (75 mi) south of Badari. El-Amreh
was the rst site where this culture was found unmingled
with the later Gerzeh culture. However, this period is
better attested at Nagada, and so is also referred to as
the Naqada I culture.[8] Black-topped ware continued
to be produced, but white cross-line ware, a type of pot-
tery decorated with close parallel white lines crossed by
another set of close parallel white lines, began to be pro-
duced during this time. The Amratian period falls be-
tween S.D. 30 and 39.[9] Newly excavated objects indi-
cate that trade between Upper and Lower Egypt existed
at this time. A stone vase from the north was found at
el-Amreh, and copper, which is not present in Egypt, was
apparently imported from the Sinai Peninsula or perhaps
Nubia. Obsidian[10] and an extremely small amount of
gold[9] were both denitively imported from Nubia dur-
ing this time. Trade with the oases was also likely.[10]
The Gerzeh culture (Naqada II), named after the site
of el-Gerzeh, was the next stage in cultural development,
and it was during this time that the foundation for ancient
Egypt was laid. The Gerzeh culture was largely an unbro-
ken development out of the Amratian, starting in the Nile
Delta and moving south through Upper Egypt; however, it
failed to dislodge the Amratian in Nubia.[11] The Gerzeh
culture coincided with a signicant drop in rainfall[11]
and farming produced the vast majority of food.[11] With
increased food supplies, the populace adopted a much
more sedentary lifestyle, and the larger settlements grew
to cities of about 5000 residents.[11] It was in this time
that the city dwellers started using adobe to build their
cities.[11] Copper instead of stone was increasingly used to
make tools[11] and weaponry.[12] Silver, gold, lapis lazuli
(imported from Badakhshan in what is now Afghanistan),
and Egyptian faience were used ornamentally,[13] and the
cosmetic palettes used for eye paint since the Badari cul-
ture began to be adorned with reliefs.[12]
By the 33rd century BC, just before the First Dynasty of
Egypt, Egypt was divided into two kingdoms known from
later times as Upper Egypt to the south and Lower Egypt
to the north.[14] The dividing line was drawn roughly in
the area of modern Cairo.
19.3 Dynastic Egypt
19.3.1 Early dynastic period
Main article: Early Dynastic Period (Egypt)
The historical records of ancient Egypt begin with Egypt
as a unied state, which occurred sometime around 3150
BC. According to Egyptian tradition, Menes, thought to
have unied Upper and Lower Egypt, was the rst king.
19.3. DYNASTIC EGYPT 129

to ancient Egypt. There also are several possible spellings

of the names. Typically, Egyptologists divide the history
of pharaonic civilization using a schedule laid out rst
by Manetho's Aegyptiaca, which was written during the
Ptolemaic Kingdom during the third century BC.
Prior to the unication of Egypt, the land was settled with
autonomous villages. With the early dynasties, and for
much of Egypts history thereafter, the country came to
be known as the Two Lands. The pharaohs established a
national administration and appointed royal governors.
According to Manetho, the rst pharaoh was Menes, but
archeological ndings support the view that the rst ruler
to claim to have united the two lands was Narmer, the
nal king of the Naqada III period. His name is known
primarily from the famous Narmer Palette, whose scenes
have been interpreted as the act of uniting Upper and
Lower Egypt. Menes is now thought to be one of the titles
of Hor-Aha, the second pharaoh of the First Dynasty.
Funeral practices for the elite resulted in the construc-
tion of mastabas, which later became models for subse-
quent Old Kingdom constructions such as the step pyra-
mid, thought to have originated during the Third Dynasty
of Egypt.

19.3.2 Old Kingdom

Main article: Old Kingdom of Egypt

The Old Kingdom is most commonly regarded as span-
ning the period of time when Egypt was ruled by the
Third Dynasty through to the Sixth Dynasty (26862181
BCE). The royal capital of Egypt during this period was
located at Memphis, where Djoser (26302611 BCE) es-
tablished his court.
The Old Kingdom is perhaps best known, however, for
the large number of pyramids, which were constructed at
this time as pharaonic burial places. For this reason, this
epoch is frequently referred to as the Age of the Pyra-
Stela of the Second Dynasty pharaoh Nebra, displaying the hiero- mids. The rst notable pharaoh of the Old Kingdom was
glyph for his Horus name within a serekh surmounted by Horus. Djoser of the Third Dynasty, who ordered the construc-
On display at the Metropolitan Museum of Art. tion of the rst pyramid, the Pyramid of Djoser, in Mem-
phis necropolis of Saqqara.
It was in this era that formerly independent states became
This Egyptian culture, customs, art expression, architec- nomes (districts) ruled solely by the pharaoh. Former
ture, and social structure was closely tied to religion, re-local rulers were forced to assume the role of nomarch
markably stable, and changed little over a period of nearly (governor) or work as tax collectors. Egyptians in this
3000 years. era worshiped the pharaoh as a god, believing that he en-
Egyptian chronology, which involves regnal years, be- sured the annual ooding of the Nile that was necessary
gan around this time. The conventional chronology was for their crops.
accepted during the twentieth century, but it does not The Old Kingdom and its royal power reached their
include any of the major revision proposals that also zenith under the Fourth Dynasty. Sneferu, the dynastys
have been made in that time. Even within a single founder, is believed to have commissioned at least three
work, archaeologists often oer several possible dates, or pyramids; while his son and successor Khufu (Greek
even several whole chronologies as possibilities. Conse- Cheops) erected the Great Pyramid of Giza, Sneferu had
quently, there may be discrepancies between dates shown more stone and brick moved than any other pharaoh.
here and in articles on particular rulers or topics related Khufu, his son Khafra (Greek Chephren), and his grand-
130 CHAPTER 19. HISTORY OF ANCIENT EGYPT

cialists, including stonecutters, painters, mathematicians

and priests.
The Fifth Dynasty began with Userkaf c. 2495 BC and
was marked by the growing importance of the cult of the
sun god Ra. Consequently, less eorts were devoted to
the construction of pyramid complexes than during the
Fourth Dynasty and more to the construction of sun tem-
ples in Abusir. The decoration of pyramid complexes
grew more elaborate during the dynasty and its last king,
Unas, was the rst to have the Pyramid Texts inscribed in
his pyramid.
Egypts expanding interests in trade goods such as ebony,
incense such as myrrh and frankincense, gold, copper and
other useful metals compelled the ancient Egyptians to
navigate the open seas. Evidence from the pyramid of
Sahure, second king of the dynasty, shows that a regular
trade existed with the Syrian coast to procure cedar wood.
Pharaohs also launched expeditions to the famed Land of
Punt, possibly the Horn of Africa, for ebony, ivory and
aromatic resins.
During the Sixth Dynasty (23452181 BCE), the power
of pharaohs gradually weakened in favor of powerful no-
marchs. These no longer belonged to the royal family and
their charge became hereditary, thus creating local dy-
nasties largely independent from the central authority of
the pharaoh. Internal disorders set in during the incred-
ibly long reign of Pepi II Neferkare (22782184 BCE)
towards the end of the dynasty. His death, certainly well
past that of his intended heirs, might have created succes-
sion struggles and the country slipped into civil wars mere
decades after the close of Pepi IIs reign. The nal blow
came when the 4.2 kiloyear event struck the region in the
22nd century BC, producing consistently low Nile ood
levels.[15] The result was the collapse of the Old Kingdom
followed by decades of famine and strife.

Greywacke statue of the pharaoh Menkaure and his queen con-

sort, Khamerernebty II. Originally from his Giza temple, now on 19.3.3 First Intermediate Period
display at the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston.
Main article: First Intermediate Period of Egypt
After the fall of the Old Kingdom came a roughly 200-
son Menkaure (Greek Mycerinus) all achieved lasting year stretch of time known as the First Intermediate Pe-
fame in the construction of the Giza pyramid complex. riod, which is generally thought to include a relatively ob-
To organize and feed the manpower needed to cre- scure set of pharaohs running from the end of the Sixth
ate these pyramids required a centralized government to the Tenth and most of the Eleventh Dynasties. Most of
with extensive powers, and Egyptologists believe the Old these were likely local monarchs who did not hold much
Kingdom at this time demonstrated this level of sophis- power outside of their nome. There are a number of texts
tication. Recent excavations near the pyramids led by known as Lamentations from the early period of the
Mark Lehner have uncovered a large city that seems to subsequent Middle Kingdom that may shed some light on
have housed, fed and supplied the pyramid workers. Al- what happened during this period. Some of these texts re-
though it was once believed that slaves built these mon- ect on the breakdown of rule, others allude to invasion
uments, a theory based on The Exodus narrative of the by Asiatic bowmen. In general the stories focus on a
Hebrew Bible, study of the tombs of the workmen, who society where the natural order of things in both society
oversaw construction on the pyramids, has shown they and nature was overthrown.
were built by a corve of peasants drawn from across It is also highly likely that it was during this period that all
Egypt. They apparently worked while the annual ood of the pyramid and tomb complexes were robbed. Fur-
covered their elds, as well as a very large crew of spe- ther lamentation texts allude to this fact, and by the be-
19.3. DYNASTIC EGYPT 131

Pottery model of a house used in a burial from the First Interme-

diate Period, on display at the Royal Ontario Museum.

ginning of the Middle Kingdom mummies are found dec-

orated with magical spells that were once exclusive to the
pyramid of the kings of the Sixth Dynasty.
By 2160 BC, a new line of pharaohs, the Ninth and Tenth
Dynasties, consolidated Lower Egypt from their capi-
tal in Heracleopolis Magna. A rival line, the Eleventh
Dynasty based at Thebes, reunited Upper Egypt, and a An Osiris statue of Mentuhotep II, the founder of the Middle
clash between the rival dynasties was inevitable. Around Kingdom
2055 BC, the Theban forces defeated the Heracleopoli-
tan pharaohs and reunited the Two Lands. The reign of
its rst pharaoh, Mentuhotep II, marks the beginning of and Heracleapolitan dynasties until the 39th regnal year
the Middle Kingdom. of Mentuhotep II, second successor of Intef II. At this
point, the Herakleopolitans were defeated and the The-
ban dynasty consolidated their rule over Egypt. Men-
19.3.4 Middle Kingdom tuhotep II is known to have commanded military cam-
paigns south into Nubia, which had gained its indepen-
Main article: Middle Kingdom of Egypt dence during the First Intermediate Period. There is also
The Middle Kingdom is the period in the history of evidence for military actions against the Southern Levant.
ancient Egypt stretching from the 39th regnal year of The king reorganized the country and placed a vizier at
Mentuhotep II of the Eleventh Dynasty to the end of the the head of civil administration for the country.
Thirteenth Dynasty, roughly between 2030 and 1650 BC. Mentuhotep II was succeeded by his son, Mentuhotep III,
The period comprises two phases, the Eleventh Dynasty, who organized an expedition to Punt. His reign saw the
which ruled from Thebes, and then the Twelfth Dynasty, realization of some of the nest Egyptian carvings. Men-
whose capital was Lisht. These two dynasties were orig- tuhotep III was succeeded by Mentuhotep IV, the nal
inally considered the full extent of this unied kingdom, pharaoh of this dynasty. Despite being absent from vari-
but some historians now[16] consider the rst part of the ous lists of pharaohs, his reign is attested from a few in-
Thirteenth Dynasty to belong to the Middle Kingdom. scriptions in Wadi Hammamat that record expeditions to
The earliest pharaohs of the Middle Kingdom traced their the Red Sea coast and to quarry stone for the royal mon-
origin to two nomarchs of Thebes, Intef the Elder, who uments.
served a Heracleopolitan pharaoh of the Tenth Dynasty, The leader of this expedition was his vizier Amen-
and his successor, Mentuhotep I. The successor of the lat- emhat, who is widely assumed to be the future pharaoh
ter, Intef I, was the rst Theban nomarch to claim a Horus Amenemhat I, the rst pharaoh of the Twelfth Dynasty.
name and thus the throne of Egypt. He is considered the Amenemhat is therefore assumed by some Egyptologists
rst pharaoh of the Eleventh Dynasty. His claims brought to have either usurped the throne or assumed power after
the Thebans into conict with the rulers of the Tenth Dy- Mentuhotep IV died childless.
nasty. Intef I and his brother Intef II undertook several Amenemhat I built a new capital for Egypt, Itjtawy,
campaigns northwards and nally captured the important thought to be located near the present-day Lisht, al-
nome of Abydos. though Manetho claims the capital remained at Thebes.
Warfare continued intermittently between the Thebean Amenemhat forcibly pacied internal unrest, curtailed
132 CHAPTER 19. HISTORY OF ANCIENT EGYPT

the rights of the nomarchs, and is known to have at

launched at least one campaign into Nubia. His son
Senusret I continued the policy of his father to recapture
Nubia and other territories lost during the First Interme-
diate Period. The Libu were subdued under his forty-ve
year reign and Egypts prosperity and security were se-
cured.
Senusret III (18781839 BC) was a warrior king, leading
his troops deep into Nubia, and built a series of massive
forts throughout the country to establish Egypts formal
boundaries with the unconquered areas of its territory.
Amenemhat III (18601815 BC) is considered the last
great pharaoh of the Middle Kingdom.
Egypts population began to exceed food production lev-
els during the reign of Amenemhat III, who then ordered
the exploitation of the Faiyum and increased mining op-
erations in the Sinai Peninsula. He also invited settlers
from Western Asia to Egypt to labor on Egypts monu-
ments. Late in his reign, the annual oods along the Nile
began to fail, further straining the resources of the gov-
ernment. The Thirteenth Dynasty and Fourteenth Dy-
nasty witnessed the slow decline of Egypt into the Second
Intermediate Period, in which some of the settlers invited
by Amenemhat III would seize power as the Hyksos.

19.3.5 Second Intermediate Period and the

Hyksos
Main articles: Second Intermediate Period of Egypt and
Hyksos
The Second Intermediate Period marks a period when
Egypt once again fell into disarray between the end of the
Middle Kingdom and the start of the New Kingdom. This
period is best known as the time the Hyksos made their
appearance in Egypt, the reigns of its kings comprising
the Fifteenth Dynasty.
The Thirteenth Dynasty proved unable to hold onto the
long land of Egypt, and a provincial family of Lev- Statuette of Merankhre Mentuhotep, a minor pharaoh of the
Sixteenth Dynasty, reigning over the Theban region c. 1585 BC.
antine descent located in the marshes of the eastern
Delta at Avaris broke away from the central authority
to form the Fourteenth Dynasty. The splintering of the
unable to stop these new migrants from traveling to Egypt
land most likely happened shortly after the reigns of the
powerful Thirteenth Dynasty pharaohs Neferhotep I and from the Levant because their kingdoms were struggling
Sobekhotep IV c. 1720 BC.[17][18] to cope with various domestic problems, including pos-
sibly famine and plague.[20] Be it military or peaceful,
While the Fourteenth Dynasty was Levantine, the Hyk- the weakened state of the Thirteenth and Fourteenth Dy-
sos rst appeared in Egypt c. 1650 BC when they took nasty kingdoms could explain why they rapidly fell to the
control of Avaris and rapidly moved south to Memphis, emerging Hyksos power.
thereby ending the Thirteenth and Fourteenth Dynasties.
The outlines of the traditional account of the invasion The Hyksos princes and chieftains ruled in the eastern
of the land by the Hyksos is preserved in the Aegypti- Delta with their local Egyptian vassals. The Fifteenth Dy-
aca of Manetho, who records that during this time the nasty rulers established their capital and seat of govern-
Hyksos overran Egypt, led by Salitis, the founder of the ment at Memphis and their summer residence at Avaris.
Fifteenth Dynasty. More recently, however, the idea of a The Hyksos kingdom was centered in the eastern Nile
simple migration, with little or no violence involved, has Delta and central Egypt but relentlessly pushed south for
gained some support.[19] Under this theory, the Egyptian the control of central and Upper Egypt. Around the time
rulers of the Thirteenth and Fourteenth dynasties were Memphis fell to the Hyksos, the native Egyptian ruling
19.3. DYNASTIC EGYPT 133

house in Thebes declared its independence and set itself

up as the Sixteenth Dynasty. Another short lived dynasty
might have done the same in central Egypt, proting from
the power vacuum created by the fall of the 13th dynasty
and forming the Abydos Dynasty.[21]
By 1600 BC, the Hyksos had successfully moved south
in central Egypt, eliminating the Abydos Dynasty and di-
rectly threatening the Sixteenth Dynasty. The latter was
to prove unable to resist and Thebes fell to the Hyksos for
a very short period c. 1580 BC.[21] The Hyksos rapidly
withdrew to the north and Thebes regained some inde-
pendence under the Seventeenth Dynasty. From then on,
Hyksos relations with the south seem to have been mainly
of a commercial nature, although Theban princes appear
to have recognized the Hyksos rulers and may possibly
have provided them with tribute for a period.
The Seventeenth Dynasty was to prove the salvation of
Egypt and would eventually lead the war of liberation that
drove the Hyksos back into Asia. The two last kings of
this dynasty were Seqenenre Tao and Kamose. Ahmose
I completed the conquest and expulsion of the Hyksos
from the Nile Delta, restored Theban rule over the whole
of Egypt and successfully reasserted Egyptian power in
its formerly subject territories of Nubia and the South-
ern Levant.[22] His reign marks this beginning of the
Eighteenth Dynasty and the New Kingdom.
Golden mask from the mummy of Tutankhamun

19.3.6 New Kingdom of Karnak including the Luxor Temple, which consisted
of two pylons, a colonnade behind the new temple en-
Main article: New Kingdom of Egypt
trance, and a new temple to the goddess Maat.

Possibly as a result of the foreign rule of the Hyksos dur-

ing the Second Intermediate Period, the New Kingdom Nineteenth Dynasty
saw Egypt attempt to create a buer between the Levant
and Egypt, and attain its greatest territorial extent. It ex-
panded far south into Nubia and held wide territories in
the Near East. Egyptian armies fought Hittite armies for
control of modern-day Syria.

Eighteenth Dynasty

This was a time of great wealth and power for Egypt.

Some of the most important and best-known pharaohs
ruled at this time. Hatshepsut was a pharaoh at this time.
Hatshepsut is unusual as she was a female pharaoh, a rare
occurrence in Egyptian history. She was an ambitious
and competent leader, extending Egyptian trade south
into present-day Somalia and north into the Mediter-
ranean. She ruled for twenty years through a combina-
tion of widespread propaganda and deft political skill. Egypt and its world in 1300 BC.
Her co-regent and successor Thutmose III (the Napoleon
of Egypt) expanded Egypts army and wielded it with Ramesses I reigned for two years and was succeeded by
great success. Late in his reign he ordered her name his son Seti I. Seti I carried on the work of Horemheb in
hacked out from her monuments. He fought against restoring power, control, and respect to Egypt. He also
Asiatic people and was the most successful of Egyptian was responsible for creating the temple complex at Aby-
pharaohs. Amenhotep III built extensively at the temple dos.
134 CHAPTER 19. HISTORY OF ANCIENT EGYPT

to the throne by Chancellor Bay, a West Asian commoner

who served as vizier behind the scenes. At Siptahs early
death, the throne was assumed by Twosret, the queen
dowager of Seti II and possibly Amenmesses sister.
A period of anarchy at the end of Twosrets short reign
saw a native reaction to foreign control leading to the exe-
cution of Bay and the enthronement of Setnakhte, estab-
lishing the Twentieth Dynasty.

Twentieth Dynasty

The last great pharaoh from the New Kingdom is

widely considered Ramesses III, the son of Setnakhte who
reigned three decades after the time of Ramesses II. In
Year 8 of his reign, the Sea People invaded Egypt by land
and sea. Ramesses III defeated them in two great land
and sea battles. He claimed that he incorporated them as
subject people and settled them in Southern Canaan, al-
though there is evidence that they forced their way into
Canaan. Their presence in Canaan may have contributed
to the formation of new states in this region such as Philis-
tia after the collapse of the Egyptian Empire. He was also
compelled to ght invading Libyan tribesmen in two ma-
jor campaigns in Egypts Western Delta in his Year 6 and
Year 11 respectively.[23]
The heavy cost of these battles slowly exhausted Egypts
Colossal depictions of Ramesses II at one of the Abu Simbel tem- treasury and contributed to the gradual decline of the
ples. Egyptian Empire in Asia. The severity of these dicul-
ties is stressed by the fact that the rst known strike action
in recorded history occurred during Year 29 of Ramesses
Arguably Ancient Egypts power as a nation-state peaked IIIs reign, when the food rations for the Egypts favoured
during the reign of Ramesses II (the Great) of the and elite royal tomb-builders and artisans in the village
Nineteenth Dynasty. He reigned for 67 years from the age of Deir el-Medina could not be provisioned.[24] Some-
of 18 and carried on his immediate predecessors work thing in the air prevented much sunlight from reaching
and created many more splendid temples, such as that of the ground and also arrested global tree growth for almost
Abu Simbel temples on the Nubian border. He sought to two full decades until 1140 BC.[25] One proposed cause
recover territories in the Levant that had been held by is the Hekla 3 eruption in Iceland, but the dating of that
the Eighteenth Dynasty. His campaigns of reconquest event remains in dispute.
culminated in the Battle of Kadesh in 1274 BC, where
Following Ramesses IIIs death there was endless bicker-
he led Egyptian armies against those of the Hittite king
ing between his heirs. Three of his sons would go on to as-
Muwatalli II and was caught in historys rst recorded
sume power as Ramesses IV, Ramesses VI and Ramesses
military ambush.
VIII, respectively. However, at this time Egypt was also
Ramesses II was famed for the huge number of children increasingly beset by a series of droughts, below-normal
he sired by his various wives and concubines; the tomb ooding levels of the Nile, famine, civil unrest and ocial
he built for his sons (many of whom he outlived) in the corruption. The power of the last pharaoh, Ramesses XI,
Valley of the Kings has proven to be the largest funerary grew so weak that in the south the Theban High Priests
complex in Egypt. of Amun became the eective de facto rulers of Up-
His immediate successors continued the military cam- per Egypt, while Smendes controlled Lower Egypt even
paigns, though an increasingly troubled court compli- before Ramesses XIs death. Smendes would eventually
cated matters. Ramesses II was succeeded by his son found the Twenty-rst Dynasty at Tanis.
Merneptah and then by Merenptahs son Seti II. Seti
IIs throne seems to have been disputed by his half-
19.3.7 Third Intermediate Period
brother Amenmesse, who may have temporarily ruled
from Thebes. Main article: Third Intermediate Period
Upon his death, Seti II son Siptah, who may have been After the death of Ramesses XI, his successor Smendes
aicted with poliomyelitis during his life, was appointed ruled from the city of Tanis in the north, while the High
19.3. DYNASTIC EGYPT 135

who served as the commander of the armies under the

last ruler of the Twenty-First Dynasty, Psusennes II. He
unied the country, putting control of the Amun clergy
under his own son as the High Priest of Amun, a post
that was previously a hereditary appointment. The scant
and patchy nature of the written records from this pe-
riod suggest that it was unsettled. There appear to have
been many subversive groups, which eventually led to the
creation of the Twenty-Third Dynasty, which ran con-
current with the latter part of the Twenty-Second Dy-
nasty. The country was reunited by the Twenty-Second
Dynasty founded by Shoshenq I in 945 BC (or 943 BC),
who descended from Meshwesh immigrants, originally
from Ancient Libya. This brought stability to the coun-
try for well over a century. After the reign of Osorkon
II the country had again splintered into two states with
Shoshenq III of the Twenty-Second Dynasty controlling
Lower Egypt by 818 BC while Takelot II and his son (the
future Osorkon III) ruled Middle and Upper Egypt.
After the withdrawal of Egypt from Nubia at the end of
the New Kingdom, a native dynasty took control of Nu-
bia. Under king Piye, the Nubian founder of Twenty-
Fifth Dynasty, the Nubians pushed north in an eort to
crush his Libyan opponents ruling in the Delta. Piye
Sphinx of the Nubian pharaoh Taharqa. managed to attain power as far as Memphis. His op-
ponent Tefnakhte ultimately submitted to him, but he
was allowed to remain in power in Lower Egypt and
founded the short-lived Twenty-Fourth Dynasty at Sais.
The Kushite kingdom to the south took full advantage
of this division and political instability and defeated the
combined might of several native-Egyptian rulers such
as Peftjaubast, Osorkon IV of Tanis, and Tefnakht of
Sais. Piye established the Nubian Twenty-Fifth Dynasty
and appointed the defeated rulers as his provincial gover-
nors. He was succeeded rst by his brother, Shabaka, and
then by his two sons Shebitku and Taharqa. Taharqa re-
united the Two lands of Northern and Southern Egypt
and created an empire that was as large as it had been
since the New Kingdom. The 25th dynasty ushered
25th Dynasty in a renaissance period for Ancient Egypt.[27] Religion,
the arts, and architecture were restored to their glorious
Old, Middle, and New Kingdom forms. Pharaohs, such
Priests of Amun at Thebes had eective rule of the as Taharqa, built or restored temples and monuments
south of the country, whilst still nominally recognizing throughout the Nile valley, including at Memphis, Kar-
Smendes as king.[26] In fact, this division was less signif- nak, Kawa, Jebel Barkal, etc.[28] It was during the 25th
icant than it seems, since both priests and pharaohs came dynasty that the Nile valley saw the rst widespread con-
from the same family. Piankh, assumed control of Up- struction of pyramids (many in modern Sudan) since the
per Egypt, ruling from Thebes, with the northern limit of Middle Kingdom.[29][30][31]
his control ending at Al-Hibah. (The High Priest Herihor
had died before Ramesses XI, but also was an all-but- The international prestige of Egypt declined considerably
by this time. The countrys international allies had fallen
independent ruler in the latter days of the kings reign.)
The country was once again split into two parts with the under the sphere of inuence of Assyria and from about
priests in Thebes and the Pharaohs at Tanis. Their reign 700 BC the question became when, not if, there would
seems without other distinction, and they were replaced be war between the two states. Taharqa's reign and that
without any apparent struggle by the Libyan kings of the of his successor, Tanutamun, were lled with constant
Twenty-Second Dynasty. conict with the Assyrians against whom there were nu-
merous victories, but ultimately Thebes was occupied and
Egypt has long had ties with Libya, and the rst king of Memphis sacked.
the new dynasty, Shoshenq I, was a Meshwesh Libyan,
136 CHAPTER 19. HISTORY OF ANCIENT EGYPT

19.3.8 Late Period 19.3.10 Ptolemaic dynasty

Main article: Late Period of Ancient Egypt Main article: Ptolemaic dynasty

From 671 BC on, Memphis and the Delta region became In 332 BC Alexander III of Macedon conquered Egypt
the target of many attacks from the Assyrians, who ex- with little resistance from the Persians. He was welcomed
pelled the Nubians and handed over power to client kings by the Egyptians as a deliverer. He visited Memphis, and
of the Twenty-Sixth Dynasty. Psamtik I was the rst rec- went on a pilgrimage to the oracle of Amun at the Oasis
ognized as the king of the whole of Egypt, and he brought of Siwa. The oracle declared him the son of Amun. He
increased stability to the country during a 54-year reign conciliated the Egyptians by the respect he showed for
from the new capital of Sais. Four successive Saite kings their religion, but he appointed Greeks to virtually all the
continued guiding Egypt successfully and peacefully from senior posts in the country, and founded a new Greek city,
610526 BC, keeping the Babylonians away with the help Alexandria, to be the new capital. The wealth of Egypt
of Greek mercenaries. could now be harnessed for Alexanders conquest of the
rest of the Persian Empire. Early in 331 BC he was ready
By the end of this period a new power was growing in
to depart, and led his forces away to Phoenicia. He left
the Near East: Persia. The pharaoh Psamtik III had to
Cleomenes as the ruling nomarch to control Egypt in his
face the might of Persia at Pelusium; he was defeated and
absence. Alexander never returned to Egypt.
briey escaped to Memphis, but ultimately was captured
and then executed. Following Alexanders death in Babylon in 323 BC, a
succession crisis erupted among his generals. Initially,
Perdiccas ruled the empire as regent for Alexanders half-
brother Arrhidaeus, who became Philip III of Macedon,
19.3.9 Persian domination and then as regent for both Philip III and Alexanders in-
fant son Alexander IV of Macedon, who had not been
Main article: History of Achaemenid Egypt born at the time of his fathers death. Perdiccas appointed
Ptolemy, one of Alexanders closest companions, to be
Achaemenid Egypt can be divided into three eras: the satrap of Egypt. Ptolemy ruled Egypt from 323 BC,
rst period of Persian occupation when Egypt became a nominally in the name of the joint kings Philip III and
satrapy, followed by an interval of independence, and the Alexander IV. However, as Alexander the Great's empire
second and nal period of occupation. disintegrated, Ptolemy soon established himself as ruler
in his own right. Ptolemy successfully defended Egypt
The Persian king Cambyses assumed the formal title
against an invasion by Perdiccas in 321 BC, and consol-
of Pharaoh, called himself Mesuti-Re (Re has given
idated his position in Egypt and the surrounding areas
birth), and sacriced to the Egyptian gods. He founded
during the Wars of the Diadochi (322301 BC). In 305
the Twenty-seventh dynasty. Egypt was then joined
BC, Ptolemy took the title of King. As Ptolemy I Soter
with Cyprus and Phoenicia in the sixth satrapy of the
(Saviour), he founded the Ptolemaic dynasty that was
Achaemenid Empire.
to rule Egypt for nearly 300 years.
Cambyses successors Darius I the Great and Xerxes pur-
The later Ptolemies took on Egyptian traditions by mar-
sued a similar policy, visited the country, and warded
rying their siblings, had themselves portrayed on pub-
o an Athenian attack. It is likely that Artaxerxes I and
lic monuments in Egyptian style and dress, and partici-
Darius II visited the country as well, although it is not at-
pated in Egyptian religious life.[32][33] Hellenistic culture
tested in our sources, and did not prevent the Egyptians
thrived in Egypt well after the Muslim conquest. The
from feeling unhappy.
Ptolemies had to ght native rebellions and were involved
During the war of succession after the reign of Darius II, in foreign and civil wars that led to the decline of the king-
which broke out in 404, they revolted under Amyrtaeus dom and its annexation by Rome.
and regained their independence. This sole ruler of the
Twenty-eighth dynasty died in 399, and power went to
the Twenty-ninth dynasty. The Thirtieth Dynasty was es- 19.4 References
tablished in 380 BC and lasted until 343 BC. Nectanebo
II was the last native king to rule Egypt. [1] Barich, Barbara E. (1998). People, Water, and Grain:
Artaxerxes III (358338 BC) reconquered the Nile val- The Beginnings of Domestication in the Sahara and the
ley for a brief period (343332 BC). In 332 BC Mazaces Nile Valley. l'Erma di Bretschneider. ISBN 978-88-8265-
handed over the country to Alexander the Great without 017-9.
a ght. The Achaemenid empire had ended, and for a [2] Barbara E. Barich et al. (1984) Ecological and Cultural
while Egypt was a satrapy in Alexanders empire. Later Relevance of the Recent New Radiocabon dates from
the Ptolemies and then the Romans successively ruled the Libyan Sahara, in Lech Krzyaniak and Micha Kobus-
Nile valley. iewicz [eds.], Origin and Early Development of Food-
19.5. FURTHER READING
Producing Cultures in Northeastern Africa, Pozna, Poz-
na Archaeological Museum, pp. 41117.
[3] Carl Roebuck, The World of Ancient Times (Charles
Schribners Sons Publishing: New York, 1966) p. 51.
[4] Redford, Donald B. Egypt, Canaan, and Israel in Ancient
Times. (Princeton: University Press, 1992), p. 6.
[5] Carl Roebuck, The World of Ancient Times, p. 52.
[6] Gardiner (1964), p.388
[7] Gardiner (1964), p.389
[8] Grimal (1988) p.24
[9] Gardiner (1964), 390.
[10] Grimal (1988) p.28
[11] Redford, Donald B. Egypt, Canaan, and Israel in Ancient
Times. (Princeton: University Press, 1992), p. 16.
[12] Gardiner (1694), p.391
[13] Redford, Donald B. Egypt, Canaan, and Israel in Ancient
Times. (Princeton: University Press, 1992), p. 17.
[14] Adkins, L. and Adkins, R. (2001) The Little Book of Egyp-
tian Hieroglyphics, p155. London: Hodder and Stoughton.
ISBN .
[15] The Fall of the Old Kingdom by Fekri Hassan
[16] Callender, Gae. The Middle Kingdom Renasissance from
The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, Oxford, 2000
[17] Janine Bourriau, The Second Intermediate Period (c.
16501550 BC) in The Oxford History of Ancient
Egypt, ed: Ian Shaw, (Oxford University Press: 2002),
paperback, pp.178179 & 181
[18] Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research
(BASOR) 315, 1999, pp.4773.
[19] Booth, Charlotte. The Hyksos Period in Egypt. p.10.
Shire Egyptology. 2005. ISBN 0-7478-0638-1
[20] Manfred Bietak: Egypt and Canaan During the Middle
Bronze Age, BASOR 281 (1991), pp. 2172 see in par-
ticular p. 38
[21] Kim Ryholt: The Political Situation in Egypt during the
Second Intermediate Period, Museum Tusculanum Press,
(1997)
[22] Grimal, Nicolas. A History of Ancient Egypt p. 194. Li-
brairie Arthme Fayard, 1988.
[23] Nicolas Grimal, A History of Ancient Egypt, Blackwell
Books, 1992. p.271
[24] William F. abbey , The Strikes in Ramses IIIs Twenty-
Ninth Year, JNES 10, No. 3 (July 1951), pp. 137145
[25] Frank J. Yurco, End of the Late Bronze Age and Other
Crisis Periods: A Volcanic Cause in Gold of Praise: Stud-
ies on Ancient Egypt in Honor of Edward F. Wente, ed:
Emily Teeter & John Larson, (SAOC 58) 1999, pp.456
458
137
[26] Cerny, p.645
[27] Diop, Cheikh Anta (1974). The African Origin of Civiliza-
tion. Chicago, Illinois: Lawrence Hill Books. pp. 219
221. ISBN 1-55652-072-7.
[28] Bonnet, Charles (2006). The Nubian Pharaohs. New
York: The American University in Cairo Press. pp. 142
154. ISBN 978-977-416-010-3.
[29] Mokhtar, G. (1990). General History of Africa. Califor-
nia, USA: University of California Press. pp. 161163.
ISBN 0-520-06697-9.
[30] Emberling, Geo (2011). Nubia: Ancient Kingdoms of
Africa. New York: Institute for the Study of the Ancient
World. pp. 911. ISBN 978-0-615-48102-9.
[31] Silverman, David (1997). Ancient Egypt. New York: Ox-
ford University Press. pp. 3637. ISBN 0-19-521270-3.
[32] Bowman (1996) pp25-26
[33] Stanwick (2003)
19.5 Further reading
19.5.1 Pharaonic Egypt
Adkins, L.; Adkins, R (2001). The Little Book
of Egyptian Hieroglyphics. London: Hodder and
Stoughton.
Baines, John and Jaromir Malek (2000). The Cul-
tural Atlas of Ancient Egypt (revised ed.). Facts on
File. ISBN 0-8160-4036-2.
Bard, KA (1999). Encyclopedia of the Archaeology
of Ancient Egypt. NY, NY: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-
18589-0.
Bierbrier, Morris (1984). The Tomb Builders of the
Pharaohs. New York, NY: Charles Scribners Sons.
ISBN 0-684-18229-7.
Booth, Charlotte (2005). The Hyksos Period in
Egypt. Shire Egyptology. ISBN 0-7478-0638-1.
Cerny, J (1975). Egypt from the Death of Ramesses
III to the End of the Twenty-First Dynasty' in The
Middle East and the Aegean Region c.13801000
BC. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-
08691-4.
Clarke, Somers; R. Engelbach (1990). Ancient
Egyptian Construction and Architecture. Dover Pub-
lications. ISBN 0-486-26485-8.
Clayton, Peter A. (1994). Chronicle of the
Pharaohs. Thames and Hudson. ISBN 0-500-
05074-0.
138
Dodson, Aidan; Hilton, Dyan (2004). The Complete
Royal Families of Ancient Egypt. Thames & Hudson.
ISBN 0-500-05128-3.
Edgerton, William F. (July 1951). The Strikes in
Ramses IIIs Twenty-Ninth Year. Jnes 10 (No. 3
ed.).
Gillings, Richard J. (1972). Mathematics in the Time
of the Pharaohs. New York: Dover. ISBN 0-262-
07045-6.
Greaves, R.H.; O.H. Little (1929). Gold Resources
of Egypt, Report of the XV International Geol.
Congress, South Africa.
Grimal, Nicolas (1992). A History of Ancient Egypt.
Blackwell Books. ISBN 0-631-17472-9.
Herodotus ii. 55 and vii. 134
Kemp, Barry (1991). Ancient Egypt: Anatomy of a
Civilization. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-01281-3.
Kitchen, Kenneth Anderson (1996). The Third In-
termediate Period in Egypt (1100650 BC) (3rd ed.).
Warminster: Aris & Phillips Limited.
Lehner, Mark (1997). The Complete Pyramids.
London: Thames & Hudson. ISBN 0-500-05084-
8.
Lucas, Alfred (1962). Ancient Egyptian Materials
and Industries, 4th Ed. London: Edward Arnold
Publishers.
Peter Der Manuelian (1998). Egypt: The World
of the Pharaohs. Bonner Strae, Cologne Ger-
many: Knemann Verlagsgesellschaft mbH. ISBN
3-89508-913-3.
Myliwiec, Karol (2000). The Twighlight of Ancient
Egypt: First Millennium B.C.E.(trans. by David Lor-
ton). Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press.
Nicholson, Paul T.; et al. (2000). Ancient Egyptian
Materials and Technology. Cambridge, UK: Cam-
bridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-45257-0.
Romer, John. A History of Ancient Egypt:From the
First Farmers to the Great Pyramid. Allen Lane
(2012). ISBN 978-1-84614-377-9
Robins, Gay (2000). The Art of Ancient Egypt. Har-
vard University Press. ISBN 0-674-00376-4.
Scheel, Bernd (1989). Egyptian Metalworking and
Tools. Haverfordwest, Great Britain: Shire Publica-
tions Ltd. ISBN 0-7478-0001-4.
Shaw, Ian (2003). The Oxford History of Ancient
Egypt. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-500-
05074-0.
CHAPTER 19. HISTORY OF ANCIENT EGYPT
Wilkinson, R. H. (2000). The Complete Temples of
Ancient Egypt. London: Thames and Hudson. ISBN
0-500-05100-3.
Wilkinson, R.H. (2003). The Complete Gods and
Goddesses of Ancient Egypt. London: Thames and
Hudson. ISBN 0-500-05120-8.
Wilkinson, R.H. (2010). The Rise and Fall of
Ancient Egypt: The History of a Civilisation from
3000BC to Cleopatra. London: Bloomsbury. ISBN
978-0-7475-9949-4.
Yurco, Frank J. (1999). End of the Late Bronze
Age and Other Crisis Periods: A Volcanic Cause.
Saoc 58.
19.5.2 Ptolemaic Egypt
Bowman, Alan K (1996). Egypt after the Pharaohs
332 BC AD 642 (2nd ed.). Berkeley: University of
California Press. pp. 2526. ISBN 0-520-20531-6.
Lloyd, Alan Brian (2000). The Ptolemaic Period
(33230 BC) In The Oxford History of Ancient
Egypt, edited by Ian Shaw. Oxford and New York:
Oxford University Press.
Stanwick, Paul Edmond (2003). Portraits of
the Ptolemies: Greek kings as Egyptian pharaohs.
Austin: University of Texas Press. ISBN 0-292-
77772-8.
19.6 External links
The people of ancient Egypt
Ancient Egyptian History
Ancient Egyptian History Aldokkan
Glyphdoctors: Online courses in Egyptian hiero-
glyphics and history
The Ancient Egypt Site
Nile File an interactive introduction to ancient
Egypt for children
Seven Wonder of the World Ancient Times
Brian Brown (ed.) (1923) The Wisdom of the Egyp-
tians. New York: Brentanos
Texts from the Pyramid Age Door Nigel C. Strud-
wick, Ronald J. Leprohon, 2005, Brill Academic
Publishers
Ancient Egyptian Science: A Source Book Door
Marshall Clagett, 1989
WWW-VL: History: Ancient Egypt
19.6. EXTERNAL LINKS 139

A Short History of Ancient Egypt

Illustrated overview of the history of Egypt

Chapter 20

List of ancient Egyptian sites

This is a list of ancient Egyptian sites, throughout all

of Egypt and Nubia. Sites are listed by their classical
name whenever possible, if not by their modern name,
and lastly with their ancient name if no other is available.

20.1 Nomes

The nomes of Ancient Egypt, in lower Egypt

A nome is a subnational administrative division of An-

cient Egypt.

20.1.1 Lower Egypt

20.1.2 Upper Egypt

Nome 1: Land of the arch or To Khentit: the frontier The nomes of Ancient Egypt, in upper Egypt
(Ta-Seti)
Nome 2: Throne of Horus Nome 7: Sistrum

Nome 3: The rural (Shrine) Nome 8: Great lands

Nome 4: The sceptre Nome 9: Minu (Min)

Nome 5: The two falcons Nome 10: Cobra

Nome 6: The crocodile Nome 11: The Set animal (Seth)

140
20.2. LOWER EGYPT (THE NILE DELTA) 141

Nome 12: Viper mountain Hermopolis Parva (Modern: "El-Baqliya" Ancient:

"Ba'h")
Nome 13: Upper pomegranate tree (Upper
Sycamore and Viper) Iseum (Modern: "Behbeit el-Hagar", Ancient:
"Hebyt")
Nome 14: Lower pomegranate tree (Lower
Sycamore and Viper) Kom el-Hisn (Ancient: "Imu" or "Yamu")

Nome 15: Hare Leontopolis (Yahudiya) (Modern: "Tell el-

Nome 16: Oryx
Nome 17: The black dog (Jackal)
Nome 18: Falcon with spread wings (Nemty)
Yahudiya", Ancient: "Nay-Ta-Hut")
Leontopolis (Modern: "Tell el-Muqdam")
Naukratis (Modern: "el-Gi'eif", "el-Niqrash",el-
Nibeira")

Nome 19: The pure sceptre (Two Sceptres) Memphite Necropolis (Memphis)

Nome 20: Upper laurel (Southern Sycamore) Abu Ghurab

Abusir (Busiris)
Nome 21: Lower laurel (Northern Sycamore)
Pyramid of Neferefre
Nome 22: Knife Pyramid of Neferirkare
Pyramid of Nyuserre
Pyramid of Sahure
20.2 Lower Egypt (The Nile Delta) Sun temple of Nyuserre
Sun temple of Userkaf
Alexandria
Dahshur
Great Library of Alexandria Bent Pyramid
Pharos of Alexandria Black Pyramid
Pompeys Pillar Red Pyramid
White Pyramid
Athribis (Modern: "Tell Atrib", Ancient: "Hut-
Heryib" or "Hut-Tahery-Ibt") Helwan
Mit Rahina
Avaris (Modern: "Tell el-Dab'a", Ancient: "Pi-
Saqqara
Ri'amsese")
Sekhemkhet's Buried Pyramid
Behbeit el-Hagar Gisr el-mudir
Bilbeis Haram el-Shawaf
Mazghuna
Bubastis (Modern: "Tell Basta", Ancient: "Bast") Pyramid of Ibi
Busiris (Modern: "Abu Sir Bana") Pyramid of Khendjer
Pyramid of Teti
Buto (Modern: "Tell el-Fara'in", Ancient: "Pe") Pyramid of Unas
Cairo (or near Cairo) Pyramid of Userkaf
Step Pyramid of Djoser
Abu Rawash Southern South Saqqara pyramid
Giza Necropolis (Giza Plateau) Zawyet el'Aryan
Khufus Pyramid (Great Pyramid)
Mendes (Modern: "Tell el-Rub'a", Ancient: "'An-
Khafres Pyramid
pet")
Menkaures Pyramid
Great Sphinx of Giza Tell Tebilla
Heliopolis (Modern: "Tell Hisn", Ancient: Qantir / El-Khata'na
"Iunu")
Sais (Modern: "Sa el-Hagar", Ancient: "Zau")
Letopolis (Modern: "Ausim", Ancient:
"Khem") Saft el-Hinna (Ancient: "Per-Sopdu")
142 CHAPTER 20. LIST OF ANCIENT EGYPTIAN SITES

Sebennytos (Modern: "Samannud", Ancient: "Tjeb- Herakleopolis Magna (Modern: "Ihnasiyyah

nutjer") al-Madinah", Ancient: "Henen-Nesut")

Shagamba Kom Medinet Ghurab

Meidum
Suwa
Sidment el-Gebel
Taposiris Magna (Modern: "Abusir") Seila
Tanis (Modern: "San el-Hagar", Ancient: Tarkhan
"Djan'net")
Hermopolis Magna (Modern: "El Ashmunein", An-
Tell el-Maskhuta (Ancient: "Tjeku") cient: "Khmun")

Tell el-Rataba Hebenu (Modern: "Kom el-Ahmar")

Tell el-Sahaba Beni Hasan

Speos Artemidos (Modern: "Istabl 'Antar")
Tell Nabasha
Zawyet el-Maiyitin
Tell Qua'
Hur (Ancient: "Herwer")
Terenuthis (Modern: "Kom Abu Billo")
Lykopolis (Modern: "Asyut", Ancient: "Zawty")
Thmuis (Modern: "Tell el-Timai")
Meir
Tura
Oxyrhynchus (Modern: "el-Bahnasa", Ancient:
Xois (Modern: "Sakha") "Per-Medjed")
Sharuna
20.3 Middle Egypt Tuna el-Gebel

The area from about Al Fayyum to Asyut is usually re-

ferred to as Middle Egypt. 20.4 Upper Egypt
Akoris (Modern: "Tihna el-Gebel") 20.4.1 Northern Upper Egypt
Fraser Tombs Abydos (Ancient: "Abedju")
Ankyronpolis (Modern: "el-Hiba", Ancient: "Teud- el-'Araba el Madfuna
joi")
Kom el-Sultan
Antinoopolis (Modern: "el-Sheikh 'Ibada") Umm el-Qa'ab
Deir el-Bersha Shunet ez Zebib
Osireion
Deir el-Gabrawi
Apollinopolis Parva (Modern: "Qus", Ancient:
Dishasha
"Gesa" or "Gesy")
Dja (Modern: "Medinet Madi" Ancient: "Nar-
Qus Necropolis
mouthis")
Antaeopolis (Modern: "Qaw el-Kebir", Ancient:
el-'Amarna (Ancient: "Akhetaten")
"Tjebu" or "Djew-Qa")
el-Sheikh Sa'id
Ar Raqqinah (Known as "Reqaqnah")
Faiyum Athribis (Modern: "Wannina", Ancient: "Hut-
Crocodilopolis (Hellenistic: "Arsinoe") Repyt")
el-Lahun Beit Khallaf
el-Lisht Tentyris (Modern: "Dendera", Ancient: "Iunet" or
Hawara "Tantere")
20.4. UPPER EGYPT 143

Temple of Hathor Latopolis (Modern: "Esna", Ancient: "Iunyt, Senet,

Tasenet")
Diospolis Parva (Modern: "Hiw", Ancient: "Hut-
Sekhem") Medamud
el-Hawawish Thebes (Modern: "Luxor", Ancient: "Niwt-rst" or
"Waset")
el-Salamuni
Deir el-Medina
Khemmis or Panopolis (Modern: "Akhmin", An-
cient: "Ipu" or "Khent-Min") Temple of Hathor
Workmens Village
Gebel el-Haridi Workmens Tombs
Khenoboskion (Modern: "el-Qasr", "el-Saiyad") Shrine to Meretseger & Ptah

Koptos (Modern: "Qift", Ancient: "Gebtu") Deir el-Bahri

Mortuary Temple of Hatshepsut
Naga ed-Der
Mortuary Temple of Mentuhotep II
Nag' el-Madamud (Ancient: "Mabu") Mortuary Temple of Thotmose III

Ombos (Naqada) (Modern: "Naqada", Ancient: el-Malqata

"Nubt") Palace of Amenhotep III
Deir el-Shelwit
Shanhr
Karnak (Ancient: "Ipet-Isut")
Temple of Amenhotep IV
20.4.2 Southern Upper Egypt Precinct of Amon-Re
Aphroditopolis (Modern: "Gebelein", Ancient: Precinct of Montu
"Per-Hathor") Precinct of Mut
Luxor (Ancient: "Ipet-Resyt")
Apollinopolis Magna (Modern: "Edfu", Ancient:
"Djeba, Mesen") Temple of Amun
Medinet Habu
Aswan
Mortuary Temple & Palace of Ramesses
Agilkia Island III
Elephantine Island Mortuary Temple of Ay & Horemheb
New Kalabsha Mortuary Temple of Amenhotep III
Northern Granite Quarries Colossi of Memnon
Philae Island Mortuary Temple of Merneptah
Qubbet el-Hawa Mortuary Temple of Ramesses IV
Sehel Island Mortuary Temple of Thutmose IV
Southern Granite Quarries Mortuary Temple of Thutmose III
el-Mo'alla (Ancient: "Hefat") Qasr el-'Aguz
Temple of Thoth
Eileithyiaspolis (Modern: "el-Kab", Ancient:
"Nekheb") Qurna
Mortuary Temple of Seti I
Gebel el-Silsila (Ancient: "Kheny")
Tombs of the Nobles
Hermonthis (Modern: "Armant", Ancient: "Iuny")
el-Assasif
Hierakonpolis (Modern: "Kom el-Ahmar", Ancient: el-Khokha
"Nekhen") el-Tarif
Kom al-Ahmar Necropolis Dra' Abu el-Naga'
Qurnet Murai
Kom Ombo Sheikh Abd el-Qurna
Ombos (Modern: "Kom Ombo", Ancient: Ramesseum (Mortuary Temple of Ramesses
"Nubt") II)
144 CHAPTER 20. LIST OF ANCIENT EGYPTIAN SITES

Valley of the Kings (Modern: "Wadi el- Taphis (Modern: "Tafa")

Muluk")
Tutzis (Modern: "Dendur")
Valley of the Queens (Modern: "Biban el-
Harim") Tzitzis (Modern: "Qertassi")
Tuphium (Modern: "Tod", Ancient: "Djerty")
20.6 Upper Nubia
20.5 Lower Nubia 'Amara East
'Amara West[1]
Abahuda (Abu Oda)
Aksha (Serra West)
Askut Island
Buhen
Dabenarti
Dibeira
Dorginarti Island
Faras
Gebel el-Shams
Gebel Barkal
Kor
Kumma
Map of Nubia
Meinarti Island

Amada Qustul

Abu Simbel Semna

Contra Pselchis (Modern: "Quban", Ancient: Semna South

"Baki") Serra East
Debod Shalfak
el-Lessiya Uroarti Island
Mi'am (Modern: "'Aniba")
Primis (Modern: "Qasr Ibrim") 20.7 The Oases and
Pselchis (Modern: "el-Dakka", Ancient: "Pselqet") Mediterranean coast
Temple of Dakka
Siwa Oasis
Talmis (Modern: "Kalabsha")
Aghurmi
Beit el-Wali el-Zeitun
Temple of Derr Gebel el-Mawta
Gerf Hussein Qaret el-Musabberin
Qasr Ibrim Umm el-'Ebeida
Wadi es-Sebua Bahriya Oasis
20.10. NOTES AND REFERENCES 145

el-Qasr 20.10 Notes and references

el-Bawiti
[1] The British Museum, Amara West: investigating life in an
el-Hayz Egyptian town
Farafra Oasis

'Ain el-Wadi 20.11 Bibliography

el-Qasr
Atlas of Ancient Egypt, John Baines & Jaromir
el-Dakhla Oasis
Malek, America University of Cairo Press, 2002
Amheida
Balat
Deir el-Hager
el-Qasr
Kellis (Modern: "Ismant el-Kharab")
Mut el-Kharab
Qaret el-Muzawwaqa

el-Kharga Oasis

Baris
Gebel el-Teir
Hibis
Kysis (Modern: "Dush")
Nadurs
Qasr el-Ghueida
Qasr Zaiyan

Mediterranean Coast

Zawiyet Umm el-Rakham

20.8 Sinai
Aqaba

Arsinoe

Eilat (Elath)

Kuntillet Ajrud

Pelusium (Sin)

Rud el-'Air

Serabit el-Khadim

Tell Kedwa

Wadi Maghareh

20.9 Eastern Desert

Wadi Hammamat
Chapter 21

4.2 kiloyear event

The 4.2 kiloyear BP aridication event was one of the 3.[1][13][14] Despite this, evidence for the 4.2 kyr event in
most severe climatic events of the Holocene period.[1] northern Europe is ambiguous, suggesting the origin and
Starting in about 2200 BC, it probably lasted the entire impact of this event is spatially complex.[15]
22nd century BC. The drought may have initiated south-
eastward habitat tracking within the Indus Valley Civi-
lization.[2] 21.2 Aftermath
The 4.2 kiloyear BP event has been hypothesised to have
caused the collapse of the Old Kingdom in Egypt as
21.2.1 Ancient Egypt
well as the Akkadian Empire in Mesopotamia, and the
Liangzhu culture in the lower Yangtze River area.[3] How-
In c. 2150 BC the Old Kingdom was hit by a series of
ever, this theory has been criticised by archaeologists,
exceptionally low Nile oods. It has been suggested that
with political causes for the collapse of these polities
this may have impacted the collapse of the centralised
thought to be more probable.
government in ancient Egypt at this time.[16] Contempo-
rary texts claim that famines, social disorder, and frag-
mentation subsequently occurred. There may however be
21.1 Evidence a strong element of political bias to these writings, since
the Egyptian elite believed the stability of Egypt was de-
pendant on a unied state, and would have been moti-
28.0
vated to present decentralisation as disastrous. After a
28.5
phase of rehabilitation and restoration of order in various
29.0
provinces, Egypt was eventually reunied within a new
29.5
paradigm of kingship. The process of recovery depended
Temperature (C)

30.0
on capable provincial administrators, a more formalised
30.5
justice system, irrigation projects, and an administrative
31.0
reform.
31.5

32.0

21.2.2 Mesopotamia
32.5
8.2 kYr Event

33.0
11000 10000 9000 8000 7000 6000 5000 4000 3000 2000 1000 0

Years Before Present (1950)

The aridication of Mesopotamia may have been related
Central Greenland reconstructed temperature. Unlike the 8.2 to the onset of cooler sea surface temperatures in the
kiloyear event, the 4.2 kiloyear event has no prominent signal North Atlantic (Bond event 3), as analysis of the modern
in the Gisp2 ice core that has an onset at 4.2 ka BP. instrumental record shows that large (50%) interannual
reductions in Mesopotamian water supply result when
A phase of intense aridity about 4.2 ka BP is recorded subpolar northwest Atlantic sea surface temperatures are
across North Africa,[4] the Middle East,[5] the Red Sea,[6] anomalously cool.[17] The headwaters of the Tigris and
the Arabian peninsula,[7] the Indian subcontinent,[2] and Euphrates Rivers are fed by elevation-induced capture of
midcontinental North America.[8] Glaciers throughout winter Mediterranean rainfall.
the mountain ranges of western Canada advanced at about The Akkadian Empire in 2300 BC was the second
this time.[9] Evidence has also been found in an Italian civilization to subsume independent societies into a
cave owstone,[10] the Kilimanjaro Ice sheet,[11] and in single state (the rst being ancient Egypt at around
Andean glacier ice.[12] The onset of the aridication in 3100 BC). It has been claimed that the collapse of
Mesopotamia about 4100 BP also coincided with a cool- the state was inuenced by a wide-ranging, centuries-
ing event in the North Atlantic, known as Bond event long drought.[18] Archaeological evidence documents

146
21.3. SEE ALSO 147

widespread abandonment of the agricultural plains of years BP Longshan was displaced by the Yueshi culture
northern Mesopotamia and dramatic inuxes of refugees which was relatively underdeveloped.
into southern Mesopotamia around 2170 BC.[19] A 180-
km-long wall, the Repeller of the Amorites, was built
across central Mesopotamia to stem nomadic incursions 21.3 See also
to the south. Around 2150 BC, the Gutian people, who
originally inhabited the Zagros Mountains, defeated the Climate change
demoralized Akkadian army, took Akkad, and destroyed
it around 2115 BC. Widespread agricultural change in the Timeline of environmental history
Near East is visible at the end of the third millennium
Bond event
BC.[20]
Resettlement of the northern plains by smaller sedentary 5.9 kiloyear event
populations occurred near 1900 BC, three centuries after 8.2 kiloyear event
the collapse.[19]

21.2.3 Arabian peninsula 21.4 References

In the Persian Gulf region, there is a sudden change in
settlement pattern, style of pottery and tombs at this time.
The 22nd century BC drought marks the end of the Umm
an-Nar Culture and the change to the Wadi Suq period.[7]
21.2.4 Spain
On the Iberian peninsula, the construction of Motillas
type settlements in the period after 2200 BCE is believed
to be the consequence of severe aridication that aected
this area.
According to Moreno et al., who reported the rst palaeo-
hydrogeological interdisciplinary research in La Mancha,
Spain,
Recent studies show that the motilla
sites from the Bronze Age in La Mancha may
be the most ancient system of groundwater col-
lection in the Iberian Peninsula. ... These were
built during the Climatic Event 4.2 ka cal BP in
a time of environmental stress due to a period
of severe, prolonged drought.[21]
The authors analysis veried a relationship between the
geological substrate and the spatial distribution of the
motillas.
21.2.5 China
The drought may have caused the collapse of Neolithic
Cultures around Central China during the late third mil-
lennium BC.[22] At the same time, the middle reaches of
the Yellow River saw a series of extraordinary oods.[23]
In the Yishu River Basin, the ourishing Longshan culture
was hit by a cooling that made the paddies shortfall in out-
put or even no seeds were gathered. The scarcity in natu-
ral resource led to substantial decrease in population and
subsequent drop in archaeological sites.[24] About 4000
[1] deMenocal, Peter B. (2001). Cultural Responses to
Climate Change During the Late Holocene. Science.
292 (5517): 667673. Bibcode:2001Sci...292..667D.
doi:10.1126/science.1059827. PMID 11303088.
[2] Staubwasser, M.; et al. (2003). Climate change
at the 4.2 ka BP termination of the Indus val-
ley civilization and Holocene south Asian mon-
soon variability. Geophysical Research Letters.
30 (8): 1425. Bibcode:2003GeoRL..30h...7S.
doi:10.1029/2002GL016822.
[3] Gibbons, Ann (1993). How the Akkadian Em-
pire Was Hung Out to Dry. Science. 261
(5124): 985. Bibcode:1993Sci...261..985G.
doi:10.1126/science.261.5124.985. PMID 17739611.
[4] Gasse, Franoise; Van Campo, Elise (1994). Abrupt
post-glacial climate events in West Asia and North Africa
monsoon domains. Earth and Planetary Science Letters.
126 (4): 435456. Bibcode:1994E&PSL.126..435G.
doi:10.1016/0012-821X(94)90123-6.
[5] Bar-Matthews, Miryam; Ayalon, Avner; Kaufman, Aaron
(1997). Late Quaternary Paleoclimate in the Eastern
Mediterranean Region from Stable Isotope Analysis of
Speleothems at Soreq Cave, Israel. Quaternary Research.
47 (2): 155168. Bibcode:1997QuRes..47..155B.
doi:10.1006/qres.1997.1883.
[6] Arz, Helge W.; et al. (2006). A pronounced
dry event recorded around 4.2 ka in brine sediments
from the northern Red Sea. Quaternary Research.
66 (3): 432441. Bibcode:2006QuRes..66..432A.
doi:10.1016/j.yqres.2006.05.006.
[7] Parker, Adrian G.; et al. (2006). A record of
Holocene climate change from lake geochemical analy-
ses in southeastern Arabia (PDF). Quaternary Research.
66 (3): 465476. Bibcode:2006QuRes..66..465P.
doi:10.1016/j.yqres.2006.07.001. Archived from the
original (PDF) on October 29, 2008.
[8] Booth, Robert K.; et al. (2005). A severe centennial-
scale drought in midcontinental North America 4200
years ago and apparent global linkages. The Holocene.
15 (3): 321328. doi:10.1191/0959683605hl825ft.
148 CHAPTER 21. 4.2 KILOYEAR EVENT

[9] Menounos, B.; et al. (2008). Western Canadian [21] Mejas Moreno, M., Bentez de Lugo Enrich, L., Pozo
glaciers advance in concert with climate change Tejado, J. del y Moraleda Sierra, J. 2014. Los primeros
c. 4.2 ka. Geophysical Research Letters. 35 aprovechamientos de aguas subterrneas en la Pennsula
(7): L07501. Bibcode:2008GeoRL..3507501M. Ibrica. Las motillas de Daimiel en la Edad del Bronce de
doi:10.1029/2008GL033172. La Mancha. Boletn Geolgico y Minero, 125 (4): 455-
474 ISSN 0366-0176
[10] Drysdale, Russell; et al. (2005). Late Holocene drought
responsible for the collapse of Old World civilizations [22] Wu, Wenxiang; Liu, Tungsheng (2004). Possi-
is recorded in an Italian cave owstone. Geology. ble role of the Holocene Event 3 on the collapse
34 (2): 101104. Bibcode:2006Geo....34..101D. of Neolithic Cultures around the Central Plain of
doi:10.1130/G22103.1. China. Quaternary International. 117 (1): 153166.
Bibcode:2004QuInt.117..153W. doi:10.1016/S1040-
[11] Thompson,L.G; et al. (2002). Kilimanjaro
6182(03)00125-3.
Ice Core Records Evidence of Holocene Cli-
mate Change in Tropical Africa. Science. [23] Chun Chang Huang; et al. (2011). Extraordi-
298: 58993. Bibcode:2002Sci...298..589T. nary oods related to the climatic event at 4200 a
doi:10.1126/science.1073198. PMID 12386332. BP on the Qishuihe River, middle reaches of the
[12] Davis, Mary E.; Thompson, Lonnie G. (2006). An Yellow River, China. Quaternary Science Reviews.
Andean ice-core record of a Middle Holocene mega- 30 (34): 460468. Bibcode:2011QSRv...30..460H.
drought in North Africa and Asia (PDF). Annals of doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2010.12.007.
Glaciology. 43: 3441. Bibcode:2006AnGla..43...34D. [24] Gao, Huazhong; Zhu, Cheng; Xu, Weifeng (2007). En-
doi:10.3189/172756406781812456. Archived from the vironmental change and cultural response around 4200
original (PDF) on July 11, 2007. cal. yr BP in the Yishu River Basin, Shandong.
[13] Bond, G.; et al. (1997). A Pervasive Millennial- Journal of Geographical Sciences. 17 (3): 285292.
Scale Cycle in North Atlantic Holocene and doi:10.1007/s11442-007-0285-5.
Glacial Climates (PDF). Science. 278 (5341):
12571266. Bibcode:1997Sci...278.1257B.
doi:10.1126/science.278.5341.1257. 21.5 Further reading
[14] Two examples of abrupt climate change. Lamont-
Doherty Earth Observatory. Archived from the original Weiss, H., ed. (2012). Seven Generations Since the
on 2007-08-23. Fall of Akkad. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz. ISBN
[15] Roland, Thomas P; et al. (2014). Was there a
9783447068239.
'4.2 ka event' in Great Britain and Ireland? Evi-
dence from the peatland record. Quaternary Science
Reviews. 83: 1127. Bibcode:2014QSRv...83...11R. 21.6 External links
doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2013.10.024.
[16] Stanley, Jean-Daniel; et al. (2003). Nile ow failure at The Egyptian Old Kingdom, Sumer and Akkad
the end of the Old Kingdom, Egypt: Strontium isotopic
and petrologic evidence. Geoarchaeology. 18 (3): 395 The End of the Old Kingdom
402. doi:10.1002/gea.10065.
[17] Cullen, Heidi M.; deMenocal, Peter B. (2000). North
Atlantic inuence on Tigris-Euphrates streamow. In-
ternational Journal of Climatology. 20 (8): 853
863. Bibcode:2000IJCli..20..853C. doi:10.1002/1097-
0088(20000630)20:8<853::AID-JOC497>3.0.CO;2-M.
[18] Kerr, Richard A. (1998). Sea-Floor Dust Shows
Drought Felled Akkadian Empire. Science. 279
(5349): 325326. Bibcode:1998Sci...279..325K.
doi:10.1126/science.279.5349.325.
[19] Weiss, H; et al. (1993). The Gene-
sis and Collapse of Third Millennium North
Mesopotamian Civilization. Science. 261
(5124): 9951004. Bibcode:1993Sci...261..995W.
doi:10.1126/science.261.5124.995. PMID 17739617.
[20] Riehl, S. (2008). Climate and agriculture in the ancient
Near East: a synthesis of the archaeobotanical and sta-
ble carbon isotope evidence. Vegetation History and Ar-
chaeobotany. 17 (1): 4351. doi:10.1007/s00334-008-
0156-8.
Chapter 22

5.9 kiloyear event

that followed.
For example, Cremaschi (1998) describes evidence of
rapid aridication in Tadrart Acacus of southwestern
Libya, in the form of increased aeolian erosion, sand in-
cursions and the collapse of the roofs of rock shelters.[5]
The 5.9 kiloyear event was also recorded as a cold event
in the Erhai Lake (China) sediments.[6]

22.2 Eects
A satellite image of the Sahara. The Congo Rainforest lies to its
south. In the eastern Arabian Peninsula, the 5.9 kiloyear event
may have contributed to an increase in relatively greater
The 5.9 kiloyear event was one of the most intense social complexity and have corresponded to an end of the
aridication events during the Holocene Epoch. It oc- local Ubaid period.[7]
curred around 3900 BC (5900 years Before Present) and
Also, by causing a period of cooling in Europe, it may
ended the Neolithic Subpluvial and probably initiating the
have contributed to the decline of Old Europe and the
most recent desiccation of the Sahara, as well a ve cen-
rst Indo-European migrations into the Balkans from the
tury period of colder climate in more northerly latitudes.
Pontic-Caspian Steppe, according to the book The Horse,
It also triggered human migration to river valleys, such the Wheel, and Language, by David W. Anthony.
as from central North Africa to the Nile, which even-
tually led to the emergence of the rst complex, highly
organized, state-level societies in the 4th millennium 22.3 See also
BC.[1] It is associated with the last round of the Sahara
pump theory. Timeline of environmental history
Bond event

22.1 Cause 4.2 kiloyear event

8.2 kiloyear event
A model by Claussen et al. (1999) suggested rapid deser-
tication, associated with vegetation-atmosphere interac-
tions following a cooling event, Bond event 4.[2] Bond et 22.4 References
al. (1997) identied a North Atlantic cooling episode
5900 years ago from ice-rafted debris as well as other [1] Brooks, Nick (2006). Cultural responses to
such now called Bond events, which indicate the exis- aridity in the Middle Holocene and increased
tence of a quasiperiodic cycle of Atlantic cooling events social complexity. Quaternary International.
approximately every 1470 years 500 years.[3] For some 151 (1): 2949. Bibcode:2006QuInt.151...29B.
reason, all the earlier arid events (including the 8.2 kilo- doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2006.01.013.
year event) were followed by recovery, as is attested by [2] Claussen, Mark; et al. (1999). Simulation of
the wealth of evidence of humid conditions in the Sahara an Abrupt Change in Saharan Vegetation in the
between 10,000 and 6,000 BP.[4] However, it appears that Mid-Holocene. Geophysical Research Letters. 26
the 5.9 kiloyear event was followed by a partial recovery (14): 203740. Bibcode:1999GeoRL..26.2037C.
at best, with accelerated desiccation in the millennium doi:10.1029/1999GL900494.

149
150 CHAPTER 22. 5.9 KILOYEAR EVENT

[3] Bond, G.; et al. (1997). A Pervasive Millennial-

Scale Cycle in North Atlantic Holocene and
Glacial Climates (PDF). Science. 278 (5341):
125766. Bibcode:1997Sci...278.1257B.
doi:10.1126/science.278.5341.1257.

[4] Petit-Maire, N.; Beufort, L.; Page, N. (1997). Holocene

climate change and man in the present day Sahara desert.
In Nzhet Dalfes, H.; Kukla, G.; Weiss, H. Third Millen-
nium BC Climate Change and Old World Collapse. Berlin:
Springer. pp. 297308. ISBN 978-3-540-61892-8.

[5] Cremaschi, M. (1998). Late Quaternary geological evi-

dence for environmental changes in south-western Fezzan
(Libyan Sahara)". In Cremaschi, M.; Di Lernia, S. Wadi
Teshuinat: Palaeoenvironment and prehistory in south-
western Fezzan (Libyan Sahara). Firenze: Ed. All' In-
segna del Giglio. pp. 1347. ISBN 978-88-7814-144-5.

[6] Zhou, Jing; Wang, Sumin; Yang, Guishan; Xiao, Haifeng.

Younger Dryas Event and Cold Events in Early-Mid
Holocene: Record from the sediment of Erhai Lake
(PDF). Advances in Climate Change Research. 3 (sup-
plement): 4144. 1673-1719 (2007) Suppl.0041-04.
Archived from the original (pdf) on 10 September 2008.
Retrieved 3 June 2014.

[7] Parker, Adrian G.; Goudie, Andrew S.; Stokes, Stephen;

White, Kevin; Hodson, Martin J.; Manning, Michelle;
Kennet, Derek (2006). A record of Holocene cli-
mate change from lake geochemical analyses in south-
eastern Arabia (PDF). Quaternary Research. Elsevier.
66 (3): 465476. Bibcode:2006QuRes..66..465P.
doi:10.1016/j.yqres.2006.07.001. Archived from the
original (pdf) on 10 September 2008. Retrieved 3 June
2014.
Chapter 23

Abadiyeh

Abadiyeh may refer to the following places:

Abadiyeh, Egypt, an archaeological site in Egypt

Abadiyeh, Lebanon, a town near Beirut

151
Chapter 24

Achaemenid Empire

The Achaemenid Empire (/kimnd/, from Old Per- the Parthian Empire.[15]
sian Haxmaniiya,[11] c. 550330 BC),
The historical mark of the Achaemenid Empire went far
also called the (First) Persian Empire,[12] was an empire beyond its territorial and military inuences and included
based in Western Asia, founded by Cyrus the Great.
cultural, social, technological and religious inuences as
Ranging at its greatest extent from the Balkans and well. Many Athenians adopted Achaemenid customs in
Eastern Europe proper in the west to the Indus Valley
their daily lives in a reciprocal cultural exchange,[17] some
in the east, it was one of the largest empires in history, being employed by or allied to the Persian kings. The
spanning 5.5 million square kilometers, and was larger
impact of Cyruss edict is mentioned in Judeo-Christian
than any previous empire in history. It is equally notable texts, and the empire was instrumental in the spread of
for its successful model of a centralised, bureaucratic ad- Zoroastrianism as far east as China. The empire also set
ministration (through satraps under the King of Kings), the tone for the politics, heritage and history of modern
for building infrastructure such as road systems and a Iran.[18]
postal system, the use of an ocial language across its
territories, and the development of civil services and a
large professional army. The empires successes inspired
similar systems in later empires.[13] It is noted in Western 24.1 History
history as the antagonist of the Greek city-states during
the Greco-Persian Wars and for the emancipation of the 24.1.1 Achaemenid timeline
Jewish exiles in Babylon. The Mausoleum at Halicarnas-
sus, one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, was Astronomical year numbering
built in a Hellenistic style in the empire as well.
By the 7th century BC, the Persians had settled in the Dates are approximate,
southwestern portion of the Iranian Plateau in the re- consult particular article
gion of Persis,[14] which came to be their heartland.[15] for details
From this region, Cyrus the Great advanced to defeat Due to the short duration
the Medes, Lydia, and the Neo-Babylonian Empire, es- of their reigns, Smerdis
tablishing the Achaemenid Empire. The delegation of (522 BC), Xerxes II and
power to local governments is thought to have eventually Sogdianus (both in 424 BC)
weakened the kings authority, causing resources to be ex- are not shown.
pended in attempts to subdue local rebellions, and lead-
ing to the disunity of the region at the time of Alexander
the Great's invasion in 334 BC.[15] This viewpoint, how- 24.1.2 Origin
ever, is challenged by some modern scholars who argue
that the Achaemenid Empire was not facing any such Main articles: Achaemenes, Teispids, and Achaemenid
crisis around the time of Alexander, and that only in- family tree
ternal succession struggles within the Achaemenid fam-
ily ever came close to weakening the empire.[15] Alexan-
der, an avid admirer of Cyrus the Great,[16] conquered The Persian nation contains a number of
the empire in its entirety by 330 BC. Upon his death, tribes as listed here. ... : the Pasargadae,
most of the empires former territory came under the rule Maraphii, and Maspii, upon which all the
of the Ptolemaic Kingdom and Seleucid Empire, in ad- other tribes are dependent. Of these, the
dition to other minor territories which gained indepen- Pasargadae are the most distinguished; they
dence at that time. The Persian population of the central contain the clan of the Achaemenids from
plateau reclaimed power by the second century BC under which spring the Perseid kings. Other tribes
are the Panthialaei, Derusiaei, Germanii, all of

152
24.1. HISTORY 153

which are attached to the soil, the remainder

-the Dai, Mardi, Dropici, Sagarti, being
nomadic.
Herodotus, Histories 1.101 & 125

The Mausoleum at Halicarnassus, one of the Seven wonders of

the ancient world, was built by Greek architects for the local Per-
sian satrap of Caria, Mausolus (Scale model)

The term Achaemenid means of the family of

the Achaemenis/Achaemenes (Old Persian: Hax-
Relief of Cyrus the Great. mani ; a bahuvrihi compound translating to having a
friends mind).[21] Despite the derivation of the name,
Achaemenes was himself a minor seventh-century ruler
The Achaemenid Empire was created by nomadic of the Anshan in southwestern Iran, and a vassal of
Persians. The name Persia is a Greek and Latin pro- Assyria.[19] It was not until the time of Cyrus the Great
nunciation of the native word referring to the country of (Cyrus II of Persia), a descendant of Achaemenes, that
the people originating from Persis (Old Persian: Prsa), the Achaemenid Empire developed the prestige of an
their home territory located north of the Persian Gulf in empire and set out to incorporate the existing empires of
southwestern Iran.[19] the ancient east, becoming the vast Persian Empire of
ancient legend.[22]
The Achaemenid Empire was not the rst Iranian empire,
as by 6th century BC another group of ancient Iranian At some point in 550 BC, Cyrus rose in rebellion against
peoples had already established the short lived Median the Medes (most likely due to their mismanagement of
Empire.[19] The Medes had originally been the dominant Persis), eventually conquering the Medes and creating the
Iranian group in the region, freeing themselves of As- rst Persian empire. Cyrus the Great utilized his tacti-
syrian domination and rising to power at the end of the cal genius,[23] as well as his understanding of the socio-
political conditions governing his territories, to eventually
seventh century BC, incorporating the Persians into their
empire. incorporate into the Empire neighbouring Lydia and the
The Iranian peoples had arrived in the region of what Neo-Babylonian Empire, also leading the way for his suc-
is today Iran c. 1000 BC[20] and had for a num- cessor, Cambyses II, to venture into Egypt and defeat the
ber of centuries fallen under the domination of the Twenty-sixth Dynasty of Egypt.
Neo-Assyrian Empire (911609 BC), based in north- Cyrus the Greats political acumen was reected in his
ern Mesopotamia. However, the Medes and Persians management of his newly formed empire, as the Persian
(together with the Scythians, Babylonians), Cimmerians, Empire became the rst to attempt to govern many dif-
Persians and Chaldeans played a major role in the over- ferent ethnic groups on the principle of equal responsi-
throw of the Assyrian empire and establishment of the bilities and rights for all people, so long as subjects paid
rst Persian empire. their taxes and kept the peace.[24] Additionally, the king
154 CHAPTER 24. ACHAEMENID EMPIRE

agreed not to interfere with the local customs, religions, when writing about the Persians, identied Achaemenes
and trades of its subject states,[24] a unique quality that with Perses, ancestor of the Persians in Greek mythol-
eventually won Cyrus the support of the Babylonians. ogy.[26] According to Plato, Achaemenes was the
This system of management ultimately became an issue same person as Perses, a son of the Ethiopian queen
for the Persians, as with a larger empire came the need Andromeda and the Greek hero Perseus, and a grand-
for order and control, leading to expenditure of resources son of Zeus. Later writers believed that Achaemenes and
and mobilization of troops to quell local rebellions, and Perseus were dierent people, and that Perses was an an-
weakening the central power of the king. By the time of cestor of the king.[27] This account further conrms that
Darius III, this disorganization had almost led to a dis- Achaemenes could well have been a signicant Anshan
united realm.[15] leader and an ancestor of Cyrus the Great. Regardless,
both Cyrus the Great and Darius the Great were related,
The Persians from whom Cyrus hailed were originally
nomadic pastoralists in the western Iranian Plateau and prominent kings of Persia, under whose rule the empire
expanded to include much of the ancient world.
by 850 BC were calling themselves the Parsa and their
constantly shifting territory Parsua, for the most part lo-
calized around Persis.[15] As Persians gained power, they
developed the infrastructure to support their growing in-
24.1.3 Formation and expansion
uence, including creation of a capital named Pasargadae
and an opulent city named Persepolis.
Begun during the rule of Darius I the Great and com-
pleted some 100 years later,[25] Persepolis was a symbol
of the empire serving both as a ceremonial centre and a
center of government.[25] It had a special set of gradually
progressive stairways named All Countries[25] around
which carved relief decoration depicted scenes of hero-
ism, hunting, natural themes, and presentation of the gifts
to the Achaemenid kings by their various subjects, possi-
bly during the spring festival, Nowruz. The core structure
was composed of a multitude of square rooms or halls, the
biggest of which was called Apadana.[25] Tall, decorated
columns welcomed visitors and emphasized the height of
the structure. Later on, Darius also utilized Susa and
Ecbatana as his governmental centres, developing them The tomb of Cyrus the Great, founder of the Achaemenid Empire
to a similar metropolitan status.
Accounts of the Achaemenid family tree can be derived
from either documented Greek or Roman accounts, or
from existing documented Persian accounts such as those
found in the Behistun Inscription. However, since most
existing accounts of this vast empire are in works of
Greek philosophers and historians, and since many of the
original Persian documents are lost, not to mention be-
ing subject to varying scholarly views on their origin and
possible motivations behind them, it is dicult to cre-
ate a denitive and completely objective list. Nonethe-
less, it is clear that Cyrus and Darius were critical in the
expansion of the empire. Cyrus is often believed to be
the son of Cambyses I, grandson of Cyrus I, the father of
Cambyses II, and a relative of Darius through a shared an- The Gate of All Nations, Persepolis
cestor, Teispes. Cyrus the Great is also believed to have
been a family member (possibly grandson) of the Median Further information: Battle of the Persian Border,
king Astyages through his mother, Mandane of Media. A Persian Revolt, Battle of Pteria, Battle of Opis, Battle of
minority of scholars argue that perhaps Achaemenes was Pelusium (525 BC), Achaemenid invasion of the Indus
a retrograde creation of Darius in order to reconcile his Valley, and European Scythian campaign of Darius I
connection with Cyrus after gaining power.[19]
Ancient Greek writers provide some legendary informa- The empire took its unied form with a central admin-
tion about Achaemenes by calling his tribe the Pasar- istration around Pasargadae erected by Cyrus the Great.
gadae and stating that he was raised by an eagle". Plato, The empire ended up conquering and enlarging the Me-
dian Empire to include in addition many more territories,
24.1. HISTORY
A well preserved Persian column showing the details of the cap-
ital of the columns in Persepolis
Map of the expansion process of Achaemenid territories
for example in Europe, the Caucasus, Asia Minor, Egypt,
and Central Asia. During the reigns of Darius I and his
son Xerxes I it engaged in military conict with some of
the major city-states of Ancient Greece, and although it
came close to defeating the Greek army, this war ulti-
mately led to the empires overthrow.[28]
In 559 BC, Cambyses I the Elder was succeeded as the
king of Ann by his son Cyrus the Great, who also suc-
ceeded the still-living Arsames as the King of Persia, thus
reuniting the two realms. Cyrus is considered to be the
rst true king of the Persian Empire, as his predecessors
were subservient to the Medes. Cyrus the Great con-
quered Media, Lydia, and Babylon. Cyrus was politically
shrewd, modeling himself as the savior of conquered
nations, often allowing displaced people to return, and Herodotus writes[38] that the native leadership debated
155
giving his subjects freedom to practice local customs. To
reinforce this image, he instituted policies of religious
freedom, and restored temples and other infrastructure in
the newly acquired cities (Most notably the Jewish inhab-
itants of Babylon, as recorded in the Cyrus Cylinder and
the Tanakh). As a result of his tolerant policies he came
to be known by those of the Jewish faith as the anointed
of the Lord.[29][30]
His immediate successors were less successful. Cyrus
son Cambyses II conquered Egypt in 525 BC, but died in
July 522 BC during a revolt led by a sacerdotal clan that
had lost its power following Cyrus conquest of Media.
The cause of his death remains uncertain, although it may
have been the result of an accident.[31]
According to Herodotus, Cambyses II had originally ven-
tured into Egypt to take revenge for the pharaoh Amasiss
trickery when he sent a fake Egyptian bride whose fam-
ily Amasis had murdered,[32] instead of his own daugh-
ter, to wed Cambyses II. Additionally negative reports of
mistreatment caused by Amasis, given by Phanes of Hali-
carnassus, a wise counsellor serving Amasis, further bol-
stered Cambysess resolve to venture into Egypt. Amasis
died before Cambyses II could face him, but his succes-
sor Psamtik III was defeated by Cambyses II in the Battle
of Pelusium.
While Cambyses II was in Egypt, the Zoroastrian priests,
whom Herodotus called Magi, usurped the throne for one
of their own, Gaumata, who then pretended to be Cam-
byses IIs younger brother Bardiya (Greek: Smerdis or
Tanaoxares/Tanyoxarkes[31] ), who had been assassinated
some three years earlier. Owing to the strict rule of Cam-
byses II, especially his stance on taxation,[33] and his long
absence in Egypt, the whole people, Perses, Medes and
all the other nations, acknowledged the usurper, espe-
cially as he granted a remission of taxes for three years.[34]
Cambyses II himself would not be able to quell the im-
posters, as he died on the way back from Egypt.
The claim that Gaumata had impersonated Bardiya
(Smerdis), is derived from Darius the Great and the
records at the Behistun Inscription. Historians are di-
vided over the possibility that the story of the impostor
was invented by Darius as justication for his coup.[35]
Darius made a similar claim when he later captured Baby-
lon, announcing that the Babylonian king was not, in fact,
Nebuchadnezzar III, but an impostor named Nidintu-
bel.[36]
According to the Behistun Inscription, Gaumata ruled
for seven months before being overthrown in 522 BC by
Darius the Great (Darius I) (Old Persian Dryavu, who
holds rm the good, also known as Darayarahush or
Darius the Great). The Magi, though persecuted, con-
tinued to exist, and a year following the death of the
rst pseudo-Smerdis (Gaumata), saw a second pseudo-
Smerdis (named Vahyazdta) attempt a coup. The coup,
though initially successful, failed.[37]
156 CHAPTER 24. ACHAEMENID EMPIRE

the best form of government for the empire. It was agreed and to Macedonians specically as Yaun Takabara or
that an oligarchy would divide them against one another, Greeks with hats that look like shields, possibly refer-
and democracy would bring about mob rule resulting in ring to the Macedonian kausia hat.[43]
a charismatic leader resuming the monarchy. Therefore,
they decided a new monarch was in order, particularly
since they were in a position to choose him. Darius I
was chosen monarch from among the leaders. He was
cousin to Cambyses II and Bardiya (Smerdis), claiming
Ariaramnes as his ancestor.
The Achaemenids thereafter consolidated areas rmly
under their control. It was Cyrus the Great and Darius the
Great who, by sound and farsighted administrative plan-
ning, brilliant military maneuvering, and a humanistic
world view, established the greatness of the Achaemenids
and, in less than thirty years, raised them from an obscure
tribe to a world power. It was during the reign of Darius
the Great (Darius I) that Persepolis was built (518516
BC) and which would serve as capital for several genera-
tions of Achaemenid kings. Ecbatana (Hagmatna City
of Gatherings, modern: Hamadan) in Media was greatly
expanded during this period and served as the summer
capital.
Ever since the Macedonian king Amyntas I surrendered
his country to the Persians in about 512-511, Macedo-
nians and Persians were strangers no more as well.[39]
Subjugation of Macedonia was part of Persian military The Persian queen Atossa, Darius the Great's wife and mother
operations initiated by Darius the Great (521486) in of Xerxes I
513 - after immense preparations - a huge Achaemenid
army invaded the Balkans and tried to defeat the Eu- By the 5th century BC the Kings of Persia were either
ropean Scythians roaming to the north of the Danube ruling over or had subordinated territories encompassing
river.[39] Darius army subjugated several Thracian peo- not just all of the Persian Plateau and all of the territo-
ples, and virtually all other regions that touch the Euro- ries formerly held by the Assyrian Empire (Mesopotamia,
pean part of the Black Sea, such as parts of nowadays the Levant, Cyprus and Egypt), but beyond this all of
Bulgaria, Romania, Ukraine, and Russia, before it re- Anatolia and Armenia, as well as the Southern Cau-
turned to Asia Minor.[39][40] Darius left in Europe one casus and parts of the North Caucasus, Azerbaijan,
of his commanders named Megabazus whose task was Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, all of Bulgaria, Paeonia, Thrace
to accomplish conquests in the Balkans.[39] The Persian and Macedonia to the north and west, most of the Black
troops subjugated gold-rich Thrace, the coastal Greek Sea coastal regions, parts of Central Asia as far as the
cities, as well as defeating and conquering the powerful Aral Sea, the Oxus and Jaxartes to the north and north-
Paeonians.[39][41][42] Finally, Megabazus sent envoys to east, the Hindu Kush and the western Indus basin (cor-
Amyntas, demanding acceptance of Persian domination, responding to modern Afghanistan and Pakistan) to the
which the Macedonians did. The Balkans provided many far east, parts of northern Arabia to the south, and parts
soldiers for the multi-ethnic Achaemenid army. Many of northern Libya to the south-west, and parts of Oman,
of the Macedonian and Persian elite intermarried, such China, and the UAE.[44][45][46][47][48][49]
as the Persian ocial Bubares who married Amyntas
daughter, Gygaea. Family ties the Macedonian rulers
Amyntas and Alexander enjoyed with Bubares ensured 24.1.4 Greco-Persian Wars
them good relations with the Persian kings Darius and
Xerxes I.[39] The Persian invasion led indirectly to Mace- Main article: Greco-Persian Wars
donias rise in power and Persia had some common in- The Ionian Revolt in 499 BC, and associated revolts in
terests in the Balkans; with Persian aid, the Macedonians Aeolis, Doris, Cyprus and Caria, were military rebellions
stood to gain much at the expense of some Balkan tribes by several regions of Asia Minor against Persian rule, last-
such as the Paeonians and Greeks. All in all, the Mace- ing from 499 to 493 BC. At the heart of the rebellion was
donians were willing and useful Persian allies. Macedo- the dissatisfaction of the Greek cities of Asia Minor with
nian soldiers fought against Athens and Sparta in Xerxes the tyrants appointed by Persia to rule them, along with
army.[39] The Persians referred to both Greeks and Mace- the individual actions of two Milesian tyrants, Histiaeus
donians as Yauna ("Ionians", their term for Greeks), and Aristagoras. In 499 BC, the then tyrant of Miletus,
Aristagoras, launched a joint expedition with the Persian
24.1. HISTORY 157

Odryses
Byzantium Chalcedon
Perinthus Astakos

Maronea Doriskos Proconnesus

Abdera
Aenus Cyzicus

Eion Thasos Lampsacus

Sestos
Samothrace
Epidamnus Pella Therma Stagira Abydos
Imbros
Xerxes Ilium
Methoni Olynthus Canal
Apollonia Torone Lemnos Antandrus PERSIAN
Aegae Pydna Adramyttium
Potidaea Assus
EMPIRE
Lesbos Pergamon

Kasthanaia Pitane
Mytilene
Larissa
Dodona Pherae Skiathos Phocaea Sardis
Skyros
Smyrna
480 498
Korkyra Pharsalus Clazomenae
Cape Artemision
Kassope Ambracia Thermopylae
Chios
Colophon Tralles
480 Chalcis
Anactorium Ephesus
Eretria Mycale
Delphi Thebes 479
Marathon Karystos Samos
Leucas Miletus
Naupactus 490 Andros
Plataea 479 Ikaros Mylasa
Calydon Lade
ACHA Megara Athens Tinos 494
Patras EA Mykonos
Cephallenia 480
Phlius Corinth Salamis Keos
Syros Halicarnassus Physcus
Kythnos Delos
Kos Cnidus
Zakynthos Elis Argos Naxos
Serifos Paros
Amorgos
The Greek World during Olympia Sifnos
Tegea
the Persian Wars (500479 BC)
Sparta Ios Astipalea Lindos
Messene
Ionian revolt Rhodes
Melos Anafe
Main battle Methoni Thera
Greek opponents of Persia
Greek neutral states Karpathos
Persian empire Cythera
Persian vassal states
Ionian rebels (498 BC)
Mardonius (492 BC)
Artaphernes/Datis (490 BC)
Xerxes/Mardonius (480 BC)
0 50 100 km

Map showing events of the rst phases of the Greco-Persian Wars

three days at Thermopylae. A simultaneous naval battle

Greek hoplite and Persian warrior depicted ghting, on an an-
at Artemisium was tactically indecisive as large storms
cient kylix, 5th century BC
destroyed ships from both sides. The battle was stopped
prematurely when the Greeks received news of the defeat
at Thermopylae and retreated. The battle was a strategic
satrap Artaphernes to conquer Naxos, in an attempt to victory for the Persians, giving them uncontested control
bolster his position in Miletus (both nancially and in of Artemisium and the Aegean Sea.
terms of prestige). The mission was a debacle, and sens- Following his victory at the Battle of Thermopylae,
ing his imminent removal as tyrant, Aristagoras chose to Xerxes sacked the evacuated city of Athens and prepared
incite the whole of Ionia into rebellion against the Persian to meet the Greeks at the strategic Isthmus of Corinth and
king Darius the Great. the Saronic Gulf. In 480 BC the Greeks won a decisive
The Persians continued to reduce the cities along the west victory over the Persian eet at the Battle of Salamis and
coast that still held out against them, before nally im- forced Xerxes to retire to Sardis. The land army which
posing a peace settlement in 493 BC on Ionia that was he left in Greece under Mardonius retook Athens but was
generally considered to be both just and fair. The Ionian eventually destroyed in 479 BC at the Battle of Plataea.
Revolt constituted the rst major conict between Greece The nal defeat of the Persians at Mycale encouraged the
and the Achaemenid Empire, and as such represents the Greek cities of Asia to revolt, and the Persians lost all of
rst phase of the Greco-Persian Wars. Asia Minor had their territories in Europe; Macedonia once again became
been brought back into the Persian fold, but Darius had independent.[39]
vowed to punish Athens and Eretria for their support of
the revolt.[50] Moreover, seeing that the political situa-
tion in Greece posed a continued threat to the stability 24.1.5 Cultural phase
of his Empire, he decided to embark on the conquest of
all of Greece. The rst campaign of the invasion was to After Xerxes I was assassinated, he was succeeded by
bring the territories in the Balkan peninsula back within his eldest son Artaxerxes I. It was during his reign that
the empire.[51] The Persian grip over these territories had Elamite ceased to be the language of government, and
loosened following the Ionian Revolt. In 492 BC, the Per- Aramaic gained in importance. It was probably during
sian general Mardonius re-subjugated Thrace and made this reign that the solar calendar was introduced as the
Macedon a fully subordinate part of the empire; it had national calendar. Under Artaxerxes I, Zoroastrianism
been a vassal as early as the late 6th century BC, but re- became the de facto religion of state, and for this Ar-
tained a great deal of autonomy.[51] However, in 490 BC taxerxes I is today also known as the Constantine of that
the Persian forces were defeated by the Athenians at the faith.
Battle of Marathon and Darius would die before having After Persia had been defeated at Battle of Eurymedon
the chance to launch an invasion of Greece. (469 BC), military action between Greece and Persia was
Xerxes I (485465 BC, Old Persian Xayra Hero halted. When Artaxerxes I took power, he introduced a
Among Kings), son of Darius I, vowed to complete the new Persian strategy of weakening the Athenians by fund-
job. He organized a massive invasion aiming to con- ing their enemies in Greece. This indirectly caused the
quer Greece. His army entered Greece from the north, Athenians to move the treasury of the Delian League from
meeting little or no resistance through Macedonia and the island of Delos to the Athenian acropolis. This fund-
Thessaly, but was delayed by a small Greek force for ing practice inevitably prompted renewed ghting in 450
158
Cyrus the Great king of Iran (ancient Persia) is said in the Bible
to have liberated the Hebrew captives in Babylon to resettle and
rebuild Jerusalem, earning him an honored place in Judaism.
BC, where the Greeks attacked at the Battle of Cyprus.
After Cimon's failure to attain much in this expedition,
the Peace of Callias was agreed between Athens, Argos
and Persia in 449 BC.
Artaxerxes I oered asylum to Themistocles, who was
the winner of the Battle of Salamis, after Themistocles
was ostracized from Athens. Also, Artaxerxes I gave
him Magnesia, Myus, and Lampsacus to maintain him
in bread, meat, and wine. In addition, Artaxerxes I gave
him Palaescepsis to provide him with clothes, and he also
gave him Percote with bedding for his house.[52]
When Artaxerxes died in 424 BC at Susa, his body was
taken to the tomb already built for him in the Naqsh-e
Rustam Necropolis. It was Persian tradition that kings
begin constructing their own tombs while they were still
alive. Artaxerxes I was immediately succeeded by his
eldest son Xerxes II, who was the only legitimate son
of Artaxerxes.[53] However, after a few days on the
throne, he was assassinated while drunk by Pharnacyas
and Menostanes on the orders of his illegitimate brother:
Sogdianus who apparently had gained the support of his
regions. He reigned for six months and fteen days be-
fore being captured by his half-brother, Ochus, who had
rebelled against him. Sogdianus was executed by being
suocated in ash because Ochus had promised he would
not die by the sword, by poison or by hunger.[54] Ochus
then took the royal name Darius II. Darius ability to de- erstwhile allies, the Spartans, who, under Agesilaus II,
fend his position on the throne ended the short power vac- invaded Asia Minor. In order to redirect the Spar-
uum.
From 412 BC Darius II, at the insistence of Tissaphernes, and Corinthians. These subsidies helped to engage the
gave support rst to Athens, then to Sparta, but in 407 BC,
CHAPTER 24. ACHAEMENID EMPIRE
Darius son Cyrus the Younger was appointed to replace
Tissaphernes and aid was given entirely to Sparta which
nally defeated Athens in 404 BC. In the same year, Dar-
ius fell ill and died in Babylon. His death gave an Egyp-
tian rebel named Amyrtaeus the opportunity to throw o
Persian control over Egypt. At his death bed, Darius
Babylonian wife Parysatis pleaded with him to have her
second eldest son Cyrus (the Younger) crowned, but Dar-
ius refused. Queen Parysatis favoured Cyrus more than
her eldest son Artaxerxes II. Plutarch relates (probably on
the authority of Ctesias) that the displaced Tissaphernes
came to the new king on his coronation day to warn him
that his younger brother Cyrus (the Younger) was prepar-
ing to assassinate him during the ceremony. Artaxerxes
had Cyrus arrested and would have had him executed if
their mother Parysatis had not intervened. Cyrus was then
sent back as Satrap of Lydia, where he prepared an armed
rebellion. Cyrus hired an army of Ten Thousand Greek
mercenaries and made his way deeper into Persia. The
army of Cyrus was stopped by the royal Persian army
of Artaxerxes II at Cunaxa in 401 BC, where Cyrus was
killed. The Ten Thousand Greek Mercenaries including
Xenophon were now deep in Persian territory and were at
risk of attack. So they searched for others to oer their
services to but eventually had to return to Greece.[55]
Artaxerxes II was the longest reigning of the Achaemenid
kings and it was during this 45-year period of relative
peace and stability that many of the monuments of the
era were constructed. Artaxerxes moved the capital back
to Persepolis, which he greatly extended. Also the sum-
mer capital at Ecbatana was lavishly extended with gilded
columns and roof tiles of silver and copper.[56] The ex-
traordinary innovation of the Zoroastrian shrines can also
be dated to his reign, and it was probably during this pe-
riod that Zoroastrianism spread from Armenia through-
out Asia Minor and the Levant. The construction of tem-
ples, though serving a religious purpose, was not a purely
seless act, as they also served as an important source of
income. From the Babylonian kings, the Achaemenids
had taken over the concept of a mandatory temple tax,
a one-tenth tithe which all inhabitants paid to the tem-
ple nearest to their land or other source of income.[57] A
share of this income called the Quppu Sha Sharri, kings
chestan ingenious institution originally introduced by
Naboniduswas then turned over to the ruler. In ret-
rospect, Artaxerxes is generally regarded as an amiable
man who lacked the moral bre to be a really successful
ruler. However, six centuries later Ardeshir I, founder of
the second Persian Empire, would consider himself Ar-
taxerxes successor, a grand testimony to the importance
of Artaxerxes to the Persian psyche.
Artaxerxes II became involved in a war with Persias
tans attention to Greek aairs, Artaxerxes II subsi-
dized their enemies: in particular the Athenians, Thebans
24.1. HISTORY
Daric of Artaxerxes II
Spartans in what would become known as the Corinthian
War. In 386 BC, Artaxerxes II betrayed his allies and
came to an arrangement with Sparta, and in the Treaty of
Antalcidas he forced his erstwhile allies to come to terms.
This treaty restored control of the Greek cities of Ionia
and Aeolis on the Anatolian coast to the Persians, while
giving Sparta dominance on the Greek mainland. In 385
BC he campaigned against the Cadusians. Although suc-
cessful against the Greeks, Artaxerxes II had more trouble
with the Egyptians, who had successfully revolted against
him at the beginning of his reign. An attempt to recon-
quer Egypt in 373 BC was completely unsuccessful, but
in his waning years the Persians did manage to defeat a
joint EgyptianSpartan eort to conquer Phoenicia. He
quashed the Revolt of the Satraps in 372362 BC. He is
reported to have had a number of wives. His main wife
was Stateira, until she was poisoned by Artaxerxes IIs
mother Parysatis in about 400 BC. Another chief wife
was a Greek woman of Phocaea named Aspasia (not the
same as the concubine of Pericles). Artaxerxes II is said
to have more than 115 sons from 350 wives.[58]
In 358 BC Artaxerxes II died and was succeeded by
his son Artaxerxes III. In 355 BC, Artaxerxes III forced
Athens to conclude a peace which required the citys
forces to leave Asia Minor and to acknowledge the in-
dependence of its rebellious allies.[59] Artaxerxes started
a campaign against the rebellious Cadusians, but he man-
aged to appease both of the Cadusian kings. One in-
dividual who successfully emerged from this campaign
was Darius Codomannus, who later occupied the Persian
throne as Darius III.
Artaxerxes III then ordered the disbanding of all the
satrapal armies of Asia Minor, as he felt that they could
no longer guarantee peace in the west and was concerned
that these armies equipped the western satraps with the
means to revolt.[60] The order was however ignored by
159
Artabazus of Lydia, who asked for the help of Athens
in a rebellion against the king. Athens sent assistance to
Sardis. Orontes of Mysia also supported Artabazus and
the combined forces managed to defeat the forces sent by
Artaxerxes III in 354 BC. However, in 353 BC, they were
defeated by Artaxerxes IIIs army and were disbanded.
Orontes was pardoned by the king, while Artabazus ed
to the safety of the court of Philip II of Macedon. In
around 351 BC, Artaxerxes embarked on a campaign to
recover Egypt, which had revolted under his father, Ar-
taxerxes II. At the same time a rebellion had broken out
in Asia Minor, which, being supported by Thebes, threat-
ened to become serious. Levying a vast army, Artaxerxes
marched into Egypt, and engaged Nectanebo II. After
a year of ghting the Egyptian Pharaoh, Nectanebo in-
icted a crushing defeat on the Persians with the support
of mercenaries led by the Greek generals Diophantus and
Lamius.[61] Artaxerxes was compelled to retreat and post-
pone his plans to reconquer Egypt. Soon after this de-
feat, there were rebellions in Phoenicia, Asia Minor and
Cyprus. In 343 BC, Artaxerxes committed responsibil-
ity for the suppression of the Cyprian rebels to Idrieus,
prince of Caria, who employed 8,000 Greek mercenar-
ies and forty triremes, commanded by Phocion the Athe-
nian, and Evagoras, son of the elder Evagoras, the Cypriot
monarch.[62][63] Idrieus succeeded in reducing Cyprus.
Artaxerxes initiated a counter-oensive against Sidon by
commanding Belesys, satrap of Syria and Mezseus, satrap
of Cilicia to invade the city and to keep the Phoenicians
in check. Both satraps suered crushing defeats at the
hands of Tennes, the Sidonese king, who was aided by
40,000 Greek mercenaries sent to him by Nectanebo II
and commanded by Mentor of Rhodes. As a result, the
Persian forces were driven out of Phoenicia.[63]
After this, Artaxerxes personally led an army of 330,000
men against Sidon. Artaxerxes army comprised 300,000
foot soldiers, 30,000 cavalry, 300 triremes, and 500
transports or provision ships. After gathering this army,
he sought assistance from the Greeks. Though refused aid
by Athens and Sparta, he succeeded in obtaining a thou-
sand Theban heavy-armed hoplites under Lacrates, three
thousand Argives under Nicostratus, and six thousand
olians, Ionians, and Dorians from the Greek cities of
Asia Minor. This Greek support was numerically small,
amounting to no more than 10,000 men, but it formed, to-
gether with the Greek mercenaries from Egypt who went
over to him afterwards, the force on which he placed his
chief reliance, and to which the ultimate success of his
expedition was mainly due. The approach of Artaxerxes
suciently weakened the resolution of Tennes that he en-
deavoured to purchase his own pardon by delivering up
100 principal citizens of Sidon into the hands of the Per-
sian king, and then admitting Artaxerxes within the de-
fences of the town. Artaxerxes had the 100 citizens trans-
xed with javelins, and when 500 more came out as sup-
plicants to seek his mercy, Artaxerxes consigned them to
the same fate. Sidon was then burnt to the ground, either
by Artaxerxes or by the Sidonian citizens. Forty thou-
160 CHAPTER 24. ACHAEMENID EMPIRE

sand people died in the conagration.[63] Artaxerxes sold

the ruins at a high price to speculators, who calculated
on reimbursing themselves by the treasures which they
hoped to dig out from among the ashes.[64] Tennes was
later put to death by Artaxerxes.[65] Artaxerxes later sent
Jews who supported the revolt to Hyrcania the south coast
of the Caspian Sea.[66][67]

24.1.6 Second conquest of Egypt

Egyptian Cartouche of Darius I at the Temple of Hibis

canals and full of strongly fortied towns, was in his

favour and Nectanebo II might have been expected to of-
fer a prolonged, if not even a successful, resistance. How-
ever, he lacked good generals, and, over-condent in his
own powers of command, he was out-manoeuvred by the
Greek mercenary generals and his forces were eventually
defeated by the combined Persian armies at the Battle
of Pelusium (343 BC).[63] After his defeat, Nectanebo
hastily ed to Memphis, leaving the fortied towns to be
defended by their garrisons. These garrisons consisted of
Head of Nectanebo II partly Greek and partly Egyptian troops; between whom
jealousies and suspicions were easily sown by the Persian
The reduction of Sidon was followed closely by the in- leaders. As a result, the Persians were able to rapidly re-
vasion of Egypt. In 343 BC, Artaxerxes, in addition to duce numerous towns across Lower Egypt and were ad-
his 330,000 Persians, had now a force of 14,000 Greeks vancing upon Memphis when Nectanebo decided to quit
furnished by the Greek cities of Asia Minor: 4,000 under the country and ee southwards to Ethiopia.[63] The Per-
Mentor, consisting of the troops which he had brought to sian army completely routed the Egyptians and occupied
the aid of Tennes from Egypt; 3,000 sent by Argos; and the Lower Delta of the Nile. Following Nectanebo ee-
1000 from Thebes. He divided these troops into three ing to Ethiopia, all of Egypt submitted to Artaxerxes. The
bodies, and placed at the head of each a Persian and a Jews in Egypt were sent either to Babylon or to the south
Greek. The Greek commanders were Lacrates of Thebes, coast of the Caspian Sea, the same location that the Jews
Mentor of Rhodes and Nicostratus of Argos while the of Phoenicia had earlier been sent.
Persians were led by Rhossaces, Aristazanes, and Bagoas,
After this victory over the Egyptians, Artaxerxes had the
the chief of the eunuchs. Nectanebo II resisted with an
city walls destroyed, started a reign of terror, and set
army of 100,000 of whom 20,000 were Greek merce- about looting all the temples. Persia gained a signi-
naries. Nectanebo II occupied the Nile and its variouscant amount of wealth from this looting. Artaxerxes also
branches with his large navy. raised high taxes and attempted to weaken Egypt enough
The character of the country, intersected by numerous that it could never revolt against Persia. For the 10 years
24.1. HISTORY 161

that Persia controlled Egypt, believers in the native reli-
gion were persecuted and sacred books were stolen.[68]
Before he returned to Persia, he appointed Pherendares
as satrap of Egypt. With the wealth gained from his re-
conquering Egypt, Artaxerxes was able to amply reward
his mercenaries. He then returned to his capital having
successfully completed his invasion of Egypt.
After his success in Egypt, Artaxerxes returned to Persia
and spent the next few years eectively quelling insurrec-
tions in various parts of the Empire so that a few years af-
ter his conquest of Egypt, the Persian Empire was rmly
under his control. Egypt remained a part of the Persian
Empire until Alexander the Great's conquest of Egypt.
Macedon in Macedon (against which Demosthenes was in
vain warning the Athenians) attracted the attention of Ar-
taxerxes. In response, he ordered that Persian inuence
was to be used to check and constrain the rising power and
inuence of the Macedonian kingdom. In 340 BC, a Per-
sian force was dispatched to assist the Thracian prince,
Cersobleptes, to maintain his independence. Sucient
eective aid was given to the city of Perinthus that the nu-
merous and well-appointed army with which Philip had
commenced his siege of the city was compelled to give
up the attempt.[63] By the last year of Artaxerxes rule,
Philip II already had plans in place for an invasion of the
Persian Empire, which would crown his career, but the
Greeks would not unite with him.[70]
In 338 BC Artaxerxes was poisoned by Bagoas with the
assistance of a physician.[71]

24.1.7 Fall of the empire

Persian Empire timeline including important events and territorial

evolution.

