CHAPTER 5

TRANSFER OF TRAINING
The chapter is organized based on the model of the transfer process shown in Figure 5-1, page
153. The chapter begins with a discussion of training design issues related to the transfer of
training. This includes (1) application of theories of transfer of training to training design and (2)
an emphasis on self-management as part of the training program. Next, the importance of the
work environment and how it influences the transfer of training process is discussed. Trainees,
managers, and trainers roles in ensuring that transfer of training occurs are emphasized. The
topics of learning organizations and knowledge management are also discussed. The chapter also
points out that holding trainees accountable for using and sharing information learned in training
can enhance transfer of training. The chapter concludes with a list of important terms and thought
provoking questions for discussion, as well as Application Assignments.

Objectives

After reading and discussing Chapter 5, students should be able to

1. Diagnose and solve a transfer of training problem.
2. Create a work environment that will facilitate transfer of training.
3. Explain to a manager how he can ensure that transfer of training occurs.
4. Discuss the implications of identical elements, stimulus generalization, and cognitive theories
of training transfer.
5. Develop a self-management module for a training program.
6. Discuss the technologies that can be used to support transfer of training.
7. Discuss the key features of the learning organization.
8. Provide recommendations of how to manage learning.

I. Introduction
A. Definition of key terms.
1. Transfer of training refers to trainees effectively and continually applying what they
learned in training (knowledge, skills, behaviors, and cognitive strategies) to their jobs.
2. Generalization refers to a trainees ability to apply learned capabilities (verbal
knowledge, motor skills, etc.) to on-the-job work problems and situations that are
similar but not completely identical to those problems and situations encountered in
the learning environment.
3. Maintenance refers to the process of continuing to use newly acquired abilities over
time.
4. Training design refers to the characteristics of the learning environment.
5. Trainee characteristics include ability and motivation that affect learning.
6. The work environment includes factors on the job that influence transfer of training
including: managers support, peer support, technology support, the climate for
transfer, and the opportunity to use newly acquired capabilities on the job.

II. Training Design refers to factors built into the training context to increase the likelihood that
transfer of training will occur.

A. Applications of transfer of training theory: Three primary theories are discussed.

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 1. The Theory of Identical Elements suggests that transfer of training occurs when
what is being learned in training is identical to what will be performed on the job and
the training context is similar to the work environment (e.g., flight simulators).
a. This approach has also been used to develop instruments that measure the degree
of similarity among jobs.
b. Fidelity refers to the extent to which the training environment is similar to the
work environment.
c. Near transfer refers to the trainees ability to apply learned knowledge, skills and
behaviors exactly to the work situation.
d. Where this theory falls short is when the learning environment and the work
environment cannot be similar.
2. The Stimulus Generalization Approach emphasizes constructing training so that the
most important features or general principles are taught, thereby maximizing the
likelihood of transfer of training.
a. It is necessary to identify the range of work situations to which these general
principles need to be applied, so that the applicability can be appropriately broad.
b. This approach emphasizes far transfer, which is the trainees ability to apply
learned knowledge, skills and behaviors on the job, even though the work
environment does not match the training environment.
c. Key behaviors refer to a set of behaviors that can be used successfully in a wide
variety of situations.
d. Application assignments are work problems or situations in which trainees are
asked to apply training content to solve them.
3. The Cognitive Theory of Transfer is based on the information processing model (see
Chapter 4) and suggests that the likelihood of transfer depends on the trainees ability
to retrieve learned capabilities.
a. The theory suggests making the material meaningful as well as providing the
trainee with schemes for coding learned material in memory so that it is easily
retrievable.
b. This approach indicates that various potential applications of the training content
should be discussed, making later recall easier.
B. Self-management strategies are ways for the individual to control certain aspects of
his/her decision making and behaviors. Such strategies help to maximize transfer of
training.
1. In the context of training, self-management is used to retain and apply new knowledge,
skills, and behaviors and involves these steps:
a. Determining the degree of support as well as negative consequences in the work
setting for using newly acquired capabilities.
b. Setting goals for using learned capabilities.
c. Applying learned capabilities to the job.
d. Monitoring use of learned capabilities on the job.
e. Self-reinforcement.
2. Obstacles to self-management strategies (see Table 5.2, p. 152) include:
a. Lack of support from peers and managers.
b. Impeding factors related to the work itself or the work context.
c. Time pressures.
d. Inadequate equipment.

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 3. Lapses refer to the trainee using their old, less effective ways of doing work rather
than using the new capabilities they have learned; obstacles may bring on lapses.
a. Trainees should be prepared to cope with lapses by learning coping skills and self-
management techniques at the end of the training session.
b. Trainees should be able to identify the primary causes of lapses, so that they can
avoid them.

