WORKSHOP

PRACTICEI

WORKSHOPPRACTICETHEORY

DEPARTMENT OF PRODUCTION ENGINEERING

BIRLAINSTITUTEOFTECHNOLOGY,MESRA,RANCHI

FITTINGSHOP

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 INTRODUCTIONTOFITTINGSHOP
Introduction:

Thisistheprocessoffinishingthejobusingdifferenthandtoolstoobtainthedesiresurface
isfinishandaccuracy.Inspiteoftheincreasinguseofautomaticmachinesintheworkshop
thesedays,thefittingshopisindispensable.Althoughmajorityofworkcanbefinishedtoa
good degreeofaccuracy in a reasonable time throughvariousmachining operations they
stillrequiresomeoperationstobedoneonthemtofinishthejobbyhand.Benchwork
usually refers to the production of an article by hand on the bench. Fitting is the
assemblingofpartsandremovingmetalsforsecurefit.

FittingOperations

[1]Chipping:

The job whose material is to be chipped away is held in the bench vice firmly. The cold
chisel and hammer are the tools used for this process. The chisel is held with right hand
especially with second and third fingers the index being relaxed. The chisel is put on the
workatsomeinclination.Theinclinationdependsuponthecuttingangelofchiselandthe
depthofcutrequired.Theshaftofthehammerisheldattheendandtakenuptosufficient
heighttoprovidepowerinthestroke.Chiselisputonthejobandstruckbythehammerto
chipofthemetal.Whenlargevolumeofmetalistoberemovedfrequentlythelubrication
ofthecuttingedgeisadvisibleforalongtoollife.

Fig:Chipping

[2]Filing:

Filingisthemostimportantoperationafterthechippingoperation.Thisisusedtoremove
burrandcleanthesurface.Themovementoffilemattersmuchintheeffectivenessofthis
operation.Thejobtobefiledisheldinthebenchvice.Thehandleofthefileisgrippedwith
righthand.Theendofthefileisheldwiththelefthandforlightworktheendofthefileis
held with the thumb and finger and for heavy work i.e. when large material is to be
removed,theendisheldwiththehandtoapplysufficientpressure.Thepressureisapplied
intheforwardstrokeandrelievedinreturnstroke,thefilediagonallyyieldgoodresults.As

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faras possible thefull length of file should be used. Usually not morethan0.6 m.m. of
toolingallowanceshouldbeleftforfilling.

Fig:Filing

Thesearethreetypesoffilingmethod:

(1)Crossfiling:Inthismethodthefilestrokesrunalternatelyfromrighttoleftandfromleft
to right. This is the commonest from filling. In this the whole of the file surface moves
acrossthewholeoftheworksurface.Itisusedforremovinglargemetalfromwork.

(2)Straightfiling:Inthismethodthefileispressedforwardapproximatelyatrightanglesto
thelengthofthework.Onthebackstrokethefileisliftedfromtheworksurface.Thisused
forfillingtheworkpiecehavingthewidthofsurfacelesserthanthewidthoffile.

(3)Drawfiling:Inthisthefileisheldatrightanglestotheworksurface.Thefileisnotheld
fromthehandlebutthebladeisheldwithhandsclosetogetherandgrippedwiththumbs.
Thefileismovedupanddowntheleftofthework.Itdoesnotremovematerialbutgives
smoothersurface.

[3]Marking:

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Marking is the most important operation of the fitting shop. The accuracy of all the
operationsdepends upontheaccuracyof marking.Allthelinesmarked onanyjobactas
guidelinesforthefittertoobtainthedesiredshapewithaccuracy.

The surface of the work to be marked out is coated with either chalk or with copper
sulphatesolutionandisallowedtodry.Thentheworkisheldeitherinvblockifitisround
orlaidonsurfaceplateifitisflat.Iftheworkisverythin,itiskeptverticalwiththehelpof
an angle plate. The horizontal line on the work is marked using scribing block. The line
perpendicular to this horizontal line can be marked by turning the work through 90*and
thenusingscriber.

Afterthelineshavebeenscribedonthesurfacetheindentationsonthesurfacearemade
using centre punch and hammer along the scribed lines or arcs. Punch marks serves as a
guidetotheoperatorwhilefilling,sawingetc.Themetalisremovedtohalfcircumference
ofthepunchmarktoensurethattheworkhasnotgoneundersize.

(4)Sawing:

This operation is used for cutting the tubes, rods, plates etc. to the desired size. The
Hacksaw blade is fitted in to the frame in the two pins projecting in the frame and then
tightened with the help of wing nut at the leading pin. The blade is fixed with its teeth
facingforwardsothatcuttingismadeintheforwardstroke.