After the conquest of Egypt, there were no more revolts

or rebellions against Artaxerxes. Mentor and Bagoas, the The Battle of Issus, between Alexander the Great on horseback
two generals who had most distinguished themselves in to the left, and Darius III in the chariot to the right, represented
the Egyptian campaign, were advanced to posts of the in a Pompeii mosaic dated 1st century BC Naples National Ar-
highest importance. Mentor, who was governor of the chaeological Museum.
entire Asiatic seaboard, was successful in reducing to sub-
jection many of the chiefs who during the recent troubles
had rebelled against Persian rule. In the course of a few
years Mentor and his forces were able to bring the whole
Asian Mediterranean coast into complete submission and
dependence.
Bagoas went back to the Persian capital with Artaxerxes,
where he took a leading role in the internal administration
of the Empire and maintained tranquility throughout the
rest of the Empire. During the last six years of the reign
of Artaxerxes III, the Persian Empire was governed by a
vigorous and successful government.[63]
The Persian forces in Ionia and Lycia regained control
of the Aegean and the Mediterranean Sea and took over
Alexanders rst victory over Darius, the Persian king depicted in
much of Athens' former island empire. In response,
medieval European style in the 15th century romance The His-
Isocrates of Athens started giving speeches calling for a tory of Alexanders Battles
'crusade against the barbarians but there was not enough
strength left in any of the Greek city-states to answer his Artaxerxes III was succeeded by Artaxerxes IV Arses,
call.[69] who before he could act was also poisoned by Bagoas.
Although there weren't any rebellions in the Persian Em- Bagoas is further said to have killed not only all Ar-
pire itself, the growing power and territory of Philip II of ses children, but many of the other princes of the land.
162
Bagoas then placed Darius III, a nephew of Artaxerxes
IV, on the throne. Darius III, previously Satrap of Arme-
nia, personally forced Bagoas to swallow poison. In 334
BC, when Darius was just succeeding in subduing Egypt
again, Alexander and his battle-hardened troops invaded
Asia Minor.
Alexander the Great (Alexander III of Macedon) defeated
the Persian armies at Granicus (334 BC), followed by
Issus (333 BC), and lastly at Gaugamela (331 BC). Af-
terwards, he marched on Susa and Persepolis which sur-
rendered in early 330 BC. From Persepolis, Alexander
headed north to Pasargadae where he visited the tomb of
Cyrus, the burial of the man whom he had heard of from
the Cyropedia.
In the ensuing chaos created by Alexanders invasion of
Persia, Cyruss tomb was broken into and most of its lux-
uries were looted. When Alexander reached the tomb, he
was horried by the manner in which it had been treated,
and questioned the Magi, putting them on trial.[72][73] By
some accounts, Alexanders decision to put the Magi on
trial was more an attempt to undermine their inuence
and display his own power than a show of concern for
Cyruss tomb.[74] Regardless, Alexander the Great or-
dered Aristobulus to improve the tombs condition and
restore its interior, showing respect for Cyrus.[72] From
there he headed to Ecbatana, where Darius III had sought
refuge.
Darius III was taken prisoner by Bessus, his Bactrian
satrap and kinsman. As Alexander approached, Bessus
had his men murder Darius III and then declared him-
self Darius successor, as Artaxerxes V, before retreating
into Central Asia leaving Darius body in the road to de-
lay Alexander, who brought it to Persepolis for an hon-
orable funeral. Bessus would then create a coalition of
his forces, in order to create an army to defend against
Alexander. Before Bessus could fully unite with his con-
federates at the eastern part of the empire,[75] Alexan-
der, fearing the danger of Bessus gaining control, found
him, put him on trial in a Persian court under his con-
trol, and ordered his execution in a cruel and barbarous
manner.[76]
Alexander generally kept the original Achaemenid ad-
ministrative structure, leading some scholars to dub him
as the last of the Achaemenids[77] Upon Alexanders
death in 323 BC, his empire was divided among his gen-
erals, the Diadochi, resulting in a number of smaller
states. The largest of these, which held sway over the Ira-
nian plateau, was Seleucid Empire, ruled by Alexanders
general Seleucus I Nicator. Native Iranian rule would be
restored by the Parthians of northeastern Iran over the
course of the 2nd century BC.
24.1.8 Descendants in later Iranian dynas-
ties
Istakhr, one of the vassal kingdoms of the Parthian Em-
CHAPTER 24. ACHAEMENID EMPIRE
pire, would be overthrown by Papak, a priest of the tem-
ple there. Papaks son, Ardair I, who named himself in
remembrance of Artaxerxes II, would revolt against the
Parthians, eventually defeating them and establishing the
Sassanid Empire or as it is known the second Persian Em-
pire.
The Achaemenid line would be carried on through the
Kingdom of Pontus, based in the Pontus region of north-
ern Asia Minor. This Pontic Kingdom, a state of Persian
origin,[78][79][80][81] may even have been directly related to
Darius the Great and the Achaemenid dynasty.[81] It was
founded by Mithridates I in 281 BC and lasted until its
conquest by the Roman Republic in 63 BC. The kingdom
grew to its largest extent under Mithridates VI the Great,
who conquered Colchis, Cappadocia, Bithynia, the Greek
colonies of the Tauric Chersonesos and for a brief time
the Roman province of Asia. Thus, this Persian dynasty
managed to survive and prosper in the Hellenistic world
while the main Persian Empire had fallen.
Both the later dynasties of the Parthians and Sasanians
would on occasion claim Achaemenid descent. Recently
there has been some corroboration for the Parthian claim
to Achaemenid ancestry via the possibility of an inherited
disease (neurobromatosis) demonstrated by the physical
descriptions of rulers and from evidence of familial dis-
ease on ancient coinage.[82]
24.1.9 Causes of decline
Part of the cause of the Empires decline had been the
heavy tax burden put upon the state, which eventually led
to economic decline.[83][84] An estimate of the tribute im-
posed on the subject nations was up to U.S. $180M per
year. This does not include the material goods and sup-
plies that were supplied as taxes.[85] After the high over-
head of government - the military, the bureaucracy, what-
ever the satraps could safely dip into the coers for them-
selves - this money went into the royal treasury. Accord-
ing to Diodorus, at Persepolis, Alexander III found some
180,000 Attic talents of silver besides the additional trea-
sure the Macedonians were carrying that already had been
seized in Damascus by Parmenion.[86] This amounted to
U.S. $2.7B. On top of this, Darius III had taken 8,000
talents with him on his ight to the north.[85] Alexander
put this static hoard back into the economy, and upon
his death some 130,000 talents had been spent on the
building of cities, dockyards, temples, and the payment of
the troops, besides the ordinary government expenses.[87]
Additionally, one of the satraps, Harpalus, had made o
to Greece with some 6,000 talents, which Athens used to
rebuild its economy after seizing it during the struggles
with the Corinthian League.[88] Due to the ood of money
from Alexanders hoard entering Greece, however, a dis-
ruption in the economy occurred, in agriculture, banking,
rents, the great increase in mercenary soldiers that cash
allowed the wealthy, and an increase in piracy.[89]
24.2. GOVERNMENT
Another factor contributing to the decline of the Empire
after Xerxes was its failure to ever mold the many subject
nations into a whole; the creation of a national identity
was never attempted.[90] This lack of cohesion eventually
aected the eciency of the military.[91]
24.2 Government
The Behistun Inscription tells the story of Darius the Greats con- silver talents, four months supply of food for the army.
quests, with the names of twenty-three satrapys subject to him.
Behistun Inscription, column 1 (DB I 115)
Modern impression of Achaemenid cylinder seal. The use of
cylinder seals appears to have been restricted to ocials of the
royal administration during this period.[92]
Cyrus the Great founded the empire as a multi-state
empire, governed by four capital states; Pasargadae,
Babylon, Susa and Ekbatana. The Achaemenids allowed
a certain amount of regional autonomy in the form of the
satrapy system. A satrapy was an administrative unit, usu-
ally organized on a geographical basis. A 'satrap' (gov-
ernor) was the governor who administered the region, a
163
'general' supervised military recruitment and ensured or-
der, and a 'state secretary' kept the ocial records. The
general and the state secretary reported directly to the
satrap as well as the central government. At diering
times, there were between 20 and 30 satrapies.[93]
Cyrus the Great created an organized army including
the Immortals unit, consisting of 10,000 highly trained
soldiers[94] Cyrus also formed an innovative postal sys-
tem throughout the empire, based on several relay stations
called Chapar Khaneh.[95]
The Persian daric was the rst gold coin which, along
with a similar silver coin, the siglos, (From Ancient Greek
, Hebrew ( shkel)) introduced the bimetallic
monetary standard of the Achaemenid Persian Empire
which has continued till today.[96] This was accomplished
by Darius the Great, who reinforced the empire and ex-
panded Persepolis as a ceremonial capital;[97] he revolu-
tionized the economy by placing it on the silver and gold
coinage and introducing a regulated and sustainable tax
system that was precisely tailored to each satrapy, based
on their supposed productivity and their economic poten-
tial. For instance, Babylon was assessed for the highest
amount and for a startling mixture of commodities 1000
India was clearly already fabled for its gold; Egypt was
known for the wealth of its crops; it was to be the granary
of the Persian Empire (as later of Romes) and was re-
quired to provide 120,000 measures of grain in addition
to 700 talents of silver. This was exclusively a tax levied
on subject peoples.[98] Other accomplishments of Darius
reign included codication of the data, a universal legal
system, and construction of a new capital at Persepolis.
Under the Achaemenids, the trade was extensive and
there was an ecient infrastructure that facilitated the ex-
change of commodities in the far reaches of the empire.
Taris on trade were one of the empires main sources of
revenue, along with agriculture and tribute.[98][99]
The satrapies were linked by a 2,500-kilometer highway,
the most impressive stretch being the Royal Road from
Susa to Sardis, built by command of Darius I. The relays
of mounted couriers could reach the remotest of areas in
fteen days. Herodotus observes that there is nothing in
the world that travels faster than these Persian couriers.
Neither snow, nor rain, nor heat, nor gloom of night stays
these courageous couriers from the swift completion of
their appointed rounds.[100] Despite the relative local in-
dependence aorded by the satrapy system, royal inspec-
tors, the eyes and ears of the king, toured the empire
and reported on local conditions.
The practice of slavery in Achaemenid Persia was gen-
erally banned, although there is evidence that conquered
and/or rebellious armies were sold into captivity.[101] The
kings of Achaemenid Persia, especially the founder Cyrus
the Great, occasionally declined to adopt slavery, as ev-
idenced by the freeing of the Jews at Babylon, and the
construction of Persepolis by paid workers.
164
24.3 Military
Median (left) and Persian (right) soldiers
Despite its humble origins in Persis, the empire reached
an enormous size under the leadership of Cyrus the Great.
Cyrus created a multi-state empire where he allowed re-
gional rulers, called the 'satrap' to rule as his proxy over
a certain designated area of his empire called the satrapy.
The basic rule of governance was based upon loyalty and
obedience of each satrapy to the central power, or the
king, and compliance with tax laws.[24] Due to the eth-
nocultural diversity of the subject nations under the rule
of Persia, its enormous geographic size, and the constant
struggle for power by regional competitors,[15] the cre-
ation of a professional army was necessary for both main-
tenance of the peace, and also to enforce the authority of
the king in cases of rebellion and foreign threat.[13][94]
Cyrus managed to create a strong land army, using it
to advance in his campaigns in Babylonia, Lydia, and
Asia Minor, which after his death was used by his son
Cambyses II, in Egypt against Psamtik III. Cyrus would
die battling a local Iranian insurgency in the empire, be-
fore he could have a chance to develop a naval force.[102]
That task however would fall to Darius the Great, who
would ocially give Persians their own royal navy to al-
low them to engage their enemies on multiple seas of this
vast empire, from the Black Sea and the Aegean Sea, to
the Persian Gulf, Ionian Sea and the Mediterranean Sea.
CHAPTER 24. ACHAEMENID EMPIRE
24.3.1 Military composition
The empires great armies were, like the empire
itself, very diverse, having:[note 1] Persians,[104]
Macedonians,[39] European Thracians, Paeonians,
Medes, Achaean Greeks, Cissians, Hyrcanians,[105]
Assyrians, Chaldeans,[106] Bactrians, Sacae,[107] Arians,
Parthians, Caucasian Albanians,[108] Chorasmians,
Sogdians, Gandarians, Dadicae,[109] Caspians, Sarangae,
Pactyes,[110] Utians, Mycians, Phoenicians along
with the Syrians of Palestine" (likely Judeans),
Egyptians,[111] Cyprians,[112] Cilicians, Pamphylians,
Lycians, Dorians of Asia, Carians, Ionians, Aegean is-
landers, Aeolians, Greeks from Pontus, Paricanians,[113]
Arabians, Ethiopians of Africa,[114] Ethiopians
of Baluchistan,[115] Libyans,[116] Paphlagonians,
Ligyes, Matieni, Mariandyni, Cappadocians,[117]
Phrygians, Armenians,[118] Lydians, Mysians,[119]
Asian Thracians,[120] Lasonii, Milyae,[121] Moschi,
Tibareni, Macrones, Mossynoeci,[122] Mares, Colchians,
Alarodians, Saspirians,[123] Red Sea islanders,[124]
Sagartians,[125] Indians,[126] Eordi, Bottiaei, Chalcidians,
Brygians, Pierians, Perrhaebi, Enienes, Dolopes, and
Magnesians.
24.3.2 Infantry
The Achaemenid infantry consisted of three groups: the
Immortals, the Sparabara, and the Takabara, though in
the later years of the Achaemenid Empire, the Cardaces,
were introduced.
The Immortals were described by Herodotus as being
heavy infantry, led by Hydarnes, that were kept constantly
at a strength of exactly 10,000 men. He claimed that the
units name stemmed from the custom that every killed,
seriously wounded, or sick member was immediately re-
placed with a new one, maintaining the numbers and co-
hesion of the unit.[127] They had wicker shields, short
spears, swords or large daggers, bow and arrow. Un-
derneath their robes they wore scale armour coats. The
spear counterbalances of the common soldiery were of
silver; to dierentiate commanding ranks, the ocers
spear butt-spikes were golden.[128] Surviving Achaemenid
coloured glazed bricks and carved reliefs represent the
Immortals as wearing elaborate robes, hoop earrings and
gold jewelry, though these garments and accessories were
most likely worn only for ceremonial occasions.[129] The
Sparabara unit were usually the rst to engage in hand-
to-hand combat with the enemy. Although not much is
known about them today, it is believed that they were
the backbone of the Persian army who formed a shield
wall and used their two-metre-long spears to protect more
vulnerable troops such as archers from the enemy. The
Sparabara were taken from the full members of Persian
society, they were trained from childhood to be soldiers
and when not called out to ght on campaigns in dis-
tant lands they practised hunting on the vast plains of
24.3. MILITARY 165

Persia. However, when all was quiet and the Pax Persica ius and Xerxes I, but Greek accounts only mention 15 of
held true, the Sparabara returned to normal life farming them being used at the Battle of Gaugamela.
the land and grazing their herds. Because of this they
lacked true professional quality on the battleeld, yet they
were well trained and courageous to the point of holding 24.3.4 Navy
the line in most situations long enough for a counterat-
tack. They were armoured with quilted linen and carried Since its foundation by Cyrus, the Persian empire had
large rectangular wicker shields as a form of light ma- been primarily a land empire with a strong army, but void
noeuvrable defense. This, however, left them at a severe of any actual naval forces. By the 5th century BC, this
disadvantage against heavily armoured opponents such as was to change, as the empire came across Greek, and
the hoplite, and his two-metre-long spear was not able Egyptian forces, each with their own maritime traditions
to give the Sparabara ample range to plausibly engage a and capabilities. Darius the Great (Darius I) is to be cred-
trained phalanx. The wicker shields were able to eec- ited as the rst Achaemenid king to invest in a Persian
tively stop arrows but not strong enough to protect the sol- eet.[131] Even by then no true imperial navy had ex-
dier from spears. However, the Sparabara could deal with isted either in Greece or Egypt. Persia would become the
most other infantry, including trained units from the East. rst empire, under Darius, to inaugurate and deploy the
The Takabara were a rare unit who were a tough type rst regular imperial navy.[131] Despite this achievement,
of peltasts.[130] Takabara nevertheless were more garri- the personnel for the imperial navy would not come from
son warriors than front line ghters as proved against the Iran, but were often Phoenicians (mostly from Sidon),
well-armed Hoplites of Greece where they were easily de- Egyptians and Greeks chosen by Darius the Great to op-
feated in hand to hand conict. They tended to ght with erate the empires combat vessels.[131]
their own native weapons which would have included a At rst the ships were built in Sidon by the Phoenicians;
crescent-shaped light wickerwork shield and axes as well the rst Achaemenid ships measured about 40 meters in
as light linen cloth and leather. The Takabara were re- length and 6 meters in width, able to transport up to 300
cruited from territories that incorporated modern Iraq Persian troops at any one trip. Soon, other states of the
and parts of Iran. empire were constructing their own ships, each incorpo-
rating slight local preferences. The ships eventually found
their way to the Persian Gulf.[131] Persian naval forces laid
24.3.3 Cavalry the foundation for a strong Persian maritime presence in
the Persian Gulf. Persians were not only stationed on is-
The Persian Cavalry was crucial for conquering nations, lands in the Persian Gulf, but also had ships often of 100
and had maintained its importance in the Achaemenid to 200 capacity patrolling the empires various rivers in-
army to the last days of the Achaemenid Empire. The cluding the Caroon or Karun, Tigris and Nile in the west,
cavalry were separated into four groups. The Char- as well as the Indus.[131]
iot Archers, Horse cavalry, the Camel cavalry, and the
Elephant Cavalry. The Achaemenid navy established bases located along the
Karun, Bahrain, Oman, and Yemen. The Persian eet
In the later years of the Achaemenid Empire, the Char- was not only used for peace-keeping purposes along the
iot archer had become merely a ceremonial part of the Karun but also opened the door to trade with India via the
Persian army, yet in the early years of the Empire, their Persian Gulf.[131] Dariuss navy was in many ways a world
use was widespread. The Chariot archers were armed power at the time, but it would be Artaxerxes II who in
with Spears, Bows, Arrows, Swords, and scale armour. the summer of 397 BC would build a formidable navy,
The horses were also suited with scale armour similar to as part of a rearmament which would lead to his decisive
scale armour of the Sassanian Cataphracts. The Chariots victory at Knidos in 394 BC, reestablishing Achaemenid
would contain imperial symbols and Decorations. The power in Ionia. Artaxerxes II would also utilize his navy
Horses used by the Achaemenids for Cavalry were often to later on quell a rebellion in Egypt.[132]
suited with scale armour, like most cavalry units. The rid-
ers often had the same armour as Infantry units, wicker The construction material of choice was wood, but some
shields, short spears, swords or large daggers, bow and armored Achaemenid ships had metallic blades on the
arrow and scale armour coats. The Camel cavalry was front, often meant to slice enemy ships using the ships
dierent, because the Camels and sometimes the riders, momentum. Naval ships were also equipped with hooks
were provided little protection against enemies, yet when on the side to grab enemy ships, or to negotiate their po-
they were oered protection, they would have Spears, sition. The ships were propelled by sails or manpower.
Swords, Bow, Arrow, and scale armour. The Persian The ships the Persians created were unique. As far as
Camel Cavalry was rst introduced into the Persian army maritime engagement, the ships were equipped with two
by Cyrus the Great, at the battle of Thymbra. The Persian mangonels that would launch
[131]
projectiles such as stones,
war elephant was most likely introduced into the Persian or ammable substances.
army by Darius I after his conquest of the Indus Valley. Xenophon describes his eye-witness account of a mas-
They may have been used in Greek campaigns by Dar- sive military bridge created by joining 37 Persian ships
166 CHAPTER 24. ACHAEMENID EMPIRE

across the Tigris river. The Persians utilized each boats

buoyancy, in order to support a connected bridge above
which supply could be transferred.[131] Herodotus also
gives many accounts of Persians utilizing ships to build
bridges.[133][134] Darius the Great, in an attempt to subdue
the Scythian horsemen north of the Black Sea, crossed
over at the Bosphorus, using an enormous bridge made
by connecting Achaemenid boats, then marched up to
the Danube, crossing it by means of a second boat
bridge.[135] The bridge over the Bosphorus essentially
connected the nearest tip of Asia to Europe, encompass-
ing at least some 1000 meters of open water if not more.
Herodotus describes the spectacle, and calls it the bridge
of Darius":[136]

"Strait called Bosphorus, across which the

bridge of Darius had been thrown is hundred
and twenty furlongs in length, reaching from
the Euxine, to the Propontis. The Propontis is One of a pair of armlets from the Oxus Treasure, which has lost
ve hundred furlongs across, and fourteen hun- its inlays of precious gems or enamel
dred long. Its waters ow into the Hellespont,
the length of which is four hundred furlongs ..."

Years later, a similar boat bridge would be constructed by

Xerxes the Great (Xerxes I), in his invasion of Greece.
Although the Persians failed to capture the Greek city
states completely, the tradition of maritime involvement
was carried down by the Persian kings, most notably Ar-
taxerxes II. Years later, when Alexander invaded Persia
and during his advancement into India, he took a page
from the Persian art of war, by having Hephaestion and
Perdiccas construct a similar boat-bridge at the Indus
river, in India in spring of 327 BC[137]

24.4 Culture Achaemenid golden bowl with lion imagery.

Herodotus, in his mid-5th century BC account of Persian

residents of the Pontus, reports that Persian youths, from
their fth year to their twentieth year, were instructed in
three things to ride a horse, to draw a bow, and to speak
the Truth.[138]
He further notes that:[138]

the most disgraceful thing in the world [the

Persians] think, is to tell a lie; the next worst,
to owe a debt: because, among other reasons,
the debtor is obliged to tell lies.

In Achaemenid Persia, the lie, druj, is considered to be a

cardinal sin, and it was punishable by death in some ex-
treme cases. Tablets discovered by archaeologists in the
1930s[139] at the site of Persepolis give us adequate ev-
idence about the love and veneration for the culture of
truth during the Achaemenian period. These tablets con-
tain the names of ordinary Persians, mainly traders and
warehouse-keepers.[140] According to Professor Stanley
The ruins of Persepolis
Insler of Yale University, as many as 72 names of o-
cials and petty clerks found on these tablets contain the
word truth.[141] Thus, says Insler, we have Artapana, pro-
tector of truth, Artakama, lover of truth, Artamanah,
24.4. CULTURE
truth-minded, Artafarnah, possessing splendour of truth,
Artazusta, delighting in truth, Artastuna, pillar of truth,
Artafrida, prospering the truth and Artahunara, having
nobility of truth. It was Darius the Great who laid down
the ordinance of good regulations during his reign. King
Darius testimony about his constant battle against the lie
is found in cuneiform inscriptions. Carved high up in the
Behistun mountain on the road to Kermanshah, Darius
the Great (Darius I) testies:[142]
I was not a lie-follower, I was not a doer of
wrong ... According to righteousness I con-
ducted myself. Neither to the weak or to the
powerful did I do wrong. The man who co-
operated with my house, him I rewarded well;
who so did injury, him I punished well.
Darius had his hands full dealing with large-scale re-
bellion which broke out throughout the empire. After
ghting successfully with nine traitors in a year, Darius
records his battles against them for posterity and tells us
how it was the lie that made them rebel against the empire.
At Behistun, Darius says:
I smote them and took prisoner nine kings.
One was Gaumata by name, a Magian; he lied;
thus he said: I am Smerdis, the son of Cyrus ...
One, Acina by name, an Elamite; he lied; thus
he said: I am king in Elam ... One, Nidintu-Bel
by name, a Babylonian; he lied; thus he said: I
am Nebuchadnezzar, the son of Nabonidus.
King Darius then tells us,
The Lie made them rebellious, so that these
men deceived the people.[143]
Then advice to his son Xerxes, who is to succeed him as
the great king:
Thou who shalt be king hereafter, protect your-
self vigorously from the Lie; the man who shall
be a lie-follower, him do thou punish well, if
thus thou shall think. May my country be se-
cure!
24.4.1 Languages
During the reign of Cyrus and Darius, and as long as
the seat of government was still at Susa in Elam, the
language of the chancellory was Elamite. This is pri-
marily attested in the Persepolis fortication and treasury
tablets that reveal details of the day-to-day functioning
of the empire.[140] In the grand rock-face inscriptions of
the kings, the Elamite texts are always accompanied by 24.4.2 Customs
Akkadian (Babylonian dialect) and Old Persian inscrip-
tions, and it appears that in these cases, the Elamite texts Herodotus mentions that the Persians were invited to
167
are translations of the Old Persian ones. It is then likely
that although Elamite was used by the capital government
in Susa, it was not a standardized language of government
everywhere in the empire. The use of Elamite is not at-
tested after 458 BC.
Following the conquest of Mesopotamia, the Aramaic
language (as used in that territory) was adopted as a vehi-
cle for written communication between the dierent re-
gions of the vast empire with its dierent peoples and
languages. The use of a single ocial language, which
modern scholarship has dubbed Ocial Aramaic or
Imperial Aramaic, can be assumed to have greatly con-
tributed to the astonishing success of the Achaemenids
in holding their far-ung empire together for as long as
they did.[144] In 1955, Richard Frye questioned the clas-
sication of Imperial Aramaic as an "ocial language",
noting that no surviving edict expressly and unambigu-
ously accorded that status to any particular language.[145]
Frye reclassies Imperial Aramaic as the lingua franca
of the Achaemenid territories, suggesting then that the
Achaemenid-era use of Aramaic was more pervasive than
generally thought. Many centuries after the fall of the
empire, Aramaic script and as ideograms Aramaic
vocabulary would survive as the essential characteristics
of the Pahlavi writing system.[146]
Although Old Persian also appears on some seals and
art objects, that language is attested primarily in the
Achaemenid inscriptions of Western Iran, suggesting
then that Old Persian was the common language of that
region. However, by the reign of Artaxerxes II, the gram-
mar and orthography of the inscriptions was so far from
perfect[147] that it has been suggested that the scribes
who composed those texts had already largely forgotten
the language, and had to rely on older inscriptions, which
they to a great extent reproduced verbatim.[148]
When the occasion demanded, Achaemenid administra-
tive correspondence was conducted in Greek, making
it a widely used bureaucratic language.[4] Even though
the Achaemenids had extensive contacts with the Greeks
and vice versa, and had conquered many of the Greek-
speaking areas both in Europe and Asia Minor dur-
ing dierent periods of the empire, the native Old Ira-
nian sources provide no indication of Greek linguistic
evidence.[4] However, there is plenty of evidence (in ad-
dition to the accounts of Herodotus) that Greeks, apart
from being deployed and employed in the core regions of
the empire, also evidently lived and worked in the heart-
land of the Achaemenid Empire, namely Iran.[4] For ex-
ample, Greeks were part of the various ethnicities that
constructed Darius palace in Susa, apart from the Greek
inscriptions found nearby there, and one short Persepolis
tablet written in Greek.[4]
168
An Achaemenid drinking vessel
great birthday feasts (Herodotus, Histories 8), which
would be followed by many desserts, a treat which they
reproached the Greeks for omitting from their meals. He
also observed that the Persians drank wine in large quan-
tities and used it even for counsel, deliberating on impor- The image of a lioness used as a pendant, late 6th4th centuries
tant aairs when drunk, and deciding the next day, when BC, from Susa Department of Oriental Antiquities, Louvre.
sober, whether to act on the decision or set it aside. Bow-
ing to superiors, or royalty was one of the many Persian
customs adopted by Alexander the Great.
24.4.3 Religion
Bas-relief of Farvahar at Persepolis, Iran
It was during the Achaemenid period that Zoroastrianism
reached South-Western Iran, where it came to be ac-
cepted by the rulers and through them became a den-
ing element of Persian culture. The religion was not
only accompanied by a formalization of the concepts
and divinities of the traditional Iranian pantheon but also
introduced several novel ideas, including that of free
will.[149][150]
Under the patronage of the Achaemenid kings, and by
the 5th century BC as the de facto religion of the state,
Zoroastrianism reached all corners of the empire. The
Bible states in the Old Testament that Cyrus the Great
CHAPTER 24. ACHAEMENID EMPIRE
allowed the Jews to return to their homeland after decades
of captivity by the Assyrian and Babylonian empires.
During the reign of Artaxerxes I and Darius II, Herodotus
wrote "[the Perses] have no images of the gods, no tem-
ples nor altars, and consider the use of them a sign of
folly. This comes, I think, from their not believing the
gods to have the same nature with men, as the Greeks
imagine.[151] He claims the Persians oer sacrice to:
the sun and moon, to the earth, to re, to water, and to
the winds. These are the only gods whose worship has
come down to them from ancient times. At a later period
they began the worship of Urania, which they borrowed
from the Arabians and Assyrians. Mylitta is the name by
which the Assyrians know this goddess, to whom the Per-
sians referred as Anahita.[151] (The original name here is
Mithra, which has since been explained to be a confusion
of Anahita with Mithra, understandable since they were
commonly worshipped together in one temple).
From the Babylonian scholar-priest Berosus, who
although writing over seventy years after the reign of
Artaxerxes II Mnemonrecords that the emperor had
been the rst to make cult statues of divinities and have
them placed in temples in many of the major cities of the
empire.[152] Berosus also substantiates Herodotus when
he says the Persians knew of no images of gods until Ar-
taxerxes II erected those images. On the means of sac-
rice, Herodotus adds they raise no altar, light no re,
pour no libations.[153] This sentence has been interpreted
to identify a critical (but later) accretion to Zoroastrian-
ism. An altar with a wood-burning re and the Yasna
service at which libations are poured are all clearly identi-
able with modern Zoroastrianism, but apparently, were
practices that had not yet developed in the mid-5th cen-
24.4. CULTURE 169

tury. Boyce also assigns that development to the reign of

Artaxerxes II (4th century BC), as an orthodox response
to the innovation of the shrine cults.
Herodotus also observed that no prayer or oering can
be made without a magus present[153] but this should not
be confused with what is today understood by the term
magus, that is a magupat (modern Persian: mobed), a
Zoroastrian priest. Nor does Herodotus description of
the term as one of the tribes or castes of the Medes nec-
essarily imply that these magi were Medians. They simply
were a hereditary priesthood to be found all over West-
ern Iran and although (originally) not associated with any
one specic religion, they were traditionally responsible
for all ritual and religious services. Although the un-
equivocal identication of the magus with Zoroastrianism
came later (Sassanid era, 3rd7th century AD), it is from
Herodotus magus of the mid-5th century that Zoroastri-
anism was subject to doctrinal modications that are to-
day considered to be revocations of the original teachings
of the prophet. Also, many of the ritual practices de-
scribed in the Avestas Vendidad (such as exposure of the
dead) were already practiced by the magu of Herodotus
time.

24.4.4 Art and architecture

Winged sphinx from the palace of Darius the Great at Susa,
Main article: Achaemenid architecture Louvre.
Achaemenid architecture includes large cities, temples,
palaces, and mausoleums such as the tomb of Cyrus the
Great. The quintessential feature of Persian architecture
was its eclectic nature with elements of Median, Assyr-
ian, and Asiatic Greek all incorporated, yet maintaining a
unique Persian identity seen in the nished products.[154]
Achaemenid art includes frieze reliefs, Metalwork such
as the Oxus Treasure, decoration of palaces, glazed brick
masonry, ne craftsmanship (masonry, carpentry, etc.),
and gardening. Although the Persians took artists, with
their styles and techniques, from all corners of their em-
pire, they produced not simply a combination of styles,
but a synthesis of a new unique Persian style.[155] Cyrus
the Great in fact had an extensive ancient Iranian her-
itage behind him; the rich Achaemenid gold work, which
inscriptions suggest may have been a specialty of the Lion on a decorative panel from Darius I the Great's palace, Lou-
Medes, was for instance in the tradition of the delicate vre
metalwork found in Iron Age II times at Hasanlu and still
earlier at Marlik.
brought from Sogdiana. The turquoise from
One of the most remarkable examples of both Chorasmia, the silver and ebony from Egypt,
Achaemenid architecture and art is the grand palace of the ornamentation from Ionia, the ivory from
Persepolis, and its detailed workmanship, coupled with Ethiopia and from Sindh and from Arachosia.
its grand scale. In describing the construction of his The stone-cutters who wrought the stone, those
palace at Susa, Darius the Great records that: were Ionians and Sardians. The goldsmiths
were Medes and Egyptians. The men who
Yaka timber was brought from Gandara wrought the wood, those were Sardians and
and from Carmania. The gold was brought Egyptians. The men who wrought the baked
from Sardis and from Bactria ... the pre- brick, those were Babylonians. The men who
cious stone lapis-lazuli and carnelian ... was adorned the wall, those were Medes and Egyp-
170
tians.
This was imperial art on a scale the world had not seen
before. Materials and artists were drawn from all corners
of the empire, and thus tastes, styles, and motifs became
mixed together in an eclectic art and architecture that in
itself mirrored the Persian empire.
Tomb of Artaxerxes II in Persepolis
24.4.5 Tombs
Many Achaemenid rulers built tombs for themselves. The a vast unpaid debt to the Persian Civilization!"
most famous, Naqsh-e Rustam, is an ancient necropolis
located about 12 km northwest of Persepolis, with the
tombs of four of the kings of the dynasty carved in this
mountain: Darius I, Xerxes I, Artaxerxes I and Darius
II. Other kings constructed their own tombs elsewhere.
Artaxerxes II and Artaxerxes III preferred to carve their
tombs beside their summer capital Persepolis, the left
tomb belonging to Artaxerxes II and the right tomb be-
longing to Artaxerxes III, the last Achaemenid king to
have a tomb. The tomb of the founder of the Achaemenid
dynasty, Cyrus the Great, was built in Pasargadae (now a
world heritage site).
24.5 Legacy
The Achaemenid Empire left a lasting impression on the
heritage and the cultural identity of Asia, Europe, and the
Middle East, as well as inuencing the development and
structure of future empires. In fact the Greeks and later
on the Romans copied the best features of the Persian
CHAPTER 24. ACHAEMENID EMPIRE
method of governing the empire, and vicariously adopted
them.[156]
Georg W. F. Hegel in his work The Philosophy of History
introduces the Persian Empire as the rst empire that
passed away and its people as the rst historical people
in history. According to his account;[157]
The Persian Empire is an empire in the mod-
ern sense like that which existed in Germany,
and the great imperial realm under the sway of
Napoleon; for we nd it consisting of a num-
ber of states, which are indeed dependant, but
which have retained their own individuality,
their manners, and laws. The general enact-
ments, binding upon all, did not infringe upon
their political and social idiosyncrasies, but
even protected and maintained them; so that
each of the nations that constitute the whole,
had its own form of constitution. As light illu-
minates everything imparting to each object
a peculiar vitality so the Persian Empire ex-
tends over a multitude of nations, and leaves to
each one its particular character. Some have
even kings of their own; each one its distinct
language, arms, way of life and customs. All
this diversity coexists harmoniously under the
impartial dominion of Light ... a combina-
tion of peoples leaving each of them free.
Thereby, a stop is put to that barbarism and fe-
rocity with which the nations had been wont to
carry on their destructive feuds.
The famous American orientalist, Professor Arthur Up-
ham Pope (18811969) said:[158] The western world has
Will Durant, the American historian and philosopher,
during one of his speeches, Persia in the History of Civ-
ilization, as an address before the IranAmerica Society
in Tehran on 21 April 1948, stated:[159]
For thousands of years Persians have been cre-
ating beauty. Sixteen centuries before Christ
there went from these regions or near it ... You
have been here a kind of watershed of civiliza-
tion, pouring your blood and thought and art
and religion eastward and westward into the
world ... I need not rehearse for you again
the achievements of your Achaemenid period.
Then for the rst time in known history an em-
pire almost as extensive as the United States re-
ceived an orderly government, a competence
of administration, a web of swift communi-
cations, a security of movement by men and
goods on majestic roads, equaled before our
time only by the zenith of Imperial Rome.
24.8. SEE ALSO 171

24.6 Achaemenid kings and rulers

24.6.1 Unattested

There were 4 unattested kings who ruled as satraps to the

Neo-Assyrian Empire and the Median Empire.
Lateral view of tomb of Cambyses
I, Pasargadae, Iran

24.6.2 Attested

There were 13 attested kings during the 220 years of the 24.8 See also
Achaemenid Empires existence. The reign of Artaxerxes
II was the longest, lasting 47 years Achaemenid family tree
Early in the reign of Artaxerxes II, in 399 BC, the Persians
Achaemenid Persian Lion Rhyton
lost control over Egypt. They regained control 57 years
later, in 342 BC, when Artaxerxes III conquered Egypt. History of Iran
List of kings of Persia
Timeline of the Achaemenid Empire
24.7 Gallery
Wars of Cyrus the Great

24.9 Notes
[1] All peoples listed (except for the Caucasian Albanians)
are the ones that took part in the Second Persian invasion
Panorama of Persepolis of Greece.[103] The total amount of ethnicities could very
Ruins well amount to much more.

24.10 References
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The Oxford handbook of Iranian history. Oxford: Ox-
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Retrieved 29 December 2016. Although the Persians and
Medes shared domination and others were placed in im-
Ruins of Throne Hall portant positions, the Achaemenids did not -- could not --
provide a name for their multinational state. Nevertheless,
they referred to it as Khshassa, the Empire.

[2] Yarshater, Ehsan (1993). The Cambridge History of

Apadana Hall, Persian and
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Nowruz Zoroastrian
Iran, Volume 3. Cambridge University Press. p. 482.
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just as later Baghdad, a little further upstream, was built
out of the ruins of the Sassanian double city of Seleucia-
Ctesiphon.
172
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174 CHAPTER 24. ACHAEMENID EMPIRE

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[154] Charles Henry Can (1917). How to study architecture.
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[139] Garrison, Mark B.; Root, Margaret C. (2001). Seals on
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Kosmin, Paul J. (2014), The Land of the Elephant
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Press 1997.
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lated by Azizeh Azodi. London, New York: I.B.
Tauris. ISBN 1-86064-675-1. There have been a
number of editions since 1996.
Curtis, John E.; Tallis, Nigel (2005). Forgotten Em-
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520-24731-0. A collection of articles by dierent
authors.
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CHAPTER 24. ACHAEMENID EMPIRE
The Greco-Persian Wars, Peter Green
Philip Souza (2003-01-25). The Greek and Persian
Wars 499-386 BC. Osprey Publishing. ISBN 978-
1-84176-358-3.
The Heritage of Persia, Richard N. Frye
History of the Persian Empire, A.T. Olmstead
The Persian Empire, Lindsay Allen
The Persian Empire, J.M. Cook
Persian Fire: The First World Empire and the Battle
for the West, Tom Holland
Pictorial History of Iran: Ancient Persia Before Islam
15000 B.C.625 A.D., Amini Sam
Timelife Persians: Masters of the Empire (Lost Civi-
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the Achaemenid Empire. Brill Academic Pub. ISBN
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Chopra, R.M., an article on A Brief Review of
Pre-Islamic Splendour of Iran, INDO-IRANICA,
Vol.56 (14), 2003.
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riphery, in Darabandi S. M. R. and A. Zournantzi
(eds.), Ancient Greece and Ancient Iran. Cross-
Cultural Encounters, Athens 2008, pp. 339353.
24.12 External links
Persian History
Livius.org on Achaemenids
Swedish Contributions to the Archaeology of Iran
Artikel i Fornvnnen (2007) by Carl Nylander
IPI
The Behistun Inscription
Livius.org on Achaemenid Royal Inscriptions
Achaemenid art on Iran Chamber Society (www.
iranchamber.com)
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Photos of the tribute bearers from the 23 satrapies
of the Achaemenid empire, from Persepolis
medals and orders of the Persian empire
Ancient Iran
24.12. EXTERNAL LINKS 177

Dynasty Achaemenid

Iran, The Forgotten Glory Documentary Film

About Ancient Iran (achaemenids & Sassanids)

Achemenet The major electronic resource for the

study of the history, literature and archaeology of
the Persian Empire
Persepolis Before Incursion (Virtual tour project)

Muse achmnide virtuel et interactif (Mavi) a vast

Virtual Interactive Achemenide Museum of more
than 8000 items, dedicated to the inheritance of the
Persian Empire, from Cyrus the Great to Alexander,
is now accessible on the Internet thanks to the initia-
tive of a College de France professor, Pierre Briant.
Chapter 25

Ancient Egyptian agriculture

Ploughing with a yoke of horned cattle in Ancient Egypt. Painting

from the burial chamber of Sennedjem, c. 1200 BC

The civilization of Ancient Egypt was indebted to the Nile

River and its dependable seasonal ooding. The rivers
predictability and the fertile soil allowed the Egyptians to
build an empire on the basis of great agricultural wealth.
Egyptians are credited as being one of the rst groups
of people to practice agriculture on a large scale. This
was possible because of the ingenuity of the Egyptians as
they developed basin irrigation.[1] Their farming practices
allowed them to grow staple food crops, especially grains
such as wheat and barley, and industrial crops, such as
ax and papyrus.[2]

25.1 Farming systems

25.1.1 The Nile and eld planting

Further information: Geography of Egypt

The civilization of ancient Egypt developed in the arid

climate of northern Africa. This region is distinguished
The Niles watershed
by the Arabian and Libyan deserts,[3] and the River Nile.
The Nile is one of the longest rivers in the world, owing
northward from Lake Victoria and eventually emptying
into the Mediterranean Sea. The Nile has two main trib- Blue Nile actually carries about two thirds of the water
utaries: the Blue Nile which originates in Ethiopia, and volume of the river. The names of the tributaries derive
the White Nile that ows from Rwanda. While the White from the color of the water that they carry. The tributaries
Nile is considered to be longer and easier to traverse, the come together in Khartoum and branches again when it

178
25.2. CROPS GROWN 179

reaches Egypt, forming the Nile delta.[4] ing. Once the soil was fully watered, the oodwater that
The Egyptians took advantage of the natural cyclical remained in the basin would simply be[5]drained to another
ooding pattern of the Nile. Because this ooding hap- basin that was in need of more water.
pened fairly predictably, the Egyptians were able to de-
velop their agricultural practices around it. The water 25.1.3 Horticulture
levels of the river would rise in August and September,
leaving the oodplain and delta submerged by 1.5 meters
of water at the peak of ooding. This yearly ooding of
the river is known as inundation. As the oodwaters re-
ceded in October, farmers were left with well watered and
fertile soil in which to plant their crops. The soil left be-
hind by the ooding is known as silt and was brought from
Ethiopian Highlands by the Nile. Planting took place in
October once the ooding was over, and crops were left
to grow with minimal care until they ripened between the
months of March and May. While the ooding of the Nile
was much more predictable and calm than other rivers, Gardens of Amun from the Temple of Karnak, painting in the
such as the Tigris and Euphrates, it was not always per- tomb of Nakh, the chief gardener, early 14th century B.C.
fect. High oodwaters were destructive and could destroy
canals that were made for irrigation. Lack of ooding cre- Main article: Gardens of Ancient Egypt
ated a potentially greater issue because it left Egyptians
suering from famine.[5] Orchards and gardens were also developed in addition to
eld planting in the oodplains. This horticulture gener-
ally took place further from the oodplain of the Nile, and
25.1.2 Irrigation systems as a result they required much more work.[6] The peren-
nial irrigation required by gardens forced growers to man-
To make best use of the waters of the Nile river, the Egyp- ually carry water from either a well or the Nile to water
tians developed systems of irrigation. Irrigation allowed their garden crops. Additionally, while the Nile brought
the Egyptians to use the Niles waters for a variety of pur- silt which naturally fertilized the valley, gardens had to be
poses. Notably, irrigation granted them greater control fertilized by pigeon manure. These gardens and orchards
over their agricultural practices.[1] Flood waters were di- were generally used to grow vegetables, vines and fruit
verted away from certain areas, such as cities and gardens, trees.[7]
to keep them from ooding. Irrigation was also used to
provide drinking water to Egyptians. Despite the fact that
irrigation was crucial to their agricultural success, there 25.2 Crops grown
were no statewide regulations on water control. Rather,
irrigation was the responsibility of local farmers. How-
ever, the earliest and most famous reference to irrigation 25.2.1 Food crops
in Egyptian archaeology has been found on the mace head
The Egyptians grew a variety of crops for consumption,
of the Scorpion King, which has been roughly dated to
including grains, vegetables and fruits. However, their
about 3100 BC. The mace head depicts the king cutting
diets revolved around several staple crops, especially ce-
into a ditch that is part of a grid of basin irrigation. The
reals and barley. Barley was grown with the intent of
association of the high ranking king with irrigation high-
later being fermented to make beer. Other major grains
lights the importance of irrigation and agriculture to their
[5] grown included einkorn wheat and emmer wheat, grown
society.
to make bread. Other staples for the majority of the popu-
lation included beans, lentils, and later chickpeas and fava
Basin irrigation beans. Root crops, such as onions, garlic and radishes
were grown, along with salad crops, such as lettuce and
[2]
Egyptians developed and utilized a form of water man- parsley.
agement known as basin irrigation. This practice allowed Fruits were a common motif of Egyptian artwork, sug-
them to control the rise and fall of the river to best suit gesting that their growth was also a major focus of agri-
their agricultural needs. A crisscross network of earthen cultural eorts as the civilizations agricultural technol-
walls was formed in a eld of crops that would be ooded ogy developed. Unlike cereals and pulses, fruit required
by the river. When the oods came, the water would be more demanding and complex agricultural techniques, in-
trapped in the basins formed by the walls. This grid would cluding the use of irrigation systems, cloning, propagation
hold water longer than it would have naturally stayed, al- and training. While the rst fruits cultivated by the Egyp-
lowing the earth to become fully saturated for later plant- tians were likely indigenous, such as the palm date and
180
sorghum, more fruits were introduced as other cultural
inuences were introduced. Grapes and watermelon were
found throughout predynastic Egyptian sites, as were the
sycamore g, dom palm and christs thorn. The carob,
olive, apple and pomegranate were introduced to Egyp-
tians during the New Kingdom. Later, during the Greco-
Roman period peaches and pears were also introduced.[8]
25.2.2 Industrial and ber crops
Egyptians relied on agriculture for more than just the
production of food. They were creative in their use of
plants, using them for medicine, as part of their religious
practices, and in the production of clothing. Herbs per-
haps had the most varied purposes; they were used in
cooking, medicine, as cosmetics and in the process of
embalming. Over 2000 dierent species of owering or
aromatic plants have been found in tombs.[2] Papyrus was
an extremely versatile crop that grew wild and was also
cultivated.[9] The roots of the plant were eaten as food,
but it was primarily used as an industrial crop. The stem
of plant was used to make boats, mats and paper. Flax
was another important industrial crop what has several
uses. Its primary use was in the production of rope, and
for linen which was the Egyptians principal material for
making their clothing. Henna was grown for the produc-
tion of dye.[2]
25.3 Religion and agriculture
Further information: Ancient Egyptian religion
During the times of ancient Egypt religion was a highly
[9] Baines, John. The Story of the Nile. http://www.bbc.
important aspect of daily life. Many of their religious
observances were centered on their observations of the
environment, the Nile and agriculture. They used reli- [10] Teeter, Emily and Brewer, Douglas. Religion in
gion as a way to explain natural phenomena, such as the
cyclical ooding of the Nile and agricultural yields.[10]
Although the Nile was directly responsible for either good
or bad fortune experienced by the Egyptians, they did not
worship the Nile itself. Rather, they thanked specic gods
for any good fortune. They did not have a name for the
river and simply referred to it as River. The term Nile
is not of Egyptian origin. [9]
25.3.1 Gods
See also: Egyptian pantheon
The Egyptians personied the inundation with the cre-
ation of the god called Hapi. Despite the fact that inun-
dation was crucial to their survival, Hapi was not consid-
ered to be a major god.[9] He was depicted as an over-
weight gure who ironically made oerings of water and
CHAPTER 25. ANCIENT EGYPTIAN AGRICULTURE
other products of abundance to pharaohs.[6] A temple was
never built specically for Hapi, but he was worshipped
as inundation began by making sacrices and the singing
of hymns.[9]
The god Osiris was also closely associated with the Nile
and the fertility of the land. During inundation festivals
mud gures of Osiris were planted with barley.[9]
25.4 Notes and references
[1] Kees, Herman. Ancient Egypt: A Cultural Topography.
Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1961. Print.
[2] Janick, Jules. Ancient Egyptian Agriculture and the Ori-
gins of Horticulture. Acta Hort. 583: 23-39. Electronic.
[3] Mysteries of Egypt. Canadian Museum of Civiliza-
tion. "http://www.civilization.ca/cmc/exhibitions/civil/
egypt/egcgeo2e.shtml
[4] Hoyt, Alia. How the Nile Works. http://history.
howstuffworks.com/african-history/nile-river2.htm
[5] Postel, Sandra. Egypts Nile Valley Basin Irriga-
tion http://www.waterhistory.org/histories/nile/t1.html#
photo1
[6] Dollinger, Andre. An Introduction to the History and
Culture of Pharaonic Egypt. http://www.reshafim.org.
il/ad/egypt/index.html.
[7] Agriculture. The Oxford Encyclopedia of ancient Egypt.
2001. Print.l
[8] Janick, Jules. The Origins of Fruits, Fruit Growing and
Fruit Breeding. Plant Breeding Reviews 25. (2005):
255-320. Electronic.
co.uk/history/ancient/egyptians/nile_01.shtml
the Lives of the Ancient Egyptians. The University
of Chicago Library. http://fathom.lib.uchicago.edu/1/
777777190168/
25.5 Bibliography
Jared Diamond, Guns, germs and steel. A short his-
tory of everybody for the last 13'000 years, 1997.
25.6 See also
Badari culture
Chapter 26
Ancient Egyptian retainer sacrices
Ancient Egyptian retainer sacrice is a type of human
sacrice in which pharaohs and occasionally other high
court nobility would have servants killed after the
pharaohs deaths to continue to serve them in the after-
life. In Egypt, retainer sacrice only existed during the
First Dynasty, from about 3100 BC to 2900 BC, slowly
dwindling, and eventually dying out.
26.1 Historical context
26.1.1 Egypts beliefs about the afterlife
Ancient Egyptians, like many cultures, believed in an af-
terlife and much of what remains of their civilization re-
ects this because only the temples, tombs and other re-
ligious structures survive well. One belief that was at the
center of Egyptian beliefs about life after death was the
belief in the ka. The ka was believed by the Egyptians
to be ones life source, essence, and soul. Egyptians be-
lieved that after they died, their ka would continue to live
as they had lived on earth in the afterlife. It would enjoy
the same activities the individual had enjoyed on earth.[1]
Egyptians also believed that the ka had to have a body to
return to, and because of this belief they would mummify
their dead. Egyptians also took precautionary measures,
in case their body did not survive, by commissioning ka
statues; statues of the deceased that were buried in the
tomb, along with the body, and would serve as a replace-
ment if the body decayed beyond recognition. It was es-
pecially important to ensure the comfort of the kings ka
in the afterlife, due to his prominent position both in pol-
itics, and religion.[1] Egyptians looked at the afterlife as a
continuation of this life, and believed that they would be
able to enjoy many of the same activities. They also held
the belief that they would be able to maintain the same so-
cial hierarchy.[2] Egyptians, especially upper class Egyp-
tians, were very preoccupied with making sure their life
to come would be as comfortable, if not more comfort-
able, than their life on earth.[2] They took every precau-
tionary measure to ensure that they would enjoy the same
comforts. Excavated tombs were found to contain food,
painted murals, statues, jewelry, and various other items.
181
26.1.2 Power of the Pharaoh
Egyptian pharaohs held the highest positions in Egyptian
society, both in religious and political spheres. Kings
were revered as gods in human form.[1] Ellen F. Mor-
ris, a professor in Columbia Universitys Department of
Anthropology, suggests that pharaohs used retainer sacri-
ces as a way to aunt their power.[3] She also argues that
pharaohs would have to have signicant power, in both
a political and religious sense, to convince their subjects
that it was worth sacricing their lives on earth for the
pharaoh and his comfort in the next life. In addition, their
families would have to be convinced that the pharaohs
comfort in the life to come was important enough to al-
low their loved ones to be sacriced.[3] This would not
be possible if those being sacriced did not have a very
strong belief in the life to come. Egypts government had
to convince the people that the king was a god, and what
belonged to him in his life on earth, belonged to him in
the afterlife also.[3] Dr. David OConnor, from New York
University Institute of Fine Arts, proposes that subjects
of a king being willing to escort him into the afterlife
demonstrates that a change had occurred in the way the
Egyptians viewed their king.[4]
26.2 Evidence for retainer sacri-
ces
As is common with most Egyptian archeology, the plun-
dering and destructive excavation of tombs, both in the
past and the present, for tomb riches, has hindered the
ability to gain as much knowledge about retainer sacri-
ces as would be available if the tombs were intact.[3] Dr.
OConnor does believe that retainer sacrices were the
exception, instead of the norm, in ancient Egypt.
While there is some disputation as to the authenticity of
retainer sacrices, due to less than substantial evidence,
most Egyptologists believe that retainer sacrice did ex-
ist. Normally, people in ancient Egypt were buried at
dierent times, while in the graves believed to contain
retainer sacrices, the individuals were buried simulta-
neously, suggesting these retainers were sacriced. The
182 CHAPTER 26. ANCIENT EGYPTIAN RETAINER SACRIFICES
archeologists claim that since the roong is continuous, in the next world.[2] The number of retainers buried sur-
the burials had to be made at the same time.[4] rounding the kings tomb was much greater than those of
high court ocials; however, again suggesting the greater
importance of the pharaoh.[6]
26.3 Reasons for Retainer sacri-
ces
26.3.1 Pharaohs and nobles perspective
The purpose of retainer sacrices was to enable the
wealthy noble[s and pharaohs] to enjoy the same kind
of life-style after death as [they] had during [their]
lifetime.[2] The thought was that the next life without
that kind of luxury and ease was unthinkable. They also
wanted to maintain the same social status they had en-
joyed on earth; a social hierarchy that was based upon
being served by others.[2] Pharaohs used retainer sacri-
ces to reinforce the power of the position of the pharaoh,
by showing the control they had over their subjects.[3]
Pharaohs also used retainer sacrices to help communi-
cate the idea that the state was literally worth dying for.[3]
26.3.2 Retainers perspective
Pharaohs subjects viewed the pharaoh as a living god,
the god Horus. Once the pharaoh died, he became the
god Osiris, the king of eternity.[5] While some retain-
ers deaths appear to have been taken for granted, other
sacrices appear to have raised the status and wealth of
some retainers in the afterlife. This can be inferred from
the wealth they were interred with and their graves posi-
tion in relation to the kings grave. This also suggests that
the retainers agreed to be sacriced to raise their social
status and wealth in the afterlife.[3] Matthew Adams, an
archeologist from the University of Pennsylvania and the
associate director of an expedition made by New York
University, Yale and the University of Pennsylvania, sug-
gests that the ancient Egyptians may have viewed being
sacriced at a kings death a sure way to reach eternal
life.[4] For a civilization so centered on the life to come, a
guarantee of eternal happiness and security would seem
a likely motivation for a retainer to agree to be sacriced.
26.4 First dynasty retainer sacri-
ces in general
Graves around royal tombs often contained harem mem-
bers, minor palace function members, court dwarfs, and
even dogs, as denoted by the stelae buried in the tombs.[6]
However, there was a variety in the demographics of
those retainers that were sacriced. During the First Dy-
nasty, pharaohs were not the only individuals that had re-
tainer sacrices carried out. Servants of both royalty and
high court ocials were slain to accompany their master
26.5 Specic kings retainer sacri-
ces from the rst dynasty
26.5.1 King Aha
King Aha, the second pharaoh of the rst dynasty of
Egypt, was also known as King Hor-Aha. According to
Ellen Morris, he had thirty-ve retainer sacrices in his
tomb, and twelve in three surrounding tombs enclosed in
his funerary complex.[3] Two other accounts from popu-
lar sources are given regarding the number of sacriced
retainers found in King Ahas funerary complex. One
account found in The New York Times, was given by an
archeological team organized by New York University,
Yale, and the University of Pennsylvania. These univer-
sities began a project to excavate the funerary complex
of King Aha. They found six graves near a mortuary rit-
ual site of King Aha. Five of the six graves contained
skeletons of court ocials, servants, and artisans that
appear to have been sacriced to meet the kings needs in
the afterlife.[4] Another account is given by National Ge-
ographic, in an article entitled Abydos: Life and Death
at the Dawn of Egyptian Civilization. In this account, six
retainer sacrices were buried inside of Ahas tomb with
him, and thirty-ve were buried in surrounding tombs in-
side his funerary complex.[7]
26.5.2 King Djer
King Djer, Ahas son and successor, had 318 retainer
sacrices buried in his tomb, and 269 retainer sacri-
ces buried in enclosures surrounding his tomb.[3] Dr.
OConnor believes that the more than 200 graves found in
King Djers funerary complex contain retainer sacrices,
as well.[4] According to Ancient Egypt: A Social History,
King Djer was buried with over 580 retainers. It is highly
unlikely that all these retainers died of natural causes at
the same time, suggesting that these retainers were sacri-
ced upon the death of King Djer.[6] According to the Na-
tional Geographics article, however, 569 retainers were
sacriced for King Djer.[7]
26.5.3 King Djet
King Djet had 174 sacriced retainers buried around his
tomb at Abydos and sixty-two retainers buried around his
tomb at Saqqara.[8]
26.7. METHODS OF SACRIFICE
26.5.4 King Den
After the death of King Den, about 230 individuals died
simultaneously for something or someone of extreme
importance. [3] Once again, it is highly unlikely that such
a large number of individuals would die all at once of nat-
ural causes and it can be inferred that these individuals
were sacriced to serve King Den in the afterlife. Perhaps
this reected the varied court positions in the pharaohs
kingdom, possibly including family members, noble court
members, and servants.
26.5.5 King Qaa
The funerary complex of King Qaa helps illustrate the de-
cline of retainer sacrices. It is estimated that only thirty
retainers were sacriced after the death of King Qaa.
26.6 Demographics of sacriced
retainers
S.O.Y. Keita and A.J. Boyce, authors of Variation in
Porotic Hyperostosis in the Royal Cemetery Complex at
Abydos, Upper Egypt: A Social Interpretation, examined
forty-four skulls from the funerary complex of King Djer
and discovered that those buried outside the tomb en-
joyed better health than those in the actual tomb. This
can be interpreted in two ways. First, those buried out-
side the tomb were believed to have enjoyed better health
because they were wealthier, and consequently, had bet-
ter nutritional standards. The second is that those buried
inside the royal tomb could aord to take care of their
illness-ridden children. Whichever explanation is correct,
there is such a statistically signicant dierence that these
two groups most likely did not share the same social sta-
tus.[3] Of the twelve sacriced and buried in the three
surrounding tombs of King Ahas funerary complex, all
identiable retainers were all male and around twenty
years of age. [3] Morris suggests that these retainers, due
to their gender, youth, and how they were buried, regi-
mented alignment in straight rows, were possibly a mil-
itary guard, buried with the king to protect and serve
him in the afterlife.[3] Dr. Laurel Bestock, one of the
archeologists on the New York University, Yale, and Uni-
versity of Pennsylvania team, recalled that the people
buried in King Ahas complex were not just lowly ser-
vants, but were also rich nobles.[4] Most of the retainer
sacrices in the surrounding tombs of the funerary com-
plex of King Djer at Abydos were female and probably
consisted of the kings subsidiary wives, concubines, rel-
atives, or maidservants.[3] The retainers sacriced dur-
ing King Dens reign were not a homogenous group,
butincluded a number of individuals of varying duties
and statuses. [3]
183
26.7 Methods of sacrice
Two dierent theories were proposed for the way retain-
ers were sacriced. Nancy Lovell, a physical anthropol-
ogist, believes that the retainers were strangled to death,
due to the pinkish stain on their teeth (12). When some-
one is strangled, increased blood pressure can cause blood
cells inside their teeth to rupture and stain the dentin,
the part of the tooth just under the enamel.[7] Matthew
Adams proposed another method of sacrice. He stated
that since no trauma was found on the skeletons, cyanide
poisoning was probably the cause of death.
26.8 Reasons for dwindling of re-
tainer sacrices
Retainer sacrice was abandoned almost immediately af-
ter the end of the First Dynasty. One theory posits
that retainers of the pharaohs after the First Dynasty
were not convinced of the immediate need to die to
serve a leader in the next life, and instead believed that
they could serve the pharaoh after they died when their
time came. Another probable reason for the decline,
and eventual end, of retainer sacrices is the creation
of shabti-gures. Shabti-gures were crudely fashioned
mummied-looking forms, meant to replace retainer sac-
rices; the responsibility for carrying out tasks on be-
half of the deceased was transferred to a special kind of
funerary statuette, known as a shabti-gure. [2] These
shabti-gures were believed to carry out a wide variety
of tasks, including everything from cultivating elds, to
irrigating canals, to serving the deceased. Engraved on
the shabti-gures was a magical text that was meant to
ensure they would carry out their assigned tasks.[2]
26.9 See also
Funeral of a Norse chieftain (especially Human Sac-
rice subsection)
Human sacrice
Wooden tomb model
26.10 References
[1] Stokstad, Marilyn. Art History: Ancient Art. 3rd. 1. Up-
per Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson Education, 2009.
52-55. Print.
[2] Spencer, A.J. Death In Ancient Egypt. 1st. Great Britain:
Penguin Books Ltd, 1982. 68;139. Print.
[3] Morris, Ellen F. Sacrice for the State: First Dynasty
Royal Funerals and the Rites at Macramallahs Rectan-
gle. 15-37. Print.
184 CHAPTER 26. ANCIENT EGYPTIAN RETAINER SACRIFICES

[4] Wilford, John Noble. With Escorts to the Afterlife,

Pharaohs Proved Their Power. New York Times 16 Mar.
2004, Late: F3. Print.

[5] Skinner, Andrew. Ancient Egyptian Obsession With

Eternity. Brigham Young University. Harold B. Lee Li-
brary. 22 Oct. 2009.

[6] Trigger, B.G., B.J. Kemp, D. O'Connor, and A.B. Lloyd.

Ancient Egypt: A Social History. 1st. Great Britain: Uni-
versity Press, Cambridge, 1983. 52-56. Print.

[7] Galvin, John. Abydos: Life and Death at the Dawn of

Egyptian Civilization. National Geographic Apr. 2005:
106-21. Print.

[8] Grinsell, Leslie V. Barrow, Pyramid and Tomb: Ancient

burial customs in Egypt, the Mediterranean and the British
Isles. 1st. Great Britain: Thames and Hudson Ltd, 1975.
39. Print.

26.11 Sources
Galvin, John. Abydos: Life and Death at the Dawn
of Egyptian Civilization. National Geographic Apr.
2005: 106-21. Print.

Garstang, John. Burial Customs of Ancient Egypt.

1st. Great Britain: Kegan Paul Limited, 2002. 16-
17. Print.
Grinsell, Leslie V. Barrow, Pyramid and Tomb: An-
cient burial customs in Egypt, the Mediterranean
and the British Isles. 1st. Great Britain: Thames
and Hudson Ltd, 1975. 39. Print.

Morris, Ellen F. Sacrice for the State: First Dy-

nasty Royal Funerals and the Rites at Macramallahs
Rectangle. 15-37. Print.
Skinner, Andrew. Ancient Egyptian Obsession
With Eternity. Brigham Young University. Harold
B. Lee Library. 22 Oct. 2009.

Spencer, A.J. Death In Ancient Egypt. 1st. Great

Britain: Penguin Books Ltd, 1982. 68;139. Print.

Stokstad, Marilyn. Art History: Ancient Art. 3rd.

1. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson Edu-
cation, 2009. 52-55. Print.
Trigger, B.G., B.J. Kemp, D. O'Connor, and A.B.
Lloyd. Ancient Egypt: A Social History. 1st. Great
Britain: University Press, Cambridge, 1983. 52-56.
Print.
Wilford, John Noble. With Escorts to the Afterlife,
Pharaohs Proved Their Power. New York Times 16
Mar. 2004, Late: F3. Print.
Chapter 27
Annals of Thutmose III
The Annals of Thutmose III are composed of nu-
merous inscriptions of ancient Egyptian military records
gathered from the 18th dynasty campaigns of Thutmose
III's armies in Syro-Palestine, from regnal years 22 (1458
BCE) to 42 (1438 BCE).[1] These recordings can be
found on the inside walls of the chamber housing the
holy of holies at the great Karnak Temple of Amun.
Measuring just 25 meters in length and 12 meters wide,
the space containing these inscriptions presents the largest
and most detailed accounts concerning military exploits
of all Egyptian Kings.[2]
27.1 Campaigns
The most detailed and extravagant inscription on the wall
at Karnak describes the rst campaign, in year 23, of
Thutmose III, which was the Battle of Megiddo. Be-
fore his death, Thutmose III would partake in a total
of seventeen campaigns.[3] The remainder of Thutmose
IIIs campaign inscriptions contain only brief information
and one can clearly see a dierence in their descriptive
styles. While the Megiddo campaign focuses heavily on
details, the other campaign inscriptions seem to focus on
the prizes of war.[4] As the years of Thutmose IIIs reign
pass, the inscriptions on the wall at Karnak become less
descriptive.
27.2 Historical signicance
While the Annals of Thutmose III help us to piece to-
gether ancient Egypts past, Spalinger makes a good point
in examining the literary aspects of the inscriptions as
well as the historical aspects. As the years of Thutmose
IIIs reign progress for example, Spalinger describes the
less descriptive, list-like inscriptions as society becoming
more organized. Using this less historical approach, he
describes how a constant ow of war loot and foodstus
most likely played a factor in seemingly missing seg-
ments. Also it should be noted that these inscriptions
could not be seen by the general public because of their
placement in the Karnak Temple of Amun.[5]
185
27.3 Bibliography
Breasted, James H. Ancient Records of Egypt: The
eighteenth dynasty. Chicago: The University of
Chicago Press, 1906.
Redford, Donald B. The Wars in Syria and Palestine
of Thutmose III: Volume 16 of Culture and history of
the ancient Near East. Netherlands: Brill, 2003.
Spalinger, Anthony. A Critical Analysis of the
Annals of Thutmose III (Stucke V-VI). Journal
of the American Research Center in Egypt, Vol. 14
(1977): 41-54, (accessed July 10, 2010)
Spalinger, Anthony. A New Reference to an Egyp-
tian Campaign of Thutmose III in Asia. Journal of
Near Eastern Studies, Vol. 37, No. 1 (Jan., 1978):
35-41, (accessed July 10, 2010)
Wente, Edward F. Thutmose IIIs Accession and
the Beginning of the New Kingdom. Journal of
Near Eastern Studies, Vol. 34, No. 4 (Oct., 1975):
265-272, (accessed July 10, 2010)
27.4 References and footnotes
[1] Roehrig, Catharine H.; Dreyfus, Rene; Keller, Cathleen
A. (2005). Hatshepsut: From Queen to Pharaoh. New
York: Metropolitan Museum of Art. p. 268. ISBN 978-
1-58839-173-5.
[2] Breasted, James H.. Ancient Records of Egypt: The eigh-
teenth dynasty. Chicago: The University of Chicago
Press, 1906. p. 163
[3] Breasted, James H. Ancient Records of Egypt: The eigh-
teenth dynasty. Chicago: The University of Chicago
Press, 1906. p. 167
[4] Spalinger, Anthony. A Critical Analysis of the Annals
of Thutmose III (Stucke V-VI). Journal of the American
Research Center in Egypt, Vol. 14 (1977): P. 45, (ac-
cessed July 10, 2010)
[5] Spalinger, Anthony. A Critical Analysis of the Annals
of Thutmose III (Stucke V-VI). Journal of the American
Research Center in Egypt, Vol. 14 (1977): p. 41, (ac-
cessed July 10, 2010
186 CHAPTER 27. ANNALS OF THUTMOSE III

27.5 External links

Digital Karnak UCLA
Chapter 28
Balsam oil
The tree from which Balsam of Peru is derived.
Balsam of Peru, also known and marketed by many
other names, is a balsam derived from a tree known as
Myroxylon, which is grown in Central America (primar-
ily in El Salvador) and South America.[1]
Balsam of Peru is used in food and drink for avoring,
in perfumes and toiletries for fragrance, and in medicine
and pharmaceutical items for healing properties. It has a
sweet scent. In some instances, Balsam of Peru is listed
on the ingredient label of a product by one of its various
names, but it may not be required to be listed by its name
by mandatory labeling conventions.
It can cause allergic reactions, with numerous large sur- It has four primary uses:
veys have identifying it as being in the top ve aller-
gens most commonly causing patch test reactions.[2][3]
It may cause inammation, redness, swelling, soreness,
itching, and blisters, including allergic contact dermati-
tis, stomatitis (inammation and soreness of the mouth
or tongue), cheilitis (inammation, rash, or painful ero-
sion of the lips, oropharyngeal mucosa, or angles of their
mouth), pruritus, hand eczema, generalized or resistant
187
plantar dermatitis, rhinitis, and conjunctivitis.
28.1 Collection
Balsam of Peru is an aromatic viscous resin obtained
by scorching or inicting V-shaped wounds on the bark
of the trunk of the tree Myroxylon balsamum var.
pereirae.[1][4][5] In response, the Balsam of Peru oily,
resin-like, aromatic uid exudes to heal the trees le-
sions, and the liquid is collected.[1][6][7] An essential oil is
distilled from the balsam.
28.2 Composition
Balsam of Peru contains 25 or so dierent substances,[8]
including cinnamein, cinnamic acid, cinnamyl cinna-
mate, benzyl benzoate, benzoic acid, and vanillin.[1][9]
It also contains cinnamic acid alcohol and aldehyde,
farnesol, and nerolidol.[10] A minority of it, approxi-
mately 3040%, contains resins or esters of unknown
composition.[9]
28.3 Uses
Balsam of Peru is used in food and drink for avoring,
in perfumes and toiletries for fragrance, and in medicine
and pharmaceutical items for healing properties.[9]
In some cases, it is listed on the ingredient label of a prod-
uct by one of its various names.[11] Naturally occurring
ingredients may contain substances identical to or very
closely related to Balsam of Peru.[11]
avoring in foods and drinks such as coee, a-
vored tea, wine, beer, gin, liqueurs, apritifs
(e.g., vermouth, bitters), soft drinks including cola,
juice, citrus, citrus fruit peel, marmalade, toma-
toes and tomato-containing products, Mexican and
Italian foods with red sauces, ketchup, spices
(e.g., cloves, Jamaica pepper (allspice), cinnamon,
188 CHAPTER 28. BALSAM OIL

nutmeg, paprika, curry, anise, and ginger), chili a woman who was allergic to Balsam of Peru was allergic
sauce, barbecue sauce, chutney, pickles, pickled to her boyfriends semen following intercourse, after he
vegetables, chocolate, vanilla, baked goods and pas- drank large amounts of Coca Cola.[32]
tries, pudding, ice cream, chewing gum, and candy

fragrance in perfumes and toiletries, such as per-

fumes, colognes, deodorants, soaps, shampoos, con-
ditioners, after-shave lotions, cosmetics, lipsticks,
creams, lotions, ointments, baby powders, sun-
screens, and suntan lotions

in medicinal products such as hemorrhoid suppos-

itories and ointment, cough medicine/suppressant
and lozenges, diaper rash ointments, oral and lip
ointments, tincture of benzoin, wound spray (it
has been reported to inhibit Mycobacterium tuber-
culosis as well as the common ulcer-causing bac-
teria H. pylori in test-tube studies), calamine lo-
tion, surgical dressings, dental cement, eugenol
used by dentists, some periodontal impression ma- Patch test
terials, and in the treatment of dry socket in
dentistry.[1][9][12][13][14][15][16][17][18]

optical properties as a glue, typically as a mounting

medium for microscope specimens[19][20] due to pu-
ried Balsam of Perus transparency and refractive
index of 1.597 being very close to that of many
glasses used in optics[21]

It also can be found in toothpaste, mouthwash, scented

tobacco, cleaning products, pesticides, insect repellants,
air fresheners and deodorizers, scented candles, and oil
paint.[12][22][23]

Positive result
28.4 Allergy
A positive patch test is used to diagnose an allergy to
Balsam of Peru.[9][14][30] Positive patch test results indi-
A number of national and international surveys have iden-
tied Balsam of Peru as being in the top ve allergens cate that the person may have problems with certain a-
vorings, medications, and perfumed products.[9] Among
most commonly causing patch test reactions in people re-
ferred to dermatology clinics.[15][24][25] A study in 2001 foods, the most commonly implicated are spices, citrus,
and tomatoes.[33]
found that 3.8% of the general population patch tested
was allergic to it.[26] Many avorings and perfumes con- People allergic to Balsam of Peru may benet from a
tain components identical to Balsam of Peru.[27] It may diet in which they avoid ingesting foods that contain
cause redness, swelling, itching, and blisters.[28][29] it.[15] Naturally occurring ingredients may contain sub-
People allergic to Balsam of Peru, or other chemically stances identical to or very closely related to Balsam [11]
of
related substances, may experience a contact dermati- Peru, and may cause the same allergic reactions. In
[9]
tis reaction. If they have oral exposure, they may ex- some instances, Balsam of Peru is listed on the ingre-
perience stomatitis (inammation and soreness of the dient label of a product by one of its various names,
mouth or tongue), and cheilitis (inammation, rash, or but it may not be required to be listed by its name by
painful erosion of the lips, oropharyngeal mucosa, or mandatory labeling conventions (in fragrances, for exam-
angles of their mouth).[9][15][24] If they ingest it, they ple, it may simply be covered by an ingredient listing of
[11][34][35][36][37]
may experience pruritus and contact dermatitis in the fragrance). To determine if Balsam of
perianal region, possibly due to unabsorbed substances in Peru is in a product, often doctors have to contact the
[38]
[15][30] [9] manufacturer of the products used by the patient.
the feces. It can cause a are-up of hand eczema.
Among the other allergic reactions to Balsam of Peru Before 1977, the main recommended marker for perfume
are generalized or resistant plantar dermatitis, rhinitis, allergy was Balsam of Peru, which is still advised. The
and conjunctivitis,[15][31] In a case study in Switzerland, presence of Balsam of Peru in a cosmetic will be denoted
28.7. REFERENCES 189

by the INCI term Myroxylon pereirae.[10] rosperum pereira balsam, balsam r oleoresin, balsam
Because of allergic reactions, since 1982 crude Balsam of r oil, hyperabsolute balsam, Quina, Balsamo, Tolu,
Peru has been banned by the International Fragrance As- Quina quina, Santos Mahogany,
[9][28][45]
Toluifera pereirae, and
sociation from use as a fragrance compound, but extracts Toluifera pereira balsam.
and distillates are used up to a maximum level of 0.4% in
products, and are not covered by mandatory labeling.[27]
28.7 References
In March 2006, the European Commission, Health
and Consumer Protection Directorate-General, Scientic
[1] Alexander A. Fisher (2008). Fishers Contact Dermatitis.
Committee on Consumer Products, issued an Opinion PMPH-USA. Retrieved March 5, 2014.
on Peru Balsam.[39] It conrmed that crude Peru Balsam
should not be used as a fragrance ingredient, because of a [2] de Groot, Anton C.; Frosch, Peter J. (1997). Adverse re-
wide variety of test results on its sensitizing potential, but actions to fragrances. Contact Dermatitis. 36 (2): 5786.
that extracts and distillates can be used up to a maximum doi:10.1111/j.1600-0536.1997.tb00418.x. ISSN 0105-
1873.
level of 0.4% in products.[39]
[3] Schfer, T.; Bhler, E.; Ruhdorfer, S.; Weigl, L.;
Wessner, D.; Filipiak, B.; Wichmann, H. E.; Ring, J.
(2001). Epidemiology of contact allergy in adults.
28.5 History Allergy. 56 (12): 11921196. doi:10.1034/j.1398-
9995.2001.00086.x. ISSN 0105-4538. PMID 11736749.
Balsam of Peru is a misnomer.[40] In the early pe-
[4] Peru balsam, Tolu balsam, British Pharmacopoeia, 3,
riod of Spanish dominion in Central and South Amer- 2009
ica, the balsam was collected in Central America and
shipped to Callao and Lima in Peru, then shipped on- [5] Ikhlas A. Khan; Ehab A. Abourashed (2011). Leungs En-
ward to Europe.[40][41][42] It acquired the name of Peru cyclopedia of Common Natural Ingredients: Used in Food,
because it was shipped from there. [40][41]
Its export to Eu- Drugs and Cosmetics. John Wiley & Sons. Retrieved
rope was rst documented in the seventeenth century in March 6, 2014.
the German Pharmacopedia. Today it is extracted un- [6] Avi Shai; Howard I. Maibach (2004). Wound Healing and
der a handicraft process, and is mainly exported from Ulcers of the Skin: Diagnosis and Therapy The Practical
El Salvador.[43] There are two balsams obtained form Approach. Springer. Retrieved March 6, 2014.
Myroxylon sp. trees, Balsam of Peru and Tolu Balsam
[7] Ikhlas A. Khan; Ehab A. Abourashed (2011). Leungs En-
(not Balsam of tol").[44] Balsam of Peru and Balsam cyclopedia of Common Natural Ingredients: Used in Food,
of Tolu are produced in dierent way, see Myroxylon. Drugs and Cosmetics. John Wiley & Sons. Retrieved
Tolu Balsam is Not misnomer, it is rather a toponymy March 10, 2014.
since the balsam was actually obtained from the latex
of a tree originally described by Linnaeus as Toluifera [8] J. K. Aronson (2009). Meylers Side Eects of Herbal
balsamum later known as Myroxilon balsamum.[44] In Medicines. Elsevier. Retrieved March 6, 2014.
1753 Linnaeus described the type specimen of Toluifera [9] Balsam of Peru contact allergy. Dermnetnz.org. De-
balsamum using a specimen collected in the province cember 28, 2013. Retrieved March 5, 2014.
of Cartagena, probably a town called Tol, which at
the time was located in the province of Cartagena, and [10] M. H. Beck; S. M. Wilkinson (2010), Contact Dermati-
tis: Allergic, Rooks Textbook of Dermatology, 2 (8th
named it Toluifera balsamum in relation to the place of
ed.), Wiley, p. 26.40
collection.[44] In ecological terms, Tolu region can be de-
scribed, according to Holddrige classication as Tropical [11] Alexander A. Fisher (2008). Fishers Contact Dermatitis.
Dry Forest, which is home to Myroxylon sp. trees. PMPH-USA. Retrieved March 13, 2014.

[12] Dermatology; Allergy to Balsam of Peru (PDF). bed-

fordhospital.nhs.uk. October 2009. Archived from the
28.6 Alternate names original (PDF) on 2012-05-09. Retrieved March 5, 2014.

[13] Alexander A. Fisher (2008). Fishers Contact Dermatitis.

Among the alternate names used for Balsam of Peru PMPH-USA. Retrieved March 5, 2014.
are: Balsamum peruvianim, Black balsam, China oil, [14] Food Additives, Second Edition Revised And Expanded.
Honduras balsam, Indian balsam, Peruvian balsam, Peru Routledge. 1999. Retrieved March 6, 2014.
balsam, Surinam balsam, Balsams Peru, Balsam Peru
oil, Oil balsam Peru, Peru balsam oil, Balsamum Pe- [15] Thomas P. Habif (2009). Clinical Dermatology. Elsevier
ruvianum, Blsamo del Per, Baume du Prou, Baume Health Sciences. Retrieved March 6, 2014.
Pruvien, Baume de San Salvador, Myroxylon pereirae [16] Leslie Carroll Grammer; Paul A. Greenberger (2009).
klotzsch resin, Myroxylon balsamum var. pereirae, My- Pattersons Allergic Diseases. Lippincott Williams &
roxylon pereirae klotzsch oil, Myrospermum pereirae, My- Wilkins. Retrieved March 6, 2014.
190
[17] Charles W. Fetrow; Juan R. Avila (2000). The Complete
Guide To Herbal Medicines. Simon and Schuster. Re-
trieved March 7, 2014.
[18] Martin Rocken; Gerhard Grevers (2011). Color Atlas of
Allergic Diseases. Thieme. Retrieved March 10, 2014.
[19] Peru balsam, Sigma-Aldrich catalog. Accessed: De-
cember 15, 2014
[20] Peter Hanelt (Apr 10, 2001). Mansfelds Encyclopedia of
Agricultural and Horticultural Crops. Springer Science &
Business Media. Retrieved December 15, 2014.
[21] Edward Nugent (1870). Optics: Light and Sight Theoreti-
cally and Practically Treated, with Their ... Strahan & Co.,
Publishers. Retrieved November 21, 2014.
[22] Gerald W. Volcheck (2009). Clinical Allergy: Diagnosis
and Management. Springer. Retrieved March 6, 2014.
[23] Myron A. Lipkowitz; Tova Navarra (2001). Encyclopedia
of Allergies. Retrieved March 7, 2014.
[24] Gottfried Schmalz; Dorthe Arenholt Bindslev (2008).
Biocompatibility of Dental Materials. Springer. Retrieved
March 5, 2014.
[25] Edward T. Bope; Rick D. Kellerman (2013). Conns Cur-
rent Therapy 2014: Expert Consult. Elsevier Health Sci-
ences. Retrieved March 6, 2014.
[26] T. Platts-Mills; Johannes Ring (2006). Allergy in Practice.
Springer. Retrieved March 6, 2014.
[27] Jeanne Duus Johansen; Peter J. Frosch; Jean-Pierre Lep-
oittevin (2010). Contact Dermatitis. Springer. Retrieved
March 5, 2014.
[28] Balsam of Peru Patient Inf (PDF). truetest.com. Re-
trieved March 10, 2014.
[29] Regional Oce Who/Europe (1995). Allergic Hypersen-
sitivities Induced by Chemicals: Recommendations for Pre-
vention. CRC Press. Retrieved March 10, 2014.
[30] Richard J. G. Rycroft (2001). Textbook of Contact Der-
matitis. Springer. Retrieved March 6, 2014.
[31] Pamela Brooks (2012). The Daily Telegraph: Complete
Guide to Allergies. Constable & Robinson. Retrieved
March 6, 2014.
[32] Harlan Walker (1990). Oxford Symposium on Food &
Cookery, 1989: Staplefoods: Proceedings. Oxford Sym-
posium. Retrieved March 7, 2014.
[33] Klaus Peter Wilhelm; Hongbo Zhai; Howard I. Maibach
(2010). Dermatotoxicology. CRC Press. Retrieved
March 6, 2014.
[34] Jeanne Duus Johansen; Peter J. Frosch; Jean-Pierre Lep-
oittevin (2010). Contact Dermatitis. Springer. Retrieved
March 13, 2014.
[35] Phyllis A. Balch (2002). Prescription for Herbal Healing.
Penguin. Retrieved March 13, 2014.
CHAPTER 28. BALSAM OIL
[36] William D. James; Timothy Berger; Dirk Elston (2011).
Andrews Diseases of the Skin: Clinical Dermatology. El-
sevier Health Sciences. Retrieved March 13, 2014.
[37] Hongbo Zhai; Howard I. Maibach (2004).
Dermatotoxicology (Sixth ed.). CRC Press. Retrieved
March 13, 2014.
[38] Ronald Marks; Gerd Plewig (1991). The Environmental
Threat to the Skin. CRC Press. Retrieved March 13, 2014.
[39] European Commission, Health and Consumer Protection
Directorate-General, Scientic Committee on Consumer
Products (March 28, 2006). Opinion on Peru Balsam
(PDF). European Commission. Retrieved March 10,
2014.
[40] Murray Galt Motter, National Institutes of Health (U.S.);
Martin Inventius Wilbert (1908). Digest of Comments on
The Pharmacopoeia of the United States of America and
The National Formulary for the Calendar Year Ending
December 31. Treasury Department, Public Health and
Marine-Hospital Service of the U.S. Retrieved April 28,
2014.
[41] The Pharmaceutical Journal ...: A Weekly Record of Phar-
macy and Allied Sciences. J. Churchill. 1864. Retrieved
April 28, 2014.
[42] Encyclopaedia Perthensis; Or Universal Dictionary of the
Arts, Sciences, Literature, &c. Intended to Supersede the
Use of Other Books of Reference. 4. John Brown. 1816.
Retrieved April 28, 2014.
[43] The best quality and experience in Peru BalsamInicio.
Riverabalsam.com. Retrieved August 30, 2012.
[44] Bagnatori Sartori, ngela Lcia; Lewis, Gwilym P.;
Mansano, Vidal de Freitas; Tozzi, Ana Maria Goulart de
Azevedo (6 November 2015). A revision of the genus
Myroxylon (Leguminosae: Papilionoideae)". Kew Bul-
letin. 70 (4): 48. doi:10.1007/s12225-015-9604-7.
[45] Peru Balsam: Uses, Side Eects, Interactions and Warn-
ings. WebMD. Retrieved March 13, 2014.
Chapter 29
Beauty and cosmetics in ancient Egypt
The ancient Egyptians regarded beauty as a sign of holi-
ness. Everything the ancient Egyptians used had a spir-
itual aspect to it, including cosmetics, which is why cos-
metics were an integral part of their daily lives. Traders
traded makeup often, especially in the upper classes. In
tombs, cosmetic palettes were found buried with the de-
ceased as grave goods which further emphasized the idea
that cosmetics were not only used for aesthetic purposes
but rather magical and religious purposes.
29.1 Chemistry of ancient Egyp- 29.3 Cosmetic palettes and jars
tian cosmetics
The two main forms of eye makeup were grepond eye
paint and black kohl. The green eye paint was made of
malachite, a copper carbonate pigment, and the black
kohl was made from a substance called galena, a dark
grey ore of lead. The malachite was used in the early
predynastic period, whereas galena was introduced in the
late predynastic period (Lucas 41). Kohl has two com-
ponents: laurionite and phosgenite. These two minerals
were not readily available in Egypt, which means that the
ancient Egyptians must have used wet chemistry in or-
der to synthesize them by ltering of rock salt and natron
(Spjkkkkjt fc|H !2QEotts). Facial makeup included stain
for cheeks and lips that was produced from red ochre
from naturally colored clay that was mined and washed
then dried in the sun or burnt to achieve the red pigment
(Egyptian Make up). Henna, a naturally occurring plant,
was used by the ancient Egyptians to paint their nails, and
dye their hair
29.2 Medical uses of ancient Egyp-
tian cosmetics
The ancient Egyptians were not entirely misguided in be-
lieving that kohl would prevent eye infections because it
actually did prevent an ocular infection that was caused by
the ooding of the Nile. The lead-based substances in the
kohl promoted the production of nitric oxide in their skin,
which helped strengthen their immune systems against
191
diseases (How the Pharaohs Fought Ocular Infection).
The soot in kohl helped in reducing the damaging eects
of sun glare on their eyes. The ancient Egyptians cre-
ated a remedy for burns by mixing the cheek and lip stain
and other remedies for improving skin with red natron,
northern salt and honey (Mannichie 134, 138). However,
the ancient Egyptians strongly believed that the healing
eects of these cosmetics were magical rather than med-
ical.
Cosmetics palettes were used to grind makeup. The ear-
liest examples were rectangular in shape and date back to
5000 BC (Cosmetic Palette). The palettes later adopted
a rounder shape like the Narmer palette. King Narmers
palette was the earliest piece of its kind. It has deco-
rations of the King smiting the enemies of Egypt and
the unication of Upper and Lower Egypt, as well as a
cavity for the grinding of cosmetics, making it a double
purposed palette. These later developed into sh shaped
palettes. They might have chosen the sh shape as the
sh was a symbol of resurrection and new life. The sh
shaped palettes were usually adorned with precious stones
for royalty. These palettes have developed into baboon
shaped containers to hold the kohl which held symbolic
meanings for the ancient Egyptians.
29.4 Use of cosmetics in dierent
social classes
The use of cosmetics diered slightly between social
classes, where more make-up was worn by higher class
individuals [1] as wealthier individuals could aord more
make-up. Although there was no prominent dierence
between the cosmetics styles of the upper and lower class,
noble women were known to pale their skin using creams
and powders.[1] This was due to pale skin being a sign
of nobility as lighter skin meant less exposure to the sun
whereas dark skin was associated with the lower class who
tanned while taking part in menial labor such as work-
192 CHAPTER 29. BEAUTY AND COSMETICS IN ANCIENT EGYPT

ing in the elds. Thus, paler skin represented the non-

working noble class, as noble woman would not work in
the sun.

29.5 References
[1] [historyembalmed.org/ancient-egyptian-makeup.htm
Ancient Egyptian makeup"] Check |url= value (help).
historyembalmed.org. Retrieved 26 October 2016.

Bhanoo, Sindya N. Ancient Egypts Toxic Makeup

Fought Infection, Researchers Say. The New York
Times. Published LexisNexis Academic.

Lucas A. Cosmetics, Perfumes and Incense in An-

cient Egypt The Journal of Egyptian Archaeology,
Vol. 16, No. 1/2 (May, 1930), pp. 4153. Pub-
lished by: Egypt Exploration Society, Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/3854332
Manniche, Lise. Sacred Luxuries. 1999 Cornell
University Press, New York. 127-143.
Spotts, Peter N. Early cosmetics. Christian Sci-
ence Monitor (Boston, MA). Published LexisNexis
Academic.

Sta How the Pharaohs Fought Ocular Infection.