III. Work Environment Characteristics Influencing Transfer of Training

A. Climate for transfer refers to trainees perceptions about the extent to which the work
environment supports or inhibits the use of new knowledge, skills and behaviors. Factors
include manager and peer support, opportunity to use new skills, and consequences for
using new skills. See Table 5.4 (p. 155) for characteristics of a positive climate.
B. Manager support is the degree to which trainees managers (1) emphasize the importance
of attending training programs and (2) stress the application of what is learned back on the
job (see Figure 5.2, p. 156).
1. The greater the managerial support, the more likely that new capabilities will be
transferred.
2. An action plan (Figure 5.3, p. 157) is a written document that details steps that the
trainee and his/her manager will take to ensure transfer of the training content. It
identifies:
a. The goal and strategies for reaching the goal.
b. Equipment and resources that will be provided to enable performance.
c. Support from managers and peers.
d. Expected outcomes.
e. Progress dates listed.
3. Managers support can be gained by:
a. Briefing managers on the purpose of the training and its relationship to business
strategy.
b. Encouraging trainees to bring related work problems to the training.
c. Sharing with managers earlier trainees testimonials regarding the benefits of the
training course.
d. Asking trainees to complete action plans with their managers.
e. Using managers as trainers, if possible.
C. Peer support can also enhance the likelihood of transfer of training.
1. A support network is a group of two or more trainees who meet and discuss their
progress in using new capabilities back on the job, whether it be via face-to-face
meetings, email, a newsletter, etc. Success stories as well as obstacles experienced can
be shared.
D. The opportunity to use learned capabilities (or opportunity to perform) is the extent
to which the trainee is provided with or seeks out experience using the new knowledge,
skills, or behaviors learned in the training program.
1. Opportunity to perform is influenced by the work context, the motivation of the
trainee to perform, and the trainee taking personal responsibility to actively pursue
assignments that will utilize their new capabilities.
2. Breadth of opportunity refers to the number of trained tasks that are performed on the
job.
3. Activity level refers to the frequency with which these tasks are performed.

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 4. Task type is the difficulty or criticality of the trained tasks performed on the job.
5. Low levels of opportunity may indicate:
a. Refresher courses are necessary.
b. The work environment is inhibiting the use of new capabilities.
c. The training content is not important for the individuals job.
E. Technological support
1. Electronic performance support systems (EPSS) are computer applications that can
provide skills training, information access and expert advice. They can be used to
enhance transfer of training by acting as an as-needed reference as trainees attempt to
apply new knowledge, skills and behaviors. (Chapter 8 addresses this in more detail.)
F. Organizational Environments that encourage transfer:
1. A learning organization has an enhanced capacity to learn, adapt, and change.
a. In a learning organization, training is an integral part of a system designed to create
intellectual capital (see Chapter 1).
b. Essential features of a learning organization include (see Table 5.6, p. 161)
continuous learning among employees; knowledge generation and sharing; critical
systematic thinking; a culture in which learning is rewarded, supported and
promoted; encouragement of flexibility and experimentation; and the valuing of
employees.
c. In a learning organization, learning occurs at the individual, group and
organizational levels.
d. The learning organization emphasizes knowledge management. Knowledge
management refers to the process of enhancing company performance by
designing and implementing tools, processes, systems, structures, and cultures to
improve the creation, sharing, and use of knowledge.
2. Knowledge refers to what individuals or teams of employees know or know how to
do. Knowledge is either tacit or explicit knowledge.
a. Tacit knowledge refers to personal knowledge based on individual experience and
influenced by perceptions and values. Explicit knowledge refers to manuals,
formulas, and specifications that are described in formal language.
b. There are four modes of knowledge sharing: socialization, externalization,
combination, and internalization. Socialization involves sharing tacit knowledge
by sharing experiences. Knowledge is shared and learning occurs through observation,
imitation, and practice. Externalization involves translating tacit knowledge into
explicit knowledge. This takes the forms of: metaphors, models, concepts, and
equations. Combination involves systematizing explicit concepts into a knowledge
system by analyzing, categorizing, and using information in a new way. Formal
courses and seminars convert knowledge in this way. Internalization refers to
converting explicit knowledge to tacit knowledge. Training methods such as:
simulations, action learning, and on-the-job experiences are used to create tacit
knowledge from explicit knowledge.
3. Knowledge management is the creation and sharing of knowledge. There are a
number of ways to encourage knowledge management:
a. Use technology and software, i.e., LOTUS Notes and e-mail, or create a company
Intranet so that employees can store and share information.
b. Publish directories of what employees do, how they can be contacted, and what
knowledge they have.