Review Of Optometry. http://www.revoptom.com/
content/d/news_review/i/1018/c/19409/
Cosmetic Palette. A History of the
World. BBC.co, http://www.bbc.co.uk/
ahistoryoftheworld/objects/s-OMbtkESJ6aV6_
k6o86oA
Egyptian Make Up Published by: King TuT.org,
http://www.king-tut.org.uk/ancient-egyptians/
egyptian-make-up.htm

Personal Hygiene and Cosmetics Published by:

resham.org, http://www.reshafim.org.il/ad/egypt/
timelines/topics/cosmetics.htm

Shaath, Nadim A., ed. 2005. Sunscreens: Regu-

lations and Commercial Development. Third Edi-
tion. ISBN 978-0824757946 ril

29.6 Further reading

Ribechini, Erika. Discovering the Composition of
Ancient Cosmetics and Remedies. Springer.
Chaudhri, SK & NK Jain. History of cosmetics.
Asian Journal of Pharmaceutics.
Chapter 30

Bident

30.2 Historical uses

Ancient Egyptians used a bident as a shing tool, some-
times attached to a line and sometimes fastened with ight
feathers.[3] Two-pronged weapons mainly of bronze ap-
pear in the archaeological record of ancient Greece.[4]
In Roman agriculture, the bidens (genitive bidentis) was
a double-bladed drag hoe[5] or two-pronged mattock,[6]
although a modern distinction between mattock and
rake should not be pressed.[7] It was used to break up
and turn ground that was rocky and hard.[8] The bidens
is pictured on mosaics and other forms of Roman art,
as well as tombstones to mark the occupation of the de-
ceased.[9]

30.3 In mythology

Pluto holding a bident in a woodcut from the Gods and God-

desses series of Hendrick Goltzius (1588-89)

A bident is a two-pronged implement resembling a

pitchfork. In classical mythology, the bident is a weapon
associated with Hades, the ruler of the underworld.
Likewise, the three-pronged trident is the implement of
Poseidon (Neptune), god of the seas and earthquakes, and Roman-era mosaics show the bident for hare hunting (Villa Ro-
the lightning bolt, which supercially looks as if it has one mana del Casale, Sicily, ca. 300 AD)
prong, is a symbol of Zeus.
Neither Pluto nor Hades is depicted unambiguously with
a bident in ancient art, and the antiquity of this attribute
has never been determined.[10] Two-pronged weapons do
appear in Greek literature and art.[11]

30.1 Etymology The spear of Achilles is said by a few sources to be

bifurcated.[12] Achilles had been instructed in its use by
Peleus, who had in turn learned from the centaur Chiron.
The word 'bident' was brought into the English language The implement may have associations with Thessaly.
before 1914,[1] and is derived from the Latin bidentis, A black-gured amphora from Corneto (Etruscan Tar-
meaning having two prongs.[2] quinia) depicts a scene from the hunt for the Calydonian

193
194 CHAPTER 30. BIDENT

boar, part of a series of adventures that took place in the 30.4 In art
general area. Peleus is accompanied by Castor, who is
attacking the boar with a two-pronged spear.[11]
A bronze trident found in an Etruscan tomb at Vetulonia
seems to have had an adaptable center prong that could
be removed for use as a bident.[13] A kylix found at Vulci
in ancient Etruria was formerly interpreted as depicting
Pluto (Greek: Plouton) with a bident. A black-
bearded man holding a peculiarly two-pronged instru-
ment reaches out in pursuit of a woman, thought to be
Persephone. The vase was subjected to improper recon-
struction, however, and the couple are more likely Po-
seidon and Aethra.[14] On Lydian coins that show Plou-
ton abducting Persephone in his four-horse chariot, the
god holds his characteristic scepter, the ornamented point Council of the gods from the Loggia di Psiche, Villa Farnesina,
of which has sometimes been interpreted as a bident.[15] with Pluto holding a bident and Neptune a trident
Other visual representations of the bident on ancient ob-
jects appear to have been either modern-era reconstruc- In Western art of the Middle Ages, classical underworld
tions, or in the possession of gures not securely identied gures began to be depicted with a pitchfork.[23] Early
as the ruler of the underworld.[16] Christian writers identied the classical underworld with
Hell, and its denizens as demons or devils.[24] In the
The Cambridge ritualist A.B. Cook saw the bident as an
Renaissance, the bident became a conventional attribute
implement that might be wielded by Jupiter, the chief god
of Pluto in art. Pluto, with Cerberus at his side, is
of the Roman pantheon, in relation to Roman bidental
shown holding the bident in the mythological ceiling mu-
ritual, the consecration of a place struck by lightning
ral painted by Raphael's workshop for the Villa Farnesina
by means of a sacricial sheep, called a bidens because
(the Loggia di Psiche, 151718). In a scene depicting a
it was of an age to have two teeth.[17] In the hands of
council of the gods, the three brothers Jove, Pluto, and
Jupiter (also known as Jove, Etruscan Tinia), the trident
Neptune are grouped closely, with a Cupid standing be-
or bident thus represents a forked lightning bolt. In an-
fore them. Neptune holds the trident. Elsewhere in the
cient Italy, thunder and lightning were read as signs of di-
loggia, a putto holds a bident.[25]
vine will, wielded by the sky god Jupiter in three forms or
degrees of severity (see manubia). The Romans drew on Perhaps inuenced by this work, Agostino Carracci had
Etruscan traditions for the interpretation of these signs. depicted Pluto with a bident in a preparatory drawing for
A tile found at Urbs Salvia in Picenum depicts an unusual his painting Pluto (1592), in which the god holds instead
composite Jove, fairly bristling with weapons": a light- his characteristic key.[26] In Caravaggio's Giove, Nettuno
ning bolt, a bident, and a trident, uniting the realms of e Plutone (ca. 1597), a ceiling mural based on alchemical
sky, earth, and sea, and representing the three degrees allegory, it is Neptune who holds the bident.[27]
of ominous lightning (see also Summanus).[18] Cook re-
garded the trident as the Greek equivalent of the Etruscan
bident, each representing a type of lightning used to com- 30.5 See also
municate the divine will; since he accepted the Lydian
origin of the Etruscans, he traced both forms to the same
Aegis
Mesopotamia source.[19]
The later notion that the ruler of the underworld wielded Cap of invisibility
a trident or bident can perhaps be traced to a line in the
Hercules Furens (Hercules Enraged) of Seneca. Dis Trident
(the Roman equivalent of Greek Plouton) uses a three-
Caduceus
pronged spear to drive o Hercules as he attempts to in-
vade the underworld. Seneca also refers to Dis as the In- List of mythological objects
fernal Jove[20] or the dire Jove,[21] the Jove who gives
dire or ill omens (dirae), just as in the Greek tradition,
Plouton is sometimes identied as a "chthonic Zeus. That
the trident and bident might be somewhat interchange-
30.6 References
able is suggested by a Byzantine scholiast, who mentions
Poseidon being armed with a bident.[22] [1] Websters Online Dictionary, entry on bident.

[2] American Psychological Association (APA). Websters

Revised Unabridged Dictionary. Dictionary.com. www.
reference.com. Retrieved May 18, 2012.
30.7. EXTERNAL LINKS 195

[3] Wilkinson, John Gardner (1837). Manners and customs of
the ancient Egyptians: including their private life, govern-
ment, laws, arts, manufacturers, religion and early history :
derived from a comparison of the painting, sculptures and
monuments still existing with the accounts of ancient au-
thors, Volume 3. Murray. pp. 60, 61. bident was a spear
with two barbed points ... thrust at the sh ... sh spears of
the South Sea Islanders ... same manner ... as the bident
by the ancient Egyptians
[4] Arthur Bernard Cook, Zeus: A Study in Ancient Religion
(Oxford University Press, 1924), vol. 2, p. 799.
[5] K.D. White, Roman Farming (Cornell University Press,
1970), p. 239.
[22] Codex Augustanus, note to Euripides' Phoenician Women,
line 188, as cited by Cook, Zeus, vol. 2, p. 806, note 6.
[23] Cook, Zeus, vol. 2, p. 803.
[24] Friedrich Solmsen, The Powers of Darkness in Pruden-
tius Contra Symmachum: A Study of His Poetic Imagina-
tion, Vigiliae Christianae 19.4 (1965), pp. 238, 240248
et passim.
[25] Richard Stemp, The Secret Language of the Renaissance:
Decoding the Hidden Symbolism of Italian Art (Duncan
Baird, 2006), p. 114; Clare Robertson et al., Drawings
by the Carracci from British Collections (Ashmolean Mu-
seum, 1996), p. 78.

[6] K.D. White, Agricultural Implements of the Roman World [26] Robertson et al., Drawings by the Carracci from British
(Cambridge University Press, 1967, 2010), p. 11. Collections, pp. 7879.

[7] White, Agricultural Implements, p. 12. [27] Creighton Gilbert, Caravaggio and His Two Cardinals
(Penn State University Press, 1995), pp. 124125.
[8] Pliny, Natural History 17.54; White, Agricultural Imple-
ments, p. 19.

[9] White, Agricultural Implements, pp. vii, viii, 11, 51. 30.7 External links
[10] A.L. Millin, Mythologie, in Magasin Encyclopdique
(Paris, 1808), p. 283; G.T. Villenave, Les mtamorphoses Media related to Bidents at Wikimedia Commons
d'Ovide (Paris, 1806), p. 307; Cook, Zeus, p. 798 .; John
G. Fitch, Senecas Hercules Furens: A Critical Text With
Introduction and Commentary (Cornell University Press,
1987), p.

[11] Cook, Zeus, vol. 2, p. 799.

[12] By Lesches of Lesbos (7th century BC) in the Little Iliad

(Ilias parva), frg. 5 in the edition of Kinkel, as preserved
by the scholiast to Pindar, Nemean Ode 6.85 and the scho-
liast to the Iliad 16.142. Also in the Classical period by
Aeschylus in the fragmentary Nereids (Nereides), frg. 152
in the second edition of Nauck; and by Sophocles in the
Lovers of Achilles (Achilleos erastai), frg. 156 (Nauck2 =
152 in the edition of Jebb), as cited by Cook, Zeus, vol.
2, p. 799.

[13] Cook, Zeus, vol. 2, pt. 2, p. 1225, with images of Zeus

wielding lightning bolts, and citing Milani, Studi e mate-
riali di archeologia e numismatica (Florence, 1905), (vol.
3, p. 85.

[14] Cook, Zeus, vol. 2, pp. 800801. The kylix from the
workshop of Brygos.

[15] Cook, Zeus, vol. 2, p. 801.

[16] Cook, Zeus, vol. 2, p. 802.

[17] Cook, Zeus, vol. 2, pp. 805806.

[18] Cook, Zeus, vol. 2, p. 803, with image on p. 804.

[19] Cook, Zeus, vol. 2, p. 806.

[20] Inferni Iovis (genitive case), Hercules Furens line 47, in the
prologue spoken by Juno.

[21] Diro Iovi, line 608 of Hercules Furens; compare Vergil,

Aeneid 4.638, Iove Stygio, the Jove of the Styx". Fitch,
Senecas Hercules Furens, p. 156.
Chapter 31
Cemetery GIS
Map of Cemetery G I S
Cemetery GIS is a necropolis in the Giza Plateau. It de-
rives its name from its proximity to pyramid G I (Khufu).
The tombs are located on the south side of that pyra-
mid and hence the name G I South Cemetery. Reisner
thought the cemetery a continuation of the G7000 ceme-
tery which is part of the Giza East Field. The construction
postdates that of mastaba G 7070 of Sneferukhaf. Junker
dated the cemetery to the reign of Menkaure based on
the presence of granite powder thought to derive from
the dressing of the second pyramid at Giza. Reisner al-
lows for a possible construction date dating to the reign
of Khafre.[1]
This cemetery also contains several mastabas built of
stone, which date to as late as the 6th dynasty. Tombs
from the time of Menkaure include the mastabas of the
royal chamberlain Khaemnefert, the Kings son Khufud-
jedef who was master of the royal largesse, and an ocial
named Niankhre.[2]
196
31.1 Mastabas
The following are a collection of mastabas found in this
cemetery.[1]:84:General Map of the Giza Necropolis There are also
many shafts without any superstructure that belong to this
cemetery, but these have not been included in the table.[2]
Unnumbered tombs from the G I S cemetery include:[2]
31.2 See also
Giza Necropolis - overview of the Giza necropolis.
Giza East Field - including the Queens Pyramids
from the Khufu pyramid complex and royal ceme-
tery G 7000
Giza West Field - including cemeteries G 1000, G
1100, G 1200 and G 5000.
31.3 External links
The Giza Archives Website maintained by the
Museum of Fine Arts in Boston. Quote: This
website is a comprehensive resource for research on
Giza. It contains photographs and other documen-
tation from the original Harvard University - Boston
Museum of Fine Arts Expedition (1904 to 1947),
from recent MFA eldwork, and from other expedi-
tions, museums, and universities around the world..
31.4 References
[1] Reisner, George Andrew, A History of the Giza Necropolis
Volume I. Harvard University Press, Cambridge 1942, pp
74, 8284 and General Map of the Giza Necropolis. PDF
from The Giza Archives, 249 MB Retrieved February 1,
2017.
[2] Porter, Bertha and Moss, Rosalind L. B., Topographical
Bibliography of Ancient Egyptian Hieroglyphic Texts, Re-
liefs, and Paintings. Volume III. Memphis. Part I. Ab
Rawsh to Abr. 2nd edition, revised and augmented
31.4. REFERENCES 197

by Jaromr Mlek, The Clarendon Press, Oxford 1974,

pp 216228. PDF from The Giza Archives, 29,5 MB Re-
trieved February 1, 2017.

Coordinates: 295834N 310758E / 29.9761N

31.1328E
Chapter 32

Egyptian blue

Egyptian blue, also known as calcium copper silicate lennium BC and is the rst synthetic pigment produced
(CaCuSi4 O10 or CaOCuO(SiO2 )4 ) or cuprorivaite, is there, continuing in use until the end of the Greco-Roman
a pigment used in ancient Egypt for thousands of years. period (332 BC395 AD).
It is considered to be the rst synthetic pigment. It wasThe term for it in the Egyptian language is sb-rjt,
known to the Romans by the name caeruleum from
which means articial lapis lazuli (hsbd).[2] It was used
which the English word cerulean derives. After the Ro- in antiquity as a blue pigment to color a variety of dif-
man era, Egyptian blue fell from use and the manner of
ferent media such as stone, wood, plaster, papyrus, and
its creation was forgotten. canvas, and in the production of numerous objects, in-
The ancient Egyptian word wadjet signies blue, blue- cluding cylinder seals, beads, scarabs, inlays, pots, and
green, and green. statuettes. It is also sometimes referred to in Egyptologi-
The rst recorded use of 'Egyptian blue' as a color name cal literature as blue frit. Some have argued that this is an
in English was in 1809.[1] erroneous term that should be reserved for use to describe
the initial phase of glass or glaze production,[3] while oth-
ers argue that Egyptian blue is a frit in both the ne and
coarse form since it is a product of solid state reaction.[4]
32.1 Denition Its characteristic blue color, resulting from one of its main
componentscopperranges from a light to a dark hue,
depending on dierential processing and composition.
Apart from Egypt, it has also been found in the Near East,
the Eastern Mediterranean, and the limits of the Roman
Empire. It is unclear whether the pigments existence
elsewhere was a result of parallel invention or evidence
of the technologys spread from Egypt to those areas.

32.2 History and background

Pyxis made out of Egyptian blue. Imported to Italy from north-
ern Syria. Produced 750-700 BC. Shown at Altes Museum in
Berlin.
Egyptian blue is a synthetic blue pigment made up of a
mixture of silica, lime, copper, and an alkali. Its color
is due to a calcium-copper tetrasilicate CaCuSi4 O10 of
the same composition as the naturally occurring mineral
cuprorivaite. It was made in Egypt during the third mil-
The ancient Egyptians held the color blue in very high re-
gard and were eager to present it on many media and in a
variety of forms. They also desired to imitate the semi-
precious stones turquoise and lapis lazuli, which were val-
ued for their rarity and stark blue color. Use of naturally
occurring minerals, such as azurite, to acquire this blue,
was impractical, as these minerals were rare and dicult
to work. Therefore, to have access to the large quanti-
ties of blue color they needed, it was necessary for the
Egyptians to manufacture the pigment themselves.
The Egyptians developed a wide range of pigment va-
rieties, including what is now known as Egyptian blue,
which was the rst of its color at the time of its devel-
opment. This accomplishment was due to the advance-
ment of Egypt as a settled agricultural society. This sta-
ble and established civilization encouraged the growth of

198
32.3. COMPOSITION AND MANUFACTURE 199

No written information exists in ancient Egyptian texts

about the manufacture of Egyptian blue in antiquity,
and it was only rst mentioned in Roman literature by
Vitruvius during the rst century BC.[7] He refers to it as
coeruleum and describes in his work De architectura how
it was produced by grinding sand, copper, and natron,
and heating the mixture, shaped into small balls, in a fur-
nace. Lime is necessary for the production, as well, but
probably lime-rich sand was used. Theophrastus gives it
the Greek term (kyanos, blue),[8] which probably
originally referred to lapis lazuli. Finally, only at the be-
ginning of the 19th century was interest renewed in learn-
ing more about its manufacture when it was investigated
by Sir Humphry Davy in 1815[9] and others such as W.
T. Russell and F. Fouqu.
Egyptian blue

32.3 Composition and manufac-

ture
Several experiments have been carried out by scientists
and archaeologists interested in analyzing the composi-
tion of Egyptian blue and the techniques used to manu-
facture it. It is now generally regarded as a multiphase
material that was produced by heating together quartz
sand, a copper compound, calcium carbonate, and a small
amount of an alkali (ash from salt tolerant, halophyte
plants or natron) at temperatures ranging between 800
and 1,000 C (1,470 and 1,830 F) (depending on the
amount of alkali used) for several hours.[10] The result is
cuprorivaite or Egyptian blue, carbon dioxide, and water
vapor:

Cu2 CO3 (OH)2 + 8 SiO2 + 2 CaCO3 2

CaCuSi4 O10 + 3 CO2 + H2 O

In its nal state, Egyptian blue consists of rectangular blue

Egyptian blue ceramic ware, New Kingdom (1380-1300 BC)
crystals together with unreacted quartz and some glass.
From the analysis of a number of samples from Egypt and
a nonlabor workforce, including clerics and the Egyptian elsewhere, the weight percentage of the materials used
theocracy. Egyptian pharaohs were patrons of the arts to obtain Egyptian blue in antiquity was determined to
[10]
and consequently were a stimulus for the advancement of usually range within these amounts:
pigment technology.
The earliest evidence for the use of Egyptian blue, iden- 6070% silica (SiO2 )
tied by Egyptologist Lorelei H. Corcoran of the Uni- 715% calcium oxide (CaO)
versity of Memphis, is on an alabaster bowl dated to the
1020% copper(II) oxide (CuO)
late pre-dynastic period or Naqada III (circa 3250 BC),
excavated at Hierakonpolis, and now in the Museum of
Fine Arts, Boston.[5] In the Middle Kingdom (20501652 To obtain theoretical cuprorivaite, where only blue crys-
BC), it continued to be used as a pigment in the deco- tals occur, with no excess of unreacted quartz or forma-
[10]
ration of tombs, wall paintings, furnishings and statues, tion of glass, these percentages would need to be used:
and by the New Kingdom (15701070 BC), began to be
more widely used in the production of numerous objects. 64% silica
Its use continued throughout the Late period, and Greco-
Roman period, only dying out in the fourth century AD, 15% calcium oxide
[6]
when the secret to its manufacture was lost. 21% copper oxide
200
However, none of the analyzed samples from antiquity
was made of this denitive composition, as all had ex-
cesses of silica, together with an excess of either CuO or
CaO.[11] This may have been intentional; an increase in
the alkali content results in the pigment containing more
unreacted quartz embedded in a glass matrix, which in
turn results in a harder texture.[10] Lowering the alkali
content (less than 1%), though, does not allow glass to
form and the resultant Egyptian blue is softer, with a hard-
ness of 12 Mohs.[11]
In addition to the way the level of the dierent composi-
tions inuenced texture, the way Egyptian blue was pro-
cessed also had an eect on its texture, in terms of coarse-
ness and neness. Following a number of experiments,
Title et al. concluded that for ne-textured Egyptian
blue, two stages were necessary to obtain uniformly inter-
spersed crystals. First, the ingredients are heated, and the
result is a coarse-textured product. This is then ground to
a ne powder and water is added. The paste is then re-
shaped and red again at temperatures ranging between
850 and 950 C for one hour. These two stages possibly
were needed to produce a paste that was ne enough for
the production of small objects. Coarse-textured Egyp-
tian blue, though, would not have gone through the second
stage. Since it is usually found in the form of slabs (in the
dynastic periods) and balls (in the Greco-Roman period),
these could have either been awaiting to be processed
through a second stage, where they would be ground and
nely textured, or they would have been ground for use
as a blue pigment.[10]
The shade of blue reached was also related to the coarse-
ness and neness of Egyptian blue as it was determined by
the degree of aggregation of the Egyptian blue crystals.
Coarse Egyptian blue was relatively thick in form, due
to the large clusters of crystals which adhere to the unre-
acted quartz. This clustering results in a dark blue color
that is the appearance of coarse Egyptian blue. Alter-
natively, ne-textured Egyptian blue consists of smaller
clusters that are uniformly interspersed between the unre-
acted quartz grains and tends to be light blue in color.[10]
Diluted light blue, though, is used to describe the color
of ne-textured Egyptian blue that has a large amount
of glass formed in its composition, which masks the
blue color, and gives it a diluted appearance. It de-
pends on the level of alkali added to the mixture, so with
more alkali, more glass formed, and the more diluted the
appearance.[10] This type of Egyptian blue is especially
evident during the 18th dynasty and later, and is proba-
bly associated with the surge in glass technology at this
time.[3]
If certain conditions were not met, the Egyptian blue
would not be satisfactorily produced. For example, if
the temperatures were above 1050 C, it would become
unstable.[12] If too much lime was added, wollastonite
(CaSiO3 ) forms and gives the pigment a green color. Too
much of the copper ingredients results in excesses of cop-
per oxides like cuprite and tenorite.[12]
CHAPTER 32. EGYPTIAN BLUE
32.4 Sources
The main component of Egyptian blue was the silica,
and quartz sand found adjacent to the sites where Egyp-
tian blue was being manufactured may have been its
source,[10] although there is no concrete evidence to sup-
port this hypothesis. The only evidence cited is by Jakcsh
et al., who found crystals of titanomagnetite, a mineral
found in desert sand, in samples collected from the tomb
of Sabni (sixth dynasty). Its presence in Egyptian blue
indicates that quartz sand, rather than int or chert, was
used as the silica source. This contrasts with the source
of silica used for glassmaking at Qantir (New Kingdom
Ramesside site), which is quartz pebbles and not sand.[13]
Calcium oxide is believed not to have been intentionally
added on its own during the manufacture of Egyptian
blue, but introduced as an impurity in the quartz sand and
alkali.[10] It is not clear from this, then, as to whether the
craftsmen involved in the manufacture realized the im-
portance of adding lime to the Egyptian blue mixture.
The source of copper could have either been a copper ore
(such as malachite), lings from copper ingots, or bronze
scrap and other alloys. Prior to the New Kingdom, evi-
dence is scarce as to which copper source was being used,
but it is believed to have been copper ores. During the
New Kingdom, evidence has been found for the use of
copper alloys, such as bronze, due to the presence of vary-
ing amounts of tin, arsenic, or lead found in the Egyptian
blue material.[12] The presence of tin oxide could have
come from copper ores that contained tin oxide and not
from the use of bronze. However, no copper ores have
been found with these amounts of tin oxide.[12] It is un-
clear as yet, why there would have been a switch from the
use of copper ores in earlier periods, to the use of bronze
scrap during the Late Bronze Age. Reserves possibly had
run out.
The total alkali content in analyzed samples of Egyptian
blue is greater than 1%, suggesting the alkali was intro-
duced deliberately into the mixture and not as an impu-
rity from other components. Sources of alkali could ei-
ther have been natron from areas such as Wadi Natroun
and El-Kab, or plant ash. By measuring the amounts of
potash and magnesia in the samples of Egyptian blue, it is
generally possible to identify which source of alkali had
been used, since the plant ash contains higher amounts of
potash and magnesia than the natron. However, due to
the low concentration of alkali in Egyptian blue, which
is a mere 4% or less, compared to glass, for example,
which is at 1020%, identifying the source is not always
easy. The alkali source likely was natron,[11] although the
reasons for this assumption are unclear. However, analy-
sis by Jaksch et al. of various samples of Egyptian blue
identied variable amounts of phosphorus (up to 2 wt %),
suggesting the alkali source used was in actuality plant ash
and not natron.[12] Since the glass industry during the Late
Bronze Age used plant ash as its source of alkali,[14] there
might have possibly been a link in terms of the alkali used
32.6. CONNECTIONS WITH OTHER VITREOUS MATERIAL AND WITH METALS 201

for Egyptian blue before and after the introduction of the

glass industry.

32.5 Archaeological evidence

Amarna: In the excavations at Amarna, Lisht, and
Malkata at the beginning of the 20th century, Petrie un-
covered two types of vessels that he suggested were used
in antiquity to make Egyptian blue: bowl-shaped pans
and cylindrical vessels/saggers. In recent excavations at
Amarna by Barry Kemp (1989), very small numbers of
these fritting pans were uncovered, although various re-
maining pieces of Egyptian blue cake were found, which Blue faience hippo, Middle Kingdom (2033-1710 BC)
allowed the identication of ve dierent categories of
Egyptian blue forms and the vessels associated with them:
large round at cakes, large at rectangular cakes, bowl-
shaped cakes, small sack-shaped pieces, and spherical
shapes.[15] No tin was found in the samples analyzed,
which the authors suggest[16] is an indication that use of
scrap copper was possible instead of bronze.
Qantir: In the 1930s, Mahmud Hamza excavated a
number of objects related to the production of Egyp-
tian blue at Qantir, such as Egyptian blue cakes and
fragments in various stages of production,[17] providing
evidence that Egyptian blue was actually produced at
the site. Recent excavations at the same site uncov-
ered a large copper-based industry, with several asso-
ciated crafts, namely bronze-casting, red-glass making,
faience production, and Egyptian blue.[17] Ceramic cru-
cibles with adhering remains of Egyptian blue were found
in the excavations, suggesting again it had been manufac-
tured on site. These Egyptian blue cakes possibly were
later exported to other areas around the country to be
worked, as a scarcity of nished Egyptian blue products
existed on site. For example, Egyptian blue cakes were Blue faience saucer and stand, New Kingdom (1400-1325 BC)
found at Zawiyet Umm el-Rakham, a Ramesside fort near
the Libyan coast, indicating the cakes were in fact traded,
and worked at and reshaped away from their primary pro-
and glassy and continued as such into the Greco-Roman
duction site.[17]
period.[18]
Since Egyptian blue, like faience, is a much older tech-
nology than glass, which only begins during the reign of
32.6 Connections with other vitre- Thutmose III (14791425 BC), changes in the manufac-
ous material and with metals ture of Egyptian blue undoubtedly were associated with
the introduction of the glass industry.
Egyptian blue is closely related to the other vitreous ma- Analysis of the source of copper used in the manufacture
terials produced by the ancient Egyptians, namely glass of Egyptian blue indicates a relationship with the contem-
and Egyptian faience, and the Egyptians possibly did not poraneous metal industry. Whereas in the earlier periods,
employ separate terms to distinguish the three products it is most probable that copper ores were used, during the
from one another.[6] Although it is easier to distinguish reign of Tutmosis III, the copper ore is replaced by the
between faience and Egyptian blue, due to the distinct use of bronze lings.[3] This has been established by the
core of faience objects and their separate glaze layers, it detection of a specic amount of tin oxide in Egyptian
is sometimes dicult to dierentiate glass from Egyp- blue which could only have resulted from the use of tin
tian blue due to the very ne texture that Egyptian blue bronze scraps as the source of copper, which coincides
could occasionally have. This is especially true during the with the time when bronze became widely available in
New Kingdom, as Egyptian blue became more rened ancient Egypt.
202
32.7 Occurrences outside of Egypt
Egyptian blue was found in Western Asia during the mid-
dle of third millennium BC in the form of small artifacts
and inlays, but not as a pigment.[3] It was found in the
Mediterranean area at the end of the Middle Bronze age,
and traces of tin were found in its composition suggesting
the use of bronze scrap instead of copper ore as the source
of copper.[3] During the Roman period, use of Egyptian
blue was extensive, as a pot containing the unused pig-
ment, found in 1814 in Pompeii, illustrates. It was also
found as unused pigment in the tombs of a number of
painters. Etruscans also used it in their wall paintings.
The related Chinese blue has been suggested as having
Egyptian roots.
32.8 Modern applications
Egyptian blues extremely powerful and long-lived lumi-
nescence under infrared light has enabled its presence to [9] Sir Humphry Davy (1815) Some experiments and obser-
be detected on objects which appear unpainted to the hu-
man eye.[19] This property has also been used to iden-
tify traces of the pigment on paintings produced as late
as the 16th century, long after its use was assumed to
have died out.[20] The luminescence, in conjunction with
the capacity of Egyptian blue to delaminate by splitting
into nanosheets after immersion in water, also indicates it [10] Tite, M.S., Bimson, M. & Cowell, M.R. (1987). The
may have several high-technology applications, such as in
biomedicine, telecommunications, laser technology, and
security inks.[21][22]
32.9 See also
Han purple and Han blue
Maya blue
Prussian blue
Ancient Chinese glass
List of colors
List of inorganic pigments
Egyptian blue shades
32.10 References
[1] Maerz and Paul A Dictionary of Color New York:1930
McGraw-Hill Page 194; Color Sample of Sunset: Page
93 Plate 35 Color Sample L8
[2] Pags-Camagna S, (1998) Bleu et vert gyptiens en ques-
tion: vocabulaire et analyses in La couleur dans la pein-
ture et lmaillage de lEgypte Ancienne, CUEBC, Rav-
ello, 2022 mars 1997 (Colinart S, Menu M, eds), Ed.
Edipuglia, Bari, 5159.
CHAPTER 32. EGYPTIAN BLUE
[3] Lee, L.; Quirke, S. (2000). Painting materials. In P.
Nicholson and I. Shaw. Ancient Egyptian materials and
technology. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-
45257-0.
[4] Nicholson, P.T. & Henderson, J. 2000, Glass. In: In: P.
Nicholson and I. Shaw (eds.), Ancient Egyptian materials
and technology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
ISBN 0-521-45257-0
[5] Lorelei H. Corcoran, The Color Blue as an Animator
in Ancient Egyptian Art, in Rachael B.Goldman, (Ed.),
Essays in Global Color History, Interpreting the Ancient
Spectrum (NJ, Gorgias Press, 2016), pp. 59-82.
[6] Chase, W.T. 1971, Egyptian blue as a pigment and ce-
ramic material. In: R. Brill (ed.) Science and Archaeol-
ogy. Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press. ISBN 0-262-02061-0
[7] Vitruvius, De Architectura, Book VII, Chapter 11.
[8] Theophrastus, de Lapidibus (On Stones), section 55.
vations on the colours used in painting by the ancients,
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of Lon-
don, vol. 105, pages 97124. Reprinted in: The Collected
Works of Sir Humphry Davy,... (London, England: Smith,
Elder, and Co., 1840), vol. VI, pages 131159.
technology of Egyptian blue. In M. Bimson; I.C. Free-
stone. Early Vitreous materials. British Museum occa-
sional paper 56. London: British Museum. ISBN 0-
86159-056-2.
[11] Tite, M.S., Bimson, M. & Cowell, M.R. (1984). Tech-
nological examination of Egyptian blue. In J.B. Lam-
bert. Archaeological Chemistry III. Advances in chemistry
series 205. Washington, DC: American Chemical Soci-
ety. ISBN 0-8412-0767-4.
[12] Jaksch, H., Seipel, W., Weiner, K.L. & El Goresy, A.
(1983). Egyptian Blue- Cuprorivaite, a window to An-
cient Egyptian technology. Die Naturwissenschaften.
70 (11): 525535. Bibcode:1983NW.....70..525J.
doi:10.1007/BF00376668.
[13] Rehren, Th.; Pusch, E.B. (2005). Late Bronze Age
glass production at Qantir-Piramesses, Egypt. Science.
308 (5729): 17561758. doi:10.1126/science.1110466.
PMID 15961663.
[14] Rehren, Th. (2001). Aspects of the production of cobalt-
blue glass in Egypt. Archaeometry. 43 (4): 483489.
doi:10.1111/1475-4754.00031.
[15] Kemp, B. 1989, Amarna Reports V. London: Egypt Ex-
ploration Society. ISBN 0-85698-109-5
[16] Weatherhead, F. & Buckley, A. 1989, Artists pigments
from Amarna. In: B. Kemp (ed.), Amarna Reports V:
202239. London: Egypt Exploration Society. ISBN 0-
85698-109-5
32.12. EXTERNAL LINKS 203

[17] Rehren, Th., Pusch, E.B. & Herold, A. (2001). Prob-
lems and possibilities in workshop reconstruction: Qan-
tir and the organization of LBA glass working sites. In
A.J. Shortland. The social context of technological change,
Egypt and the Near East 16501550 BC. Proceedings of a
conference held at St Edmund Hall, Oxford 1214 Septem-
ber 2000. Oxford: Oxbow Books. ISBN 1-84217-050-3.
[18] Nicholson, P.T. & Peltenburg, E. 2000, Egyptian faience.
In: In: P. Nicholson and I. Shaw (eds.), Ancient Egyptian
materials and technology. Cambridge: Cambridge Uni-
versity Press. ISBN 0-521-45257-0
[19] Verri, G, The spatially resolved characterisation of Egyp-
tian blue, Han blue and Han purple by photo-induced lu-
minescence digital imaging, Analytical and Bioanalytical
Chemistry, June 2009 Vol 394, Iss 4, pp 1011.
[20] McCouat, P, Egyptian blue: the colour of technology,
Journal of Art in Society, http://www.artinsociety.com
[21] Accorsi, G et al, The exceptional near-infrared lumines-
cence of cuprorivaite (Egyptian blue), Chemical Commu-
nications, Issue 23, 2009, 3392.
[22] Bredal-Jrgensen, J, et al, Striking presence of Egyptian
blue identied in a painting by Giovanni Battista Ben-
venuto from 1524, Analytical and Bioanalytical Chem-
istry, Sep 2011 Vol 401 Iss 4, p 1433.
: proceedings of a meeting held at the British School
at Athens, January 1985. London : Leopards Head.
ISBN 0-904887-02-2.
Warner, T.E. 2011, Articial Cuprorivaite
CaCuSi4 O10 (Egyptian Blue) by a Salt-Flux
Method. In: Terence E. Warner, Synthesis, Prop-
erties and Mineralogy of Important Inorganic
Materials, 2649. Chichester: Wiley. ISBN
978-0-470-74611-0.
Wiedemann, H.G., Bayer, G. & Reller, A. 1998,
Egyptian blue and Chinese blue. Production tech-
nologies and applications of two historically impor-
tant blue pigments. In: S. Colinart & M. Menu
(eds.), La couleur dans la peinture et lmaillage de
lEgypte Ancienne. Scienze e materiali del patrimo-
nio culturale 4. Bari: Edipuglia. ISBN 88-7228-
201-2.
32.12 External links
Egyptian blue, ColourLex
Egyptian Blue, Pigments through the ages

32.11 Further reading

Dayton, J. 1978, Minerals, metals, glazing & man,
or, Who was Sesostris I? London: Harrap. ISBN 0-
245-52807-5.

Lucas, A. & Harris. J.R. [1948] 1999, Ancient

Egyptian materials and industries. Dover books on
Egypt. Mineola, N.Y. : Dover. ISBN 0-486-40446-
3.

Noll, W. 1981, Mineralogy and technology of the

painted ceramics of ancient Egypt. In: M.J. Huges
(ed.) Scientic studies in ancient ceramics. Occa-
sional paper 19. London : British Museum, ISBN
0-86159-018-X.

Rehren, Th. & Pusch, E.B. & Herold, A. 1998,

Glass coloring works within a copper-centered in-
dustrial complex in Late Bronze Age Egypt. In: Mc-
Cray, P (ed), The prehistory and history of glassmak-
ing technology. Ceramics and Civilization 8. West-
erville, OH: American Ceramic Society. ISBN 1-
57498-041-6

Riederer, J. 1997, Egyptian Blue. In: E.W.

Fitzhugh, (ed.), Artists pigments 3: 2345. Oxford
university Press. ISBN 0-89468-256-3

Tite, M.S. 1985, Egyptian blue, faience and related

materials: technological investigations. In: R.E.
Jones & H.W. Catling (eds.) Science in Archaeology
Chapter 33

EgyptianHittite peace treaty

The EgyptianHittite peace treaty, also known as the
Eternal Treaty or the Silver Treaty, is the only ancient
Near Eastern treaty for which both sides versions have
survived. It is sometimes called the Treaty of Kadesh
after the well-documented Battle of Kadesh fought some
sixteen years earlier, although Kadesh is not mentioned
in the text. Both sides of the treaty have been the sub-
ject of intensive scholarly study.[1] The treaty itself did
not bring about a peace; in fact an atmosphere of en-
mity between Hatti and Egypt lasted many years, until
the eventual treaty of alliance was signed.[2]
Translation of the texts revealed that this engraving was tinued in force [7]
originally translated from silver tablets given to each side, years later.
which have since been lost to contemporary historians.
The Egyptian version of the peace treaty was engraved
in hieroglyphics on the walls of two temples belonging to
Pharaoh Ramesses II in Thebes: the Ramesseum and the
Precinct of Amun-Re at the Temple of Karnak.[3] The
scribes who engraved the Egyptian version of the treaty
included descriptions of the gures and seals that were on
the tablet that the Hittites delivered.[4]
The Hittite version was found in the Hittite capital of
Hattusa (in present day Turkey), preserved on baked clay
tablets uncovered among the Hittite royal palaces siz-
able archives. Two of the Hittite tablets are today dis-
played at the Museum of the Ancient Orient, part of the
Istanbul Archaeology Museums. The third is on display
in the Berlin State Museums in Germany.[5] A copy of
this treaty is prominently displayed on a wall in the United
Nations Headquarters in New York City.
33.1 Background
The treaty was signed to end a long war between the
Hittite Empire and the Egyptians, who had fought for over
two centuries to gain mastery over the lands of the east-
ern Mediterranean. The conict culminated with an at-
tempted Egyptian invasion in 1274 BC that was stopped
by the Hittites at the city of Kadesh on the Orontes River 33.1.2 Battle of Kadesh
in what is now Syria. The Battle of Kadesh resulted in
both sides suering heavy casualties, but neither was able Main article: Kadesh inscriptions
to prevail decisively in either the battle or the war. The
conict continued inconclusively for about fteen more
years before the treaty was signed. Although it is of-
ten referred to as the Treaty of Kadesh, it was actually
signed long after the battle, and Kadesh is not mentioned
in the text. The treaty is thought to have been negotiated
by intermediaries without the two monarchs ever meeting
in person.[6] Both sides had common interests in making
peace; Egypt faced a growing threat from the "Sea Peo-
ples", while the Hittites were concerned about the rising
power of Assyria to the east. The treaty was ratied in
the 21st year of Ramses IIs reign (1258 BC) and con-
until the Hittite Empire collapsed eighty
33.1.1 Pre-Ramesses II relationship with
the Hittites
Hittite-Egyptian relations ocially began once the Hatti
took over Mitanni's role as the ruling power in central
Syria and from there tensions would continue to be high
until the conclusion of the treaty nearly one hundred years
later.[8] During the invasion and eventual defeat of Mi-
tanni, the Hittite armies poured into Syria and began to
exert their rule over the Egyptian vassals of Kadesh and
Amurru. The loss of these lands in northern Syria would
never be forgotten by the Egyptian pharaohs and their
later actions demonstrated that they never would fully
concede this loss at the hands of the Hittite Empire.[9]
Egypts attempts to regain the territory lost during the
rule of Akhenaten continued to be futile until under the
leadership of Seti I, the father of Ramesses II, signicant
gains did start to be made. In his own Kadesh-Amurru
campaign against the Hittite armies, Seti I vanquished his
foes at a battle near Kadesh, but the gains proved short-
lived since Kadesh was eventually given up by Seti in a
later treaty.[10] The short gain by the Egyptians was the
opening salvo of a conict between the two nations,
which would drag on over the next two decades.[11]

204
33.2. TEXTS 205

The accounts of this battle mainly are derived from tween the two nations and military conquests in Syria,
Egyptian literary accounts known as the Bulletin (also Kadesh had been the last direct, ocial military con-
known as the Record) and the Poem as well as picto- frontation fought among the Hittites and Egyptians. In
rial Reliefs.[12] Unfortunately for scholars and individ- some regards, as historians have noted, the period could
uals interested in the Battle of Kadesh, the details that be considered 'cold war' between Hatti and Egypt.[21]
these sources provide are heavily biased interpretation
of the events. Since Ramesses II had complete control
over the building projects, the resources were used for
propagandistic purposes by the pharaoh, who used them 33.2 Texts
to brag about his victory at Kadesh.[13] It is still known
that Ramesses marched through Syria with four divisions 33.2.1 Hittite
of troops in the hopes of destroying the Hittite pres-
ence there and restoring Egypt to the preeminent posi- In 19061908, the German archaeologist Hugo Winck-
tion it had enjoyed under Tuthmosis III".[14] The Hittite ler excavated the site of the Hittite capital, Hattusa
king, Muwatalli II, gathered together an army of his al- (now Boazkale in Turkey) in conjunction with Theodore
lies to prevent the invasion of his territory. At the site Makridi, the second director of the Istanbul Archaeo-
of Kadesh, Ramesses foolishly outdistanced the remain- logical Museum. The joint Turkish-German team found
der of his forces and, after hearing unreliable intelligence the remains of the royal archives, where they discovered
regarding the Hittite position from a pair of captured pris- 10,000 clay tablets written with cuneiform documenting
oners, the pharaoh pitched camp across from the town.[15] many of the Hittites diplomatic activities.[22] The haul
The Hittite armies, hidden behind the town, launched a included three tablets on which the text of the treaty was
surprise attack against the Amun division and quickly sent inscribed in the Akkadian language, a lingua franca of
the division scattering. Although Ramesses tried to rally the time. Winckler immediately grasped the signicance
his troops against the onslaught of the Hittite chariots, it of the discovery:
was only after the arrival of relief forces from Amurru
that the Hittite attack was thrown back.[16]
... a marvellously preserved tablet which
Although the Egyptians were able to survive a terrible
immediately promised to be signicant. One
predicament in Kadesh it was not the splendid victory
glance at it and all the achievement of my life
that Ramesses sought to portray but rather a stalemate
faded into insignicance. Here it was some-
in which both sides sustained heavily losses.[17] After an
thing I might have jokingly called a gift from
unsuccessful attempt to gain further ground the follow-
the fairies. Here it was: Ramses writing to Hat-
ing day, Ramesses headed back south to Egypt brag-
tusilis about their joint treaty ... conrmation
ging about his individual achievements during Kadesh.
that the famous treaty which we knew from the
Even though Ramesses technically won the battle, he ulti-
version carved on the temple walls at Karnak
mately lost the war, when Muwatallis and his army retook
might also be illuminated from the other wise.
Amurru and extended the buer zone with Egypt further
Ramses is identied by his royal titles and pedi-
southward.[18]
gree exactly as in the Karnak text of the treaty;
Hattusilis is described in the same way the
33.1.3 Subsequent campaigns into Syria content is identical, word for word with parts of
the Egyptian version [and] written in beautiful
Despite suering the later losses during his invasion of cuneiform and excellent Babylonian ... As with
Syria, Ramesses II launched another campaign in his the history of the people of Hatti, the name of
eighth year of rule, which proved largely successful. In- this place was completely forgotten. But the
stead of launching an attack against the heavily fortied people of Hatti evidently played an important
position of Kadesh or going through Amurru, Ramesses role in the evolution of the ancient Western
conquered the city of Dapur in the hope of using the city world, and though the name of this city, and
as a bridgehead for future campaigns.[19] After the suc- the name of the people were totally lost for so
cessful capture of Dapur, the army returned to Egypt, long, their rediscovery now opens up possibili-
and so the recently acquired territory reverted to Hittite ties we cannot yet begin to think of.[23]
control. In the tenth year of his rule, he launched an-
other attack on the Hittite holdings in central Syria, and The Hittite treaty was discovered by Hugo Winckler
yet again, all areas of conquest eventually returned to Hit-in 1906 at Boazkale in Turkey.[24][25] In 1921, Daniel
tite hands. The pharaoh now recognised the impossible David Luckenbill, crediting Bruno Meissner for the orig-
task of holding Syria in such a fashion and so ended the inal observation, noted that this badly broken text is evi-
northern campaign.[20] dently the Hittite version of the famous battle of Kadesh,
The period is notable in the relationship between the Hit- described in prose and verse by the scribes of Ramses
tites and the Egyptians because despite the hostilities be- II.[26]
206 CHAPTER 33. EGYPTIANHITTITE PEACE TREATY

33.2.2 Egyptian It is the only ancient Near Eastern treaty for which both
sides versions have survived, enabling the two to be com-
The Egyptian treaty was found in two originals:[3] one pared directly. It was structured to be an almost entirely
with 30 lines at the Temple of Karnak on the wall extend- symmetrical treaty, treating both sides equally and requir-
ing south of the great hypostyle, and the second showing ing them to undertake mutual obligations. There are a
10 lines, at the Ramesseum.[27] few dierences; for instance, the Hittite version adopts a
somewhat evasive preamble, asserting that as for the re-
The Egyptian version of the peace treaty was preserved
lationship between land of Egypt and the Hatti land, since
on a wall in the Temple of Amun at Karnak and on a wall
eternity the god does not permit the making of hostility
in the Ramesseum. Jean-Franois Champollion copied
between them because of a treaty valid forever. By con-
a portion of the accords in 1828 and his ndings were
trast, the Egyptian version states straightforwardly that
published posthumously in 1844.[3][28] The Egyptian ac-
the two states had been at war.[6]
count described a great battle against the Great King
of Khatti, then an unknown gure, later conrmed by The treaty proclaims that both sides would in future for-
other archaeological evidence to be the Hittite monarch ever remain at peace, binding the children and grandchil-
Muwatalli II. dren of the parties. They would not commit acts of ag-
gression against each other, they would repatriate each
others political refugees and criminals and they would
assist each other in suppressing rebellions. Each would
33.3 Content come to the others aid if threatened by outsiders: And
if another enemy come [against] the land of Hatti ... the
great king of Egypt shall send his troops and his chariots
The peace treaty of Ramesses II and Hattuili III is and shall slay his enemy and he shall restore condence
known as one of the most important ocial interna- to the land of Hatti.[6]
tional peace treaties between two great powers from the
ancient Near East because its exact wording is known The text concludes with an oath before a thousand gods,
to us.[29] Divided into points the treaty ows between male gods and female gods of the lands of Egypt and
the Egyptians and Hittites as each side makes pledges of Hatti, witnessed by the mountains and rivers of the lands
brotherhood and peace to the other in terms of the ob- of Egypt; the sky; the earth; the great sea; the winds; the
jectives. The treaty can be seen as a promise of peace clouds. If the treaty was ever violated, the oath-breaker
and alliance since both powers make the mutual guaran- would be cursed by the gods who shall destroy his house,
tee that neither would invade the others land. This provi- his land and his servants. Conversely, he who maintained
sion ensures that both participants would act in harmony his vows would be rewarded by[6]the gods, who will cause
regarding the disputed Syrian holdings and in eect es- him to be healthy and to live.
tablishes boundaries for the two conicting claims.[30] No
longer, according to the treaty, would costly Syrian cam-
paigns be waged between the two Near Eastern powers as
a formal renunciation of further hostilities is made.
33.4 Analysis-theories about the
A second clause promotes alliance by making reassur- treaty
ances of aid, most likely military support, if either party is
attacked by a third party or by internal forces of rebellion Previous and contemporary Egyptologists have argued
or insurgency.[31] The other stipulations coincide with over the correct labeling of the treaty: some have inter-
Hattuili' aims (consult Hittite aims section) in that the preted it as a treaty of peace while others have seen it
Hittite ruler placed great emphasis on establishing legiti- as a treaty of alliance between two hostile states. James
macy for his rule: each country swore to the other to ex- Breasted in 1906 was one of the rst people to collect the
tradite political fugitives back to their home country and historical documents of Ancient Egypt in an anthology
within the Hittite version of the treaty Ramesses II agreed and understood the treaty to be not only a treaty of al-
to provide support to Hattuili' successors in order to liance, but also a treaty of peace, and the war [Ramesses
hold the Hittite throne against dissenters.[31][32] After the Syrian campaigns] evidently continued until the negoti-
conclusion of the provision detailing the extradition of ations for the treaty began.[34] For Breasted, the inter-
emigrants to their land of origin, the two rulers call upon mediate periods of conict were directly resolved by the
the respective gods of Hatti and Egypt to bear witness to signing of the treaty and therefore required the treaty to
their agreement. The inclusion of the gods is a common be one of both alliance and peace. However later Egyp-
feature in major pieces of international law since only a tologists and other scholars began, even within twenty
direct appeal to the gods could provide the proper means years of Breasteds publishing, to question whether or not
to guarantee adherence to the treaty.[33] Their noted abil- the treaty between Ramesses II and Hattuili III was one
ity to bestow curses and blessings to people is employed of peace at all. Alan Gardiner and his partner S. Lang-
as a serious penalty that would be imposed in case of a don examined previous interpretations and determined
violation. that their predecessors had misinterpreted the line to beg
33.5. AIMS
peace in the text. The oversight in the language caused
Egyptologists to incorrectly see the treaty terminating a
war instead of seeking a benecial alliance between Hatti
and Egypt.[35] Trevor Bryce further argues that within
the Late Bronze Age treaties were established for rea-
sons of expediency and self-interest their concern was
much more with establishing strategic alliances than with
peace for its own sake.[36] The consensus that is starting
to emerge is that although the treaty mentions establish-
ing brotherhood and peace forever, it is not about peace
but rather about forming a mutually benecial alliance be-
tween the two powers.
Another matter that has caused scholars to speculate is
which of the two countries pursued negotiations rst. As
previously mentioned, Ramesses II had lost portions of
his Syrian territory when he retreated to Egypt at the con-
clusion of the Battle of Kadesh. In this sense, Hattuili
would have had the upper hand in the negotiations, con-
sidering Ramesses desires to emulate the militaristic suc-
cesses of Tuthmosis III. Until the 1920s, Egyptologists
had mistaken the insecurity of Egypts Syrian holdings to
mean that Ramesses had come to Hattuili begging for
a solution to the Syria problem. Donald Magnetti brings
up the point that the Pharaohs duty to bring mortal activ-
ity in line with the divine order through the maintenance
of maat would have been reason enough for Ramesses II
to pursue peace.[37] However, the interpretation is incor-
rect since the questions about Hattuili's legitimacy as
monarch would demand recognition by his fellow royals
in the Near East. The weak position abroad and at home
that dened his reign suggests that it was the Hatti leader
who sued for peace.[38] In fact, Trevor Bryce interprets
the opening lines of the treaty to be Ramesses, Beloved
of Amon, Great King, King of Egypt, hero, concluded
on a tablet of silver with Hattuili, Great King, King of
Hatti, his brother to enforce that the incentives of the
Hatti ruler had far greater implications that compelled
him to sue for peace.[39]
33.5 Aims
33.5.1 Egyptian aims
Considering his relatively stronger position over Hat-
tuili, what would Ramesses hope to achieve by accept-
ing an alliance with his hated Hittite enemies? After f-
teen years of futile attempts at regaining his lost territory
in Syria, scholars argue that Ramesses now realized that
his opportunities to match the military achievements of
Tuthmosis III were unrealizable. In that light, it became
increasingly important for Ramesses to obtain an inter-
national victory through diplomacy to bolster his deeds as
pharaoh.[40] The attempts at regaining the lands which the
Hittites had taken had ultimately failed to break the hold
of the Hittites over the region. Instead, Ramesses would
take his losses so long as the Hittites would recognize the
207
current division of Syria, give Egypt access to ports in the
Hittite territory to boost commerce, and grant trading ac-
cess as far north as Ugarit.[41] Therefore the advancement
of Egypts nancial and security interests had controlled
Ramesses willingness to pursue friendlier relations with
the Hittites.
Maintaining the status quo in the region became a prior-
ity for Ramesses, considering the emergence of the As-
syrian military power. Assyria as a military force was
not to be reckoned with, and thereby made it desirable to
ensure that Assyria would not have a presence in Syria.
If the Assyrians were allowed to enter Syria, they would
be an arms length away from Egypt herself and pose a
threat to Egypt proper.[42] By accepting the Hittite over-
ture of alliance, the newly made allies would help safe-
guard their mutual holdings in Syria against this upstart
power of Assyria.[43]
Besides the added incentive of no longer depleting the
nances with expensive wars with Hatti and increasing
the security of Egypts claims in Syria, signing the treaty
with Hatti also provided Ramesses the opportunity to
brag about his defeat of the Hittites. Since Hattuili
had been the one to approach Ramesses, the pharaoh in
his depictions at the Ramesseum represents the settle-
ment as one that the Hittite had asked for in a position of
submission.[44] Considering the ocial language of the
treaties at the time was completely independent of one
another, Ramesses was able to present the terms of the
treaty from his perspective. This free control over the de-
pictions of his role by the language of the treaty gave the
pharaoh opportunity to present a greatly idealized point of
view.[45] His ability to assert a sense of supremacy as ruler
of Egypt and his attempts to portray this strategic alliance
as a victory over the Hittites demonstrate why Ramesses
would be so willing to choose such a mutually benecial
peace. The conclusion of open hostilities between the
two regional powers was a personal triumph for the ag-
ing pharaoh and as his monument at Abu Simbel shows
the pharaoh made his subjects well aware of the fact that
he, Ramesses, was the conqueror of the Hittites.[46]
33.5.2 Hittite aims
In opposition to Ramesses strength in international af-
fairs, Hattuili III was disadvantaged by questions of
legitimacy that raised doubts about his position as king of
the Hittites. Although Hattuili had defeated his nephew,
Urhi-Tesub, for the throne in all regards he continued to
be seen as a usurper of the kingship. Urhi-Tesubs deter-
mination to regain the throne from his uncle caused the
Hittite empire to enter into a period of instability both
at home and abroad.[47] The nephew had been banished
after an unsuccessful coup and had ended up in Egypt.
Ramesses II thereby posed a direct threat to Hattuili'
reign by harboring Urhi-Tesub within Egypts borders.[48]
Hattuili realized that only an alliance with Ramesses
could prevent the monarch from unleashing his nephew
208 CHAPTER 33. EGYPTIANHITTITE PEACE TREATY

back into contention with him for the throne. By com- 33.7 Text of the treaty
pleting a treaty with Egypt, Hattuili also hoped that
garnering the endorsement as the true king of Hatti by Hittite-Egyptian Treaty
Ramesses would eectively reconcile the disaected el-
ements in his kingdom that backed Urhi-Tesub as the
rightful possessor of the kingship.[49] In the Near Eastern
world Ramesses wielded great power amongst the rulers 33.8 Bibliography
of the day and formal recognition from him would give
Hattuili credibility on the international scene as well. Stephen H. Langdon and Alan H. Gardiner, The
Treaty of Alliance between Hattusili, King of the
The threat of his nephew staging another coup against him
Hittites and the Pharaoh Ramesses II of Egypt 6
greatly worried Hattuili during a time when he faced a
Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 179 (1920)
considerable threat from the Assyrians in the east. During
the reign of his predecessor the Assyrian king had taken Elmar Edel (1997). Der Vertrag zwischen Ramses
Hanigalbat which had been a vassal territory under Hit- II. von gypten und Hattuili III. von Hatti. Gebr.
tite control.[50] This aggression strained the relationship Mann. ISBN 978-3-7861-1944-9.
between the two countries however more importantly the
Assyrians appeared to put themselves in the position to
launch further attacks across the Euphrates River. The
recognized threat of Assyrian invasion proved a strong 33.9 References
motivator for the Hittites to open up negotiations with
Egypt. It was this certainty about the 'Assyrian danger' [1] Jana Mynov, Lost in Translation. An Egyptological
that pushed the Hatti into a relationship with Egypt.[51] Perspective on the Egyptian-Hittite Treaties, ANNALS
Under the terms of the treaty the Egyptians would be ob- OF THE NPRSTEK MUSEUM 35/2 2014 (p. 3
ligated to join with their Hatti allies if Assyria invaded 8), It is important to stress that the exclusiveness of the
Hittite territory. Besides this threat to the east, Hattuili Eternal Treaty rests largely in the fact that both versions
the Hittite one written in Akkadian and the Egyptian one
recognized the need to strengthen his relationship with his
have been extensively preserved and thus remain the ob-
Egyptian neighbors. The competition that had existed be- jects of an intense study.
tween Hatti and Egypt over the Syrian lands was no longer
an interest to Hattuili. In fact, Trevor Bryce argues that [2] Klengel, 51.
Hattuili was satised with his current holdings in Syria,
and any further expansion of Hittite territory southward [3] Breasted, Ancient Records of Egypt, volume III, 367,
was both unjustiable and undesirable.[52] p.163: There are two originals: (I) At Karnak on wall ex-
tending south of the great hypostyle, published by Cham-
pollion, Notices descriptives, 11, 195204 (only 30 lines);
Rosellini, Monumenti Storici, 116; Burton, Excerpta hi-
eroglyphica, 17 (not used); Lepsius, Denkmdtler, 111,
146; Brugsch, Reczceil de monuments, I, 28 (11. 120);
33.6 Aftermath Bouriant,Recueil,XIII, 153-60;collationof thegeographi-
calnamesby Sayce, Proceedings of the Society of Bibli-
cal Archeology, XXI, 194 .; Miiller, 'Crw&ra- siatische
After reaching the desired alliance with the Hatti, Gesellschaft,VII, 5, Taf. I-XVI; I had also photographs
Ramesses was now able to turn his energies to domes- by Borchardt. (2) At the Ramesseum; only fragments
tic building projects, such as the completion of his great of the last 10 lines; Champollion, Notices descriptives,
rock Abu Simbel temples.[53] The warming of the rela- I, 585, 586; Sharpe, Egyptian Inscriptions, 11,50; Bouri-
ant, Recueil, XIV, 6770. In spite of the mutilated con-
tionship between Ramesses and the Hittite king enabled
dition of the two monuments, the fre- quent repetitions
the pharaoh to gather the necessary resources, which no make restoration certain in almost all cases. Miillers edi-
longer were spent on the war eort but rather, for the ex- tion is the only one which is done with care and accu-
tensive construction projects. In year 34 of Ramesses IIs racy; a number of readings may be added to Mullers text
reign there is evidence that to continue the relationship from Sharpes copy, which seems to have escaped him.
between the two empires, the pharaoh married a Hittite The following translation was already in my manuscript
princess in an eort to establish stronger, familial bonds when Miillers publication appeared. His text added a few
with Hatti.[54] Evidence of the dynastic marriage as well new readings, but otherwise the translation remains un-
as the lack of textual evidence of a deterioration of the changed.
friendly relationship demonstrates that peaceful dealings
[4] Breasted, James. Ancient Records of Egypt: Historical
between Hatti and Egypt continued for the remainder of
Documents from the Earliest Times to the Persian Con-
Ramesses reign.[55] By furthering their bonds of friend- quest Volume III The Nineteenth Dynasty. Chicago, Illi-
ship through marriage the Hittites and Egyptians ensured nois: University of Chicago Press, 1906 page 173
that a mutually benecial peace would exist between them
until the fall of Hatti to Assyria nearly a century later.[56] [5] Kadesh Treaty. Museum of the Ancient Orient, Istanbul
33.9. REFERENCES
[6] Bederman, David J. International law in antiquity, pp.
147150. Cambridge University Press, 2001. ISBN 978-
0-521-79197-7
[7] Burney, p. 233
[8] Murnane, William J. The Road to Kadesh: A Historical
Interpretation of the Battle Reliefs of King Sety I at Kar-
nak Studies in Ancient Oriental Civilization 42, Oriental
Institute of the University of Chicago page 2-3
[9] Murnane The Road to Kadesh 24
[10] Kitchen, K.A. Pharaoh Triumphant: The Life and Times
of Ramesses II, King of Egypt. Warminster, England:
Aris & Phillips, 1982 page 51
[11] Murnane Battle of Kadesh 105
[12] Cline, Eric H. Hittites The Oxford Encyclopedia of An-
cient Egypt. Ed. Donald B. Redford. Copyright 2001,
2005 by Oxford University Press, Inc.. The Oxford Ency-
clopedia of Ancient Egypt: (e-reference edition). Oxford
University Press.
[13] Murnane, William J., Battle of Kadesh The Oxford En-
cyclopedia of Ancient Egypt. Ed. Donald B. Redford.
Copyright 2001, 2005 by Oxford University Press, Inc.
The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt: (e-reference
edition). Oxford University Press.
[14] Bryce The Kingdom of the Hittites 256
[15] Kitchen 54
[16] Murnane Battle of Kadesh
[17] Murnane, The Road to Kadesh, 426.
[18] Kitchen 63
[19] Kitchen 68
[20] Kitchen 70
[21] Klengel 51
[22] Boazky: Excavations in Historical dictionary of the
Hittites, pp. 4647. Burney, Charles Allen. Scarecrow
Press, 2004. ISBN 978-0-8108-4936-5
[23] Winckler, Hugo, quoted in Michael Wood, In search of
the Trojan War, p. 174. University of California Press,
1998. ISBN 978-0-520-21599-3
[24] Laura Wiseman, Behind Hittite Lines
[25] Winckler, MDOG, No.35 (1907)
[26] Daniel David Luckenbill (1921), Hittite Treaties and Let-
ters, The American Journal of Semitic Languages and Lit-
eratures, 37 (3): 192, JSTOR 528149Pdf available here
[27] Champollion, p585
[28] Zeitschrift fr Assyriologie und vorderasiatische Archolo-
gie. Walter de Gruyter & Co, 1999, p. 149.
[29] Klengel 49
[30] Breasted 169
209
[31] Bryce Kingdom of the Hittites 307
[32] Bryce, Trevor., The 'Eternal Treaty' from the Hit-
tite perspective, BMSAES 6 (2006) http://www.
thebritishmuseum.ac.uk/bmsaes/issue6/bryce.html, page
9
[33] Magnetti, Donald L., The Function of the Oath in the
Ancient Near Eastern International Treaty, The Ameri-
can Journal of International Law (October 1978) page 815
[34] Breasted 166
[35] Gardiner, Alan H., Langdon S., The Treaty of Alliance
between attuili, King of the Hittites, and the Pharaoh
Ramesses II of Egypt, Journal of Egyptian Archaeology
6:3 (July 1920) page 186
[36] Bryce The 'Eternal Treaty' from the Hittite perspective
1
[37] Magnetti 823
[38] Gardiner, Alan H., Langdon S 201
[39] Bryce The 'Eternal Treaty' from the Hittite perspective
8
[40] Bryce The Kingdom of the Hittites 306
[41] Kitchen. p. 75.
[42] Rowton, M.B. The Background of the Treaty between
Ramesses II and Hattuili III. Journal of Cuneiform
Studies. 13:1 (1959). p. 11.
[43] Bryce. The Kingdom of the Hittites. p. 304.
[44] Bryce. The 'Eternal Treaty' from the Hittite perspective.
p. 3.
[45] Bryce The Kingdom of the Hittites 307
[46] Breasted 174
[47] Bryce The 'Eternal Treaty' from the Hittite Perspective
6
[48] Kitchen 74
[49] Bryce The 'Eternal Treaty' from the Hittite Perspective
7
[50] Bryce The Kingdom of the Hittite 281
[51] Klengel 54
[52] Bryce, Trevor: The 'Eternal Treaty' from the Hittite Per-
spective 3
[53] Kitchen 81
[54] Cline, Eric H. Hittites
[55] Klengel 55
[56] Breasted 175
Chapter 34
Clothing in ancient Egypt
The clothing of men and women of several social levels of ancient
Egypt are depicted in this tomb mural from the fteenth century
BC.
Ancient Egyptian clothes refers to clothing worn in
ancient Egypt from the end of the Neolithic period (prior
to 3100 BC) to the collapse of the Ptolemaic dynasty with
the death of Cleopatra VII in 30 BC. Egyptian clothing
was lled with a variety of colors. Adorned with precious
gems and jewels, the fashions of the Ancient Egyptians
were made for not only beauty but also comfort. Egyptian
fashion was created to keep cool while in the hot desert.[1]
34.1 Elements of Egyptian clothing
In ancient Egypt, linen was by far the most common tex-
tile. It helped people to be comfortable in the subtropical
heat.[1] Linen is made from the ax plant by spinning the
bers from the stem of the plant.[2] Spinning, weaving and
sewing were very important techniques for all Egyptian
210
societies.[2] Plant dyes could be applied to clothing but
the clothing was usually left in its natural color.[2] Wool
was known, but considered impure. Only the wealthy
wore animal bers that were the object of taboos. They
were used on occasion for overcoats, but were forbidden
in temples and sanctuaries.
Peasants, workers and other people of modest condition
often wore nothing, but the shenti (made of ax) was
worn by all people. Slaves often worked naked.
The most common headdress was the khat or nemes, a
striped cloth worn by men.
34.2 Pharaohs
Royal clothing is particularly well documented, as well
as the clothing and crowns of the Pharaohs.The pharaohs
would wear leopard skins over their shoulders and added
a lions tail that would hang from their belt.
34.3 Men
From about 2130 BC during the Old Kingdom, garments
were simple.[3] The men wore wrap around skirts known
as the shendyt, which were belted at the waist, sometimes
pleated or gathered in the front.[3] During this time, mens
skirts were short. As the Middle Kingdom of Egypt, 1600
B.C., came, the skirt was worn longer.[3] Then, around
1420 BC, there was a light tunic or blouse with sleeves,
as well as a pleated petticoat.
34.4 Women
During the Old, Middle and New Kingdom, Ancient
Egyptian women often wore simple sheath dresses called
kalasiris.[4] Womens clothing in ancient Egypt was more
conservative than mens clothing.[2][5] The dresses were
held up by one or two straps and were worn down to the
ankle, while the upper edge could be worn above or be-
low the breasts.[2] The length of the dress denoted the so-
cial class of the wearer.[6] Beading or feathers were also
34.5. CHILDREN 211

sewn up one side, supported not by straps but by a bodice

with sleeves. In contrast to dresses shown in art, such
linen garments tend to be baggy, and would conceal rather
than reveal the body.[8]

34.5 Children
Children wore no clothing until 6 years old.[9] Once they
turned six years old they were allowed to wear clothing
to protect them from the dry heat. A popular hairstyle
among the children was the side-lock on the right side of
the head.[9] Even though children usually wore no cloth-
ing, they wore jewelry such as anklets, bracelets, collars,
and hair accessories.[9] When they grew up, they wore the
same styles as their parents.

34.6 Wigs
Wigs, common to both genders, were worn by wealthy
people of society. Made from real human and horse hair,
they had ornaments incorporated into them. They were
often woven into certain hairstyles and were quite inex-
pensive. In the royal court, women sometimes wore cu-
plets lled with perfume. They were worn to also keep
out head lice and protected the head when doing danger-
ous things.

Network dress. Faience, blue and black cylinder beads, 2 breast

34.7 Jewelry
caps and 2 strings of Mitra beads. 5th Dynasty. From burial 978
at Qau (Tjebu), Egypt. The Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archae- Jewelry was very popular in Ancient Egypt, no matter the
ology, London social class. It was heavy and rather voluminous. The
main reason for wearing jewelry is because of its aesthetic
function. The Egyptians were quite soberly dressed in
white linen fabrics, and jewelry oered a possibility for
used as an embellishment on the dress.[7] Over the dress,
women had a choice of wearing shawls, capes, or robes. contrast. The Egyptian preference was towards the use of
bright colors, lustrous stones and precious metals. Gold
The shawl was a piece of cloth around 4 feet wide by 13
or 14 feet long.[2] This was mostly worn pleated as well.[2] was won in large quantities in the eastern desert of Egypt,
but also came from Nubia, that was an Egyptian colony
Female clothes only changed slightly through the millen-
nia. Draped clothing (with many varieties of drapery) for centuries.
sometimes gave the impression of completely dierent On the other hand, silver was rare and was imported
clothing. It was made of hak, a very ne muslin. from Asia. Therefore, it was silver that was often con-
Until the mid-Eighteenth Dynasty women wore a tight- sidered more precious than gold. The eastern desert was
tting sheath dress, a simple garment that falls from just also an important source for colorful semi-precious stones
below the breasts to just above the ankles, being held up such as carnelian, amethyst and jasper. In the Sinai were
by two shoulder straps. On statues the straps cover the turquoise mines, the deep blue lapis lazuli had to come
breasts, but in painting and relief the single breast de- from far away Afghanistan. Glass and faience (glaze over
picted in prole is exposed. The dress hugs the body with a core of stone or sand) were favorites to replace [10]
rocks
no slack. Also when women are shown in movement, sit- because they could be produced in many colors.
ting or kneeling, the dress still clings to the outline of the The Egyptians became very skilled when making jew-
body as if elasticated. However Egyptian clothes were elry from turquoise, metals like gold and silver, and small
mostly made from linen, which tends to sag. Surviving beads. Both men and women adorned themselves with
dresses consist of a body made from a tube of material earrings, bracelets, rings, necklaces and neck collars that
212 CHAPTER 34. CLOTHING IN ANCIENT EGYPT

were brightly colored. Those who could not aord jew-
elry made from gold or other stones would make their
jewelry from colored pottery beads.[11]
One creation that was specic to ancient Egypt was the
gorgerine, an assembly of metal discs worn on the chest,
either over bare skin or over a shirt, and attached in the
back.
34.11 References
[1] Ancient Egypt Fashion. Ancient-egypt-online.com. Re-
trieved on 2012-05-05.
[2] WOMEN'S CLOTHING AND FASHION IN ANCIENT
EGYPT. womenintheancientworld.com
[3] The Latest Fashions in Ancient Egypt. Touregypt.net
(2011-06-13). Retrieved on 2012-05-05.

[4] Tierney, Tom (1999). Ancient Egyptian fashions. Mine-

34.8 Cosmetics ola, N.Y.: Dover. p. 2. ISBN 9780486408064.

Embalming allowed the development of cosmetics and
perfumes. The perfumes of Egypt were the most nu-
merous, but also the most sought and the costliest of
antiquity, which used them extensively. The Egyptians
used makeup most of all the ancient people. Nails and
hands were painted with henna.
[5] Thompson, James. C. womens clothing and Fashions in
Ancient Egypt.
[6] Ancient Egypt: Clothing. Resham.org.il. Retrieved on
2012-05-05.
[7] Egypt: Daily Life. sptimes.com

Black kohl, which was used to mark eyes, was ob- [8] Gay Robin: Women in ancient Egypt (p. 181-2), British
tained from galena. Eye shadow was made from crushed museum press, 1993, ISBN 0-7141-0956-8
malachite. Red, which was applied to lips, came from [9] Springer, I. (December, 2010) Egypt: Tour Egypt
ochre. These products were mixed with animal fat to Monthly: A Kid in Ancient Egypt. Touregypt.net. Re-
make them compact and to preserve them. They wore trieved on 2012-05-05.
galena or crushed malachite not just to enhance beauty,
but because they believed it kept dust and dirt from get- [10] Ancient Egyptian Jewelry. Dr. Maarten van Raven, Cu-
ting into their eyes. For this reason, both men and women rator Archaeological Museum, Leiden, the Netherlands
2016-01-02. Retrieved on 2016-03-17.
wore it.
Findings were published by American Chemical Society [11] Clothing Ancient Egypt. Historyonthenet.com (2010-
in the journal Analytic Chemistry suggest that the use of 04-30). Retrieved on 2012-05-05.
lead in makeup was intentional. Findings suggest that the [12] Cleopatras Eye Makeup Warded O Infections?.
lead in combination with salts produced naturally by the News.nationalgeographic.com. Retrieved on 2012-05-
body produce nitric oxide which boosts the immune sys- 05.
tem. It is believed that the production and result were
intentional. The increase in immune productivity would
help to prevent infections like conjunctivitis.[12] 34.12 External links

34.9 Footwear
Footwear was the same for both genders. It consisted of
sandals of leatherwork, or for the priestly class, papyrus.
Since Egyptians were usually barefoot, sandals were worn
on special occasions or at times when their feet might get
hurt.[6]

34.10 See also

Clothing in the ancient world

Biblical clothing

Clothing in ancient Rome

Ancient Egyptian int jewelry

34.12. EXTERNAL LINKS 213

Egyptian woman in a kalasiris

Chapter 35

Festival Songs of Isis and Nephthys

songs form part of the funeral hieratic papyrus of Nesi

msu (No. 10158 in the British Museum). The title is
The Verses of the Festival of the two Zerti, and the
papyrus tells us it was to be sung by two virgins in the
temple of Osiris on the occasion of the annual festival
held for ve days in the fourth month of the sowing sea-
son. The verses concern the killing of Osiris by Set, and
the later reconstruction of Osiris body by the goddesses
Isis and Nephthys.[1] There is evidence in the text that
other copies existed, and that it was old enough to allow
of variant readings having crept in. With the Litanies
of Seker, which follows, consisting of four columns, it
occupies twenty-one of the thirty-three columns of the
whole papyrus. The second composition which was evi-
dently intended to be sung after the Festival Verses, con-
sists of three parts: I. A Litany to the Sun-God; II. A
Recitation by Isis; III. A Litany to the Hathors. During
the sixteen repetitions of it which were required, it was to
have an accompaniment of tambourines.
A hieratic papyrus of Berlin contains a work very similar
to the Festival Songs. It has been translated by M. de
Horrack, and is entitled Les Lamentations d'Isis et Neph-
thys.

35.1 References
[1] Dictionary of Egyptian Archaeology - M. Brodick and
A.A. Morton

Isis, Egyptian goddess

The Festival Songs of Isis and Nephthys are a work

of ancient Egyptian literature whose author is unknown.
Probably not older than the Twenty-sixth Dynasty, the

214
Chapter 36

Gardens of ancient Egypt

cated near the river or canals, and were used mainly for
growing vegetables. Beginning with the New Kingdom,
gardens were attached to more luxurious residences., and
were sometimes enclosed by walls. Temple gardens were
used to raise certain vegetables for ceremonies,

36.2 Palace gardens

Palace gardens rst appeared in Egypt just before the

Middle Empire, (2035-1668.) These gardens were very
large in scale, and laid out in geometric patterns. The
ponds of palace gardens were enormous and numerous.
In the second millennium B.C., the garden pond of King
Sneferu was large enough for boats rowed by twenty oars-
Rectangular shpond with ducks and lotus planted round with men.
date palms and fruit trees, in a fresco from the Tomb of Neba-
The rulers of ancient Egypt, such as Queen Hatshepsut
mun, Thebes, 18th Dynasty
(1503-1482 BC), and Ramses III (1198-1166 BC) used
pots to bring back to Egypt new kinds of trees and ow-
The gardens of ancient Egypt probably began as simple ers discovered during their conquests in Libya, Syria, and
fruit orchards and vegetable gardens, irrigated with water Cyrenia.[2]
from the Nile. Gradually as the country became richer,
they evolved into pleasure gardens, with owers, ponds
and alleys of fruit and shade trees. Temples, palaces, and
private residences had their own gardens, and models of
gardens were sometimes placed in tombs so their owners 36.3 Pleasure gardens
could enjoy them in their afterlife.[1]

Beginning during the New Kingdom, pleasure gardens

36.1 History
The history and character of gardens in Ancient Egypt,
like all aspects of Egyptian life, depended upon the Nile,
and the network of canals that drew water from it. Water
was hoisted from the Nile in leather buckets and carried
on the shoulders to the gardens, and later, beginning in
about the 4th century B.C., lifted from wells by hoists
with counterbalancing weights called shadouf in Arabic.
The earliest gardens were composed of planting beds di-
vided into squares by earthen walls, so the water could
soak into the soil rather than run o. Gardens belonged
to temples or the residences. Secular gardens were lo-
became a common feature of luxury residences. Accord-
ing to paintings in tombs in Thebes from the 18th Dynasty
(1552-1296 BC), gardens of that time had a standard de-
sign. They had a pond, usually rectangular, in the centre,
lled with colourful sh, with lotus blossoms in the wa-
ter and owers around the edges. Around the pond were
successive rows of trees, including sycamores, palms, and
grenadiers, alternating with ower beds. The edges of
the water basins were sloping, with a stairway down one
side so gardeners could collect water for irrigation.[3] The
pond was often surrounded by walls or columns support-
ing grapevines. The walls and columns were decorated
with colourful paintings of people, animals, and plants
such as the poppy and rose.

215
216 CHAPTER 36. GARDENS OF ANCIENT EGYPT

36.4 Temple gardens

Gardens of Amun from the Temple of Karnak, painting in the

tomb of Nakh, the chief gardener, early 14th century B.C. (Royal
Museum of Art and History, Brussels.)

Temples often had extensive gardens. The Temple of

Amun at Karnak had twenty-six kitchen gardens, along-
side a very early botanical garden, which, according to an
inscription, contained all kinds of beautiful owers and
bizarre plants which are found in the divine land which
His Majesty has conquered.[4] The hymns painted on the
walls of tombs show that religious ceremonies centred on
the cycles of nature and the changing seasons. Temple
gardens often had rows of g trees and sycamores (the
tree sacred to the goddess Hathor), tamaris, willows, or
palm trees. Rows of trees sometimes stretched for sev-
eral kilometres, connecting several temples. The temples
themselves had esplanades planted with trees. When rows
of trees were planted far from the river, wells had to be
dug ten metres deep to reach water for irrigation. Dur-
ing the time of Amenophis III, some temples were de-
voted to a goddess in the form of a tree, with a trunk for
a body and branches for arms. This goddess was believed
to carry water to the dead, the quench their thirst.[5] Tem-
ple gardens often were the homes of animals sacred to the
gods, such as the ibis and the baboon. Flowers were part
of all the religious ceremonies during the time of the god
Amon. These gardens also produced medicinal herbs and
spices such as cumin, marjoram, anise, and coriander.[6]
36.5 Funeral gardens
Funeral gardens were miniature versions of house gar-
dens that were placed in tombs. They usually had a
small square house or pavilion with wooden columns,
surrounded by a wall, Within the wall was a basin sur-
rounded by a row of trees. The house resembled the
kiosks in gardens, where the owner would play checkers
or relax. The dead were traditionally surrounded by the
objects they would have enjoyed in life, and it was ex-
pected that they would continue to enjoy their gardens in
their afterlife.[7] The inscription of one tomb said: You
promenade at your ease by the lovely bank of your pond;
your heart rejoices from your trees and is refreshed un-
der your sycamores; your heart is satised by the water
from your wells that you made so that they would last
A funerary model of a garden, dating to the Eleventh dynasty of
Egypt, circa 20091998 BC. Made of painted and gessoed wood,
originally from Thebes.
forever.[8]
36.6 Trees and plants in the Egyp-
tian garden
Trees were used in the gardens to produce fruit and for
shade. 19 dierent species of trees were found in the
gardens of Ineni, the architect to the Pharaoh Thutmose
I(1504-1492 B.C.). The Pink owered tamarisk, acacia
and willow trees were common in gardens. The sycamore
(Ficus sycomorus) and tamarisk trees were sometimes
planted in front of temples, as they were at the temple
of Nebhepetra, from the 11th century.
The Ancient Egyptians cultivated Ficus sycomorus from
predynastic times, and in quantity from the start of the
third millennium BCE. It was believed to be the ancient
Egyptian Tree of Life. planted on the threshold between
life and death.[9] Zohary and Hopf note that the fruit and
the timber, and sometimes even the twigs, are richly rep-
resented in the tombs of the Egyptian Early, Middle and
Late Kingdoms.[10] Some of the caskets of mummies in
Egypt are made from the wood of this tree.
The most common fruit trees were date palms, g trees
and doum palms (Crucifera thebaica). The persea tree
was considered sacred, and was found in both temple gar-
dens and residential gardens. The pomegranate tree was
36.8. PONDS AND POOLS 217

introduced during the New Kingdom, and was prized for shade
its aroma and color. Other fruits grown in the gardens
were Jujube, olives, and peaches. Vegetables were grown
for food or for ceremonies. Cos lettuce was considered
sacred, and was connected with Min the deity of repro-
duction, and was believed to be a powerful aphrodesiac.
Grapes were used to make raisins and wine. Tomb paint-
ings show that grape vines were sometimes planted atop
The Acacia tree was associ-
pergolas to provide shade to the garden. Flowers were
ated with Iusaaset, the primal goddess of Egyptian
raised in gardens to make decorative bouquets and for use
mythology.
in religious ceremonies. Common garden owers were
the mandrake and the daisy, chrysanthemum, anemone,
and poppy, jasmine, and the rose.
Egyptian ponds and basins were often decorated white
and blue lotus and with papyrus.

Fruit of the Pomegranate

36.7 Gallery of plants in the an- tree, introduced during the New Kingdom, used as
cient Egyptian garden a medicine against tapeworm various infections.[11]

The date palm, used by the Egyptian blue lotus, found

Ancient Egyptians both as a food and for making in garden ponds
wine. The Egyptians learned to pollinate the trees
by hand.

The Persea indica tree, in Cyperus papyrus was used as a

the same family as the avocado, once common in writing material, for making boats, and even eaten.
Egypt, has vanished there but can still be found in
the Azores and Canary Islands.

36.8 Ponds and pools

Ponds and pools were a common feature of the residential
gardens of the wealthy and powerful of Ancient Egypt,
and are shown in a number of tomb paintings. Some-
The sycamore (Ficus syco- times, as in the garden of Hatshepsuts temple at Deir el-
morus) was often planted for shade. It was also Bahri, the pond was in the shape of a T, with one part of
often planted at temples, and its wood was used for the T connected to a river or canal. The water was usually
making cons for mummies. hoisted into the pond from the river by hand, or using a
shadouf. Fish for food and ornament were raised in the
ponds. They also were the home of migrating water birds.
Flowers such as white and blue lotus were grown in the
ponds for decoration and for ceremonies, and papyrus
was known to grow at Deir el-Bahri.[12] Later, during the
Persian occupation of Egypt, the pink lotus was intro-
Tamarisk tree, used for duced.
218
36.9 Shade, color and aroma
Shade was an important feature of the garden, provided
by trees and by grapevines supported between columns.,
Describing these gardens, Shaw and Nicholson wrote,
The overall eect would have been one. of cool shade
, heavy with the fragrance of the owers and the trees.
Gardens are therefore one of the most frequent settings
of Egyptian romantic tales.[13]
36.10 Gardening in Ancient Egypt
Gardening in Ancient Egypt was very hard work; gar-
dens required constant irrigation, with water carried or [12] Shaw and Nicholson, The British Museum Dictionary of
lifted by hand, weeding, and tending, including the arti-
cial propagation of date palms, which required great skill.
Great eort was also needed to keep birds from eating [13] Shaw and Nicholson, The British Museum Dictionary of
the crops. Ingenious traps were set to catch the invading
[14]
birds.
36.11 Gallery of gardens of An- 36.13 Bibliography
cient Egypt
Gardens of Amun at the
Temple of Karnak, early 14th century. From the
tomb of Nakh, the chief gardener. (Royal Museum
of Art and History, Brussels). Pomegranate trees
being picked on the left.
Gardens of Amun, Karnak.
Tomb of Nakh, early 14th century.
36.12 References
[1] Baridon, Les Jardins, pg. 103
[2] I.M. Gallery, The Garden of Ancient Egypt, article in
D. Schmandt-Besserat, Immortal Egypt. Undena Publi-
cations, 1978, pg. 47.
[3] Descroches-Noblecourt, LArt Egyptien, pg. 113
[4] Cited in Baridon, pg. 97.
[5] Baridon, Les Jardins, pg. 102.
CHAPTER 36. GARDENS OF ANCIENT EGYPT
[6] Baridon, pg. 102
[7] G. Maspero, Etudes darcheologie et de la mythologie
egyptienne, Paris, Bibliotheque egyptologique, 1890, vol-
ume 2, page 221.
[8] Hugonot, pg. 170
[9] Death and salvation in ancient Egypt, Jan Assmann,
David Lorton, Translated by David Lorton, p171, Cornell
University Press, 2005, ISBN 0801442419
[10] Zohary and Hopf, pg. 165
[11] The medicinal properties of the pomegranate are de-
scribed in the Ebers Papyrus, a medical text from about
1550 B.C.
Ancient Egypt.,
Ancient Egypt.,
[14] , Baridon, pg. 97.
Ian Shaw and Paul Nicholson, The British Museum
Dictionary of Ancient Egypt, British Museum Press,
1995.
Michel Baridon, Les Jardins Paysagistes- Jar-
diniers Poetes. Editions Robert Lafont, 1998.
(ISBN 2-221-06707-X)
Jan Assmann, David Lorton,"Death and salvation in
ancient Egypt, Translated by David Lorton, p171,
Cornell University Press, 2005, ISBN 0801442419
Daniel Zohary and Maria Hopf, Domestication of
plants in the Old World, third edition (Oxford: Uni-
versity Press, 2000).
C. Desroches-Noblecourt, LArt Egyptien, PUF,
Paris, 1962.
J.C. Hugonot, Le Jardin dans lEgypte ancienne, Pe-
ter Lang, Paris, 1989.
Chapter 37

Giza East Field

was relocated to the east of the main pyramid complex.

The earliest part of the cemetery consisted of 12 mastabas
which were built as double mastabas. They were laid out
in three rows of four tombs:

G 7110-7120 Kawab and Hetepheres II and G 7130-

7140 Khufukhaf I and his wife Nefertkau II
G 7210-7220 Hordjedef and his wife and G 7230-
7240
G 7310-7320 Baufra and G 7330-7340

The construction of these tombs has been dated to ca year

Map of the East Field in Giza
17-24 of the reign of Khufu. This core was then com-
pleted to create a nucleus of eight twin-mastabas by the
construction of:

G 7410-7420 Meresankh II and Horbaef and G

7430-7440 Minkhaf I

The rest of the eastern eld was built around this group of
eight twin mastabas. Of these the great mastaba G 7510
of kings son and vizier Ankhhaf stands out due to its size.
The construction of several other mastabas can be dated
to the time of King Khafra. G 7530 + 7540, the tomb of
Meresankh III, contains quarry inscriptions dating to year
13 of that king. Mastaba G 7050, belonging to Nefertkau
I, was built during the reign of Khafra as well. Further
additions date to the end of the 4th, 5th and 6th dynasty
and even later.[2]:7074
Mastabas to the east of the pyramid of Khufu.

The East Field is located to the east of Khufus pyra- 37.1 Queens pyramids
mid and contains cemetery G 7000. This cemetery was
a burial place for some of the family members of Khufu.
Pyramid G 1a was at rst thought to belong to Queen
The cemetery also includes mastabas from tenants and
Meritites I but Lehner has shown that the pyramid be-
priests of the pyramids dated to the 5th dynasty and 6th
[1] longed to Hetepheres I instead. All three pyramids have
dynasty.
a square base measuring about 45 49 m. on a side. The
The East Field consists of the three Queens pyramids and angle of inclination is about 51 50 for all three.[3]
a number of mastabas labeled Cemetery G 7000. Reis-
Shaft tomb:
ner constructed a timeline for the construction of the East
Field. The rst two Queens Pyramids, G 1a and G 1b,
were likely started in year 15-17 of King Khufu. Usually
Queens pyramids were constructed to the south of the 37.2 Cemetery G 7000
kings pyramid, but in this instance a quarry was located
to the south and the construction of the smaller pyramids Nucleus of Cemetery G 7000

219
220 CHAPTER 37. GIZA EAST FIELD

The later additions to the cemetery:

37.3 External links

The Giza Archives Website maintained by the
Museum of Fine Arts in Boston. Quote: This
website is a comprehensive resource for research on
Giza. It contains photographs and other documen-
tation from the original Harvard University - Boston
Museum of Fine Arts Expedition (1904 to 1947),
from recent MFA eldwork, and from other expedi-
tions, museums, and universities around the world..

37.4 References
[1] Porter, Bertha and Moss, Rosalind L. B., Topographical
Bibliography of Ancient Egyptian Hieroglyphic Texts, Re-
liefs, and Paintings. Volume III. Memphis. Part I. Ab
Rawsh to Abr. 2nd edition, revised and augmented by
Jaromr Mlek, The Clarendon Press, Oxford 1974. PDF
from The Giza Archives, 29,5 MB Retrieved February 10,
2017.

[2] Reisner, George Andrew, A History of the Giza Necropolis

Volume I. Harvard University Press, Cambridge 1942, pp
7074, 238239, 318. PDF from The Giza Archives, 249
MB Retrieved February 10, 2017.

[3] Verner, Miroslav, The Pyramids. The Mystery, Culture,

and Science of Egypts Great Monuments. Atlantic, Lon-
don 2001, ISBN 0-8021-3935-3, pp 210212, 462.

[4] Smith, William Stevenson, Inscriptional Evidence for the

History of the Fourth Dynasty. Journal of Near Eastern
Studies, Volume XI, University of Chicago Press, Chicago
No. 2, April 1952, pp 119120, 128, Fig. 78. PDF
from The Giza Archives, 2,53 MB Retrieved February 10,
2017.

[5] Dunham, Dows, Bulletin of the Museum of Fine Arts.

Volume XXX, Boston 1932, S. 90.

[6] Dunham, Dows, The Late Egyptian Gallery Rearranged.

Bulletin of the Museum of Fine Arts, Volume XXIX, No.
172, Boston 1931, S. 26. PDF from The Giza Archives,
338 KB Retrieved February 10, 2017.

Coordinates: 295842N 310815E / 29.9782N

31.1374E
Chapter 38

Giza West Field

38.1 Cemetery G1000

38.2 Cemetery G 1100

38.3 Cemetery G 1200

38.4 Cemetery G 1400

38.5 Cemetery G 1500

38.6 Cemetery G 1600

38.7 Cemetery G 2100

Cemetery G 2100 was rst excavated by Lepsius in 1842.
The rst tomb to be cleared was the mastaba owned by
The West Field at Giza Merib (G 2100). In 1905/6 the Harvard-Boston Museum
expedition excavated this cemetery and further excava-
tions date to 1912-13 and 1931-32. The cemetery con-
sists of four rows of large mastabas:

The western most row consists of the mastabas of

Merib (G 2100 I), Sedit (G 2100) and Nefer (G
2110).

A second row consists of the mastabas of Seshat-

sekhentiu (G 2120), Khentka (G 2130).
The Giza West Field is located on the Giza Plateau, to
The third row consists of mastabas G 2135 (Un-
the west of the Pharaoh Khufus pyramid. It is divided
known), G 2140 (Unknown) and G 2150 (Kanefer)
up into smaller areas, such as the cemeteries referred
to as the Abu Bakr Excavations (1949-50, 1950-1,1952
The fourth row consists of the mastabas of Kaninisut
and 1953), and several cemeteries named based on the
I (G 2155) and G 2160 and G 2170 (both owners
mastaba numbers such as Cemetery G 1000, Cemetery G
unknown)
1100, etc. The West Field contains Cemetery G1000
Cemetery G1600, and Cemetery G 1900. Further ceme-
teries in this eld are: Cemeteries G 2000, G 2200, G The other smaller mastabas were built among these larger
2500, G 3000, G 4000, and G 6000. Three other ceme- structures. The presence of Reserve heads and slab stela
teries are named after their excavators: Junker Cemetery points to the reign of Khufu for the construction of the
West, Junker Cemetery East and Steindor Cemetery. [1] earliest of the tombs in this cemetery.[3]

221
222 CHAPTER 38. GIZA WEST FIELD

38.8 Cemetery G 2300
The family complex of Senedjemib Inti makes up an im-
portant part of this cemetery. Senedjemib Inti (G 2370)
was vizier and chief architect to King Djedkare Isesi. His
son Senedjemib Mehi (G 2378) followed in his footsteps
as the vizier and chief architect under Unas, and even-
tually another son named Khnumenti (G 2374) became
vizier under Teti. A man named Mer-ptah-ankh-meryre
Nekhebu (G 2381) may be a grandson of Inti. Nekhebus
sons Mer-ptah-ankh-meryre Ptahshepses Impy and Sabu-
ptah Ibebi were buried in this cemetery as well.[4]
38.9 Cemetery G 4000
38.10 Cemetery G 5000
38.11 Junker Cemetery East
This cemetery was excavated by Hermann Junker
for the Akademie der Wissenschaften in Vienna,
Pelizaeus-Museum Hildesheim and University of Leipzig
Expedition.[1] The toms are not numbered and are named
after their owner.
from The Giza Archives, 29,5 MB Retrieved February 5,
2017.
[2] Junker, Hermann, Gza IX. Das Mittelfeld des West-
friedhofs. Bericht ber die von der Akademie der
Wissenschaften in Wien auf gemeinsame Kosten mit
Dr. Wilhelm Pelizaeus unternommenen Grabungen
auf dem Friedhof des Alten Reiches bei den Pyra-
miden von Gza. Akademie der Wissenschaften in
Wien. Philosophisch-historische Klasse. Hlder-Pichler-
Tempsky, Wien/Leipzig 1934, pp 107118. PDF from
The Giza Archives, 67,3 MB Retrieved February 5, 2017.
[3] Manuelian, Peter Der, A re-examination of Reisners Nu-
cleus cemetery concept at Giza. Preliminary remarks on
Cemetery G 2100. In Brta, Miroslav, ed. The Old King-
dom Art and Archaeology. Proceedings of the Conference
held in Prague, May 31June 4, 2004. Czech Institute
of Egyptology, Prague 2006, passim, gs. 1-2. PDF from
The Giza Archives, 3,10 MB Retrieved February 5, 2017.
[4] Brovarski, Edward, Giza Mastabas Volume 7. The Sened-
jemib Complex, Part 1. Edited by Manuelian, Peter Der
and Simpson, William Kelly Department of Art of the An-
cient World, Museum of Fine Arts, Boston 2000, ISBN
0-87846-479-4. PDF from The Giza Archives, 169 MB
Retrieved February 5, 2017.
[5] Jnosi, Peter, G 4712 Ein Datierungsproblem. Gttinger
Miszellen 133, 1993, pp. 5365. PDF from The Giza
Archives, 3,44 MB Retrieved February 5, 2017.

38.12 Steindor Cemetery

This cemetery contains mostly brick-built mastabas. The
cemetery was excavated by Georg Steindor for the Uni-
versity of Leipzig and Pelizaeus Expedition (190307).
Several of the tombs were later excavated by Hermann
Junker.[1]

38.13 External links

The Giza Archives Website maintained by the
Museum of Fine Arts in Boston. Quote: This
website is a comprehensive resource for research on
Giza. It contains photographs and other documen-
tation from the original Harvard University - Boston
Museum of Fine Arts Expedition (1904 to 1947),
from recent MFA eldwork, and from other expedi-
tions, museums, and universities around the world..

38.14 References
[1] Porter, Bertha and Moss, Rosalind L. B., Topographical
Bibliography of Ancient Egyptian Hieroglyphic Texts, Re-
liefs, and Paintings. Volume III. Memphis. Part I. Ab
Rawsh to Abr. 2nd edition, revised and augmented by
Jaromr Mlek, The Clarendon Press, Oxford 1974. PDF
Chapter 39
The Greatest Pharaohs
The Greatest Pharaohs is a 1997 American educational
documentary lm about Ancient Egypt distributed by
A&E and narrated by Frank Langella with commentary
by experts in the eld.[1][2] It is 200 minutes long and split
into four parts, with each part explaining the lives of four
Egyptian pharaohs.[2]
39.1 In education
The lm uses interviews of historians, re-creations
through CGI, location footage, and archaeological and
scientic evidence to tell the story of these Egyptian
monarchs.[2] It has been made available for instructional
use by A&E,[3] and is now being used in anthropology and
archaeology courses at colleges and universities, such as
the University of Vermont,[2] San Francisco State Uni-
versity,[4] Oriental Institute of Chicago,[5] University of
Pennsylvania,[6] and University of California, Berkeley,[7]
as well as smaller colleges such as Blue Ridge Commu-
nity College.[8] It is available in public libraries across the
United States,[1][9][10][11] and in archives such as La Bib-
liographie nationale franaise.[12]
39.2 4-part series
The documentary series The Greatest Pharaohs chron-
icles the lives of the men and women who built and
maintained the Egyptian dynasties and the resources and
power of ancient Egypt. Footage is included of the re-
cently opened pyramid complex of the Pharaoh Sneferu
and the rarely seen ancient burial ground of Abydos.[13]
Part 1
Follows the birth of Egyptian civilization and the origins
of the pharaohs and their legacy of the pyramids. It be- It was released by A&E Home Video and distributed in
gins with the story of how the rst pharaoh, the warrior the U.S. by New Video Group (1997).[2]
Narmer, united Upper and Lower Egypt and began the
rst dynasty. Covers Narmer, Hor-Aha, Sneferu, and
Khafra.[14] 39.4 See also
Part 2
223
By 2180 BCE, almost 1,000 years after the rst pharaoh,
the Egyptians had made advances in science, art, and
technology and had built what was arguably the most ad-
vanced culture at that time in civilized history. However,
the Old Kingdom started to decay when a child became
Pharaoh. There were centuries of chaos before Egypt was
reborn under a series of militarily inclined pharaohs who
established the New Kingdom. Covers Menkaura, Pepi
II, Mentuhotep II, and Ahmose I.[15]
Part 3
By 1353 BCE, Egypt was again stable, with much of
the prosperity of the Old Kingdom. However, the as-
cension of Akhenaten brought a new crisis. Akhenaten
was branded a heretic by history because of his attempts
to transform Egypts religion, but he was also considered
remarkable by the way he shared power with Nefertiti.
Covers Amenhotep IV (Akhenaten), Tutankhamun, Ay,
and Seti I.[16]
Part 4
Considered by historians to be the greatest era of the
New Kingdom began in 1279 BCE, when Ramses II as-
sumed the throne. Ramses II is remembered by history
as Ramses the Great. The Great Pharaohs of Egypt se-
ries concludes with an in-depth look at his 67-year reign.
He led foreign conquests and embarked on what is consid-
ered the most ambitious building program since the Great
Pyramids, restoring old monuments and erecting count-
less new ones. The program concludes with the life and
death of Cleopatra as the last pharaoh. Covers Ramses
II, Ramses III, and Cleopatra VII.[17]
39.3 Video release
Ancient Egypt
224 CHAPTER 39. THE GREATEST PHARAOHS

39.5 Additional sources

The Advocate (July 6, 1997), Tidbits in A&Es
Pharaohs worth the eort[18]

39.6 References
[1] Marmot Library Network, video listings, accessed 01-18-
2009

[2] University of Vermont, CAMPUS USE INSTRUC-

TIONAL: The Greatest Pharaohs, accessed 01-18-2009

[3] A&E Classroom, accessed 01-18-2009

[4] San Francisco State University video library catalog, ac-

cessed 01-18-2009

[5] Oriental Institute of Chicago, discussion of syllabus for

January 4 class, accessed 01-18-2009

[6] University of Pennsylvania, videos for Anthropology and

Archaeology, accessed 01-18-2009

[7] University of California, Berkeley, Area Studies

Videos in the Media Resources Center, UC Berkeley Li-
brary, accessed 01-18-2009

[8] BRCC Video Listing course video listings. Archived

from the original on October 14, 2008. Retrieved 2009-
01-19.

[9] Corvalis-Benton County Public Library, video listings,

accesses 01-18-2009

[10] Wright Public Library, accessed 01-18-2009

[11] Nid-Hudson Library System, accessed 01-19-2009

[12] La Bibliographie nationale franaise (France) (Google

translation, accessed 01-19-2009

[13] aetv.com, overview of The Greatest Pharaohs, accessed

01-18-2009

[14] aetv.com, Part 1 of The Greatest Pharaohs, accessed 01-

18-2009

[15] aetv.com, Part 2 of The Greatest Pharaohs, accessed 01-

18-2009

[16] aetv.com, Part 3 of The Greatest Pharaohs, accessed 01-

18-2009

[17] aetv.com, Part 4 of The Greatest Pharaohs, accessed 01-

18-2009

[18] The Advocate (July 6, 1997), Tidbits in A&Es

Pharaohs worth the eort

39.7 External links

The Greatest Pharaohs at Internet Movie Database
Chapter 40
Homosexuality in ancient Egypt
Homosexuality in Ancient Egypt is a passionately dis-
puted subject within Egyptology: historians and egyptol-
ogists alike debate what kind of view the Ancient Egyp-
tians society fostered about homosexuality. Only a hand-
ful of direct hints still survive and many possible indica-
tions are only vague and oer plenty of room for specu-
lation.
40.1 Depictions of possible homo-
sexuality
Nyankh-khnum and Khnum-hotep kissing.
40.1.1 Nyankh-khnum and Khnum-hotep
The best known case of possible homosexuality in An-
cient Egypt is that of the two high ocials Nyankh-
Khnum and Khnum-hotep. Both men lived and served
under pharaoh Niuserre during the 5th Dynasty (c. 2494
2345 BC).[1] Nyankh-Khnum and Khnum-hotep each
had families of their own with children and wives, but
when they died their families apparently decided to bury
them together in one and the same mastaba tomb. In
this mastaba, several paintings depict both men embrac-
ing each other and touching their faces nose-on-nose.
These depictions leave plenty of room for speculation,
225
because in Ancient Egypt the nose-on-nose touching nor-
mally represented a kiss.[1]
Egyptologists and historians disagree about how to in-
terpret the paintings of Nyankh-khnum and Khnum-
hotep. Some scholars believe that the paintings reect
an example of homosexuality between two married men
and prove that the Ancient Egyptians accepted same-sex
relationships.[2] Other scholars disagree and interpret the
scenes as an evidence that Nyankh-khnum and Khnum-
hotep were twins, even possibly conjoined twins. No mat-
ter what interpretation is correct, the paintings show at the
very least that Nyankh-khnum and Khnum-hotep must
have been very close to each other in life as in death.[1]
40.1.2 King Pepi II and his general ocer
Sasenet
See also: King Neferkare and General Sasenet
A well known story, dating back to the Middle Kingdom,
tells about an anonymous citizen, who comes to the audi-
ence hall of king Pepi II (here named by his birth name,
Neferkar). The citizen wants to lament about an un-
named circumstance, but the king does not want to lis-
ten to the laments, so he orders his royal musicians to
drown the strangers speech with noise. Disappointed,
the stranger leaves the palace. When this happens sev-
eral times, he orders his friend, the high ocial Tjeti, to
follow the king. The king in turn is frequently leaving the
palace during the night. Tjeti nds out that king Pepi II
keeps visiting his loyal general ocer Sasenet for several
hours, then returning home.[3]
The chapter in which king Pepi II visits his loyal general
ocer is subject of passionate discussions. Especially
one certain phrase stays in the centre of investigations:
the text says, that his majesty went into Sasenets house
and did to him what his majesty desired. The phrase
doing what one desires is a common owery phrase to
describe sex.[4] For this reason, some scholars are con-
vinced, that the papyrus reveals king Pepis homosex-
ual interests and his same-sex relationship to his general
ocer.[1] But other scholars are instead convinced, that
the passage is merely an allegoric pun to religious texts,
226
in which the sun god R visits the underworld god Osiris
during the middle four hours of the night. Thus, king Pepi
II would be taking the role of R and Sasenet would take
the role of Osiris. The phrase doing what one desires
would therefore be overrated and misinterpreted.[3]
A Ramesside period ostracon, depicting a homosexual couple in
coitus (two men having sex together)
40.1.3 Horus and Seth
A further famous story about same-sex intercourse can be
found in Papyrus Illahun, dating back to the Middle King-
dom. It contains the nearly completely preserved story of
the Osiris myth and the legendary ght for the throne of
Egypt between Horus and Seth. The chapter in question
reports that Seth was unutterably jealous about his young
nephew Horus, because Horus was very young and pop-
ular. He was quite pampered by the other gods. Seth
instead had very few companions and he was compara-
tively unpopular because of his choleric and vindictive
behaviour. As a result, Seth tried to either chase away
or even kill Horus, no matter what the cost. When Seth
constantly fails, he plans to humiliate his rival so badly
that Horus would be banned from Egypt forever. Seth in-
vites Horus to a party and convinces the teenage Horus to
drink more than Horus could normally cope with. When
Horus is drunk, Seth seduces him to sleep over the night
in one bed together. When lying together in one bed,
Seth grabs Horus and rapes him. But Horus has tricked
Seth; his drunkenness was staged. He catches Seths se-
men with his hands and hides it. Next morning, Horus
runs to his Mother, Isis, to tell her what happened. Isis is
rst speechless with rage and disbelief. Then she decides
to return the like on Seth: she cuts o Horus hand and
lubricates Seths semen on Seths favorite food (Egyptian
lettuce). Totally clueless, Seth eats the manipulated let-
tuce, then he goes to the divine court to inform on Ho-
rus. At rst, the divine judges swear at Horus, but when
Thoth, the scribe of the court, calls for Seths semen to
come out of the body of Horus, the semen instead comes
out of the body of Seth. Seth blushes in embarrassment
and shock, then ees. Horus is acquitted.[1][3]
CHAPTER 40. HOMOSEXUALITY IN ANCIENT EGYPT
The famous rape of Horus by his jealous uncle is also
subject of passionate discussions. While most scholars
agree that the papyrus clearly describes rape, it must re-
main open, if it actually describes a homosexually driven
deed. Background of the dispute are Seths motives: he
does not love Horus; in contrast, he hates his nephew and
the rape was clearly performed to humiliate Horus. The
only common ground between the rape and homosexu-
ality is that the act was of same-sex nature.[3] But some
scholars are not so sure and point out, that Seth was often
credited with questionable sexual interests. For example,
Seth once tried to seduce his own sister Isis. In another
story, Seth makes clear overtures to Horus.[1]
40.2 Ancient Egyptian views
It remains unclear, what exact view the Ancient Egyp-
tians fostered about homosexuality. Any document and
literature that actually contains sexual orientated stories,
never name the nature of the sexual deeds, but instead
uses stilted and owery paraphrases. While the stories
about Seth and his sexual behavior may reveal rather neg-
ative thoughts and views, the tomb inscription of Nyankh-
khnum and Khnum-hotep may instead suggest that ho-
mosexuality was likewise accepted. Ancient Egyptian
documents never clearly say that same-sex relationships
were seen as reprehensible or despicable. And no An-
cient Egyptian document mentions that homosexual acts
were set under penalty. Thus, a straight evaluation re-
mains problematic.[1][3]
40.3 Talmudic Literature
In Talmudic literature, the Ancient Egyptians are known
for their liberal sexual lifestyles and are often used as the
prime example of sexual debauchery. Rashi describes
an Egyptian practice for women to have multiple hus-
bands. Maimonides refers to lesbianism as the acts of
Egypt. While polyandry and lesbianism are character-
istics of the Ancient Egyptians, male-male homosexual
relationships are usually attributed to Sodom, Gomorrah,
and Amalek.[5]
40.4 See also
Timeline of LGBT history (lesbian, gay, bisexual,
transgender related history)
40.5 References
[1] Richard Parkinson: Homosexual Desire and Middle King-
dom Literature. In: The Journal of Egyptian Archaeology
(JEA), vol. 81, 1995, pp. 5776.
40.6. FURTHER READING 227

[2] Dena Connors-Millard: Niankhkhnum and Khnumhotep

- Evidence of Gay Relationships Exists as Early as 2400
B.C.? (English).

[3] Emma Brunner-Traut: Altgyptische Mrchen. Mythen

und andere volkstmliche Erzhlungen. 10th Edition.
Diederichs, Munich 1991, ISBN 3-424-01011-1, pp.
178179.

[4] Gnter Burkard, Heinz J. Thissen: Einfhrung in die alt-

gyptische Literaturgeschichte vol. 1 (= Einfhrungen und
Quellentexte zur gyptologie,vol. 1). LIT, Berlin 2003,
ISBN 3-8258-6132-5, pp. 187191.

[5] Rebecca T. Alpert: Like Bread on the Seder Plate: Jewish

Lesbians and the Transformation of Tradition. Columbia
University Press, New York 1997, ISBN 0231096615,
page 17 - 36.

40.6 Further reading

Graves-Brown, Carolyn, ed. (2008). Sex and Gen-
der in Ancient Egypt: Don Your Wig for a Joy-
ful Hour. The Classical Press of Wales. ISBN
9781905125241.
Chapter 41

Origins of the Hyksos

The Hyksos, a people that constituted the fteenth dy- teenth Dynasty Hyksos kings and their wide distribu-
nasty of Egypt were of non-Egyptian origin. tion as an indication of their becoming progressively
Egyptianized.[3] The Hyksos used Egyptian titles associ-
Most archaeologists describe the Hyksos as a mixed,
West Asian people. While the term Asiatic, is often ated with traditional Egyptian kingship, and took[4]Egyp-
tian god Seth to represent their own titular deity.
used of the Hyksos, in the context of Ancient Egypt,
it refers to any people native to areas east of Egypt.
West Asian origins are suggested, in particular, by the
names of individuals such as Khyan and Sakir-Har, and
pottery nds that resemble pottery found in archaeo-
logical excavations in the area of modern Israel. The
name Hyksos was used by the Egyptian historian Manetho
(ca. 300 BC), who, according to the Jewish historian
Flavius Josephus (1st century AD), translated the word
as king-shepherds or captive shepherds. Josephus
himself identied the Hyksos with the Hebrews of the
Bible. However, the word Hyksos probably originated
as an Egyptian term meaning rulers of foreign lands
(heqa-khaset), and it almost certainly designated the for-
eign dynasts rather than a whole nation.
An area centered on the eastern Nile Delta and Middle
Egypt was the heartland of the Hyksos kingdom, which
was limited in size. Except for Thebess port city of Elim
at modern Quasir, the Hyksos never controlled Upper
Egypt, which was under the control of Theban-based
rulers. Hyksos relations with the south seem to have been
mainly of a commercial nature, although Theban princes
appear to have recognized the Hyksos rulers and may pos- Scarab bearing the name of the Hyksos King Apophis, now at the
Museum of Fine Arts, Boston
sibly have provided them with tribute for a period. The
Hyksos Fifteenth Dynasty rulers established their capi-
It would appear as though Hyksos administration was ac-
tal and seat of government at Memphis and their summer
cepted in most quarters, if not actually supported by many
residence at Avaris.
of their northern Egyptian subjects. The ip side is that,
in spite of the prosperity that the stable political situa-
tion brought to the land, the native Egyptians continued to
view the Hyksos as non-Egyptian invaders. When they
41.1 Hyksos 15th dynasty eventually were driven out of Egypt, all traces of their
occupation were erased. There are no surviving accounts
The rule of these Hyksos kings overlaps with those of that record the history of the period from the Hyksos per-
the native Egyptian pharaohs of the 16th and 17th dynas- spective, only that of the native Egyptians who evicted
ties of Egypt, better known as the Second Intermediate the occupiers, in this case the rulers of Eighteenth Dy-
Period. The rst pharaoh of the 18th dynasty, Ahmose nasty, who were the direct successors of the Theban Sev-
I, nally expelled the Hyksos from their last holdout at enteenth Dynasty. It was the latter that started and led
Sharuhen in Gaza by the 16th year of his reign.[1][2] a sustained war against the Hyksos. Some think that the
Scholars have taken the increasing use of scarabs and native kings from Thebes had an incentive to demonize
the adoption of some Egyptian forms of art by the Fif- the Asiatic rulers in the North, thus accounting for the

228
41.2. ORIGIN HYPOTHESES 229

destruction of their monuments. From this viewpoint, Two Hyksos pharaohs remain unknown. Many schol-
the Hyksos dynasties represent supercially Egyptianized ars have suggested that they were Maaibre Sheshi, Aper-
foreigners who were tolerated, but not truly accepted, by Anath, Samuqenu, Sekhaenre Yakbim or Meruserre
their Egyptian subjects. In contrast, scholars such as John Yaqub-Har (who are all attested by seals or scarabs in
A. Wilson found that the description of the Hyksos as the Delta region) but, thus far, all that is certain is that
overpowering, irreligious foreign rulers had support from they were Asiatic kings in the Egypts Delta region. They
other sources.[5] could be either the remaining two Hyksos kings or were
The origin of the term Hyksos derives from the Egyptian members of the previous Fourteenth Dynasty at Xois.
expression heka khasewet (rulers of foreign lands), used
in Egyptian texts, such as the Turin King List, to describe
the rulers of neighbouring lands. This expression begins 41.2 Origin hypotheses
to appear as early as the late Old Kingdom in Egypt, re-
ferring to various Nubian chieftains, and as early as the 41.2.1 Manetho and Josephus
Middle Kingdom, referring to the Semitic chieftains of
Syria and Canaan. In his Against Apion, the 1st-century AD historian
The names, the order, and even the total number of the Josephus Flavius debates the synchronism between the
Fifteenth Dynasty rulers are not known with full cer- Biblical account of the Exodus of the Israelites from
tainty. The names appear in hieroglyphs on monuments Egypt, and two Exodus-like events that the Egyptian his-
and small objects such as jar lids and scarabs. In those torian Manetho apparently mentions. It is dicult to dis-
instances in which Prenomen and Nomen do not occur to- tinguish between what Manetho himself recounted, and
gether on the same object, there is no certainty that the how Josephus or Apion interpret him.
names belong together as the two names of a single per- Josephus identies the Israelite Exodus with the rst ex-
son. The Danish Egyptologist Kim Ryholt sums up the odus mentioned by Manetho, when some 480,000 Hyk-
complex situation by stating that there are only vague sos, wrongly interpreted as shepherd kings by Josephus
indications of the origin of the Fifteenth Dynasty and (also referred to as just as shepherds, as kings and as cap-
concurring that the small number of surviving names of tive shepherds in his discussion of Manetho), left Egypt
the Fifteenth Dynasty are too few to allow for general for Jerusalem.[8] The mention of Hyksos identies this
conclusions about the Hyksos background in his 1997 rst exodus with the Hyksos period (16th century BC).
study of the Second Intermediate Period.[6] Furthermore,
Ryholt stresses that Apion identies a second exodus mentioned by Manetho
when a renegade Egyptian priest called Osarseph led
80,000 "lepers" to rebel against Egypt. Then, Apion ad-
we also lack positive indications that any of the
ditionally conates these with the Biblical Exodus, and
rulers of the Fifteenth Dynasty were related by
contrary to Manetho, even alleges that this heretic priest
blood, and, accordingly we could be dealing
changed his name to Moses.[9] Many scholars[10][11] do
with a dynasty of mixed ethnic origin.[7]
not interpret lepers and leprous priests as literally refer-
ring to a disease, but rather to a strange and unwelcome
Manetho's history of Egypt is known only through the new belief system.
works of others, such as Against Apion by Flavius Jose-
phus. These sources do not list the names of the six rulers Josephus records the earliest account of the false but un-
in the same order. To complicate matters further, the derstandable etymology that the Greek phrase Hyksos
spellings are so distorted that they are useless for chrono- stood for the Egyptian phrase Hekw Shasu meaning the
logical purposes; there is no close or obvious connection Bedouin-like Shepherd Kings, which scholars have only
[12]
between the bulk of these namesSalitis, Beon or Bnon, recently shown means rulers of foreign lands.
Apachnan or Pachnan, Annas or Staan, Apophis, Assis or
Archlesand the Egyptian names that appear on scarabs
41.2.2 Modern scholarship
and other objects. The Turin king list arms there were
six Hyksos rulers, but only four of them are clearly at-
As to a Hyksos conquest, some archaeologists depict
tested as Hyksos kings from the surviving archaeological
the Hyksos as northern hordes ... sweeping through
or textual records: 1. Sakir-Har, 2. Khyan, 3. Apophis
Palestine and Egypt in swift chariots. Yet, others refer
and 4. Khamudi.
to a creeping conquest, that is, a gradual inltration of
Khyan and Apophis are by far the best attested kings of migrating nomadic or semi-nomadic people, who either
this dynasty, whereas Sakir-Har is attested by only a sin- slowly took over control of the country piecemeal, or, by
gle doorjamb from Avaris that bears his royal titulary. a swift coup detat, put themselves at the head of the exist-
Khamudi is named as the last Hyksos king on a fragment ing government. Archaeologist Jacquetta Hawkes states:
from the Turin Canon. The hieroglyphic names of these
Fifteenth Dynasty rulers exist on monuments, scarabs, It is no longer thought that the Hyksos rulers
and other objects. ... represent the invasion of a conquering horde
230
A group of people labelled Asiatics (the glyphs immediately
above the head of the rst animal) entering Egypt c.1900 BC.
From the tomb of 12th-dynasty ocial Khnumhotep II, at Beni
Hasan.
of Asiatics ... they were wandering groups of
Semites who had long come to Egypt for trade
and other peaceful purposes.[13]
It is generally thought that the Hyksos were probably
Semites who came from the Levant. Kamoses explicit
statement about the Asiatic origins of Apophis is the
strongest evidence for a Canaanite background for the
majority of the Hyksos. However, other interpretations
are possible.
Hurrians or Indo-Europeans
Contemporary with the Hyksos, there was a widespread
Indo-Aryan expansion in central and south Asia. The
Hyksos used the same horsedrawn chariot as the Indo-
Aryans, and Egyptian sources mention a rapid conquest.
The German Egyptologist Wolfgang Helck once argued
that the Hyksos were part of massive Hurrian and Indo-
Aryan migrations into the Near East. According to
Helck, the Hyksos were Hurrians and part of a Hurrian
empire that, he claimed, extended over much of Western
Asia during that period. In a 1993 article, Helck admit-
ted that there is no evidence of a grand-scale Hurrian
invasion,[14] but noted the possibility of a sea invasion of
Indo-European peoples, mainly from Anatolia. However,
this hypothesis is not supported by most scholars.
Amorites or West Semites
Kamose, the last king of the Theban 17th Dynasty, refers
to Apophis as a Chieftain of Retjenu (i.e., Canaan) in a
stela that implies a Canaanite background for this Hyk-
sos king. Khyans name has generally been interpreted
as Amorite Hayanu (reading h-ya-a-n), which the Egyp-
tian form represents perfectly, and this is in all likelihood
the correct interpretation, says Ryholt.[15] Ryholt, fur-
thermore observes that the Assyrian lists of kings record
the name Hayanu for a remote ancestor of Shamshi-
CHAPTER 41. ORIGINS OF THE HYKSOS
Adad I (c.1800 BC) of Assyria, which suggests that it had
been used for centuries prior to Khyans own reign.[16]
The etymology of the name of Sakir-Har, one of the three
earliest 15th-Dynasty kings, also implies a West Semitic
or Canaanite origin for the Hyksos rulers, if not the Hyk-
sos peoples themselves. As Ryholt notes, the name Sakir-
Har
is evidently a theophorous name com-
pounded with hr, Canaanite harru, [meaning]
mountain. This sacred or deied mountain is
attested in at least two other names which are
both West Semitic (Ya'qub-Har and Anat-Har)
and so there is reason to suspect that the present
name also may be West Semitic. The element
skr seems to be identical with kr, to hire,
to reward, which occurs in several Amorite
names. Assuming that kr takes a nominal
form as in the names sa-ki-ru-um and sa-ka-
u-um, the name should be transliterated as ei-
ther Sakir-Har or Sakar-Har. The former two
names presumably mean the Reward. Ac-
cordingly, the name here under consideration
would mean Reward of Har.[17]
Phoenicia-Palestine in the MB II period
John Van Seters in his book, The Hyksos: A New Inves-
tigation, argues that the Ipuwer Papyrus does not belong
to the First Intermediate Period of Egyptian History (c.
2300-2200 BCE), as previously thought, but rather to the
Second Intermediate Period (c. 1700-1600 BCE).
On the basis of the archaeological investi-
gation, the foreigners of Egypt are seen as a ge-
ographical extension of the corresponding cul-
ture of Phoenicia-Palestine in the MB II pe-
riod, a culture with a highly advanced urban
society. This civilization of the Levant has its
roots in the Amurrite world of both Syria and
Mesopotamia in the Old Babylonian period,
and has a direct heir in the so-called Canaan-
ite world of the Late Bronze Age.The MB II
period began during the Middle Kingdom, and
by the end of the Twelfth Dynasty the whole
of Phoenicia-Palestine was under the inuence
of Egypt, with diplomatic ties and active coop-
eration between the rulers of the various city-
states and the rulers of Egypt. During the early
Thirteenth Dynasty, the foreigners had much
freer access into Egypt. Many of them rose to
places of high honor in the administration of
the country.[18]
41.3. REFERENCES 231

41.3 References
[1] Grimal, Nicolas. A History of Ancient Egypt. p.193. Li-
brairie Arthme Fayard, 1988.

[2] Redford, Donald B. History and Chronology of the 18th

Dynasty of Egypt: Seven Studies, pp.4649. University of
Toronto Press, 1967.

[3] Booth, Charlotte. The Hyksos Period in Egypt. p.15-18.

Shire Egyptology. 2005. ISBN 0-7478-0638-1

[4] Booth, Charlotte. The Hyksos Period in Egypt. p.29-31.

Shire Egyptology. 2005. ISBN 0-7478-0638-1

[5] "The culture of ancient Egypt", John Albert Wilson, p.

160, University of Chicago Press, org. pub 1956 -still in
print 2009, ISBN 0-226-90152-1

[6] Kim Ryholt, The Political Situation in Egypt during the

Second Intermediate Period c.1800-1550 B.C., Museum
Tuscalanum Press, 1997. p.126

[7] Ryholt, op. cit., p.126 An example given by Ryholt is

the family of the kings Warad-Sin and Rim-Sin of Larsa.
Their father had been the ruler of two Amorite tribes, but
both he and their grandfather had Elamite names, while
they themselves had Akkadian names, and a sister of theirs
had a Sumerian name.

[8] Josephus, Flavius, Against Apion, 1:8690.

[9] Josephus, Flavius, Against Apion, 1:234250.

[10] Miriam - From Prophet to Leper

[11] Egyptian Account of the Lepers Exodus

[12] Finkelstein, Israel and Silberman, Neil AsherThe Bible

Unearthed: Archaeologys New Vision of Ancient Israel
and the Origin of Its Sacred Texts, 2001, The Free Press,
New York City, ISBN 0-684-86912-8 p. 54

[13] Jacquetta Hawkes. (1963). The World of the Past, p. 444

[14] see W. Helcks Orientalia 62 (1993) Das Hyksosproblem

pp.6066 paper

[15] Ryholt, Kim SB. The Political Situation in Egypt during

the Second Intermediate Period c.1800-1550 B.C. (1997)
by Museum Tuscalanum Press, p.128

[16] Ryholt, Ibid., p.128

[17] Ryholt, op. cit., pp.127128

[18] Seters, John Van (1 April 2010). The Hyksos: A New

Investigation. Wipf and Stock Publishers. p. 191. ISBN
978-1-60899-533-2.
Chapter 42

Index of ancient Egypt-related articles

See also: Outline of ancient Egypt W

X
Articles related to ancient Egypt include:
Y
Contents
Z

09 See also
A

B 42.1 09
C
4.2 kiloyear event
D
21st, 22nd & 23rd dynasties of Egypt family tree
E 1770 (mummy)
F

G 42.2 A
H
A. J. Arkell
I
Aa (architect)
J
Aabeni
K
Ahhotep I
L
Ahhotep II
M
Aahotepre
N Aani
O Aaron
P Aaru
Q Abatos
R Abbott Papyrus
S Abdi-Ashirta
T Abdi-Heba
U Abdi-Ria
V Abimilku

232
42.2. A 233

Abraham of Makuria Ahmose I

Abtu Ahmose Inhapy
Abu Ballas Ahmose Sapair
Abu Gorab Ahmose, son of Ebana
Abu Mena Ahmose-ankh
Abu Rawash Ahmose-Henutemipet
Abu Simbel temples Ahmose-Henuttamehu
Abusir Ahmose-Meritamon (17th dynasty)
Abusir Papyri Ahmose-Meritamun
Abuwtiyuw Ahmose-Nebetta
Abydos Dynasty Ahmose-Nefertari
Abydos King List Ahmose-Sitamun
Abydos, Egypt Ahmose-Sitkamose
Achaemenes (satrap) Aker (deity)
Achaemenid coinage Akhenaten
Achaemenid Empire Akhenaten: Son of the Sun
Adda-danu Akhet (hieroglyph)
Addaya Akhethetep
Adder stone Akhethetep Hemi
Adolf Erman Akhmim
Adolphe Reinach Akhmim wooden tablets
Adze Akhnaten (opera)
Adze-on-block (hieroglyph) Akhnaton (play)
Aegyptus Akizzi
Aelius Gallus Akoris, Egypt
A-Group culture Alan Gardiner
Ahhotep I Alara of Nubia
Ahhotep II Alashiya
Ahmed Fakhry Al-Azhar Park
Ahmed Moussa (Egyptologist) Alcetas
Ahmes Alchemy
Ahmose (18th dynasty) Alessandra Nibbi
Ahmose (princess) Alessandro Barsanti
Ahmose (queen) Alexander Badawy
Ahmose called Si-Tayit Alexander Balas
Ahmose called Turo Alexander Helios
234 CHAPTER 42. INDEX OF ANCIENT EGYPT-RELATED ARTICLES

Alexander Henry Rhind Amenemhat II

Alexander I of Epirus Amenemhat III
Alexander IV of Macedon Amenemhat IV
Alexander the Great Amenemhet VI
Alexandria Amenemhat (nomarch, 16th nome)
Alodia Amenemhat (chief of Teh-khet)
Amada Amenemhatankh
Amaniastabarqa Amenemipet called Pairy
Amanikhareqerem Amenemnisu
Amanikhatashan Amenemope (author)
Amanishakheto Amenemope (pharaoh)
Amanislo Amenemopet (princess)
Amanitore Amenemopet (Viceroy of Kush)
Amanmaa Amenherkhepshef
Amantekha Amenhotep (High Priest of Amun)
Amarna Amenhotep (Huy)
Amarna art Amenhotep I
Amarna letters Amenhotep II
Amarna letterslocalities and their rulers Amenhotep III
Amarna EA 9 Amenhotep, Priest of Amun (18th Dynasty)
Amarna EA 19 Amenhotep, son of Hapu
Amarna EA 161 Amenia (wife of Horemheb)
Amarna EA 282 Amenirdis I
Amarna Period Amenirdis II
Amarna Royal Tombs Project Amenmesse
Amarna succession Amenmose (noble)
Amarna Tomb 1 Amenmose (prince)
Amarna Tomb 3 Amenmose (TT42)
Amarna Tomb 5 Ameny (vizier)
Amarna Tomb 7 Ameny Qemau
Amasis II Amestris
Amaymon Amethu called Ahmose
Amduat Am-heh
Amelia Edwards Amherst Papyrus
Amenemhat (son of Thutmose III) Ammeris
Amenemhat I Ammit
42.2. A 235

Ammunira Ancient Near East

Amratian culture Ancient Records of Egypt
Amu (pharaoh) Andjety
Amun Aneb-Hetch
Amunet Anedjib
Amun-her-khepeshef Anen
Amun-her-khepeshef (20th dynasty) Anhur
Amyntas (son of Andromenes) Aniba (Nubia)
Amyrtaeus Animal mummy
Anat Ankh
Anat-her Ankh wedja seneb
Ancient Egypt Ankh-ef-en-Khonsu i
Ancient Egypt in the Western imagination Ankhefensekhmet
Ancient Egypt magazine Ankhesenamun
Ancient Egyptian architecture Ankhesenpaaten Tasherit
Ancient Egyptian cattle Ankhesenpepi I
Ancient Egyptian concept of the soul Ankhhaf
Ancient Egyptian creation myths Ankhhaf (sculpture)
Ancient Egyptian cuisine Ankhkherednefer
Ancient Egyptian deities Ankhmakis
Ancient Egyptian funerary practices Ankhmare
Ancient Egyptian funerary texts Ankhnesneferibre
Ancient Egyptian Hieroglyphs: A Practical Guide Ankhti
Ancient Egyptian literature Ankhu
Ancient Egyptian mathematics Anlamani
Ancient Egyptian medicine Annals of Amenemhat II
Ancient Egyptian oering formula Anonymous Tombs in Amarna
Ancient Egyptian philosophy Anput
Ancient Egyptian race controversy Anthylla
Ancient Egyptian religion Anti (mythology)
Ancient Egyptian retainer sacrices Antigonus I Monophthalmus
Ancient Egyptian royal titulary Antinopolis
Ancient Egyptian solar ships Antiochus IV Epiphanes
Ancient Egyptian technology Antiochus VII Sidetes
Ancient Egyptian trade Antipater
Ancient Egyptian units of measurement Antiu
236 CHAPTER 42. INDEX OF ANCIENT EGYPT-RELATED ARTICLES

Antoni Jzef mieszek Art of ancient Egypt

Antonio Lebolo Artabanus of Persia
Anubis Artabazos II of Phrygia
Anuket Artakama
Anysis Artaxerxes I of Persia
Apedemak Artaxerxes II of Persia
Apep Artaxerxes III
'Apepi Arses of Persia
Apepi (pharaoh) Arthur Cruttenden Mace
Aperanat Arthur Weigall
Aphroditopolis Nome Articial cranial deformation
Apis (city) Asander
Apis (deity) Ash (deity)
Apollonopolis Parva (Hypselis) Ashayet
Apollonos Hydreium Ashkelon
Apries Aspelta
Aqen Astarte
Aqrakamani Aswan
Arakamani Asyut
Aramatle-qo Atef
Arcadia Aegypti Atef crown (hieroglyph)
Archaic Egyptian language Aten
Archon of Pella Atenism
Aretalogy Athanasius Kircher
Arnekhamani Athribis
Aristander Athribis (Upper Egypt)
Armant, Egypt Atlanersa
Arqa Attalus (son of Andromenes)
Arqamani Atum
Arsawuya Auguste Mariette
Arsinoe (Gulf of Suez) Aulus Avilius Flaccus
Arsinoe I Autobiography of Ahmose Pen-Nekhebet
Arsinoe II Autobiography of Harkhuf
Arsinoe III of Egypt Autobiography of Weni
Arsinoe IV of Egypt Autophradates
Arsinoe of Macedon Avaris
42.3. B 237

Averruncus Battle of Carchemish

Ay Battle of Djahy

Ayyab Battle of Hamath

Aziru Battle of Kadesh

Battle of Megiddo (609 BC)

42.3 B Battle of Pelusium (525 BC)

Battle of the Delta
Baal
Baufra
Baalat Gebal
Bay (chancellor)
Babaef II
Beautiful Festival of the Valley
Babi (mythology)
Bebi (vizier)
Babylon Fortress
Bebiankh
Badari culture
Bebnum
Bakenkhonsu
Beder
Bakenranef
Behbeit El Hagar
Bakenrenef (vizier)
Behenu
Bakers tool (hieroglyph)
Bek (sculptor)
Baketwernel
Beketamun
Balacrus
Beketaten
Banebdjedet
Bembine Tablet
Banishment Stela
Benben
Ba-Pef
Benerib
Baqet III
Beni Hasan
Baqt
Bennu
Barbara Adams (Egyptologist) Bent Pyramid
Bardiya Berenice (Seleucid queen)
Barsine Berenice I of Egypt
Baskakeren Berenice II of Egypt
Basket (hieroglyph) Berenice III of Egypt
Basket-with-handle (hieroglyph) Berenice IV of Egypt
Bastet Berenice Troglodytica
Bat (goddess) Berlin Green Head
Bata (god) Berlin Papyrus 6619
Battiscombe Gunn Bes
Battle of Actium Betrest
Battle of Bitter Lakes Betsy Bryan
238 CHAPTER 42. INDEX OF ANCIENT EGYPT-RELATED ARTICLES

Bintanath Bureau of Correspondence of Pharaoh

Biridawa Buried Pyramid
Biridiya Burna-Buriash II
Birth Tusk Busiris (Greek mythology)
Biryawaza Busiris (Aphroditopolis)
Black Egyptian hypothesis Busiris (Lower Egypt)
Block statue Bust of Amenemhat V
Bob Brier Buto
Bocchoris vase
Book of Caverns 42.4 C
Book of Gates
Caesarion
Book of the Dead
Calas (general)
Book of the Dead of Amen-em-hat
Callisthenes
Book of the Earth
Cambyses I
Book of Thoth
Cambyses II
Books of Breathing
Canopic chest
Boris de Rachewiltz
Canopic jar
Boris Turayev
Canopus, Egypt
Boston Green Head
Caphtor
Botanical garden of Thutmosis III
Caranus (hetairos)
Boundary Stelae of Akhenaten
Carlsberg papyrus
Bowstring (hieroglyph)
Cartonnage
Boyo Ockinga
Cartouche
Branch (hieroglyph)
Brazier (hieroglyph) Cartouche (hieroglyph)

Bread-cone (hieroglyph) Casluhim

Brooklyn Papyrus Cats in ancient Egypt

Brugsch Papyrus Cattle count

Bubasteum Cecil Mallaby Firth

Bubastis Central Field, Giza

Bubastite Portal Cemetery GIS

Buchis C-Group culture

Bucephalus Chaeremon of Alexandria

Buhen Chapelle Rouge

Building the Great Pyramid Chares of Mytilene

Bunefer Chariotry in ancient Egypt

42.5. D 239

Charles Allberry Coronation of the pharaoh

Charles Edwin Wilbour Cornelius Gallus
Charles Kuentz (Egyptologist) Craterus
Charmion (servant to Cleopatra) Crocodile (pharaoh)
Chester Beatty Medical Papyrus Crook and ail
Child (hieroglyph) Cross-ndj (hieroglyph)
Christian Jacq Curse of the pharaohs
Christiane Desroches Noblecourt Cursive hieroglyphs
Claude Sicard Cusae
Claude Traunecker Cynane
Cleitarchus Cynocephaly
Cleomenes of Naucratis Cynopolis
Cleopatra (1963 lm)
Cyrus I
Cleopatra I Syra
Cyrus the Great
Cleopatra II of Egypt
Cyrus the Younger
Cleopatra III of Egypt
Cleopatra IV of Egypt
42.5 D
Cleopatra of Macedon
Debeira
Cleopatra Selene I
Dagi
Cleopatra Selene II
Dahshur
Cleopatra Thea
Dakhamunzu
Cleopatra V of Egypt
Damanhur
Cleopatra VI of Egypt
Dar al-Manasir
Cleopatra
Cleopatras Needle (London) Darius I

Cleopatras Needle (New York City) Darius II

Cobra-at-rest Darius III

Codex Glazier Darius the Greats Suez Inscriptions

Coenus (general) David O'Connor (Egyptologist)

Con Texts David Rohl

Colin Reader DB320

Colossi of Memnon Deben (unit)

Coptic language Decans

Coptos Decree Decipherment of Egyptian hieroglyphs

Coptos Decrees Decree of Canopus

Coregency Stela Decree of Nectanebo I

240 CHAPTER 42. INDEX OF ANCIENT EGYPT-RELATED ARTICLES

Dedi Djedkhonsuefankh
Dedumose I Djedi Project
Dedumose II Djedptahiufankh
Dedun Djefaihapi
Deir el-Bahari Djefatnebti
Deir El Gabrawi Djehuti
Deir el-Medina Djehutihotep
Demetrius II Nicator Djehuty (general)
Demotic (Egyptian) Djehuty (overseer of treasury)
Demotic Chronicle Djehutyemhat
Den (pharaoh) Djehutynakht (10A)
Dendera light Djer
Dendera Temple complex Djeseretnebti
Dendera zodiac Djet
Den seal impressions Djoser
Denyen DNA history of Egypt
Description de l'gypte Donald B. Redford
Deshret Donald P. Ryan
Detlef Franke Dotawo
Diadochi Double Falcon
Didia Double Pyramid
Dinocrates Dra' Abu el-Naga'
Dispute between a man and his Ba Dramatic Ramesseum Papyrus
Divine Adoratrice of Amun Dream Stele
Djadjaemankh Drusilla of Mauretania the Elder
Djahy Drusilla of Mauretania the Younger
Djaty Duaenhor
Djau Duaenre
Djed Duathathor-Henuttawy
Djedankhre Montemsaf Duamutef
Djedefhor Duat
Djedefre Duatentopet
Djediufankh Dung beetle
Djedkare Isesi DU-Teup
Djedkare Shemai Dwarfs and pygmies in Ancient Egypt
Djedkheperew Dynastic race theory
42.6. E 241

42.6 E Egyptian language

Egyptian Mathematical Leather Roll
E. A. Wallis Budge
Egyptian medical papyri
Early Dynastic Period (Egypt)
Egyptian Museum
Ebers Papyrus
Egyptian Museum (Milan)
Edda Bresciani
Egyptian Museum of Berlin
Edfu
Egyptian mythology
Edfu-Project
Egyptian numerals
Edfu South Pyramid
Egyptian pool
Edme-Franois Jomard
Egyptian pyramid construction techniques
douard de Villiers du Terrage
Egyptian pyramids
douard Empain
Egyptian Revival architecture
douard Naville
Egyptian sun temple
Edward Hincks
Egyptian temple
Edward R. Ayrton
Egyptian Theatre
Edwin C. Brock
Egyptian triliteral signs
Edwin Smith (Egyptologist)
Egyptology
Edwin Smith Papyrus
Egyptomania
Egg (hieroglyph)
Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt
Egypt (Roman province)
Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt family tree
Egypt (TV series)
Ekron
Egypt Exploration Society
El Araba El Madfuna
Egyptian astronomy
El Hiba
Egyptian biliteral signs
El Kab
Egyptian Bridge
El-Assasif
Egyptian calendar
Elephant (pharaoh)
Egyptian chronology
Elephantine
Egyptian Collection of the Hermitage Museum
Elephantine papyri
Egyptian faience
Eleventh Dynasty of Egypt
Egyptian fraction
Eleventh Dynasty of Egypt family tree
Egyptian geometry
El Hawawish
Egyptian gold stater
Elizabeth Thomas (Egyptologist)
Egyptian Grammar: Being an Introduction to the
Study of Hieroglyphs El-Khokha
Egyptian hieroglyphs El Lahun
Egyptian inuence in popular culture El Mo'alla
Egyptian Journeys with Dan Cruickshank El Qurn
242 CHAPTER 42. INDEX OF ANCIENT EGYPT-RELATED ARTICLES

El Sheikh Sa'id Fifteenth Dynasty of Egypt

El-Tarif Fifth Dynasty of Egypt

Embalming cache First Dynasty of Egypt

Emblem of the East First Intermediate Period of Egypt

Emblem of the West Flail

mile Amlineau Flaxman Charles John Spurrell

mile Baraize Flinders Petrie

Endaruta Foreign contacts of ancient Egypt

Eniasi Foreleg of ox

Ennead Foundation deposit

Eratosthenes Four sons of Horus

Ergamenes Fourteenth Dynasty of Egypt

Erigyius Fourth Dynasty of Egypt

Ernesto Schiaparelli Fourth Dynasty of Egypt family tree

Esna Francesco Salvolini

Etakkama Francis Llewellyn Grith

Eugne Lefbure Franois Chabas

Eumenes Fraser Tombs

Eurydice of Egypt Frederick W. Green (Egyptologist)

Execration texts Funerary cone

Exploration of the Valley of the Kings Funerary cult

Eye of Horus

Eye of Ra 42.8 G
Gabal El Haridi
42.7 F Gebel el-Silsila

Face (hieroglyph) Gaius Avidius Heliodorus

Fagg El Gamous Gaius Petronius

Faiyum Game piece (hieroglyph)

Faiyum Governorate Ganymedes

False door Gardiners sign list

Famine Stela Gaston Maspero

Fan-bearer on the Right Side of the King Gayer-Anderson cat

Faras Gautseshen

Fayum mummy portraits Gaza

Festival Hall of Thutmose III Geb

42.9. H 243

Gebel el-Arak Knife Grand Egyptian Museum

Gebelein Great Hymn to the Aten
Gebelein predynastic mummies Great Hypostyle Hall
Gemenefkhonsbak Great Karnak Inscription
Gemniemhat Great Pyramid of Giza
Georg Ebers Great Royal Wife
Georg Steindor Great Sphinx of Giza
Georges Aaron Bndite Great Temple of the Aten
George Gliddon Greek Magical Papyri
Georges Goyon Greeting-gift (Shulmani)
George Herbert, 5th Earl of Carnarvon Gustave Jquier
George Willoughby Fraser Guy Brunton
Georges mile Jules Daressy
Georgios I of Makuria 42.9 H
Georgios II of Makuria
Ha (mythology)
Geraldine Harris
Haapi
Gerf Hussein
Habiru
Gerzeh culture
Hadit
Gezer
Hakor
Gilukhipa
Hana Vymazalov
Giovanni Battista Belzoni
Hand (hieroglyph)
Giovanni Kminek-Szedlo
Hand drill (hieroglyph)
Gisr el-Mudir
Hannu
Giuseppe Ferlini
Giza East Field Hapi (Nile god)

Giza West Field Hapuseneb

Giza Plateau Harageh

Giza pyramid complex Hare (hieroglyph)

Giza writing board Haremakhet

Glasgow Chronology Harem conspiracy

Glossary of ancient Egypt artifacts Hare nome

Gods Wife of Amun Harkhebi

Gold (hieroglyph) Harpers Songs

Gttinger Miszellen Harpocrates

Grato of Esmet-Akhom Harpoon (hieroglyph)

Grafton Elliot Smith Harry Burton (Egyptologist)

244 CHAPTER 42. INDEX OF ANCIENT EGYPT-RELATED ARTICLES

Harsiese A Hemen
Harsiese B Hemetre
Harsiese (C) Hemiunu
Harsiese (High Priest of Ptah) Hemsut
Harsiesi Hemhem crown
Harsiotef Henhenet
Harwa Hennu
Hathor Henri Frankfort
Hathorhotep Henry George Fischer
Hatmehit Henry Hall (Egyptologist)
Hatnub Henry Salt (Egyptologist)
Hatshepsut Henutmehyt
Hatshepsut: Daughter of Amun Henutmire
Haty-a Henutsen
Hawara Henuttaneb
Hearst papyrus Henuttawy (19th dynasty)
Hedetet Henuttawy (princess)
Hedjet Henuttawy (priestess)
Hedjetnebu Henuttawy C
Heh (god) Henutwati
Heinrich Karl Brugsch Hephaestion
Heinrich Menu von Minutoli Heptanomis
Heka (god) Heptapolis
Hekat (unit) Heptastadion
Hekenuhedjet Hepu (vizier)
Heku Heqaib
Heliopolis (ancient Egypt) Heqaib III
Heliopolite Nome Heqanakht
Hellenion (Naucratis) Heqet
Hellenistic period Heracleion
Helmut Satzinger Heracleopolis Magna
Helwan Herbert Eustis Winlock
Helwan (cemetery) Herihor
Helwan retouch Hermanubis
Hemaka Hermes Trismegistus
Hemamieh Hermopolis
42.10. I 245

Hermopolis (Butosos) Hori I (Viceroy of Kush)

Hermopolis (Lower Egypt) Hori II (Vizier)
Herneith Hori II (Viceroy of Kush)
Heroninos Archive Hori (High Priest)
Herwer Hormeni
Heryshaf Hornakht
Hesat Horus
Hesy-Ra Horus Sa
Hetepheres Hotep
Hetepheres I Hotepibre
Hetepheres II Hotepsekhemwy
Hetephernebti Hounds and Jackals
Hetepi
Howard Carter
Hewernef
Hsekiu
Hieracon
Hu (mythology)
Hieratic
Hu, Egypt
Hieroglyphics: The Writings of Ancient Egypt
Hudjefa
Hieroglyphs Without Mystery
Hudjefa I
High Priests of Amun
Hugronaphor
High Priest of Osiris
Hui (priestess)
High Priest of Ptah
Hunefer
High Priest of Ra
Huni
Hill-country (hieroglyph)
Hunters Palette
History of Alexandria
Huya (noble)
History of ancient Egypt
Hydraulic empire
History of Egypt
Hyksos
History of Persian Egypt
Hypaspists
History of the Karnak Temple complex
Hypocephalus
Homosexuality in ancient Egypt
Hor
42.10 I
Hor-Aha
Horapollo I. E. S. Edwards

Horbaef Iabet

Horemheb Iah

Horemkhauef Ian Shaw (Egyptologist)

Hor (high steward) Iaret

246 CHAPTER 42. INDEX OF ANCIENT EGYPT-RELATED ARTICLES

Ibi (Egyptian Noble) Instructions of Kagemni

Ibiaw (vizier) Intef (general)
Idris Bell Intef I
Idy (vizier) Intef II
Ihy (vizier) Intef III
Ikhernofret Intef the Elder
Ikhernofret Stela Inteqer
Ili-Rapih Inventory Stela
Imentet Inykhnum
Imhotep Iollas
Imhotep (The Mummy) Ipi (vizier)
Imhotep Museum Ippolito Rosellini
Imhotep (vizier) Ipu (nurse)
Imiut fetish Iput
Imset Iput II
Imyremeshaw Ipuwer Papyrus
Inaros I Ipy (Noble)
Inaros II Iqer
Incense burner: arm (hieroglyph) Irimayaa
Incense burner: pot (hieroglyph) Iry-Hor
Index of Egyptian mythology articles Isesi-ankh
Index of Egypt-related articles Iset (daughter of Amenhotep III)
Index of modern Egypt-related articles Iset (daughter of Thutmose III)
Inebny/Amenemnekhu Iset (queen)
Inenek-Inti Iset (priestess)
Ineni Iset Ta-Hemdjert
Ineni (queen) Isetemkheb D
Inetkaes Isetnofret
Ini (pharaoh) Isetnofret (daughter of Khaemwaset)
Insinger Papyrus Isetnofret II
Installation of the Vizier Isidorus
Institut Franais d'Archologie Orientale Isis
Instruction of Amenemope Itet
Instruction of Any Itjtawy
Instruction of Hardjedef Iufaa
Instructions of Amenemhat Iufni
42.12. K 247

Iuhetibu Fendy Jiro Kondo

Iunit Joann Fletcher

Iunmin I Johan David kerblad

Iunre Johannes Dmichen

Iuput John Gardner Wilkinson

Iuput I John Pendlebury

Iuput II John Romer (Egyptologist)

Iuput (disambiguation) John Shae Perring

Iusaaset Joos van Ghistele

Iushenshen Josef W. Wegner

Iuty Joseph Bonomi the Younger

Iuwelot Joseph Davidovits

Iyibkhentre Joseph Smith Papyri

Iymeru (son of Ankhu) Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt

Iynefer I Jozef Vergote

Iynefer II Juba II

Iytjenu Jubilee Pavilion (hieroglyph)

Izi (Ancient Egyptian ocial) Judicial Papyrus of Turin

Julia Urania
42.11 J Julius Julianus

J. Gwyn Griths Jrgen von Beckerath

Jaa Juridical Stela

James Henry Breasted

James Peter Allen

42.12 K
Jan Assmann Kaaper

Jan Potocki Ka (pharaoh)

Janet Gourlay Ka statue

Jar stand (hieroglyph) Kadashman-Enlil I

Jaroslav ern (Egyptologist) Kaemqed

Jean-Baptiste Prosper Jollois Kaemsekhem

Jean-Franois Champollion Kaemtjenent

Jean Leclant Kagemni I

Jean-Philippe Lauer Kagemni

Jean Yoyotte Kahun Gynaecological Papyrus

Jean-Yves Empereur Kaikhenet (II)

248 CHAPTER 42. INDEX OF ANCIENT EGYPT-RELATED ARTICLES

Kamose Khaemwaset (disambiguation)

Kandake Khaemweset
Kanefer Khaemwaset (Vizier)
Kapes Khafra
Kardunia Khafre Enthroned
Karl Richard Lepsius Khamerernebty I
Karnak Khamerernebty II
Karnak king list Khamudi
Karnak Open Air Museum Khamure
Karomama A Khasekhemwy
Karomama I Khaset (nome)
Karomama II Khat (apparel)
Karomama Meritmut Khawy
Kashta Khay (vizier)
Kte Bosse-Griths Khayu
Kawab Khedebneithirbinet I
Kay (vizier) Khendjer
Kawit (queen) Khenemetneferhedjet I
Kazimierz Michaowski Khenemetneferhedjet II
Kebechet Khenemetneferhedjet III
Kek (mythology) Khenmetptah
Kekheretnebti Khensa
Kemetism Khensit
Keminub Khentetka
Kemsit Khenti-Amentiu
Kenneth Kitchen Khenti-kheti
Kent R. Weeks Khenthap
Kerma Khentkaus I
Kerma Culture Khentkaus II
Khaankhre Sobekhotep Khentkaus III
Khaba Khenut
Khabash Khepresh
Khabekhnet Khepri
Khaemtir Kherty
Khaemwaset (18th dynasty) Kheti (vizier)
Khaemwaset (20th dynasty) Kheti (treasurer)
42.12. K 249

Khety I (nomarch) KV1

Khety II (nomarch) KV2
Khnum KV3
Khnumhotep and Niankhkhnum KV4
Khnumhotep I KV5
Khnumhotep II KV6
Khnumhotep III KV7
Khonsu KV8
Khonsuemheb and the ghost KV9
Khopesh KV10
Khor KV11
Khufu KV12
Khufukhaf I KV13
Khufukhaf II KV14
Khufu ship KV15
Khui KV16
Khuiqer KV17
Khuit KV18
Khuit I KV19
Khyan KV20
Kim Ryholt KV21
King Neferkare and General Sasenet KV26
Kingdom of Kush KV27
Kings Highway (ancient) KV28
Kiosk of Qertassi KV29
Kiya KV30
Km (hieroglyph) KV31
Kmt (magazine) KV32
Kneph KV33
Kohl (cosmetics) KV34
Kom al-Ahmar Necropolis KV35
Kom el-Hisn KV36
Kom El Sultan KV37
Kom Ombo KV38
Kurna KV39
Kurt Heinrich Sethe KV40
250 CHAPTER 42. INDEX OF ANCIENT EGYPT-RELATED ARTICLES

KV41 Land of Goshen

KV42 Land of Punt

KV43 Laomedon of Mytilene

KV44 Late Egyptian language

KV45 Late Period of ancient Egypt

KV46 Layer Pyramid

KV47 Lector priest

KV48 Leon of Pella

KV49 Leonnatus

KV50 Leontopolis

KV51 Leontopolis (Heliopolis)

KV52 Leopard head (hieroglyph)

Lepsius list of pyramids
KV53
Letopolis
KV54
Library of Alexandria
KV55
Libu
KV56
Libyan Palette
KV57
Lighthouse of Alexandria
KV58
Lion-reclining (hieroglyph)
KV59
Lisht
KV60
List of conicts in Egypt
KV61
List of ancient Egyptian dynasties
KV62
List of ancient Egyptian palettes
KV63
List of ancient Egyptian papyri
KV64
List of ancient Egyptian scribes
KV65
List of ancient Egyptian sites
Kyphi
List of ancient Egyptian towns and cities
Kyriakos of Makuria
List of ancient Egyptians
List of burials in the Valley of the Kings
42.13 L
List of children of Ramesses II
Labaya List of DNA-tested mummies
Labib Habachi List of Egyptian deities
Ladice (Cyrenaean princess) List of Egyptian pyramids
Lady of the Lions List of Egyptologists
Lagus List of female Egyptologists
Lake Moeris List of French Egyptologists
42.14. M 251

List of governors of Roman Egypt Luxor

List of hieroglyphs/A Luxor Museum
List of hieroglyphs/AA Luxor Temple
List of hieroglyphs/B Lycopolis (Delta)
List of hieroglyphs/C Lyla Pinch Brock
List of hieroglyphs/D Lysandra
List of hieroglyphs/E Lysimachus
List of hieroglyphs/G
List of hieroglyphs/H 42.14 M
List of hieroglyphs/K
Maahes
List of hieroglyphs/L
Maat
List of hieroglyphs/P
Maat Kheru
List of hieroglyphs/Q
Maathorneferure
List of hieroglyphs/R
Maatkare B
List of hieroglyphs/W
Maatkare Mutemhat
List of hieroglyphs/X
MacGregor plaque
List of hieroglyphs/Y
Machimoi
List of hieroglyphs/Z
Mafdet
List of monarchs of Kerma
Magas of Cyrene
List of monarchs of Kush
Mahat chapel of Mentuhotep II
List of museums of Egyptian antiquities
Mahu (noble)
List of obelisks in Rome
Maia (nurse)
List of pharaohs
Maiherpri
List of Theban tombs
Litany of Re Makuria

Lotus chalice Malewiebamani

Louvre Pyramid Malkata

Lower Egypt Mallus

Lower Nubia Mandulis

Loyalist Teaching Manetho

Lucius Laberius Maximus Manfred Bietak

Lucius Lusius Geta Man-prisoner (hieroglyph)

Lucius Seius Strabo Man-seated: arms in adoration (hieroglyph)

Lucius Volusius Maecianus Manuel de Codage

Ludwig Borchardt Margaret Benson

Luigi Vassalli Margaret Murray

252 CHAPTER 42. INDEX OF ANCIENT EGYPT-RELATED ARTICLES

Marcus Junius Rufus Meidum

Marcus Petronius Mamertinus Meir, Egypt
Marcus Rutilius Lupus Meketaten
Mark Antony Meketre
Markos of Makuria Meleager (general)
Maru-Aten Memphis, Egypt
Maryannu Memphite Formula
Masaharta Menander (general)
Mast (hieroglyph) Menat
Mastaba Mendes
Mastaba of Hesy-Re Menedemus (general)
Mastaba of Kaninisut Menelaus (son of Lagus)
Mastaba of Seshemnefer Menes
Mastaba S3503 Menhet, Menwi and Merti
Mastaba S3504 Menhit
Mastabat al-Firaun Menkare
Matet boat Menkauhor Kaiu
May (noble) Menkaure
Maya (Treasurer) Menkheperre
Maya (High Priest of Amun) Menkheperre (name)
Mayer Papyri Menkheperre (prince)
Mayet (ancient Egypt) Menkheperraseneb I
Mazghuna Menkheperreseneb II
Measuring rod Menna
Medamud Mentuherkhepeshef (son of Ramesses III)
Medinet Habu (location) Mentuherkhepeshef (son of Ramesses IX)
Medinet Habu (temple) Mentuhotep (gods father)
Medinet Habu king list Mentuhotep (treasurer)
Medinet Madi Mentuhotep (queen)
Medius of Larissa Mentuhotep I
Medjay Mentuhotep II
Medjed (sh) Mentuhotep III
Medjed (god) Mentuhotep IV
Mehen Merankhre Mentuhotep
Mehytenweskhet Merdjefare
Mehu Merefnebef
42.14. M 253

Merenhor Merneptah
Merenptah (prince) Merneptah Stele
Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Mero
Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Mersekhemre Ined
Mereret (4th dynasty) Mershepsesre Ini II
Mereruka Meryatum
Meresamun Meryatum II
Meresankh I Meryhathor
Meresankh II Meryibre Khety
Meresankh III Merymose
Meresankh IV Meryneith
Meret Meryptah
Meret-Isesi Meryre
Meretnebty Meryre II
Meretseger Merysekhmet
Meretseger (queen) Meryteti
Merhotepre Ini Merytre-Hatshepsut
Merhotepre Sobekhotep Mesehti
Merikare Mesen-ka
Merimde culture Meshwesh
Meritamen Meskhenet
Meritamen (daughter of Thutmose III) Metjen
Meritaten
Metternich Stela
Meritaten Tasherit
Micha Tyszkiewicz (Egyptologist)
Meriiti
Middle Egyptian language
Meritites
Middle Egyptian: An Introduction to the Language
Meritites I and Culture of Hieroglyphs

Meritites II Middle Kingdom of Egypt

Meritites IV Milan Papyrus

Merit-Ptah Military of ancient Egypt

Merkare Milkilu

Merkawre Sobekhotep Min (god)

Merkheperre Min festival

Merkurios of Makuria Min Palette

Merneferre Ay Mindjedef
Merneith Mining industry of Egypt
254 CHAPTER 42. INDEX OF ANCIENT EGYPT-RELATED ARTICLES

Minkhaf I 42.15 N
Minkhaf II
Naguib Kanawati
Minmontu
Naharin
Minmose
Nakht
Minnefer
Nakhtmin
Minnefer (vizier)
Nakhtmin (charioteer)
Minoan frescoes from Tell el-Daba
Minor tombs in the Valley of the Kings Nakhtneith

Minya, Egypt Nakhtpaaten

Miriam Nakhtubasterau
Miriam Lichtheim Naparaye
Miroslav Verner Napata
Mithrenes Naqada
Mithridates (Persian general)
Naqada III
Mnevis
Narmer
Montu
Narmer Macehead
Montuherkhopshef (son of Ramesses III)
Narmer Palette
Mortuary temple
Nasakhma
Mortuary Temple of Amenhotep III
Nasekheperensekhmet
Mortuary Temple of Hatshepsut
Mortuary Temple of Seti I Nastasen

Moscow Mathematical Papyrus Natakamani

Moses Naucratis

Mouth (hieroglyph) Nauny

Mummication Museum Naziba
Mummy Nearchus
Musaeum Nebamun
Museo Egizio
Nebankh
Mut
Nebemakhet
Mutbaal
Nebet
Mutbenret
Nebet (queen)
Mutemwiya
Nebetah
Muthis
Nebetia
Mutnedjmet
Mutnedjmet Nebetiunet

Mutnofret Nebettawy

Mysteries of Isis Nebiryraw I

Mythographus Homericus Nebiriau II

42.15. N 255

Nebit Neferkare Neby

Nebka Neferkare, ninth dynasty
Nebkaure Khety Neferkare Pepiseneb
Nebmaatre Neferkare Tereru
Nebneteru Tenry Neferkare (Tanis)
Nebpu Neferkauhor
Nebra (Pharaoh) Neferkaure
Nebsenre Nefermaat
Nebtu Nefermaat II
Nebtyemneferes Neferneferuaten
Nebty-tepites Neferneferuaten Tasherit
Nebu Neferneferure
Nebwawy Nefersheshemre
Nebwenenef Nefertari
Necho I Nefertari (18th dynasty)
Necho II Nefertem
Nectanebo I Neferthenut
Nectanebo II Nefertiabet
Nedjeftet Nefertiti
Nedjemibre Nefertiti Bust
Neferefre Nefertkau I
Neferhetepes Nefertkau II
Neferhotep (scribe of the great enclosure) Nefertkau III
Neferhotep I Nefertnesu
Neferhotep III Neferu I
Neferirkare Neferu II
Neferirkare Kakai Neferu III
Neferka Neferuptah
Neferkahor Neferure
Neferkamin Neferweben
Neferkamin Anu Nefrubity
Neferkara I Neheb
Neferkare II Nehebkau
Neferkare VIII Nehi (Viceroy of Kush)
Neferkare Khendu Nehesy
Neferkare Iymeru Nehmes Bastet
256 CHAPTER 42. INDEX OF ANCIENT EGYPT-RELATED ARTICLES

Neith Nile mosaic of Palestrina

Neith (wife of Pepi II) Nilus (mythology)
Neithhotep Nimaathap
Nekauba Nimlot A
Nekhbet Nimlot B
Nekhen Nimlot C
Nekhen (nome) Nimlot of Hermopolis
Nemes Nine bows
Neni Nineteenth Dynasty of Egypt
Neoptolemus (general) Nineteenth Dynasty of Egypt family tree
Neper (mythology) Ninth Dynasty of Egypt
Nepherites I Niqmaddu II
Nepherites II Nisuheqet
Nephthys Nitocris
Nerikare Nitocris I (Divine Adoratrice)
Neserkauhor Nitocris II
Neshmet Nobatia
Nesitanebetashru Nodjmet
Nesitaudjatakhet Nomarch
Nestor L'Hte Nome (country subdivision)
Neter-khertet Nomen (Ancient Egypt)
Netjeraperef Nomos of Haraw
Netjerkare Siptah Northampton Sekhemka statue
Neues Museum North City, Amarna
New Chronology (Rohl) North Riverside Palace
New Kalabsha Northern Mazghuna pyramid
New Kingdom of Egypt Northern Palace (Amarna)
New Wadi es-Sebua Nu (mythology)
Niankhba Nubhetepti
Nicanor (son of Parmenion) Nubhetepti-khered
Nicholas Reeves Nubia
Night (hieroglyph) Nubian pyramids
Nikare Nubkhaes
Nikare II Nubkheperre Intef
Nikaure Nubwenet
Nile Level Texts Nuit
42.17. P 257

Numbers in Egyptian mythology Osorkon IV

Nut (goddess) Osorkon C

Nuya Osorkon the Elder

Nykara Ostracon

Nynetjer Ostracon of Prince Sethenkhopsef

Nyuserre Ini Otto Schaden

Outline of ancient Egypt

42.16 O Overseer of the treasuries

Obelisk Overseer of Upper Egypt

Obelisk making technology in ancient Egypt Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt

Obelisk of Theodosius Oxyartes

Oedipus Aegyptiacus Oxyrhynchus

Ogdoad Oxyrhynchus Papyri

Olbia (Egypt) Ozymandias

Old Egyptian language

Old Kingdom of Egypt

42.17 P
Olympiodorus of Thebes Pabasa

Onomasticon of Amenope Pahemnetjer

Opening of the mouth ceremony Pahura

Opet Festival Pakhet

Oracle of the Lamb Palermo Stone

Oracle of the Potter Pami

Origins of the Hyksos Panehesy

Orly Goldwasser Panehsy (TT16)

Orontobates Panehesy (Vizier)

Oryx nome Pantjeny

Osarseph Paopi

Osireion Papyrology

Osirica Papyrus

Osiris Papyrus Anastasi I

Osiris-Dionysus Papyrus Boulaq 18

Osiris myth Papyrus Harris 500

Osorkon I Papyrus Harris I

Osorkon II Papyrus Hood

Osorkon III Papyrus of Ani

258 CHAPTER 42. INDEX OF ANCIENT EGYPT-RELATED ARTICLES

Papyrus stem (hieroglyph) Pelusium

Paraemheb Penamun
Pareherwenemef Penre
Pareherwenemef (20th dynasty) Pensekhmet
Parennefer called Wennefer Pentawer
Parennefer Penthu
Parmenion Pentu
Parmenion (architect) Pepi I Meryre
Paser (vizier) Pepi II Neferkare
Paser Crossword Stela Pepi III
Paser I Perdiccas
Paser II Perneb
Pashedu Per-Wadjet (Upper Egypt)
Patareshnes Persenet
Pathros Peseshet
Pausanias of Orestis Petbe
Paweraa Peter Dorman
Pawura Peter J. Brand
Payeftjauemawyneith Petiese
Pebatjma Petosiris
Pebekkamen Petubastis III
Pediamenopet Peucestas
Pediese Pharaoh
Pediese, chief of the Ma Pharaoh (novel)
Pedubast I Pharaohs in the Bible
Pedubast II Pharnabazus III
Pedubast (high steward) Pharnuches of Lycia
Peftjauawybast Pheron
Pehen-Ptah Philae
Pehenuikai Philagrius (prefect of Egypt)
Pehernefer Philip (satrap)
Peithon Philip (son of Antipater)
Peithon (son of Agenor) Philip (son of Machatas)
Peksater Philip II of Macedon
Penebui Philip III of Macedon
Pennesuttawy Philistines
42.17. P 259

Philitas of Cos Prehistoric Egypt

Philo Prehotep I
Philotas Prehotep II
Philotas (satrap) Prenomen (Ancient Egypt)
Philoxenus (general) Prince Rahotep
Phrataphernes Princess Khamerernebty
Phut Princess Khentkaus
Piankh Prisse Papyrus
Pick (hieroglyph) Prophecy of Neferti
Pierre Lacau Prostration formula
Pierre Louis Jean Casimir de Blacas Proteus of Egypt
Pierre Montet Psammetichus IV
Pi-hahiroth Psammuthes
Pihuri Psamtik I
Pimay Psamtik II
Pinakes Psamtik III
Pinedjem I Psamtikseneb
Pinedjem II Pschent
Pinehesy Psusennes I
Pipi A Psusennes II
Pi-Ramesses Psusennes III
Pirissi and Tulubri Ptah
Ptati Ptahhotep
Pithom Ptahhotep Desher
Piye Ptahhotep (Djedkare)
Polemon (son of Andromenes) Ptahhotep Tje
Polyperchon Ptahmose (treasurer)
Pomponius Januarianus Ptahmose (vizier)
Portraiture in ancient Egypt Ptahmose, son of Menkheper
Potasimto Ptahmose, son of Thutmose
Pothinus Ptahshepses
Pr (hieroglyph) Ptolemaic Decrees
Praise of the Two Lands (ship) Ptolemaic dynasty
Precinct of Amun-Re Ptolemaic Kingdom
Precinct of Montu Ptolemy (name)
Precinct of Mut Ptolemy (son of Seleucus)
260 CHAPTER 42. INDEX OF ANCIENT EGYPT-RELATED ARTICLES

Ptolemy Apion Pyramid of Merikare

Ptolemy Eupator Pyramid of Neferefre
Ptolemy I Soter Pyramid of Neferirkare
Ptolemy II Philadelphus Pyramid of Reherishefnakht
Ptolemy III Euergetes Pyramid of Sahure
Ptolemy IV Philopator Pyramid of Senusret III
Ptolemy IX Lathyros Pyramid of Teti
Ptolemy Keraunos Pyramid of Unas
Ptolemy of Mauretania Pyramid of Userkaf
Ptolemy Philadelphus (son of Cleopatra) Pyramid Texts
Ptolemy V Epiphanes Pyramidion
Ptolemy VI Philometor Pyramidology
Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator
Ptolemy VIII Physcon 42.18 Q
Ptolemy X Alexander I
Qa'a
Ptolemy XI Alexander II
Qahedjet
Ptolemy XII Auletes
Qakare Ibi
Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator
Qakare Ini
Ptolemy XIV of Egypt
Qalhata
Pu-Ba'lu
Qar (doctor)
Pyhia
Qar (vizier)
Puimre
Qareh
Pylon (architecture)
Qasr Ibrim
Pyramid of Amenemhat III (Dahshur)
Pyramid of Amenemhet I Qebehsenuef

Pyramid of Ameny Qemau Qebui

Pyramid of Athribis Qen

Pyramid of Djedefre Qenna

Pyramid of Djedkare Isesi Qetesh

Pyramid of Djoser Qift

Pyramid of Elephantine Quadrat (hieroglyph block)

Pyramid of Khafre Qubbet el-Hawa

Pyramid of Khendjer Queen of heaven (antiquity)

Pyramid of Khui Qurnet Murai

Pyramid of Menkaure Qus

Pyramid of Merenre QV44

42.19. R 261

QV60 Ranefer

QV66 Raphia Decree

QV68 Rashepses

QV71 Rawer (5th Dynasty)

QV75 Rawer (vizier)

QV80 Raymond O. Faulkner

Reading Egyptian Art: A Hieroglyphic Guide to An-
cient Egyptian Painting and Sculpture
42.19 R
Reanap
R. A. Schwaller de Lubicz
Red Pyramid
Ra
Reginald Engelbach
Rafael of Makuria Rehuerdjersen
Raherka and Meresankh Reisner Papyrus
Rahotep Rekhetre
Ramesses (prince) Rekhmire
Ramesses I Rem (mythology)
Ramesses II Rene Friedman
Ramesses III Renenutet
Ramesses IV Renpet
Ramesses IX Renseneb
Ramesses IX Tomb-plan Ostracon Reptynub
Ramesses V Reserve head
Ramesses VI Resheph
Ramesses VII Retjenu
Ramesses VIII Revenge of the Mummy
Ramesses X Rhind Mathematical Papyrus
Ramesses XI Rhind Mathematical Papyrus 2/n table
Ramesses-Meryamun-Nebweben Rhinocorura
Ramessesnakht Rib-Hadda
Ramesseum Richard William Howard Vyse
Ramesseum medical papyri Herbert Ricke
Ramesseum king list Rifeh
Ramose Rishi con
Ramose (TT55) River God
Ramose (TT7) Robert Hay (Egyptologist)
Ramose and Hatnofer Robert Morkot
262 CHAPTER 42. INDEX OF ANCIENT EGYPT-RELATED ARTICLES

Roemer- und Pelizaeus-Museum Hildesheim Saqqara Tablet

Rosetta Stone Sara Yorke Stevenson

Rosicrucian Egyptian Museum Sarah Israelit Groll

Roxana Sarah Parcak

Royal Tomb of Akhenaten Sarcophagus

Royal Wadi and tombs Sarenput I

Rubutu Sarenput II

Rudamun Sasobek
Satatna

42.20 S Satiah
Satibarzanes
S 10 (Abydos)
Satis (goddess)
Sabef
atiya
Sabni
Satkhnum
Sabu also called Kem
Scarab (artifact)
Sabu also called Tjety
Scorpion I
Sack of Jerusalem (10th century BC)
Scorpion II
Sadeh (queen)
Scorpion Macehead
Saft el-Hinna
Sea Peoples
Sah (god)
Seankhenre Mentuhotepi
Sahure
Seankhibtawy Seankhibra
Sa (island)
Season of the Emergence
Sail (hieroglyph)
Season of the Harvest
Sais, Egypt
Season of the Inundation
Saite Oracle Papyrus Sebayt
SAK S 3 Sebek-khu Stele
Sakir-Har Sebennytos
Sakuji Yoshimura Sebkay
Salima Ikram Second Dynasty of Egypt
Salitis Second Intermediate Period of Egypt
Salomo of Makuria Second Prophet of Amun
Samuel Birch Sed festival
Sanakht Sedjefakare
Sankhenre Sewadjtu Sedment
Saqqara Segerseni
Saqqara Bird Sehebre
42.20. S 263

Sehener Senet
Sehel Island Senewosret-Ankh (vizier)
Seheqenre Sankhptahi Senkamanisken
Sehetepibre Sennedjem
Sehetepkare Intef Sennefer
Seker Sennefer, Chancellor
Sekhem-ankh-Ptah Senseneb
Sekhem scepter Senusret I
Sekhemib-Perenmaat Senusret II
Sekhemkare Senusret III
Sekhemkare (vizier) Senusret IV
Sekhemkhet Senusret (nomarch)
Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senusret (vizier)
Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Sepermeru
Sekhemre Khutawy Sobekhotep Septuagint
Sekhemre Shedwast Seqenenre Tao
Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Seqtet boat
Sekheperenre Serabit el-Khadim
Sekhmet Serapis
Seleucus I Nicator Serdab
Semat Serekh
Sematawytefnakht Serethor
Semenkare Nebnuni Sergio Donadoni
Semenre Serket
Semerkhet Serpopard
Semqen Servant in the Place of Truth
Senakhtenre Ahmose Seshat
Senbuy Seshats emblem
Senebhenaf Seshathetep
Senebi Seshemetka
Senebkay Seshemnefer (III)
Senebtisi Sesheshet
Senedj Sesostris
Senedjemib Inti Set (deity)
Senedjemib Mehi Set animal
Senenmut Setau
264 CHAPTER 42. INDEX OF ANCIENT EGYPT-RELATED ARTICLES

Setepenre Shepenupet I
Setepenre (princess) Shepenupet II
Seth Meribre Shepseskaf
Seth-Peribsen Shepseskaf-ankh
Seti I Shepseskare
Seti II Shepset-ipet
Setnakhte Sherden
Setut Sheretnebty
Seventeenth Dynasty of Egypt Sheshi
Seventh and Eighth Dynasties of Egypt Shezmu
Sewadjare Mentuhotep Shishak
Sewadjkare Shorkaror
Sewadjkare III Shoshenq
Sewadjkare Hori Shoshenq A
Sewahenre Senebmiu Shoshenq C
Shabaka Shoshenq I
Shabaka Stone Shoshenq II
Shadoof Shoshenq III
Shai Shoshenq IV
Shait Shoshenq V
Shanakdakhete Shoshenq VI
Sharek Shu (Egyptian god)
Sharuna Shunet El Zebib
Shashotep Shuroy
Shasu Shuti hieroglyph (two-feather adornment)
Shebitku Sia (god)
Shed (deity) Siamun
Shedeh Siamun (son of Ahmose I)
Shedsu-nefertum Siamun (son of Thutmose III)
Sheikh Abd el-Qurna Siatum
Sheikh Abd el-Qurna cache Side
Sheikh Muftah culture Siege of Alexandria (47 BC)
Shemay Siege of Dapur
Shen ring Siese
Sheneh (pharaoh) Sihathor
Shenshek Silvio Curto
42.20. S 265

Simmias of Macedon Sobkou Planitia

Simon of Makuria Sogdianus of Persia
Siptah Somers Clarke
Sir Herbert Thompson Professor of Egyptology Sonbef
Sirius Sonchis of Sais
Sistrum Sopdet
Sitamun Sopdu
Sitdjehuti Sothic cycle
Sitre Sothis
Sitre In Souls of Pe and Nekhen
Sixteenth Dynasty of Egypt South Saqqara Stone
Sixth Dynasty of Egypt Southern Mazghuna pyramid
Sky (hieroglyph) Southern South Saqqara pyramid
Small Aten Temple Southern Tomb 11
Smendes Southern Tomb 23
Smendes II Southern Tomb 25
Smendes III Spell of the Twelve Caves
Smenkhkare Speos Artemidos
Snaaib Sphinx
Sneferka Sphinx water erosion hypothesis
Sneferu Spitamenes
Soba (city) Spithridates
Sobek Stair-single (hieroglyph)
Sobekemhat Statue of ocial Bes
Sobekemsaf I Statue of Ramesses II
Sobekemsaf II Statue of Sobekneferu
Sobekemsaf (13th Dynasty) Stela of Akhenaten and his family
Sobekhotep III Stela of Pasenhor
Sobekhotep IV Stela of Queen Tetisheri
Sobekhotep VI Stele
Sobekhotep VIII Stele of Ankh-ef-en-Khonsu
Sobekhotep (treasurer) Step pyramid
Sobeknakht Stephen Glanville
Sobeknakht I Stone quarries of ancient Egypt
Sobeknakht II Stool-or-mat (hieroglyph)
Sobekneferu Story of Sinuhe
266 CHAPTER 42. INDEX OF ANCIENT EGYPT-RELATED ARTICLES

Story of Wenamun Tashedkhonsu

Stuart Tyson Smith Tasian culture

Subartu Tatenen

Sun (hieroglyph) Taweret

Sun-shining-with-rays (hieroglyph) Teaching for King Merykara

Sun temple of Userkaf Tebtunis

Supreme Council of Antiquities Tebtunis archive

uta Tebi

uwardata Tefnakht

Swallow (hieroglyph) Tefnakht II

Tefnut

42.21 T Tell El-Dab'a

Tell el-Yahudiyeh Ware
Ta-Bitjet
Tempest Stele
Tadeusz Andrzejewski
Template:Pharaohs
Tadeusz Samuel Smoleski
Template:Egyptian pyramids
Tadibast III
Temple of Amenhotep IV
Tadukhipa
Temple of Beit el-Wali
Tagi (Ginti mayor)
Temple of Dakka
Taharqa
Temple of Debod
Tahmai
Temple of Dendur
Tahpanhes
Temple of Derr
Tahtib
Temple of Edfu
Takelot I
Temple of Ellesyia
Takelot II Temple of Ezbet Rushdi
Takelot III Temple of Hibis
Takhat Temple of Kalabsha
Takhuit Temple of Khonsu
Talatat Temple of Kom Ombo
Tale of the doomed prince Temple of Maharraqa
Tale of the Shipwrecked Sailor Temple of Montu (Medamud)
Tale of Two Brothers Temple of Ptah (Karnak)
Tanedjemet Temple of Satet
Tanis Temple of Taeh
Tantamani Tenenet
Ta-Seti Tennis, Egypt
42.21. T 267

Tentamun (20th dynasty) The Scorpion King

Tentamun (21st dynasty) The Seated Scribe

Tenth Dynasty of Egypt The Seven Hills

Tentkheta The Taking of Joppa

Teos of Egypt The Starving of Saqqara

Teqerideamani I The Younger Lady

Teqerideamani II Thebaid

Tessarakonteres Theban High Priests of Amun

Tether (hieroglyph) Theban Mapping Project

Teti Theban Necropolis

Teti, Son of Minhotep Theban Triad

Tetisheri Thebes, Egypt

Tey Theodore M. Davis

Thas Thodule Devria

Thais of Athens Theriocephaly

Thalamegos Thesh

Thamphthis Thessalonike of Macedon

Tharbis Thinis

The Anabasis of Alexander Thinite Confederacy

The Eloquent Peasant Third Dynasty of Egypt

The Greatest Pharaohs Third Intermediate Period of Egypt

The Indestructibles Thirteenth Dynasty of Egypt

Thirtieth Dynasty of Egypt
The Land of Foam
Thmuis
The lion hunts of Amenhotep III during the rst ten
years of his reign Thomas Schneider (Egyptologist)
The Maxims of Ptahhotep Thomas Young (scientist)
The Mummy (1932 lm) Thoth
The Mummy (1959 lm) Throw stick (hieroglyph)
The Mummy (1999 lm) Thutmose I
The Mummy Returns Thutmose II
The Mummys Ghost Thutmose III
The Mummys Hand Thutmose IV
The Mummys Tomb Thutmose (prince)
The Prince of Egypt Thutmose (sculptor)
The Ritual of Embalming Papyrus Thutmose (18th-dynasty vizier)
The Satire of the Trades Thutmose (19th-dynasty vizier)
268 CHAPTER 42. INDEX OF ANCIENT EGYPT-RELATED ARTICLES

Tiaa TT2
Tiaa (princess) TT3
Tiaa (wife of Seti II) TT4
Tiberius Claudius Balbilus TT5
Tiberius Julius Alexander TT6
Timna Valley TT7
Titus Petronius Secundus TT8
Tiu (pharaoh) TT9 (tomb)
Tiye TT10
Tiye (20th dynasty) TT11
Tiy-Merenese TT12
Tjahapimu TT13
Tjan (queen) TT14
Tjeker TT15
Tjetju TT16
Tjuyu TT17
Tlepolemus (general) TT18
Tomb ANB TT19
Tomb C.3 TT20
Tomb D.1 TT21
Tomb of Aline TT22
Tomb of Horemheb TT23
Tomb of Meryra TT24
Tomb of Meryra II TT25
Tomb of Nebamun TT26
Tomb of Panehsy TT27
Tomb of Perneb TT28
Tomb of Thutmose TT29
Tomb of two Brothers TT30
Tombos Stela TT31
Tombs of the Nobles (Amarna) TT32
Tombs of the Nobles (Luxor) TT33 (tomb)
Tora, Egypt TT34
Trajans Kiosk TT35
Transliteration of Ancient Egyptian TT36
TT1 TT37
42.21. T 269

TT38 TT111
TT39 TT120
TT40 TT133
TT41 TT137
TT42 TT138
TT43 TT147
TT44 TT156
TT45 TT157
TT46 TT164
TT47 TT168
TT48 TT169
TT49 TT170
TT50 TT171
TT51 TT172
TT52 TT174
TT55 TT177
TT56 TT178
TT57 TT184
TT58 TT187
TT60 TT188
TT61 TT189
TT62 TT191
TT63 TT192
TT64 TT193
TT65 TT194
TT66 TT195
TT67 TT196
TT69 TT210
TT71 TT211
TT81 TT212
TT82 TT213
TT89 TT214
TT96 TT216
TT99 TT223
TT100 TT226
TT106 TT240
270 CHAPTER 42. INDEX OF ANCIENT EGYPT-RELATED ARTICLES

TT255 Twenty-sixth Dynasty of Egypt family tree

TT280 Twenty-sixth Dynasty of Egypt timeline
TT282 Twenty-third Dynasty of Egypt

TT319 Two Ladies

TT359 Two whips with shen ring (hieroglyph)

TT382 Twosret

TT383 Tyet

TT385
TT390 42.22 U
TT391 Udjahorresnet
TT409 Udjebten
Tulli Papyrus Ukhhotep II
Tuna el-Gebel Umm El Qa'ab
Tunip Unas
Turin King List Unnished Northern Pyramid of Zawyet El Aryan
Turin Papyrus Map Unnished obelisk
Tushratta Unnished Pyramid of Abusir
Tutankhamun University of Michigan Papyrology Collection
Tutankhamun and the Daughter of Ra Unlucky Mummy
Tutenstein Unut
Tutkheperre Shoshenq Upper and Lower Egypt
Tutu (Egyptian god) Upper Egypt
Tutu (Egyptian ocial) Uraeus
Tuya (queen) Urkunden der 18. Dynastie
Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt Urkunden des gyptischen Altertums
Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt family tree Urkunden des Alten Reichs
Twentieth Dynasty of Egypt Uronarti
Twenty-eighth Dynasty of Egypt Usekh collar
Twenty-fth Dynasty of Egypt User (Ancient Egyptian ocial)
Twenty-fth Dynasty of Egypt family tree Useramen
Twenty-rst Dynasty of Egypt Userhet
Twenty-fourth Dynasty of Egypt Userkaf
Twenty-ninth Dynasty of Egypt Userkare
Twenty-second Dynasty of Egypt Usermontu (mummy)
Twenty-seventh Dynasty of Egypt Usermontu (vizier)
Twenty-sixth Dynasty of Egypt Ushabti
42.25. X 271

42.23 V Wehem Mesut

Valley of the Kings Wendjebauendjed

Valley of the Pharaohs Weneg (Egyptian deity)

Valley of the Queens Weneg (pharaoh)

Veil of Isis Wenennefer (High Priest of Osiris)

Viceroy of Kush Wepwawet

Victor Loret Wepwawetemsaf
Victory stele of Esarhaddon Werbauba
Viper (hieroglyph)
Werethekau
Vivant Denon
Werner Hu
Vizier (Ancient Egypt)
Westcar Papyrus
Vladimir Golenishchev
Wetjes-Hor
Voyage d'Egypte et de Nubie
White Chapel
Vulture (hieroglyph)
White Pyramid

42.24 W Wick (hieroglyph)

Wilbour Papyrus
Wadi el-Hudi
William Ayres Ward
Wadi es-Sebua
William C. Hayes
Wadi Hammamat
Wadi Maghareh William J. Field

Wadjet William L. Moran

Wadjitefni Wonderful Ethiopians of the Ancient Cushite Empire

Wadjetrenput Workmens Village, Amarna

Wadjmose Wosret
Wadj-wer WV22
Wahibre Ibiau WV23
Wahkare Khety
WV24
Wahneferhotep
WV25
Wah-Sut
WVA
Walls-of-the-Ruler
Was-sceptre
42.25 X
Washptah
Wazad Xerxes I

Wazner Xerxes II of Persia

Wegaf Xois
272 CHAPTER 42. INDEX OF ANCIENT EGYPT-RELATED ARTICLES

42.26 Y
Ya'ammu Nubwoserre
Yabitiri
Yam (god)
Yakareb
Yakbim Sekhaenre
Yanhamu
Yantin-'Ammu
Yapa-Hadda
Yapahu
Yaqub-Har
Year 400 Stela
Yidya
Younger Memnon
Yuny
Yuya
Yuyu (High Priest of Osiris)

42.27 Z
Zacharias I of Makuria
Zacharias III of Makuria
Zahi Hawass
Zahi Hawass bibliography
Zakaria Goneim
Zannanza
Zawyet Umm El Rakham
Zawyet El Aryan
Zawyet el-Maiyitin
Zemar
Zeno of Kaunos
Zimredda (Lachish mayor)
Zimredda (Sidon mayor)
Zita (Hittite prince)
Zoomorphic palette

42.28 See also

Outline of ancient Egypt
Chapter 43

Interregnum queen

An interregnum queen is ideally the Great Royal Wife

of a former Egyptian pharaoh, according to a 1932 report.
In this given scenario, she eectively rules as regent in the
place of her son until he reaches the age to assume the role
of pharaoh. As it stands, the son is already presumed to
be the de jure pharaoh, sharing power with his mother. In
practice, the interregnum queen acts as sole ruler until the
son comes of age. The term may have been the equivalent
of the term Kings Mother or even "Queen Mother". In
some respects, the title is very much similar to that of
a queen regent, as both roles require the leadership of a
female monarch acting on behalf of the royal ospring.

273
Chapter 44

Kings Highway

This article is about an ancient trade route. For other the Highway turned northward through the Arabah, past
uses, see Kings Highway. Petra and Ma'an to Udruh, Sela, and Shaubak. It passed
through Kerak and the land of Moab to Madaba, Rabbah
The Kings Highway was a trade route of vital impor- Ammon/Philadelphia (modern Amman), Gerasa, Bosra,
Damascus, and Tadmor, ending at Resafa on the upper
tance in the ancient Near East, connecting Africa with
Mesopotamia. It ran from Egypt across the Sinai Penin- Euphrates.
sula to Aqaba, from where it turned northward across
Transjordan, leading to Damascus and the Euphrates
River. 44.2 History
After the Muslim conquest of the Fertile Crescent in the
7th century CE and until the 16th century it served as 44.2.1 Iron Age
the darb al-hajj or pilgrimage road for Muslims coming
from Syria, Iraq and beyond and heading for the holy city Numerous ancient states, including Edom, Moab,
of Mecca.[1] Ammon, and various Aramaean polities depended largely
on the Kings Highway for trade.
In modern Jordan, Highway 35 and Highway 15 follow
this route, connecting Irbid in the north with Aqaba in
the south. The southern part crosses several deep wadis, 44.2.2 Classical Antiquity
making it a highly scenic if curvy and rather low-speed
road.[1] The Nabataeans used this road as a trade route for lux-
ury goods such as frankincense and spices from south-
ern Arabia. It was possibly the cause of their war with
44.1 Route Hasmonean Alexander Jannaeus and with Iturea in the
beginning of the 1st century BC.[2]
During the Roman period the road was called Via Regia.
Emperor Trajan rebuilt and renamed it Via Traiana Nova,
under which name it served as a military and trade road
along the fortied Limes Arabicus.

44.2.3 Byzantine Period

The Via Maris (purple), Kings Highway (red), and other ancient
Levantine trade routes, c. 1300 BCE
The Highway has also been used as an important
pilgrimage route for Christians, as it passed next to Mount
Nebo, Moses' death and burial site according to the Bible.
Another road connected it with Jerusalem via al-Maghtas,
the Baptism Site on the Jordan River (where Jesus is be-
lieved to have been baptized by John the Baptist), Livias
and Jericho.

The Highway began in Heliopolis, Egypt and from there 44.2.4 After the Muslim conquest
went eastward to Clysma (modern Suez), through the
Mitla Pass and the Egyptian forts of Nekhl and Themed After the Muslim conquests, the road was used it as the
in the Sinai desert to Eilat and Aqaba. From there main Hajj route from Syria to Mecca, until the Ottoman

274
44.5. REFERENCES 275

Turks built the Tariq al-Bint in the 16th century.[3]
A dicult time was during the Crusader period, when
the road passed through the province of Oultrejordain of
the Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem.[3] During periods
of truce the Hajj caravans were usually left unharmed
by the Crusader lords of Oultrejourdain, with the mem-
orable exception of Raynald of Chtillon, who attacked
and plundered the pilgrims twice. His deeds would even-
tually lead not only to his own death at the hands of
Saladin, but altogether to the fall of the Crusader king-
dom in 1187.[4][5]
[3] Petersen, Andrew (2013). The Lost Fort of Mafraq and
the Syrian Hajj Route in the 16th Century. In Porter,
Venetia; Saif, Liana. The Hajj: collected essays. p. 21.
ISBN 9780861591930.
[4] Hamilton, Bernard (1978). The Elephant of Christ: Rey-
nald of Chtillon. Studies in Church History (15): 97
108.
[5] Runciman, Stephen (1951). The History of the Crusades.
Volume II. The Kingdom of Jerusalem and the Frankish
East 1100 1187. Cambridge University Press. pp. 445,
450. ISBN 0-521-06162-8.

[6] Numbers 21:23-24

44.3 In the Bible

The Kings Highway or Derech HaMelech is referred to in
the Book of Numbers, (Numbers 20:17, 21:22), where
it is related that the Israelites, in their Exodus journey
needed to use the road. They had left from Kadesh, and
requested right of way across from King Edom but were
refused passage. He vowed he would attack them if they
used the road. They even oered to pay for any water
their cattle drank. Still King Edom refused them passage
and advanced against them with a large and heavily armed
force. After making a detour and coming to the Transjor-
dan area between River Arnon and River Jabbok.,[6] they
directed the same request to Sihon the Amorite King, and
for the second time on the same road they were denied
passage and King Sihon engaged them in battle at Jahaz.
And they won that battle by the edge of the sword, a close
call. -As a result, they gained control in that land and to
the north of it. The tribes of Manasseh (eastern half),
Gad, and Reuben subsequently settled those territories.
Many of the wars of the Israelites against the kingdoms
of the trans-Jordanian highlands during the period of the
Kingdom of Israel (and its sister-kingdom, the Kingdom
of Judah) were probably fought, at least in part, over con-
trol of the Highway.

44.4 See also

Incense Route
Via Maris
Way of the Patriarchs

44.5 References
[1] Lonely Planet, Jordan

[2] Kasher, Aryeh (1985-01-01). Alexander Yannais Wars

with the Nabataeans / " .
Zion / ( in Hebrew). 50: 107120. ISSN 0044-4758.
JSTOR 23559931; English abstract: JSTOR 23559946,
p. XI.
Chapter 45

Mastaba

Example of a mastaba Piece of waste limestone. Accounts, in black ink, by workmen

of the number of stone blocks delivered for the Meidum Pyra-
A mastaba (/mstb/,[1] /mstb/ or /mstb/) mid. 4th Dynasty. From Pyramid waste, mastaba 17 at Meidum,
or pr-djt (meaning house for eternity or eternal house Egypt. The Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology, London
in Ancient Egyptian) is a type of ancient Egyptian tomb
in the form of a at-roofed, rectangular structure with in-
ward sloping sides, constructed out of mud-bricks (from began by burying their dead in pit graves dug out from
the Nile River) or stone. These edices marked the burial the sand. The body of the deceased was buried inside the
sites of many eminent Egyptians during Egypts Early Dy- pit on a mat, usually along with some items believed to
nastic Period and Old Kingdom. In the Old Kingdom help them in the afterlife. The rst tomb structure that
epoch, local kings began to be buried in pyramids in- the Egyptians built was the mastaba. Mastabas provided
stead of in mastabas, although non-royal use of mastabas better protection from scavenging animals and grave rob-
continued for over a thousand years. Egyptologists call bers. However, the human remains were not in contact
these tombs mastaba, which is the Arabic word for stone with the dry desert sand, so natural mummication could
bench.[2] not take place. Use of the more secure mastabas re-
quired Ancient Egyptians to devise a system of articial
mummication.[5] Until at least the Old Period or First In-
termediate Period, only high ocials and royalty would
45.1 History be buried in these mastabas.[6]

The afterlife was a main focus of Egyptian civilization

and ruled every aspect of the society. This is reected
in their architecture and most prominently by the enor- 45.2 Structure
mous amounts of time, money, and manpower involved
in the building of their tombs.[3] Ancient Egyptians be- The word 'mastaba' comes from the Arabic word for
lieved the soul could live only if the body was preserved a bench of mud,[7] and when seen from a distance a
from corruption and depredation as well as fed.[4] mastaba does resemble a bench. Historians speculate
Starting from the Predynastic era and into the later dynas- that the Egyptians may have borrowed architectural ideas
ties, the ancient Egyptians developed increasingly com- from Mesopotamia since [8]
at the time they were both build-
plex and eective methods for preserving and protecting ing similar structures.
the bodies of the dead. The Ancient Egyptians initially The above-ground structure of a mastaba is rectangular

276
45.4. REFERENCES 277

Structure of a mastaba

in shape with inward-sloping sides and a at roof. The

exterior building materials were initially bricks made of
sun dried mud, which was readily available from the Nile
River. Even after more durable materials like stone came
Map of the Giza Plateau, showing the mastabas constructed
into use, all but the most important monumental struc-
within the complex
tures were built from the easily available mud bricks.[9]
Mastabas were often about four times as long as they were
wide, and many rose to at least 30 feet in height. The Mastabas evolved over the early dynastic period. During
mastaba was built with a north-south orientation, which the 1st Dynasty, a mastaba was constructed simulating
the Ancient Egyptians believed was essential for access house plans of several rooms, a central one containing
to the afterlife. This above-ground structure had space the sarcophagus and others surrounding it to receive the
for a small oering chapel equipped with a false door. abundant funerary oerings. The whole was built in a
Priests and family members brought food and other of- shallow pit above which a brick superstructure covering
ferings for the soul, or ba, of the deceased because Egyp- a broad area. The typical 2nd and 3rd Dynasty mastabas
tians believed that the soul had to be maintained in order was the 'stairway mastaba', the tomb chamber of which
to continue to exist in the afterlife. sank deeper than before and was connected to the top with
[14]
Inside the mastaba, a deep chamber was dug into the an inclined shaft and stairs.
ground and lined with stone and bricks. The burial Even after pharaohs began to construct pyramids for their
chambers were cut deep, until they passed the bedrock, tombs in the 3rd Dynasty, members of the nobility con-
and were lined with wood.[10] A second hidden cham- tinued to be buried in mastaba tombs. This is especially
ber called a serdab (), from the Persian word for evident on the Giza Plateau, where hundreds of mastaba
cellar,[11] was used to store anything that may have been tombs have been constructed alongside the pyramids.
considered essential for the comfort of the deceased in the
afterlife, such as beer, cereal, grain, clothes, and precious In the 4th Dynasty (ca. 2613 to 2494 BC), rock-cut tombs
items.[12] The mastaba housed a statue of the deceased began to appear. These were tombs built into the rock
that was hidden within the masonry for its protection. clis in Upper [15]
Egypt in an attempt to further thwart grave
High up the walls of the serdab were small openings that robbers. Mastabas, then, were developed with the ad-
would allow the ba to leave and return to the body (repre- dition of oering chapels and vertical shafts. 5th Dy-
sented by the statue); Ancient Egyptians believed the ba nasty mastabas had elaborate chapels consisting of sev-
had to return to its body or it would die. These openings eral rooms, columned halls and 'serdab'. The actual tomb
were not meant for viewing the statue but rather for al- chamber was built below the south-end of mastaba, con-
lowing the fragrance of burning incense, and possibly the nected by a slanting passage to a stairway emerging in the
spells spoken in rituals, to reach the statue. [13] center of a columned hall or court.
By the time of the New Kingdom (which began with the
18th Dynasty around 1550 BC), the mastaba becomes
45.3 Architectural Evolution rare, being largely superseded by the independent pyra-
mid chapel above a burial chamber.[16]
The mastaba was the standard type of tomb in pre-
dynastic and early dynastic Egypt for both the pharaoh
and the social elite. The ancient city of Abydos was the 45.4 References
location chosen for many of the cenotaphs. The royal
cemetery was at Saqqara, overlooking the capital of early [1] Mastaba: denition. Collins Dictionary. n.d. Retrieved
times, Memphis.[14] 23 October 2014.
278 CHAPTER 45. MASTABA

[2] Mastaba Tomb of Perneb. Met Museum. Retrieved 22

October 2016.

[3] Hamlin, Talbot (1954). Architecture through the Ages.

New York: Putnam. p. 30.

[4] Badawy, Alexander (1966). Architecture in Ancient Egypt

and the Near East. Cambridge: MIT Press. p. 46.

[5] Ancient Egypt and the Near East. Cambridge: MIT Press.
1966. p. 7.

[6] BBC. mastabas. BBC. Retrieved 29 May 2013.

[7] Gardiner, A. (1964). Egypt of the Pharahos. New York:

Oxford University Press. p. 57 n7.

[8] Gascone, Bamber. History of architecture. History of

the world. Retrieved 29 May 2013.

[9] R., C. L. (1913). A Model of the Mastaba-Tomb of

Userkaf-Ankh. Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin. 8
(6): 125130. JSTOR 3252928.

[10] BBC. Mastabas. bbc. Retrieved 29 May 2013.

[11] Bard, K. A. (1999). Encyclopedia of the Archaeol-

ogy of Ancient Egypt. New York: Routledge. ISBN
0415185890.

[12] Lewis, Ralph. Burial practices, and Mummies. Rosi-

crucian Museum. Retrieved 29 May 2013.

[13] Arnold, Dorothea (1999). When the Pyramids were Built:

Egyptian Art of the Old Kingdom. New York: Metropoli-
tan Museum of Art. p. 12. ISBN 0870999087.

[14] Fletcher, Banister (1996). A History of Architecture

(20th ed.). Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann. ISBN
0750622679.

[15] R., L. E. (1910). Two Mastaba Chambers. Museum of

Fine Arts Bulletin. 8 (45): 1920. JSTOR 4423469.

[16] Badawy, Alexander (1966). Architecture in Ancient Egypt

and the Near East. Cambridge: MIT Press. p. 51.
Chapter 46

Migdol

Migdol, or migdal, is a Hebrew word (,

) which means either a tower (from its size
or height), an elevated stage (a rostrum or pulpit), or a
raised bed (within a river). Physically, it can mean forti-
ed land, i.e. a walled city or castle; or elevated land, as
in a raised bed, like a platform, possibly a lookout. The
term for a border fort is similar, mekter, in Egyptian. Fig-
uratively, tower has connotations of proud authority.
The Book of Exodus records that the children of Israel en-
camped at Pi-hahiroth between Migdol and the Red Sea,
before their crossing.
Joshua referred to Migdal-Gad, tower of Gad, one
of the fortied cities of Judah, and also to Migdal-El,
tower of God, one of the fortied towns of Naphtali
(Joshua 19.38) and the city of origin of Mary Magde-
lene (Magdala) (Matthew 27:56; Mark 16:9; Luke 8:2
and John 20:18).
Jeremiah referred to a Migdol in Egypt, (Jeremiah
44:1) an island in the Nile, and Ezekiel referred to the
Migdol of Syene, in Upper Egypt, in the context of the
seat of government. The letters of uta refer to a Mag-
dalu in Egypt which Albright identied with Jeremiahs
Migdol. [1]
Migdal Ha'emek is a large hill surrounded by the Kishon
river, west of Nazareth.

46.1 References
[1] The future of biblical archaeology: reassessing method-
ologies and ... - Page 105 James Karl Homeier, Alan
Ralph Millard - 2004 What is important for us is the iden-
tication of the Migdol referred to here and the meaning
of the phrase Akka is like Magdalu in Egypt. Albright,
who was certain that the Migdol here is the Migdol of the
Bible, translates that ...

279
Chapter 47

Min

The Min is a modern working copy of an Ancient Egyp-

tian ship of Hatshepsut's time, built for the BBC docu-
mentary The Pharaoh Who Conquered the Sea. It was
named after the Egyptian fertility god Min.[1]

47.1 References
[1] BBC Four television programme The Pharaoh who Con-
quered the Sea, 10 to 11 pm, Wednesday 9 March 2011

http://heritage-key.com/blogs/ann/
all-aboard-ancient-egyptian-ship-sails-legendary-land-punt

280
Chapter 48

Naharin

This article is about the kingdom. For Israeli dancer and

choreographer, see Ohad Naharin.