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 c. Develop informational maps that identify where specific knowledge is stored in the
company.
d. Create chief information officer and chief learning officer positions for cataloging
and facilitating the exchange of information in the company.
e. Require employees to give presentations to other employees about what they have
learned in training.
f. Allow time off from work (e.g., sabbaticals) for the purpose of acquiring
knowledge.
g. Create an on-line library of learning resources, such as journal, technical manuals,
and training opportunities.
h. Design office space to facilitate interaction between employees.
i. There are some companies that have created leadership positions to foster
continuous learning and knowledge management, called Chief Learning Officers
(CLOs).

CHAPTER 5 SUMMARY

Learning is an important aspect of any training program. However, the ability to use learned
capabilities on the job (transfer of training) is equally important. This chapter discussed how
trainee characteristics, trainee design features, the work environment influence the transfer of
training. From a design standpoint, the chapter summarized that it is important to consider
identical elements, stimulus generalization, and cognitive theories related to transfer of training in
program design. Trainees may need self-management skills to cope with a work environment that
is not always conducive to transfer of training. The climate for transfer, manager and peer
support, technology support, and opportunity to perform are features that influence transfer of
training. Four modes of knowledge sharing were discussed, and the importance of learning
organizations emphasized.

Discussion Questions

1. Consider three time periods (pre-training, during training, and after training) and three parties
involved in transfer of training (manger, trainer, trainee). Construct a matrix showing what
each party can do to facilitate transfer of training at each time period.

Answer: The manager can facilitate transfer of training by: encouraging employees to attend
training programs in the pre-training stage, actively participating in or even instructing training
sessions during training, and reinforcement (use of action plans) during the post-training phase.
The trainer can explain the importance of the training program to gain support and acceptance for
it from management and employees in the pre-training phase, perform the training, and then
incorporate reinforcement programs with management in the post-training phase. Employees can
set goals for themselves in the pre-training phase, and apply new skills and engage in self-
reinforcement in the post-training phase. (p. 150-156)

2. Distinguish between the following: (1) Maintenance and generalization and (2) Learning and
transfer.

Answer: (1) Maintenance is the process of continuing to use newly acquired capabilities over
time. Generalization refers to a trainees ability to apply those capabilities to the workplace. (2)

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Learning refers to the process of internalizing new knowledge and skills. Transfer refers to
trainees effectively and continually applying what they learned. (p. 146)

3. What could be done to increase the likelihood of transfer of training if the work environment
conditions are unfavorable and cannot be changed?

Answer: Supervisors could set goals for trainees to use new skills, give positive feedback to
employees who use new training, and may even reward employees for successfully implementing
new training. (Table 5.4, p.155)

4. Discuss how trainees can support each other so that transfer of training occurs.

Answer: Trainees can from a support network, in which employees meet to discuss their progress
in using new training on the job, and how they obtained useful resources for applying new
training.

5. What is the most important feature of the learning organization? Which is least important?
Why?

Answer: Learning organizations incorporate continous learning, knowledge generation and

sharing, critical systematic thinking, learning culture, encouragement of flexibility and
experimentation, and valuing of employees. Answers may vary. (p. 161)

6. What technologies might be useful for ensuring transfer of training? Briefly describe each
technology and how it could be used.

Answer: Electronic performance support systems are computer applications that can provide, as
requested, skills training, information access, and expert advice, which can be used as an
electronic information source that employees can refer to as needed while they attempt to apply
learned capabilities on the job. Simulators can be used to replicate work situations, especially
those situations involving electronic or mechanical equipment. (p. 149, 159-160)

7. How might you motivate mangers to play a more active role in ensuring transfer of training?

Answer: First managers need to be briefed on the purpose of the training program and its
relationship to business objectives. Second, managers need to be given the schedule of training
topics and a checklist of what the y should do after training to ensure transfer of training occurs.
Third, information about benefits of the course taken from past participants should be collected
and given to the managers. Fourth, trainers can assign employees to complete action plans with
their managers. Fifth, if possible, use managers as trainers. (p.157-158)

8. Is training transfer an important issue in the companies where you have worked? How is the
transfer evaluated in those companies?

Answer: Answers will vary.

9. Discuss the major emphases of identical elements, stimulus generalization, and cognitive
theories of transfer.

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Answer: In the identical elements theory, the training environment is identical to the work
environment. In the stimulus generalization theory, general principles are applicable to many
different work situations, and in cognitive theory, meaningful material and coding schemes
enhance storage and recall of training content. (Table 5.1, p.148)

10. What is knowledge? Why is knowledge important? How can companies manage knowledge?

Answer: Knowledge refers to that individuals or teams of employees know or know how to do as
well as a companys rules, processes, tools, and routines. Means of knowledge management
include: using of technology and software to allow sharing of knowledge, publishing directories
that list what knowledge employees have and how to contact them, informational mapping,
creating managerial positions to handle knowledge management, requiring employees to give
presentations on training programs they have attended, creating an online resource library, or
designing office space to facilitate interaction between employees. (p. 161-162)

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