Naharin, MdC transliteration nhrn, was the Ancient

Egyptian term for the kingdom of Mitanni[1] during the
New Kingdom period of the 18th Dynasty. The New
Kingdom 18th dynasty was in conict with the king-
dom of Mitanni for control of the Levant from the reigns
of Thutmose I, [2] Thutmose III [3] and Amenhotep
II.[4] Amenhotep IIs son, Thutmose IV, would eventually
make peace with the Mitannians.[5] Henceforth, relations
between Egypt and Naharin (Mitanni) were peaceful with
much diplomatic gift giving according to the correspon-
dence of the Amarna Letters. The military annals of
pharaoh Thutmose III refer to Naharin in explicit terms.
In his 33rd Year, Thutmose III records:

His Majesty travelled north capturing the towns

and laying waste the settlements of that foe Na-
harin.[6]

48.1 Literature
J. H. Breasted, Ancient Records of Egypt, Part Two,
Chicago 1906

48.2 References
[1] Ermann & Grapow, 19261953, Wrterbuch der gyptis-
chen Sprache 2, 287.1

[2] Breasted, op.cit., 81

[3] Breasted, op.cit., 476

[4] Breasted, op.cit., 476

[5] Thutmose IV. Encyclopdia Britannica. Ultimate Ref-

erence Suite. Chicago: Encyclopdia Britannica, 2008.

[6] Ancient Egyptian Joint Operations in the Lebanon under

Thutmose III (1451-1438 BCE)" in Semaphore, Newslet-
ter of the Sea Power Centre - Australia, issue 16, August
2006 p.2

281
Chapter 49
Neo-Assyrian Empire
The Neo-Assyrian Empire was an Iron Age
Mesopotamian empire, in existence between 911
and 612 BC.[1][2] The Assyrians perfected early tech-
niques of imperial rule, many of which became standard
in later empires.[3] Following the conquests of Adad-
nirari II in the late 10th century BC, Assyria emerged
as the most powerful state in the known world at the
time, coming to dominate the Ancient Near East, East
Mediterranean, Asia Minor, Caucasus, and parts of the
Arabian peninsula and North Africa, eclipsing and con-
quering rivals such as Babylonia, Elam, Persia, Urartu,
Lydia, the Medes, Phrygians, Cimmerians, Israel, Judah,
Phoenicia, Chaldea, Canaan, the Kushite Empire,
the Arabs, and Egypt.[4][5] The Neo-Assyrian Empire
succeeded the Old Assyrian Empire (c. 2025-1378 BC),
and the Middle Assyrian Empire (1365-1050 BC) of the
Late Bronze Age. During this period, Aramaic was also
made an ocial language of the empire, alongside the
Akkadian language.[6]
Upon the death of Ashurbanipal in 627 BC, the em-
pire began to disintegrate due to a brutal and unremit-
ting series of civil wars in Assyria proper. In 616
BC, Cyaxares king of the Medes and Persians made
alliances with Nabopolassar ruler of the Babylonians
and Chaldeans, and also the Scythians and Cimmerians
against Assyria. At the Fall of Harran (609 BC) the
Babylonians and Medes defeated an Assyrian-Egyptian
alliance, after which Assyria largely ceased to exist as an 49.1.1 Middle Assyrian Empire
independent state, although the Assyrian army and rem-
nants of its administration continued to hold out around
Carchemish until 605 BC, and around Dur-Katlimmu un-
til perhaps as late as 599 BC.
49.1 Background
Assyria was originally an Akkadian kingdom which moving against Assyrian centers. By the end of the
evolved in the 25th to 24th centuries BC. The earliest As- 2nd millennium BC, the Aramaean expansion had re-
syrian kings such as Tudiya were relatively minor rulers, sulted in the loss
and after the founding of the Akkadian Empire, which
lasted from 2334 BC to 2154 BC, these kings became
subject to Sargon of Akkad, who united all the Akkadian
and Sumerian speaking peoples of Mesopotamia (includ-
ing the Assyrians) under one rule.
282
The urbanised Akkadian speaking nation of Assyria
emerged in the mid 21st century BC, evolving from the
dissolution of the Akkadian Empire. In the Old Assyr-
ian period of the Early Bronze Age, Assyria had been a
kingdom of northern Mesopotamia (modern-day north-
ern Iraq), competing for dominance initially with the
Hattians and Hurrians of Asia Minor, and the ancient
Sumero-Akkadian city states such as Isin, Ur and Larsa,
and later with Babylonia which was founded by Amorites
in 1894 BC, and often under Kassite rule. During the
20th century BC, it established colonies in Asia Minor,
and under the 20th century BC King Ilushuma, Assyria
conducted many successful raids against the states of the
south.
Assyria fell under the control of the Amorite chieftain
Shamshi-Adad I (c. 1809 1776 BC), who established
a dynasty and was unusually energetic and politically
canny, installing his sons as puppet rulers at Mari and
Ekallatm.[7] Following this it found itself under short pe-
riods of Babylonian and Mitanni-Hurrian domination in
the 17th and 15th centuries BC respectively, followed
by another period of power from 1365 BC to 1074 BC,
that included the reigns of kings such as Ashur-uballit
I, Tukulti-Ninurta I (r. 12441208 B.C.), and Tiglath-
Pileser I.
Ashur-uballit extended Assyrian control over the rich
farming lands of Nineveh and Arbela to the north.[8]
Tiglath-Pileser controlled the lucrative caravan routes
that crossed the fertile crescent from the Mediterranean
to the Persian Gulf.[9] Much campaigning by Tiglath-
Pileser and succeeding kings was directed against Ara-
maean pastoralist groups in Syria, some of whom were
[8]
of much Assyrian territory in Upper
Mesopotamia.
After the death of Tiglath-Pileser I in 1076 BC, Assyria
was in comparative decline for the next 150 years. The
period from 1200 BC to 900 BC was a dark age for the
entire Near East, North Africa, Caucasus, Mediterranean
49.2. HISTORY
and Balkan regions, with great upheavals and mass move-
ments of people. Assyria was in a stronger position
during this time than potential rivals such as Egypt,
Babylonia, Elam, Phrygia, Urartu, Persia and Media[10]
49.2 History
49.2.1 Adad-nirari II (911-891 BC)
Beginning with the campaigns of Adad-nirari II,
Assyria again became a great power, overthrow-
ing the Twenty-fth dynasty of Egypt and conquer-
ing Elam, Urartu, Media, Persia, Mannea, Gutium,
Phoenicia/Canaan, Arabia, Israel, Judah, Philistia,
Edom, Moab, Samarra, Cilicia, Cyprus, Chaldea,
Nabatea, Commagene, Dilmun, Shutu and neo Hittites;
driving the Nubians, Kushites and Ethiopians from Egypt;
defeating the Cimmerians and Scythians; and exacting
tribute from Phrygia among others. Adad-nirari II and
his successors campaigned on an annual basis for part of
every year with an exceptionally well-organized army.[7]
He subjugated the areas previously under only nominal
Assyrian vassalage, conquering and deporting Aramean
and Hurrian populations in the north to far-o places.
Adadinirari II then twice attacked and defeated Shamash-
mudammiq of Babylonia, annexing a large area of land
north of the Diyala river and the towns of Hit and Zanqu
in mid Mesopotamia. He made further gains over Baby-
lonia under Nabu-shuma-ukin I later in his reign. He was
succeeded by Tukulti-Ninurta II in 891 BC, who further
consolidated Assyrias position and expanded northwards
into Asia Minor and the Zagros Mountains during his
short reign.
The next king, Ashurnasirpal II (883859 BC), embarked
on a vast program of expansion. During his rule, Assyria
recovered much of the territory that it had lost around
1100 BC at the end of the Middle Assyrian period.[8]
Ashurnasirpal II also campaigned in the Zagros Moun-
tains in modern Iran, repressing a revolt against Assyrian
rule by the Lullubi and Gutians. The Assyrians began
boasting in their ruthlessness around this time. Ashur-
nasirpal II also moved his capital to the city of Kalhu
(Calah/Nimrud). The palaces, temples and other build-
ings raised by him bear witness to a considerable devel-
opment of wealth and art. Ashurnasirpal II introduced a
policy of mass deportation of conquered people, which
continued on a greatly increased scale under his son,
Shalmaneser III.[11]
49.2.2 Shalmaneser III to Adad-nirari III 49.2.3 Period of stagnation, 783745 BC
(859783 BC)
Adad-nirari III died prematurely in 783 BC, and this led
Ashurnasirpals son, Shalmaneser III (859824 BC), had to a period of true stagnation. Shalmaneser IV (783-73
a long reign of 35 years, in which the capital was con- BC) seems to have wielded little authority, and a victory
verted into an armed camp. Each year the Assyrian over Argishti I, king of Urartu at Til Barsip, is accredited
283
armies marched out to campaign. Babylon was occu-
pied, and Babylonia reduced to vassalage. He fought
against Urartu and marched an army against an alliance of
Aramean states headed by Hadadezer of Damascus and
including Ahab, king of Israel, at the Battle of Qarqar
in 853 BC. Despite Shalmanesers description of 'van-
quishing the opposition', it seems that the battle ended in
a deadlock, as the Assyrian forces were withdrawn soon
afterwards.
Shalmaneser took the neo Hittite state of Carchemish in
849 BC, and in 842 BC, marched an army against Hazael,
King of Damascus, besieging the city and forcing tribute,
but not taking it. In 841 BC, he also brought under trib-
ute Jehu of Israel, and the Phoenician states of Tyre, and
Sidon. His black obelisk, discovered at Kalhu, records
many military exploits of his reign.[12]
The last four years of Shalmanesers life were disturbed
by the rebellion of his eldest son Ashur-nadin-aplu that
nearly proved fatal to Assyria. Twenty seven cities,
including Assur, Arbela, Arrapkha (Kirkuk) and other
places joined the pretender. The rebellion was not di-
rected primarily against the king, but rather against the
provisional governors such as Dayan-Ashur who had as-
sumed disproportionate power. The revolt was quashed
with diculty by Shamshi-Adad V, Shalmanesers sec-
ond son, who succeeded him upon his death in 824 BC.
The long and bitter civil war had allowed the Babylonians
to the south, the Medes, Manneans, the Persians to the
north and east, the Arameans, and the Neo-Hittites in
the west to largely shake o Assyrian rule, and Shamshi-
Adad V spent the remainder of his reign reasserting con-
trol over those peoples. During this period, Urartu took
the opportunity to reassert its inuence on the region. As
a result of all these events, Assyria did not expand fur-
ther during the reign of Shamshi-Adad V. Adad-nirari III
was a boy when succeeding his father in 811 BC, and for
ve years until 806 BC, his mother, Queen Sammuramat
(also depicted as Semiramis) ruled as regent in his stead.
Despite the numerous legends regarding this queen, she
is mentioned little in Assyrian records of the time.
In 806 BC, Adad-nirari III took the reins of power.
He invaded the Levant and subjugated the Arameans,
Phoenicians, Philistines, Israelites, Neo-Hittites and
Edomites. He entered Damascus and forced tribute upon
its king Ben-Hadad III. He next turned to Iran, and subju-
gated the Persians, Medes and Manneans, penetrating as
far as the Caspian Sea. His next targets were the Chaldean
and Sutu tribes of southeastern Mesopotamia whom he
conquered and reduced to vassalage.
284 CHAPTER 49. NEO-ASSYRIAN EMPIRE

to a general ('Turtanu') named Shamshi-ilu who does not of Assyria, he invaded Babylonia, defeated its king
even bother to mention his king. Shamshi-ilu also scored Nabonassar, and abducted the gods of apazza; these
victories over the Arameans and Neo-Hittites, and again, events are recorded in the Assyrian-Babylonian Chron-
takes personal credit at the expense of his king. icle.[13]
Ashur-dan III ascended the throne in 772 BC. He proved After subjecting Babylon to tribute, defeating Urartu
to be a largely ineectual ruler who was beset by internal and conquering the Medes, Persians and Neo-Hittites,
rebellions in the cities of Ashur, Arrapkha, and Guzana. Tiglath-Pileser III directed his armies into Aramea, of
He failed to make further gains in Babylonia and Aram which large swathes had regained independence, and
(Syria). His reign was also marred by Plague and an omi- the commercially successful Mediterranean seaports of
nous Solar Eclipse. Ashur-nirari V became king in 754 Phoenicia. He took Arpad near Aleppo in 740 BC after
BC, but his reign seems to have been one of permanent a siege of three years, and razed Hamath. Azariah, king
revolution, and he appears to have barely left his palace of Judah had been an ally of the king of Hamath, and thus
in Nineveh before he was deposed by Tiglath-Pileser III was compelled by Tiglath-Pileser to do him homage and
in 745 BC, bringing a resurgence to Assyria. pay yearly tribute.

49.3 Tiglath-Pileser III, 744727 49.3.1 Invasion of Israel (738 BC)

BC
In 738 BC, during the reign of king Menahem of Israel,
Tiglath-Pileser III occupied Philistia (modern-day south-
Main article: Tiglath-Pileser III western Israel and the Gaza Strip) and invaded Israel, im-
When Tiglath-Pileser III ascended the throne, Assyria posing on it a heavy tribute.[14] Ahaz, king of Judah, en-
gaged in a war against Israel and Aramea, appealed for
help to the Assyrian king by means of presents of gold
and silver;[15] Tiglath-Pileser III accordingly marched
MEDIA
Gozam
against Damascus, defeated and put king Rezin to death,
Ninevah

ASSYRIA
BETH-EDEN and besieged the city itself. Leaving part of his army to
Asshur

Hamath continue the siege, he advanced, ravaging with re and

sword the provinces east of the Jordan (Nabatea, Moab
Eu
ph
rat
es
Byblos Riv

Damascus
and Edom), Philistia, and Samaria; and in 732 BC he took
er

Babylon
Tig
ris
Riv
er

the chief Aramean state of Damascus, deporting many of

Samaria
Jerusalem
Assyrian Empire
9th century BCE its inhabitants and the Israelite inhabitants of Samaria to
Deportation by
Tiglath-pileser III
(734-732 BCE)
Area conquered by
Assyria. He also forced tribute from the Arabs of the
Tiglath-pileser III
Deportation by
Shalmaneser V & Sargon II
(745-727 BCE)
deserts in the Arabian peninsula.
(724-729 BCE)
Deportation by
Sargon II
(716-715 BCE)
In 729 BC, Tiglath-Pileser III went to Babylonia and
captured Nabu-mukin-zeri, the king of Babylon.[16] He
Deportation of Israelites by the Assyrian Empire
had himself crowned as King Pulu of Babylon. Tiglath-
Pileser III died in 727 BC, and was succeeded by
was in the throes of a revolution. Civil war and pestilence
Shalmaneser V. However, King Hoshea of Israel sus-
were devastating the country, and many of Assyrias most
pended paying tribute, and allied himself with Egypt
northerly colonies in Asia Minor had been wrested from it
against Assyria in 725 BC. This led Shalmaneser to in-
by Urartu. In 746 BC, the city of Kalhu joined the rebels,
vade Syria[17] and besiege Samaria (capital city of Israel)
but on the 13th of Iyyar in the following year, an Assyrian
for three years.[18]
general (Turtanu) named Pulu seized the crown under the
name of Tiglath-pileser III, and made sweeping changes
to the Assyrian government, considerably improving its
eciency and security. 49.4 Sargonid dynasty
The conquered provinces were organized under an elab-
orate bureaucracy, with the king at the head each dis- 49.4.1 Sargon II, 721705 BC
trict paying a xed tribute and providing a military con-
tingent. The Assyrian forces at this time became a pro-
Shalmaneser V died suddenly in 722 BC, while laying
fessional standing army; and Assyrian policy was hence-
siege to Samaria, and the throne was seized by Sargon
forth directed toward reducing the whole civilized world
II, the Turtanu (commander-in-chief of the army, which
into a single empire, throwing its trade and wealth into
the Jewish sources record as Tartan), who then quickly
Assyrian hands. These changes are often identied as the
took Samaria, eectively ending the northern Kingdom
beginning of the Second Assyrian Empire. of Israel and carrying 27,000 people away into captivity
When Tiglath-Pileser III had ascended the throne into the Israelite diaspora.[19]
49.4. SARGONID DYNASTY
An Assyrian winged bull, or lamassu, from Sargons palace at
Dur-Sharrukin.
Sargon II waged war in his second year (721 BC)
against the king of Elam, Humban-Nikash I, and his ally
Marduk-apal-iddina II (the biblical Merodach-Baladan),
the Chaldean ruler of Babylon, who had thrown o As-
syrian rule,[20] but Sargon was unable to dislodge him on
this occasion.[21] Sargon, able to contain the revolt but not
actually retake Babylon on this occasion, turned his at-
tention again to Urartu and Aramea, taking Carchemish
in 717, as well as re-conquering the Medes, Persians
and Manneans, penetrating the Iranian Plateau as far as
Mount Bikni and building several fortresses. Urartu suf-
fered a crushing defeatits capital city was sacked and its
king Rusas committed suicide in shame. The Neo-Hittite
states of northern Syria were conquered, as well as Cilicia
and Commagene.
Assyria was belligerent towards Babylonia for ten years
while Marduk-apla-iddina ruled Babylon.[22] In 710 BC,
Sargon attacked Babylonia and defeated Marduk-apla-
iddina, who ed to his protectors in Elam.[23] As a result
of this victory the Greek rulers of Cyprus gave allegiance
to Assyria and king Midas of Phrygia, fearful of Assyrian
power, oered his hand in friendship. Sargon also built a
new capital at Dur Sharrukin (Sargons City) near Nin-
eveh, with all the tribute Assyria had collected from var-
ious nations.
49.4.2 Sennacherib, 705681 BC
In 705 BC, Sargon was killed in battle while driving
out the Cimmerians, who had come down from their
homeland on the shores of the Black Sea and attacked
the Assyrian-ruled colonies and peoples in Iran, forc-
ing its Persian subjects southwards from their original
lands around Urmia. He was succeeded by his son
Sennacherib,[24] who moved the capital to Nineveh and
285
made the deported peoples work on improving Ninevehs
system of irrigation canals. His rst task was to arm his
control over Cilicia, which was attempting to rebel with
Greek help. Sennacherib marched into Cilicia, defeating
the rebels and their Greek allies. He also reasserted As-
syrias mastery of Corduene in Asia Minor.
The Egyptians had begun agitating peoples within the As-
syrian empire in an attempt to gain a foothold in the re-
gion. As a result, in 701 BC, Hezekiah of Judah, Lule
king of Sidon, Sidka, king of Ascalon and the king of
Ekron formed an alliance with Egypt against Assyria.
Sennacherib attacked the rebels, conquering Ascalon,
Sidon and Ekron and defeating the Egyptians and driving
them from the region. He marched toward Jerusalem,
destroying 46 towns and villages (including the heavily
defended city of Lachish) in his path. This is graphically
described in Isaiah 10; exactly what happened next is un-
clear (the Bible says an angel of the Lord killed 185,000
Assyrian soldiers at Jerusalem after Hezekiah prayed in
the temple).[25] Sennacheribs account says Judah paid
him tribute and he left.
The Hebrew Bible states that Hezekiah did pay trib-
ute once, and the Assyrians left, but returned a second
time when the soldiers were then killed; however what
is certain is that Sennacherib failed to actually capture
Jerusalem. Marduk-apla-iddina had returned to Babylo-
nia during the reign of Sennacherib. The Assyrian king
attacked him in 703 BC outside Kish and defeated him.
Sennacherib plundered Babylonia and pursued Marduk-
apla-iddina through the land. At his return to Assyria,
Sennacherib installed a puppet ruler, Bel-ibni, as king of
Babylon.[26] Bel-ibni, however, committed hostilities, so
Sennacherib returned to Babylon in 700 BC and captured
him and his ocers. Sennacherib instead installed his
own son Ashur-nadin-shumi on the throne of Babylon.[27]
Assyrian warship, a bireme with pointed bow, 700 BC.
Sennacherib launched a campaign against Elam in 694
BC and ravaged the land. In retaliation, the king of Elam
attacked Babylonia. Ashur-nadin-shumi was captured
and brought back to Elam and a new king called Nergal-
ushezib was installed as ruler of Babylon.[28] The Assyr-
ians returned the next year to Babylonia and plundered
286 CHAPTER 49. NEO-ASSYRIAN EMPIRE

the gods of Uruk. Nergal-uezib and his Elamite allies oners, and the Ethiopians captives, young and old, naked
were defeated by Assyria, and he was taken prisoner and and barefoot, even with their buttocks uncovered, to the
transported to Assyria.[29] Another native ruler, called shame of Egypt. 5 And they shall be afraid and ashamed
Mushezib-Marduk, soon seized the throne of Babylon. of Ethiopia their expectation, and of Egypt their glory.
He held on to it with help of his Elamite allies for Assyria defeated Urartu, annexed much of its territory
four years until 689 BC, when the Assyrians retook the and reduced it to vassalage, and expanded southwards
city.[30] Sennacherib responded swiftly by opening the as far as Dilmun (Bahrain) and into Arabia at this time.
canals around Babylon and ooding the outside of the city This was perhaps Assyrias greatest territorial extent.
until it became a swamp, resulting in its destruction, and
However, the Assyrian governors and local puppet rulers
its inhabitants were scattered. Esarhaddon had appointed over Egypt were obliged to
In 681 BC, Sennacherib was murdered while praying to ee the restive native populace who yearned for inde-
the god Nisroch by one or more of his own sons (allegedly pendence now that the Kushites and Nubians had been
named Adremelech, Abimlech, and Sharezer), perhaps as ejected.
retribution for his destruction of Babylon.[31][32] A new campaign was launched by Esarhaddon in 669 BC.
However, he became ill on the way and died. His elder
son Shamash-shum-ukin became king of Babylon and his
49.4.3 Esarhaddon, 681669 BC
son Ashurbanipal became king of Assyria, with Ashur-
banipal holding the senior position and Babylon subject
Sennacherib was succeeded by his son Esarhaddon
to Nineveh.[34] Bel and the gods of Babylonia returned
(Ashur-ahhe-iddina), who had been governor of Babylo-
from their exile in Assur to Babylon in the rst year of
nia; at the time of his fathers murder he was campaign-
Shamash-shum-ukins reign, and the akitu festival could
ing in the Caucasus Mountains against Urartu, where he
be celebrated for the rst time in twenty years.[35]
won a victory at Malatia (Milid). During the rst year of
Esarhaddons rule, a rebellion broke out in the south of
Babylonia. Nabu-zer-kitti-liir, an ethnic Elamite gover-
nor of the mat Tamti, with the help of the Chaldeans, laid 49.4.4 Ashurbanipal, 668627 BC
siege to Ur. The Elamite and his Chaldean allies were
defeated and he ed to his kinsmen in Elam (Hal-Tamti);
however, the king of Elam took him prisoner and put
him to the sword (ABC 1 Col.3:3942); also in (ABC
14:14).
In 679 BC the Cimmerians and Scythians (a horse-
riding horde from what is now southern Russia) crossed
the Taurus Mountains and harassed Assyrian colonies in
Cilicia. Esarhaddon swiftly attacked and drove these ma-
rauders away.
As king of Assyria, Esarhaddon immediately had Baby-
lon rebuilt, and made it one of his capitals. Defeating
the Scythians, Cimmerians and Medes (again penetrat-
ing to Mt. Bikni), he then turned his attention westward Part of the Lion Hunt of Ashurbanipal, c. 645-635 BC
to Phoenicianow allying itself with the Nubian/Kushite
rulers of Egypt against himand sacked Sidon in 677 Ashurbanipal, or Ashur-bani-apli (Ashurbanapli, As-
BC. He also captured King Manasseh of Judah and napper), succeeded his father Esarhaddon to the throne.
kept him prisoner for some time in Babylon (2 Chroni- He continued to campaign in and to dominate Egypt,
cles 33:11). Having had enough of Egyptian meddling, when not distracted by having to deal with pressures from
Esarhaddon raided Egypt in 673 BC. Two years later he the Medes to the east, and Cimmerians and Scythians
launched a full invasion and conquered Egypt, chasing the to the north of Assyria. He installed a native Egyp-
Pharaoh Taharqa back to Nubia, thus bringing to an end tian Pharaoh, Psammetichus, as a vassal king in 664
Nubian-Kushite rule in Egypt, and destroying the Kushite BC. However, after Gyges of Lydia's appeal for Assyr-
Empire which had begun in 760 BC. ian help against the Cimmerians was rejected, Lydian
The Babylonian Chronicles retells how Egypt was sacked mercenaries were sent to Psammetichus. By 652 BC,
and its gods were abducted.[33] The pharaoh Tirhakah this vassal king was able to declare outright independence
ed Egypt, and a stele commemorating the victory, was from Assyria with impunity, particularly as Ashurbani-
set up at Sinjerli in Asia Minor, north of the Gulf of pals older brother, Shamash-shum-ukin of Babylon, be-
Antioch; it is now in the Pergamon Museum, Berlin. The came infused with Babylonian nationalism, and began a
Bible graphically recounts Egypts demise in Isaiah 20:4 major civil war in that year. However, the new dynasty in
So shall the king of Assyria lead away the Egyptians pris- Egypt wisely maintained friendly relations with Assyria.
49.5. FALL OF ASSYRIA, 627609 BC 287

Shamash-shum-ukin attempted to raise a huge rebellion
encompassing many vassal peoples against Ashurbanipal;
however, this largely failed. This rebellion lasted until
648 BC, when Babylon was sacked, and Shamash-shum-
ukin set re to the palace, killing himself. Ashurbani-
pal then set about punishing the Chaldeans, Arabs and
Nabateans who had supported the Babylonian revolt. He
invaded the Arabian Peninsula and routed and subjugated
the Arabs, including the powerful Qedar tribe, taking
much booty back to Nineveh and killing the Arab kings,
Abiate and Uate. The Nabateans who dwelt south of the
Dead Sea and in northern Arabia, and the Chaldeans in
the far south east of Mesopotamia were also defeated and
subjugated. Elam was the next target; it was attacked in
646 and 640 BC, and its capital Susa sacked.
long struggle with Babylonia and Elam and their allies,
and the constant campaigning to control and expand its
vast empire in all directions, left Assyria exhausted. It
had been drained of wealth and manpower; the devastated
provinces could yield nothing to supply the needs of the
imperial exchequer, and it was dicult to nd sucient
troops to garrison the huge empire.
Assyria, therefore, was ill-prepared to face the renewed
hordes of Scythians who now began to harass the frontiers
to the north and north east. After the Assyrians destroyed
Elam, the Medes had begun to grow powerful, becoming
the dominant force among the Iranian peoples who had
begun to settle the regions to the east of Mesopotamia
circa 1000 BC at the expense of the Persians and the
pre-Iranian Elamites and Manneans, and they were by
the end of Ashurbanipals reign only nominally under
Assyrian vassalage. Asia Minor too was full of hos-
tile Scythians and Cimmerians who had overrun Urartu,
Lydia and Phrygia, before being driven back by the As-
syrians. However, while Ashurbanipal lived, he was able
to contain these potential threats.

49.5 Fall of Assyria, 627609 BC

Upon Ashurbanipals death in 627 BC, the empire be-

gan to disintegrate rapidly after a series of bitter civil
wars broke out involving a number of claimants to the
throne. Ashur-etil-ilani succeeded Ashurbanipal, but was
immediately embroiled in a civil war with one of his
own generals, Sin-shumu-lishir, who seized control of
Babylonia and then briey took the throne of Assyria it-
self. He in turn was deposed by Sinsharishkun. After
nally defeating his rivals, Sinsharishkun faced a much
larger threat. His Babylonian vassal state had taken ad-
vantage of the upheavals in Assyria and rebelled under
the previously unknown Nabopolassar, a member of the
Costumes of an Assyrian High Priest (left) and a King (right). Chaldean tribe, in 625 BC. What followed was a long war
fought in the Babylonian heartland. Nabopolassar tried
Ashurbanipal had promoted art and culture, and had built to capture Nippur, the main Assyrian center of power in
a vast library of cuneiform tablets at Nineveh. After the Babylonia, but was defeated by Sinsharishkun. However
crushing of the Babylonian revolt Ashurbanipal appeared Nabopolassar did take the actual city of Babylon after a
master of all he surveyed. To the east, Elam was devas- popular uprising there, and was crowned king of the city
tated and prostrate before Assyria, the Manneans and the in 625 BC.
Iranian Persians and Medes were vassals. To the south,Sinsharishkun then lost more ground, before he suc-
Babylonia was occupied, the Chaldeans, Arabs, Sutu andceeded in recapturing Uruk in about 624 BC, only to
Nabateans subjugated, the Nubian empire destroyed, andquickly lose it again. When Sinsharishkun led a large
Egypt paid tribute. To the north, the Scythians and army to Babylonia in 623 BC in an attempt to nally crush
Cimmerians had been vanquished and driven from As- the rebellion, yet another war broke out in the Assyrian
syrian territory, Urartu, Phrygia, Corduene and the neo
homeland. A relief army was sent back from the Baby-
Hittites were in vassalage, and Lydia pleaded for Assyrian
lonian campaign but changed sides, thereby allowing the
protection. To the west, Aramea (Syria), the Phoenicians,
usurper to reach the capital, Nineveh, without interfer-
Israel, Judah, Samarra and Cyprus were subjugated, andence, and claim the throne. Sinsharishkun was able to
the Hellenised inhabitants of Caria, Cilicia, Cappadocia
quell the homeland rebellion but precious time was lost
and Commagene paid tribute to Assyria. to solve the Babylonian problem, and Nabopolassar was
Assyria now appeared stronger than ever. However, his able to consolidate his position.
288 CHAPTER 49. NEO-ASSYRIAN EMPIRE

In 620 BC Nabopolassar nally captured Nippur, becom- 49.6 Assyria after the fall
ing master of Babylonia. While these events were un-
folding, the Medes had also freed themselves from As- After its fall, Assyria came to be ruled by the Median Em-
syrian domination and consolidated power in what was to pire as Athura for a short period. Ironically, Nabonidus,
become Persia. In 616 BC Cyaxares, the Median king, the last king of Babylon, was Assyrian, originating from
made an alliance with Nabopolassar and with the help of Harran, as was his son Belshazzar. After this it was ruled
the Scythians and Cimmerians attacked Assyria. Assyria by Achaemenid Persia (Assyria revolted against Persia in
now faced overwhelming odds, and after four years of bit- 520 BC), Seleucid Greece, then again by various Persian
ter ghting, the coalition destroyed Nineveh in 612 BC dynasties, Sassanids, Parthians, etc. For a brief period
after a long siege, followed by house-to-house ghting. under Trajan, it was ruled by Rome.
Thus the Assyrian empire fell, Sinsharishkun being killed Assyria survived as an entity, a subject province. The
in the process. A general called Ashur-uballit II was de- name survived also in various forms (Athura, Asuristan,
clared king of Assyria, and with belated military support Roman Province of Assyria, Seleucid Syria, etc.) and the
from the Egyptian pharaoh Necho II, whose dynasty had land was recognised as such by the Persians, Greeks, Ro-
been installed by the Assyrians, held out at Harran until mans, Armenians, Georgians and Byzantines. After the
609 BC.[36] Egyptian aid continued to the Assyrians, who Arab conquest of the late 7th century AD the province of
desperately attempted to curb the increasing power of the Assyria was nally dissolved.
Babylonians and Medes.
Assyrian culture survived; Assyrio-Babylonian gods were
In 609 BC at the Battle of Megiddo, an Egyptian force worshipped well into Christian times, as late as the 4th
defeated a Judean force under king Josiah and man- century AD , and temples were still being dedicated to
aged to reach the last remnants of the Assyrian army. the god Ashur in his home city in the late 3rd century
In a nal battle at Harran in 609 BC the Babylonians AD. A number of kingdoms that were Neo-Assyrian,
and Medes defeated the Assyrian-Egyptian alliance, after
such as Assur, Hatra, Osroene and Adiabene, sprung up
which Assyria ceased to exist as an independent state.[36]
in Assyria between the 2nd century BC and 4th cen-
In 605 BC, another Egyptian force fought the Babyloni- tury AD. Christianity took hold between the 1st and
ans, helped by part of the army of the former Assyria, but
3rd centuries AD, and Parthian and Sassanid Assyria
this too met with failure. It is not known if Ashur-uballit
(Asuristan) became the center of the Assyrian Church of
II was killed at Harran or Carchemish, or if he survived;
the East, Syriac Christianity and Syriac Literature (the
anyway, he subsequently disappeared from the pages of term Syria being an Indo-European (Luwian) corrup-
history. tion of Assyria adopted by the Greeks.[40] ), where it
In the mid-6th century BC, Babylonia and Assyria still survives.
became provinces of the Persian Empire. In 482 BC, As-
syria made a nal attempt to regain independence with
a large-scale rebellion against the Achaemenid Empire, 49.7 Role of the Aramaic language
which was suppressed by king Darius II.
Though the Assyrians during the reign of Ashurbanipal From the 8th century, the Aramaic language had grad-
destroyed the Elamite civilization, the Assyrians culture ually established itself as a lingua franca of the Empire.
did inuence the succeeding empires of the Medes and By the 6th century, it had marginalized the Akkadian lan-
the Persians, Indo-Iranian peoples who had been domi- guage so much that Aramaic came to be the imperial lan-
nated by Assyria.[37] guage of Achaemenid Assyria. One of the key factors
contributing to the use of Aramaic was the rise and fall
of Assyria; during her rule, deportations, colonizations
and interbreeding increased contact between Arameans
and Assyrians.
49.5.1 Environmental factors In eect the populations of both Assyria and Babylo-
nia had become an ethnic mix of native Akkadians and
A.W. Schneider and S.F. Adah have suggested that Arameans. As the Empire fell, only the elite knew how to
increased population coupled with severe drought read and write the Akkadian script. The savage sacking
contributed to signicant economic and political of Nineveh and Assur, as well as numerous other Assyr-
instability.[38][39] Conquered peoples were often ian cities, ensured that few of these elites survived to pass
deported great distances and resettled in Assyrian the language on. It is known however that some cities
provinces to minimize the possibility of revolts.[7] The such as Arrapkha were spared the destruction.
Assyrian heartland had undergone a population explosion The Akkadian language did survive the fall of Assyria; the
during the late 8th and early 7th centuries, largely due last recorded writings in Akkadian cuneiform date from
to the forced resettlement of conquered peoples into the the 1st century AD, and writings in the Akkadian lan-
empire. guage (but in Aramaic/Syriac script) date as late as the
49.10. REFERENCES
3rd century AD.
49.8 Culture
Further information: Assyrian sculpture, Art and archi-
tecture of Assyria, and Ancient Assyrian religion
Several of the most ancient works of Mesopotamian
literature are best preserved in Neo-Assyrian copies.
Thus, there are 7th-century copies of both the Epic of
Gilgamesh and the Enma Eli from Ashurbanipal's li-
brary in Nineveh, as well as Neo-Assyrian versions of the
Atra-Hasis.
Neo-Assyrian cuneiform is the nal stage of the long evo-
lution of the cuneiform script. The number of glyphs
was reduced, and the glyph shapes were standardized
and simplied, so that modern cuneiform sign invento-
ries are usually based on the Neo-Assyrian glyph shapes.
Neo-Assyrian cuneiform remained in use alongside the
Aramaic alphabet well into Parthian times. The Aramaic
language from the 8th century BC was adopted as the
Lingua Franca of the Assyrian Empire and continued by
the Achaemenid Empire. Assyrian scribes are often de-
picted in pairs: one writing in Akkadian on the cuneiform
tablet, the other writing in Aramaic on the parchment or
papyrus.
The main cities that existed in Assyria itself were
Nineveh, Ashur, Kalhu (Calah, Nimrud), Sippar,
Opis, Arrapkha (Kirkuk), Harran, Arbela (Erbil) and
Ekallatum. Outside of Assyria proper, major cities
at various times under Assyrian domination were
Babylon, Damascus (Dimashq), Thebes, Memphis, Tyre,
Sidon, Ecbatana, Hattusa, Jerusalem, Susa, Persepolis,
Carchemish, Sardis, Ur, Uruk, Nippur and Antioch.
At the end of the Bronze Age, Nineveh was much smaller
than Babylon, but still one of the worlds major cities
(population about 33,000). By the end of the Neo-
Assyrian period, it had grown to a population of some
120,000, and was possibly the largest city of that time.
All free male citizens were obliged to serve in the army
for a time, a system which was called the ilku-service. [11] Parpola, Simo. National and Ethnic Identity in the Neo-
The Assyrian law code was compiled during this period.
49.9 See also
Assyria
Timeline of the Assyrian Empire
Achaemenid Assyria
Assur
Mesopotamian Religion
289
Ancient Near East
Military history of the Neo-Assyrian Empire
Babylonia
49.10 References
[1] Roux, Georges (1982) Ancient Iraq, p.283, 376 (Pen-
guin, Harmondsworth)
[2] Pollard, Elizabeth (2015). Worlds Together Worlds Apart.
500 Fifth Ave New York, NY: W.W. Norton Company
Inc. pp. 128130. ISBN 978-0-393-91847-2.
[3] Pollard, Elizabeth (2015). Worlds Together Worlds Apart.
W.W. Norton & Company. p. 128. ISBN 978-0-393-
92207-3.
[4] Assyrian Eponym List. Retrieved 23 November 2014.
[5] Tadmor, H. (1994). The Inscriptions of Tiglath-Pileser III,
King of Assyria.pp.29
[6] Frye, Richard N. (1992). Assyria and Syria: Synonyms.
PhD., Harvard University. Journal of Near Eastern Stud-
ies. And the ancient Assyrian empire, was the rst real,
empire in history. What do I mean, it had many dierent
peoples included in the empire, all speaking Aramaic, and
becoming what may be called, Assyrian citizens. That
was the rst time in history, that we have this. For exam-
ple, Elamite musicians, were brought to Nineveh, and they
were 'made Assyrians which means, that Assyria, was
more than a small country, it was the empire, the whole
Fertile Crescent.
[7] Neo-Assyria, Colorado State University
[8] Assyria, 1365609 B.C. in Heilbrunn Timeline of Art
History Department of Ancient Near Eastern Art, The
Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York,(originally pub-
lished October 2004, last revised April 2010,)
[9] Boardman, John and Edwards I. E. S., The Cambridge
Ancient History, Cambridge University Press, 1982 ISBN
9780521224963
[10] Roux, pp.282-283.
Assyrian Empire and Assyrian Identity in Post-Empire
Times, Journal of Assyrian Academic Studies, Vol. 18,
no. 2, 2004
[12] Black Obelisk, K. C. Hansons Collection of
Mesopotamian Documents. K.C. Hansen. Retrieved 23
November 2014.
[13] ABC 1 Col.1:5
[14] 2 Kings 15:19
[15] 2 Kings 16:8
[16] ABC 1 Col.1:21
[17] 2 Kings 17:5
290 CHAPTER 49. NEO-ASSYRIAN EMPIRE

[18] ABC 1 Col.1:27 [39] Schuster, Ruth. Assyrian Empire was destroyed by
drought and crowding, study says, Haaretz April 11,
[19] 2 Kings 17:16, 24; 18:7, 9 2015
[20] 2 Kings 20:12 [40] http://www.aina.org/articles/ttaasa.pdf

[21] ABC 1 Col.1:31-37

Women and their Agency in the Neo-Assyrian Em-
[22] ABC 1 Col.1:41-42 pire, Saana Teppo, Masters Thesis, April 2005.
University of Helsinki, Faculty of Arts, Institute for
[23] ABC 1 Col.2:1-3
Asian and African Studies, Assyriology.
[24] 2 Kings 18:13; 19:37; Isa. 7:17, 18

[25] I Kings 18-19

49.11 Sources
[26] ABC 1 Col.2:12-23
Roux, Georges (1982) Ancient Iraq, (Penguin,
[27] ABC 1 Col.2:26-31 Harmondsworth)
[28] ABC 1 Col.2:3645

[29] ABC 1 Col.2:46 Col.3:6 49.12 External links

[30] ABC 1 Col.3:1324
http://www3.uakron.edu/ziyaret/historical.html
[31] Dalley, Stephanie (2007-11-29). Esthers revenge at Susa.
pp. 6366. ISBN 9780199216635. http://www.webcitation.org/query?url=http:
//www.geocities.com/garyweb65/neoassy.html&
[32] According to 2 Kings 19:37, while praying to the god date=2009-10-25+22:30:02
Nisroch, he was killed by two of his sons, Adramalech,
and Sharezer, and both of these sons subsequently ed to http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-55456/
Urartu; this is repeated in Isaiah 37:38 and alluded to in 2 history-of-Mesopotamia
Chronicles 32:21.
Chart of World Kingdoms, Nations and Empires -
[33] ABC 1 Col.4:25; also in ABC 14:2829 All Empires
[34] ABC 1 Col.4:3033 and ABC 14:3132, 37 Lanfranchi, Giovanni B., The Expansion of the
[35] ABC 1 14:3439 and ABC 1 Col.4:3436 Neo-Assyrian Empire and itsperipheries: Military,
Political and Ideological Resistance
[36] Grant, R G. Battle a Visual Journey Through 5000 Years
of Combat. London: Dorling Kindersley, 2005 pg 19 BetBasoo, Peter. Brief History of Assyrians, As-
syrian International News Agency
[37] Hirad Dinavari. More alike than dierent. The Iranian.
The cultural give and take inuenced the many things
some of which are the cuneiform writing and the building
of ziggurats which the later Assyrians and the Achaemenid
(Hakhamaneshi) Persians inherited. The Assyrians for
the most part were responsible for the destruction of the
Elamite civilization but the Assyrians inuenced the cul-
tures of Media and Urartu and the inuence of Elam lived
on among the Medes and Persians. The various Iranian
speaking peoples who had been coming into what is now
Caucasus Iran, Afghanistan and Central Asia since around
4 thousand BCE were heavily inuenced by the aborigi-
nal Elamites and the Semitic Babylonians and Assyrians.
This dierence can be most noticed when one compares
other Iranian speaking peoples who lived in Eurasia like
the Scything and Sarmatians whose culture was very dif-
ferent with that of Iranian tribes who settled in the Iranian
Plateau and became more intertwined with Slavic peoples.
So from that far back Iran (the geographic location) has
been multi-ethnic.

[38] Schneider, A. W. and Adah, S. F., No Harvest Was

Reaped, Climate Change, pp.435-436, 2014, DOI
10.1007/s10584-014-1269-y
Chapter 50

Nile Valley Civilizations

The term Nile Valley Civilizations is sometimes used

in Afrocentrism or Pan-Africanism to group a number
of interrelated and interlocking, regionally distinct cul-
tures that formed along the length of the Nile Valley from
its headwaters in Ethiopia and Sudan to its mouth in the
Mediterranean Sea.
Introduced around 1970,[1] it was popularized by Ivan
Van Sertima in the 1980s and saw wide use in Afrocen-
tric publications during the 1990s, e.g. Festus Ugboaja
Ohaegbulam, Towards an understanding of the African
experience from historical and contemporary perspectives,
University Press of America (1990); Runoko Rashidi, In-
troduction to the study of African clasical [sic] civilizations
(1992), Walter Arthur McCray, The Black Presence in the
Bible: Discovering the Black and African Identity of Bib-
lical Persons and Nations, Urban Ministries Inc, (1995),
etc.

50.1 References
[1] Yosef Ben-Jochannan, African origins of the major
Western religions, African-American heritage series,
Alkebu-lan Books, 1970

291
Chapter 51

Noph

Noph or Moph was the Hebrew name for the ancient

Egyptian city of Memphis, which stood on the Nileear the
site of modern-day Cairo. It is mentioned several times
in the Hebrew Bible (Isaiah 19:13; Jeremiah 2:16; 44:1;
46:14, 19; Ezekiel. 30:13, 16).

292
Chapter 52

North City, Amarna

The North City was an administrative area in the Ancient [3] Cheng, Scarlet. The Age of Amarna. A Blink in the
Egyptian city of Amarna in Upper Egypt, the short- Eye of Eternal Egypt. 15 (3). Despite his radical beliefs,
lived capital of Pharaoh Akhenaten of the 18th Dy- Akhenaten did not abandon all tradition, and he apparently
nasty. It contains the ruins of royal palaces, especially prepared a royal tomb for himself and his family in the
the Northern Palace and other administrative buildings clis of Amarna.
and occupies an area between the river and the clis that
terminate the plains to the north of the city itself.[1]
Akhetaten was the capital city of the Dynasty XVIII king,
Akhenaten, called by some the heretic king. Akhenaten,
formerly Amenhotep IV, built his city in a bay of clis
on the east bank of the Nile as a centre for the worship
of his new religion, Atenism. The archaeology of the
city is dened by low excavated or reconstructed walls
and in some cases only bare outlines of the structures can
be made out on the sand-covered plain, since most of the
stonework was removed in ancient times and any remain-
ing mudbrick is badly decayed. Only one generation af-
ter Akhenatens death, there were few physical remains
of his superb innovative structures, for a short moment in
history one of the greatest cities of ancient Egypt. [2]
The brief Age of Amarna was a period of startling artis-
tic and cultural breakthroughs. Amenhotep IV came to
the throne about 1350 B.C. and redirected the state re-
ligion to the worship of one god, the sun god Aten, and
suppressed the worship of others. Some have called him
the worlds rst monotheist. Amenhotep IV changed
his name to Akhenaten (One Who Serves Aten) and
moved his capital from Thebes down the Nile to an area
he named Akhetaten (Horizon of the Sun-Disk), today
known as Amarna. It was previously unoccupied and thus
was a blank page upon which the pharaoh could write
his new history of the world. Despite his radical beliefs
(monotheism), Akhenaten did not abandon all tradition,
and he apparently prepared a royal tomb for himself and
his family in the clis of Amarna. His mummy is yet to
be found. [3]

52.1 References
[1] North City, Amarna The Place. The Amarna Project.
Retrieved 2009-03-13.

[2] Akhetaten at el-Amarna.

293
Chapter 53

Nubia (Mesolithic) / Nile boat

The Nile River is a major resource for the people living
along it, especially thousands of years ago. The El Salha
Archaeological Project discovered an abundance of evi-
dence of an ancient boat that traveled the Nile River dat-
ing back to 3,000 years ago. Pictographs and pebble carv-
ings were uncovered, indicating a boat more advanced
than a simple canoe. This evidence of a progressed Nile
boat includes a steering system which may have been used
in the Nile for shing and transportation.
the approximate center of the boat. A composite steering
system can be discerned with a tiller placed at a greater
than 45 angle with a long pole ending in an ovoid blade.
Tiller and pole with blade are xed to the top of a ver-
tical yoke. Boat and steering system design resemble
those painted on the walls of Badarian huts and pottery
jars. There are similarities with some boats depicted in
rock engravings in Nubia (Sudan); and those painted on
walls and pottery in the Gerzan and Nagada cultures of
Predynastic Egypt.

53.1 Discovery
The earliest evidence for an ancient boat on the Nile is
a rock art pictograph that dates to the Mesolithic. The
El Salha Archaeological Project of the Italian Institute
for African and Oriental Studies has been working in the
central Sudan since the fall of 2000. The projects pri-
ority is the archeology of the Mesolithic and Neolithic
cultures of this region of the Nile Valley. Of great inter-
est to maritime archeology is an elongated burial mound
on the west bank of the Nile, 25 km south of Omdurman.
Beneath this Post-Meriotic burial and disturbed deposits
was a compact, homogeneous layer of the Khartoum
Mesolithic. Diagnostic gastropods were in this layer and
radiocarbon dating delineates a time span of 7050 to 6820
BC.
An important artifact that speaks to the early history of
boat design and ship building was found in the Khartoum
Mesolithic layer. A recognizable outline of Nile boat had Predynastic boat, pebble petroglyph <3200 B.C.
been cut into a granite pebble.[1] This is the oldest known
In particular the image of a steering gear xed to a ver-
representation of a Nile boat, and the oldest depiction of
tical pole inserted in the stern upper hull can be found
a boat that is more advanced in design than a canoe. The
in boat rock engravings from the Abka region in Su-
dating of this pictograph pushes back the earliest evidence
danese Nubia; and from Akkad which is south of the
for Nile boats by 3,000 years.
third Cataract on the left bank of the Nile in the North-
ern Dongola Reach. The blade strongly resembled those
of the boat of El Khab. This kind of composite helm
53.2 Boat design / steering was still in use on Egyptian ships built during the New
Kingdom. The dome-like cabin on the upper hull is also
Some detail and aspects of boat construction can be in- a well known feature on boat representations dating to the
ferred from the image on the granite pebble, as rst re- Gerzean and Predynastic periods in Egypt and Nubia.[2]
ported by D. Usai and S. Salvatori in December, 2007. The Khartoum Mesolithic boat may be said to represent
The back half of the boat image is in the best state of the end of important, coordinated developments in boat
preservation. A steering system and cabin are situated at design. The specic features of the boat depicted on the

294
53.5. REFERENCES
rock from the 16 D-5 site must have been designed ear-
lier in the Nubian Mesolithic. As this approach to hull
design, cabin layout and steering mechanism are found
on boats thousands of years later, it had been judged the
best possible architecture for small and medium size Nile
boats during the Khartoum Mesolithic. As the rst and
best choice in Nile boat nautical architecture, this design
persisted in boat building tradition for several thousand
years. Slight modications would produce either a sh-
ing or cargo boat.
53.3 Mesolithic shing boats
Use of boats on the Nile in the Mesolithic had been
proposed by W. Van Neerand in 1989.[3] and by Peters
in 1991 [4] and 1993.[5] Studies of the ichthyo-fauna in
Mesolithic sites in Central Sudan and lower Atbara pub-
lished in 1993 led Peters to postulate that well designed
Nile boats were used to sh for adults of the open water
species Synodotis, Bagrus and Lates on a regular basis
as opposed to fortuitous situations that occur in seasonal
ood pools. Lates is the infamous Nile Perch that can
grow to 6'7 (2m) in length and 200 kg (440 lb) in weight.
An aggressive sh of this size requires a boat of mini-
mum weight and maneuverability and therefore provides
an indirect estimate for the dimensions and weight of
Mesolithic shing boats that plied the Central Sudanese
Nile and Lower Atbara. The design of the boat depicted
on the rock from the 16 D-5 site, and contextual infer-
ence for shing, also implies a minimal level of navigation
skill.
A very important question arises about hull construction.
Only two options are known to be available: a hull formed
from a large log (tree trunk) or built up as with a papyrus
reed boat. True planked hull construction cannot be doc-
umented earlier than the 1st Dynasty with the discoveries
at Tarkhan of planked hull boards that were re-used as
con and roof timbers [6] However the architectural fea-
tures of the Khartoum Mesolithic boat were rened and
executed, they received broad acceptance among Egyp-
tian ship builders and were widely utilized in nautical ar-
chitecture during the next periods of Egyptian history.
The limited opportunities provided by the Papyrus reed
raft had been transcended.[7] Mankinds ability to utilize
the resource opportunities provided by the broad Upper
Nile basin, and the large Nile delta of Upper Egypt had
taken a quantum leap forward with this 'new' boat design
as depicted on the Khartoum Mesolithic pebble.
53.4 Naqada II
In Naqada II (3500-3200 BC), there are features of boat
design that hearken back to Khartoum Mesolithic boat. A
steering system and cabin are situated at the approximate
center of the boat. A composite steering system can be
295
discerned with a tiller placed at a greater than 45 angle
with a long pole ending in an ovoid blade. Tiller and pole
with blade are xed to the top of a vertical yoke. The
tall stem with leaves in the bow of these ships has long
puzzled historians of ancient shipbuilding. This struc-
ture may be: a) a large branch from a tree species with
large leaves; or b) the frond from a large palm tree. Either
choice would catch the wind and provide important capa-
bility for steering and tacking along the Nile. The Palm
branch (symbol) represented long life in ancient Egypt,
and the god Huh who deied eternity sometimes carried
a palm frond in either hand.
In the Predynastic and Naqada boats, cabins amidships
are depicted, indeed appear to be a ubiquitous feature of
Egyptian boat building for a long many centuries. The
steering system with tiller positioned at a 45 angle can
be identied in the stylized art style that abstracts essen-
tial features of boat design. On some boats, a pilot stands
on the roof of the ships cabin, apparently to be better
positioned to adjust the tall tiller. This portrayal also im-
plies that a larger boat design was an option to Naqada
boat builders.
53.5 References
[1] The oldest representation of a Nile boat by D. Usai & S.
Salvatori, Antiquity Vol 81 issue 314 December 2007, re-
trieved July 11, 2008.
[2] The oldest representation of a Nile boat by D. Usai & S.
Salvatori, Antiquity Vol 81 issue 314 December 2007,
retrieved July 11, 2008. Additional references, see Ak-
samit, 1981.
[3] Van Neerand, W. Fishing along the Prehistoric Nile, in:
L. Krzyaniak & M. Kobusiewicz (ed.) Late Prehistory of
the Nile Basin and the Sahara (Studies in African Archae-
ology Vol. 2): 49-56. Poznan: Poznan Archaeological
Museum, 1991. Retrieved March 12, 2010.
[4] Mesolithic Fishing along the Central Sudanese Nile and
the Lower Atbara, Sahara 4: 33-40, 1991. Retrieved
March 12, 2010.
[5] Mesolithic Fishing along the Central Sudanese Nile and
the Lower Atbara, by J. Peters, Sahara 4: 33-40. 1993.
Animal exploitation between the fth and the sixth
Cataract c. 8500-7000 BP: a preliminary report on the
faunas from El Damer, Abu Darbein and Aneibis, in
L.Krzyaniak, M. Kobusiewicz & J. Alexander (ed.) En-
vironmental Change and Human Culture in the Nile Basin
and Northern Africa until the Second Millennium BC
(Studies in African Archaeology Vol. 4): 413-9. Poz-
nan: Poznan Archaeological Museum. Retrieved March
12, 2010.
[6] Boats of Egypt Before the Old Kingdom by Steve Vinson,
1987, p.39-81. Retrieved March 16, 2008.
[7] Papyrus reed boat or tankwa, Lake Tana by Majestic
Moose. Flikr, April 2008, retrieved March 26, 2010. The
296 CHAPTER 53. NUBIA (MESOLITHIC) / NILE BOAT

use of papyrus reed rafts continued and they are still made
by shermen in Ethiopia.
Chapter 54

Ovis longipes palaeoaegyptiacus

cluding the body of a man wrapped in wool dating to the

First Dynasty in a burial at al-Helwan, that delineates this
point.[1] The use of this sheep is also unique in Egyp-
tian depiction of their early deities. In fact, the standard
representation of Egyptian gods, were rst developed,
and naturally the ram-headed deities wore the horns of
the then prevailing Ovis longipes palaeoaegyptiacus and
retained them even long after the sheep itself had died
out.[2]

54.1 Sources
[1] Paul T. Nicholson, Ian Shaw (2000). Ancient Egyptian
materials and technology. Cambridge University Press. p.
269.

[2] Boston Museum of Fine Arts (December 1953 (No. 286;

Vol. LI)). Bulletin of the Museum of Fine Arts (PDF).
Retrieved Feb 14, 2011. Check date values in: |date=
(help)

Depiction of the deity Amun as a man, as a goose, and as the

sheep variety Ovis longipes palaeoaegyptiacus

Ovis longipes palaeo-aegyptiacus is a type of the ex-

tinct wild barbary sheep found in the ancient South-
ern Egypt and Nubia. The ovacaprines were domesti-
cated and often depicted on the stone tomb murals of
the pharaohs for religious or aesthetic purposes. Ovis
longipes palaeo-aegyptiacus was one of the two most
commonly domesticated sheep utilized on the reliefs
of early pharaonic tombs mostly because of its unique
loosely spiraling horns which came out of the sides of the
skull. A similar form of the sheep called Ovis platyura ae-
gyptiaca had horns that developed downward and curled
forward.[1]
Later on, these two variants of sheep came to presume
important religious signicance as well as domestic use.
Herodotus recounts that early Egyptians did not wear
wool, but some scholars argue that it was meant only for
the priests and that there is archaeological evidence, in-

297
Chapter 55

Pharaohs in the Bible

The Bible makes reference to various pharaohs (, 2 Kings 23:29 sqq. and 2 Chronicles 35:20 sqq. men-
/pao/) of Egypt. These include unnamed pharaohs in tion the 26th dynasty pharaoh Necho II (610595 BC),
the accounts of the Israelite settlement in Egypt, the sub- responsible for the death of Josiah, and Jeremiah 44:30
sequent oppression of the Israelites, and during the period mentions his successor Apries or Hophra (589570 BC).
of the Exodus, as well as a number of later rulers.

55.2 Conjectural pharaohs:

55.1 Historical pharaohs: Shishak and So
Taharqa, Necho and
1 Kings 11:40 and 2 Chronicles 12:2 sqq. tell of an
Apries/Hophra invasion of Israel by Shishak, and a subsequent raid of
Jerusalem and the Temple of Solomon.
2 Kings 17:4 says that king Hoshea sent letters to So,
King of Egypt. No pharaoh of this name is known for the
time of Hoshea (about 730 BC), during which Egypt had
three dynasties ruling contemporaneously: 22nd at Tanis,
23rd at Leontopolis, and 24th at Sais. Nevertheless, this
ruler is commonly identied with Osorkon IV (730715
BC) who ruled from Tanis,[1][2] though it is possible that
the biblical writer has confused the king with his city and
equated So with Sais, at this time ruled by Tefnakht.

55.3 Unidentied pharaohs

55.3.1 Pharaohs in the Book of Genesis

Taharqa oering to Falcon-god Hemen (close-up)
2 Kings 19:9 and Isaiah 37:9 mention the 25th dynasty
pharaoh Taharqa (reigned 690664 BC) as the opponent
of Sennacherib of Assyria. He is called King of Ethiopia,
and hence is not given the title pharaoh which he bears in
Egyptian documents.
The passages Genesis 12:1020 narrate how Abraham
moves to Egypt to escape a period of famine in Canaan.
The unnamed pharaoh hears of the beauty of Abrahams
wife Sarah and, thinking she was Abrahams sister, sum-
mons her to become his own wife. As a result of the mar-
riage, Abraham rises in the Pharaohs favor and acquires
livestock and servants. After discovering Sarahs true re-
lationship to Abraham, however, the pharaoh releases her
and Abraham and orders them to take their goods and to
leave Egypt.
The last chapters of the book of Genesis (Genesis 37
50) tell how Joseph, son of Jacob/Israel, is rst sold by
his brothers into Egyptian slavery but is promoted by the
unnamed pharaoh to vizier of Egypt and is given permis-
sion to bring his father, his brothers, and their families
into Egypt to live in the Land of Goshen (eastern Nile

298
55.3. UNIDENTIFIED PHARAOHS
Joseph presenting his father and brethren to Pharaoh. (1896)
Delta around modern Faqus).
Eugene H. Merrill has suggested that Senusret II (reigned
from 1897 to 1878 BC), the fourth pharaoh of the
Twelfth Dynasty, may be the unnamed Pharaoh men-
tioned in the biblical story of Joseph.[3]
55.3.2 Pharaohs in the Book of Exodus
The Bible tells how the Israelites are enslaved in Egypt
and eventually escape under the leadership of Moses.
At least one or two pharaohs are involved, the pharaoh
of the oppression who enslaves the Israelites, and the
pharaoh of the exodus" during whose rule the Israelites
escape. The biblical story does not name or give enough
information to identify the period in which the events are
set. There have thus been many suggestions as to which of
Egypts many rulers was involved. Rabbinic sources state
that the First Temple stood for 410 years and the Seder
Olam Rabbah (c. 2nd century AD) place its construc-
tion in 832 BC and destruction in 422 BC (3338 AM),
Nineteenth Dynasty of Egypt
165 years later than secular estimates. The Seder Olam
Rabbah determines the commencement of the Exodus to
2448 AM (1313 BC). This date has become traditional in
Rabbinic Judaism.[4] 1 Kings 6:1 states that the Exodus
occurred 480 years before the construction of Solomons
Temple, which would imply a secular date of the Exo-
dus c. 1477 BC, or rabbinical date 2448 AM (1313 BC),
both during Egypts Eighteenth Dynasty, the rst at its
beginning and the latter at its end.[5] Furthermore, the
18th dynasty was the rst of the New Kingdom of Egypt,
which followed the expulsion of the Hyksos and their last
king Khamudi (c. 1522 or 1540 BC) from Avaris in the
northeastern region of the Nile Delta, marking the end of
the Second Intermediate Period.[6]
These are some candidates put forward for the role of
Pharaoh of the Exodus:
299
Second Intermediate Period
Dedumose II (died c. 1690 BC): David Rohl's
1995 A Test of Time revised Egyptian history by
shortening the Third Intermediate Period of Egypt
by almost 300 years. As a by-result the syn-
chronisms with the biblical narrative have changed,
making the 13th Dynasty pharaoh Dedumose I
(Dudimose, Dedumesu, Tutimaos, Tutimaios) the
pharaoh of the Exodus.[7] Rohls theory has failed
to nd support among scholars in his eld.[8]
New Kingdom of Egypt
Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt
Ahmose I (15501525 BC): Most ancient writ-
ers considered Ahmose I to be the pharaoh of the
Exodus.[9]
Thutmose II (1493 or 1492 to 1479 BC). Alfred
Edersheim proposes in his Old Testament Bible
History[10] that Thutmose II is best qualied to be
the pharaoh of Exodus based on the fact that he
had a brief, prosperous reign and then a sudden
collapse with no son to succeed him. His widow
Hatshepsut then became rst Regent (for Thutmose
III) then Pharaoh in her own right. Edersheim states
that Thutmose II is the only Pharaohs mummy to
display cysts, possible evidence of plagues which
spread through the Egyptian and Hittite Empires at
that time.
Amenhotep II (14251400 BC). Shea suggested that
there were 2 Amenhotep IIs. The rst one died in
the Sea of reeds, after which his brother took the
same title.[11]
Akhenaten (13531349 BC). Sigmund Freud in his
book Moses and Monotheism argued that Moses had
been an Atenist priest forced to leave Egypt with his
followers after Akhenatens death.[12]
Ramesses II (c. 12791213 BC): Also known as
Ramesses the Great, he is the most commonly imag-
ined gure in popular culture (most widely via the
1956 lm The Ten Commandments), being one of
the most long standing rulers at the height of Egyp-
tian power, but there is no documentary or archae-
ological evidence that he chased any slaves eeing
Egypt. Ramesses IIs late 13th century BC stela
in Beth Shan mentions two conquered peoples who
came to make obeisance to him in his city of
Raameses or Pi-Ramesses but mentions neither the
building of the city nor, as some have written, the
Israelites or Hapiru.[13] Additionally, the historical
Pithom was built in the 7th century BC, during the
Saite period.[14][15]
300
Merneptah (c. 12131203 BC): Isaac Asimov in his
Guide to the Bible makes a case for him to be the
Pharaoh of the Exodus.[16]
Twentieth Dynasty of Egypt
Setnakhte (c. 11891186 BC): Igor P. Lipovsky in
his book Early Israelites: Two Peoples, One History:
Rediscovery of the Origins of Biblical Israel makes a
case for him to be the Pharaoh of the Exodus. ISBN
0-615-59333-X
55.3.3 Pharaohs in the Books of Kings
Main article: Pharaohs daughter (wife of Solomon)
In 1Kings 3:1, it is narrated that to seal an alliance,
the pharaoh of Egypt gave a daughter in marriage to [11] Shea, William (22 February 2008). Amenhotep II as
Solomon. The same ruler later captured the city of Gezer
and gave it to Solomon as well (1Kings 9:16). No name
is given for the pharaoh, and some hypotheses were pro- [12] Moses and Monotheism, ISBN 0-394-70014-7
posed:
Siamun (c. 986967 BC): is the most commonly
imagined candidate for this role.[17][18][19] [14] I Will Show You: Essays in History and Archaeology of the
Psusennes II (c. 967943 BC): the Catholic Ency-
clopedia sees him as the best candidate.[20]
Shoshenq I (c. 943922 BC): Edward Lipiski
dated the destruction of Gezer to the late 10th cen-
tury rather than the early one, and suggested that its
conqueror was Shoshenq I of the 22nd Dynasty.[21]
55.4 See also
Ipuwer Papyrus
New Chronology (Rohl)
Shiphrah
Thrasyllus of Mendes
Moses in Islam
Pharaohs daughter (wife of Solomon)
55.5 References
[1] Patterson 2003, pp. 196197
[2] Peter A Clayton: Chronicle of The Pharaohs, Thames &
Hudson, (2006), pp. 182183
[3] Eugene H. Merrill, Kingdom of Priests, Grand Rapids:
Baker Academic, 2008, 6668.
CHAPTER 55. PHARAOHS IN THE BIBLE
[4] Seder Olam Rabbah, Finegan, Jack, Handbook of Biblical
Chronology, Revised Ed., Hendrickson Publishers, Inc.,
1998, p. 111
[5] Shea 2003, p. 238-239.
[6] Darrell D. Baker: The Encyclopedia of the Pharaohs:
Volume I Predynastic to the Twentieth Dynasty 3300
1069 BC, Stacey International, ISBN 978-1-905299-37-
9, 2008, p. 174
[7] Rohl 1995, pp. 341348
[8] Bennett 1996
[9] Meyers, Stephen C. IBSS Biblical Archaeology Date
of the Exodus. www.bibleandscience.com. Institute for
Biblical & Scientic Studies. Retrieved 13 April 2017.
[10] Old Testament Bible History, ISBN 1-56563-165-X
pharaoh of the Exodus. www.biblearchaeology.org. As-
sociates for Biblical research. Retrieved 13 April 2017.
[13] Stephen L. Caiger, Archaeological Fact and Fancy, Bib-
lical Archaeologist, (9, 1946).
Ancient Near East in Honor of J. Maxwell Miller, Sheeld
Academic Press, 1997, p. 261262, ISBN 978-1-85075-
650-7,
[15] Long, V. Philips; Neils Peter Lemche (2000). Israels past
in present research: essays on ancient Israelite historiogra-
phy. Eisenbrauns. p. 398. ISBN 978-1-57506-028-6.
[16] Asimovs Guide to the Bible, Random House, 1981, p.
130131, ISBN 0-517-34582-X
[17] Brian Roberts. ANE - Solomon taking an Egyptian wife
(to David Lorton)".
[18] The Bible Chronology from Solomon to Hezekiah.
nabataea.net. CanBooks. 1935. Retrieved 13 April 2017.
[19] Kenneth Kitchen (2003), On the Reliability of the Old
Testament. William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company,
Grand Rapids and Cambridge. ISBN 0-8028-4960-1, p.
108.
[20] Gabriel Oussani (July 1, 1912). Solomon. The Catholic
Encyclopedia.
[21] Lipinski, Edward (2006). On the Skirts of Canaan in the
Iron Age(Orientalia Lovaniensia Analecta). Leuven, Bel-
gium: Peeters. pp. 9697. ISBN 978-90-429-1798-9.
55.6 Bibliography
Bennett, Chris (1996). Temporal Fugues. Journal
of Ancient and Medieval Studies XIII.
55.6. BIBLIOGRAPHY 301

Patterson, Richard D. (2003). The Divided Monar-

chy: Sources, Approaches, and Historicity. In
Grisanti, Michael A.; Howard, David M. Giving the
sense: understanding and using Old Testament his-
torical texts. Kregel. ISBN 978-0-8254-2892-0.

Rohl, David (1995). A Test of Time. Arrow. ISBN

0-09-941656-5.

Shea, W.H. (1996). Exodus (date of the)". In

Bromiley, Georey W. The International Standard
Bible Encyclopedia:E-J. Eerdmans. ISBN 978-0-
8028-3782-0.
Chapter 56

Pharaonic Tayma inscription

The Pharaonic Tayma inscription is a hieroglyphic

petroglyph near the oasis of Tayma in Tabuk province. It
was discovered by local archaeologists in 2010. The rock
engraving was found around 400 km north of Madinah
and northeast of the ancient Nabatean site of Madain
Saleh. It marks the rst conrmed hieroglyphic epigraph
discovered in the Kingdom.
According to the SCTA Vice President for Antiquities
and Museums Ali Ibrahim Al-Ghabban, the petroglyph
contains an inscription belonging to the 20th dynasty
Pharaoh Ramses III (r.1192 B.C.to 1160 B.C.).[1]

56.1 References
[1] Pharaonic inscription found in Saudi Arabia

56.2 External links

First Pharaonic-era inscription found in Saudi Ara-
bia

Pharaonic Inscription Found in Saudi Arabia

302
Chapter 57

Portal:Ancient Egypt

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Ancient Egypt New France

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Classical civilisation

Colonialism

Crusades

303
Chapter 58

Ancient Egyptian race controversy

This article is about the history of the controversy lion stated in his work Egypte Ancienne that the Egyptians
about the race of the ancient Egyptians. For dis- and Nubians are represented in the same manner in tomb
cussion of the scientic evidence relating to the race paintings and reliefs, further suggesting that: In the
of the ancient Egyptians, see Population history of Egypt. Copts of Egypt, we do not nd any of the character-
istic features of the Ancient Egyptian population. The
The question of the race of ancient Egyptians was Copts are the result of crossbreeding with all the na-
tions that successfully dominated Egypt. It is wrong to
raised historically as a product of the early racial concepts
of the 18th and 19th centuries, and was linked to mod- seek in them the principal features of the old race.[5]
Also in 1839, Champollions and Volneys claims were
els of racial hierarchy primarily based on craniometry,
anthropometry and genetics. A variety of views cir- disputed by Jacques Joseph Champollion-Figeac, who
culated about the racial identity of the Egyptians and blamed the ancients for spreading a false impression of a
the source of their culture.[1] These were typically iden- Negro Egypt, stating The opinion that the ancient popu-
tied in terms of a distinction between the Caucasoid lation of Egypt belonged to the Negro African race, is an
and Negroid racial categories. Some scholars argued error long accepted as the truth. [...] Volneys conclusion
that ancient Egyptian culture was inuenced by other as to the Negro origin of the ancient Egyptian civilization
Afroasiatic-speaking populations in Northeast Africa, the is evidently forced and inadmissible.[6]
Maghreb or the Middle East, while others pointed to in- The debate over the race of the Ancient Egyptians in-
uences from various Nubian groups or populations in tensied during the movement to abolish slavery in the
Europe. United States, as arguments relating to the justications
for slavery increasingly asserted the historical, mental
and physical inferiority of black people. For example,
in 1851, John Campbell directly challenged the claims
58.1 History by Champollion and others regarding the evidence for a
black Egypt, asserting There is one great diculty, and
The earliest examples of disagreement regarding the race to my mind an insurmountable one, which is that the ad-
of the ancient Egyptians occurred in the work of Eu- vocates of the negro civilization of Egypt do not attempt
ropeans and Americans early in the 19th century. One to account for, how this civilization was lost.... Egypt pro-
early example of such an attempt was an article published gressed, and why, because it was Caucasian.[7] The argu-
in The New-England Magazine of October 1833, where ments regarding the race of the Egyptians became more
the authors dispute a claim that Herodotus was given as explicitly tied to the debate over slavery in the United
authority for their being negroes. They point out with States as the United States escalated towards civil war.[8]
reference to tomb paintings: It may be observed that In 1854, Josiah C. Nott with George Glidden set out to
the complexion of the men is invariably red, that of the prove: that the Caucasian or white, and the Negro races
women yellow; but neither of them can be said to have were distinct at a very remote date, and that the Egyptians
anything in their physiognomy at all resembling the Negro were Caucasians."[9] Samuel George Morton, a physician
countenance.[2] and professor of anatomy, concluded that although Ne-
groes were numerous in Egypt, but their social position
In the 18th century, Constantin Franois de Chassebuf,
in ancient times was the same that it now is [in the United
comte de Volney, wrote The Copts are the proper rep-
States], that of servants and slaves.[10] In the early 20th
resentatives of the Ancient Egyptians due to their jaun-
century, Flinders Petrie, a Professor of Egyptology at the
diced and fumed skin, which is neither Greek, Negro nor
University of London, in turn spoke of a Nubian queen,
Arab, their full faces, their puy eyes, their crushed noses,
Aohmes Nefertari, who was the divine ancestress of the
and their thick lips ... the ancient Egyptians were true ne-
XVIIIth dynasty. He described her physically as having
groes of the same type as all native born Africans.[3][4]
had an aquiline nose, long and thin, and was of a type
Just a few years later, in 1839, Jean-Franois Champol-

304
58.3. SPECIFIC CURRENT-DAY CONTROVERSIES 305

not in the least prognathous.[11] In the southern part of Egypt (Upper Egypt), the predy-
nastic Badarian culture was followed by the Naqada cul-
ture. These people seem to be more closely related to the
Nubians than with northern Egyptians.[25][26]
58.2 Position of modern scholar- Due to its geographical location at the crossroads of sev-
ship eral major cultural areas, Egypt has experienced a num-
ber of foreign invasions during historical times, includ-
ing by the Canaanites (Hyksos), the Ancient Libyans, the
Main article: Population history of Egypt
Nubians, the Assyrians, the Scythians, the Babylonians,
See also: DNA history of Egypt
the Persians, the Macedonian Greeks, the Romans
(Byzantium in late antiquity/early Middle Ages), the
Modern scholars who have studied Ancient Egyptian cul- Arabs, the Turks, and the British.
ture and population history have responded to the contro-
In 1975, the mummy of Ramesses II was taken to France
versy over the race of the Ancient Egyptians in dierent
for preservation. The mummy was also forensically
ways.
tested by Professor Pierre-Fernand Ceccaldi, the chief
At the UNESCO Symposium on the Peopling of Ancient forensic scientist at the Criminal Identication Labora-
Egypt and the Deciphering of the Meroitic Script in tory of Paris, who wrote: Hair, astonishingly preserved,
Cairo in 1974, the Black Hypothesis met with profound showed some complementary data - especially about pig-
disagreement.[12] Most participants concluded that the mentation: Ramses II was a Red haired cymnotriche
Ancient Egyptian population was indigenous to the Nile leucoderma", that is a fair-skinned person with wavy red
Valley, and was made up of people from north and south hair.[27][28]
of the Sahara who were dierentiated by their color.[13]
In 2008, S. O. Y. Keita wrote
The arguments for all sides are recorded in the UNESCO
publication General History of Africa,[14] with the Ori-
gin of the Egyptians chapter being written by Cheikh There is no scientic reason to believe that
Anta Diop. the primary ancestors of the Egyptian popu-
Since the second half of the 20th century, most anthro- lation emerged and evolved outside of north-
pologists have rejected the notion of race as having any east Africa.... The basic overall genetic pro-
validity in the study of human biology.[15][16]
Stuart Tyson le of the modern population is consistent with
Smith writes in the 2001 Oxford Encyclopedia of An- the diversity of ancient populations that would
cient Egypt, Any characterization of race of the ancient have been indigenous to northeastern Africa
Egyptians depends on modern cultural denitions, not and subject to the range of evolutionary in-
on scientic study. Thus, by modern American stan- uences over time, although researchers vary
dards it is reasonable to characterize the Egyptians as in the details of their explanations of those
'black', while acknowledging the scientic evidence for inuences.[29]
the physical diversity of Africans.[17] Frank M. Snowden
asserts Egyptians, Greeks and Romans attached no spe-
cial stigma to the colour of the skin and developed no hi- 58.3 Specic current-day contro-
erarchical notions of race whereby highest and lowest po-
sitions in the social pyramid were based on colour.[18][19] versies
Additionally, typological and hierarchical models of race
have increasingly been rejected by scientists in favour of Since the 1970s, the issues regarding the race of the an-
models of geographical origin. cient Egyptians have been taboo subject for mainstream
[30]
It is now largely agreed that Dynastic Egyptians were in- United States scientists. The debate has thus been led
digenous to the Nile area. About 5,000 years ago, the by the public, focusing on specic issues.
Sahara area dried out, and part of the indigenous Saharan
population retreated east towards the Nile Valley. In ad-
dition, peoples from the Middle East entered the Nile Val- 58.3.1 Tutankhamun
ley, bringing with them wheat, barley, sheep, goats, and
possibly cattle.[20] Dynastic Egyptians referred to their Several Afrocentric scholars, including Diop, have
country as The Two Lands. During the Predynastic pe- claimed that Tutankhamun was black, and have protested
riod (about 4800 to 4300BC), the Merimde culture our- that attempted reconstructions of Tutankhamuns facial
ished in the northern part of Egypt (Lower Egypt).[21] features (as depicted on the cover of National Geographic
This culture, among others, has links to the Levant in the Magazine) have represented the king as too white.
Middle East.[22][23] The pottery of the later Buto Maadi Among these writers was Chancellor Williams, who ar-
culture, best known from the site at Maadi near Cairo, gued that King Tutankhamun, his parents, and grandpar-
also shows connections to the southern Levant as well.[24] ents were black.[31]
306 CHAPTER 58. ANCIENT EGYPTIAN RACE CONTROVERSY

Forensic artists and physical anthropologists from Egypt, 58.3.2 Cleopatra

France, and the United States independently created busts
of Tutankhamun, using a CT-scan of the skull. Biological The race and skin color of Cleopatra, the last pharaoh
anthropologist Susan Anton, the leader of the American of the Greek Ptolomaic dynasty of Egypt, established
team, said the race of the skull was hard to call. She in 323 BCE, has also caused frequent debate.[43] For
stated that the shape of the cranial cavity indicated an example, the article Was Cleopatra Black?" was pub-
African, while the nose opening suggested narrow nos- lished in Ebony magazine in 2012,[44] and an article about
trils, which is usually considered to be a European char- Afrocentrism from the St. Louis Post-Dispatch mentions
acteristic. The skull was thus concluded to be that of a the question, too.[45] Scholars generally identify Cleopa-
North African.[32] Other experts have argued that neither tra as of Greek and Persian ancestry, based on fact
skull shapes nor nasal openings are a reliable indication that her Greek Macedonian family (the Ptolemaic dy-
of race.[33] nasty) had intermingled with the Persian aristocracy of
the time. However, her mothers identity is uncertain,[46]
Although modern technology can reconstruct Tu-
and that of her paternal grandmother is also not known
tankhamuns facial structure with a high degree of
[34][35] for certain.[47]
accuracy, based on CT data from his mummy,
determining his skin tone and eye color is impossible. The question was the subject of a heated exchange be-
The clay model was therefore given a coloring, which, tween Mary Lefkowitz, who has referred in her articles
according to the artist, was based on an average shade to a debate she had with one of her students about the
of modern Egyptians.[36] question of whether Cleopatra was black, and Mole
Kete Asante, Professor of African American Studies at
Terry Garcia, National Geographic's executive vice pres-
Temple University. In response to Not Out of Africa by
ident for mission programs, said, in response to some of
Lefkowitz, Asante wrote the article Race in Antiquity:
those protesting against the Tutankhamun reconstruction:
Truly Out of Africa, in which he emphasized that he can
say without a doubt that Afrocentrists do not spend time
The big variable is skin tone. North arguing that either Socrates or Cleopatra were black.[48]
Africans, we know today, had a range of skin
In 2009, a BBC documentary speculated that Arsinoe
tones, from light to dark. In this case, we se-
IV, the half-sister of Cleopatra VII, may have been part
lected a medium skin tone, and we say, quite up
North African and then further speculated that Cleopa-
front, 'This is midrange.' We will never know
tras mother, thus Cleopatra herself, might also have
for sure what his exact skin tone was or the
been part North African. This was based largely on
color of his eyes with 100% certainty.... Maybe
the claims of Hilke Thr of the Austrian Academy of
in the future, people will come to a dierent
Sciences, who in the 1990s had examined a headless
conclusion.[37]
skeleton of a female child in a 20 BC tomb in Ephesus
(modern Turkey), together with the old notes and pho-
When pressed on the issue by American activists in tographs of the now-missing skull. He identied the body
September 2007, the current Secretary General of the as that of Arsinoe.[49][50] Arsinoe and Cleopatra, shared
Egyptian Supreme Council of Antiquities, Zahi Hawass the same father (Ptolemy XII Auletes) but had dierent
stated Tutankhamun was not black.[38] mothers.[51]
In a November 2007 publication of Ancient Egypt Maga-
zine, Hawass asserted that none of the facial reconstruc-
tions resemble Tut and that, in his opinion, the most ac- 58.3.3 Great Sphinx of Giza
curate representation of the boy king is the mask from his
The identity of the model for the Great Sphinx of Giza
tomb.[39] The Discovery Channel commissioned a facial
reconstruction of Tutankhamun, based on CT scans of a is unknown.[52] Virtually all Egyptologists and scholars
model of his skull, back in 2002.[40][41] currently believe that the face of the Sphinx represents
the likeness of the Pharaoh Khafra, although a few Egyp-
In 2011, the genomics company iGENEA launched a Tu- tologists and interested amateurs have proposed several
tankhamun DNA project based on genetic markers that it dierent hypotheses.
indicated it had culled from a Discovery Channel special
on the pharaoh. According to the rm, the microsatellite Numerous Afrocentric scholars, such as Du
[53][54][55]
data suggested that Tutankhamun belonged to the hap- Bois, Diop, and Asante[56] have character-
logroup R1b1a2, the most common paternal clade among ized the face of the Sphinx as Black, or "Negroid".
males in Western Europe. Carsten Pusch and Albert Another early description of a Negroid Sphinx is
Zink, who led the unit that had extracted Tutankhamuns recorded in the travel notes of a French scholar, who [57]
DNA, chided iGENEA for not liaising with them before visited in Egypt between 1783 and 1785,[58]Volney
establishing the project. After examining the footage, along with French novelist Gustave Flaubert.
they also concluded that the methodology the company American geologist Robert M. Schoch has written that
used was unscientic.[42] the Sphinx has a distinctive African, Nubian, or Negroid
58.3. SPECIFIC CURRENT-DAY CONTROVERSIES 307

aspect which is lacking in the face of Khafre.[59][60] sity of Chicago scholars assert that Nubians are generally
depicted with black paint, but the skin pigment used in
Egyptian paintings to refer to Nubians can range from
58.3.4 Kemet dark red to brown to black.[74] This can be observed in
paintings from the tomb of the Egyptian Huy, as well as
Main article: Km (hieroglyph) Ramses IIs temple at Beit el-Wali.[75] Also, Snowden in-
dicates that Romans had accurate knowledge of negroes
Ancient Egyptians referred to their homeland as Kmt of a red, copper-colored complexion ... among African
(conventionally pronounced as Kemet). According to tribes.[76] Conversely, Najovits states Egyptian art de-
Cheikh Anta Diop, the Egyptians referred to themselves picted Egyptians on the one hand and Nubians and other
as Black people or kmt, and km was the etymologi- blacks on the other hand with distinctly dierent ethnic
cal root of other words, such as Kam or Ham, which characteristics and depicted this abundantly and often ag-
refer to Black people in Hebrew tradition.[61][62]:246248 gressively. The Egyptians accurately, arrogantly and ag-
A review of David Goldenbergs The Curse of Ham: gressively made national and ethnic distinctions from a
Race and Slavery in Early Judaism, Christianity and very early date in their art and literature.[77] He contin-
Islam states that Goldenberg argues persuasively that ues, There is an extraordinary abundance of Egyptian
the biblical name Ham bears no relationship at all to works of art which clearly depicted sharply contrasted
the notion of blackness and as of now is of unknown reddish-brown Egyptians and black Nubians.[77]
etymology.[63] Diop,[64] William Leo Hansberry,[64] and However Manu Ampim, a professor at Merritt College
Aboubacry Moussa Lam[65] have argued that kmt was de- specializing in African and African American history and
rived from the skin color of the Nile valley people, which culture, claims in the book Modern Fraud: The Forged
Diop claimed was black.[66] The claim that the Ancient Ancient Egyptian Statues of Ra-Hotep and Nofret, that
Egyptians had black skin has become a cornerstone of many ancient Egyptian statues and artworks are mod-
Afrocentric historiography.[64] ern frauds that have been created specically to hide the
Mainstream scholars hold that kmt means the black land fact that the ancient Egyptians were black, while au-
or the black place, and that this is a reference to the thentic artworks that demonstrate black characteristics
fertile black soil that was washed down from Central are systematically defaced or even modied. Ampim
Africa by the annual Nile inundation. By contrast the repeatedly makes the accusation that the Egyptian author-
barren desert outside the narrow connes of the Nile ities are systematically destroying evidence that proves
watercourse was called drt (conventionally pronounced that the ancient Egyptians were black, under the guise
deshret) or the red land.[64][67] Raymond Faulkners of renovating and conserving the applicable temples and
Concise Dictionary of Middle Egyptian translates kmt into structures. He further accuses European scholars of
Egyptians,[68] Gardiner translates it as the Black Land, wittingly participating in and abetting this process.[78][79]
Egypt.[69] Ampim has a specic concern about the painting of the
At the UNESCO Symposium in 1974, Sauneron, Table of Nations in the Tomb of Ramses III (KV11).
Obenga, and Diop concluded that KMT and KM meant The Table of Nations is a standard painting that ap-
black.[70] However, Sauneron claried that the adjec- pears in a number of tombs, and they were usually[72][80] pro-
tive Kmtyw means people of the black land rather than vided for the guidance of the soul of the deceased.
black people, and that the Egyptians never used the ad- Among other things, it described the four races[80] of men
jective Kmtyw to refer to the various black peoples they as follows: (translation by E.A. Wallis Budge: The
knew of, they only used it to refer to themselves. [71] rst are RETH, the second are AAMU, the third are NE-
HESU, and the fourth are THEMEHU. The RETH are
Egyptians, the AAMU are dwellers in the deserts to the
58.3.5 Ancient Egyptian art east and north-east of Egypt, the NEHESU are the black
races, and the THEMEHU are the fair-skinned Libyans.
Ancient Egyptian tombs and temples contained thousands The archaeologist Richard Lepsius documented many an-
of paintings, sculptures, and written works, which reveal
cient Egyptian tomb paintings in his work Denkmler aus
a great deal about the people of that time. However, their
Aegypten und Aethiopien. In 1913, after the death of Lep-
depictions of themselves in their surviving art and arti-
sius, an updated reprint of the work was produced, edited
facts are rendered in sometimes symbolic, rather than re-
by Kurt Sethe. This printing included an additional sec-
alistic, pigments. As a result, ancient Egyptian artifacts
tion, called the Ergnzungsband in German, which in-
provide sometimes conicting and inconclusive evidence corporated many illustrations that did not appear in Lep-
of the ethnicity of the people who lived in Egypt during
siuss original work. One of them, plate 48, illustrated
dynastic times.[72][73] one example of each of the four nations as depicted in
In 1839, Champollion states in his work Egypte Anci- KV11, and shows the Egyptian nation and the Nubian
enne that the Egyptians and Nubians are represented in nation as identical to each other in skin color and dress.
the same manner in tomb paintings and reliefs. Univer- Professor Ampim has declared that plate 48 is a true re-
308 CHAPTER 58. ANCIENT EGYPTIAN RACE CONTROVERSY

ection of the original painting, and that it proves that port the reliability of Herodotus[62]:25[85]:1[100][101][102]
the ancient Egyptians were identical in appearance to the while other scholars regard his works as being unreli-
Nubians, even though he admits no other examples of the able as historical sources, particularly those relating to
Table of Nations show this similarity. He has further Egypt.[103][103][103][104][105][106][107][108][109][110][111][112][113]
accused Euro-American writers of attempting to mis- Other points used to support the Black Hypothe-
lead the public on this issue.[81] sis included testing melanin levels in a small sam-
The late Egyptologist, Frank Yurco, visited the tomb of ple of mummies,[62]:236243 arguing that the Ancient
Ramses III (KV11), and in a 1996 article on the Ram- Egyptian language was related to Diop's native Wolof
ses III tomb reliefs he pointed out that the depiction of (Senegal),[114] interpretations of the origin of the
plate 48 in the Ergnzungsband section is not a correct name Kmt, conventionally pronounced Kemet, used
depiction of what is actually painted on the walls of the by the Ancient Egyptians to describe themselves or
tomb. Yurco notes, instead, that plate 48 is a pastiche their land (depending on points of view),[115] biblical
of samples of what is on the tomb walls, arranged from traditions,[116][117] and interpretations of the depictions of
Lepsiuss notes after his death, and that a picture of a the Egyptians in numerous paintings and statues.[62]:642
Nubian person has erroneously been labeled in the pas- Other points of the hypothesis include claimed cultural
tiche as an Egyptian person. Yurco points also to the aliations, such as circumcision,[62]:112, 135138 matri-
much-more-recent photographs of Dr. Erik Hornung archy, totemism, hair braiding, head binding,[118] and
as a correct depiction of the actual paintings.[82] (Erik kingship cults.[62]:19,134155 Artifacts found at Qustul
Hornung, The Valley of the Kings: Horizon of Eternity, (near Abu Simbel - Modern Sudan) in 196064 were
1990). Ampim nonetheless continues to claim that plate seen as showing that ancient Egypt and A-group Nu-
48 shows accurately the images that stand on the walls bia shared the same culture and were part of the greater
of KV11, and he categorically accuses both Yurco and Nile Valley sub-stratum,[119][120][121][122][123] but more
Hornung of perpetrating a deliberate deception for the recent nds in Egypt indicate that the Qustul rulers
purposes of misleading the public about the true race of probably adopted/emulated the symbols of Egyptian
the Ancient Egyptians.[81] pharaohs.[124][125][126][127][128][129]
At the UNESCO Symposium on the Peopling of An-
cient Egypt and the Deciphering of the Meroitic script"
58.4 Historical hypotheses in Cairo in 1974, the Black Hypothesis met with pro-
found disagreement.[12] Most participants concluded
that the Ancient Egyptian population was indigenous
58.4.1 Black Egyptian hypothesis to the Nile Valley, and was made up of people from
north and south of the Sahara who were dierentiated
Main article: Black Egyptian hypothesis by their color.[13] The current position of modern schol-
arship is that the Egyptian civilization was an indige-
The Black Egyptian hypothesis is held by various nous Nile Valley development (see population history of
[130][131][132][133]
authors [83][84][62]:19,134155[85]:103108[86][87][88][89][90]
that Egypt).
Ancient Egypt was indigenous to Africa and a Black civ-
ilization. This includes a particular focus on links to
Sub Saharan cultures and the questioning of the race 58.4.2 Asiatic Race Theory
of specic notable individuals from Dynastic times, in-
cluding Tutankhamun[91] and the king represented in The Asiatic Race Theory holds that the ancient Egyptians
the Great Sphinx of Giza,[53][59] and Cleopatra.[43][44][45] were the lineal descendants of the biblical Ham, through
Since the second half of the 20th century, typological his son Mizraim. This theory was the most dominant view
and hierarchical models of race have increasingly been from the Early Middle Ages (c. 500 AD) all the way up to
rejected by scientists, and most scholars have held that the early 19th century.[134][135] The descendants of Ham
applying modern notions of race to ancient Egypt is were traditionally considered to be the darkest skinned
anachronistic.[92][93][94] branch of humanity, either because of their geographic
[136]
Early advocates of the Black African model relied heav- allotment to Africa or because of the Curse of Ham.
ily on writings from Classical Greek historians, including Thus, Diop cites Gaston Maspero Moreover, the Bible
Strabo, Diodorus Siculus, and Herodotus, wherein the states that Mesraim, son of Ham. brother of Chus (Kush)
Greeks referred to Egyptians as melanchroes with ... and of Canaan, came from Mesopotamia to settle with
[62]:59
woolly hair. [95][96]
The translation of the Greek word his children on the banks of the Nile.
melanchroes is disputed, being translated either as By the 20th century, the Asiatic Race Theory and its var-
black or dark skinned.[95][96][97][98] Snowden claims ious oshoots were abandoned but were superseded by
that Diop is distorting his classical sources and is quoting two related theories: the eurocentric Hamitic Hypothesis,
them selectively.[99] There is dispute about the historical asserting that a Caucasian racial group moved into North
accuracy of the works of Herodotus - some scholars sup- and East Africa from early prehistory subsequently bring-
58.5. SEE ALSO 309

ing with them all advanced agriculture, technology and 58.4.4 Turanid race hypothesis
civilization and also the Dynastic Race Theory, propos-
ing that Mesopotamian invaders were responsible for the The Egyptologist Samuel Sharpe (1846) proposed that
dynastic civilization of Egypt (c. 3000 BC). In sharp con- the ancient Egyptians belonged to the Turanid race, link-
trast to the Asiatic Race Theory neither of these theories ing them to the Tatars. He was inspired by some ancient
propose that Caucasians were the indigenous inhabitants Egyptian paintings, which depict Egyptians with sallow
of Egypt.[137] or yellowish skin. He said From the colour given to the
women in their paintings we learn that their skin was yel-
low, like that of the Mongul Tartars, who have given their
name to the Mongolian variety of the human race.... The
single lock of hair on the young nobles reminds us also of
the Tartars.[151]
58.4.3 Caucasian / Hamitic hypothesis
58.4.5 Dynastic race theory
In 1844, Samuel George Morton wrote that the Nile val-
Main article: Dynastic race theory
ley was originally peopled by a branch of the Caucasian
race,[138] and acknowledged that Negroes were present
in ancient Egypt but claimed they were either captives or In the early 20th century, Flinders Petrie, one of the
servants.[139] George Gliddon (1844) wrote: The Egyp- leading Egyptologists of his day, noted that the skeletal
tians were white men, of no darker hue than a pure Arab, remains found at predynastic sites at Naqada in Upper
a Jew, or a Phoenician.[140] Egypt showed marked dierentiation. Together with cul-
tural evidence such as architectural styles, pottery styles,
The similar Hamitic hypothesis, which developed directly
cylinder seals, and numerous rock and tomb paintings, he
from the Asiatic Race Theory, argued that the Ethiopid
deduced that a Mesopotamian force had invaded Egypt
and Arabid populations of the Horn of Africa were the in-
in predynastic times, imposed itself on the indigenous
ventors of agriculture and had brought all civilization to
Badarian people, and become their rulers. This came to
Africa, and asserted that these people were Caucasians,
be called the "Dynastic Race Theory".[130][152] The the-
not Negroid. It also rejected any Biblical basis despite
ory further argued that the Mesopotamian founded state
using Hamitic as the theorys name.[141] Charles Gabriel
or states then conquered both Upper and Lower Egypt
Seligman in his Some Aspects of the Hamitic Problem in
and founded the First Dynasty of Egypt.
the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan (1913) and later works argued
that the ancient Egyptians were among this group of Cau- In the 1950s, the Dynastic Race Theory was widely ac-
casian Hamites, having arrived in the Nile Valley during cepted by mainstream scholarship. Scholars such as
early prehistory and introduced technology and agricul- the Senegalese Egyptologist Cheikh Anta Diop, fought
ture to primitive natives they found there.[142] against the Dynastic Race Theory with their own Black
Egyptian theory and claimed, among other things, that
The Italian anthropologist Giuseppe Sergi (1901) be-
European scholars supported the Dynastic Race Theory
lieved that ancient Egyptians were the Eastern African
to avoid having to admit that Ancient Egyptians were
(Hamitic) branch of the Mediterranean race, which he
black.[153] Bernal proposed that the Dynastic Race the-
called Eurafrican. According to Sergi, the Mediter-
ory was conceived by European scholars to deny Egypt
ranean race or Eurafrican contains three varieties or
its African roots.[154]
sub-races: the African (Hamitic) branch, the Mediter-
ranean proper branch and the Nordic (depigmen- Contemporary scientists agree that Egyptian civiliza-
tated) branch.[143] Sergi maintained in summary that the tion was an indigenous Nile Valley development (see
[132][133][155]
Mediterranean race (excluding the depigmentated Nordic population history of Egypt).
or 'white') is: a brown human variety, neither white nor
Negroid, but pure in its elements, that is to say not a prod-
uct of the mixture of Whites with Negroes or Negroid 58.5 See also
peoples.[144] Grafton Elliot Smith modied the theory in
1911,[145] stating that the ancient Egyptians were a dark Fayum mummy portraits
haired brown race,[146] most closely linked by the clos-
est bonds of racial anity to the Early Neolithic popula- Demographics of modern Egypt
[147]
tions of the North African littoral and South Europe,
Dynastic race theory
and not Negroid.[148] Smiths brown race is not synony-
mous or equivalent with Sergis Mediterranean race.[149] Ngritude
The Hamitic Hypothesis was still popular in the 1960s Archaeogenetics of the Near East
and late '70s and was supported notably by Anthony John
Arkell and George Peter Murdock.[150] Egyptomania
310 CHAPTER 58. ANCIENT EGYPTIAN RACE CONTROVERSY

Biological anthropology
History of anthropology
58.6 References
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[123] O'Connor, David (2011). Before the Pyramids. Chicago, 43 (JulyDecember 1913), pp. 593705.
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162163. ISBN 978-1-885923-82-0. pean Peoples, 1901, pp. vvi, Preface, also p. 45.
[124] The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt. [144] Sergi, 1901, p. 250.
Books.google.co.za. 2003-10-23. p. 446. Retrieved
2016-06-02. [145] Concepts of Race in the Historiography of Northeast
Africa, Wyatt MacGaey, The Journal of African His-
[125] D. Wengrow (2006-05-25). The Archaeology of Early tory, Vol. 7, No. 1, 1966.
Egypt: Social Transformations in North-East Africa ....
Books.google.co.za. p. 167. Retrieved 2016-06-02. [146] The Ancient Egyptians and the origin of Civilization, 1911,
p. 69.
[126] Peter Mitchell. African Connections: An Archaeo-
logical Perspective on Africa and the Wider World. [147] Smith, 1911, p. 25.
Books.google.co.za. p. 69. Retrieved 2016-06-02.
[148] As according to Smith the hair of the Proto-Egyptian was
[127] Archived copy. Archived from the original on Decem- precisely similar to that of the brunet South European
ber 24, 2013. Retrieved January 27, 2013. and presented no resemblance whatever to the so-called
'wooly' appearance and peppercorn-like arrangement of
[128] Lszl Trk. Between Two Worlds: The Fron- the Negros hair. - Smith, 1911, p. 58.
tier Region Between Ancient Nubia and Egypt ....
[149] Neither in Sergis nor in Elliot Smiths scheme are
Books.google.co.za. p. 577. Retrieved 2016-06-02.
Brown and Mediterranean equivalent terms. Mac-
[129] Robert Steven Bianchi. Daily Life of the Nubians. Gaey, 1966, p. 4.
Books.google.co.za. p. 38. Retrieved 2016-06-02. [150] Sanders, 1969, pp. 531; MacGaey, 1966, pp. 59.
[130] Early dynastic Egypt, by Toby A. H. Wilkinson, p. 15 [151] History of Egypt, 1846, Part I, p. 3 The Asiatic Origin of
the Race.
[131] Prehistory and Protohsitory of Egypt, Emile Massoulard,
1949 [152] Mary R. Lefkowitz; Guy MacLean Rogers. Black Athena
Revisited. Books.google.com. p. 65. Retrieved 2016-06-
[132] Frank Yurco, An Egyptological Review in Mary R. 02.
Lefkowitz and Guy MacLean Rogers, eds. Black Athena
Revisited. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina [153] Epic encounters: culture, media, and U.S. interests in the
Press, 1996. pp. 62100 Middle East 19452000 by Melani McAlister
 314 CHAPTER 58. ANCIENT EGYPTIAN RACE CONTROVERSY

[154] Black Athena Revisited, by Mary R. Lefkowitz, Guy Frank M. Snowden, Jr.: Bernals Blacks and the
MacLean Rogers Afrocentrists, Black Athena Revisited, 1996.
[155] Wilkinson, Toby A. H. (2001-08-10). Early Dynastic Joyce Tyldesley: Cleopatra, Last Queen of Egypt,
Egypt (Revised ed.). London; New York: Routledge. p. Prole Books Ltd, 2008.
15. ISBN 9780415260114.
Alain Froment, 1994. Race et Histoire: La recom-
position ideologique de l'image des Egyptiens an-
58.7 Works cited ciens. Journal des Africanistes 64:3764. available
online: Race et Histoire (French)
Bruce R. Dain, 2002 A Hideous Monster Of The Yaacov Shavit, 2001: History in Black. African-
Mind: American race theory in the early republic, Americans in Search of an Ancient Past, Frank Cass
Harvard University Press Publishers
Scott Tafton, 2004: Egypt Land: Race and Anthony Noguera, 1976. How African Was Egypt?:
Nineteenth-Century American Egyptomania, Duke A Comparative Study of Ancient Egyptian and Black
University Press African Cultures. Illustrations by Joelle Noguera.
Debbie Challis, 2013: The Archaeology of Race: New York: Vantage Press.
The Eugenic Ideas of Francis Galton and Flinders Shomarka Keita: The Geographical Origins and
Petrie, Bloomsbury Academic Population Relationships of Early Ancient Egyp-
Baum, Bruce (2006). The Rise and Fall of the Cau- tians, Egypt in Africa, (1996), pp. 2527
casian Race: A Political History of Racial Identity.
NYU Press. ISBN 978-0-8147-9892-8.
Campbell, John (1851). Negro-mania: Being an Ex-
amination of the Falsely Assumed Equality of the
Various Races of Men. Campbell & Powers.
Jacques Joseph, Champollion-Figeac (1839).
gypte ancienne. Firmin Didot frres.
Chassebuf, Constantin Franois de (1862). La loi
naturelle ou Principes physiques de la morale dduits
de l'organisation de l'homme et de l'univers. Davoine.
Chassebuf, Constantin Franois de (1787).
Voyage en Syrie et en Egypte, pendant les annes
1783, 1784 et 1785: avec deux cartes gographiques
et deux planches graves reprsentant les Ruines du
Temple du Soleil Balbek, et celles de la ville de
Palmyre, dans le dsert de Syrie. Desenne.
Jablonski, Nina (2012). Living Color: The Biologi-
cal and Social Meaning of Skin Color. University of
California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-95377-2.
Milton, John; Bandia, Paul Fadio (2009). Agents of
Translation. John Benjamins Publishing. ISBN 90-
272-1690-8.
Petrie, Flinders (1939). The Making of Egypt. Shel-
don Press.
Mary R. Lefkowitz: Ancient History, Modern
Myths, originally printed in The New Republic,
1992. Reprinted with revisions as part of the essay
collection Black Athena Revisited, 1996.
Kathryn A. Bard: Ancient Egyptians and the is-
sue of Race, Bostonia Magazine, 1992: later part
of Black Athena Revisited, 1996.
Chapter 59

Black Egyptian Hypothesis

The Black Egyptian hypothesis is the hypothesis that them using the terms Black, African, and Egyp-
Ancient Egypt was a predominately Black civilization, tian interchangeably,[25] despite what Frank Snowden
as the term is currently understood in modern Ameri- calls copious ancient evidence to the contrary.[26][27]
can ethnic perception. Mainstream scholars recognize In the mid 20th century, the proponents of the
that many indigenous Egyptians (e.g. Nubians), includ- Black African theory presented what G. Mokhtar re-
ing several Pharaohs, were of ancestry that, in the mod- ferred to as extensive and painstakingly researched
ern era, would be considered black. The Black Egyptian evidence[14][15][16][28][29] to support their views, which
hypothesis goes a lot further, claiming that Egypt, from contrasted sharply with prevailing views on Ancient
north to south, was a black civilization. It includes a par- Egyptian society. Diop and others believed the prevail-
ticular focus on identifying links to Sub Saharan cultures ing views were fueled by scientic racism and based on
and the questioning of the race of specic notable indi- poor scholarship.[30] Diop used a multi-faceted approach
viduals from Dynastic times, including Tutankhamun,[1] to counteract prevailing views on the Ancient Egyptians
the king represented in the Great Sphinx of Giza,[2][3] and origins and ethnicity.
Cleopatra.[4][5][6]
Since the second half of the 20th century, typological
and hierarchical models of race have increasingly been 59.2 Position of modern scholar-
rejected by scientists, and most (but not all) scholars ship
have held that applying modern notions of race to ancient
Egypt is anachronistic.[7][8][9]
Main article: Population history of Egypt
At the UNESCO Symposium on the Peopling of An- See also: DNA history of Egypt
cient Egypt and the Deciphering of the Meroitic script"
in Cairo in 1974, the Black hypothesis met with pro-
found disagreement.[10] Nearly all participants concluded Since the second half of the 20th century, most (but not
that the Ancient Egyptian population was indigenous to all) scholars have held that applying modern notions of
the Nile Valley, and was made up of people from north race to ancient Egypt is anachronistic.[7][8][9] The focus
and south of the Sahara who were dierentiated by their of some experts who study population biology has been
color.[11] to consider whether or not the Ancient Egyptians were
primarily biologically North African rather than to which
race they belonged.[31]
In 1975, the mummy of Ramesses II was taken to France
59.1 History for preservation. The mummy was also forensically tested
by Professor Pierre-Fernand Ceccaldi, the chief foren-
See also: Ancient Egyptian race controversy sic scientist at the Criminal Identication Laboratory of
Paris. Professor Ceccaldi determined that: Hair, aston-
Some modern scholars such as W. E. B. Du Bois, [12] ishingly preserved, showed some complementary data -
Chancellor Williams, [13]
Cheikh Anta Diop, [14][15][16] especially about pigmentation: Ramses II was a ginger
John G. Jackson, [17]
Ivan van Sertima, [18]
Martin haired 'cymnotriche leucoderma'. The description given
Bernal [19]
and Segun Magbagbeola [20]
have supported here [32][33]
refers to a fair-skinned person with wavy ginger
the theory that the Ancient Egyptian society was hair.
mostly Black.[21] The frequently criticized Journal of In 2008, S. O. Y. Keita wrote that There is no scientic
African Civilizations[22] has continually advocated that reason to believe that the primary ancestors of the Egyp-
Egypt should be viewed as a Black civilization.[23][24] tian population emerged and evolved outside of northeast
The debate was popularized throughout the 20th cen- Africa.... The basic overall genetic prole of the modern
tury by the aforementioned scholars, with many of population is consistent with the diversity of ancient pop-

315
316
ulations that would have been indigenous to northeastern
Africa and subject to the range of evolutionary inuences
over time, although researchers vary in the details of their
explanations of those inuences.[34]
Stuart Tyson Smith writes in the 2001 Oxford Encyclope-
dia of Ancient Egypt that Any characterization of race of
the ancient Egyptians depends on modern cultural deni-
tions, not on scientic study. Thus, by modern American
standards it is reasonable to characterize the Egyptians as
black, while acknowledging the scientic evidence for
the physical diversity of Africans.[35]
59.3 Greek historians
Queen Ahmose-Nefertari, depicted centuries after her death in a
tomb from the period of Ramses IV. According to Sigrid Hodel-
Hoenes, The queens black skin color is derived from her func-
tion, as black is the color both of the fertile earth and of the
netherworld and death.[36]
The Black African model relied heavily on the inter-
pretation of the writings of Classical historians, who
were writing during and after the time when Egypt was
a province of the Persian Empire, i.e. long after the
golden age of pharaohic Egypt had passed and when
Egypt was full of foreigners. Several Ancient Greek his-
torians noted that Egyptians had complexions that were
melanchroes.[37] There is considerable controversy over
the translation of melanchroes. Most scholars trans-
late it as black.[38][39][40][41][42][43][44] Alan B Lloyd wrote
that there is no linguistic justication for relating this
description to negroes. Melanchroes could denote any
colour from bronzed to black and negroes are not the
only physical type to show curly hair. These charac-
teristics would certainly be found in many Egs [Egyp-
tians], ancient and modern, but they are at variance with
what we should expect amongst the inhabitants of the
CHAPTER 59. BLACK EGYPTIAN HYPOTHESIS
Caucasus area.[45] Some of the most often quoted his-
torians are Strabo, Diodorus Siculus, and Herodotus.[38]
Herodotus states in a few passages that the Egyptians were
black/dark. According to most translations, Herodotus
states that a Greek oracle was known to be from Egypt
because she was black, that the natives of the Nile
region are black with heat, and that Egyptians were
black skinned with woolly hair.[39] Lucian observes an
Egyptian boy and notices that he is not merely black,
but has thick lips.[38] Diodorus Siculus mentioned that
the Aethiopians considered the Egyptians a colony.[46]
Appollodorus, a Greek, calls Egypt the country of the
black footed ones.[38] Aeschylus, a Greek poet, wrote that
Egyptian seamen had black limbs.[47] Greeks some-
times referred to Egyptians as Aethiopians[48] not to be
confused with inhabitants of the modern-day nation of
Ethiopia who were instead referred to as Abyssinians or
Habesha and their land as Abyssinia.
Gaston Maspero states that by the almost unanimous
testimony of ancient [Greek] historians, they [Ancient
Egyptians] belonged to the African race, which settled in
Ethiopia.[49][50] Simson Najovits states that Herodotus
made clear ethnic and national distinctions between
Aigyptios (Egyptians) and the peoples whom the Greeks
referred to as Aithiops (Ethiopians).[51]
Many scholars (Aubin, Heeren, Davidson, Diop, Poe,
Welsby, Celenko, Volney, Montet, Bernal, Jackson,
DuBois, Strabo), ancient and modern, routinely cite
Herodotus in their works on the Nile Valley. Some
of these scholars (Welsby, Heeren, Aubin, Diop, etc.)
explicitly mention the reliability of Herodotus work
on the Nile Valley and demonstrate corroboration of
Herodotus writings by modern scholars. Welsby
said that archaeology graphically conrms some of
Herodotus observations.[52] A.H.L. Heeren (1838)
quoted Herodotus throughout his work and provided cor-
roboration by scholars of his day regarding several pas-
sages (source of the Nile, location of Meroe, etc.).[53] To
further his work on the Egyptians and Assyrians, Aubin
uses Herodotus accounts in various passages and defends
Herodotus position against modern scholars. Aubin said
Herodotus was the author of the rst important narra-
tive history of the world and that Herodotus visited
Egypt.[54] Diop provides several examples (e.g. the in-
undations of the Nile) that he claims support his view that
Herodotus was quite scrupulous, objective, scientic for
his time. Diop also claims that:
Herodotus always distinguishes carefully between
what he has seen and what he has been told";
One must grant that he was at least capable of rec-
ognizing the skin color of inhabitants.[55]
For all the writers who preceded the ludicrous
and vicious falsications of modern Egyptology,
and the contemporaries of the ancient Egyptians
(Herodotus, Aristotle, Diodorus, Strabo, and oth-
59.4. MELANIN SAMPLES
ers), the Black identity of the Egyptian was an evi-
dent fact.
Snowden claims that Diop not only distorts his classical
sources but also omits reference to Greek and Latin au-
thors who specically call attention to the physical dier-
ences between Egyptians and Ethiopians.[56] Diop also
claims that Strabo corroborated Herodotus ideas about
the Black Egyptians, Aethiopians, and Colchians.[15][49]
The other scholars at the symposium however rejected
About the claim of Herodotus that the Pharaoh Sesostris
Diops Black-Egyptian theory.[78]
campaigned in Europe, and that he left a colony in
Colchia, Fehling states that there is not the slightest bit
of history behind the whole story.[57]
Many scholars regard the works of Herodotus as being
unreliable as historical sources. Fehling writes of a
problem recognized by everybody, namely that much of
what Herodotus tells us cannot be taken at face value.[57]
Sparks writes that In antiquity, Herodotus had acquired
the reputation of being unreliable, biased, parsimonious
in his praise of heroes, and mendacious.[58][59][60][61][62]
Najovits writes that Herodotus fantasies and inaccu-
racies are legendary.[63] Voltaire and Hartog both de-
scribed Herodotus as the father of lies.[64][65]
The reliability of Herodotus is particularly criticized
when writing about Egypt. Alan B. Lloyd states that as
a historical document, the writings of Herodotus are se-
riously defective, and that he was working from inade-
quate sources.[66] Nielsen writes that: Though we can-
not entirely rule out the possibility of Herodotus having
been in Egypt, it must be said that his narrative bears lit-
tle witness to it.[67] Fehling states that Herodotus never
traveled up the Nile River, and that almost everything he
says about Egypt and Aethiopia is doubtful.[57][68]
Supporters of the Black theory saw the Aethiopians and
Egyptians as racially and culturally similar,[46][69] while
others felt that the Ancient Egyptians and Aethiopians
were two ethnically distinct groups.[70] This is one of
the most popular and controversial arguments for this
theory.[71][72] Snowden mentions that Greeks and Ro-
mans knew of negroes of a red, copper-colored com-
plexion...among African tribes,[73] and proponents of
the Black theory believed that the Black racial grouping
was comprehensive enough to absorb the red and black
skinned images in Ancient Egyptian iconography.[73] The
British Africanist Basil Davidson stated Whether the
Ancient Egyptians were as black or as brown in skin color
as other Africans may remain an issue of emotive dispute;
probably, they were both. Their own artistic conventions
painted them as pink, but pictures on their tombs show
they often married queens shown as entirely black, be-
ing from the south : while the Greek writers reported
that they were much like all the other Africans whom the
Greeks knew.[74]
317
59.4 Melanin samples
While at the University of Dakar, Diop used micro-
scopic laboratory analysis to measure the melanin content
of skin samples from several Egyptian mummies (from
the Mariette excavations). The melanin levels found in
the dermis and epidermis of that small sample led Diop
to classify all the Ancient Egyptians as unquestionably
among the Black races.[75] At the UNESCO confer-
ence, Diop invited other scholars to examine the skin
samples.[76][77] Diop also asserted that Egyptians shared
the B blood type with black Africans.
59.5 Language
Diop and Obenga attempted to linguistically link Egypt
and Africa, by arguing that the Ancient Egyptian lan-
guage was related to Diops native Wolof (Senegal).[79]
Diops work was well received by the political establish-
ment in the post-colonial formative phase of the state
of Senegal, and by the Pan-Africanist Ngritude move-
ment, but was rejected by mainstream scholarship. In
drafting that section of the report of the UNESCO Sym-
posium, Diop claimed that Diop and Obengas linguistic
reports had a large measure of agreement and were re-
garded as very constructive.[80] However, in the discus-
sion thereof in the work Ancient Civilizations of Africa,
Volume 2, the editor has inserted a footnote stating that
these are merely Diops opinions and that they were not
accepted by all the experts participating.[81] In particu-
lar, Prof Abdelgadir M. Abdalla stated that The linguis-
tic examples given by Prof Diop were neither convincing
nor conclusive.[82]
59.6 Cultural practices
According to Diop, historians are in general agreement
that the Aethiopians, Egyptians, Colchians, and people of
the Southern Levant were among the only people on Earth
practicing circumcision, which conrms their cultural af-
liations, if not their ethnic aliation.[83] The Egyptian
(adolescent) style of circumcision was dierent from how
circumcision is practiced in other parts of the world,
but similar to how it is practiced throughout the African
continent.[84] Ancient writings discuss (Egyptian) cir-
cumcision in religious terms[85] and a 6th Dynasty tomb
shows circumcision being performed by a circumcising
priest, rather than a physician. [86] The practice of cir-
cumcising by religious, rather than medical, authorities is
still common throughout Africa today.[84] Furthermore,
in both Ancient Egypt and modern Africa, young boys
were circumcised in large groups.[87]
318 CHAPTER 59. BLACK EGYPTIAN HYPOTHESIS

Circumcision was practiced in Egypt at a very early that kmt was derived from the skin color of the Nile val-
date. Strouhal mentions that the earliest archaeologi- ley people, which Diop et al. claim was black.[71][97] The
cal evidence for circumcision was found in the southern claim that the Ancient Egyptians had black skin has be-
Nile Valley and dates from the Neolithic period, some come a cornerstone of Afrocentric historiography,[95] but
6000 years ago. The remains of circumcised individuals it is rejected by most Egyptologists.[98]
are cited as proof.[85] Similarly, Doyle states It is now Mainstream scholars hold that kmt means the black land
thought that the Egyptians adopted circumcision much or the black place, and that this is a reference to the
earlier (than the conrmed 2400 BC date), from peo- fertile black soil which was washed down from Central
ples living further south in todays Sudan and Ethiopia,
Africa by the annual Nile inundation. By contrast the
where dark-skinned peoples are known to have practised barren desert outside the narrow connes of the Nile
circumcision. Evidence suggests that circumcision was
watercourse was called drt (conventionally pronounced
practiced in the Arabian peninsula from where, in the deshret) or the red land.[95][99] Raymond Faulkners
fourth millennium BCE, two groups of people migrated
Concise Dictionary of Middle Egyptian translates kmt
into what we today call Iraq. These were the Sumeri- into Egyptians,[100] Gardiner translates it as the Black
ans and, slightly later, the Semites, the forefathers of the
Land, Egypt.[101]
Hebrews.[88]
At the UNESCO Symposium in 1974, Professors
Sauneron, Obenga, and Diop concluded that KMT and
KM meant black.[102] However, Professor Sauneron clar-
59.7 Biblical Ham, blackness, and ied that the Egyptians never used the adjective Kmtyw
Hams ospring to refer to the various black peoples they knew of, they
only used it to refer to themselves.[82]
According to Diop, Bernal, and other scholars, Ham
was the ancestor of Negroes and Egyptians. Accord-
ing to Bernal, the Talmudic interpretation that the curse 59.9 Ancient art
of Ham (the father of Canaan and Mizraim, Egypt) was
blackness was widespread in the 17th century.[41] Ham
was the father of Mizraim (the Hebrew word for Egypt),
Phut, Kush, and Canaan. For Diop, Ham means heat,
black, burned in Hebrew, an etymology which became
popular in the 18th century.[89] Kush is positively iden-
tied with black Africa. Furthermore, If the Egyptians
were Negroes, sons of Ham...it is not by chance that this
curse on the father of Mesraim, Phut, Kush, and Canaan,
fell only on Canaan.[90] A review of David Goldenbergs
The Curse of Ham: Race and Slavery in Early Judaism,
Christianity and Islam states that Goldenberg argues per-
suasively that the biblical name Ham bears no relationship
at all to the notion of blackness and as of now is of un-
known etymology.[91]

An 1820 drawing of a Book of Gates fresco from the tomb of

59.8 Kemet Seti I, depicting (from left): a Libyan, a Nubian, an Asiatic, and
an Egyptian.

Main article: Km (hieroglyph) Diop saw the representation of black people in Egyptian
art and iconography throughout Egyptian history. Uni-
Supporters of the Black Egyptian hypothesis claim that versity of Chicago scholars state that the skin pigment
the name Kemet, used by Egyptians to describe them- used in Egyptian paintings to refer to Nubians can range
selves or their land (depending on your point of view), from dark red to brown to black.[103] This can be ob-
meant Black.[92] served in paintings from the tomb of the Egyptian Huy,
Ancient Egyptians referred to their homeland as Kmt as well as Ramses IIs temple at Beit el-Wali.[104] Also,
(conventionally pronounced as Kemet). According to Snowden indicates that Statius spoke of red Ethiopians
Diop, the Egyptians referred to themselves as Black and Romans had accurate knowledge of negroes of a red,
people or kmt, and km was the etymological root of other copper-colored complexion...among African tribes.[73]
words, such as Kam or Ham, which refer to Black people Professors Vercoutter, Ghallab and Leclant stated that
in Hebrew tradition.[93][94] Diop,[95] William Leo Hans- Egyptian iconography, from the 18th Dynasty onward,
berry,[95] and Aboubacry Moussa Lam[96] have argued showed characteristic representations of black people
59.11. QUSTUL ARTIFACTS 319

who had not previously been depicted; these represen- novelist Gustave Flaubert.[116] The identity of the model
tations meant, therefore, that at least from that dynasty for the Great Sphinx of Giza is unknown.[117] Virtually
onward the Egyptians had been in contact with peoples all Egyptologists and scholars currently believe that the
who were considered ethnically distinct from them.[105] face of the Sphinx represents the likeness of the Pharaoh
Depictions of Egyptians in art and artifacts are rendered Khafra, although a few Egyptologists and interested am-
in sometimes symbolic, rather than realistic, pigments. ateurs have proposed several dierent hypotheses.
As a result, ancient Egyptian artifacts provide some-
times conicting and inconclusive evidence of the eth-
nicity of the people who lived in Egypt during dynastic 59.11 Qustul artifacts
times.[106][107] Najovits states that Egyptian art depicted
Egyptians on the one hand and Nubians and other blacks Scholars from the University of Chicago Oriental In-
on the other hand with distinctly dierent ethnic charac- stitute excavated at Qustul (near Abu Simbel Mod-
teristics and depicted this abundantly and often aggres- ern Sudan), in 196064, and found artifacts which in-
sively. The Egyptians accurately, arrogantly and aggres- corporated images associated with Egyptian pharaohs.
sively made national and ethnic distinctions from a very From this Williams concluded that Egypt and Nubia
early date in their art and literature.[108] He continues A-Group culture shared the same ocial culture, par-
that There is an extraordinary abundance of Egyptian ticipated in the most complex dynastic developments,
works of art which clearly depicted sharply contrasted and "Nubia and Egypt were both part of the great East
reddish-brown Egyptians and black Nubians.[108] African substratum.[118] Williams also wrote that Qus-
tul in Nubia could well have been the seat of Egypts
founding dynasty.[119][120] Diop used this as further ev-
59.10 Sculpture and the Sphinx idence in support of his Black Egyptian hypothesis.[121]
David O'Connor wrote that the Qustul incense burner
provides evidence that the A-group Nubian culture in
Qustul marked the pivotal change from predynastic to
dynastic Egyptian monumental art.[122]
However, most scholars do not agree with this
hypothesis,[123] as more recent nds in Egypt indicate
that this iconography originated in Egypt not Nubia, and
that the Qustul rulers adopted/emulated the symbols of
Egyptian pharaohs.[124][125][126][127][128]
More recent and broader studies have determined that the
distinct pottery styles, diering burial practices, dierent
grave goods and the distribution of sites all indicate that
the Naqada people and the Nubian A-Group people were
from dierent cultures. Kathryn Bard further states that
Naqada cultural burials contain very few Nubian craft
The damaged head of the Great Sphinx of Giza in partial goods, which suggests that while Egyptian goods were
shadow, missing its nose and showing its prognathous prole in exported to Nubia and were buried in A-Group graves,
silhouette A-Group goods were of little interest further north.[129]
This debate is best characterized by the controversy over
the Great Sphinx of Giza.[109] Scholars supportive of the
Black Egyptian hypothesis reviewed Egyptian sculpture 59.12 See also
from throughout the dynastic period and concluded that
the sculptures were consistent with the phenotype of the Ancient Egyptian race controversy
black race.
Numerous scholars, such as DuBois,[2][110][111] Diop,
Asante,[112] and Volney,[113] have characterized the face 59.13 Notes
of the Sphinx as Black, or "Negroid. Around 1785
Volney stated, When I visited the sphinx...on seeing
[1] Tutankhamun was not black: Egypt antiquities chief.
that head, typically Negro in all its features, I remem-
AFP. Google News. Sep 25, 2007. Archived from the
bered...Herodotus says: "...the Egyptians...are black with original on February 13, 2012. Retrieved May 28, 2012.
woolly hair...[114] Another early description of a Ne-
groid Sphinx is recorded in the travel notes of a French [2] Graham W. Irwin (1977-01-01). Africans abroad: a doc-
scholar, who visited in Egypt between 1783 and 1785, umentary history of the Black Diaspora in Asia, Latin ...
Constantin-Franois Chassebuf[115] along with French Books.google.co.uk. Retrieved 2016-05-28.
320
[3] Robert Schoch ,Great Sphinx Controversy.
robertschoch.net. 1995. Archived from the original
on February 4, 2012. Retrieved May 29, 2012., A
modied version of this manuscript was published in the
Fortean Times (P.O. Box 2409, London NW5 4NP)
No. 79, February March, 1995, pp. 34 39.
[4] Hugh B. Price ,Was Cleopatra Black?". The Baltimore
Sun. September 26, 1991. Retrieved May 28, 2012.
[5] Charles Whitaker ,Was Cleopatra Black?". Ebony. Feb
2002. Retrieved May 28, 2012. In support of this, he cites
a few examples, one of which is a chapter entitled Black
Warrior Queens, published in 1984 in Black Women in
Antiquity, part of The Journal of African Civilization se-
ries. It draws heavily on the work of J.A. Rogers.
[6] Mona Charen ,Afrocentric View Distorts History and
Achievement by Blacks. St. Louis Post-Dispatch. Febru-
ary 14, 1994. Retrieved May 29, 2012.
[7] Black Athena Revisited. Books.google.co.za. p. 162. Re-
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[15] Diop, Cheikh Anta (1981). Civilization or Barbarism.
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[16] Mokhtar, G. (1990). General History of Africa. Cali-
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[20] Magbagbeola, Segun (2012). Black Egyptians: The
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[21] Mokhtar, G. (1990). General History of Africa. Califor-
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[22] Muhly: Black Athena versus Traditional Scholarship,
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[23] Snowden p. 117
[24] Four Unforgettable Scholars, Countless Gifts to the
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[25] Snowden p.116 of Black Athena Revisited
[26] Snowden, Jr., Frank M. (Winter 1997). Misconcep-
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[29] Mokhtar, G. (1990). General History of Africa. Califor-
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0-520-06697-9.
[30] Diop, Cheikh Anta (1974). The African Origin of Civi-
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[31] S.O.Y. Keita, S. O. Y. (1995). Studies and Comments
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[32] Ceccaldi, Pierre (1987). Research on the Mummy of
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[33] Bulletin de l'Acadmie nationale de mdecine. Gallica.
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[35] Stuart Tyson Smith (2001) The Oxford encyclopedia of
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[36] Hodel-Hoenes, S & Warburton, D (trans), Life and Death
in Ancient Egypt: Scenes from Private Tombs in New King-
dom Thebes, Cornell University Press, 2000, p.268.
59.13. NOTES
[37] Herodotus, Histories 2.104.2.
[38] Mokhtar, G. (1990). General History of Africa. Cali-
fornia, USA: University of California Press. pp. 1560.
ISBN 0-520-06697-9.
[39] Herodotus (2003). The Histories. London, England: Pen-
guin Books. pp. 103, 119, 134135, 640. ISBN 978-0-
14-044908-2.
[40] Snowden, Frank (1970). Blacks in Antiquity. Cambridge,
Massachusetts: The Belknap Press of Harvard University
Press. pp. 101, 104106, 109.
[41] Bernal, Martin (1987). Black Athena. New Brunswick,
New Jersey: Rutgers University Press. p. 242. ISBN
978-0-8135-1276-1.
[42] Shavit, Yaacov. History in Black: African-Americans in
Search of an Ancient Past. London: Frank Cass Publish-
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[43] Byron, Gay (2002). Symbolic Blackness and Ethnic Dif-
ference in Early Christian Literature. London and New
York: Routledge. p. 4. ISBN 0-415-24369-6.
[44] Alan B. Lloyd. Herodotus. Books.google.co.za. p. 22.
Retrieved 2016-05-28.
[45] Alan B. Lloyd. Herodotus. Books.google.co.za. Retrieved
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[46] Snowden, Frank (1970). Blacks in Antiquity. Cambridge,
Massachusetts: The Belknap Press of Harvard University
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[47] Mokhtar, G. (1990). General History of Africa. Califor-
nia, USA: University of California Press. p. 26. ISBN
0-520-06697-9.
[48] in Liddell, Scott, A GreekEnglish Lexicon:
" , , , fem. , , ( as [65] David G. Farley (2010-11-30). Modernist Travel Writ-
fem., A.Fr.328, 329): pl. '' Il.1.423, whence
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28. Cf. Etymologicum Genuinum s.v. , Etymolog-
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[49] Diop, Cheikh Anta (1974). The African Origin of Civi-
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[50] Mary R. Lefkowitz, Guy MacLean Rogers: Black Athena
Revisited, The University of North Carolina Press 1996,
ISBN 0-8078-4555-8, pg. 118
[51] Egypt, the Trunk of the Tree: A Modern Survey of an
Ancient Land, by Simson Najovits, pg 319
[52] Welsby, Derek (1996). The Kingdom of Kush. London:
British Museum Press. p. 40. ISBN 0-7141-0986-X.
[53] Heeren, A.H.L. (1838). Historical researches into the pol-
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[54] Aubin, Henry (2002). The Rescue of Jerusalem. New
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[56] Black Athena Revisited. Books.google.co.za. p. 118. Re-
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[57] Travel Fact and Travel Fiction: Studies on Fiction, Literary
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[58] Kenton L. Sparks. Ethnicity and Identity in Ancient Israel:
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[59] David Asheri; Alan Lloyd; Aldo Corcella. A Commentary
on Herodotus. Books.google.co.za. p. 74. Retrieved 2016-
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[60] Jennifer T. Roberts (2011-06-23). Herodotus: A Very
Short Introduction. Books.google.co.za. p. 115. Retrieved
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[61] Alan Cameron. Greek Mythography in the Roman World.
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[62] John Marincola (2001-12-13). Greek Historians.
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[64] Multicultural Writers from Antiquity to 1945: A Bio-
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[68] Herodotus: Oxford Bibliographies Online Research Guide
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[69] Snowden, Frank (1970). Blacks in Antiquity. Cambridge,
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[70] Black Athena Revisited. Books.google.co.za. p. 389. Re-
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[71] Mokhtar, G. (1990). General History of Africa. Cali-
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[72] Herodotus (2003). The Histories. London, England: Pen-
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[73] Snowden, Frank (1970). Blacks in Antiquity. Cambridge, [90] Diop, Cheikh Anta (1974). The African Origin of Civi-
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[74] Davidson, Basil (1991). African Civilization Revisited:
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[76] Mokhtar, G. (1990). General History of Africa. Cali-
fornia, USA: University of California Press. pp. 20, 37.
ISBN 0-520-06697-9.
[77] Chris Gray, Conceptions of History in the Works of Cheikh
Anta Diop and Theophile Obenga, (Karnak House:1989)
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[78] Muammad Jaml al-Dn Mukhtr. Ancient Civilizations
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[93] Mokhtar, G. (1990). General History of Africa II: Ancient
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[95] Shavit 2001: 148

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[99] Kemp, Barry J. (2006). Ancient Egypt: Anatomy Of A
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[101] Gardiner, Alan (1957) [1927]. Egyptian Grammar: Being
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an Introduction to the Study of Hieroglyphs (3 ed.). Grith
[84] Bailey, Susan (1996). Egypt in Africa. Indiana, USA: Institute, Oxford. ISBN 0-900416-35-1.
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[102] Mokhtar, G. (1990). General History of Africa. Califor-
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[86] Ghalioungui, Paul (1963). Magic & Medical Science in [104] Emberling, Geo (2011). Nubia: Ancient Kingdoms of
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[87] Stracmans, M. (1959). Encore un texte peau connu re- 48102-9.
latif a la circoncision des anciens Egyptiens. Archivo In- [105] Muammad Jaml al-Dn Mukhtr. Ancient Civilizations
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[110] W. E. B. Du Bois. The Negro. Books.google.co.uk. Re-
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[111] Black man of the Nile and his family, by Yosef Ben-
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[112] Asante, Mole Kete (1996). European Racism Regard-
ing Ancient Egypt: Egypt in Africa. Indianapolis, Indiana:
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[114] Diop, Cheikh Anta (1974). The African Origin of Civi-
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[115] Constantin-Franois Chassebuf saw the Sphinx as typ-
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Paris, 1825, page 65
[116] "...its head is grey, ears very large and protruding like a ne-
gros...the fact that the nose is missing increases the at,
negroid eect. Besides, it was certainly Ethiopian; the
lips are thick.. Flaubert, Gustave. Flaubert in Egypt, ed.
Francis Steegmuller. (London: Penguin Classics, 1996).
ISBN 978-0-14-043582-5.
[117] Hassan, Selim (1949). The Sphinx: Its history in the light
of recent excavations. Cairo: Government Press, 1949.
[118] Williams, Bruce (2011). Before the Pyramids. Chicago,
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[121] Diop, Cheikh Anta (1991). Civilization or Barbarism.
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[122] O'Connor, David (2011). Before the Pyramids. Chicago,
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[123] The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt.
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[124] D. Wengrow (2006-05-25). The Archaeology of Early
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[125] Peter Mitchell. African Connections: An Archaeo-
logical Perspective on Africa and the Wider World.
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3DAR1ZZO6niVIC%26pg%3DPA194%26dq%
3DQustul+burner%26hl%3Den%26sa%3DX%26ei%
3DLo7-UITgFYqa0QWNnYDYDA%26ved%
3D0CEcQ6AEwBQ#v=onepage&q=Qustul%
20burner&f=false. Retrieved January 27, 2013.
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2016-05-28.
Kathryn A. Bard, 2015, p. 110
59.14 References
Mary R. Lefkowitz: Ancient History, Modern
Myths, originally printed in The New Republic,
1992. Reprinted with revisions as part of the essay
collection Black Athena Revisited, 1996.
Kathryn A. Bard: Ancient Egyptians and the is-
sue of Race, Bostonia Magazine, 1992: later part
of Black Athena Revisited, 1996.
Frank M. Snowden, Jr.: Bernals Blacks and the
Afrocentrists, Black Athena Revisited, 1996.
Joyce Tyldesley: Cleopatra, Last Queen of Egypt,
Prole Books Ltd, 2008.
Alain Froment, 1994. Race et Histoire: La recom-
position ideologique de l'image des Egyptiens an-
ciens. Journal des Africanistes 64:3764. available
online: Race et Histoire (French)
Yaacov Shavit, 2001: History in Black. African-
Americans in Search of an Ancient Past, Frank Cass
Publishers
Anthony Noguera, 1976. How African Was Egypt?:
A Comparative Study of Ancient Egyptian and Black
African Cultures. Illustrations by Joelle Noguera.
New York: Vantage Press.
Shomarka Keita: The Geographical Origins and
Population Relationships of Early Ancient Egyp-
tians, Egypt in Africa, (1996), pp. 2527
Chapter 60

Rope stretcher

In ancient Egypt, a rope stretcher (or harpedonaptai)
was a surveyor who measured real property demarcations
and foundations using knotted cords, stretched so the rope
did not sag. When performed by a king to begin build-
ing a temple[1] the stretching of the rope was proba-
bly a religious ceremony.[2] On artefacts as ancient as
the Scorpion Macehead, Egyptians documented the royal
surveyors procedure for restoring the boundaries of elds
after each ood.
60.1 History
The rst surveyors to use ropes and plumbs may have
been Egyptian.[3] Rope stretching technology spread to
ancient Greece and India, where it stimulated the devel-
opment of geometry and mathematics. Some think that
it was India that inuenced Greece.[4]
60.2 The Egyptian rope trick
Rope stretchers used 3-4-5 triangles and the plummet,[5]
which are still in use by modern surveyors. The plum-
met can be used with a square ruled o into intervals on
tongue and blade to get a unit rise and run or angle when
taking an elevation to a distant point as with a modern
sextant.
[3] Encyclopdia Britannica, op.cit., p.828
[4] Chattopadhyaya, op.cit., p.153
[5] Petrie Museum website: plumbs
Alistair Macintosh Wilson, The Innite in the Finite,
Oxford University Press 1995
Debi Prasad Chattopadhyaya, Environment, Evolu-
tion, and Values: Studies in Man, Society, and Sci-
ence, South Asian Publishers 1982
The New Encyclopdia Britannica, Encyclopdia
Britannica 1974
James Henry Breasted Ancient Records of Egypt,
Part Two, Chicago 1906
60.5 Further reading
Joel F. PAULSON, Surveying in Ancient Egypt,,
FIG Working Week 2005 and GSDI8, Cairo,
Egypt April 16-21, 2005.
60.6 External links
surveying instruments

proportions The knowledge of pleasing propor-

60.3 See also tions of the rope stretchers was incorporated by the
Greeks
Gromatici Sangaku and The Egyptian Triangle
Surveying
Trigonometry

60.4 References
[1] Wilson, op.cit., p.38

[2] Breasted: From the Great Karnak Building Inscription

(Year 24 of the reign of Thutmose III), op.cit. 608

324
Chapter 61

Rosemarie and Dietrich Klemm Collection

The Rosemarie and Dietrich Klemm Collection, de-

posited in the British Museum in London, consists of
thousands of rock samples from the sites of Egyptian
quarries. The collection was formed by the Egyptologist
Rosemarie Klemm and the geologist Dietrich D. Klemm,
both at Ludwig-Maximilians-Universitt, Munich. Com-
parison with these rock samples can make it possible to
identify, certainly or with probability, the origin of the
stone used in ancient Egyptian architecture, statues and
inscriptions.
Before its deposit in the Museum the collection was con-
sulted in 1999 during conservation of the Rosetta Stone.
The study showed a close resemblance to rock from a
small granodiorite quarry at Gebel Tingar on the west
bank of the Nile, west of Elephantine in the region of
Aswan; the pink vein running across the upper part of
the Rosetta Stone was also noted as typical of granodior-
ite from this region.[1]

61.1 Notes
[1] Middleton, Andrew and Klemm, Dietrich. The Geology
of the Rosetta Stone, Journal of Egyptian Archaeology,
Vol. 89 (2003) pp. 207-216

61.2 External links

Department of Ancient Egypt and Sudan

61.3 Bibliography
Klemm, Rosemarie and Klemm, Dietrich. Stone
and Stone Quarries in Ancient Egypt. London:
British Museum Publications, 2008. ISBN 978-0-
7141-2326-4

325
Chapter 62

Sea Peoples

For other uses, see Sea People (disambiguation). theory has been brought into question by a number of
The Sea Peoples were a purported seafaring scholars.[1][2][10][11]
Hypotheses regarding the origin of the various groups
identied as Sea Peoples remains the source of much
speculation.[12] These theories variously propose equating
them with several Aegean tribes, raiders from central Eu-
rope, scattered soldiers who turned to piracy or who had
become refugees, and links with natural disasters such as
earthquakes or climatic shifts.[2][13]

62.1 History of the concept

This famous scene from the north wall of Medinet Habu is often
used to illustrate the Egyptian campaign against the Sea Peoples
in what has come to be known as the Battle of the Delta. Whilst
accompanying hieroglyphs do not name Egypts enemies, describ-
ing them simply as being from northern countries, early schol-
ars noted the similarities between the hairstyles and accessories
worn by the combatants and other reliefs in which such groups
are named.

confederation of groups known to have attacked ancient

Egypt prior to the Late Bronze Age collapse.[1][2] Fol-
lowing the creation of the concept in the nineteenth cen-
tury, it became one of the most famous chapters of
Egyptian history, given its connection with, in the words
of Wilhelm Max Mller: the most important ques-
tions of ethnography and the primitive history of classic
nations.[3][4] partial description of the hieroglyphic text at Medinet
The various Sea Peoples have been proposed to have orig- Habu on the right tower of Second Pylon (left), and
inated either from western Anatolia or from Southern Eu- an illustration of the prisoners depicted at the base
rope.[5] Although the archaeological inscriptions do not of the Fortied East Gate (right), were rst provided
include reference to a migration,[2] the Sea Peoples are by Jean-Franois Champollion following his 182829
conjectured to have sailed around the eastern Mediter- travels to Egypt and published posthumously.[14] Al-
ranean and invaded Anatolia, Syria, Canaan, Cyprus, and though Champollion did not label them, decades later
Egypt toward the end of the Bronze Age.[6] the hieroglyphs labelled 4 to 8 (left) were translated as
French Egyptologist Emmanuel de Roug rst used the Peleset, Tjeker, Shekelesh, Denyen and Weshesh, and the
term peuples de la mer (literally peoples of the sea) hieroglyphs next to prisoners
[15]
4 and 6 (right) translated as
in 1855 in a description of reliefs on the Second Py- Sherden and Teresh.
lon at Medinet Habu documenting Year 8 of Ramesses
III.[7][8] Gaston Maspero, de Roug's successor at the The concept of the Sea Peoples was rst described by
Collge de France, subsequently popularized the term Emmanuel de Roug in 1855, then curator of the Louvre,
Sea Peoplesand an associated migration-theory in his work Note on Some Hieroglyphic Texts Recently
in the late 19th century.[9] Since the early 1990s, the Published by Mr. Greene,[16] describing the battles of

326
62.2. PRIMARY DOCUMENTARY RECORDS 327

Ramesses III described on the Second Pylon at Medinet

Habu, and based upon recent photographs of the tem-
ple by John Beasley Greene.[17][18][19] De Roug noted
that in the crests of the conquered peoples the Sherden
and the Teresh bear the designation of the 'peuples de
la mer'", in a reference to the prisoners depicted at the
base of the Fortied East Gate.[8] In 1867, de Roug pub-
lished his Excerpts of a mmoire on the attacks directed
against Egypt by the peoples of the Mediterranean in the
14th century BCE, which focused primarily on the bat-
tles of Ramesses II and Merneptah, and which proposed
translations for many of the geographic names included
in the hieroglyphic inscriptions.[20][21] De Roug later be-
came chair of Egyptology at the Collge de France, and
was succeeded by Gaston Maspero. Maspero built upon The Nile Delta, 2006
de Roug's work, and published The Struggle of the Na-
tions,[22] in which he described the theory of the seaborne
migrations in detail in 18956 for a wider audience,[9] at 62.2.1 Reign of Ramesses II
a time when the idea of population migrations would have
felt familiar to the general population.[23] Records or possible records of sea peoples generally or
in particular date to two campaigns of Ramesses II, a
The theory was taken up by other scholars such as pharaoh of the militant 19th Dynasty: operations in or
Eduard Meyer, and became the generally accepted the- near the delta in Year 2 of his reign and the major con-
ory amongst Egyptologists and orientalists.[9] frontation with the Hittite Empire and allies at the Battle
Since the early 1990s, the theory has been brought into of Kadesh in his Year 5. The years of this long-lived
question by a number of scholars.[1][2][10][11] pharaohs reign are not known exactly, but they must have
comprised nearly all of the rst half of the 13th century
The historical narrative stems primarily from seven
BCE.[46]
Ancient Egyptian sources,[24] and although in these in-
scriptions the designation of the sea does not appear in In his Second Year, an attack of the Sherden, or Shardana,
relation to all of these peoples,[1][11] the term Sea Peo- on the Nile Delta was repulsed and defeated by Ramesses,
ples is commonly used to refer to the following nine peo- who captured some of the pirates. The event is recorded
ples, in alphabetical order:[25][26] on Tanis Stele II.[47] An inscription by Ramesses II on the
stela from Tanis which recorded the Sherden raiders raid
and subsequent capture speaks of the continuous threat
they posed to Egypts Mediterranean coasts:

the unruly Sherden whom no one had ever

known how to combat, they came boldly sail-
62.2 Primary documentary records ing in their warships from the midst of the sea,
none being able to withstand them.[48]

Whilst the Medinet Habu inscriptions from which the Sea The Sherden prisoners were subsequently incorporated
Peoples concept was rst described remain the primary into the Egyptian army for service on the Hittite frontier
source and the basis of virtually all signicant discus- by Ramesses, and were involved as Egyptian soldiers in
sions of them,[43] there are three primary narratives fromthe Battle of Kadesh. Another stele usually cited in con-
Egyptian records which refer to more than one of the nine junction with this one is the "Aswan Stele" (there were
peoples, found in six sources. A seventh source referring other stelae at Aswan), which mentions the kings oper-
to more than one of the nine peoples is a list (Onomasti- ations to defeat a number of peoples including those of
con) of 610 entities, rather than a narrative:[24] the "Great Green (the Egyptian name for the Mediter-
Other Egyptian sources refer to one of the individual ranean)". It is plausible to assume that the Tanis and
groups without reference to any of the other groups:[24] Aswan Stelae refer to the same event, in which case they
the Amarna letters (EA 151 refers to the Denyen, EA reinforce each other.
38 to the Lukka, and EA 81, EA 122 and EA 133 to The Battle of Kadesh was the outcome of a cam-
the Sherden), Padiisets Statue refers to the Peleset, the paign against the Hittites and allies in the Levant in the
Cairo Column[44] refers to the Shekelesh, the Story of pharaohs Year 5. The imminent collision of the Egyp-
Wenamun refers to the Tjekker, and 13 further Egyptian tian and Hittite empires became obvious to both, and they
sources refer to the Sherden.[45] both prepared campaigns against the strategic midpoint
328 CHAPTER 62. SEA PEOPLES

of Kadesh for the next year. Ramesses divided his Egyp- 62.2.2 Reign of Merneptah
tian forces, which were then ambushed piecemeal by the
Hittite army and nearly defeated. However, some Egyp-
tian forces made it through to Kadesh, and the arrival of
the last of the Egyptians provided enough military cover
to allow the pharaoh to escape and his army to withdraw
in defeat; leaving Kadesh in Hittite hands.[49]
At home, Ramesses had his scribes formulate an ocial
description, which has been called the Bulletin because
it was widely published by inscription. Ten copies survive
today on the temples at Abydos, Karnak, Luxor and Abu
Simbel, with reliefs depicting the battle. The "Poem of
Pentaur", describing the battle survived also.[50]
The poem relates that the previously captured Sherden
were not only working for the Pharaoh, but were also for-
mulating a plan of battle for him; i.e. it was their idea
to divide Egyptian forces into four columns. There is no
evidence of any collaboration with the Hittites or mali-
cious intent on their part, and if Ramesses considered it,
he never left any record of that consideration.
The poem lists the peoples which went to Kadesh as al-
lies of the Hittites. Amongst them are some of the sea
peoples spoken of in the Egyptian inscriptions previously
mentioned, and many of the peoples who would later take
part in the great migrations of the 12th century BCE (see
Appendix A to the Battle of Kadesh).

Athribis stele
(showing all 19 lines and 14 lines on each face. The
reference to foreigners of the sea is on line 13 out of
19)

Great Karnak In-

scription (lines 1-20 out of 79; the reference to foreign
countries of the sea is on line 52)

The major event of the reign of the Pharaoh Merneptah

(1213 BCE1203 BCE),[51] 4th king of the 19th Dy-
nasty, was his battle against a confederacy termed the
Nine Bows at Perire in the western delta in the 5th and
6th years of his reign. Depredations of this confederacy
had been so severe that the region was forsaken as pas-
turage for cattle, it was left waste from the time of the
ancestors.[52]
62.2. PRIMARY DOCUMENTARY RECORDS 329

The pharaohs action against them is attested in a sin- lives. Merneptah states that he defeated the invasion,
gle narrative found in three sources. The most detailed killing 6,000 soldiers and taking 9,000 prisoners. To be
source describing the battle is the Great Karnak Inscrip- sure of the numbers, among other things, he took the
tion, and two shorter versions of the same narrative are penises of all uncircumcised enemy dead and the hands
found in the Athribis Stele and the Cairo Column[53] of all the circumcised, from which history learns that the
The Cairo column is a section of a granite column Ekwesh were circumcised, a fact causing some to doubt
now in the Cairo Museum, which was rst published by they were Greek.
Maspero in 1881 with just two readable sentences the
rst conrming the date of Year 5 and the second stat-
ing: The wretched [chief] of Libya has invaded with 62.2.3 Reign of Ramesses III
, being men and women, Shekelesh (S'-k-rw-s)
".[54][55] The Athribis stela is a granite stela found Further information: Battle of the Delta, Battle of Djahy,
in Athribis and inscribed on both sides, which, like the and Bronze Age collapse
Cairo column was rst published by Maspero, two years
later in 1883.[56] The Merneptah Stele from Thebes de-
scribes the reign of peace resulting from the victory, but
does not include any reference to the Sea Peoples.[57]
The Nine Bows were acting under the leadership of the
king of Libya and an associated near-concurrent revolt in
Canaan involving Gaza, Ashkelon, Yenoam and the peo-
ple of Israel. Exactly which peoples were consistently
in the Nine Bows is not clear, but present at the battle
were the Libyans, some neighboring Meshwesh, and pos-
Habu northeast outside wall, showing wide view and a
sibly a separate revolt in the following year involving peo-
ples from the eastern Mediterranean, including the Khetaclose up sketch of the right hand side relief. Behind the
king (out of scene) is a chariot, above which the text
(or Hittites), or Syrians, and (in the Israel Stele) for the
describes a battle in Year 8 as follows:
rst time in history, the Israelites. In addition to them,
Now the northern countries, which were in their isles,
the rst lines of the Karnak inscription include some sea
were quivering in their bodies. They penetrated the
peoples,[58] which must have arrived in the Western Delta
or from Cyrene by ship: channels of the Nile mouths. Their nostrils have ceased
(to function, so that) their desire is <to> breathe the
breath. His majesty is gone forth like a whirlwind against
[Beginning of the victory that his majesty them, ghting on the battle eld like a runner. The
achieved in the land of Libya] -i, Ekwesh, dread of him and the terror of him have entered in their
Teresh, Lukka, Sherden, Shekelesh, Northern- bodies; (they are) capsized and overwhelmed in their
ers coming from all lands. places. Their hearts are taken away; their soul is own
away. Their weapons are scattered in the sea. His arrow
Later in the inscription Merneptah receives news of the pierces him whom he has wished among them, while the
attack: fugitive is become one fallen into the water. His majesty
is like an en- raged lion, attacking his assailant with his
... the third season, saying: 'The wretched, pawns; plundering on his right hand and powerful on
fallen chief of Libya, Meryey, son of Ded, his left hand, like Set[h] destroying the serpent Evil of
has fallen upon the country of Tehenu with Character. It is Amon-Re who has overthrown for him
his bowmen Sherden, Shekelesh, Ekwesh, the lands and has crushed for him every land un- der his
Lukka, Teresh, Taking the best of every war- feet; King of Upper and Lower Egypt, Lord of the Two
rior and every man of war of his country. He Lands: Usermare-Meriamon.[59]
has brought his wife and his children leaders
of the camp, and he has reached the western
boundary in the elds of Perire'

His majesty was enraged at their report, like a lion, as-

sembled his court and gave a rousing speech. Later, he
dreamed he saw Ptah handing him a sword and saying,
Take thou (it) and banish thou the fearful heart from
thee. When the bowmen went forth, says the inscription,
"Amun was with them as a shield. After six hours, the Habu Second Pylon, showing wide view and a close up
surviving Nine Bows threw down their weapons, aban- sketch of the left hand side relief in which Amon, with
doned their baggage and dependents, and ran for their Mut behind him, extends a sword to Rameses III who is
330 CHAPTER 62. SEA PEOPLES

leading three lines of prisoners. The text before the King It should be stressed that the invasions were
includes the following: not merely military operations, but involved the
Thou puttest great terror of me in the hearts of their chiefs; movements of large populations, by land and
the fear and dread of me before them; that I may carry sea, seeking new lands to settle.
o their warriors (phrr), bound in my grasp, to lead them
to thy ka, O my august father, - - - - . Come, to [take] This situation is conrmed by the Medinet Habu temple
them, being: Peleset (Pw-r'-s-t), Denyen (D'-y-n-yw-n'), reliefs of Ramesses III which show that:[64]
Shekelesh (S'-k-rw-s). Thy strength it was which was
before me, overthrowing their seed, - thy might, O lord of the Peleset and Tjekker warriors who
gods.[60] fought in the land battle [against Ramesses III]
On the right hand side of the Pylon is the Great Inscrip- are accompanied in the reliefs by women and
tion on the Second Pylon, which includes the following children loaded in ox-carts.
text:
The foreign countries made a conspiracy in their islands, The inscriptions of Ramesses III at his Medinet Habu
All at once the lands were removed and scattered in the mortuary temple in Thebes record three victorious cam-
fray. No land could stand before their arms: from Hatti, paigns against the Sea Peoples considered bona de, in
Qode, Carchemish, Arzawa and Alashiya on, being cut o Years 5, 8 and 12, as well as three considered spurious,
[ie. destroyed] at one time. A camp was set up in Amurru. against the Nubians and Libyans in Year 5 and the Libyans
They desolated its people, and its land was like that which with Asiatics in Year 11. During Year 8 some Hittites
has never come into being. They were coming forward were operating with the Sea Peoples.[65]
toward Egypt, while the ame was prepared before them.
The inner west wall of the second court describes the in-
Their confederation was the Peleset, Tjeker, Shekelesh,
vasion of Year 5. Only the Peleset and Tjeker are men-
Denyen and Weshesh, lands united. They laid their hands
tioned, but the list is lost in a lacuna. The attack was
upon the land as far as the circuit of the earth, their
two-pronged, one by sea and one by land; that is, the Sea
hearts condent and trusting: Our plans will succeed!" [61]
Peoples divided their forces. Ramsesses was waiting in
the Nile mouths and trapped the enemy eet there. The
Ramesses III, the second king of the Egyptian 20th Dy- land forces were defeated separately.
nasty, who reigned for most of the rst half of the 12th
The Sea Peoples did not learn any lessons from this defeat,
century BCE, was forced to deal with a later wave of in-
as they repeated their mistake in Year 8 with a similar
vasions of the Sea Peoplesthe best-recorded of these in
result. The campaign is recorded more extensively on the
his eighth year. This was recorded in two long inscrip-
inner northwest panel of the rst court. It is possible, but
tions from his Medinet Habu mortuary temple, which
not generally believed, that the dates are only those of the
are physically separate and somewhat dierent from one
inscriptions and both refer to the same campaign.
another.[62]
In Ramesses Year 8, the Nine Bows appear again as a
The fact that several civilizations collapsed around 1175
conspiracy in their isles. This time, they are revealed
BCE, has led to the suggestion that the Sea Peoples may
unquestionably as Sea Peoples: the Peleset, Tjeker,
have been involved in the end of the Hittite, Mycenaean
Shekelesh, Denyen and Weshesh, which are classied as
and Mitanni kingdoms. The American Hittitologist Gary
foreign countries in the inscription. They camped in
Beckman writes, on page 23 of Akkadica 120 (2000):[63]
Amor and sent a eet to the Nile.
The pharaoh was once more waiting for them. He had
A terminus ante quem for the destruction of
built a eet especially for the occasion, hid it in the
the Hittite empire has been recognised in an in-
Nile mouths and posted coast watchers. The enemy eet
scription carved at Medinet Habu in Egypt in
was ambushed there, their ships overturned, and the men
the eighth year of Ramesses III (1175 BCE).
dragged up on shore and executed ad hoc.
This text narrates a contemporary great move-
ment of peoples in the eastern Mediterranean, The land army was also routed within Egyptian controlled
as a result of which the lands were removed territory. Additional information is given in the relief
and scattered to the fray. No land could on the outer side of the east wall. This land battle oc-
stand before their arms, from Hatti, Kode, curred in the vicinity of Djahy against the northern coun-
Carchemish, Arzawa, Alashiya on being cut tries. When it was over, several chiefs were captive: of
o. [ie: cut down]" Hatti, Amor and Shasu among the land peoples and
the Tjeker, "Sherden of the sea, "Teresh of the sea and
Ramesses comments about the scale of the Sea Peoples Peleset or Philistines (in whose name some have seen the
onslaught in the eastern Mediterranean are conrmed by ancient Greek name for sea people; Pelasgians).
the destruction of the states of Hatti, Ugarit, Ashkelon The campaign of Year 12 is attested by the Sdstele found
and Hazor around this time. As the Hittitologist Trevor on the south side of the temple. It mentions the Tjeker,
Bryce observes:[64] Peleset, Denyen, Weshesh and Shekelesh.
62.3. OTHER DOCUMENTARY RECORDS 331

Papyrus Harris I of the period, found behind the temple,
suggests a wider campaign against the Sea Peoples but
does not mention the date. In it, the persona of Ramses
III says, I slew the Denyen (D'-yn-yw-n) in their isles
and burned the Tjeker and Peleset, implying a mar-
itime raid of his own. He also captured some Sherden
and Weshesh of the sea and settled them in Egypt.[66]
As he is called the Ruler of Nine Bows" in the relief
of the east side, these events probably happened in Year
8; i.e. the Pharaoh would have used the victorious eet
for some punitive expeditions elsewhere in the Mediter-
ranean.
The Rhetorical Stela to Ramesses III, Chapel C, Deir el-
Medina records a similar narrative.[67]
Carchemish also survived the Sea Peoples onslaught.
King Kuzi-Teshub I, who was the son of Talmi-Teshub
a direct contemporary of the last ruling Hittite king,
Suppiluliuma IIis attested in power there.[73] Kuzi-
Tesup and his successors ruled a mini-empire from Car-
chemish which stretched from Southeast Asia Minor,
North Syria ... [to] the west bend of the Euphrates[74]
from c. 1175 BCE to 990 BCE.
62.3.3 Byblos obelisk

62.2.4 Onomasticon of Amenope

The Onomasticon of Amenope, or Amenemipit (amen-
em-apt), gives a slight credence to the idea that the
Ramesside kings settled the Sea Peoples in Canaan.
Dated to about 1100 BCE, at the end of the 21st dynasty
(which had numerous short-reigned pharaohs), this doc-
ument simply lists names. After six place names, four of
which were in Philistia, the scribe lists the Sherden (Line
268), the Tjeker (Line 269) and the Peleset (Line 270),
who might be presumed to occupy those cities.[68] The The Obelisk temple, Byblos.
Story of Wenamun on a papyrus of the same cache also
places the Tjeker in Dor at that time. The fact that the The earliest ethnic group[75] later considered among
Biblical maritime Tribe of Dan was initially located be- the Sea Peoples is believed to be attested in Egyptian
tween the Philistines and the Tjekker, has prompted some hieroglyphs on the Byblos obelisk found in the Obelisk
to suggest that they may originally have been Denyen. Temple at Byblos in modern-day Lebanon. The inscrip-
Sherden seem to have been settled around Megiddo and tion mentions kwkwn son of rwqq- (or kukun son of
in the Jordan Valley, and Weshwesh (Biblical Asher) may luqq), transliterated as Kukunnis, son of Lukka, the
have been settled further north. Lycian".[76] The date is given variously as 2000 or 1700
BCE.

62.3 Other documentary records

62.3.4 Letters at Ugarit
62.3.1 Early Amarna age
The Lukka, as well as the Sherden, also appear in the
Amarna Letters (perhaps of Amenhotep III or his son
Akhenaten) around the mid-14th century BCE. The let-
ters at one point refer to a Sherden man as an appar-
ent renegade mercenary,[69] and at another point to three
Sherden who are slain by an Egyptian overseer.[70] The
Danuna are mentioned in another letter[71] but only in a
passing reference to the death of their king. The Lukka
are being accused[72] of attacking the Egyptians in con-
junction with the Alashiyans (Cypriotes), with the latter
having stated that the Lukka were seizing their villages.

The ruins of Ugarit.

62.3.2 Carchemish
Some Sea Peoples appear in four letters found at Ugarit,
A few states, such as Byblos and Sidon, survived the Sea the last three of which seem to foreshadow the destruction
Peoples migrations. Despite Ramesses IIIs pessimism, of the city around 1180 BCE. The letters are therefore
332 CHAPTER 62. SEA PEOPLES

dated to the early 12th century. The last king of Ugarit 62.4 Hypotheses about identity
was Ammurapi (c. 11911182 BCE), who, throughout
this correspondence, is quite a young man. A number of hypotheses concerning the identities and
The earliest is letter RS 34.129, found on the south side of motives of the Sea Peoples described in the records have
the city, from the Great King, presumably Suppiluliuma been formulated. They are not necessarily alternative or
II of the Hittites, to the prefect of the city. He says that contradictory hypotheses about the sea peoples; any or all
he ordered the king of Ugarit to send him Ibnadushu for might be mainly or partly true.
questioning, but the king was too immature to respond.
He therefore wants the prefect to send the man, whom he
promises to return. 62.4.1 Regional migration historical con-
text
What this language implies about the relationship of the
Hittite empire to Ugarit is a matter for interpretation. Ib- See also: Late Bronze Age collapse
nadushu had been kidnapped by and had resided among a
people of Shikala, probably the Shekelesh, who lived on
ships. The letter is generally interpreted as an interest in The Linear B Tablets of Pylos in the Late Bronze Age in
military intelligence by the king.[77] the Aegean demonstrate increased slave raiding and the
spread of mercenaries and migratory peoples and their
The last three letters, RS L 1, RS 20.238 and RS 20.18, subsequent resettlement. Despite this, the actual iden-
are a set from the Rap'anu Archive between a slightly tity of the Sea Peoples has remained enigmatic and mod-
older Ammurapi, now handling his own aairs, and ern scholars have only the scattered records of ancient
Eshuwara, the grand supervisor of Alasiya. Evidently, civilizations and archaeological analysis to inform them.
Ammurapi had informed Eshuwara, that an enemy eet Evidence shows that the identities and motives of these
of 20 ships had been spotted at sea. peoples were known to the Egyptians. In fact, many had
Eshuwara wrote back and inquired about the location of sought employment with the Egyptians or were in a diplo-
Ammurapis own forces. Eshuwara also noted that he matic relationship for a few centuries before the Late
would like to know where the enemy eet of 20 ships Bronze Age Collapse. For example, select groups, or
are now located.[78] Unfortunately for both Ugarit and members of groups, of the Sea People, such as the Sher-
Alasiya, neither kingdom was able to fend o the Sea den or Shardana, were used as mercenaries by Egyptian
Peoples onslaught, and both were ultimately destroyed. Pharaohs such as Ramesses II.
A letter by Amurapi (RS 18.147) to the king of Alasiya Prior to the 3rd Intermediate Period of Egypt from the
which was in fact a response to an appeal for assistance (15th century BCE), names of semitic-speaking pastoral
by the latterhas been found by archaeologists. In it, cattle nomadic peoples of the Levant appear, replacing
Ammurapi describes the desperate plight facing Ugarit: previous Egyptian concern with the Hurrianised 'prw
('Apiru or Habiru). These were called the 3 sw (Shasu),
My father, behold, the enemys ships came meaning those who move on foot. e.g. the Shasu of
(here); my cities(?) were burned, and they did Yhw.[81] Sandars uses the analogous name land peoples.
evil things in my country. Does not my father Contemporary Assyrian records refer to them as Ahh-
know that all my troops and chariots(?) are in lamu or Wanderers.[82] They were not part of the Egyp-
the Land of Hatti, and all my ships are in the tian list of Sea Peoples, and were later referred to as
Land of Lukka? ... Thus, the country is aban- Aramaeans.
doned to itself. May my father know it: the
seven ships of the enemy that came here in- Some people, such as the Lukka, were included in both
icted much damage upon us.[79] categories of land and sea people.

Ammurapi, in turn, appealed for aid from the viceroy

of Carchemisha state which actually survived the Sea
62.4.2 Philistine hypothesis
Peoples onslaughtbut its viceroy could only oer some
Main article: Philistines
words of advice for Ammurapi:

As for what you [Ammurapi] have written
to me: 'Ships of the enemy have been seen at
sea!' Well, you must remain rm. Indeed for
your part, where are your troops, your chari-
ots stationed? Are they not stationed near you?
No? Behind the enemy, who press upon you?
Surround your towns with ramparts. Have your
troops and chariots enter there, and await the
enemy with great resolution!"[80]
The archaeological evidence from the southern coastal
plain of ancient Palestine, termed Philistia in the Hebrew
Bible, indicates a disruption[83] of the Canaanite culture
that existed during the Late Bronze Age and its replace-
ment (with some integration) by a culture with a possi-
bly foreign (mainly Aegean) origin. This includes distinct
pottery, which at rst belongs to the Mycenaean IIIC tra-
dition (albeit of local manufacture) and gradually trans-
forms into a uniquely Philistine pottery. Mazar says:[84]
62.4. HYPOTHESES ABOUT IDENTITY 333

the Philistines out of Caphtor. The mainstream of Bib-

Philistine Bichrome pottery, theorized to be of Sea Peoples origin.
... in Philistia, the producers of Myce-
naean IIIC pottery must be identied as the
Philistines. The logical conclusion, therefore,
is that the Philistines were a group of Myce-
naean Greeks who immigrated to the east ...
Within several decades ... a new bichrome
style, known as the Philistine, appeared in
Philistia ...
lical and classical scholarship accepts Caphtor to refer
to Crete, but there are alternative minority theories.[89]
Crete at the time was populated by peoples speaking
many languages, among which were Mycenaean Greek
and Eteocretan, the descendant of the language of the
Minoans. It is possible, but by no means certain, that
these two peoples spoke Eteocretan.
Recent examinations of the eruption of the Santorini vol-
cano suggest that it occurred very close (estimated be-
tween 1660 and 1613 BCE) to the rst appearances of
the Sea People in Egypt.[90] The eruption and its after-
math (res, tsunami, weather changes and famines) would
have had wide-ranging eects across the Mediterranean,
the Levant and particularly Greece, and could have pro-
vided the impetus for invasions of other regions of the
Mediterranean.
For more details on this topic, see Caphtor.
62.4.4 Greek migrational hypothesis
Main article: Mycenaean Greece

Sandars, however, does not take this point of view, but The identications of Denyen with the Greek Danaans
says:[85] and Ekwesh with the Greek Achaeans are long-standing
issues in Bronze Age scholarship, whether Greek, Hit-
tite or Biblical, especially as they lived in the isles.
... it would be less misleading to call this Michael Wood described the hypothetical role of the
'Philistine pottery' 'Sea Peoples pottery or 'for- Greeks (who have already been proposed as the identity
eign' pottery, without commitment to any par- of the Philistines above):[91]
ticular group.
However the Achaean identication of the Ekwesh is con-
sidered problematic as this group was clearly described as
Artifacts of the Philistine culture are found at numerous circumcised by the Egyptians, and according to Manuel
sites, in particular in the excavations of the ve main cities Robbins: Hardly anyone thinks that the Greeks of the
of the Philistines: the Pentapolis of Ashkelon, Ashdod, Bronze Age were circumcised ...[92]
Ekron, Gath, and Gaza. Some scholars (e.g. S. Sherratt,
Drews, etc.) have challenged the theory that the Philistine ... were the sea peoples ... in part actu-
culture is an immigrant culture, claiming instead that they ally composed of Mycenaean Greeks rootless
are an in situ development of the Canaanite culture, but migrants, warrior bands and condottieri on the
others argue for the immigrant hypothesis; for example, move ... ? Certainly there seem to be sugges-
T. Dothan and Barako. tive parallels between the war gear and helmets
Trude and Moshe Dothan, suggests that the later Philis- of the Greeks ... and those of the Sea Peoples
tine settlements in the Levant were unoccupied for nearly ...
30 years between their destruction and resettlement by
the Philistines, whose Helladic IIICb pottery also shows Wood would also include the Sherden and Shekelesh,
Egyptian inuences.[86] pointing out that there were migrations of Greek-
speaking peoples to the same place [Sardinia and Sicily]
at this time. He is careful to point out that the Greeks
62.4.3 Minoan hypothesis would have been only one element among many that
comprised the sea peoples. Furthermore, the proportion
Two of the peoples who settled in the Levant had tra- of Greeks must have been relatively small. His major
ditions that may connect them to Crete: the Tjeker and hypothesis,[91] is that the Trojan War was fought against
the Peleset. The Tjeker may have left Crete to set- Troy VI and that Troy VIIa, the candidate of Carl Ble-
tle in Anatolia, and left there to settle Dor.[87] Accord- gen, and that Troy was sacked by those now identied as
ing to the Old Testament,[88] the Israelite God brought Greek Sea Peoples.
334
He suggests that Odysseus assumed identity as a wan-
dering Cretan coming home from the Trojan War, who
ghts in Egypt and serves there after being captured,[93]
remembers the campaign of Year 8 of Ramses III, de-
scribed above. He points out also that places destroyed
on Cyprus at the time (such as Kition) were rebuilt by a
new Greek-speaking population.
Aeneas ees burning Troy carrying his father Anchises and lead-
ing his son Ascanius by the hand. Woodcut by Ludolph Bsinck.
62.4.5 Trojan hypothesis
Main article: Troy
The possibility that the Teresh were connected on the one
hand with the Tyrrhenians,[94] believed to be an Etruscan-
related culture, and on the other with Taruisa, a Hittite
name possibly referring to Troy,[95] had been considered
by the ancient Romans. The Roman poet Virgil refers to
this belief when he depicts Aeneas as escaping the fall of
Troy by coming to Latium to found a line descending to
Romulus, rst king of Rome. Considering that Anatolian
connections have been identied for other Sea Peoples,
such as the Tjeker and the Lukka, Eberhard Zangger puts
together an Anatolian hypothesis.[96]
CHAPTER 62. SEA PEOPLES
62.4.6 Mycenaean warfare hypothesis
See also: Achaeans (Homer) and Mycenaean Greece
This theory suggests that the Sea Peoples were popula-
tions from the city states of the Greek Mycenaean civi-
lization, who destroyed each other in a disastrous series of
conicts lasting several decades. There would have been
few or no external invaders and just a few excursions out-
side the Greek-speaking part of the Aegean civilization.
Archaeological evidence indicates that many fortied
sites of the Greek domain were destroyed in the late 13th
and early 12th century BCE, which was understood in the
mid-20th century to have been simultaneous or nearly so
and was attributed to the Dorian Invasion championed by
Carl Blegen of the University of Cincinnati. He believed
Mycenaean Pylos was burned during an amphibious raid
by warriors from the north (Dorians).
Subsequent critical analysis focused on the fact that the
destructions were not simultaneous and that all the evi-
dence of Dorians comes from later times. John Chadwick
championed a Sea Peoples hypothesis,[97] which asserted
that, since the Pylians had retreated to the northeast, the
attack must have come from the southwest, the Sea Peo-
ples being, in his view, the most likely candidates. He
suggests that they were based in Anatolia and, although
doubting that the Mycenaeans would have called them-
selves Achaeans, speculates that "... it is very tempting
to bring them into connexion. He does not assign a Greek
identity to all of the Sea Peoples.
Considering the turbulence between and within the great
families of the Mycenaean city-states in Greek mythol-
ogy, the hypothesis that the Mycenaeans destroyed them-
selves is long-standing[98] and nds support by the ancient
Greek historian Thucydides, who theorized:
For in early times the Hellenes and the
barbarians of the coast and islands ... were
tempted to turn to piracy, under the conduct of
their most powerful men ... [T]hey would fall
upon a town unprotected by walls ... and would
plunder it ... no disgrace being yet attached to
such an achievement, but even some glory.[99]
Although some advocates of the Philistine or Greek mi-
gration hypotheses identify all the Mycenaeans or Sea
Peoples as ethnically Greek, John Chadwick (founder,
with Michael Ventris, of Linear B studies) adopts instead
the multiple ethnicity view.
62.4.7 Italian peoples hypotheses
See also: Nuragic civilization
Theories of the possible connections between the
Sherden to Sardinia, Shekelesh to Sicily, and Teresh to
62.4. HYPOTHESES ABOUT IDENTITY 335

Invasions, population movements and destruction during the col-

lapse of the Bronze Age, c. 1200 BCE

Tyrrhenians, even though long-standing, are based on

onomastic similarities.[100]
In Sardinia archeological remains suggest the presence of
Sea people. Some archeologists believe that the Sherden
are identiable with the Nuragic Sardinians.[40][101]
The Nuragic bronze statuettes, a great collection of
nuragic sculptures, includes a great number of horned hel-
met warriors wearing a skirt similar to those of the Sher-
den and a round shield, although they had been dated for a
long time to the 10th or 9th century BCE, recent discover-
ies suggest that their production started around the 13th
century BCE. Swords identical to those of the Sherden
have been found in Sardinia, dating back to 1650 BCE.
Plutarch spoke of raids by Sardinians against the island
of Crete, in the same period in which the Sea People in-
vaded Egypt,[102] and Nuragic ceramics have been found
at Tiryns, Kommos,[103] Kokkinokremnos [104] and in
Sicily, at Lipari [105] and the Agrigento area, along the
sea route linking western to eastern Mediterranean.
The self-name of the Etruscans, Rasna, does not lend
itself to the Tyrrhenian derivation, although it has been
suggested that this was itself derived from an earlier form
T'Rasna. The Etruscan civilization has been studied, and
the language partly deciphered. It has variants and rep-
resentatives in Aegean inscriptions, but these may well
be from travellers or colonists of Etruscans during their
seafaring period before Rome destroyed their power.[106]
Archaeology is equally enigmatic. About all that can
be said for certain is that Mycenaean IIIC pottery was
widespread around the Mediterranean in areas associated
with Sea Peoples and its introduction at various places is Bronze model of nuraghe. 10th century BC.
often associated with cultural change, violent or gradual.
These circumstances appear to be enough for archaeolog-
ical theorizers. An old speculation is that the Sherden and 62.4.8 Anatolian famine hypothesis
Shekelesh brought those names with them to Sardinia and
Sicily, perhaps not operating from those great islands but A famous passage from Herodotus[110] portrays the wan-
moving toward them.[107] Hovewer, the prevalent spec- dering and migration of Lydians from Anatolia because
ulation, according to professor Giovanni Ugas, professor of famine:[111]
Giovanni Lilliu and other archaeologists, is that the Sher-
den originated in Sardinia.[101][108][109] In the days of Atys, the son of Manes,
336
there was a great scarcity through the whole
land of Lydia ... So the king determined to
divide the nation in half ... the one to stay,
the other to leave the land. ... the emigrants
should have his son Tyrrhenus for their leader
... they went down to Smyrna, and built them-
selves ships ... after sailing past many countries
they came to Umbria ... and called themselves
... Tyrrhenians.
Tablet RS 18.38 from Ugarit also mentions grain to
the Hittites, suggesting a long period of famine, con-
nected further, in the full theory, to drought.[112] Barry
Weiss,[113] using the Palmer Drought Index for 35 Greek,
Turkish, and Middle Eastern weather stations, showed
that a drought of the kinds that persisted from January
1972 would have aected all of the sites associated with
the Late Bronze Age collapse. Drought could have eas-
ily precipitated or hastened socio-economic problems and
led to wars. More recently, Brian Fagan has shown how
mid-winter storms from the Atlantic were diverted to
travel north of the Pyrenees and the Alps, bringing wetter
conditions to Central Europe, but drought to the Eastern
Mediterranean.[114] More recent paleoclimatological re-
search has also shown climatic disruption and increasing
aridity in the Eastern Mediterranean, associated with the
North Atlantic Oscillation at this time (See Bronze Age
Collapse).
62.4.9 Invader hypothesis
The term 'invasion' is used generally in the literature con-
cerning the period to mean the documented attacks, im-
plying that the aggressors were external to the eastern
Mediterranean, though often hypothesized to be from the
wider Aegean world. An origin outside the Aegean also
has been proposed, as in this example by Michael Grant:
There was a gigantic series of migratory waves, extend-
ing all the way from the Danube valley to the plains of
China.[115]
Such a comprehensive movement is associated with more
than one people or culture; instead, it was a disturbance,
according to Finley:[116]
A large-scale movement of people is indi-
cated ... the original centre of disturbance was
in the Carpatho-Danubian region of Europe. ...
It appears ... to have been ... pushing in dier-
ent directions at dierent times.
If dierent times are allowed on the Danube, they are not
in the Aegean: all this destruction must be dated to the
same period about 1200.[116]
The following movements are associated and compressed
by Finley into the 1200 BCE window: the hypothetical
CHAPTER 62. SEA PEOPLES
Dorian Invasion, the attacks of the Sea Peoples, the for-
mation of Philistine kingdoms in the Levant and the fall
of the Hittite Empire.
Robert Drews presents a map showing the destruction
sites of 47 fortied major settlements, which he terms
Major Sites Destroyed in the Catastrophe.[117] They
are concentrated in the Levant, with some in Greece and
Anatolia.
62.5 See also
Hyksos
62.6 Notes
[1] Killebrew 2013, p. 2. Quote: First coined in
1881 by the French Egyptologist G. Maspero (1896),
the somewhat misleading term Sea Peoples encom-
passes the ethnonyms Lukka, Sherden, Shekelesh, Teresh,
Eqwesh, Denyen, Sikil / Tjekker, Weshesh, and Peleset
(Philistines). [Footnote: The modern term Sea Peoples
refers to peoples that appear in several New Kingdom
Egyptian texts as originating from islands (tables 12;
Adams and Cohen, this volume; see, e.g., Drews 1993,
57 for a summary). The use of quotation marks in as-
sociation with the term Sea Peoples in our title is in-
tended to draw attention to the problematic nature of this
commonly used term. It is noteworthy that the designa-
tion of the sea appears only in relation to the Sherden,
Shekelesh, and Eqwesh. Subsequently, this term was ap-
plied somewhat indiscriminately to several additional eth-
nonyms, including the Philistines, who are portrayed in
their earliest appearance as invaders from the north during
the reigns of Merenptah and Ramesses Ill (see, e.g., San-
dars 1978; Redford 1992, 243, n. 14; for a recent review
of the primary and secondary literature, see Woudhuizen
2006). Hencefore the term Sea Peoples will appear with-
out quotation marks.]"
[2] Drews 1995, pp. 4861: The thesis that a great migra-
tion of the Sea Peoples occurred ca. 1200 B.C. is suppos-
edly based on Egyptian inscriptions, one from the reign
of Merneptah and another from the reign of Ramesses
III. Yet in the inscriptions themselves such a migration
nowhere appears. After reviewing what the Egyptian
texts have to say about 'the sea peoples, one Egyptologist
(Wolfgang Helck) recently remarked that although some
things are unclear, eins ist aber sicher: Nach den gyp-
tischen Texten haben wir es nicht mit einer 'Vlkerwan-
derung' zu tun. Thus the migration hypothesis is based
not on the inscriptions themselves but on their interpreta-
tion.
[3] Mller 1888, p. 147: In Egyptian history there is hardly
any incident of so great an interest as the invasion of Egypt
by the Mediterranean peoples, the facts of which are con-
nected with the most important questions of ethnography
and the primitive history of classic nations.
[4] Hall 1922.
62.6. NOTES
[5] Syria: Early history. Encyclopedia Britannica. Re-
trieved 8 September 2012.
[6] Sea People. Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 8
September 2012.
[7] Silberman 1998, p. 269.
[8] de Roug 1855, p. 14: [Original French]: On a depuis
longtemps rapproch ces Kefa, avec vraisemblance, des
Caphtorim de la Bible, au quels Gesenius, avec la plupart
des interprtes, assigne pour rsidence les les de Crete
ou de Chypre. Les habitants de l'le de Chypre durent
ncessairement prendre parti dans cette guerre; peut-tre
les Kefas taient-ils alors les allis de l'Egypte. En tout
cas, notre inscription ne dtaille pas les noms de ces pe-
uples, venus des les de la Mditerrane. Champollion a
fait remarquer que les T'akkari [qu'il nomme Fekkaros;
voyez l'appendice la suite de cette notice] et les Schar-
tana, taient reconnaissables, dans les vaisseaux ennemis,
leurs coiures singulires. De plus, dans les cussons
des peuples vaincus, les Schartana et les Touirasch portent
la dsignation de peuples de la mer. Il est donc probable
qu'ils appartiennent ces nations venues des les ou des
ctes de l'Archipel. Les Rabou sont encore reconnaiss-
ables parmi les prisonniers.
[Translation]: For a long time Kefa has been identi-
ed, with verisimilitude, with Caphthorim of the Bible,
to whom Gesenius, along with most interpreters, assigns
as a residence the islands of Crete or Cyprus. The people
of Cyprus had certainly to take sides in this war; perhaps
they were then the allies of Egypt. In any case, our entry
does not detail the names of these people, from the islands
of the Mediterranean. Champollion noted that T'akkari
[which he names Fekkaros; see appendix at the following
entry] and Schartana, were recognizable, in enemy ships,
with unique hairstyles. In addition, in the crests of the
conquered peoples, the Schartana and the Touirasch bear
the designation of the peoples of the sea. It is therefore
likely that they belong to these nations from islands or
coasts of the archipelago. The Rabou are still recogniz-
able among the prisoners.
[9] Drews 1992: In fact, this migration of the Sea Peo-
ples is not to be found in Egyptian inscriptions, but was
launched by Gaston Maspero in 1873 [footnote: In the Re-
vue Critique d'Histoire et de Litterature 1873, pp. 856].
Although Masperos proposal initially seemed unlikely,
it gained credibility with the publication of the Lemnos
stele. In 1895, in his popular Histoire ancienne des peu-
ples de l'orient classique [footnote; Vol. II (Paris:1895),
translated into English as The Struggle of the Nations (ed.
A. H. Sayce, tr. M. L. McClure, New York: 1896)],
Maspero fully elaborated his scenario of the migration of
the Sea Peoples. Adopted by Eduard Meyer for the sec-
ond edition of his Geschichted es Altertums, the theory
won general acceptance among Egyptologists and orien-
talists.
[10] Silberman 1998, p. 272: As E.S. Sherratt has pointed
out in an enlightening study of the interplay of ideology
and literary strata in the formation of the Homeric epics
(1990), phases of active narrative or descriptive invention
closely correspond to periods of rapid social and politi-
cal change. Sherratt notes that one of the characteristic
337
manifestations of this process - in which emerging elites
seek to legitimate their power - is the transformation of
an existing oral epic tradition in order to dress it in more
recognizably modern garb (l990: 821). Can we not see
in the history of the archaeology of the Sea Peoples a sim-
ilar process of literary reformulation, in which old compo-
nents are reinterpreted and reassembled to tell a new tale?
Narrative presupposes that both storyteller and audience
share a single perspective, and therein may lie the connec-
tion between the intellectual and ideological dimensions
of archaeology. To generalize beyond specic, highly lo-
calized data, archaeologists must utilize familiar concep-
tual frameworks and it is from the political and social ide-
ologies of every generation that larger speculations about
the historical role of the Sea Peoples have always been
drawn. As many papers in this conference have suggested,
traditional interpretive structures are in the process of re-
consideration and renovation. That is why I believe it es-
sential that we reect on our current Sea Peoples stories -
and see if we cannot detect the subtle yet lingering impact
upon them of some timeworn Victorian narratives.
[11] Vandersleyen 1985, p. 53: However, of the nine peoples
concerned by these wars, only four were actually dened
as coming from w3d-wr or from p3 ym. Furthermore,
these expressions seem to be linked more often to vegeta-
tion and sweet water than to sea waiter, and it seems clear
that the term Sea Peoples has to be abandoned. Some
will object to this, basing themselves on the expression
iww hryw-ib w3d-wr, usually translated by islands sit-
uated in the middle of the sea, where some of the Sea
Peoples are said to have come from. Indeed. it is this ex-
pression which supported the persistent idea that the Sea
Peoples came from the Aegean islands or at least from
an East-Mediterranean island. Now, these terms are mis-
leading, not only because w3d-wr and p3 ym, quite likely,
do not designate the sea here, but also because the term
iw itself does not always mean island"; it can also be used
to indicate other kinds of territories not necessarily mar-
itime ones. The argument based on these alleged sea is-
lands is thus groundless... To conclude. the Philistines
came neither from Crete nor from the Aegean islands or
coasts, but probably from the southern coast of Asia Mi-
nor or from Syria.
[12] Sea Peoples, ancient.eu Joshua J. Mark: Their origin
and identity has been suggested (and debated) to be
Etruscan/Trojan to Italian, Philistine, Mycenae and even
Minoan but, as no accounts discovered thus far shed any
more light on the question than what is presently known,
any such claims must remain mere conjecture.
[13] Who Were the Sea People?, Eberhard Zangger, pp. 20
31 of the May/June 1995 print edition of Saudi Aramco
World: very fewif anyarcheologists would consider
the Sea People to have been identied.
[14] See also the sketchs provided later in Champollion, Mon-
uments: from the left side of the Second Pylon: Plate
CCVIII, and from the base of the right hand side of the
Fortied East Gate Plate CCIII.
[15] Compare with the hieroglyphs provided by Woudhuizen
2006, p. 36.
[16] de Roug 1855.
338
[17] de Roug 1855, p. 1.
[18] Greene 1855, p. 4: [Original French]: Les notices et
la XVIII lettre de Champollion donnent un rsum trs-
complet et trs-dle des campagnes de Ramss III (son
Ramss Meiamoun), surtout de celle reprsente sur le
mur du nord, o se trouve le clbre bas-relief d'un com-
bat naval dans lequel les vaisseaux ennemis sont acculs au
rivage par la otte gyptienne, et en mme temps crass
par l'arme de terre qui les presse de l'autre ct.
Champollion a reconnu que, parmi les ennemis de Ram-
ss, se trouvaient des peuples nouveaux, appartenant la
race blanche, et dsigns sous le nom de Tamhou. Il n'a
copi que la premire ligne de la grande inscription du
pylne, o se trouve indique une date de la neuvime an-
ne du roi, et il a signal l'importance de ce texte, qui con-
tient plusieurs noms de peuples....
Aprs avoir reu ce juste tribut de louanges, le roi com-
mence enn son discours la ligne treizime. Il recom-
mande tous ses sujets d'tre attentifs ses paroles, et leur
indique les sentiments qui doivent les diriger dans la vie;
puis, il se vante de ses exploits, dont il rapporte cependant
la gloire son pre, le dieu Ammon, qui lui a donn toutes
les conqutes. Aprs une tte de colonne qui malheureuse-
ment a beaucoup souert, vient un des passages les plus
importants de notre texte, dans lequel le roi numre les
ennemis qu'il a vaincus, en commenant par les Chta, les
Ati, les Karkamasch, les Aratou, les Arasa ; puis, aprs
une courte interruption : leur camp ensemble dans le pays
d' Amaour, j'ai dtruit ces peuples et leur pays comme sils
n'avaient jamais exist.
On voit que ces dirents peuples, ennemis ordinaires des
rois d'gypte dans leurs campagnes d'Asie antrieures
celles de Ramss III, sont runis dans un seul groupe. A la
colonne suivante, nous trouvons un second groupe form
des peuples dsigns par Champollion comme ayant jou
un rle important dans la campagne pendant laquelle sest
livr le combat naval; ce sont les Poursata, les Takkara ,
les Shakarsha, les Taamou et les Ouaschascha. On voit
que les Sharetana manquent seuls cette numration.
[Translation]: The notices and the XVIII letter of
Champollion provide a complete and faithful summary of
the campaigns of Ramses III (his Ramses Ammon), es-
pecially that represented on the north wall, containing the
famous bas-relief of a naval battle where the enemy ships
are driven to shore by the Egyptian eet, and simultane-
ously crushed by the army, which the press on the other
side.
Champollion recognized that among the enemies of Ram-
ses, there were a new people, belonging to the white race,
and designated as the Tamhou. He copied the rst line of
the large inscription of the pylon, with a date he specied
in the ninth year of the reign, and he noted the importance
of this text, which contains several names of people....
After receiving this just tribute of praise, the King nally
begins his speech to the thirteenth line. It recommends to
all his subjects to pay attention to his words, and shows
their feelings that must lead them in life; then he boasts
of his exploits, he brings glory to his father, the god Am-
mon, who gave him all the conquests. After a column
header which unfortunately suered a lot, is one of the
most important parts of our text, in which the king lists
the enemies he has overcome, beginning with the Cheta,
the Ati, the Karkamasch the Aratou, the Arasa; then, after
CHAPTER 62. SEA PEOPLES
a short break: at their camp in the country of Amaour, I
destroyed the people and their country as if they had never
existed
We see that these dierent peoples, common enemies of
Egypt in their Asian campaigns before those of Ramses
III, are gathered in one group. In the next column, we nd
a second group formed of people considered by Champol-
lion to have played an important role in the campaign with
the naval combat ships; it is the Poursata, the Takkara, the
Shakarsha, the Taamou, and Ouaschascha. We see that
the only missing Sharetana to this list.
[19] Greenes documentary photographs are held at the Musee
d'Orsay, for example: Mdinet-Habou, Temple funraire
de Ramss III, muraille du nord (5); inventory number:
PHO 1986 131 40.
[20] de Roug 1867.
[21] Vandersleyen 1985, p. 41 n.10.
[22] Maspero 1896, p. 461-470.
[23] Silberman 1998, p. 270: The English translation of
Masperos rsum of ethnic movement entitled The Strug-
gle of the Nations (Maspero 1896) must surely have
evoked meaningful associations at a time when compe-
tition for territory and economic advantage among Euro-
pean Powers was at a fever pitch (Hobsbawm 1987).
[24] Killebrew 2013, pp. 25.
[25] Killebrew 2013, p. 2a.
[26] A convenient table of Sea Peoples in hieroglyphics,
transliteration and English is given in Woudhuizen 2006,
who developed it from works of Kitchen cited there
[27] Breasted (1906), Vol IV, 403 / p.201: in their isles and
of the sea
[28] Woudhuizen 2006, p. 35
[29] Kelder 2010, p. 126.
[30] Breasted (1906), Vol III, 588 / p.248 and 601 / p.255:
of the countries of the sea. Breasted wrote in a foot-
note regarding this designation It is noticeable that this
designation, both here and in the Athribis Stela (1. 13), is
inserted only after the Ekwesh. In the Athribis Stela Ek-
wesh is cut o by a numeral from the preceding, showing
that the designation there belongs only to them.
[31] Drews 1995, p. 54: Already in the 1840s Egyptolo-
gists had debated the identity of the northerners, com-
ing from all lands, who assisted the Libyan King Meryre
in his attack upon Merneptah. Some scholars believed
that Meryres auxiliaries were merely his neighbors on
the Libyan coast, while others identied them as Indo-
Europeans from north of the Caucasus. It was one of
Masperos most illustrious predecessors, Emmanuel de
Roug, who proposed that the names reected the lands of
the northern Mediterranean: the Lukka, Ekwesh, Tursha,
Shekelesh, and Shardana were men from Lydia, Achaea,
Tyrsenia (western Italy), Sicily, and Sardinia. De Roug
and others regarded Meryres auxiliaries-these peoples
de la mer Mditerrane"- as mercenary bands, since the
62.6. NOTES
Sardinians, at least, were known to have served as merce-
naries already in the early years of Ramesses the Great.
Thus the only migration that the Karnak Inscription
seemed to suggest was an attempted encroachment by
Libyans upon neighboring territory.
[32] Drews 1995, p. 49.
[33] Hincks, Edward (1846). An Attempt to Ascertain the
Number, Names, and Powers, of the Letters of the Hiero-
glyphic, or Ancient Egyptian Alphabet; Grounded on the
Establishment of a New Principle in the Use of Phonetic
Characters. The Transactions of the Royal Irish Academy
(21): 176. JSTOR 30079013.... and ...Osburn, William
(1846). Ancient Egypt, Her Testimony to the Truth of the
Bible. Samuel Bagster and sons. p. 107.
Vandersleyen 1985, pp. 4041 n.9: [Original French]:
" ma connaissance, les plus anciens savants qui ont pro-
pos explicitement l' identication des Pourousta avec les
Philistins sont William Osburn Jr., Ancient Egypt, Her Tes-
timony to the Truth of the Bible..., Londres 1846. p. 99.
107. 137. et Edward Hincks, An Attempt to Ascertain the
Number, Names, and Powers, of the Letters of the Hiero-
glyphic or Ancient Egyptian Alphabet, Dublin, 1847, p.47
[Translation]: To my knowledge, the earlist scholars who
explicitly proposed the identication of Pourousta with
the Philistines are William Osburn Jr., Ancient Egypt, Her
Testimony to the Truth of the Bible ..., London, 1846. p.99.
107. 137. and Edward Hincks, An Attempt to Ascertain
the Number, Names, and Powers, of the Letters of the Al-
phabet Egyptian Hieroglyphic gold Ancient , Dublin, 1847,
p.47
[34] Vandersleyen 1985, pp. 3941: [original French]:
Quand Champollion visita Mdinet Habou en juin 1829,
il vit ces scnes, lut le nom des Pourosato, sans y re-
connatre les Philistins; plus tard, dans son Dictionnaire
gyptien et dans sa Grammaire gyptienne, il transcrivit
le mme nom Polost ou Pholost, mais contrairement
ce quarmait Brugsch en 1858 et tous les auteurs
postrieurs, Champollion na nulle part crit que ces
Pholost taient les Philistins de la Bible.
[Translation]: When Champollion visited Medinet Habu
in June 1829, he experienced these scenes, reading the
name of Pourosato, without recognizing the Philistines;
Later, in his Dictionnaire gyptien and its Grammaire
gyptienne, he transcribed the same name Polost or
Pholost, but contrary to the assertion by Brugsch in 1858
and subsequent authors, Champollion has nowhere writ-
ten that these Pholost were the Philistines of the Bible.
Dothan and Dothan wrote of the initial identication
(Dothan 1992, pp. 2223): It was not, however, until
the spring of 1829, almost a year after they had arrived
in Egypt, that Champollion and his entourage were nally
ready to tackle the antiquities of Thebes The chaotic
tangle of ships and sailors, which Denon assumed was a
panicked ight into the Indus, was actually a detailed por-
trayal of a battle at the mouth of the Nile. Because the
events of the reign of Ramesses III were unknown from
other, the context of this particular war remained a mys-
tery. On his return to Paris, Champollion puzzled over
the identity of the various enemies shown in the scene.
Since each of them had been carefully labeled with a hi-
eroglyphic inscription, he hoped to match the names with
339
those of ancient tribes and peoples mentioned in Greek
and Hebrew texts. Unfortunately, Champollion died in
1832 before he could complete the work, but he did have
success with one of the names. [] proved to be none
other than the biblical Philistines. Dothan and Dothans
description was incorrect in stating that the naval battle
scene (Champollion, Monuments, Plate CCXXII) care-
fully labeled with a hieroglyphic inscription each of the
combatants, and Champollions posthumously published
manuscript notes contained only one short paragraph on
the naval scene with only the "Fekkaro" and "Scharatana"
identied (Champollion, Monuments, page 368). Dothan
and Dothans following paragraph Dr. Greenes Un-
expected Discovery incorrectly confused John Beasley
Greene with John Baker Staord Greene. Champollion
did not make a connection to the Philistines in his pub-
lished work, and Greene did not refer to such a connec-
tion in his 1855 work which commented on Champollion
(Greene 1855, p. 4)
[35] O'Connor & Cline 2003, p. 116.
[36] Who Were the Phoenicians?, Nissim Raphael Ganor,
2009, (also ), page 111, Quote: Today it is generally
accepted (in accordance with the theory of Maspero)
that we are dealing here with dierent nations which mi-
grated from the region of Crete or Asia Minor, and tried
to inltrate into Egypt. Repulsed by the Egyptians, the
Philistines (P. R. S. T.) settled in the coastal area of
Canaan, while the Tyrsenes, Sardanes, and others mi-
grated to Italy, Sardinia and other places. In 1747 Four-
mont tried to prove that the name Philistine was an er-
roneous form of the Greek Pelasgi. His theory was ac-
cepted by Chabas, Hitzig and others who enlarged upon
it. Maspero stated in this context: The name 'Plishti' by
itself suggests a foreign origin or long migrations and re-
calls that of the Pelasgi. The equation PlishtiPelasgi is
based solely on a supposedly phonetic similarity.
[37] Gardiner 1947, p. 196 (Vol. 1), in his commentary on the
Onomasticon of Amenope, No. 268, Srdn, wrote:
The records of Meneptah are much more explicit: the
great Karnak inscription described how the Ekwesh, Tur-
sha, Lukki, Sherden and Sheklesh (L.1) had been incited
against Egypt by the prince of the Libu (Libyans); in L.52
the Sherden, Sheklesh and Ekwesh are collectively de-
scribed as
(var. )
'the foreign lands (var. 'foreigners) of the sea'"
Note: Gardiners reference to the alternative (var.) writ-
ing 'foreigners referred to Gustave Lefebvre's Stle de lan
V de Mneptah, ASAE 27, 1927, p.23, line 13, describing
the Athribis Stele.
[38] Breasted (1906), Vol IV, 129 / p.75: of the sea
[39] O'Connor & Cline 2003, p. 112-113.
[40] S. Bar; D. Kahn; J.J. Shirley (9 June 2011). Egypt,
Canaan and Israel: History, Imperialism, Ideology and Lit-
erature: Proceedings of a Conference at the University of
Haifa, 3-7 May 2009. BRILL. pp. 350. ISBN 90-04-
19493-2.
[41] O'Connor & Cline 2003, p. 113.
340
[42] O'Connor & Cline 2003, p. 114.
[43] Oren 2000, p. 85: Thus far, rather meager documen-
tation is available. What I shall do for the remainder
of this essay is to focus on what is in fact our primary
source on the Sea Peoples, the basis of virtually all sig-
nicant discussions of them, including many eorts to
identify the Sea Peoples with archaeologically known cul-
tures or groups in the Mediterranean and beyond. This
source is the corpus of scenes and texts relevant to the
Sea Peoples displayed on the walls of the mortuary tem-
ple of Ramesses III at western Thebes. Although it has
been much discussed, this corpus has often led scholars
to dierent and contradictory conclusions, and will always
probably be subject to debate because of certain ambigu-
ities inherent in the material.
[44] Breasted (1906), Vol III, 593 / p.252: in their isles and
of the sea
[45] Per Killebrew 2013, pp 25, these are: Stele of Padjesef,
Tanis Stele, Papyrus Anastasi I, Papyrus Anastasi II, Stele
of Setemhebu, Papyrus Amiens, Papyrus Wilbour, Adop-
tion Papyrus, Papyrus Moscow 169, Papyrus BM 10326,
Papyrus Turin 2026, Papyrus BM 10375, Donation Stele
[46] Uncertainty of the dates is not a case of no evidence but
of selecting among several possible dates. The articles in
Wikipedia on related topics use one set of dates by con-
vention but these and all dates based on them are not the
only possible. A summary of the date question is given in
Hasel, Ch. 2, p. 151, which is available as a summary on
Google Books.
[47] Find this and other documents quoted in the Shardana
article by Megaera Lorenz at the Penn State site. This
is an earlier version of her article, which gives a quote
from Kitchen not found in the External Links site below.
Breasted Volume III, Article 491, p.210, which can be
found on Google books, gives quite a dierent translation
of the passage. Unfortunately, large parts of the text are
missing and must be restored, but both versions agree on
the Sherden and the warships.
[48] Kenneth Kitchen, Pharaoh Triumphant: The Life and
Times of Ramesses II, King of Egypt, Aris & Phillips,
1982. pp.4041
[49] Grimal, pp.250253
[50] The poem appears in inscriptional form but the scribe,
pntAwr.t, was not the author, who remains unknown.
The scribe copied the poem onto Papyrus in the time of
Merneptah and copies of that found their way into Pa-
pyrus Sallier III currently located in the British Museum.
The details are stated in Tha Battle of Kadesh on the site
of the American Research Center in Egypt of Northern
California. Both the inscription and the poem are pub-
lished in Egyptian Accounts of the Battle of Kadesh on
the Pharaonic Egypt site.
[51] J. von Beckerath, p.190. Like those of Ramses II, these
dates are not certain. Von Beckeraths dates, adopted by
Wikipedia, are relatively late; for example, Sanders, Ch.
5, p. 105, sets the Battle of Perire at April 15, 1220.
[52] The Great Karnak Inscription.
CHAPTER 62. SEA PEOPLES
[53] All three inscriptions are stated in Breasted, V. 3, Reign
of Meneptah, pp. 238 ., Articles 569 ., downloadable
from Google Books.
[54] Breasted, volume 3, 595, page 252
[55] Maspero 1881, p. 118.
[56] Breasted, volume 3, page 253.
[57] Breasted, volume 3, page 256-264.
[58] J.H. Breasted, p. 243, citing Lines 1315 of the inscrip-
tion
[59] Translation by Egerton and Wilson, 1936, plates 37-39,
lines 8-23. Also found in Breasted, 1906, volume 4, p.44,
75
[60] Breasted, 1906, volume 4, p.48, 81
[61] Translation by John A. Wilson in Pritchard, J.B. (ed.)
Ancient Near Eastern Texts relating to the Old Testa-
ment, 3rd edition, Princeton 1969., p.262. Also found
in Breasted, 1906, volume 4, p.37, 64
[62] Oren 2000, p. 86: One consists of a string of large scale
scenes, complemented with relatively brief texts, extend-
ing in a narrative sequence along part of the north facade
of the temple, which it shares with part of a similar narra-
tive treatment of Ramesses IlIs Year 5 campaign against
the Libyans. This latter sequence originates however on
the west, or rear wall of the temple. The other, physically
quite separate composition relating to the Sea Peoples is
displayed across the external (eastern) face of the great
pylon which separates the rst court of the temple from
the second. On the pylons southern wing is a large-scale
scene - occupying most of the facade - showing Ramesses
Ill leading three lines of captive Sea Peoples to Amun-Re,
lord of Thebes (and of the empire), and his consort Mut.
Displayed on the equivalent space of the north wing is a
long text, without pictorial embellishment, which is a ver-
bal statement by Ramesses III describing at length his vic-
tory over the Sea Peoples, and the extraordinary bene-
cence of Amun-Re thus displayed, to the entire land gath-
ered together. In fact, this apparent simplicity - two sep-
arate and somewhat dierent compositions relevant to the
Sea Peoples-belies the actual complexity of the composi-
tional relationship between the two Sea Peoples composi-
tions on the one hand, and their joint relationship to the en-
tire compositional scheme or program of the entire tem-
ple on the other. Any eort to understand the historical
signicance of the Sea Peoples records at Medinet Habu
must take this compositional dimension into account, as
well as the conceptual dimensional, the relationship of the
general composition scheme or program to the functions
and meanings of the temple, as understood by the Egyp-
tians.
[63] Beckman cites the rst few lines of the inscription lo-
cated on the NW panel of the 1st court of the temple.
This extensive inscription is stated in full in English in the
Woudhuizen 2006, pp. 4356, which also contains a di-
agram of the locations of the many inscriptions pertain-
ing to the reign of Ramses III on the walls of temple at
Medinet Habu.
62.6. NOTES
[64] Bryce, p.371
[65] Woudhuizen 2006, pp. 4356 quotes the inscriptions in
English.
[66] This passage in the papyrus is often cited as evidence that
the Egyptians settled the Philistines in Philistia. The pas-
sage however only mentions the Sherden and Weshesh;
i.e. does not mention the Peleset and Tjeker, and nowhere
implies that the scribe meant Egyptian possessions in the
Levant.
[67] Bernard Bruyre, Mert Seger Deir el Mdineh, 1929,
pages 3237
[68] Redford, P. 292. A number of copies or partial copies
exist, the best being the Golenische Papyrus, or Papyrus
Moscow 169, located in the Pushkin Museum of Fine Arts
in Moscow (refer to Onomasticon of Amenemipet at the
Archaeowiki site). In it the author is stated to be Amen-
emope, son of Amenemope.
[69] Letter EA 81
[70] Letters EA 122, 123, which are duplicates. See the paper
on this topic published by Megaera Lorenz, The Amarna
Letters at the Penn State site.
[71] EA 151
[72] EA 38
[73] Kitchen, pp. 99 & 140
[74] Kitchen, pp.99100
[75] See also Woudhuizen 2006, particularly his Concluding
Remarks on pages 117-121, for a fuller consideration of
the meaning of ethnicity.
[76] Bryce, T. R. (1974). The Lukka Problem And a Pos-
sible Solution. Journal of Near Eastern Studies. 33 (4):
395404. doi:10.1086/372378. JSTOR 544776. The in-
scription is mentioned as well in Woudhuizen 2006, p. 31.
[77] The texts of the letters are transliterated and translated in [100] Vagnetti, 2000, p.319: Furthermore, if we examine the
Woudhuizen 2006, pp. 4356 and also are mentioned and
hypotheses are given about them in Sandars, p. 142 fol-
lowing.
[78] The sequence, only recently completed, appears in
Woudhuizen 2006, pp. 4356, along with the news that
the famous oven, still reported at many sites and in many
books, in which the second letter was hypothetically be-
ing baked at the destruction of the city, was not an oven,
the city was not destroyed at that time, and a third letter
existed.
[79] Jean Nougaryol et al. (1968) Ugaritica V: 8790 no.24
[80] RSL I = Nougayril et al., (1968) 8686, no.23
[81] Rainey, Anson (November 2008). Shasu or Habiru.
Who Were the Early Israelites?". Biblical Archeology Re- [101] Ugas, Giovanni 2016 Shardana e Sardegna. I popoli del
view. Biblical Archaeology Society. 34 (06 (Nov/Dec)).
[82] Page 53
[83] Reford p. 292
341
[84] Ch. 8, subsection entitled The Initial Settlement of the
Sea Peoples.
[85] Ch. 7
[86] Dothan 1992.
[87] See under Tjeker.
[88] Amos 9,7; argument reviewed by Sandars in Ch. 7.
[89] One is cited under Caphtor.
[90] New Evidence Suggests The Need To Rewrite Bronze
Age History. Sciencedaily.com. 2006-04-29. Retrieved
2012-11-07.
[91] Ch. 7, The Peoples of the Sea.
[92] Robbins, Manuel (2001). Collapse of the Bronze Age : the
story of Greece, Troy, Israel, Egypt, and the peoples of the
sea. San Jose Calif: Authors Choice Press. p. 158. ISBN
0-595-13664-8.
[93] Odyssey XIV 191298.
[94] Sandars Ch. 5.
[95] Wood Ch. 6.
[96] Eberhard Zangger in the Aramco article available on-line
and referenced under External links below.
[97] Chadwick, p. 178.
[98] See Mycenaean Society and Its Collapse, a mod-
ule of Exploring the European Past by Jack Mar-
tin Balcer and John Matthew Stockhausen at cus-
tom.thomsonlearning.com. They quote passages from the
books of several experts to give a spectrum of views.
[99] The History of the Peloponnesian War, Chapter I, Section
5.
main (or only) connection of the Sherden (Srdn), Sheke-
lesh (Sirs), and Tursha (Trs) with the Central Mediter-
ranean, namely the similarity of those names with Sar-
dinia, Sicily and Tyrrhenian area, we nd further dicul-
ties. First, that Greek sources are agreed that the origi-
nal name of the island was Ichnussa (RE, IA.2: 2482-84
[1920] s.v. Sardinia; Nicosia 1981:423-26). From other
sources we learn that the Sikeloi were not the original
inhabitants of Sicily, but migrated there from peninsular
Italy (RE, IIA.2:2482-91 [1920] s.v. Sikelia), while the
Etruscans called themselves Rasenna (RE, IA.1:253-54
[1914], s.v. Rasennas). Thus the combination of the
archaeological evidence with the traditions of the place-
name makes it dicult to conclude that Sherden, Sheke-
lesh and Tursha, were of western origin.
mare, gli alleati del Nordafrica e la ne dei Grandi Regni.
Cagliari: Edizioni Della Torre.
[102] Paola Ruggeri - Talos, l'automa bronzeo contro i Sardi: le
relazioni pi antiche tra Creta e la Sardegna
 342
[103] Ceramiche. Storia, linguaggio e prospettive in Sardegna -
pg.34
[104] Gale, N.H. 2011. Source of the Lead Metal used to make
a Repair Clamp on a Nuragic Vase recently excavated
at Pyla-Kokkinokremos on Cyprus. In V. Karageorghis
and O. Kouka (eds.), On Cooking Pots, Drinking Cups,
Loomweights and Ethnicity in Bronze Age Cyprus and
Neighbouring Regions, Nicosia.
[105] Santoni, Vincenzo; Sabatini, Donatella (2010) Gonnesa,
Nuraghe Serucci. IX Campagna di scavo 2007/2008. Re-
lazione e analisi preliminare.
[106] Drews, 1995, p.59
[107] Vermeule p. 271.
[108] Archeologia e misteri, Giovanni Ugas: Ne sono certo, gli
Shardana siamo noi unionesarda.it
[109] sardiniapoint.it
[110] 1.94
[111] Drews 1992.
[112] Wood p. 221 summarizes that a general climatolog-
ical crisis in the Black Sea and Danubian regions as
known through pollen analysis and dendrochronology ex-
isted about 1200 BCE and could have caused migration
from the north.
[113] Weiss, Barry (1982). The decline of Late Bronze Age
civilization as a possible response to climatic change. Cli-
matic Change. 4 (2): 173198. doi:10.1007/bf00140587.
ISSN 0165-0009.
[114] Fagan, Brian M. (2003), The Long Summer: How Cli-
mate Changed Civilization (Basic Books)
[115] Grant, The Ancient Mediterranean, page 79.
[116] Finley, page 58.
[117] Drews 1995, p. 8-9.
62.7 Sources
62.7.1 Primary sources: Early publica-
tions of the theory
Greene, J. B. (1855). Fouilles excutes Thbes
dans l'anne 1855: textes hiroglyphiques et doc-
uments indits [Excavations at Thebes in the year
1855: hieroglyphic texts and unpublished documents]
(in French). Librairie de Firmin Didot Frres.
de Roug, Emmanuel (1855), Notice de Quelques
Textes Hiroglyphiques Rcemment Publis par M.
Greene [Note on Some Hieroglyphic Texts Recently
Published by Mr. Greene] (in French), E. Thunot
CHAPTER 62. SEA PEOPLES
Brugsch, Heinrich Karl (1858). Geographische
Inschriften altgyptischer Denkmler [Geographical
inscriptions of ancient Egyptian monuments] (in Ger-
man): Volume 1, Volume 2, Volume 3
de Roug, Emmanuel (1867). Extraits d'un m-
moire sur les attaques diriges contre l'Egypte par
les peuples de la Mditerrane vers le quatorzime
sicle avant notre re [Excerpts of a mmoire on
the attacks directed against Egypt by the peoples
of the Mediterranean in the 14th century BCE].
Revue Archologique (in French). 16. JSTOR
41734557Alternative version at Google books
Chabas, Franois Joseph (1872). tude sur
l'antiquit historique d'aprs les sources gyptiennes
et les monuments rputs prhistoriques [Study of an-
cient history according to Egyptian sources and pre-
historic monuments] (in French). Maisonneuve. pp.
299.
Maspero, Gaston (1881). Notes sur quelques
points de Grammaire et dHistoire. Zeitschrift
fr gyptische Sprache. 19 (1-4): 116131.
doi:10.1524/zaes.1881.19.14.116. ISSN 2196-
713X.
Mller, Wilhelm Max (1888). Notes on the peo-
ples of the sea of Merenptah. Proceedings of the
Society of Biblical Archology. x: 147154 and
287289.
Maspero, Gaston (1896), Archibald Sayce, ed.,
Struggle of the Nations: Egypt, Syria and As-
syria (English ed.), Society for Promoting Christian
Knowledge, pp. 461470
62.7.2 Secondary sources
Beckerath, Jrgen von (1997). Chronologie des
Pharaonischen gypten. Mainz. Mainz.
Beckman, Gary, Hittite Chronology, Akkadica,
119/120 (2000).
Breasted, J.H. (1906). Ancient Records of Egypt:
historical documents from the earliest times to the
Persian conquest. Chicago: The University of
Chicago Press. Volume II on the 19th Dynasty is
available for download from Google Books.
Bryce, Trevor (1998). The Kingdom of the Hittites.
Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-924010-
4.
Chadwick, John (1976). The Mycenaean World.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-
521-21077-1.
D'Amato R., Salimbeti A. (2015). The Sea Peoples
of the Mediterranean Bronze Age 14501100 BC.
London: Osprey.
62.7. SOURCES
Dothan, Trude & Moshe (1992). People of the Sea:
The search for the Philistines. New York: Scribner.
Dothan, Trude K. (1982). The Philistines and Their
Material Culture. Jerusalem: Israel Exploration So-
ciety.
Drews, Robert (1995). The End of the Bronze Age:
Changes in Warfare and the Catastrophe of ca. 1200
B.C. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University
Press. ISBN 0-691-04811-8.
Drews, Robert (1992), Herodotus 1.94, the
Drought ca. 1200 B.C., and the Origin of the
Etruscans, Zeitschrift fr Alte Geschichte, Franz
Steiner Verlag, 41: 1439, JSTOR 4436222
Finley, M.I. (1981). Early Greece:The Bronze and
Archaic Ages:New and Revised Edition. New York,
London: W.W. Norton & Co. ISBN 0-393-01569-
6.
Gardiner, Alan H. (1947). Ancient Egyptian Ono-
mastica. London: Oxford University Press. 3 vols.
Grant, Michael (1969). The Ancient Mediterranean.
New York: Charles Scribners Sons.
Grimal, Nicolas (1992). A History of Ancient Egypt.
Oxford: Blackwell.
Hasel, Michael G. (1998). Domination and Resis-
tance: Egyptian Military Activity in the Southern Lev-
ant, ca. 13001185 B.C. Brill Academic Publishers.
ISBN 90-04-10041-5.
Hall, Henry R. (1922). The Peoples of the Sea.
A chapter of the history of Egyptology. Recueil
d'tudes gyptologiques ddies la mmoire de
Jean-Franois Champollion: 297329.
Killebrew, Ann E. (2013), The Philistines and
Other Sea Peoples in Text and Archaeology, So-
ciety of Biblical Literature Archaeology and bibli-
cal studies, Society of Biblical Lit, 15, ISBN 978-
1-58983-721-8
Kelder, Jorrit M. (2010). The Egyptian Interest in
Mycenaean Greece. Jaarbericht Ex Oriente Lux
(JEOL). pp. 125140.
Kitchen, K.A. (2003). On the Reliability of the Old
Testament. William B. Eerdsman Publishing Co.
Manassa, Colleen (2003). The Great Karnak In-
scription of Merneptah: Grand Strategy in the Thir-
teenth Century BC. New Haven: Yale Egyptolog-
ical Seminar, Department of Near Eastern Lan-
guages and Civilizations, Yale University. ISBN 0-
9740025-0-X.
Mazar, Amihai (1992). Archaeology of the Land of
the Bible: 10,000586 B.C.E. Doubleday. ISBN 0-
385-42590-2.
343
Nibbi, Alessandra (1972). The Sea Peoples: A Re-
examination of the Egyptian Sources. Church Army
Press and Supplies.
O'Connor, David B.; Cline, Eric H. (2003). The
Mystery of the 'Sea Peoples". In David B.
O'Connor and Stephen Quirke. Mysterious Lands.
Routledge. pp. 107138. ISBN 978-1-84472-004-
0.
Oren, Eliezer D. (2000). The Sea Peoples and Their
World: A Reassessment. University of Pennsylvania
Press. ISBN 1-934536-43-1.
Chapter 16: Vagnetti, Lucia (2000), Western
Mediterranean overview: Peninsular Italy,
Sicily and Sardinia at the time of the Sea peo-
ples
Redford, Donald B. (1992). Egypt, Canaan, and
Israel in Ancient Times. Princeton, New Jersey:
Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-03606-3.
Sandars, N.K. (1987). The Sea Peoples: Warriors of
the ancient Mediterranean, Revised Edition. London:
Thames and Hudson. ISBN 0-500-27387-1.
Sherratt, Susan (1998), Seymour Gitin, Amichai
Mazar, and Ephraim Stern, eds., ""Sea Peoples and
the economic structure of the late second millen-
nium in the eastern Mediterranean, Mediterranean
Peoples in Transition: Essays in Honor of Trude
Dothan, Israel Exploration Society, pp. 292313
Silberman, Neil A. (1998), Seymour Gitin, Amichai
Mazar, and Ephraim Stern, eds., The Sea Peoples,
the Victorians, and Us, Mediterranean Peoples in
Transition: Essays in Honor of Trude Dothan, Israel
Exploration Society, pp. 268275
Vandersleyen, Claude (1985). Le dossier egyptien
des Philistins. In Edward Lipiski. The Land of Is-
rael: Cross-roads of Civilizations : Proceedings of the
Conference Held in Brussels from the 3th to the 5th
of December 1984 to Mark the Twenty-fth Anniver-
sary of the Institute of Archaeology Queen Elisabeth
of Belgium at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem :
in Memory of Prof. Y. Yadin and Prof. Ch. Perel-
man. Peeters Publishers. pp. 3954. ISBN 978-
90-6831-031-3.
Vermeule, Emily (1964). Greece in the Bronze Age.
Chicago and London: The University of Chicago
Press.
Wood, Michael (1987). In Search of the Trojan
War. New American Library. ISBN 0-452-25960-
6.
Woudhuizen, Frederik Christiaan (1992). The Lan-
guage of the Sea Peoples. Amsterdam: Najade
Press. ISBN 90-73835-02-X.
344 CHAPTER 62. SEA PEOPLES

Woudhuizen, Frederik Christiaan (2006). The Eth-

nicity of the Sea Peoples (Ph.D.). Erasmus Univer-
siteit Rotterdam, Faculteit der Wijsbegeerte.

Zangger, Eberhard (2001). The Future of the Past:

Archaeology in the 21st Century. London: Weiden-
feld & Nicolson. ISBN 0-297-64389-4.

62.8 External links

Philistine Kin Found in Early Israel, Adam Zertal,
BAR 28:03, May/Jun 2002.

The Sea Peoples and the Philistines: a course at

Penn State

Egyptians, Canaanites, and Philistines in the Period

of the Emergence of Early Israel, paper by Itamar
Singer at the UCLA Near Eastern Languages & Cul-
ture site

"Who Were the Sea People?", article by Eberhard

Zangger in Saudi Aramco World, Volume 46, Num-
ber 3, May/June 1995
PlosOne dating the Sea People destruction of the
Levant to 119290 BCE
The Origins of the Sea Peoples, undergraduate paper
by Joseph Morris published by Florida State Univer-
sity Classic Department

The Sea Peoples and Annales: A Contextual Study

of the Late Bronze Age, Masters Thesis of Daniel
Jacobus Krger, published at the University of South
Africa site

"The Battle of the Nile Circa 1190 B.C.", article

by I Cornelius in Military History Journal, Vol. 7.,
No. 4 of the South African Military History Society

"The Greek Age of Bronze", Archaeological web

site related to Greek Bronze Age and Sea Peoples
weaponry and warfare
Chapter 63

Sebakh

Sebakh (less commonly transliterated as sebbakh) is an
Aramaic word which translates to dry land in English.
This term is used to describe decomposed organic mate-
rial that can be employed both as an agricultural fertilizer
and as a fuel for res.
Amarna Letters, have provided much valuable historical
and chronological data, as well as information bearing on
Egyptian diplomatic relations with her neighbors at that
time.

63.4 External links

63.1 Composition
University of Southampton, 2002 - Sebakh Exca-
Most sebakh consists of ancient, deteriorated mud brick. vations and the Written Material (examples of se-
Mud brick was a primary building material in ancient bakh diggings)
Egypt. This material is composed of ancient mud mixed
with the nitrous compost of the hay and stubble that
the bricks were originally formulated with to give added 63.5 References
strength before being baked in the sun.
Egyptology Online (sebakh used as fertilizer)

63.2 Aecting archaeology Hierakonpolis Online (archaeological sebakh dig-

ging)

A common practice in Egypt, in the late nineteenth and

early twentieth century, was for farmers to obtain gov-
ernment permits to remove this material from ancient
mounds; such farmers were known as 'sebakhin'. Mounds
indicating the location of ancient cities are also known as
a tell, or tel.
An archaeological site could provide an excellent source
of sebakh because decomposed organic debris creates a
soil very rich in nitrogen. Nitrogen is an essential com-
ponent in fertilizers used for plant crops.
Numerous potentially valuable archaeological nds were
unfortunately destroyed by farmers in this way. However,
sebakh digging also led to the discovery of archaeological
nds that might otherwise have gone undetected.

63.3 Amarna
Sebakh is most commonly associated with the nding
of the site of Amarna (Arabic: al-amrn).
In 1887, a local inhabitant who was delving into se-
bakh deposits accidentally discovered more than 300
cuneiform tablets that turned out to be Pharaonic records
of correspondence. These tablet letters, known as the

345
Chapter 64
Sheneset-Chenoboskion
Chenoboskion (Greek geese pasture),
also called Chenoboscium /knbom/ or Sheneset
(Coptic: nest),[1] is the name of an early
center of Christianity in the Thebaid, Roman Egypt, a
site frequented by Desert Fathers from the 3rd century
and the site of a monastery from the 4th.
It is close to the modern village of al-Qasr, just east of
the larger town of Nag Hammadi, Qena Governorate.[2][3]
The Nag Hammadi library, a collection of 2nd-century
Gnostic manuscripts discovered in 1945, was found in the
Nile clis to the north-west.[4]
64.1 History
At Chenoboskion, St Pachomius was converted to Chris-
tianity in the 4th century. Pachomius retreated to
this place, having ceased his military activity some-
time around 310-315 (the approximate gure given is
314), and converted to Christianity whilst dwelling in the
desert.[5][3] There is a monastery located at Chenoboskion
that is dedicated to St Pachomius.[6]
People moved to the region to be near Saint Anthony the
Great. A monastic community formed around the saint
for the purpose of spiritual guidance, beginning in Pispir
and from there moving eastward. The mountainous area
east of Pispir is the place of the present Monastery of
Saint Anthony. The settlement of Chenoboskion created
from this eastward movement began in the Thebaid.[7]
64.2 See also
Antoninus Pius
Cenobitic monasticism
64.3 References
[1] Wilkinson, John Gardner, Sir Hand-book for travellers
in Egypt; including descriptions of the course of the Nile
to the second cataract, Alexandria, Cairo, the pyramids,
and Thebes, the overland transit to India, the peninsula of
Mount Sinai, the oases, &c. Being a new edition, corrected
and condensed, of Modern Egypt and Thebes. John
Murray, London. 1847. p. 327. Retrieved 2011-12-13.
[2] James M. Robinson, Director and General Edi-
tor ccat.sas.upenn.edu Translated by Members of
the Coptic Gnostic Library Project of the Institute
for Antiquity and Christianity [Retrieved 2011-09-
25]alexanderhamiltoninstitute.org [Retrieved 2011-09-
25]
[3] Saint Pachomius, Egyptian monk. Encyclopdia Britan-
nica. Retrieved 2011-09-27.
[4] J.D. McCaughey onlinelibrary.wiley.com The Nag Ham-
madi or Chenoboskion Library A Bibliographical Sur-
vey by [Retrieved 2011-09-28] librarything.com web-
site John Dart amazon.ca page 2 of Unearthing the Lost
Words of Jesus: The Discovery and Text of the Lost
Gospel of Thomas Ulysees press 1998 [Retrieved 2011-
09-28] N. Sri RAM books.google.co.uk Theosophist
Magazine September 1960-April 1961 [Retrieved 2011-
09-28] Jean Doresse amazon.co.uk The Secret Books of
the Egyptian Gnosis: Introduction to the Gnostic Cop-
tic Manuscripts Discovered at Chenoboskion [Retrieved
2011-09-28] catholicculture.org/ [Retrieved 2011-09-28]
V. R. Gold JSTOR Gnostic Library of Chenoboskion
[Retrieved 2011-09-28] (originally referenced from Bib-
lical Archeologist, 15 (1952) 70-88; from the arti-
cle written at catholicculture.orgtrinity Communications-
(catholicculture.org) [Retrieved 2011-09-28]
[5] (PDF) Combs-NagHammadi-GTJ.pdf original text
by William W.Combs Grace Theological seminary
(1987) http://faculty.gordon.edu/hu/bi/Ted.../GTJ.../
Combs-NagHammadi-GTJ.pdf original text by William
W.Combs Grace Theological seminary (1987) Check
|url= value (help). Retrieved 2011. Check date values in:
|access-date= (help); Missing or empty |title= (help)
[6] Bonz pbs.org Harvard Theological Review retrieved
17:37 GMT
[7] good brother Matthais W.Wahba
stmarystlouis.bizland.com web-site his references
originally from the San Franscisco Coptic Orthodox
church of St Antonio[Retrieved 2011-09-25]
346
64.4. FURTHER READING 347

64.4 Further reading

Palmer, William archive.org Egyptian chronicles :
with a harmony of sacred and Egyptian chronology,
and an appendix on Babylonian and Assyrian antiq-
uities (1861) [Retrieved 2011-09-27]
Robert North books.google.com Chenoboskion and
Q [Retrieved 2011-09-27]

Elaine Pagels pac.nwrls.lib..us The gnostic gospels

[Retrieved 2011-09-27]

David M. Scholer books.google.co.uk Nag

Hammadi Bibliography, 1948-1969 this
link shows a list of books,those numbered
1259,1358,1419,1420,1424,1425,1441,1442,1445,1463,1464,
relate to historical signicance of this settlement
[Retrieved 2011-09-27]
Chapter 65
Statue of Sekhmet
The Statue of Sekhmet at the Royal Ontario Museum in Galleries
of Africa: Egypt.
The Statue of Sekhmet /skmt/[1] currently housed in
the Gallery of Ancient Egypt at the Royal Ontario Mu-
seum (ROM) is a life-sized sculpture of one of the old-
est known Egyptian deities.[2] Her name is derived from
the Egyptian word sekhem (which means power or
might) and is often translated as the Powerful One.[3]
Depicted as a woman with the head of a lioness - some-
times with the addition of a sun disc and the uraeus ser-
pent atop her head - Sekhmet is the ancient Egyptian god-
dess of war who was believed to be a protector of Maat
(balance or justice) and of the Egyptian people.[4] She
was also associated with healing and medicine, and her
priests were known for being trained doctors and surgeons
of remarkable calibre.[3][5]
The acquisition of this piece of Egyptian art was made
possible by the support of the Louise Hawley Stone Char-
itable Trust, and is now one of the museums iconic
objects.[2] The statue dates back to the 18th dynasty
348
(New Kingdom) circa 1360 BCE, during the reign of
King Tutankhamuns grandfather, Amenhotep III, and is
thought to have originated from the Temple of Mut at
Karnak, Egypt.[2] The Temple of Mut is perhaps best
known for its many statues of Sekhmet, which number
in the hundreds.[6] Sekhmet is usually depicted with a lo-
tus ower (symbolising Upper Egypt, the sun, creation,
and rebirth) in her right hand, and an ankh (also known
as the key of life, which symbolises eternal life) in her
left.[4][7] The statue is made of carved and polished gran-
ite and depicts the goddess in a seated position holding
only an ankh in her left hand, and stands at a height of
about 6 feet (184 cm).[2]
The Statue of Sekhmet can be found on Level 3 of the
ROM in the Galleries of Africa: Egypt, where close to
2,000 objects from the ROMs Egyptian collection are
showcased. The ROMs Egyptian collection comprises
approximately 25,000 artefacts.[8]
65.1 References
[1] Sekhmet. Dictionary.com. Random House. 2013.
[2] Royal Ontario Museum. ROM Images, Royal Ontario
Museum. Retrieved on March 3, 2013.
[3] Gods of Ancient Egypt: Sekhmet. Retrieved on March
8, 2013.
[4] El Adl, Omar. Sekhmets bits: Forgotten statue uncov-
ered, Daily News Egypt, January 17, 2013.
[5] Sekhmet, Ancient Egyptian Sun Goddess. Retrieved on
March 10, 2013.
[6] Brooklyn Museum: Features: Mut Precinct. Retrieved
on March 8, 2013.
[7] Egyptian Symbols and Denitions. Retrieved on March
8, 2013.
[8] Galleries of Africa: Egypt | Level 3 | Royal Ontario Mu-
seum. Retrieved on March 3, 2013.
65.2 External links
Royal Ontario Museum ocial website
Chapter 66
Therapeutae
Lake Mariout today
The Therapeutae were a Jewish sect which ourished in
Alexandria and other parts of the Diaspora of Hellenistic
Judaism in the nal years of the Second Temple period.
The primary source concerning the Therapeutae is the ac-
count De vita contemplativa (The Contemplative Life),
purportedly by the Jewish philosopher Philo of Alexan-
dria (c. 20 BCE 50 CE). The authorship has been
called into question because of the dierent stance on
Greek philosophy of this work from that of other works
that were written by Philo and because elsewhere Philo
makes no mention of the Therapeutae[1] although this ar-
ticle will refer to the author as Philo. The author ap-
pears to have been personally acquainted with them. The
pseudepigraphic Testament of Job is possibly also a Ther-
apeutae text,[2][3] although this possibility is mostly based
on the text being noticeably less misogynist than many
other early apocryphal texts.
Philo records that they were philosophers (cf. I.2)
and speaks specically about a group that lived on a
low hill by the Lake Mareotis close to Alexandria in
circumstances resembling lavrite life (cf. III.22), and
were the best of a kind given to perfect goodness
that exists in many places in the inhabited world (cf.
III.21). Philo was unsure of the origin of the name and
derives the name Therapeutae/Therapeutides from Greek
in the sense of cure or worship (cf. I.2).
66.1 Name
The term Therapeutae (plural) is Latin, from Philos
Greek plural Therapeutai (). The term ther-
apeutes means one who is attendant to the gods[4] al-
though the term, and the related adjective therapeutikos[5]
carry in later texts the meaning of attending to heal, or
treating in a spiritual or medical sense. The Greek fem-
inine plural Therapeutrides () is some-
times encountered for their female members.[6][7][8] The
term therapeutae may occur in relation to followers of
Asclepius at Pergamon, and therapeutai may also occur
in relation to worshippers of Sarapis in inscriptions, such
as on Delos.[9] See Therapeutae of Asclepius.
66.2 Philos account
The author described the Therapeutae in De vita con-
templativa (On the contemplative life), written in the
rst century A.D. (C.E.) The origins of the Therapeutae
were unclear, and Philo was even unsure about the ety-
mology of their name, which he explained as meaning
either physicians of souls or servants of God. The open-
ing phrases of his essay establish that it followed one that
has been lost, on the active life. Philo was employing the
familiar polarity in Hellenic philosophy between the ac-
tive and the contemplative life, exemplifying the active
life by the Essenes, another severely ascetic sect, and the
contemplative life by the desert-dwelling Therapeutae.
66.3 Jewish monastic orders
According to Philo, the Therapeutae were widely dis-
tributed in the Ancient world, among the Greeks and be-
yond in the non-Greek world of the "Barbarians", with
one of their major gathering points being in Alexandria,
in the area of the Lake Mareotis:
Now this class of persons may be met
with in many places, for it was tting that
both Greece and the country of the barbarians
should partake of whatever is perfectly good;
349
350
Hellenistic Jewish synagogue fresco Moses being taken from the
river Nile
and there is the greatest number of such men in
Egypt, in every one of the districts, or nomes,
as they are called, and especially around
Alexandria; and from all quarters those who
are the best of these therapeutae proceed on
their pilgrimage to some most suitable place
as if it were their country, which is beyond the
Maereotic lake.
De Vita Contemplativa[10]
They lived chastely with utter simplicity; they "rst of all
laid down temperance as a sort of foundation for the soul
to rest upon, proceed to build up other virtues on this foun-
dation" (Philo). They were dedicated to the contempla-
tive life, and their activities for six days of the week con-
sisted of ascetic practices, fasting, solitary prayers and the
study of the scriptures in their isolated cells, each with its
separate holy sanctuary, and enclosed courtyard:
the entire interval from dawn to evening is
given up by them to spiritual exercises. For
they read the holy scriptures and draw out in
thought and allegory their ancestral philos-
ophy, since they regard the literal meanings
as symbols of an inner and hidden nature
revealing itself in covert ideas.
De Vita Contemplativa, para. 28
In addition to the Pentateuch, the Prophets and Psalms
they possessed arcane writings of their own tradition, in-
cluding formulae for numerological and allegorical inter-
pretations.
They renounced property and followed severe discipline:
These men abandon their property without
being inuenced by any predominant attrac-
tion, and ee without even turning their heads
back again.
De Vita Contemplativa para. 18
CHAPTER 66. THERAPEUTAE
They professed an art of healing superior to that prac-
ticed in the cities Philo notes, and the reader must be
reminded of the reputation as a healer Saint Anthony
possessed among his 4th-century contemporaries, who
ocked out from Alexandria to reach him.
On the seventh day the Therapeutae met in a meeting
house, the men on one side of an open partition, the
women modestly on the other, to hear discourses. Once
in seven weeks they meet for a night-long vigil after a
banquet where they served one another, for they are not
waited on by slaves, because they deem any possession
of servants whatever to be contrary to nature. For she
has begotten all men alike free (De Vita Contemplativa,
para.70) and sing antiphonal hymns until dawn.
66.4 Early Christian interpreta-
tions
The 3rd-century Christian writer Eusebius of Caesarea
(c. 263339), in his Ecclesiastical History, identied
Philos Therapeutae as the rst Christian monks, iden-
tifying their renunciation of property, chastity, fasting,
and solitary lives with the cenobitic ideal of the Christian
monks.[11]
The 4th-century Christian heresiologist Epiphanius of
Salamis (c. 315403), bishop of Salamis in Cyprus, au-
thor of the Panarion, or Medicine Chest against Heresies,
misidentied Philos Therapeuate as Jessaens and con-
sidered them a Christian group.
The 5th-century Christian writer Pseudo-Dionysius, fol-
lowing Philo, interprets that Some people gave to the
ascetics the name 'Therapeutae' or servants while some
others gave them the name monks. Pseudo-Dionysius
interprets Philos group as a highly organized Christian
ascetic order, and the meaning of the name Therapeu-
tae as servants.[12]
66.5 See also
Buddhism and Christianity
Hellenistic Judaism
Testament of Job
Monasticism
66.6 References
[1] Toy, Crawford Howell; Siegfried, Carl; Lauterbach, Jacob
Zallel. PHILO JUDUS.
[2] Spittler, Russel Paul (1983), 'Testament of Job', in James
H. Charlesworth (ed. Old Testament Pseudepigrapha Vol
I Doubleday
66.7. FURTHER READING 351

[3] Taylor, Joan E., Virgin Mothers: Philo on the Therapeutae.htm Constantine Scouteris, The Therapeu-
Women Therapeutae, Journal for the Study of the tae of Philo and the Monks as Therapeutae according to
Pseudepigrapha, 12.1(2001): 37-63. doi:10.1177/ Pseudo-Dionysius Scouteris, The Therapeutae of Philo
095182070101200102 and the Monks as Therapeutae according to Pseudo-
Dionysius
[4] ^-, , A. one who serves the gods, wor-
shipper, . , , Pl.Phdr.252c, Lg.740c; [12] Constantine Scouteris, University of Athens Source The
ib.878a; Ph.1.261; contribution of Pseudo-Dionysius lies in the fact that, not
. worshippers of Sarapis or Isis, UPZ8.19 (ii only has he not rejected Philos thought, but he enriched it
B.C.), IG11(4).1226 (Delos, ii B.C.); title of play by with a distinctly Christian attitude. Or to put it dierently.
Diphilus, ib.2.992ii9; name of certain ascetics, Ph.2.471; Pseudo-Dionysius purpose was to present the Christian
. , of the followers of Moses, ib.177. 2. one teaching concerning the monastic way; and he did so using
who serves a great man, courtier, the Philonian language, symbols and categories.
. X.Cyr.1.3.7. II. one who attends to anything, c. gen.,
Pl.Grg.517e; Id.R.369d.
2. medical attendant, ib.341c. 66.7 Further reading
[5] ^-, , , A. inclined to serve, c. gen.,
X.Ages.8.1; . Simon, Marcel, Jewish Sects at the Time of Jesus
Pl.Def.412e; Ph.1.202 (but . , = (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1967; 1980).
, Id.2.473); inclined to court, ,
, Plutarch Lysander.2, Comp.Plutarch Ly- , . . (
curgus. Num.2; . Plutarch -
Lysander.4. 2. abs., courteous, obsequious, in good and 1 . ..). ., 1972.
bad sense, X.HG3.1.28 (Comp.), Plutarch Lucullus.16;
. Id.2.74a. Adv. - Id.Art.4; . Taylor, Joan E. Jewish Women Philosophers of First-
Ph.1.186, cf. Str.6.4.2. II. inclined to take care Century Alexandria: Philos Therapeutae Recon-
of, careful of, dub. l. in Men.402.15. 2. esp. sidered (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003).
of medical treatment, . a valetudinarian habit of
body, Arist.Pol.1335b7; -, = , Pl.Plt.282a; elia Deutsch, The Therapeutae, Text Work, Rit-
also - therapeutics, Dsc. Ther. Praef. (but also ual, and Mystical Experience, in Paradise Now: Es-
., title of a work on moral remedies by says on Early Jewish and Christian Mysticism. Ed.
Chrysippus, Phld.Ir.p.17 W.); . , title of by April D. Deconick (Leiden, Brill, 2006), 287
work by Galen. 312.
[6] ^-, , A. that may be fostered or cultivated,
Pl.Prt.325b. 2. curable, Paul.Aeg.4.5.
66.8 External links
[7] ^-, , fem. of A. EM47.45.

[8] LSJ ^-, , ,= foreg., Ph.1.261, 655: pl., "Therapeutae". Encyclopdia Britannica. 26 (11th
as title of certain female ascetics, Id.2.471. ed.). 1911.

[9] Voluntary Associations in the Graeco-Roman World John History sourcebook: Philo Judaeus, The Contempla-
S. Kloppenborg, Stephen G. Wilson - 2012 Vidman tive Life On Ascetics
thinks they were simple worshipers united in a loose as-
sociation (1970:69, 125 38); cf. therapeutae of Asclepius
Philo Judaeus, The Contemplative Life excerpts (in
at Pergamon (Habicht 1969:114 15). melan-phoroi; cf. English)
Poland, s.v. melan-phoroi, PW 15:408 14; Wilcken 1927
57, 1:8,....Footnote 33..The latter is found of worshipers
of Sarapis in inscriptions (LSJ cites IG XI/4 second cen-
tury BCE Delos)

[10] On Ascetics (another name for the De Vita Contempla-

tiva), Section III.

[11] Constantine Scouteris, University of Athens Source The

semianchoritic character of the Therapeutae community,
the renunciation of property, the solitude during the six days
of the week and the gathering together on Saturday for the
common prayer and the common meal, the severe fasting,
the keeping alive of the memory of God, the continuous
prayer, the meditation and study of Holy Scripture were
also practices of the Christian anchorites of the Alexan-
drian desert. http://www.omhros.gr/kat/history/Txt/Rl/
Chapter 67

Thinite Confederacy

Warning: Page using Template:Infobox former country ogy and Arabic Studies. ISBN 978-965-221-015-9.
with unknown parameter country (this message is External link in |publisher= (help)
shown only in preview).
Maspero, Gaston (1903). Archibald Henry Sayce,
ed. History of Egypt, Chaldea, Syria, Babylonia, and
The Thinite Confederacy is an Egyptological term for Assyria. 9. M. L. Herbert McClure (trans.). N.p.:
a hypothesized tribal confederation in Ancient Egypt. It Kessinger Publishing. ISBN 978-0-7661-3501-7.
is thought to have preceded the full unication of Upper
Egypt c. 3100 BC. The leaders of the Thinite Confed-
eracy were most likely tribal nobles. Based at the city of
Thinis, the Thinite Confederacy would later be incorpo-
67.3 External links
rated into the combined Kingdoms of Upper and Lower
Egypt. Dynasty 00, by Francesco Rafaele

The evidence of the Thinite Confederacy is mostly

speculative and in part relies on Manetho. Modern Egyp-
tologists have a number of competing hypotheses to ex-
plain conjectured proto-dynastic events that presum-
ably led to the unication under the First Dynasty. Many
scholars today mention evidence for a "Dynasty 0" that
preceded Dynasty I. The term Dynasty 00 is also used
for the period preceding Dynasty 0 in connection with the
Abydos-Thinis area and may correspond to a theoretical
Thinite Confederacy.[2] The terms Dynasty 0 and es-
pecially Dynasty 00 are widely seen as playful, but are
frequently used nonetheless in lieu of a more agreed-upon
term. In archaeological terms, this is referred to as the
Naqada III period.
It makes an appearance in the computer game Pharaoh.

67.1 References
[1] Maspero 1903: 331

[2] van den Brink 1992: vi

67.2 Bibliography
van den Brink, Edwin C. M. (1992). The Nile delta
in transition: 4th-3rd millennium BC: proceedings of
the seminar held in Cairo, 21-24 October 1990, at
the Netherlands Institute of Archaeology and Arabic
Studies. Cairo: Netherlands Institute of Archaeol-

352
Chapter 68

Jonathan Tokeley-Parry

Jonathan Tokeley-Parry is a British restorer and who

is notable for smuggling more than 3000 pieces of
Egyptian antiquities out of Egypt by disguising them as
reproductions.[1][2][3]
It has been reported that Tokeley-Parry changed his name
from Jonathan Foreman.[4]

68.1 References
[1] Just Out Of Jail: A Smugglers Story. Newsweek. Re-
trieved 30 July 2010.

[2] Sarah Knapton (19 December 2008). Smuggled ancient

sculpture returns to Egypt. Telegraph. Retrieved 30 July
2010.

[3] http://i.telegraph.co.uk/multimedia/archive/01209/
jonathan-tokeley-p_1209113c.jpg

[4] Selling the Past: United States v. Frederick Schultz. Ar-

chaeological Institute of America. Retrieved 2014-01-16.

353
Chapter 69

Tryph

Canadian Anthropology Society. 48 (2): 165186.

doi:10.2307/25605309.

[2] Robins, Robert Henry (1993). The Byzantine grammar-

ians: their place in history. Walter de Gruyter. p. 63.
ISBN 3-11-013574-4.

[3] Becker, Reinhard P. (1982). German humanism and ref-

ormation. Continuum International Publishing Group. p.
58. ISBN 0-8264-0251-8.

[4] Chauveau, Michel (2000). Egypt in the age of Cleopa-

tra: history and society under the Ptolemies. Ithaca, NY:
Cornell University Press. p. 44. ISBN 0-8014-8576-2.

[5] Knust, Jennifer Wright (2006), Extravagant excess,

Antony and Cleopatra, by Lawrence Alma-Tadema. Noted by Abandoned to lust: sexual slander and ancient Christian-
Plutarch, and dramatized by Shakespeare, Cleopatra's encounter ity, Columbia University Press, p. 32, ISBN 978-0-231-
with Marc Antony at the Nile epitomized tryph: it upstaged 13662-4
Antonys procession in a greater display of wealth and nery,
it provided an exciting spectacle for subjects gathering for the
event, and it showcased the kind of gauzy femininity that led
many Romans to consider tryph a sign of eeminacy and weak- 69.2 External links
ness when, if anything, it camouaged unbridled power.[1]

Tryph (Greek: ) -- variously glossed as

softness,[2] voluptuousness,[3] magnicence[4] and
extravagance,[5] none fully adequateis a concept that
drew attention (and severe criticism) in Roman antiquity
when it became a signicant factor in the reign of the
Ptolemaic dynasty.[1] Classical authors such as Aeschines
and Plutarch condemned the tryph of Romans such as
Crassus and Lucullus, which included lavish dinner par-
ties and ostentatious buildings.[5] But there was more to
Ptolemaic tryph than dissipative excess, which after all
can be pursued in residential or geographical seclusion,
and for purely private purposes. It was a component
of a calculated political strategy, in that it deployed not
just conspicuous consumption but also conspicuous mag-
nicence, benecence and feminine delicacy, as a self-
reinforcing cluster of signal propaganda concepts in the
Ptolemaic dynasty.[1][4]

69.1 References
[1] Ager, Sheila (2006). The Power of Excess: Royal
Incest and the Ptolemaic Dynasty. Anthropologica.

354
Chapter 70

Tulle bi telli

Tulle-bi-telli, also known as Assuit after Assuit where thin plates, divided into small slips which were rounded
it is made, is a textile marrying cotton or linen mesh by a hammer, and then led to form wire. Few remains
with small strips of metal, with its origins dating back of ancient wire work have been found. This net would
to Ancient Egypt. Other spellings include assuite, asyut, certainly have qualied as transparent, as shown on the
assyut, asyute, and azute.[1] The name translates roughly tomb pictures.[6]
as net with metal.[1] In 1893, Orientalism was very popular. "Belly dance" was
introduced to the American public at the Chicago World
Fair, and so was assuit. The fabric was sold as souvenirs
70.1 Properties on the Midway.[5]
In 1922, King Tutankhamen's tomb was discovered, trig-
Assuit has great lateral elasticity, thanks to its openwork gering another wave of Orientalism. All of a sudden,
mesh, which closely resembles a double torchon.[2] It is pretty much everything Egyptian was highly desirable. It
heavy, and retains heat, but is favoured for its ability to inuenced fashion, dance, and lm.[1]
drape.

70.2 Production 70.4 Uses

Thin strips of metal, such as copper wire, silver, pot
metal, brass, chrome-plated base metals, or even 14-carat
gold,[3] are threaded onto a at, wide needle with a at,
wide eye. Each strip is approximately 1/8 wide and 18
to 24 long. The strips are threaded into the mesh, criss-
crossed, attened with the ngernails, and cut. The fabric
is then stamped down, and when the designs are nished,
the fabric is passed through a roller to atten the metal
even more.[4]
70.3 History
Textiles similar in concept to assuit date back to ancient
times.[4] Metal thread embroidery was used extensively
throughout the Middle East, Asia, and parts of Europe.
References are made to its use with Egyptian linen in
the Bible.[5] Also, 3,000yearold specimens of netting
made with ax are preserved in the Museum of Mont-
bijou, Berlin. The hand-made net is of intricate design;
each net composed of some 365 individual bers. The
dye techniques used were equally sophisticated; metallic
salts to improve the fastness of dyes has been found in tex-
tiles in tombs dating from before 1500 BC. These early
embroideries were done with the application of precious
metals, especially gold. The pure metal was beaten into
Assuit has been used in Hollywood productions such as
the lost Cecil B. DeMille opus Cleopatra. It was draped
on Hedy Lamarr in Samson and Delilah. It is used exten-
sively for dresses in old Egyptian musicals. It was also
worn draped over the head, as wraps, and as wedding
gowns. It can also be used for decoration: Piano shawls
were extremely popular, and specimens can still be found
occasionally in antique shops.
Shawls come in dierent sizes: most are long and nar-
row, and the designs vary, ranging from the simple to the
elaborate. Some people believe designs have been passed
down through families, as with weaving and embroidery
work.[5] Some designs appear to be intentionally left in-
complete. Coptic Christian designs often have animal
and human gures, whereas Muslim shawls rely on ge-
ometric designs. In some places, assuit shawls are known
as Coptic shawls. The geometric designs were popular
with the Art Deco movement, beginning around 1925.
The modern fabric seems to have rst appeared in the
late 19th century. The invention of the bobinet machine
in Tulle, France in the early 19th century increased the
popularity of a hexagonal mesh fabric and it became com-
monly known as tulle. A French entrepreneur built a
small net factory in Upper Egypt to help stimulate de-
pressed economy of the area, hoping to create a cot-
tage industry relying on the specialist embroidery skills

355
356 CHAPTER 70. TULLE BI TELLI

of those who lived in this region.[5]

70.5 References
[1] Valerie Cavill (2008). Asyut Embroidery. The Embroi-
derers Guild. Retrieved 12 November 2012.

[2] Elaine Fraser

[3] Turkish Oriental Recommended Supplier

[4] Liquid Silver Designs

[5] Assuit by Yasmela

[6] Origins of Oriental Dance

Chapter 71

Urban planning in ancient Egypt

The use of urban planning in ancient Egypt is a mat- 71.2 el-Lahun

ter of continuous debate. Because ancient sites usually
survive only in fragments, and many ancient Egyptian Main article: el-Lahun
cities have been continuously inhabited since their origi-
nal forms, relatively little is actually understood about the
general designs of Egyptian towns for any given period.[1] The workmens village at el-Lahun was built and inhab-
ited during the reign of Senusret II of the Twelfth Dy-
The Egyptians referred to most cities as either nwt or nasty.[4] Located near the entrance to the channel of the
dmi.[2] Nwt usually refers to unplanned cities that grew Nile that leads to the Faiyum Oasis, it housed the workers
naturally, such as Memphis and Thebes, while dmi can who constructed Senusrets pyramid as well as the priests
be translated as settlement and usually refers to towns who maintained the royal funerary cult, and possibly even
that were laid out along a plan. The archaeological evi- the king himself. The village was apparently only fully
dence of such cities is best preserved, and has been most inhabited during the kings reign.
thoroughly excavated, at el-Lahun, Deir el-Medina, and
Amarna, though some evidence of urban planning exists The village was organized according to a regular plan. It
at other sites as well. was centered on the temple of the Senusrets pyramid,
which visually dominated the village, and it consisted of
two unequal quarters enclosed by mudbrick walls on at
least three sides. The smaller western quarter contained
the relatively humble dwellings of the workers that were
laid out on a rectangular grid pattern. Flinders Petrie,
71.1 Predynastic period who rst excavated the site, noted how the layout of the
neighborhood would allow a single nightwatchman to eas-
ily guard the area. The houses all followed the same ba-
Main article: Predynastic Egypt sic pattern and dimensions, and they were evenly spaced
along the parallel streets. The streets were paved, and
stone drainage channels built into them, leading to a cen-
Almost no traces of Egyptian settlements exist before the tral drain, allowed the disposal of dirty water from the
development of neolithic culture around 6000 BC, as set- houses. The much larger eastern quarter contained con-
tlements were certainly very small, and buildings were siderably larger buildings, including mansions, an acrop-
made of perishable materials such as reeds and were not olis with an attached guard building, storerooms, a few
meant to be permanent structures.[3] Sites that do survive more workers dwellings, and some buildings at the far
do not show much evidence of urban planning. The ear- east side whose purposes are unknown.
liest known predynastic settlement is at Merimda-Beni
Salame at the southwest desert edge of the Nile Delta and
covers about 44 acres (180,000 m2 ), a very large area for
the predynastic period. The city was rebuilt three times 71.3 Deir el-Medina
during its inhabited life, and in at least one of its incarna-
tions, its houses were placed very regularly along a main Main article: Deir el-Medina
street. Almost all the houses follow a plan which faces
their doorways to the northwest, to avoid the prevailing The workmens village at Deir el-Medina, located in a
northerly wind. valley on the west bank of the Nile across from Thebes,
Other known pre-dynastic settlements, such as those of was rst constructed under Thutmose I of the Nineteenth
the Badarian and Naqada cultures, are laid out arbitrarily Dynasty to house the workers who worked on the tombs
and lack a dening plan. These villages mostly consisting in the nearby Valley of the Kings during the New King-
of small huts situated around circular storage pits. dom.[5] The village is surrounded by a thin mudbrick wall

357
358 CHAPTER 71. URBAN PLANNING IN ANCIENT EGYPT

and built around a central street. Houses were connected
at the sides, sharing walls for building and space e-
ciency. It is possible that entire blocks of houses were
covered by a single roof.
The original village had 20 houses, probably supporting
a population of about 100 people. The village was ex-
panded once under Thutmose III, and when the workers
returned to Deir el-Medina after the reign of Akhenaten,
during which they were transferred to Amarna, the vil-
lage was expanded again and formed nine distinct quar-
ters. At its largest point, Deir el-Medina contained 120
houses and probably about 600 inhabitants.
71.4 Amarna
Main article: Amarna
Akhenaten of the Nineteenth Dynasty built Akhetaten
as the new capital city of Egypt.[6] For the location, he
chose Amarna, a fresh site on the eastern bank of the Nile,
about 275 kilometers northwest of the old capital city of
Thebes. After his death, the city was virtually abandoned.
The degree of planning involved in the construction of
Amarna involved for the most part the administrative
and religious buildings of the Central City.[7] Even the
planned part of the city was somewhat hastily designed
and assembled.[8] Most of the city was built along an eight
kilometer north-south main street, referred to today as
the Royal Road, which connected the Central City with
the North City, an outlying satellite and the probable resi-
dence of the king.[9] The king probably lived in the North
Riverside Palace in the North City, a large building on the
east side of the Royal Road and separate from the rest
of the city, protected by a fortied wall which enclosed
a complex of royal service buildings. On the opposite
side of the road from the palace lay a group of some of
the largest houses in the city, probably belonging to no-
bles who were very close to the king. An administrative
building containing an enormous warehouse formed the
northern limit of the North City. At the southern end of
the Royal Road lay the Central City, a group of temples,
palaces, and administrative buildings forming the execu-
tive hub of the city. The planned buildings of the Central
City can be found in an inscription on one of the Amarna
Boundary Stelae which marked the boundaries of the city
at its founding.[10] In it, Akhenaten describes the main
buildings he will construct in his new capital:

I am making a House of the Aten for the

Aten my father in Akhetaten in this place. I am
making the Mansion of the Aten for the Aten
my father in Akhetaten in this place. I am mak-
ing the Sunshade of Re of the [great] royal
wifefor the Aten my father in Akhetaten in
this place. I am making a House of Rejoicing
for the Aten my father in the island of Aten
distinguished in jubilees in Akhetaten in this
place. I have made a house of Re-[joicing of
the Aten] for the Aten my father in the island of
Aten distinguished in jubilees in Akhetaten
in this place. [11]
Royal Wadi
Workmens village Some of these buildings can be identied easily by their
Tomb of Akhenaten inscriptions, but we know the names of others only
Northern tombs through this speech. On the entire western side of the
Southern tombs road and probably reaching down to the riverside was the
Stelae U Great Palace, consisting of several stone courts and halls,
Desert altars and housing at its center a huge courtyard surrounded by
Maru-Aten statues of Akhenaten.[12] Across the road and connected
Northern Palace by a brick bridge lay the Kings House, a small palace
North City and residence of the king.[13] South of the palace (on the
Kom el-Nana west side of the road) was the Mansion of the Sun-disc, a
Stelae H religious building whose purpose is not completely under-
Great Aten Temple stood but was likely the kings mortuary temple.[14] In the
northernmost position on the east side of the road in the
71.6. BIBLIOGRAPHY 359

Central City was the largest temple of all, the House of [11] Fairman 136
the Sun-disc, or the Great Temple of the Aten, which lay
[12] Kemp, Ancient Egypt 184
on an east-west axis and consisted of a rectangular walled
area measuring 760 by 290 meters, enclosing several in- [13] Kemp, Ancient Egypt 287
dividual temples. Near the temples were long storehouses
and priests housing.[15] Due east of the kings house were [14] Redford 146
oces, the archives (in which the Amarna Letters were [15] Redford 148
found), and police and military barracks. On the eastern
outskirts of the Central City was a walled workmens vil- [16] Redford 149
lage housing the workers during the citys construction.
[17] Kemp, Ancient Egypt 327
Villas of the kings viziers and priests sprawled along
both sides of the Royal Road to the south. At the far south
of the city was an unusual complex called the Maru-Aten,
a walled complex of gardens, pools, an articial island, 71.6 Bibliography
and open-air kiosks.[16] While it was originally mistaken
by excavators as a sort of pleasure resort, it is understood Fairman, H. W. Topographical Notes on the Cen-
now to be a religious building. tral City, Tell el-Amarnah. Journal of Egyptian Ar-
chaeology 21 (1935): 135-139.
Most of Amarnas housing was in two large areas north
and south of the Central City.[17] These sprawling sub- Kemp, Barry. The City of el-Amarna as a Source
urbs housed the large population needed to maintain the for the Study of Urban Society in Ancient Egypt.
court and run the administration of the Central City. Re- World Archaeology 9.2 (1977): 123-139.
siding in the suburbs was a very mixed collection of so-
cial groups, the priests, soldiers, builders, sculptors and Kemp, Barry. Ancient Egypt: Anatomy of a Civiliza-
scribes having the most prominent houses. As far as the tion. New York: Routledge, 2006.
residential sections of Amarna are concerned, there is al-
Redford, Donald B. Akhenaten, the Heretic King.
most a complete absence of an imposed layout. Outside
Princeton University Press, 1984.
the corridor of the Royal Road, there were a few broad,
far from straight streets running more or less north and Uphill, Eric. Egyptian Towns and Cities. Oxford:
south and joining the suburbs to the center, crossed by Shire, 2008.
perpendicular, smaller streets. The houses themselves are
arranged in arbitrary clusters which create distinct neigh-
borhoods. There does not seem to be any concept of
prime location, except to be located on one of the main
north-south streets, and rich and poor seemed to live side
by side. Proximity to the Central City or the Royal Road
seems to have been unimportant, and there is at least one
example of a royal vizier who seems to have chosen to
live as far away from the king as possible.

71.5 References
[1] Kemp, el-Amarna 124

[2] Uphill

[3] Uphill

[4] Uphill

[5] Uphill

[6] Kemp, el-Amarna 123

[7] Kemp, Ancient Egypt 284

[8] Redford 144

[9] Kemp, Ancient Egypt 284

[10] Fairman
Chapter 72

Uronarti

Uronarti was an ancient Egyptian fortress that was lo- one of the most prominent founding fathers of modern
cated on an island on the Nile River. It was located scientic archaeology.
near the Second Cataract, specically to the south of In 2012, The Uronarti Regional Archaeology Project
it. It stands out from the other fortresses because of its
(URAP) was formed by Laurel Bestock and Christian
triangular-shaped geography. It is believed to be con- Knoblauch to investigate an outpost of Uronarti. They
structed during the Middle Kingdom (19th century BC)
focused on colonization events rather than broader colo-
between the rulers Senusret I and Senusret III. Uronarti nial relations. During their time there they discovered
along with the other fortresses were established in Nubia
Site FC, contemporary with the fortress itself.
during a time where the Egyptian inuence was sought
out to be expanded. And that is why Uronarti along
with Buhen, Mirgissa, Shalfak, Askut, Dabenarti, Semna,
and Kumma were established within signaling distance of 72.3 Finds at Uronarti
each other.
Finds at Uronarti include: seal impressions, mud stamps,
pottery, and papyrus fragments. Most fragments only in-
72.1 The fortress clude a few characters; only a handful contains few badly
broken lines. There are also a series of plates, 20 to be
exact, that came from investigating of hieratic facsim-
Theres substantial lack of information of Uronarti and
ilies which illustrate all the important nds. The mud
the fortresses. The triangular shaped fortress is situated
stamps are unusual because they depict captives. And
on an island and took advantage of the narrow passage
the overwhelming lot of papyrus found has brought no
of the Nile River. Uronarti in size happens to be the
usable information. The large number of sealings reect
second smallest fortress only being bigger than Askut.
administrative aspects connected with the other Nubian
The fort had 5 meters thick and 10 meters high walls.
fortresses. The seals referring to the various surrounding
It had a length and width of about 120 meters x 60 me-
fortresses in the Second Cataract region show the close
ters and was made of mud-brick. The fort in its time in-
connection between each other. Centers for local admin-
cluded loopholes, battlements, ramparts, buttresses, and
istration are also seen in the treasuries and granaries that
bastions. Theres speculation in literature that Uronarti
are shown to exist in the seals as well. The administration
along with the other fortresses were strikingly impressive
for the entire country is represented as well as seen in the
because they exceeded the requirements of the military
seals of the great granary of King Sesostris III. The sug-
and may have been considered a form of monumental ar-
gested existence of a dual and shared viziership in Egypt
chitecture lime the Giza Pyramids. Also, near the site
in the Late Middle Kingdom is also seen in a seal found
were located temples of Dedwen and Montu that were
stating oce of the vizier of the Head-of-the South.
dedicated to them. In 1964, the Aswan Dam created
Lake Nasser although the site was not submerged.

72.4 The Boundary Stela of Senus-

72.2 Excavation History
Uronarti was rst excavated by British Archaeologist
Noel F. Wheeler under the nominal supervision of
George Andrew Reisner. The preliminary examination
of the site was in May 1924. The excavations took place
between November 15, 1928 January 16, 1929 and
February 5, 1930 March 20, 1930. Reisner became
ret III
A duplicate of the text of the Semna stela of Senusret
III was found at Uronarti by Georg Steindor, Ludwig
Borchardt and H. Shafer. The inscription shows that the
Nubians attacked rst and that Senusret forced them to
retreat. The stela measures 1.50 meters in height and 0.80
meters in breadth and is of brown sandstone and it has

360
72.5. URONARTI HISTORY 361

some variants from the original Semna stela. The stela it and shall not ght [on behalf of it],
is one of the treasures of the National Museum of Sudan (17) he is not my son and he is not born to me. Now [My
and it reads: Majesty (life, prosperity and health) has caused]
Horus: Divine of Forms; the Two Ladies: Divine of (18) the erection of a statue of My Majesty (life, prosper-
Birth; the Golden Horus: He has Come into Being(?);
ity and health) on this frontier [which My Majesty (life,
The King of Upper and Lower Egypt: Re is Appearing prosperity and health) made]
of Kas granted life, stability and wealth like Re eternally;
The Son of Re of his (own) Body: Sesostris (III), granted (19) in order that you may persevere on it and in order
life, stability, and wealth like Re eternally! that [you might ght on behalf of it].
(1) Stela made in year 16, third month of winter, when
the fortress Repelling the Iwentiu was built.
(2) I have made the boundary going farther southward
than my ancestors and I have exceeded 72.5 Uronarti History
(3) that which was bequeathed to me. I am a king who
speaks, (and by it) executes; what my heart plans is done
There is a signicant lack of information on the Uronarti
by my hand;
fortresses. Some scholars believe that trade diminished
(4) aggressive to conquer; acting resolute with success; in between the Egyptians and Nubians after the Old King-
whose heart the world does not sleep, dom. And during the First Intermediate Period there
(5) (but) one thinking of his clients who trust on mild- was no central government in Egypt. And when Egypt
ness; not being mild against the enemy who attacks him; was reunited, Senusret I began to exploit Lower Nubia
attacking for its resources. Exploitation continued with his succes-
sors and when Senusret III came along he took control of
(6) when he is attacked; keeping silence if one is silent Lower Nubia all the way down to the Second Cataract; the
(against him); answering a word according to that what southern-most front being at Semna. The First Bound-
has happened in it (i.e., who gives an answer according to ary Semna Stela of Senusret III says, Southern boundary
the nature of the question). For made in the eight year (of the reign of Senusret III) to pre-
(7) to desist after being attacked boldness the heart of vent any Nubian from passing it downstream, either over-
the enemy. To be aggressive is to be brave, to retreat is land or by boat, or any herds of the Nubians, apart from
timidity. those Nubians who come to trade with Iken or on any
good business which may be transacted with them. The
(8) Really unvirille is he who is debarred from his frontier, construction of the fortresses were started under Senusret
since the Nubian hears I, but most of them completed during Senusret III. They
(9) to fall at a word (i.e., the Nubian hardly hears or he were all big enough to suce the necessary housing of
falls at the [rst] word.); the answering of him causes him personnel.
to retire. If one is aggressive against him, he turns his
back; if one retreats, he falls
(10) into aggression. They are not people one must fear;
they are wretches, broken of heart. My Majesty has seen
them, 72.6 Military sigicance of the
(11) there is no untruth. (For) I have captured their wives, fortress
and I have brought back their inhabitants, ascended to
their wells
Given the size of Uronarti and also the other fortresses
(12) and slain their bulls. I have pulled up their barley and they would have been easy to defend. The fortresses were
set the ame in it. As my father lives for me; clearly too large and strong for any attack from around the
(13)I speak in truth, without a word of boasting therein area and it is also seen as being very dicult to survive
issuing from my mouth. Now as for every son of mine in the area keeping into consideration that there was not
that many resources for the amount of personnel that each
(14) who shall strengthen this boundary which My fortress could house. This suggests that the fortresses
Majesty (life, prosperity and health); has made, he is my must have had another purpose. Many believe that they
son, [and he is born to] were built to contain the threat of rising powers in Lower
(15) My Majesty (life, prosperity and health); good is a Nubia and to serve as monument of the power of the
son, the helper of his father, and who strengthens [the Egyptians. Reisner himself even thinks that the palace on
boundary of] the island of Uronarti was possibly used by the Viceroy
of Kush in the 18th Dynasty or even by a king from the
(16) him that begot him. Now as for him who shall lose
Middle Kingdom (most likely Sesostris III).
362 CHAPTER 72. URONARTI

72.7 Site FC Smith, Stuart T. Administration at the Egyptian

Middle Kingdom Frontier: Sealings from Uronarti
Site FC, an extra-mural site just outside the walls of and Askut
Uronarti is dierent from the Egyptian fortress itself. Yare, Brian. The Middle Kingdom Egyptian
The dierence noted from Uronarti was in the techniques Fortresses in Nubia. 2001.
of the construction that seem to originate from dierent
architectural tradition and the organization of the entirety
of the space in Site FC. During a survey of the Eastern
side of Uronarti is when Site FC was discovered. It is 72.9 External links
about 250 meters away from the fortress. Piles of tum-
bled stones were recorded to be found in the initial survey article and map
of this area. The 25 stones range from 2.5 meters to 4 me-
ters in diameter. Some of the piles of stone were found
together in clusters and others were completely isolated
by themselves, all together extending over an area of 2000
meters^2. Stone found locally was used in the construc-
tion of dwellings in the site. Aerial photographs taken
in the 1950s suggest that the original site may have ex-
tended along the eastern shore of the island in its entirety.
The site lacks a wall. This indicates that Site FC was
a settlement on its own. The inhabitants probably lived
an entire dierent lifestyle from those living in the mud-
brick walls of the fortress. Site FC brings more questions
than answers but what makes this area important is that
it demonstrates the complexity of the colonial Egyptians
and the local landscape at Uronarti.

72.8 References
Dunham, Dows. Second Cataract Forts II: Uronarti,
Shalfak, Mirgissa. Boston, 1967.
Goedeicke, Hans. American Journal of Archae-
ology, Vol 72, No 4. Archaeological Institute of
America. 1968.
James, T.G.H. The Journal of Egyptian Archaeol-
ogy, Vol. 56. Egypt Exploration Society. 1970.
Jansen, Jozef M.A. Journal of Near Eastern Studies,
Vol 12 N 1. The University of Chicago Press. 1953
Kadish, Gerald E. Journal of the American Research
Center in Egypt, Vol. 8. American Research Center
in Egypt. 1969.
Kemp, Barry, Ancient Egypt: Anatomy of a Civi-
lization, second edition, 2006.
Knoblauch, Christian and Laurel Bestock 2015. The
Uronarti Regional Archaeological Project: nal re-
port of the 2012 survey. Mitteilungen des Deutschen
Archologischen Instituts, Abteilung Kairo 69, 103-
142
Reisner, George A. and Noel F. Wheeler. Second
Cataract Forts. Volume II: Uronarti,Shalfak, Mir-
gissa: Excavated by George Andrew Reisner and
Noel F. Wheeler - Boston, Museum of Fine Arts,
1967
Chapter 73
Women in Ancient Egypt
Ahmose-Nefertari, wife of Ahmose I, in the Louvre Museum,
Paris.
Women in ancient Egypt had a status that signicantly
contrasts the status of many modern women because they
occupied power in ways that women commonly do not
in contemporary societies. Although men and women in
Egypt had traditionally distinct powers in society, there
was no insurmountable barrier in front of those who
wanted to deviate from this pattern. Egyptian society rec-
ognized women as equal to men, but as having an essen-
tial complementarity, expressed especially in the action
of producing children. This respect is expressed clearly
in the ancient Egyptian theology and morality. They had
363
the opportunity to rule the country and have the same ba-
sic human rights as men.
73.1 Working women
Kitchen model; women workers grinding, baking and brewing.
Bread- and beer-making (made of fermented bread) were usu-
ally womens tasks. Twelfth dynasty of Egypt, 2050-1800 BCE.
Egyptian Museum of Berlin.
Most women belonged to the peasantry, and worked
alongside their husbands doing agricultural work.
Women were known to manage farms or businesses
in the absence of their husbands or sons. Among the
upper classes of society, a woman usually did not work
outside the home, and instead supervised the servants
of the household and her childrens education. Women
belonging to families wealthy enough to hire nannies
to help with childcare frequently worked as perfume-
makers, and also were employed in courts and temples,
as acrobats, dancers, singers, and musicians, which
were all considered respectable pursuits for upper-class
women. Women belonging to any class could work
as professional mourners or musicians, and these were
common jobs. Noblewomen could be members of
the priesthood connected to either a god or goddess.[1]
Women could even be at the head of a business as, for
364 CHAPTER 73. WOMEN IN ANCIENT EGYPT

example, the lady Nenofer of the New Kingdom, and When it was time for childbirth, the pregnant woman was
could also be a doctor, like the lady Peseshet during the assisted by midwives. She would be shaved, including her
Fourth dynasty of Egypt. head. The midwives would support the woman during la-
bor while she remained in a squatting position on a mat.
On the corners of the mat were placed four bricks, be-
73.2 Pregnancy and childbirth lieved to be the incarnation of four goddesses: Nut, the
great goddess of the sky; Tefnut, the elder, the feminine
polarity of the rst couple; Aset the beautiful; and Nebet
Hut, the excellent.[4]

73.3 Women playing an ocial role

at the highest levels

Wall relief showing childbirth, Treasure Hall, Temple of Edfu,

Egypt.

There is much evidence of complex beliefs and prac-

tices in ancient Egypt related to the important role fer-
tility played in society. If a woman was not fertile, her
husband could potentially divorce her for not producing
heirs. Religious beliefs included rules concerning puri-
cation, similar to other religions in the region. Women in
Egypt were believed to be eliminating impure elements
during menstruation, and were excused from work and
could not enter the restricted rooms of temples while
menstruating. Fertility rituals were used by couples de-
siring children. Contraception was permitted as well, and
medical texts survive that refer to many contraceptive for-
mulas (although the ingredients are often now dicult to
identify). Some formulas, such as drinks made of cel-
ery base and beer, are dubious, but others show a ba-
sic knowledge of somewhat eective methods, such as Old Kingdom Egyptian princess Nefertiabet (dated 2590-2565
a spermicide made of fermented acacia gum, which pro- BCE) from her tomb at Giza, painting on limestone, now in the
duces a sperm-killing lactic acid.[2] Louvre Museum, Paris.
Once pregnant, the uterus was placed under the protec-
tion of a specic goddess, Tenenet. Ritual medical care Few ancient civilizations enabled women to achieve im-
was given by anointing the womans body with benecial portant social positions. In ancient Egypt, there are not
oils, using a small bottle in the form of a woman posed only examples indicating women high ocials were not
with her hands placed on a round belly. There was a way so rare, but more surprising (for its time), there are
in the Egyptian society for families who wanted to know women in the highest oce, that of Pharaoh. More than
the sex of their baby, which spread to Greece, Byzantium, a kind of feminism, this is a sign of the importance of
and then to Europe, where it was practiced for centuries theocracy in Egyptian society. Women were also equally
without anyone realizing its origins in ancient Egypt. It important to the Egyptians because of the importance of
involves placing grains of barley and wheat in a cloth childbirth.
sachet and soaking them in the pregnant womans urine; Egyptian society of antiquity, like many other civiliza-
if barley sprouted rst, the baby was said to be a boy, and tions of the time, used religion as a foundation for society.
if the wheat sprouted rst, the baby was said to be a girl. This was how the throne of the power of the Pharaohs was
In ancient Egypt, the word for barley was the synonym of justied, as anointed by the gods, and the holder of the
father.[3] throne had a divine right. Typically, in ancient societies
73.3. WOMEN PLAYING AN OFFICIAL ROLE AT THE HIGHEST LEVELS 365

power was transferred from one male to the next. Women

gave birth to the heirs, signaling importance towards mar-
riage, as well. The son inherited the power, and in cases
where the king did not have a son, the throne was then
inherited by the male members of the family further re-
moved from the king, such as cousins or uncles. But even
if the monarch had daughters, they could not gain power.
In Egyptian civilization, this obligation of passing power
to a male successor was not without exceptions. Royal
blood, a factor determined by divine legitimacy, was the
unique criteria for access to the throne. However, the di-
vine essence was transmitted to the royal spouse, as was
the case with Nefertiti, wife of Akhenaton.
Egyptians preferred to be governed by a woman with
royal blood (being divine according to mythology) rather
than by a man who did not have royal blood. Also, during
crises of succession, there were women who took power.
When this happened, the female Pharaoh adopted all of
the masculine symbols of the throne. There even ex-
ist doubts, in some instances, about the sex of certain
Pharaohs who could have been women.
During the Eighteenth dynasty of Egypt, when
Amenhotep I died, his successor Thutmose I ap-
pears to have not been his son, at least he was not the
child of a secondary wife of the late Pharaoh; if his wife
Ahmes was related to Amenhotep I, this union permitted
divine legitimacy. For the following successor, princess
Hatshepsut, daughter of Thutmose I and the Great Royal
Wife, enabled Thutmose II, son of his second wife and
therefore half-brother of the princess, to gain the throne
by marrying him.
It became more common for women to gain the throne
in ancient Egypt. For example, as with Hatshepsut,
who took the place of her nephew Thutmose III. When
Hatshepsut inherited the throne from her late husband
and became Pharaoh, her daughter Neferure took on a
role that exceeded the normal duties of a royal princess,
acquiring a more queenly role.[5] There were also the
Cleopatras, of whom the best known is Cleopatra VII (69 A bronze statue of a Divine Adoratrice of Amun, from the
Twenty-second dynasty of Egypt, in the Egyptian Museum of
BCE to 30 BCE), famous for her beauty and her rela-
Berlin.
tionships with Julius Caesar and then Marc Antony, the
leaders who depended upon her throne.
Tiyi wife of (Amenhotep III)
The women Pharaohs who are best known, and of whom
historians are most certain, are: Nefertiti wife of (Amenhotep IV)
Nefertari wife of (Ramses II)
Nitocris (Sixth dynasty of Egypt)

Sobekneferu (Twelfth dynasty of Egypt), Elsewhere in the New Kingdom, the Great Wife was often
invested with a divine role: Wife of god, Hand of god.
Hatshepsut (Eighteenth dynasty of Egypt), Hatchepsout was the rst Great wife (of Thutmose II) to
Neferneferuaten (Eighteenth dynasty of Egypt), receive this latter title.
For women holding oce in the highest levels of the bu-
Twosret (Nineteenth dynasty of Egypt). reaucracy, one can cite Nebet, a Vizir in ancient Egypt
during the Sixth dynasty of Egypt. It is necessary to rec-
Many of the Great Royal Wives also played signicant ognize that a woman at such a high level of authority re-
diplomatic and political roles: mained extremely rare and it was not until the Twenty-
366 CHAPTER 73. WOMEN IN ANCIENT EGYPT

sixth dynasty of Egypt that a similar situation can belar Tales), there was the fatal misadventure of Bytaou, the
found. Women did, however, occupy numerous oces humble farmhand at the home of his brother Anoupou.
such as scribe in the bureaucracy, except during the New
Seduced by the wife of his brother, he succumbs to the
Kingdom, where all public bureaucracy posts were lledcharm of her beauty. She does not hesitate to denounce
by men. him to Anoupou, lying and never ceasing until she ob-
There was also the Divine Adoratrice of Amun, granted tains the ultimate punishment for Bytaou at the hands of
major spiritual power, but also a power restricted to Anoupou. But she is punished in turn; Anoupou discov-
Thebes. ers much later that he has been played for a fool by his
wife, who he kills, and throws her body to the dogs.
It is important not to interpret this incorrectly: the rarely
73.4 Women in ancient Egyptian attering portrayal of women in Egyptian literature does
not reveal for nothing that women were despised. The
literature Pharaoh was often given the same treatment by story-
tellers who presented the Pharaoh as a stubborn and
whimsical character.
Men were invited to cherish their wives. Ptahhotep
(Third dynasty of Egypt) expressed this in the following
maxim (written in the Papyrus Prisse): You must love
your wife with all your heart, [...], make her heart happy
as long as you live.
Romance was present in Egyptian literature, for example,
in a papyrus at the Leyden Museum:

I took you for my wife when I was a young

man. I was with you. Then I conquered all
ranks, but I never abandoned you. I have never
made your heart suer. Here is what I have
done when I was a young man and I exercised
all the high functions of Pharoah, Life, Health,
Strength, I never abandoned you, saying to the
contrary: That it was by being with you!" [...]
My perfumes, cakes and clothes, I did not bring
them to another dwelling. [...] When you be-
came ill, I made myself an ocial of health
and did whatever was necessary. [...] When
I joined Memphis, I asked for a holiday as
Pharoah, I went to the place where you dwell
(your tomb) and I wept deeply. [...] I will not
enter another house. [...] But, here are the sis-
ters who are in the house, I did not go to any of
them.[6]

Fayum mummy portrait, circa 100-200 CE, Louvre Museum, 73.5 Women in ancient Egyptian
Paris.
art
Certainly, the literature of ancient Egypt did not hesi-
tate to present women as frivolous, capricious, and rarely Egyptian women were seldom depicted as ageing and
trustworthy. But despite this, women benetted from a wrinkled; there were standards to be met. The women
status that was rare in the civilizations of the time. were shown as slender and beautiful, partly so that they
could take on that frame in the afterlife. Egyptian art was
While the painters and sculptors gave to women a serene far from realistic. It shows how much the ancient Egyp-
image as part of a happy family, the writers were not ten- tians cared about how they were perceived. There were
der, and they portrayed women as being the origin of mis- hardly any images of pregnant women or womens bodies
fortune and guilty of many sins (where one can see a form after giving birth. The man, however, could be shown as
of the myth of Eve and the apple, or Pandora). athletic and engaging or old and experienced. These ide-
As Gaston Maspero describes in Contes populaires (Popu- alistic depictions would reect the targeted image, such
73.6. DIVINE IMAGE
Upper torso of a womans gurine. Slit eyes and mouth. She
wears an elaborate headdress. Pottery fragment. Ramesside pe-
riod. From Egypt. The Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology,
London
Nefertiti with body similar to Akhenatens
as the physically able king, or the tired king who works
day and night for his people. People were depicted at the
peak of their beauty and youth, in an attempt to remain
so forever. However, in the Third Intermediate Period,
we see a shifting in the artistic style representing women.
A more rounded body type appeared, with larger, more
drooping breasts and a thickened body.[7] This depiction
was no longer necessarily associated with the ageing of
women. There was also a certain type to be followed.
Women, and children, were represented with an artis-
tic style that would link them to their husband or father.
The most obvious example would be the Amarna Pe-
riod. Akhenaten's Amarna Period hosted great changes
in artistic style. However, the most distinctive part was
367
how Nefertiti, his wife, and his kids were shown with
the same body type as his, which was quite unique for
that matter. There are depictions showing Nefertiti with
a body so similar to Akhenaten's, that you couldn't tell
which one of them it was; long chins, round waists, full
buttocks, sunken cheekbones and full lips. But there are
also other depictions showing Nefertiti completely dif-
ferent, with a feminine face and a slender shape. After
the Amarna Period, elite women were occasionally shown
with fuller breasts.
73.6 Divine image
Osiris and Isis, statuettes at the Hermitage Museum, St. Peters-
burg, Russia.
In the abundance of divinities in Egyptian mythology,
there existed a large number of goddesses, as was also the
case in Greece. By studying their symbolism we learn the
image that women had in the eyes of the ancient Egyp-
tians. As with Greek divinities, many were related to one
another, by blood or marriage, such as Isis and her sister
Nephtys, both the respective wives of Osiris (the god of
the dead) and of Seth, themselves brothers.
Women and their image were most often associated with
life and fertility. In the case of the goddess Isis, who was
associated with many principles: as the wife of Osiris
who was killed by his brother, she was connected to fu-
neral rites. As a mother, she became the feminine pro-
tector, but above all the mother-creator, she who gives
life. Through this goddess, the principles of life and death
were closely linked. In eect, while she was associated
with funeral rites, these rites were to prevent the deceased
368 CHAPTER 73. WOMEN IN ANCIENT EGYPT

from submitting to a second death in the succeeding di- 73.7.1 The rediscovery of ancient Egypt
mension, which explains among other things, the food during the era of Napoleon
found in abundance by archeologists in the tombs. On
the other hand, life in its physical aspect meaningful only In 1798, Napoleon Bonaparte led a campaign in Egypt
by death, because these principles are part of a movement that would be a military asco, but which enabled him to
of eternal new beginning that is then in a sense more spir- return to France with drawings and observations by artists
itual, the movement of life, or eternal life. A symbol of and scientists that he had brought on the expedition.
the goddess is also the palm tree, the symbol of eternal
life. She breathed the breath of eternal life to her dead But it was in 1822 that Egypt became more open to re-
husband. searchers, the wider world developed a passion for ancient
Egypt, and wanted to know more about its history and its
The goddess represented the eras regard for women, be- culture.
cause it was crucial to maintain the spirit in her image, it
was this idea of eternal life and of maturity that Isis re- The fascination with Egypt that followed, and with ev-
ected, venerated as the Celestial Mother. It was in this erything that concerned Antiquity, carried a powerful in-
role that Isis was arguably made the most important deity uence. In this era, in Paris, almost all elds of creativity
of Egyptian mythology. Her inuence even extended to were heavily inspired by the rediscoveries from Antiquity.
religions of dierent civilizations, where she would be- The arts became redirected along this path, following
come identied under dierent names and where her cult the fashion for ancient Egypt down every esthetic route.
grew, particularly in the Roman Empire. In this way, clothing styles changed, and women during
the Napoleonic Empire adopted styles associated with
The most inuential goddesses were: ancient Egyptian women, combined with the inuence
of Ancient Greece and Rome: corsets were abandoned
(only temporarily), as well as petticoats, and the raised
Isis: goddess of magic and mysticism,
Empire waist was the popular dress silhouette. Dresses
were lighter, and were decorated with motifs from An-
Hathor: goddess of nourishment and love, tiquity, for example palm trees, one of the symbols of the
goddess Isis.
Bastet: goddess protector of the home,

Sekhmet: goddess of wrath 73.7.2 Modern images of women in ancient

Egypt

When women in ancient Egypt are evoked, the rst im-

73.6.1 Gods Wives
Gods Wife of Amun was the highest-ranking priestess
of the Amun cult. At the beginning of the New King-
dom, the title was associated with royalty, usually kings
wives or kings mothers. The rst royal wife to hold
this title was Ahmose-Nefertari, wife of Ahmose I, who
then passed it on to her daughter, Meritamen who then
passed it on to Hatshepsut. Both Ahmose-Nefertari and
Hatshepsut used this title as an alternative to Kings Princi-
pal Wife which reects the signicance that lay behind the
title. The title Gods Wife was another title given to royal
women in sacral roles. In the Nubian and Saite Periods,
they built their own chapels and mortuary temples. In ad-
dition to Gods Wife, these women had other titles such as
Divine Adorer or Gods Hand. As religious gures, some
would expect that they would remain pure. However, the
sexual endeavors of the Gods Wives were left to ques-
tion; the concept of chastity in a religious sense wasn't
relevant to the ancient Egyptians religious practice.[8]
73.7 Inuence of the image
age that comes to mind for most is that of Cleopatra, or
more precisely, Cleopatra VII. Although having a Greek
origin, it is she who would be associated with the image
of women in ancient Egypt, for several generations. This
has been in large part due to modern cinema, especially
the lms of the Golden Age of Hollywood.
During the 1950s and 1960s, a number of costume dra-
mas were produced, putting on screen Egyptian women
imagined during this era where lmmakers want to show
glamour. In 1963, the glamorous image of Cleopatra was
cemented for the public in the lm Cleopatra directed by
Joseph L. Mankiewicz, and portrayed by Liz Taylor.
This passion for the queen is explained by the tumul-
tuous life that she lived, full of intrigues, romances (her
two most famous lovers being Julius Caesar and Marc
Antony), her power, and her tragic death (she died by
suicide). In short, she fascinates, by her life and by what
she did. Through her connection to ancient Egypt, she
has an aura of mystery for spectators, the same aura that
surrounds ancient Egypt and its esoteric aspects, the same
mysteriousness linked in the popular imagination with an-
cient curses of mummies, or other secrets of the tombs.
Presented this way, Egyptian women become a sort of se-
ductress, fascinating because of a romanticized view of
73.8. THE SOCIAL AND POLITICAL POSITION OF WOMEN 369

Besson's lm The Fifth Element (1997).

Fashion designers are also regularly inspired by the
iconography of Egyptian women, who have become an
esthetic point of reference.

73.8 The social and political posi-

tion of women

Theda Bara poses in a still image from Cleopatra. Exotic sets

and costumes, depicting a fantasy version of ancient Egypt, were Couple harvesting crops
a good t for Theda Baras popular "vamp" image.

Elizabeth Taylor and Richard Burton starred in Cleopatra.

her.
As a sign of celebrity, this imagined Egypt has not only
been the object of fantasies but has also been caricatured.
The best-known of these caricatures today are those ap-
pearing in such media of popular culture as the Astrix
comic books of Ren Goscinny and Albert Uderzo. Play-
ing on the glamorous image created by cinema, the au-
thors satirize the fascination that Cleopatra exercises on
Female musicians
those around her, focusing especially on her nose and ex-
aggerating her queenly status by depicting her as capri- In many of ancient Egypts artistic approaches, we see
cious and temperamental, far-removed from the ideal of women supporting or clasping their husband, maybe even
the seductive woman so often imagined. protecting them. So in some sense, the woman could
In a more general manner, this image of Egyptian women, be the protector, probably associated with the concept
forceful, behind a mysterious and magical veil, and exer- of protective goddesses. Women mingled in society, we
cising a seductive power, continues to this day, for exam- see evidence of that where peasant women were depicted
ple in the American series Stargate SG-1, or again in Luc helping with the harvest;[9] townswomen are shown as
370
Amenhotep III and Queen Tiye
professional musicians, dancers,[10] members of temple assume most families were generally happy, but of course
sta and party guests. So women weren't just traditional realism wasn't a goal in Egyptian depictions. The wife
stay at home wives, but they contributed to society and also shared responsibilities and work with her husband.
sometimes even in untraditional ways. There are scenes
of women in weaving workshops, and tomb inscriptions
of womens professional involvement. Such titles could
range from political to religious to funerary. Some titles
inscribed on tombs were mainly honoric; to honor the
women after they die. Some examples of titles are: Over-
seer of Female Physicians, Judge and Vizier, Director of
the Dining Hall, and Overseer of Funerary Priests.[11] Re-
ligious positions weren't limited to noblewomen as some
would think, in fact, we see evidence of priestesses of
major goddesses bearing humble titles like tenant farmer.
As history moves from the Old Kingdom to the Middle
Kingdom, we see less and less of women in authority
which may suggest changes in political and social norms.
In the New Kingdom, however, texts show that women
had their own legal identity and could even purchase and
inherit land without the need for male consent. Dur-
ing this period, women were portrayed in all shapes and
sizes, where their status and wealth were reected in the
size of their statue. Idealistic portrayals were an impor-
tant part of Egyptian art, mainly because they believed
that these representations would follow them into eter-
nity. Egyptian mothers were a signicant part of ancient
Egypt. Egyptian men, even those of the highest social
class, often placed only their mothers names on their
monuments. Egyptian mothers were more prominently
displayed than the fathers, also in literature. The ancient
Egyptians paid attention to size and quantity; large tombs
CHAPTER 73. WOMEN IN ANCIENT EGYPT
indicated a signicance of the deceased. Some queens of
the early dynasties even commemorated tombs as large
as their husbands. The pair statue of Amenhotep III and
his common-born wife, Queen Tiye, dominates a room at
the Cairo Museum, showing the queen as of equal size as
the king.Hatshepsut, unsatised with her status as second
best to her father, took it to clarifying her divine concep-
tion, so as to legitimize her ruling as pharaoh by recording
the miracle of her birth on the walls of the second terrace.
73.9 Family and marriage
Fixed property descended from mother to daughter and
then maybe from daughter to son.[12] It was the property
of the Royal Daughters and whoever became king, ac-
quired the kingdom by virtue of marrying the princess.
Incest was the norm; not only was a brother permitted
to marry his sister, but he was also expected to. In love
songs, brother and sister carried the same signicance as
husband and wife. Sn, the Egyptian word for brother,
also meant peer, mate, or second. Thus, the love
songs may be referring to the egalitarian relationship be-
tween husband and wife.[13] The example for interbreed-
ing, amongst royalty, was set by the gods since Osiris mar-
ried his sister, Isis. Depictions usually show husband and
wife in an aectionate attitude with their children so we
73.10 Known royal women (by
chronological order)
First dynasty of Egypt
Merneith, daughter of Djer, wife of Djet,
mother of Den
Third dynasty of Egypt
Djefatnebti, wife of Huni
Meresankh I, second wife of Huni, mother of
Sneferu
Hetepheres I, wife of Sneferu, mother of
Kheops
Meritites I, wife of Khufu, mother of Kawab,
Baufra, Djedefhor and Meresankh II
Henutsen, second wife of Khufu, mother of
Khufukhaf I and Khafra
Nubet, fourth wife of Khufu, mother of Khen-
tetenka, Djedefra and Hetepheres II
Khamerernebti I, wife of Khafra, mother of
Mykerinos
73.10. KNOWN ROYAL WOMEN (BY CHRONOLOGICAL ORDER)
Bust of Cleopatra VII, who reigned toward the end of the
Ptolemaic dynasty of Egypt. Altes Museum, Berlin.
Khamerernebti II, second wife Khafra then
wife of Mykerinos
Khentkaus I, wife of Shepseskaf then of
Userkaf, mother of Neferirkare Kakai and
Sahure
Fifth Dynasty of Egypt
Nimaethap II unknown husband
Eleventh dynasty of Egypt
Neferu, wife of Intef II, mother of Intef III
Iah, wife of Intef III, mother of Mentuhotep II
Tem, rst wife of Mentuhotep II, mother of
Mentuhotep III
Neferu, second wife and sister of Mentuhotep
II
Achat or Ashayt, concubine of Mentuhotep II,
also a priestess of the goddess Hathor
Imi, wife of Mentuhotep III, mother of
Mentuhotep IV
Twelfth dynasty of Egypt
Neferet or Nofret, wife of a priest in Thebes,
Senousret, mother of Amenemhat I
Neferitatjenen, principal wife of Amenemhat
I, mother of Senusret I
371
Dedyet, other wife of Amenemhat I, possibly
also his sister
Neferu III, wife of Senusret I, mother of
Amenemhat II
Itakaiet, daughter or wife Senusret I
Neferusobek, Neferuptah, Nenseddjedet,
daughters of Senusret I
Khenemetneferhedjet I, daughter of
Amenemhat II
Neferet II, wife of Senusret II
Weren't, wife of Senusret II, mother of
Senusret III
Sithathoryunet, daughter of Senusret II
Mereret or Meriret or Merit, wife of Senusret
III
Sithathormerit, daughter of Senusret III
Sobekneferu, daughter of Amenemhat III,
wife of her own brother Amenemhat IV
Thirteenth dynasty of Egypt
Nubhotepti I, wife of Hor
Senebhenas I, wife of Khendjer
Senebhenas II and Neni, wives of Sobekhotep
III
Senebsen, wife of Neferhotep I
Tjan, wife of Sobekhotep IV
Aya, wife of Intef
Sitmut, wife of Mentuhotep V
Fourteenth dynasty of Egypt
Tati, wife of Sheshi
Sixteenth dynasty of Egypt
Mentuhotep, wife of Djehuti
Seventeenth dynasty of Egypt
Noubkhaes II, wife of Sobekemsaf I
Sobekemsaf, wife of Antef VII
Noubemhet, wife of Sobekemsaf II
Tetisheri, daughter of Tienna and Neferu, wife
of Senakhtenre Tao I
Ahhotep I, daughter of Senakhtenre Tao I, sis-
ter and wife of Seqenenre Tao II
Ahmose-Nefertari, daughter of Seqenenre
Tao II and of Ahhotep I, sister and wife
of Ahmose I, mother of Amenhotep I and
Ahmose-Sipair
Eighteenth dynasty of Egypt
372
Ahmose-Meritamon daughter of Ahmose I
and Ahmose-Nefertari, wife of her brother
Amenhotep I
Ahmes, possible sister of Amenhotep I, wife
of Thutmose I, mother of Hatshepsut and
Amenemes
Mutnofret, second wife of Thutmose I, mother
of Thutmose II
Hatshepsut, daughter of Thutmose I and of
Ahmes, wife of her half-brother Thutmose II,
mother of Neferure and Merytre-Hatshepsut
Isis, second wife of Thutmose II, mother of
Thutmose III
Mutemwiya, wife of Thutmose IV, mother of
Amenhotep III
Tiyi (wife of Amenhotep III), wife of
Amenhotep III
Nefertiti, wife of Akhenaton
Nineteenth dynasty of Egypt
Satre, wife of Ramses I, mother of Seti I
Tuya, wife of Seti I
Nefertari, wife of Ramses II
Isetnofret, second wife of Ramses II, mother
of Merenptah
Twosret, wife of Seti II
Ptolemaic dynasty of Egypt
Berenice I, wife of Ptolemy I, mother of
Arsinoe II and of Ptolemy II
Arsinoe I, wife of Ptolemy II, mother of
Ptolemy III
Berenice II, daughter of Magas, King of
Cyrene and of Arsinoe, wife of Demetrios the
Just, brother of the King of Macedonia then
of Ptolemy III, mother of Arsinoe III and of
Ptolemy IV
Cleopatra I, wife of Ptolemy V
Cleopatra II, wife of Ptolemy VI then of
Ptolemy VIII
Cleopatra III, second wife of Ptolemy VIII
Cleopatra IV of Egypt, wife of Ptolemy IX
Cleopatra V, second wife of Ptolemy IX
Berenice III, wife of Ptolemy X
Cleopatra VI of Egypt, wife of Ptolemy XII
Berenice IV, second wife of Ptolemy XII
Cleopatra VII, wife of Ptolemy XIII then of
Ptolemy XIV, Julius Caesar and Marc Antony,
mother of Ptolemy XV
Cleopatra VIII, daughter of Cleopatra VII
and Marc Antony, wife of Juba II, King of
Numidia
CHAPTER 73. WOMEN IN ANCIENT EGYPT
73.11 See also
Gender studies
Women in Egypt
73.12 Bibliography
Joyce Tyldesley, Daughters of Isis: Women of An-
cient Egypt, Penguin (1995) ISBN 978-0-14-017596-7
Gay Robins, Women in Ancient Egypt, Harvard Uni-
versity Press (1993) ISBN 978-0-674-95469-4
Carolyn Graves-Brown, Dancing for Hathor:
Women in Ancient Egypt, Continuum (2010) ISBN
978-1-84725-054-4
73.12.1 Sources
Christiane Desroches Noblecourt, La femme au
temps des pharaons, Stock, 1986
Pierre Montet, La vie quotidienne en gypte au
temps des Ramss, Hachette, 1946
73.13 References
[1] Hunt, Norman Bancroft (2009). Living in Ancient Egypt.
New York: Thalamus Publishing. ISBN 978-0-8160-
6338-3.
[2] Jacq, Christian (1996). Les Egyptiennes. Perrin. ISBN
2-262-01075-7.
[3] Jacq, Christian (1996). Les Egyptiennes. Perrin. ISBN
2-262-01075-7.
[4] Jacq, Christian (1996). Les Egyptiennes. Perrin. ISBN
2-262-01075-7.
[5] Tyldesley, Joyce (2006). Chronicle of the Queens of Egypt.
Thames & Hudson. p. 98. ISBN 0-500-05145-3.
[6] cit par P. Montet
[7] Forever Young? The Representation of Older and Ageing
Women in Ancient Egyptian Art by Deborah Sweeney,
Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt, Vol.
41, (2004), pp. 67-84
[8] Gods Wife, Gods Servant: The Gods Wife of Amun (c.
740525 BC) by Mariam F. Ayad
[9] Womens Monumental Mark on Ancient Egypt by Bar-
bara S. Lesko, The Biblical Archaeologist, Vol. 54, No.
1 (Mar., 1991), pp. 4-15
[10] Womens Monumental Mark on Ancient Egypt by Bar-
bara S. Lesko, The Biblical Archaeologist, Vol. 54, No.
1 (Mar., 1991), pp. 4-15
73.14. EXTERNAL LINKS 373

[11] Womens Monumental Mark on Ancient Egypt by Bar-

bara S. Lesko, The Biblical Archaeologist, Vol. 54, No.
1 (Mar., 1991), pp. 4-15

[12] Marriage and Family Life in Ancient Egypt by Ray Erwin

Baber, Social Forces, Vol. 13, No. 3 (Mar., 1935), pp.
409-414

[13] Marriage and Family Life in Ancient Egypt by Ray Erwin

Baber, Social Forces, Vol. 13, No. 3 (Mar., 1935), pp.
409-414

73.14 External links

Hatshepsut: from Queen to Pharaoh, an exhibi-
tion catalog from The Metropolitan Museum of Art
(fully available online as PDF)

Ancient Egyptian Women

Ancient Egyptian Women Marriage, Sexuality and
Goddesses
374 CHAPTER 73. WOMEN IN ANCIENT EGYPT

73.15 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

73.15.1 Text
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Inge-Lyubov, Sumergocognito, Danthemankhan, LFaraone, Computerjoe, Jguk, Itsmine, Redvers, Heronimo sehmi, LukeSurl, HenryLi,
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Edward, Llywrch, Evercat, Wetman, Frazzydee, Robbot, Deeceevoice, Cnyborg, Dbachmann, Hooverbag, Ogress, HasharBot~enwiki, Or-
angemarlin, Ricky81682, Japanese Searobin, Nefertum17, Chochopk, -Ril-, Twthmoses, Dionyseus, TagarSpinebreak, Markh, K2wiki,
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SmackBot, Zerida, Zaqarbal, Eskimbot, Flamarande, Gilliam, Betacommand, Hibernian, Chlewbot, DavidSol, Ugur Basak Bot~enwiki,
Vriullop, Thanatosimii, Onlim, A. Parrot, Beetstra, Peyre, Ghaly, CmdrObot, LordHuNPu, Michaelas10, Doug Weller, Thijs!bot,
Kathovo, ThomasPusch, RobotG, Chaleyer61, WANAX, TFighterPilot, Je Dahl, Revery~enwiki, Robotman1974, Riccardobot, STBot,
Sphynxdragon, Lanternix, Largoplazo, STBotD, VolkovBot, Mrh30, TXiKiBoT, Satseshat, Steven J. Anderson, JhsBot, AnnekeBart, Alle-
borgoBot, Cowlinator, Animadversor, AusJeb, SieBot, Carnun, BenoniBot~enwiki, ClueBot, The Thing That Should Not Be, Alexbot,
Jusdafax, Wikiscribe, Audaciter, Addbot, Vjswarna, Tony Esopi, EjsBot, AkhtaBot, CanadianLinuxUser, Favonian, Vedran12, Yobot,
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Old Kingdom of Egypt Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Kingdom_of_Egypt?oldid=773563565 Contributors: Malcolm
Farmer, William Avery, Leandrod, Paul Barlow, Llywrch, Tango, Gene Poole, Pjamescowie, EdH, Zoicon5, Stormie, Robbot, TOO, Tom
harrison, Matt Crypto, Jrdioko, OldakQuill, Antandrus, Mike Rosoft, Discospinster, Cnyborg, Wikiacc, Dbachmann, Bender235, Kbh3rd,
Furius, Deling, Bobo192, Jguk 2, Metnalboy, Alansohn, Arthena, Ricky81682, Sl, Wtmitchell, Velella, BanyanTree, Jguk, Ghirlandajo,
Japanese Searobin, Nefertum17, Chochopk, -Ril-, Twthmoses, Kralizec!, Cethegus, FlaBot, Markh, CJLL Wright, DVdm, YurikBot, Sor-
tan, RobotE, Pip2andahalf, Madkayaker, DanMS, Gaius Cornelius, NawlinWiki, Nirvana2013, Moe Epsilon, RUL3R, DeadEyeArrow,
Brina700, Nathparkling, That Guy, From That Show!, Sardanaphalus, KnightRider~enwiki, SmackBot, Hydrogen Iodide, Zerida, Pgk,
BenBurch, Jab843, Yamaguchi , Gilliam, Hmains, Skizzik, Bluebot, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Blicarea, Leoboudv, Flyguy649,
Ugur Basak Bot~enwiki, -Ilhador-, Siva1979, Damate, Onlim, Robbins, A. Parrot, Beetstra, Dr.K., MTSbot~enwiki, TwistOfCain, Ghaly,
Juhachi, Lazulilasher, James5555, Neelix, Equendil, Slazenger, Mato, Nick Wilson, Doug Weller, DBaba, Mtpaley, Epbr123, Marek69,
Kathovo, Mmortal03, Mentisto, Hmrox, RobotG, Chaleyer61, Gioto, Seaphoto, Prolog, Jj137, JAnDbot, Samar, PhilKnight, Ataltane,
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landYankee, Rosenknospe, Lanternix, Tanaats, KylieTastic, STBotD, VolkovBot, Halayman, Tunnels of Set, AlnoktaBOT, Philip True-
man, Berthold Werner, Apepch7, Rei-bot, Satseshat, Crohnie, Erigbyheyjude, LeaveSleaves, AnnekeBart, AlleborgoBot, PericlesofAthens,
SaltyBoatr, SD Martin61, Botev, BotMultichill, Exxy, BloodDoll, Granius1980, Keilana, Pxma, Chromaticity, Tombomp, OKBot, Denis-
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dromedairy, Aitias, Versus22, Sigma69, WikHead, Alexius08, Addbot, DOI bot, Guoguo12, Tcncv, Richard Bodley Scott, Fluernutter,
Funkisbunk, Glane23, Legobot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Jayhayman, II MusLiM HyBRiD II, WellsSouth, Againme, Eric-Wester, AnomieBOT,
Speysider, IRP, Crash Cove, BarberJP, Materialscientist, Infoexpert, HappyArtichoke, Xqbot, JimVC3, Cavila, 4twenty42o, Onedaylemur-
swillruletheworld, YBG, Khruner, GhalyBot, Munchkyn, Cheeseth, Samwb123, Haploidavey, A.amitkumar, Cjc7122, Grszny, Nicolas
Perrault III, Orijentolog, Sebastiangarth, Intelligentsium, InvaderCito, BRUTE, Serols, Wgirl753, Jimys salonika, ItsZippy, Reaper Eter-
nal, Weedwhacker128, MrArifnajafov, Onel5969, Ripchip Bot, Slon02, EmausBot, WikitanvirBot, Look2See1, Da500063, Dewritech,
Wikipelli, Italia2006, ZroBot, Bollyje, CN3777, Y-barton, L Kensington, Donner60, Orange Suede Sofa, Jcaraballo, Djhaman9, Clue-
Bot NG, Dsrtrat1, , Rtucker913, Joefromrandb, Civciv5, Widr, Helpful Pixie Bot, BZTMPS, Trunks ishida, BG19bot, Bmusician, Krenair,
Iselilja, MusikAnimal, Marcocapelle, Silvrous, Cncmaster, Dailey78, Jonah Levi, Bradzarb, Drummerboy15, Ronsmith90, Labrynianrebel,
Haymouse, Khazar2, Iry-Hor, Calligrapher888, JYBot, SomeGuyWhoRandomlyEdits, Webclient101, AdamFromTheVillage, Lugia2453,
Mohty, Josena1235, Ugog Nizdast, Frenzie23, Marleerose02, Monkbot, HowlingAngel, Polymathica, Kaitlyn153, Googled4life, Crystal-
lizedcarbon, Kethrus, HavelockWilltravel, ProprioMe OW, Williammacewen, AnnaliseVictoria19, BelugaBob1, Draco1117, Thomas3403,
John Hannibal Smith, Gluons12, Proessordaddy, Ejejejndsfriifjijdoiijof and Anonymous: 444
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tributors: Llywrch, Pjamescowie, Wik, Mrdice, TOO, Everyking, Vina, Sam Hocevar, Cnyborg, Florian Blaschke, Bender235, Eric
Forste, Pauli133, Japanese Searobin, Woohookitty, Nefertum17, -Ril-, Twthmoses, BD2412, Rjwilmsi, Captmondo, FlaBot, Ewlyahoocom,
Markh, Codex Sinaiticus, Chobot, YurikBot, RobotE, Theelf29, Rsrikanth05, Zwobot, Brina700, Mmcannis, Udimu, KnightRider~enwiki,
Zerida, Eskimbot, SchftyThree, Hibernian, KrisS, Chlewbot, SashatoBot, Thanatosimii, A. Parrot, Igoldste, Ghaly, Keithh, Doug Weller,
Thijs!bot, RobotG, JAnDbot, M.aly, .anacondabot, Je Dahl, Revery~enwiki, Andi d, Simon Peter Hughes, STBot, Sm8900, Lanternix,
STBotD, Idioma-bot, A4bot, Broadbot, Enigmaman, AnnekeBart, AlleborgoBot, EmxBot, Botev, SieBot, StAnselm, Jack1956, Benoni-
Bot~enwiki, JLROSENB, Palindromedairy, Addbot, DENker, Bassbonerocks, Yobot, Jesielt, Againme, AnomieBOT, ArthurBot, Xqbot,
Khruner, Dirrival, Omnipaedista, Echan63, Wolfymoza, BRUTE, Kibi78704, Cnwilliams, EmausBot, WikitanvirBot, Look2See1, K6ka,
Petrb, ClueBot NG, , Sabre ball, MyNameWasTaken, EuroCarGT, Iry-Hor, SomeGuyWhoRandomlyEdits, Hillbillyholiday, Boobsiea,
Googled4life, , Adam9007, Philip Mexico, Jessdogman1234, Malvanium and Anonymous: 68
Middle Kingdom of Egypt Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_Kingdom_of_Egypt?oldid=770138533 Contributors: Llywrch,
Ihcoyc, Andres, Zoicon5, Robbot, Wjhonson, Pingveno, Mervyn, TOO, DocWatson42, Tom harrison, Everyking, Joconnor, Zeimusu,
OverlordQ, MistToys, Kesac, Joyous!, Jh51681, M1ss1ontomars2k4, Adashiel, Jayjg, Discospinster, Cnyborg, Xezbeth, Bobo192, John-
teslade, Giraedata, Ricky81682, Sl, Wtmitchell, Japanese Searobin, Roylee, FeanorStar7, Camw, WadeSimMiser, -Ril-, Twthmoses, RxS,
Rjwilmsi, Captmondo, Brighterorange, The wub, FlaBot, El Cid, Markh, YurikBot, RobotE, NawlinWiki, SEWilcoBot, Brina700, 4shizzal,
Udimu, That Guy, From That Show!, Akrabbim, KnightRider~enwiki, SmackBot, Prodego, Zerida, Davewild, Pennywisdom2099, Srnec,
Yamaguchi , Gilliam, Jprg1966, Dzhatse, MalafayaBot, Hibernian, Anabus, Leoboudv, Flyguy649, Yom, Salamurai, Vildricianus, Ar-
glebargleIV, Robomaeyhem, BrownHairedGirl, Thanatosimii, Zahid Abdassabur, Perfectblue97, A. Parrot, Slakr, Special-T, Optakeover,
Igoldste, Tawkerbot2, CmdrObot, Casper2k3, Chasingsol, Doug Weller, DumbBOT, Optimist on the run, Grubbiv, Thijs!bot, Epbr123,
Hieronymus Illinensis, Kathovo, NERIUM, Dawnseeker2000, Escarbot, Oreo Priest, Mentisto, AntiVandalBot, RobotG, Chaleyer61,
Fayenatic london, Chill doubt, JAnDbot, MER-C, PhilKnight, Bongwarrior, VoABot II, Je Dahl, Zerepsj, Majorarcanum, Allstarecho,
WLU, STBot, AlexiusHoratius, J.delanoy, Pharaoh of the Wizards, Numbo3, Rosenknospe, Lanternix, Milogardner, Juliancolton, Guyzero,
RJASE1, Idioma-bot, Deor, VolkovBot, Je G., Lears Fool, Philip Trueman, TXiKiBoT, Oshwah, Qxz, Ilyushka88, Wiae, Dirkbb, An-
nekeBart, AlleborgoBot, PericlesofAthens, Menegus123, SieBot, Caltas, RJaguar3, Keilana, Flyer22 Reborn, Mimihitam, Oxymoron83,
Tombomp, OKBot, TaerkastUA, Atif.t2, ClueBot, The Thing That Should Not Be, Grouf, Niceguyedc, Mr blabla, Masterpiece2000, Ex-
cirial, Alexbot, Jusdafax, GoRight, Lartoven, Rhododendrites, Tyler, Supermandudeguy, Thingg, Schoolbypass, BFPb, Avoided, MystBot,
BlackBeast, Addbot, Friginator, Demarco599, Ronhjones, TutterMouse, PlumCrumbleAndCustard, SamatBot, AgadaUrbanit, Tide rolls,
Krano, Middayexpress, Luckas-bot, Fraggle81, Alfonso Mrquez, Wikipedian Penguin, THEN WHO WAS PHONE?, AnimalExtender, Je-
sielt, Againme, Synchronism, AnomieBOT, 1exec1, Ulric1313, Materialscientist, LilHelpa, Xqbot, Groovenstein, Khruner, Ewilen, Grou-
choBot, Omnipaedista, Adyione, CnkALTDS, GhalyBot, Wolfymoza, Erik9, A.amitkumar, Nixn, I dream of horses, InvaderCito, RedBot,
Kibi78704, FoxBot, DragonofFire, Diannaa, Lhcool101, MrArifnajafov, Dstone66, J36miles, EmausBot, WikitanvirBot, Look2See1, Go-
ingBatty, Slightsmile, Dcirovic, K6ka, ZroBot, Empty Buer, CN3777, Donner60, TYelliot, ClueBot NG, Proz, Gareth Grith-Jones, ,
Rtucker913, Civciv5, Asukite, Widr, Helpful Pixie Bot, BG19bot, PhnomPencil, Marcocapelle, Mark Arsten, CitationCleanerBot, Mins-
bot, ChrisGualtieri, Iry-Hor, SomeGuyWhoRandomlyEdits, Dexbot, Webclient101, Lugia2453, Seventeenseventeen, Dizzzer, Epicgenius,
Jodosma, Tentinator, DavidLeighEllis, NottNott, AntiCompositeNumber, Melanie2211, Mk5199015, PinTheTailOnTheDonkeysRock-
yBanjo, Jmanguy01, Coradelly, SantiLak, Kayleen293, Kaitlyn153, Nicholas.Horsey, Ermahgerd9, Qzd, Lilgmanmatt, Entranced98,
Hiopeterpeter, John Hannibal Smith, -glove-, Poopaladopia and Anonymous: 368
Second Intermediate Period of Egypt Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Intermediate_Period_of_Egypt?oldid=772584537
Contributors: Michael Hardy, Llywrch, Tpbradbury, Wetman, TOO, WhiteDragon, Cnyborg, Dbachmann, Sole Soul, .:Ajvol:., Ogress,
HasharBot~enwiki, Jumbuck, Alansohn, Albrecht Conz, Rd232, -Ril-, Twthmoses, FlaBot, Markh, YurikBot, Hei hei, Udimu, That Guy,
From That Show!, Eskimbot, Hmains, Whispering, KrisS, Chlewbot, Leoboudv, A. Parrot, Daphne A, Ghaly, Doug Weller, Thijs!bot,
Epbr123, RobotG, Kedi the tramp, Txomin, .anacondabot, Je Dahl, Branka France, Revery~enwiki, Sm8900, 83d40m, Lanternix,
VolkovBot, TXiKiBoT, Rei-bot, SieBot, Mimihitam, BenoniBot~enwiki, The Thing That Should Not Be, Drmies, Palindromedairy, Bod-
hisattvaBot, Addbot, DENker, FiriBot, Woodcojb, Luckas-bot, KamikazeBot, Againme, Eumolpo, Khruner, FrescoBot, D'ohBot, HRoest-
Bot, RedBot, FoxBot, Lindamj88, Alph Bot, Bluszczokrzew, EmausBot, WikitanvirBot, Look2See1, ZroBot, SporkBot, CN3777, Whoop
whoop pull up, ClueBot NG, , BG19bot, Neuroforever, Haymouse, Iry-Hor, Tahc, SomeGuyWhoRandomlyEdits, AncPapyri, Michigan-
wolverinette, SkateTier, HavelockWilltravel, MrNe0ntetra, Eiya1977 and Anonymous: 26
New Kingdom of Egypt Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Kingdom_of_Egypt?oldid=775849829 Contributors: Andre Engels,
Wathiik, Zimriel, Leandrod, Llywrch, Ronz, Smack, Genie, Emperorbma, RodC, Timwi, Dimadick, Bearcat, Robbot, Tlogmer, TOO,
DocWatson42, Everyking, Teejaydub, Wingnut, Gadum, Antandrus, GreenReaper, Discospinster, Cnyborg, Florian Blaschke, Dbach-
mann, Kwamikagami, Shanes, Adambro, Bobo192, Smalljim, Cmdrjameson, Jumbuck, Eric Kvaalen, Arthena, Logologist, Snowolf,
SidP, Suruena, Dave.Dunford, Oleg Alexandrov, Japanese Searobin, PatGallacher, -Ril-, Twthmoses, Bubuka, Koavf, Plourdm, Salix alba,
378 CHAPTER 73. WOMEN IN ANCIENT EGYPT

Captmondo, Mike s, The wub, Yamamoto Ichiro, Bbullot~enwiki, Talessman, Markh, DVdm, Bgwhite, YurikBot, RussBot, Crazytales,
Chris Capoccia, Rsrikanth05, NawlinWiki, Dbrs, MrSativa, Theda, Pb30, KGasso, 4shizzal, Garion96, That Guy, From That Show!,
Sardanaphalus, KnightRider~enwiki, KnowledgeOfSelf, Zerida, C.Fred, AndreasJS, Eskimbot, Timeshifter, Gilliam, Snori, Melburnian,
Namangwari, Darth Panda, Yanksox, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Robogun, Alphathon, Rrburke, Leoboudv, Flyguy649, Jklin, Vina-
iwbot~enwiki, Kukini, -Ilhador-, Srdjan Vesic, Jazriel, A. Parrot, Waggers, DwightKingsbury, Civil Engineer III, Ghaly, Page Up, Mato,
Hopping, Doug Weller, Epbr123, Biruitorul, John254, James086, Guptasuneet, AntiVandalBot, RobotG, Seaphoto, Modernist, JAnD-
bot, Bakilas, VoABot II, Je Dahl, Branka France, Robotman1974, Andi d, Rickterp, MartinBot, STBot, Anaxial, Artaxiad, Shellwood,
J.delanoy, Sphynxdragon, NewEnglandYankee, Lanternix, Tribolumen, Inomyabcs, VolkovBot, CWii, ABF, Halayman, Tunnels of Set,
Super Knuckles, Aesopos, Philip Trueman, Oshwah, Caster23, Rei-bot, Satseshat, Someguy1221, Retiono Virginian, Andrein, Aqua03,
Aniami14, RadiantRay, L!nus, AnnekeBart, Falcon8765, RaseaC, Insanity Incarnate, HiDrNick, AlleborgoBot, Radioactive akomen,
Botev, SieBot, Nihil novi, Euryalus, BotMultichill, France3470, Flyer22 Reborn, Radon210, Oda Mari, Carnun, Mimihitam, Oxymoron83,
Klanko, Goustien, BenoniBot~enwiki, OKBot, Mygerardromance, TaerkastUA, Martarius, ClueBot, Morningstar1814, Rumping, Lu-
cas 121, Niceguyedc, Jusdafax, Aparapal, Sun Creator, Tnxman307, Zykasaa, Jmanigold, BodhisattvaBot, Skarebo, Good Olfactory,
Benjanimauri, Friginator, EjsBot, TutterMouse, CarsracBot, Awanta, Favonian, Batigh, Ajax-and-Achilles, Soupforone, LarryJe, Tide
rolls, Zorrobot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Worldbruce, Kroova, Amirobot, WellsSouth, KamikazeBot, Againme, AnomieBOT, Materialscientist,
Imnhttp, Xqbot, Calcio33, Sionus, TechBot, Khruner, Jezhotwells, RibotBOT, Mattis, Shadowjams, Scottot2, FrescoBot, LucienBOT,
Kitty96~enwiki, Borbolia777, Arctic Night, Calmer Waters, RedBot, Serols, SpaceFlight89, Xiatica, Koakhtzvigad, FoxBot, Itzamna18,
Ale And Quail, ItsZippy, Dinamik-bot, Vrenator, Glorioussandwich, Muslim4life101, Diannaa, Tbhotch, Minimac, DARTH SIDIOUS
2, MrArifnajafov, RjwilmsiBot, Ontwerpzzz123, Mackay 86, EmausBot, WikitanvirBot, Look2See1, Jkisston, Italia2006, ZroBot,
Sundostund, F, Oncenawhile, Matthewcgirling, Rcsprinter123, TyA, BobaFett2, IGeMiNix, Brandmeister, Pun, Wisdomtenacityfo-
cus, DASHBotAV, ClueBot NG, Comcum3, MelbourneStar, , Daniel Small, Civciv5, O.Koslowski, Widr, WikiPuppies, HMSSolent,
BG19bot, Juro2351, Anthoman, Marcocapelle, Yowanvista, Dailey78, Baxter4173, Triggerhippie4, Iry-Hor, Inesic, JYBot, SomeGuy-
WhoRandomlyEdits, Hmainsbot1, AdamFromTheVillage, NFLisAwesome, Lugia2453, Santurwoman, Tcdavi, Tentinator, Vaaaal, UY
Scuti, Angelica Tubig, OccultZone, N0n3up, JaconaFrere, , Mk5199015, PinTheTailOnTheDonkeysRockyBanjo, Kaitlyn153,
Weaklingme, Whynowagain2, , Adam9007, JeremiahY, CAPTAIN RAJU, NORDbyEAST, MouthOfSauronCesarLoli,
Ermahgerd9, CLCStudent, Carl2155, Joshualouie711, Qzd, Black and Blue43, Eno Lirpa, Tjsummerschool, Arbor Fici, CosmoGB1428,
DonaldTrump4President2016, MarioEstrada99, Johnrchildsii and Anonymous: 345
Third Intermediate Period of Egypt Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Third_Intermediate_Period_of_Egypt?oldid=768300587
Contributors: Llywrch, Hajor, Everyking, Mr impossible, Cnyborg, Dbachmann, Longhair, Jumbuck, BanyanTree, Tony Sidaway,
Dave.Dunford, Japanese Searobin, Nefertum17, -Ril-, Twthmoses, Aarghdvaark, BD2412, Markh, YurikBot, Hairy Dude, Robert A
West, Chick Bowen, Brina700, Fabian Boudville, That Guy, From That Show!, KnightRider~enwiki, SmackBot, Eskimbot, Kintetsub-
ualo, Hmains, Betacommand, Bluebot, MalafayaBot, KrisS, Chlewbot, Leoboudv, John D. Croft, Thanatosimii, A. Parrot, Clarityend,
DavidOaks, JLCA, Ghaly, CmdrObot, LordHuNPu, Thijs!bot, RobotG, Kuteni, Je Dahl, Nyttend, Revery~enwiki, Andi d, Johnbod,
M-le-mot-dit, Lanternix, Binris, Idioma-bot, VolkovBot, TXiKiBoT, JhsBot, Nadsozinc, AnnekeBart, PericlesofAthens, SieBot, Mim-
ihitam, Sevilledade, Cool dude ragnar, Olybrius, Addbot, DENker, AkhtaBot, Jncraton, Luckas-bot, Againme, AnomieBOT, Citation
bot, Eumolpo, Night w, Kan240, Khruner, Jalapenos do exist, Carlog3, FrescoBot, D'ohBot, Xiatica, EmausBot, Look2See1, RA0808,
ZroBot, ClueBot NG, Helpful Pixie Bot, ElphiBot, Dailey78, R3venans, SomeGuyWhoRandomlyEdits, Hmainsbot1, Mogism, Bns20,
Backendgaming, Neferkere, BD2412bot, Irxvini and Anonymous: 35
Late Period of ancient Egypt Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Period_of_ancient_Egypt?oldid=771147124 Contributors: Lly-
wrch, Meta~enwiki, Dbachmann, Espoo, Velho, Twthmoses, BD2412, Sango123, Markh, YurikBot, RussBot, Mark Ironie, Alynna Kas-
mira, Deeday-UK, Deville, Xaxafrad, Brina700, Rathfelder, Udimu, That Guy, From That Show!, Sardanaphalus, KnightRider~enwiki,
SmackBot, Zerida, Jagged 85, Eskimbot, Gilliam, Hmains, Rrburke, Leoboudv, Fuhghettaboutit, -Ilhador-, BranStark, Iridescent, JLCA,
BoH, Doug Weller, Aldis90, Thijs!bot, RobotG, Mardavich, Je Dahl, Robotman1974, Andi d, Lanternix, VolkovBot, TXiKiBoT, Math-
whiz 29, !dea4u, PericlesofAthens, Botev, SieBot, Moonriddengirl, Flyer22 Reborn, Mimihitam, BenoniBot~enwiki, Nergaal, Fadesga,
Excirial, Bilsonius, Nicolae Coman, Addbot, DENker, West.andrew.g, Soupforone, Luckas-bot, Againme, AnomieBOT, VanishedUser
sdu9aya9fasdsopa, Xqbot, Khruner, Omnipaedista, Orijentolog, D'ohBot, RedBot, Skamecrazy123, Look2See1, Winner 42, ZroBot,
Greyshark09, Manytexts, ClueBot NG, , BG19bot, Momijiji, SomeGuyWhoRandomlyEdits, Hmainsbot1, Mogism, Me, Myself, and I
are Here, Rtan248, Noyster, Filedelinkerbot, Kaitlyn153, Brookmt, HavelockWilltravel, Ballislife38, Dankykang52, Sanic52, BD2412bot,
History of Persia, Internettrash, AnAwesomeArticleEditor, FredHerberg, Danpottsky and Anonymous: 21
History of Achaemenid Egypt Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twenty-seventh_Dynasty_of_Egypt?oldid=775648293 Contribu-
tors: Dimadick, Buaidh, Ricky81682, Akhenaten0, UCaetano, BomBom, Hmains, Bazonka, Cplakidas, Magioladitis, R'n'B, VolkovBot,
Moonriddengirl, Morningstar1814, Palindromedairy, Addbot, Yobot, AnomieBOT, Khruner, Look2See1, Laszlovszky Andrs, ZxxZxxZ,
Greyshark09, Chewings72, , Movses-bot, BG19bot, Hmainsbot1, LouisAragon, Filedelinkerbot, Kanashimi, History of Persia, HeathIs-
ling and Anonymous: 6
Ptolemaic Kingdom Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ptolemaic_Kingdom?oldid=774428815 Contributors: Wetman, Xanzzibar, Per
Honor et Gloria, Eregli bob, Domino theory, Klemen Kocjancic, Karl Dickman, Rich Farmbrough, Paul August, Iustinus, Stemonitis,
FeanorStar7, Sburke, Lapsed Pacist, BD2412, SeanMack, Talessman, Wavelength, RussBot, John Smiths, Conscious, Mark Ironie,
The Ogre, Trainra, Arthur Rubin, Fram, BomBom, SmackBot, Enlil Ninlil, Kintetsubualo, Hmains, Colonies Chris, Cplakidas, Or-
phanBot, JesseRafe, Slabua, Ericl, Rigadoun, Robert Stevens, IronGargoyle, The Man in Question, A. Parrot, Peyre, Sweet byrd, Cour-
celles, Zurkhardo, Cydebot, Future Perfect at Sunrise, O cara~enwiki, Doug Weller, Sobreira, Ozzieboy, Fayenatic london, Deective,
Martinkunev, Magioladitis, El Greco, Bongwarrior, Rich257, Gomm, Jim.henderson, R'n'B, CommonsDelinker, Elysonius, Ian.thomson,
Tathunen, Johnbod, Bebop123, McSly, Kansas Bear, Lanternix, Super Knuckles, Audubon, Philip Trueman, Kostaki mou, Oshwah, An-
dres rojas22, Laval, PericlesofAthens, Bellatores, Javierfv1212, Hamiltondaniel, TEAKAY-C II R, Martarius, Morningstar1814, Italiotis,
Mild Bill Hiccup, Niceguyedc, Canislupisbarca, Excirial, Yorkshirian, Coinmanj, SchreiberBike, Palindromedairy, AgnosticPreachersKid,
CapnZapp, Good Olfactory, D.M. from Ukraine, Addbot, Lt.Specht, MinisterForBadTimes, Ironzealot, Favonian, LinkFA-Bot, Lightbot,
OC Ripper, Contributor777, Yobot, Yngvadottir, Puttyschool, Againme, AnomieBOT, LlywelynII, Materialscientist, Erud, GenQuest,
Khruner, Armbrust, Omnipaedista, Djhuty, Mattis, Le Deluge, Buchraeumer, Masterknighted, Poliocretes, Philly boy92, Kibi78704,
, Mackay 86, Skamecrazy123, Rosas120988, Look2See1, Anuoldman, Minimacs Clone, Rarevogel, Finn Bjrklid, Tommy2010,
Italia2006, Septimus Wilkinson, NicatronTg, Greyshark09, WillBildUnion, Senjuto, Nebulousness, Chewings72, TRAJAN 117, ClueBot
NG, Prioryman, , Fatemi, SilentResident, Navops47, Babydirk, Helpful Pixie Bot, Voldemort175, Dionysodorus, BG19bot, Marcocapelle,
Akiatu, Kkkz, Khazar2, Dexbot, Sowlos, Krakkos, Yamaha5, WayneSmallman, Cmckain14, Omar amross, JohnDoeTheSecond, YiFei-
Bot, Tracield, Noyster, N0n3up, Pktlaurence, Ceosad, Crazynyancat, Kaitlyn153, Understat, HavelockWilltravel, Sruva123, Ermahgerd9,
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Kamenco, Epson Salts, Ancientcoincollector, Thhhooorrryyyy and Anonymous: 130

Egypt (Roman province) Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egypt_(Roman_province)?oldid=774717506 Contributors: Panair-
jdde~enwiki, Heron, Michael Hardy, Delirium, Habj, Bogdangiusca, Tobias Conradi, EmphasisMine, Dimadick, Munion,
GreatWhiteNortherner, Martijn faassen, Gilgamesh~enwiki, Per Honor et Gloria, Lesgles, , SpookyMulder, Bender235, Kbh3rd, Swid,
Steerpike, Kwamikagami, QuartierLatin1968, Summer Song, Galena~enwiki, Flxmghvgvk, Guidod, Pearle, Preuninger, Grutness, Anthony
Appleyard, ChristopherWillis, Ricky81682, Dhartung, Siafu, Stemonitis, OwenX, Woohookitty, Twthmoses, Triddle, John Hill, Cuchul-
lain, Angusmclellan, Erebus555, KirkEN, Talessman, Kmorozov, Markh, Chobot, EamonnPKeane, YurikBot, Brandmeister (old), Russ-
Bot, Hede2000, Eupator, Rsrikanth05, Sylvain1972, Thegreyanomaly, Square87~enwiki, Fastifex, That Guy, From That Show!, BomBom,
Sardanaphalus, Crystallina, SmackBot, Zerida, Jagged 85, Gnarlodious, Flamarande, Edgar181, Hmains, Rmosler2100, Kazkaskazkasako,
Grimhelm, Cplakidas, Clinkophonist, VMS Mosaic, Greenshed, Mabuimo, The undertow, Dirk math, A. Parrot, Neddyseagoon, Khosrow
II, JForget, Jazz19, Future Perfect at Sunrise, I.M.S., Doug Weller, Kozuch, Thijs!bot, Olahus, HappyInGeneral, Mojo Hand, Marek69,
NERIUM, Escarbot, Fayenatic london, Whytecypress, Hehehedoughnuts, JAnDbot, Athkalani~enwiki, MER-C, KonstableBot, Mcorazao,
Dcooper, PhilKnight, Mardavich, Alexander Domanda, Prester John, Chris G, JaGa, Charitwo, STBot, Sfelipe781, R'n'B, Commons-
Delinker, Ssolbergj, Hans Dunkelberg, Pajfarmor, Being blunt, AA, 83d40m, Kansas Bear, Lanternix, Corriebertus, VolkovBot, Ajmal27,
AlnoktaBOT, Classical geographer, WOSlinker, TXiKiBoT, Andrein, Kmhkmh, Tomaxer, Coleus ja, Nke-wiki, SieBot, StAnselm, S711,
Mimihitam, Schagtai, ImageRemovalBot, Bookish.blogger, Ultrabias, Morningstar1814, Rumping, Justinian43, Niceguyedc, Excirial,
Alexbot, Resoru, Sfsheath, EraNavigator, Interlinking, A ntv, Heironymous Rowe, AgnosticPreachersKid, Maria2305, Good Olfactory,
Addbot, Saberwolf116, Mnmazur, LaaknorBot, BepBot, Tide rolls, VVPushkin, LuK3, Megaman en m, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Nallimbot,
Againme, Starbois, AnomieBOT, JackieBot, Crash Cove, Footballman010101, Materialscientist, John Milito, Visitante22, Xqbot, I Feel
Tired, Pashtoone, Khruner, Tholdsworth21, Slashcrackshell, Omnipaedista, Basta303, Mattis, Urzic, A.amitkumar, Prari, VS6507, Tom-
ica, BenzolBot, Tetraedycal, OgreBot, Jurryaany, Joe9y, Bukharian, Esoglou, EmausBot, Heather.c.montgomery, Immunize, Look2See1,
Rarevogel, Italia2006, ZroBot, GAMEOVER14, Greyshark09, Confession0791, Jbribeiro1, L Kensington, ROO BOOKAROO, Zibran
2, ChuispastonBot, ClueBot NG, Boodi6, CocuBot, Navops47, Marechal Ney, Periferomenos, KLBot2, BG19bot, Tamwin, TOCS2011,
MusikAnimal, Marcocapelle, Mark Arsten, Drewrau, Khazar2, Hmainsbot1, Mogism, Zmavius, Eagle3399, Ginsuloft, Matsutonka, Hy-
pess, Gts-tg, 1990sguy, Tf2manu994, Kaitlyn153, Omarakl98, BDriscoll91, Verdanik, GMarxx, Travel2cairo and Anonymous: 126
Diocese of Egypt Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diocese_of_Egypt?oldid=745932044 Contributors: Woohookitty, FAR, Tawker,
Ev, Jaraalbe, Fastifex, BomBom, Hmains, Cplakidas, Courcelles, Cydebot, Alexander Domanda, The Anomebot2, Sam Medany,
Lanternix, Hugo999, Interlinking, Addbot, Lightbot, Luckas-bot, TurkChan, Xqbot, TakenakaN, Dinamik-bot, Stalwart111, Look2See1,
Greyshark09, Jbribeiro1, Helpful Pixie Bot, BG19bot, Davidiad, Bender the Bot and Anonymous: 7
Sasanian conquest of Egypt Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sasanian_conquest_of_Egypt?oldid=742842243 Contributors: Dark-
wind, Rich Farmbrough, BD2412, Tim!, Jaraalbe, EamonnPKeane, BomBom, SmackBot, Cplakidas, Cydebot, Doug Weller, The Anome-
bot2, DemonicInuence, Secthayrabe, Ave Caesar, Glatisant, Nostalgia of Iran, RjwilmsiBot, Look2See1, Dcirovic, Greyshark09, Helpful
Pixie Bot, Iifar, Kentrethewey, Nimetapoeg, HistoryofIran, ArmbrustBot, LouisAragon, Monkbot, Bender the Bot and Anonymous: 5
Outline of ancient Egypt Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_ancient_Egypt?oldid=749755261 Contributors: Alan Lieft-
ing, BD2412, Ketiltrout, Nihiltres, InverseHypercube, Egsan Bacon, Thor Dockweiler, Enelson, Cydebot, Doug Weller, The Transhu-
manist, Michig, R'n'B, SteveStrummer, AnnekeBart, JL-Bot, Niceguyedc, Diablokrom, AnomieBOT, LlywelynII, Materialscientist, Arm-
brust, Kibi78704, Jonkerz, Magicus69, ClueBot NG, Danim, Wbm1058, BG19bot, Jp05bigred, Hmainsbot1, Melanie J Groves, Brookmt,
BD2412bot and Anonymous: 4
Cities of the ancient Near East Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cities_of_the_ancient_Near_East?oldid=775573768 Con-
tributors: Docu, Pigsonthewing, D6, Rich Farmbrough, Dbachmann, Anthony Appleyard, Arthena, BD2412, Codex Sinaiticus, Brandon,
SmackBot, InverseHypercube, Jagged 85, BPK2, Kintetsubualo, Hmains, Cush, Koryakov Yuri, WikiFlier, Sadads, TheLateDentarthur-
dent, Ziusudra, JohnCD, Doug Weller, Uruiamme, Skier Dude, Michael1408, Insanity Incarnate, Legoktm, StAnselm, Oculi, Archaeogenet-
ics, Niceguyedc, Ottawahitech, Aua, Kain Nihil, Sumerophile, Ploversegg, Addbot, EjsBot, Nomadic Whitt, Twostedcoeedrinker, Cat-
egorystu, MuZemike, IansAwesomePizza, Legobot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, AnomieBOT, ThaddeusB, LlywelynII, Flinders Petrie, Alexik-
oua, Roadssaid, Padres Hana, JonIsaksen, Carlog3, FrescoBot, Chevymontecarlo, Javert, Supreme Deliciousness, Zoeperkoe, Minimac,
Italia2006, ZroBot, FlandersClaret, ClueBot NG, Frietjes, PatHadley, Wbm1058, BigEars42, BG19bot, Marcocapelle, Mark Arsten,
Arminden, IjonTichyIjonTichy, Dexbot, Greczia, Vitruv2008, Cadmus90 and Anonymous: 25
History of ancient Egypt Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_ancient_Egypt?oldid=770113770 Contributors: AxelBoldt,
William Avery, SimonP, Heron, Zimriel, Llywrch, Ixfd64, Sannse, Pjamescowie, Raven in Orbit, RickK, Reddi, Wetman, Johnleemk,
Adam Carr, Shafei, Hajor, Dimadick, ChrisO~enwiki, Postdlf, Nilmerg, Hadal, Phthoggos, Lupo, Peruvianllama, Curps, NeoJustin,
Gamaliel, Jdavidb, Fjarlq, Hananeko, CryptoDerk, Gdr, DCrazy, Antandrus, Dinero, OwenBlacker, The teach, RetiredUser2, Sam Ho-
cevar, Dcandeto, Rich Farmbrough, Leibniz, Francis Schonken, Ahkond, Dbachmann, Bender235, Karmast, Summer Song, Shanes,
Spearhead, Deanos, Smalljim, Euniana, Cmdrjameson, JW1805, Haham hanuka, Canadacow, Nsaa, Ogress, Espoo, Alansohn, Mark
Dingemanse, ThePedanticPrick, Buaidh, Andrew Gray, Logologist, Andrej86, Orionix, Velella, Suruena, Garzo, Vcelloho, Oghmoir,
RainbowOfLight, Alai, Avram Fawcett, Roylee, Boothy443, OwenX, Nameneko, NeoChaosX, Nefertum17, Je3000, -Ril-, Twthmoses,
GregorB, Jon Harald Sby, SniperCow, Ettenaej72, Aarghdvaark, BD2412, Rjwilmsi, Jake Wartenberg, Vary, Captmondo, Nsae Comp,
Talessman, RexNL, KFP, Markh, King of Hearts, CJLL Wright, Gdrbot, VolatileChemical, Bgwhite, Kjlewis, Elfguy, Eweisser, Roboto
de Ajvol, TexasAndroid, Angus Lepper, Sceptre, RussBot, Gaius Cornelius, Rsrikanth05, Ritchy, Alynna Kasmira, NawlinWiki, Nir-
vana2013, Johann Wolfgang, Welsh, Chakazul, Dppowell, Moe Epsilon, Ezeu, Kewp, Milkyeyes, Wknight94, Mattsuh, FF2010, Xaxafrad,
Brina700, Mmcannis, Xiaojeng~enwiki, Udimu, That Guy, From That Show!, Sardanaphalus, SmackBot, PiCo, KnowledgeOfSelf, Zerida,
Siempreconfusa, Cronium, Peter Isotalo, Hmains, Betacommand, Andy M. Wang, Teemu Ruskeep, Cush, Fluri, Darth Panda, Suicidal-
hamster, Zsinj, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, JorgeBeach, John D. Croft, Lcarscad, Weregerbil, Thanatosimii, RJM, Naphureya, Jazriel,
A. Parrot, Makyen, Aeluwas, Dblecros, Optakeover, Es330td, Neddyseagoon, Dhp1080, Iridescent, Joseph Solis in Australia, Ewulp,
JLCA, Tawkerbot2, Joostvandeputte~enwiki, JForget, Vtatai, Ken Gallager, Richard Keatinge, Future Perfect at Sunrise, Doug Weller,
Woland37, Uspn, Epbr123, HappyInGeneral, Oerjan, Marek69, John254, Therealmikelvee, Mentisto, AntiVandalBot, Chaleyer61, After
Shock~enwiki, TimVickers, Jaredroberts, ClassicSC, PhilKnight, SiobhanHansa, Acroterion, Bongwarrior, VoABot II, Je Dahl, Robot-
man1974, Gregth98, Chris G, DerHexer, Simon Peter Hughes, MartinBot, Flembles, LedgendGamer, Thirdright, Interwal, Dinkytown,
J.delanoy, XIAYICI, TheTrojanHought, Rosenknospe, Nsl1646, Ja 62, Useight, CardinalDan, X!, Halayman, Je G., Lears Fool, Philip
Trueman, Lalake, Cherhillsnow, Phillip Rosenthal, Drbritton, Jackfork, LeaveSleaves, Egyptzo, Delbert Grady, Mykel wafu, Madhero88,
RandomXYZb, AnnekeBart, Synthebot, Turgan, PericlesofAthens, StAnselm, Scarian, Legion , Dawn Bard, Caltas, Keilana, Donnyj,
Bentogoa, Oxymoron83, Gwatgwat, Techman224, Dillard421, Prof saxx, Fairness7276, Elassint, ClueBot, The Thing That Should Not Be,
380 CHAPTER 73. WOMEN IN ANCIENT EGYPT

Neverquick, Excirial, Bananaman1jovan, Imawsome33, Subdolous, Hasteur, Thingg, Ariamay, Goodvac, Stoljaro1987, XLinkBot, Jo-
vianeye, Dthomsen8, Sakura Cartelet, Little Mountain 5, Nicolae Coman, Ashrafx, Santasa99, Addbot, Some jerk on the Internet, DOI bot,
Landon1980, Nellicherry, Jncraton, CanadianLinuxUser, Download, Favonian, LinkFA-Bot, 5 albert square, Soupforone, Tassedethe, Tide
rolls, BrianKnez, Gail, Ben Ben, Kartano, II MusLiM HyBRiD II, WellsSouth, Swimandrow, Againme, Crash Cove, Bluerasberry, Mate-
rialscientist, Citation bot, E2eamon, Frankenpuppy, Xqbot, Night w, Khruner, FrescoBot, Jgw71, Wdwaltman, Drew R. Smith, Citation
bot 1, Pinethicket, Monkeyfox, Calmer Waters, Serols, Kibi78704, Vrenator, Reaper Eternal, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, Bento00, Nerdy-
ScienceDude, Thrind, Salvio giuliano, Smd75jr, DASHBot, DiogenesTCP, EmausBot, Nick Moyes, Gfoley4, Look2See1, Razor2988,
Slightsmile, Dcirovic, WittyMan1986, John Cline, F, Wayne Slam, Thine Antique Pen, L Kensington, Donner60, BartlebytheScrivener,
Chewings72, GrayFullbuster, DASHBotAV, Petrb, ClueBot NG, Peter James, , Lord Roem, Huyy111, Mannanan51, Widr, Wllmevans,
MerlIwBot, Helpful Pixie Bot, Solomon7968, Dailey78, Cadiomals, Lovemenowhard, Sugarbabeyyy, Laodah, Vanished user lt94ma34le12,
ChrisGualtieri, SD5bot, Iry-Hor, Hmainsbot1, Webclient101, Lugia2453, Hello guyz, Tentinator, Halasherif, Brickbreaker64, Tahitilink,
Monkbot, HMSLavender, Xxbingbopxx, Parkkimjoong, , Vldis Mnisq, HakanIST, BD2412bot, Jkhisa1996, Quantum-
ScienceGeek, Chrimas1, Superchunk22, Bender the Bot, Jeery mad eery and Anonymous: 525
List of ancient Egyptian sites Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ancient_Egyptian_sites?oldid=768289745 Contributors:
Llywrch, Reddi, Carlossuarez46, Alensha, Francis Schonken, Bobo192, Reinyday, Woohookitty, Nefertum17, Twthmoses, Koavf, Markh,
Md7t, Gaius Cornelius, Dysmorodrepanis~enwiki, Jpeob, Curpsbot-unicodify, Mmcannis, Udimu, That Guy, From That Show!, Sar-
danaphalus, SmackBot, Kintetsubualo, Cush, Koryakov Yuri, Robth, Chlewbot, Leoboudv, Dreadstar, Only, Jazriel, A. Parrot, Con-
nection, Uruiamme, JAnDbot, Robina Fox, Je Dahl, Robotman1974, Gun Powder Ma, Lecomte99, Flembles, Dudley Miles, J.delanoy,
Adavidb, Paris1127, Lanternix, Margacst, AnnekeBart, Mario1952, SieBot, RolandUnger, Moonraker12, Rosiestep, K8tmoon, ClueBot,
Addbot, Tassedethe, AnomieBOT, Taam, LlywelynII, Khruner, RibotBOT, Lolweo4tgrdfdg, Kibi78704, ElPeste, Esoglou, Look2See1,
ZroBot, ClueBot NG, Widr, Wbm1058, Egsanchez2000, Egshandwench, Iry-Hor, IjonTichyIjonTichy, Clemens Schmillen, Jakec, Vldis
Mnisq, Editor 357 and Anonymous: 23
4.2 kiloyear event Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/4.2_kiloyear_event?oldid=769642774 Contributors: William M. Connolley, Wet-
man, Andycjp, Rich Farmbrough, Dbachmann, Bender235, Mrzaius, Anthony Appleyard, Pauli133, Rjwilmsi, Choess, Bgwhite, Arthur
Rubin, Hydrogen Iodide, Hmains, Chris the speller, Hibernian, SashatoBot, SeL, Cydebot, Centrepull, Incredio, TAnthony, Magioladi-
tis, Andi d, KTo288, Extransit, Rosenknospe, Axolotl Nr.733, Orcoteuthis, Fadesga, Niceguyedc, Sumerophile, Addbot, Categorystu,
Luckas-bot, Yobot, AnomieBOT, Citation bot, GrouchoBot, FrescoBot, Citation bot 1, Arekrishna, Hellknowz, Belotschka, Trappist the
monk, Zanhe, EmausBot, H3llBot, , Y-barton, ClueBot NG, Frietjes, Gob Lofa, Bibcode Bot, ChrisGualtieri, TheJJJunk, Lightand-
Dark2000, Makecat-bot, SFK2, Renerpho, DrRijsdijk, Saske678, Stamptrader, Thomas.p.roland, InternetArchiveBot, GreenC bot and
Anonymous: 13
5.9 kiloyear event Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/5.9_kiloyear_event?oldid=773883023 Contributors: Lejean2000, Florian
Blaschke, Bender235, Ogress, Miranche, Eric Kvaalen, Bobrayner, FeanorStar7, Rjwilmsi, Ospalh, RDBrown, Hibernian, John D. Croft,
JorisvS, Thegreatdr, Cydebot, Headbomb, Dmitri Lytov, DuncanHill, Sloclops, Gabriel Kielland, Johnbod, John Darrow, The Thing That
Should Not Be, Count Truthstein, Addbot, RW Dutton, OlEnglish, Citation bot, Citation bot 1, Arekrishna, RedBot, Trappist the monk,
Dcirovic, ZroBot, Josve05a, Redav, , , Bibcode Bot, Manydeer, Just Kury Yes, LightandDark2000, Piraka Mistika, Narky Blert,
Straightouttasilurian, Wikishovel and Anonymous: 15
Abadiyeh Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abadiyeh?oldid=748393225 Contributors: Al Ameer son and WforWikipedia
Achaemenid Empire Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire?oldid=774612989 Contributors: Andre Engels, William
Avery, Heron, Zimriel, Michael Hardy, Llywrch, Delirium, Paul A, SebastianHelm, Jniemenmaa, Smack, Raven in Orbit, Richard Av-
ery, Uriber, Emperorbma, Charles Matthews, Reddi, Tpbradbury, Furrykef, Justin Bacon, Nv8200pa, Dogface, Wetman, Mrdice, Di-
madick, Chuunen Baka, Robbot, ChrisO~enwiki, RedWolf, Babbage, Auric, Emyth, Jpbrenna, Roozbeh, Aetheling, GreatWhiteNorth-
erner, Centrx, Giftlite, DocWatson42, Hpc, Lethe, Curps, Per Honor et Gloria, Fishal, Utcursch, Andycjp, Geni, Oneiros, JimWae, Retire-
dUser2, Bumm13, Demeter~enwiki, Kuralyov, Yossarian, Burschik, Mschlindwein, Lacrimosus, Haiduc, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough,
Emahyar, EliasAlucard, Eric Shalov, Alistair1978, Dbachmann, Mani1, SamEV, Bender235, Android79, Kaisershatner, CanisRufus,
Prashidi, Triona, Bobo192, Mnamiri, Viriditas, JW1805, Nk, Polylerus, Ogress, IonNerd, Bob rulz, Alansohn, Gary, Anthony Apple-
yard, Ricky81682, Sade, Snowolf, Wtmitchell, Cromwellt, Jguk, Sleigh, SteinbDJ, Mikenassau, Zereshk, Zosodada, Kazvorpal, Dejvid,
Woohookitty, Sburke, Kurzon, Briangotts, Je3000, -Ril-, Twthmoses, Dangerous-Boy, Damicatz, Mayz, Palica, Wrh2, BD2412, Amir85,
Zzedar, SouthernComfort, Ryan Norton, Rjwilmsi, Koavf, Tombseye, Moosh88, Feydey, Ghepeu, Ttwaring, MarnetteD, Arbatov, Miskin,
FlaBot, CDThieme, Old Moonraker, AdnanSa, Talessman, Kyriakos, RexNL, Equitor, Str1977, Mehrshad123, Codex Sinaiticus, Chobot,
Shauni, Mercury McKinnon, YurikBot, Maziargh, Sortan, Alma Pater, Hairy Dude, Khirad, RussBot, Fabartus, Eupator, Kirill Lokshin,
Krstajic, Gaius Cornelius, CambridgeBayWeather, Giro720, Cunado19, Thane, Knyght27, Shanel, NawlinWiki, UCaetano, Bachrach44,
Markwiki, ManyFireies, Yerevan~enwiki, The Ogre, Grafen, Mhartl, Howcheng, Bubaloo, FourthAve, Aldux, Moe Epsilon, O!, Kwh,
Lockesdonkey, BOT-Superzerocool, DeadEyeArrow, Botteville, Maunus, Nlu, Wknight94, AjaxSmack, Igin, Pawyilee, KateH, Orioane,
Codrinb, Open2universe, Nightryder84, Nikkimaria, Spondoolicks, Brina700, Sean Whitton, Barbatus, Chriswaterguy, Fram, Shyam, JLa-
Tondre, Garion96, Tajik, Arad, Bluezy, Rikimaru~enwiki, That Guy, From That Show!, LogiPhi, BomBom, Akrabbim, Sardanaphalus,
Tadorne, KnightRider~enwiki, SmackBot, Bouette, Imz, Enlil Ninlil, Reedy, Murray.booth, InverseHypercube, Zerida, Melchoir, Blue520,
Jagged 85, WookieInHeat, Spasage, BPK2, Kintetsubualo, Flamarande, Srnec, Vassyana, Gilliam, Tarnum~enwiki, Hmains, Parthian-
Shot, Vvarkey, Chris the speller, Pdaoust, TimBentley, Payam81, Jayanta Sen, Apeloverage, Zinonymous, Hibernian, Rosemania, Nbarth,
Baronnet, Meitme, John Hyams, , Cplakidas, Rupert de hentzau, MParshall, OrphanBot, Rrburke, Leoboudv, JesseR-
afe, Greenshed, Grover cleveland, Arab Hafez, Khoikhoi, Fullstop, MichaelBillington, TGC55, Bwyche, DMacks, Yom, Bidabadi~enwiki,
Bejnar, Ohconfucius, G-Bot~enwiki, Amizzoni~enwiki, Zymurgy, Kashk, Khazar, Ergative rlt, Mkeynejad, Arvand, Shyamsunder, Green
Giant, Cow monkey111, Johan Jnsson, A. Parrot, Tasc, Kirbytime, Mr Stephen, Don Alessandro, Pejman47, Iridescent, Zmmz, Ot-
tomanReference, Theone00, Nightrider083, Khosrow II, Swordman182, JForget, Maziy300, Darkred, Picaroon, Ruslik0, Sbn1984, Rea-
had, ShelfSkewed, Moreschi, Hemlock Martinis, Cabolitae, Cydebot, Kanags, ArgentTurquoise, Hamedy1986, Gogo Dodo, Khatru2,
Doug Weller, DBaba, Optimist on the run, BetacommandBot, Father Chaos, Epbr123, Keraunos, Marek69, Folantin, Astynax, Cyrus111,
Babak Hemmatian, Vlachul, EdJohnston, Nick Number, Oosh, Barunroy, Escarbot, Hajji Piruz, Lodi E, Hmrox, KrakatoaKatie, RobotG,
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Chris the speller, A. Parrot, Tmangray, Gogo Dodo, JamesBWatson, Purslane, Jackson Peebles, Chiswick Chap, Station1, Technopat,
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Reading, Orphan Wiki, RA0808, Wikipelli, K6ka, Lucas Thoms, Anir1uph, StewSchmidt, Donner60, 28bot, Cgt, ClueBot NG, Jack
Greenmaven, MelbourneStar, Joefromrandb, Vacation9, Kasirbot, Widr, Danim, Theopolisme, Electriccatsh2, TCN7JM, Iselilja, Mark
Arsten, Lamberthl, ~riley, Codeh, EuroCarGT, Iry-Hor, Frosty, Wywin, Cliiiing, Melonkelon, Roxer37, PhantomTech, Tentinator, Jakec,
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KH-1, Mediavalia, Vldis Mnisq, CAPTAIN RAJU, Kurousagi, AnnaXPhantomhive, The troll 1234567890, BigDog 111, Juikledi-
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Contributors: Rmhermen, PxT, Sk4p, Woohookitty, Mandarax, BD2412, Bgwhite, Jprg1966, A. Parrot, Matthew Auger, Nick Number,
Modernist, Goustien, Piledhigheranddeeper, EastTN, Jim1138, Materialscientist, Haploidavey, A.amitkumar, I dream of horses, Calmer
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Kaas man135, Mvolz, Wato1234 and Anonymous: 25
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Woohookitty, FeanorStar7, Rwalker, Porlob, Magioladitis, Katharineamy, Hugo999, Agyle, Wilhelmina Will, Addbot, Luckas-bot, Yobot,
DLeya1990, Aisteco and Bender the Bot
Balsam oil Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balsam_of_Peru?oldid=773524760 Contributors: Brian0918, D.Holt, Rjwilmsi, Bg-
white, Abune, Jds13, JEH, DavidCh0, Epeeeche, GrahamHardy, Doc James, Dthomsen8, Yobot, FrescoBot, Tom.Reding, Lotje, Dian-
naa, Dcirovic, VanishedUser sdu8asdasd, Reify-tech, Plantdrew, BattyBot, Cons154, Project Osprey, Richrat4, ArmbrustBot, Xanthome-
lanoussprog, Tomasrestrepo, Sportfan5000, Whoneedsmeds, Matthew Ferguson 57, InternetArchiveBot, GreenC bot, Bender the Bot and
Anonymous: 8
382 CHAPTER 73. WOMEN IN ANCIENT EGYPT

Beauty and cosmetics in ancient Egypt Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beauty_and_cosmetics_in_ancient_Egypt?oldid=

773884156 Contributors: Bearcat, DragonySixtyseven, Vsmith, Gilliam, Chris the speller, Shyamsunder, A. Parrot, Iridescent, Doug
Weller, James086, Dsp13, Magioladitis, P64, Keith D, Rittmeister, Funkamatic, Capitalismojo, Denisarona, Avoided, Addbot, Yobot,
AnomieBOT, Materialscientist, Coretheapple, Shadowjams, Pinethicket, Vladmirsh, Mean as custard, J36miles, Donner60, 28bot, Clue-
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Loser2018, Crazededitor, PepeMemeQueen, ThePlatypusofDoom, Dborge21, Quinton Feldberg and Anonymous: 82
Bident Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bident?oldid=756497373 Contributors: Yann, Fvw, BD2412, Thiseye, EEMIV, Ser Amantio
di Nicolao, Ale jrb, Aldis90, PKT, Peter Deer, Cynwolfe, KathrynLybarger, Addbot, DougsTech, 84user, Yobot, EvelRavenloch, Fres-
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Ricky81682, The Anomebot2, Ultramarinblau1969, AnnekeBart, Addbot, Soupforone, Ptbotgourou, Farvin111, GoingBatty and Inter-
netArchiveBot
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VMS Mosaic, Beetstra, Wizard191, Alexbrewer, Vvvvvvvvvvv, CmdrObot, Aldis90, Oxonhutch, Keraunos, AgentPeppermint, Hmrox,
Mary Mark Ockerbloom, MER-C, Hydro, Magioladitis, VoABot II, Alexllew, Frotz, Deadrose black, R'n'B, Omega Archdoom, Th.Rehren,
TXiKiBoT, PigmentaAntiqua, Mazarin07, Cnilep, NoraShalaby, Cwkmail, BlueCerinthe, Chem-awb, Soaringbear, Ashashyou, PixelBot,
JessaScot, Audaciter, Rui Gabriel Correia, Qwfp, AlanM1, Addbot, Shawisland, Jkbrat, Zorrobot, AnomieBOT, KDS4444, Materialsci-
entist, Citation bot, DSisyphBot, J04n, FK1954, FrescoBot, LucienBOT, , Oktanyum, RjwilmsiBot, Soggendazs, Nick
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mous: 29
EgyptianHittite peace treaty Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egyptian%E2%80%93Hittite_peace_treaty?oldid=771396280
Contributors: AnonMoos, Auric, Rpyle731, DragonySixtyseven, Woohookitty, BD2412, Koavf, Daniel Mietchen, Sotakeit, Mmcan-
nis, Bolucpap, Racklever, Valenciano, Filanca, Blue-Haired Lawyer, NickW557, Cydebot, Meno25, Wikid77, Seaphoto, Ghmyrtle,
JaGa, R'n'B, Katharineamy, Biglovinb, Sigmundur, Gudrun Meyer, Super Knuckles, Omegastar, Nxavar, Natg 19, PericlesofAthens,
WereSpielChequers, Ecjmartin, Shir-El too, Niceguyedc, Dthomsen8, WikHead, Good Olfactory, Addbot, Yobot, Materialscientist, Eu-
molpo, Xqbot, Le Deluge, JMCC1, Alonso de Mendoza, Just a guy from the KP, Orenburg1, Stegop, John of Reading, Dewritech, Wikipelli,
ZroBot, Oncenawhile, AvicAWB, ClueBot NG, Mikding, Helpful Pixie Bot, CitationCleanerBot, Snow Blizzard, YFdyh-bot, Dexbot,
Wlagos3, Ithinkicahn, Filedelinkerbot, Whalestate, Greggg230, Bender the Bot, Ruasaekips and Anonymous: 28
Clothing in ancient Egypt Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clothing_in_ancient_Egypt?oldid=772896635 Contributors: Mike
Rosoft, Bender235, FeanorStar7, Tabletop, Hairy Dude, Morgan Leigh, Luk, SmackBot, Yamaguchi , Gilliam, Skizzik, Jprg1966,
A. Parrot, Beetstra, Optakeover, Banedon, Saradevil, Doug Weller, DumbBOT, Missvain, Seaphoto, Modernist, Sgr927, Andi d, Com-
monsDelinker, Thirdright, Gem-fanat, Bailo26, KylieTastic, Satseshat, Shouriki, Demize, Smsarmad, Happysailor, Tiptoety, Auntof6,
Ashashyou, Dthomsen8, Borock, Nordfra, Mabalu, Addbot, Some jerk on the Internet, Yobot, AnomieBOT, Jim1138, Materialscientist,
LilHelpa, Sketchmoose, Pinethicket, , Onel5969, Pjposullivan, Look2See1, RA0808, RenamedUser01302013, Slightsmile, Wikipelli,
F, Hujber Tnde, Tolly4bolly, Rcsprinter123, Donner60, Abhishekitmbm, Terraorin, 16bjornki, Petrb, ClueBot NG, Jack Green-
maven, Widr, Danim, Patjack12, Theopolisme, Novusuna, Iste Praetor, Anidaane, DBigXray, Lowercase sigmabot, Arnavchaudhary,
Juro2351, MusikAnimal, Insidiae, Klilidiplomus, Neuroforever, Iry-Hor, Saadhumayun, Tahc, Mogism, Lugia2453, Rav984bmw, Lord-
Mike, Azafar8, Eyesnore, Soymilksogood, DavidLeighEllis, Ginsuloft, Goodboy7142, Meteor sandwich yum, Streetracer9617, Dogrylad,
Monkey10001, Ehgarrick, TheMagikBOT, InternetArchiveBot and Anonymous: 153
Festival Songs of Isis and Nephthys Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Festival_Songs_of_Isis_and_Nephthys?oldid=773708606
Contributors: Andrewman327, Melchoir, JustAGal, Magioladitis, Jesse V., ZroBot, BG19bot, Cesar J. Mora, ChrisGualtieri, Flishuvud
and XOR'easter
Gardens of ancient Egypt Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gardens_of_ancient_Egypt?oldid=755846908 Contributors: Jdforrester,
BD2412, Bgwhite, Wavelength, CommonsDelinker, FlyingLeopard2014, SiefkinDR, Surtsicna, Yobot, FrescoBot, Orenburg1, Jonkerz,
ClueBot NG, , PhnomPencil, GoShow, Fox2k11, Eyesnore, AddWittyNameHere, Hello432 and Anonymous: 10
Giza East Field Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giza_East_Field?oldid=771080034 Contributors: Bender235, Chris the speller, Dr.
Blofeld, The Anomebot2, Ultramarinblau1969, AnnekeBart, Khruner, GoingBatty, Mychele Trempetich, Dexbot and Anonymous: 1
Giza West Field Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giza_West_Field?oldid=767371333 Contributors: Bender235, Tabletop, Man-
darax, Udimu, Chris the speller, Bejnar, Cydebot, Doug Weller, Ultramarinblau1969, AnnekeBart, WereSpielChequers, Mild Bill Hiccup,
Soupforone, CountryBot, Yobot, AnomieBOT, John of Reading, Mychele Trempetich, Perseus, Son of Zeus, Snotbot, Helpful Pixie Bot,
Firkin Flying Fox, DPL bot, Ethraen, , InternetArchiveBot, GreenC bot and Anonymous: 1
The Greatest Pharaohs Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Greatest_Pharaohs?oldid=766429150 Contributors: Vanished user
5zariu3jisj0j4irj, Bearcat, Alensha, Bobblewik, MacGyverMagic, Rich Farmbrough, Summer Song, Pharos, Richard Arthur Norton (1958-
), Woohookitty, Twthmoses, Markh, Lowe4091, Pegship, Igin, Nikkimaria, SmackBot, Chris the speller, Cattus, Mark7-2, Last Avenue,
Orbicle, Ser Amantio di Nicolao, J. Tittu hobo II, Redeagle688, Cydebot, Otto4711, Poiuytre, KConWiki, Lilac Soul, Shawn in Montreal,
Aspects, Fadesga, MichaelQSchmidt, XLinkBot, Lightbot, Yobot, Schuym1, Kristen Eriksen, LilHelpa, Khruner, FrescoBot, Waynesker,
John of Reading, H3llBot, ClueBot NG, Cyberbot II, Koolrock, GreenC bot, Bender the Bot and Anonymous: 11
Homosexuality in ancient Egypt Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homosexuality_in_ancient_Egypt?oldid=773802300 Contribu-
tors: Wjhonson, Shenme, FeanorStar7, Occamster, Stan2525, Mark Ironie, Moe Epsilon, Reyk, Red Jay, Udimu, BomBom, Sardanaphalus,
Haymaker, Gilliam, CaveatLector, OSborn, A. Parrot, ARBN19, Marek69, DeathRattle101, The Transhumanist, TAnthony, Confusion-
ball, RiverStyx23, Dad100, Moonriddengirl, PixelBot, Addbot, User0529, Luckas-bot, AnomieBOT, Materialscientist, TechBot, Khruner,
Wikignome0529, Freelancer94, FrescoBot, Freespirits, Nephiliskos, John of Reading, Wikignome0530, Tolly4bolly, Petropetro, Clue-
Bot NG, Ronakshah1990, Satellizer, Gogophant, Danim, Helpful Pixie Bot, Heilingetorix, Archrith, Eladynnus, Marcocapelle, New Zeus,
Iry-Hor, Simong541, Ichigi111, Faizan, Robevans123, Akanady5, Coreduverna2020, Liance, InternetArchiveBot, Sexandporn exepecially
ancient ancientegypton porn and Anonymous: 45
73.15. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES 383

Origins of the Hyksos Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Origins_of_the_Hyksos?oldid=770803516 Contributors: Slrubenstein, Rob-

bot, Wjhonson, Grant65, Rich Farmbrough, Dbachmann, Carlon, Art LaPella, Deacon of Pndapetzim, Twthmoses, Aarghdvaark, BD2412,
Captmondo, Nihiltres, Gaius Cornelius, Theelf29, S. Neuman, Tachs, Rktect, SmackBot, InverseHypercube, Jagged 85, Chris the
speller, Leoboudv, VegaDark, SimonD, Reahad, Moreschi, Richard Keatinge, Doug Weller, Barticus88, Folantin, Bongwarrior, Extran-
sit, Hertz1888, Tomakiv, ClueBot, Artene50, Narwhal-tooth, DumZiBoT, Salam32, ASEOR2, Addbot, BartJordan, Jncraton, O8TY,
AnomieBOT, Taam, Materialscientist, Coretheapple, Khruner, Mcoupal, Monstrelet, Greyshark09, ClueBot NG, Quick and Dirty User
Account, Helpful Pixie Bot, Glevum, Hmainsbot1, Maniesansdelire, Prinsgezinde, Fred693896, Jello shot 43656647, BenOrium, Bender
the Bot and Anonymous: 42
Index of ancient Egypt-related articles Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_ancient_Egypt-related_articles?oldid=
775664573 Contributors: Topbanana, Bearcat, Furius, BDD, Woohookitty, BD2412, Ketiltrout, Captmondo, Markh, Renata3, Garion96,
Mmcannis, Udimu, InverseHypercube, Cplakidas, Leoboudv, A. Parrot, Clarityend, Doug Weller, Kablammo, The Transhumanist, Arch
dude, Je Dahl, Vlad b, AnnekeBart, Ptolemy Caesarion, Randy Kryn, Niceguyedc, Zuzzerack, Apo-kalypso, Diablokrom, Tassedethe, Lar-
ryJe, Khruner, J04n, Armbrust, Setnakhamwas, FrescoBot, Kibi78704, Dewritech, Brandmeister, Frietjes, Mr Sheep Measham, Danim,
BigEars42, Davidiad, Mark Arsten, Gorthian, DPL bot, Iry-Hor, Laddo, Kaitlyn153 and Anonymous: 2
Interregnum queen Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interregnum_queen?oldid=760250994 Contributors: Dimadick, Alensha,
SmackBot, Robosh, MikeWren, Erechtheus, Lfstevens, Waacstats, Aciram, Addbot, Kgrisgreenberg, Yobot, DrilBot, Sapphirewhirl-
wind, AvicAWB, BG19bot, Quiet Editor, Caeciliusinhorto and Anonymous: 3
Kings Highway (ancient) Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King{}s_Highway_(ancient)?oldid=773596181 Contributors: Alerante,
CanisRufus, Deanos, Briangotts, Twthmoses, RussBot, Dnk, .marc., Cybjorg, That Guy, From That Show!, SmackBot, Elonka, Derek
Andrews, JesseLukeWalker, Cattus, Cloj, Only, Kleuske, Neddyseagoon, DGtal, Iridescent, Rwammang, Massimo Macconi, NERIUM,
RobotG, Danny lost, Jay1279, Baristarim, Rpclod, MarcoLittel, Gusgus, Havelock the Dane, Enthusiast01, Arjayay, MystBot, Addbot,
Zozo2kx, LaaknorBot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, AnomieBOT, LlywelynII, BobKilcoyne, CXCV, Padres Hana, Mattis, Ryryrules100, RedBot,
Jandalhandler, Ivanvector, EmausBot, Look2See1, Pastor07, ZroBot, Atefrat, BG19bot, Northamerica1000, Arminden, CitationCleaner-
Bot, Hamish59, Ecila42 and Anonymous: 8
Mastaba Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mastaba?oldid=773009007 Contributors: Derek Ross, Higbvuyb, Mark, William Avery,
Someone else, Lir, Looxix~enwiki, Ellywa, Schneelocke, Topbanana, Astronautics~enwiki, Mark Richards, Gilgamesh~enwiki, Grm wnr,
Florian Blaschke, Bender235, Furius, Mbroooks, Causa sui, Bobo192, Nk, Anthony Appleyard, Interiot, Eric Kvaalen, Snowolf, Sburke,
BD2412, Bubuka, Xos, Juvanya, Markh, YurikBot, Hede2000, Ori Livneh, Rsrikanth05, Wwilly, Sotakeit, Petri Krohn, SmackBot,
Gilliam, MalafayaBot, Darth Panda, Laslovarga, RedHillian, Gfoley9999, Dogears, SashatoBot, Onlim, A. Parrot, Arkadiy, EllenFos-
ter, JForget, Doug Weller, UberScienceNerd, Thijs!bot, Heroeswithmetaphors, Escarbot, AntiVandalBot, ClassicSC, Sluzzelin, JAnDbot,
Time3000, .anacondabot, Je Dahl, Smooth0707, Simon Peter Hughes, MartinBot, Anaxial, CommonsDelinker, DorganBot, VolkovBot,
TXiKiBoT, Ferengi, AnnekeBart, Logan, SieBot, YonaBot, Matthew Yeager, Twirling, Flyer22 Reborn, Ealdgyth, Svm1 63, Denisarona,
Randy Kryn, Explicit, ClueBot, Foxj, The Thing That Should Not Be, Der Golem, Mild Bill Hiccup, Otolemur crassicaudatus, Boneyard90,
AgnosticPreachersKid, Mojska, Deineka, Addbot, Some jerk on the Internet, Iksnyrk, Non-dropframe, CanadianLinuxUser, Glane23,
Soupforone, Bwrs, Tide rolls, , WikiDreamer Bot, Jarble, Legobot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, 2D, Fraggle81, AnomieBOT, Theseeker4,
Xqbot, Adel.M.Radwan, Khruner, GrouchoBot, Arpiyush21, RibotBOT, Bellerophon, GhalyBot, Nojan, 4lib2s09, Scoobert98, HRoestBot,
Serols, TobeBot, MrArifnajafov, Katovatzschyn, WikitanvirBot, K6ka, ZroBot, Bollyje, Lateg, Carmichael, Hunternet93, ClueBot NG,
Master Uegly, Piast93, Vacation9, Widr, Oddbodz, Calabe1992, BG19bot, VernalZephyr, Arminden, Snow Blizzard, Pedrolmastesoed-
itor, Jimw338, Neuroforever, Mrt3366, Iry-Hor, LightandDark2000, Mogism, Telfordbuck, Hillbillyholiday, Level C, Kreller1, Xxiggy,
Wfarson, Some Gadget Geek, BermudianMiller, HakanIST, Hot Pork Pie, Ndnxkxk and Anonymous: 154
Migdol Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Migdol?oldid=718396138 Contributors: Francs2000, A2Kar, BD2412, Cush, Cobblers,
Eponymous-Archon, Doug Weller, SieBot, Purbo T, Bonio, Ttdonaldstewart, Enthusiast01, XLinkBot, Addbot, BobKilcoyne, NebMaatRe,
UpdateNerd, In ictu oculi, Mark Arsten, EAnnP and Anonymous: 4
Min (ship) Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Min_(ship)?oldid=610188755 Contributors: Anthony Appleyard, AxG, Dawkeye,
Fadesga and Xanchester
Naharin Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naharin?oldid=654171388 Contributors: Rich Farmbrough, Dbachmann, Deacon of Pn-
dapetzim, Moosh88, Str1977, Chick Bowen, Saberwyn, SmackBot, Leoboudv, Mukadderat, Alaibot, Epeeeche, Andi d, Ptolemy Caesar-
ion, Amovrvs, IansAwesomePizza, Yobot, AnomieBOT and Philafrenzy
Neo-Assyrian Empire Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neo-Assyrian_Empire?oldid=774423806 Contributors: Rorro, Rursus,
Rich Farmbrough, EliasAlucard, Dbachmann, SamEV, Bender235, Kwamikagami, PWilkinson, Ardric47, Guy Harris, Dachannien,
Ricky81682, Garzo, Woohookitty, Mandarax, WBardwin, BD2412, Rjwilmsi, Bgwhite, Stephenb, The Ogre, Benne, Wagens, Rwalker,
Tachs, Wknight94, Attilios, SmackBot, Timeshifter, Random Pipings, Srnec, Gilliam, TimBentley, Hibernian, Valenciano, Sashato-
Bot, Chaldean, Tennis Dynamite, Onlim, AndrewHowse, Cydebot, O cara~enwiki, Doug Weller, DumbBOT, Sweetmoose6, Thijs!bot,
Epbr123, Marek69, Folantin, Kathovo, Jimhoward72, EdJohnston, Nick Number, Fayenatic london, MER-C, Barefact, Kirrages, ,
KConWiki, Hbent, R'n'B, Mohammad adil, AlCracka, Johnbod, Gabr-el, NewEnglandYankee, Squids and Chips, arukinu, Mlsutton,
Nadsozinc, Jirt, SieBot, StAnselm, Til Eulenspiegel, Velvetron, ClueBot, A2rya69, Mild Bill Hiccup, Niceguyedc, Robert Skyhawk, Adi-
movk5, SchreiberBike, Palindromedairy, B'er Rabbit, DumZiBoT, SilvonenBot, Hosnnan38, Ordtoy, Addbot, Jncraton, MrOllie, AgadaU-
rbanit, Yug2~enwiki, Jarble, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Fraggle81, AnomieBOT, Shmayo, Materialscientist, Citation bot, Crimsonmargarine,
LilHelpa, Xqbot, Tad Lincoln, Couglinetde, Khruner, J04n, Jun Kayama, Pavlor, Mattis, FrescoBot, Orijentolog, King Zeppelin, Lucien-
BOT, Nikhil8896, Izzedine, TonyLoco23, Pmokeefe, RedBot, Alexander Knights, Tim1357, , Nakh, Armeniacus, Zoeperkoe,
IRISZOOM, Nederlandse Leeuw, Mackay 86, EmausBot, Cornugon, Smuconlaw, Marzalpac, Look2See1, Aryamahasattva, Valdis72, Sin-
harib99, Rarevogel, Finn Bjrklid, Lamashtu2006, , KingM, Moto53, EddieDrood, H3llBot, Eyadahmed, Y-barton, L Kensington,
Kaveh94, ClueBot NG, Jack Greenmaven, Phoenicians8, MelbourneStar, , Catlemur, RoyYa, Navops47, Snotbot, O.Koslowski, Dcrive,
Mannanan51, Widr, Lionhead99, Titodutta, BigEars42, BG19bot, Gomada, The Empire of History, Marcocapelle, Arminden, Adel Tigris,
Achowat, MeanMotherJr, Millennium bug, Xuxalliope, SantoshBot, LightandDark2000, Numbermaniac, Wario-Man, King Philip V of
Spain, Clr324, Monochrome Monitor, Puthoni, Meganesia, JaconaFrere, Vif12vf, Roverlager, HavelockWilltravel, , Gen-
eralizationsAreBad, Artin Mehraban, BD2412bot, Eat me, I'm an azuki, Sardam ahmad2000, Generali Italiano, Sarahgilbert18, Jaredlynn,
Esavioli, TheFreeWorld and Anonymous: 157
Nile Valley Civilizations Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nile_Valley_Civilizations?oldid=752395303 Contributors: Bearcat,
Dbachmann, RadioFan, SmackBot, NickPenguin, Beepsie, Sudhir h, Hello71, JL-Bot, Download, AnomieBOT, EmausBot, John of Read-
ing, BattyBot, Ermahgerd9, Bender the Bot and Anonymous: 7
384 CHAPTER 73. WOMEN IN ANCIENT EGYPT

Noph Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noph?oldid=675617801 Contributors: ChrisO~enwiki, Lars T., SmackBot, Cattus, Can't
sleep, clown will eat me, Skapur, Alaibot, Ebyabe, Sluzzelin, The Anomebot2, Stepheng3, Ironholds, Spinach Monster and Anonymous:
10
North City, Amarna Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_City%2C_Amarna?oldid=768584162 Contributors: Bearcat, Grutness,
GregorB, Rachack, Markh, SmackBot, Dlohcierekim, Arendedwinter, Beeblebrox, Vivio Testarossa, Sportyporty, Soupforone, Trappist the
monk, Carolinallamas and Anonymous: 2
Nubia (Mesolithic) / Nile boat Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nile_boat?oldid=766740287 Contributors: BDD, SmackBot,
Gjs238, Bejnar, Cydebot, Aldis90, Nick Number, Hugo999, Merlynne6, Addbot, Suwa, Yobot, JMCC1, Josefhoracek, Joppa Chong,
Dchokr1 and Bender the Bot
Ovis longipes palaeoaegyptiacus Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ovis_longipes_palaeoaegyptiacus?oldid=746692602 Contribu-
tors: Stemonitis, Chris the speller, Ruigeroeland, ChrisLoosley, Nyttend, Soupforone, Dr. Persi, Very trivial, BattyBot and Bender the
Bot
Pharaohs in the Bible Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pharaohs_in_the_Bible?oldid=775194938 Contributors: William M. Connol-
ley, Andycjp, Pmanderson, Dbachmann, Bender235, PatGallacher, Rjwilmsi, Itinerant1, DVdm, Bgwhite, P The D, Arthur Rubin, Smack-
Bot, PiCo, WildElf, Gilliam, Portillo, Hmains, Jero77, Cush, Cattus, Jprg1966, Clean Copy, Das Baz, The PIPE, Yonderboy~enwiki,
Linusliang, Khazar, Tmd63, Courcelles, Republicson, Eluchil404, Dogman15, Bellerophon5685, Doug Weller, Longwayround, Marek69,
Fayenatic london, Nexus359, Magioladitis, Chesdovi, Theroadislong, Simon Peter Hughes, Analytikone, Huey45, Aquaepulse, Dr. Han-
nibal Lecter, StAnselm, Yintan, Til Eulenspiegel, Emperor001, Ecjmartin, W84jon, Muhandes, NuclearWarfare, Dthomsen8, Daodill-
man, Addbot, CharlesChandler, Lindert, Scott MacDonald, Luckas-bot, Yobot, AnomieBOT, DemocraticLuntz, Materialscientist, Ckr-
uschke, LovesMacs, Quebec99, Tiller54, Khruner, Alumnum, Dailycare, Degen Earthfast, RjwilmsiBot, EmausBot, Evanh2008, F, Rc-
sprinter123, Alec scheat, ClueBot NG, Jack Greenmaven, Helpful Pixie Bot, Stae2, Frze, Willietell, Wheeke, AHoseason, Erik Fastman,
Fox2k11, Dmh54, ALEXANDER LOCKWOOD, MagicatthemovieS, Napalatt, Ratio Studiorem, Nico van der See 7323104, Generaliza-
tionsAreBad, John Scott Ferguson, MusenInvincible, Baking Soda, ThatFatSmartKid, Lynnette Kissior, PaleoNeonate and Anonymous:
76
Pharaonic Tayma inscription Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pharaonic_Tayma_inscription?oldid=739155573 Contributors: Ad-
dbot, Soupforone, Mrmatiko, Masssly and Hatem Moushir
Portal:Ancient Egypt Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal%3AAncient_Egypt?oldid=776089412 Contributors: Danny, Raul654,
UtherSRG, Alan Liefting, BozMo, Aude, Wisdom89, CJ, Hu, Twthmoses, Captmondo, Markh, Pb30, JuJube, Janmad, Kingboyk, Valac,
C.Fred, Delldot, HalfShadow, Gilliam, Fplay, Go for it!, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Nick Levine, Khoikhoi, SashatoBot, Doug Bell,
Thanatosimii, General Ization, Srdjan Vesic, A. Parrot, Meno25, Doug Weller, John254, Jonny-mt, NERIUM, After Shock~enwiki,
Sluzzelin, Dan D. Ric, Pedro, Bongwarrior, VoABot II, Je Dahl, Dekimasu, SuperMarioMan, Thirdright, Artaxiad, Manticore, Be-
wareofdog, Germanykid15, Funandtrvl, Lights, VolkovBot, Nburden, WOSlinker, Nrlawver, AlysTarr, Goldenfalcon1439, AnnekeBart,
Dawn Bard, Abpothu, Happysailor, Oxymoron83, Ptolemy Caesarion, Chaosmagiciangirl, Excirial, Acdcfreak 59, Iohannes Animosus,
Apparition11, CarsracBot, Kiril Simeonovski, Teles, WikiDan61, Tedmek, ArthurBot, Staggie 90, I dream of horses, Floricele, MrArifna-
jafov, Salvio giuliano, John of Reading, Immunize, Dacker13, Jay-Sebastos, Donner60, Chewings72, Homeaccount, Workedits, Butmon-
ster, Petrb, Jackson Square, Ninja Forever, MusikAnimal, Zacharydodd, RickV88, Iry-Hor, Frosty, JaviP96, Cococola44, Jadey.may17,
Jjks220, NatureGolem12, Biblioworm, John of Reading Bot, Dori4343, FlyingFlea89, Reby8930, Afoot hi creepy and Anonymous: 97
Ancient Egyptian race controversy Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_race_controversy?oldid=775958762 Con-
tributors: Ed Poor, SimonP, Paul Barlow, Dominus, Lquilter, William M. Connolley, RodC, AnonMoos, Secretlondon, ChrisO~enwiki,
Stephan Schulz, Nurg, Tom harrison, Moyogo, Varlaam, RScheiber, Alensha, Alanl, Utcursch, Iceager, Klemen Kocjancic, Deeceevoice,
Mike Rosoft, Discospinster, Florian Blaschke, Dbachmann, Bender235, Phiwum, Giraedata, Ogress, Zachlipton, Alansohn, Richard Har-
vey, Ynhockey, Titanium Dragon, Tony Sidaway, Woohookitty, PatGallacher, Mazca, Tabletop, Meeso, Aarghdvaark, Cuchullain, BD2412,
Rjwilmsi, Angusmclellan, Joe Decker, Koavf, Hiberniantears, Yamamoto Ichiro, Ian Pitchford, Ground Zero, GnniX, Bgwhite, RussBot,
Eupator, CambridgeBayWeather, Anomalocaris, NawlinWiki, Leutha, Badagnani, Tony1, MrSativa, Maunus, Georgewilliamherbert, An-
drew Lancaster, Closedmouth, Nolanus, Rande M Sefowt, NeilN, PRehse, Zvika, Sardanaphalus, SmackBot, Reedy, Ramdrake, Jagged 85,
Kintetsubualo, Gilliam, Wlmg, Cush, Full Shunyata, Master of Puppets, Thumperward, Roscelese, Tamfang, Kelvin Case, Akhilleus, Or-
phanBot, EOZyo, Leoboudv, Blueboar, Seduisant, Derek R Bullamore, Ericl, Mchavez, Mukadderat, Thanos5150, Ishmaelblues, Mgigan-
teus1, Jackson744, A. Parrot, Dicklyon, Vost, NJA, Texas Dervish, ThuranX, Joseph Solis in Australia, Twas Now, LadyofShalott, JForget,
CRGreathouse, Moreschi, Yopienso, Jayen466, Doug Weller, DumbBOT, Garik, Woland37, Opabinia regalis, Pstanton, HappyInGeneral,
Second Quantization, EdJohnston, Seaphoto, Yalens, Bocephusjohnson, Skomorokh, Carrolliniandodo, Godcast, Acroterion, Grievous An-
gel, Magioladitis, QuizzicalBee, David Eppstein, Simon Peter Hughes, Vinsonowen, Gwern, Phantomsnake, R'n'B, CommonsDelinker,
Captain panda, Lanternix, KylieTastic, Entropy, Zara1709, Ginga123, Bawlix, Wikipedian1234, Pietru, Black Kite, Malik Shabazz, Deor,
Thomas.W, Satani, Technopat, MichaelStanford, Noopinonada, Steven J. Anderson, John Carter, Martin451, Taharqa, AnnekeBart, Laval,
Ohiostandard, PericlesofAthens, Nubiatech, Til Eulenspiegel, Baseball Bugs, Lusala lu ne Nkuka Luka, YellowFlag, Tombomp, Mr. Stradi-
varius, Wee Curry Monster, ImageRemovalBot, Aya27, ClueBot, Victor Chmara, Bob1960evens, The Thing That Should Not Be, All
Hallows Wraith, WDavis1911, Mild Bill Hiccup, Big-dynamo, Rockfang, Grandpallama, SamuelTheGhost, Aua, Tomeasy, Wikiscribe,
Ice Cold Beer, Arjayay, Wdford, Warrior4321, SchreiberBike, DanielPharos, Catalographer, B'er Rabbit, Miami33139, Heironymous
Rowe, Stickee, Aunt Entropy, Good Olfactory, Wythy, Addbot, Yoenit, Jncraton, Fieldday-sunday, Favonian, Tobus, Aacugna, Squan-
dermania, Soupforone, Tassedethe, OlEnglish, Yobot, Legobot II, Dimitri Yankovich, AnomieBOT, Utinomen, Jim1138, AdjustShift,
Copytopic1, Materialscientist, Citation bot, Wapondaponda, Wstenfuchs, ChildofMidnight, Petropoxy (Lithoderm Proxy), J04n, Sesu
Prime, FreeKnowledgeCreator, FrescoBot, Sunjata321, MuhammedAkbarKhan, Dep4e, WPANI, Kangasaurus, Panehesy, WikiMotors,
Mfwitten, AncientObserver, Aldousari, LilErro, AnwarSadatFan, Snakespeaker, Redrose64, Trueshow111, DrilBot, Abductive, Jonesey95,
TurbidTongue, Secret Saturdays, Komplolompo, Full-date unlinking bot, Jonkerz, Lotje, Hegodart, Anacara, Fastilysock, Tbhotch, Ledor-
mant, Koozedine, RjwilmsiBot, Beyond My Ken, Wiking, Holdone, John of Reading, Salaam1000, Dickle tickle, Immunize, Look2See1,
Mrchenchen, Dewritech, Fawal24, Mentuhotep23, Merefoix, Ronk01, Josve05a, Zezen, SporkBot, AManWithNoPlan, Kamite, Halifaxn-
Black, Brandmeister, Donner60, Carmichael, James Ervin May, LikeLakers2, Dexter Bond, ClueBot NG, Floatjon, Tatelyle, Ankem Venu
Goud, Runehelmet, Widr, Qoncept, Helpful Pixie Bot, Curb Chain, Wbm1058, Lowercase sigmabot, BG19bot, Neptunes Trident, Fam-
dopel, Servatai, Myfrolive, Dkspartan1, Dailey78, AdventurousSquirrel, BookWorm44, The Almightey Drill, DrLewisphd, XXGfHXx,
GreenUniverse, BattyBot, Eharding, Cyberbot II, ChrisGualtieri, Redmeatfordogs, ProfJustice, Mogism, SirShawn, Jx2221, Frosty,
PRINCE SHADY, Limit-theorem, OrangeGremlin, Rupert loup, QatarStarsLeague, AmaryllisGardener, Clemens Schmillen, Shegs99, As-
ante90, Randerwort, Cthapc, Steeletrap, Monochrome Monitor, Kohelet, Imageulnae77, Oranjelo100, , Stamptrader, JaconaFrere,
73.15. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES 385

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Egsan Bacon, Derek R Bullamore, Mgiganteus1, Doug Weller, DumbBOT, EdJohnston, Temple3, Yalens, MelanieN, Godcast, KConWiki,
R'n'B, KylieTastic, Oshwah, Natg 19, Thanatos666, Wee Curry Monster, Bob1960evens, Solar-Wind, Aua, Wdford, Yobot, AnomieBOT,
Krelnik, LilHelpa, Gilo1969, FreeKnowledgeCreator, Jonesey95, Beyond My Ken, John of Reading, RA0808, Dcirovic, A3F, ClueBot
NG, Delusion23, Tatelyle, BG19bot, Robbiecda, Dailey78, CitationCleanerBot, DrLewisphd, BattyBot, Cyberbot II, PurplePieman, Cer-
abot~enwiki, CCamp2013, Clemens Schmillen, Shegs99, Cthapc, Bahooka, Steeletrap, Monochrome Monitor, Andajara120000, Monkbot,
Jmeyertesting, Lux ex Tenebris, YeOldeGentleman, VeritaMessagio, HughMorris15, CAPTAIN RAJU, InternetArchiveBot, GreenC bot,
ThePlatypusofDoom, Daniel Power of God, Wewuzkangznshiet, Heil Lord Kek, Bender the Bot and Anonymous: 30
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iFan04, Icairns, ELApro, Gazpacho, Rich Farmbrough, Bender235, Pearle, Deacon of Pndapetzim, Gene Nygaard, Bobrayner,
Woohookitty, Magister Mathematicae, Alexb@cut-the-knot.com, Kerowyn, Redwolf24, RussBot, Rktect, Deville, Mmcannis, Finell,
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615248492 Contributors: Andrew Dalby, Ser Amantio di Nicolao, Johnbod, GoingBatty, Empty Buer, Helpful Pixie Bot and Gorthian
Sea Peoples Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sea_Peoples?oldid=774181100 Contributors: Andre Engels, Olivier, Leandrod, Palna-
toke, Llywrch, DopeshJustin, Kku, Sannse, Vargenau, Emperorbma, Stet, Wik, Timc, Cleduc, Itai, AnonMoos, Wetman, Zestauferov,
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Wrybosome, BanyanTree, BBird, Pauli133, Sleigh, Georgios, Sheynhertz-Unbayg, A D Monroe III, Roylee, Rodii, Linas, PatGallacher, Bri-
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subualo, Flamarande, Ws, Melkart es, Peter Isotalo, Hmains, ERcheck, Hibernian, Hongooi, Wilybadger, Arnomd, Shunpiker, Leoboudv,
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MinisterForBadTimes, Debresser, Anam Gumnam, LinkFA-Bot, , Jarble, Leovizza, Luckas-bot, Yobot, AnomieBOT, Ulric1313,
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Mjasfca, Thehelpfulbot, JMCC1, FrescoBot, Tobby72, DrilBot, Biker Biker, RandomDSdevel, Pinethicket, Jonesey95, Jandalhandler,
Kibi78704, Jauhienij, Orenburg1, FoxBot, Alborztv, Nederlandse Leeuw, AirplanePro, BCtl, EmausBot, John of Reading, Nolemaikos,
Bettymnz4, Slightsmile, Dick Grune, Salahmaker, ZroBot, Naviguessor, Oncenawhile, SporkBot, Xoil, ShapsugTuapse1864, Y-barton,
Dagko, Donner60, Dk1919 Franking, MALLUS, CountMacula, Luresedoc, ChuispastonBot, Senator2029, Manytexts, Petrb, ClueBot NG,
Jhvtex, DrJackDempsey, Braincricket, Hundredhanded, Widr, Chitt66, Helpful Pixie Bot, HydroBeaver, Brikane, Plantdrew, BG19bot,
JeBonSer, AvocatoBot, Trevayne08, CitationCleanerBot, BattyBot, ZuluKane, Khazar2, Conon403, Iry-Hor, Dexbot, Stas1995, Boydstra,
Krakkos, Santurwoman, Hillbillyholiday, MacHolly1, Chris troutman, L2212, Alotforalittle, Ibrahim Husain Meraj, E.M.Gregory, The
eigenvector, Dumuzid, Jegr9, Prinsgezinde, Fuzchia, Rayw1711, Sarahgilbert18, Scdavis527, UltraEnigma, Anticla rutila, GreenC bot,
Bender the Bot and Anonymous: 221
Sebakh Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sebakh?oldid=754497459 Contributors: DopeshJustin, Pjamescowie, CatherineMunro,
Viajero, Altenmann, Blainster, Canadabear, PDH, Adamsan, CanisRufus, Kwamikagami, Cohesion, GUS JOHN GEORGE, Splash,
DanMS, Sloman, Xmts, Colonies Chris, Natg 19, Addbot, Vyom25, LilHelpa, HoremWeb, VernoWhitney, Y-barton, Toanin, Bonios,
Enterprisey and Anonymous: 11
Sheneset-Chenoboskion Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sheneset-Chenoboskion?oldid=772250603 Contributors: Finlay McWal-
ter, Bearcat, Rich Farmbrough, Dbachmann, BD2412, The Man in Question, A. Parrot, CmdrObot, Katharineamy, Biscuittin, Jojalozzo,
Mild Bill Hiccup, SchreiberBike, Drpickem, AnomieBOT, LilHelpa, FrescoBot, Marcocapelle, Drift chambers, Arminden, TheJJJunk,
Hmainsbot1, Narky Blert, Bender the Bot and Anonymous: 1
Statue of Sekhmet Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statue_of_Sekhmet?oldid=634611901 Contributors: Samw, Giraedata, De-
ective, Shawn in Montreal, Johnbod, Secondarywaltz, OlYeller21, Sasaki.y and MJMcGowan
Therapeutae Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Therapeutae?oldid=753398138 Contributors: William Avery, Llywrch, IZAK, Ellywa,
Charles Matthews, Wetman, Dimadick, Wjhonson, Rursus, Wayland, Per Honor et Gloria, Epimetreus, Reinthal, The King Of Gondor,
Viriditas, DaveGorman, Eric Kvaalen, Ricky81682, Woohookitty, Mathiastck, Spasemunki, YurikBot, Nirvana2013, Koppany, Smack-
Bot, Pikafumanchu, Clinkophonist, Marco polo, Ishmaelblues, Ryulong, Vanished user 2345, Pseudo-Richard, Cydebot, Aristophanes68,
CommonsDelinker, Sucndj, Shadowlapis, Drianmcdonald, Addacat, PixelBot, Editor2020, DumZiBoT, WikHead, Addbot, LatitudeBot,
Lightbot, Luckyz, ArthurBot, LilHelpa, Omnipaedista, Datteln, Hessamnia, Dinamik-bot, RjwilmsiBot, In ictu oculi, Gnuwhirled, Dcirovic,
Sewergrate, PBS-AWB, Ebrambot, Committed to truth, Sprallen, BG19bot, Wfon55, Khazar2, Lemnaminor, Arius of Alexandria, Library
Guy, Ia Devat, Piledhighandeep, Srednuas Lenoroc and Anonymous: 23
386 CHAPTER 73. WOMEN IN ANCIENT EGYPT

Thinite Confederacy Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thinite_Confederacy?oldid=760263901 Contributors: JoJan, Husnock,

BD2412, Ucucha, Gergis, SmackBot, Cattus, Hibernian, Drunken Pirate, Ohconfucius, A. Parrot, Namiba, Meno25, Alaibot, Edward321,
Richard D. LeCour, Lanternix, Lefty272, Til Eulenspiegel, Soupforone, LlywelynII, Omnipaedista, Trappist the monk, Sigwald, Slightsmile,
ZroBot, Life in General, Helpful Pixie Bot, ChrisGualtieri, Iry-Hor, Anasaitis, Bender the Bot, PrimeBOT and Anonymous: 7
Jonathan Tokeley-Parry Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jonathan_Tokeley-Parry?oldid=718588936 Contributors: Bearcat,
FeanorStar7, Mandarax, IstvanWolf, Waacstats, KConWiki, Jgreeter, KylieTastic, Ponyo, Beeblebrox, Eeekster, Addbot, 1exec1, Juju-
tacular, Vrenator, RjwilmsiBot, BattyBot, Kbabej, Zoros15, KasparBot and Anonymous: 1
Tryph Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tryph%C3%A9?oldid=743290589 Contributors: Paul A, Bearcat, PWilkinson, Rjwilmsi,
SmackBot, Lifebaka, Peter1c, Yakushima, Nancy, Addbot, Yobot, AvicAWB, ConconJondor, Helpful Pixie Bot, Marcocapelle, Bender the
Bot and Anonymous: 1
Tulle bi telli Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tulle_bi_telli?oldid=755057189 Contributors: Rpyle731, 99of9, Woohookitty,
Rjwilmsi, Wavelength, SmackBot, Hmains, Betacommand, A. Parrot, Harej bot, Cydebot, Hebrides, Alaibot, MegX, Cander0000, Spe-
ciate, Hugo999, ShanMonster, Pulsar.co.nr, Cerebellum, Cnilep, Calliopejen1, Ashashyou, Shemsdance, Lightbot, Yobot, AnomieBOT,
RevelationDirect, Keystoneridin, Museumsparrow, DrilBot, Heartlandpp and Anonymous: 2
Urban planning in ancient Egypt Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urban_planning_in_ancient_Egypt?oldid=737009988 Contrib-
utors: The Anome, RussBot, Udimu, The Anomebot2, Lightmouse, ClueBot, Cabayi, Addbot, Night w, Nfermat, Dbizzell, Look2See1,
CaroleHenson, Danim, ArmbrustBot and Anonymous: 7
Uronarti Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uronarti?oldid=775503103 Contributors: Folks at 137, Andrewpmk, Aarghdvaark, FlaBot,
Udimu, A. Parrot, Cydebot, Alaibot, Muirwood, The Anomebot2, Jona Lendering~enwiki, Rosiestep, Muro Bot, Addbot, Queenmomcat,
Ka Faraq Gatri, Yobot, J04n, Look2See1, ClueBot NG, Clemens Schmillen, 9bryan and Anonymous: 6
Women in Ancient Egypt Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_ancient_Egypt?oldid=773906583 Contributors: Picapica,
Discospinster, PWilkinson, Rjwilmsi, Marcus Cyron, Udimu, Gilliam, TimBentley, Egsan Bacon, A. Parrot, Iridescent, CmdrObot, Pen-
bat, R'n'B, KylieTastic, Hugo999, Philip Trueman, Kww, Wingedsubmariner, Keilana, Flyer22 Reborn, Ottawahitech, Life of Riley, Ag-
nosticPreachersKid, Dthomsen8, Addbot, Favonian, Yobot, AnakngAraw, Materialscientist, I dream of horses, Aircorn, Nick Moyes,
GoingBatty, ZroBot, Donner60, ClueBot NG, Tbennert, Danim, Helpful Pixie Bot, BG19bot, OttawaAC, Neuroforever, MadGuy7023,
Frosty, WilliamDigiCol, Me, Myself, and I are Here, Anthony11081, Danyellhaze, Lor, Juberpwns, Narciso003, Turtlelover111, Cat in the
hatthfghnfymhy, Keechyjr, Mario300, Cheeseskates, Emma Koppenhaver, Adotchar, L3X1, Evelyn Carnahan and Anonymous: 42

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388 CHAPTER 73. WOMEN IN ANCIENT EGYPT

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390 CHAPTER 73. WOMEN IN ANCIENT EGYPT

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seum: <a href='http://thewalters.org/' data-x-rel='nofollow'><img alt='Nuvola lesystems folder home.svg' src='https://upload.
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/></a> Home page <a href='http://art.thewalters.org/detail/5577' data-x-rel='nofollow'><img alt='Information icon.svg'
src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_icon.svg/20px-Information_icon.svg.png' width='20'
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1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_icon.svg/40px-Information_icon.svg.png 2x' data-le-
width='620' data-le-height='620' /></a> Info about artwork Original artist: Anonymous (Egypt)
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tors: Walters Art Museum: <a href='http://thewalters.org/' data-x-rel='nofollow'><img alt='Nuvola lesystems folder home.svg'
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8/81/Nuvola_filesystems_folder_home.svg/40px-Nuvola_filesystems_folder_home.svg.png 2x' data-le-width='128' data-le-
height='128' /></a> Home page <a href='http://art.thewalters.org/detail/22836' data-x-rel='nofollow'><img alt='Information icon.svg'
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Bodsworth
392 CHAPTER 73. WOMEN IN ANCIENT EGYPT

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Heinrich Menu von Minutoli (17721846) (drawing)
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specication for the design of the Israeli ag.
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Gnome-globe.svg
394 CHAPTER 73. WOMEN IN ANCIENT EGYPT

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73.15. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES 395

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396 CHAPTER 73. WOMEN IN ANCIENT EGYPT

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400 CHAPTER 73. WOMEN IN ANCIENT EGYPT

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73.15. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES 401

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402 CHAPTER 73. WOMEN IN ANCIENT EGYPT

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404 CHAPTER 73. WOMEN IN ANCIENT EGYPT

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