Thesawafterfittingintotheframeisplacedontheworksurfacetobecut.Thehandleis
heldwiththerighthandandtheotherendofthesawisgrippedfirmlywiththelefthand.
The pressure is applied on the forward stroke; which is the cutting stroke. The sawing
shouldbeginwithabackwardstroke.Whilecuttingthetubesfirstafileisnotchedonthe
tubesurfaceandcuttoapointneartheinnerwall,thenturnedthetubeforwardlytosuch
anextentthatthesawwillstillbeguidedinthesawkerfandcuttoapointneartheinner
wall.Againitisturnedtotheappropriateangleandprocedureisrepeatedtillthetubeis
divided.

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Fig:Typesofhacksaw

(5)Drilling:

Drillingistheoperationofproducingcircularholesinthejob.Thepillardrillingmachineis
usedfordrillingandthetooliscalleddrillbitthejobtobedrilledisheldfirmlyinaviceor
in any other clamping device on the table of the machine. Cylindrical jobs are held using
grippingplateandvblock.

Thesocketcontainingdrillisfittedinthemachineandisloweredwiththehelpofahandle
totouchthecentremarkmadebythepunch.Thepointofthedrillshouldbeexactlyover
thecentremarkmade.Themachineisstartedanddrillisgraduallypressedagainstthejob
toproducethehole.Coolantshouldbefrequentlyusedtoavoidtheoverheatingoftool.

(6)Scraping:

Thisistheoperationforremovingforconvexsurfacesleftafterfilling.Obviouslyitfollows
the filling operation and removes small amount of material. The job is held in vice and
scraper is held with both the hands at some inclination to the job surface and moved
forward.

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Fig:Scraping

FITTINGTOOLS

(1)HoldingTools:Thesearethetoolsusedforholdingthejobtobeworked.

(a)BenchVice:

Itisthemostcommonlyusedholdingdevice,calledEngineersparalleljawbenchviceor
fitters vice. It essentially consists of a cast iron body, a fixed jaw and a movable jaw
madeofcaststeel,ahandle,asquarethreadedscrewandnutmadeofmildsteel.Two
caststeelplantscalledthejawplatesarefixedwiththetwojawsbysetscrews.Theyare
providedwithserrationstoincreasethegriponthejob.Thebenchviceisfirmlyfixedto
theworkbench.Thesizeoftheviceisdesignatedbythewidthofthejawwhichisfrom
80to140mmanditsmaximumopeningisfrom95to180mm.

Forgrippingtheworkpieceinthevicethejawsoftheviceareopenedbywithdrawing
themovablejawbyrotatingscrew.Thejobisheldwithonehandbetweenthejawsand
tightenedbyrotatingthehandlebytheotherhand.

Fig:BenchVice
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(b)LegVice:

Handviceissecuredfirmlyatthebenchtop.Itslegisattachedtothelegofthebench
anditsendgoesintotheholemadeatthefloor.Hencethisconstructionofthelegvice
isbecomesverymuchrigidandcanbeusedforheavywork.Theonlydisadvantagewith
legisthatwhenthejobisgrippeditsjawscomecloseinaVshapeanddontprovideas
firmgripasparallelbenchvice.Thelegviceisusedbyblacksmithsbutcanalsobevery
wellusedforhammering,chippingandcuttinginthefittingshop.

(c)HandVice:

Handviceisusedforgrippingsmallobject.Itconsistsoftwosteellegshingedtogether
atthebottom,twosteeljawsatthetopofthevice.Onespringisusedjustabovethe
hingeofthelegstokeepthetwolegsseparated.Ascrewisfastenedtoonelegandgoes
through the other leg. At the end of the screw a wing nut is used for tightening of
looseningthegripofthevice.

Thisviceisusedforgripingthesmallobjectssuchaskeys,rivets,andscrewsetc.which
aretoosmalltobegrippedinabenchvice.Thevice,grippingtheobjecttobeworkedis
heldinonehandthetoolisheldwiththeotherhandwhileworking.

(d)PipeVice:

Pipe vice is used for holding the round section, pipes, tubes etc. It has got a vertical
movablescrewwhichmovesupanddownwhiletighteningandloosening.

(e)Pinvice:

Pinviceconsistsofahandleandacollectchuck.Thechuckcontainsjawsareoperated
byrotatingthehandle.Pinviceisusedforhobingtheobjectsofverysmalldiametere.g.
wire,pinsetc.

(2)MarkingTools:

(a)Surfaceplate:

Itisasolidrectangularplatemadeofgreycastironavailableindifferentsize.Thebase
oftheplateisalsomachinedproperlytohaveaperfecthorizontal.Thetopoftheplate
is grinded to obtain a perfectly plane surface. Surface plate is used for testing the
trueness of the finished surface and also for the marking purpose. In marking process
surfaceplateisusedabaseforVblockandangleplateetc.Thesurfaceplateisputona
table of sufficient height for use. The different available sizes of surface plate are
1.5*5m,1.5*3m,2*2mand2*4m.Themarkingsurfaceshouldbeprotectedfromdirt
andrusttopreserveitsaccuracy.

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Fig:SurfacePlate

(b)Scribers:

Scribersarethepiecesofhardenedsteel.Thesearepointedatboththeends.Itisused
forscribingthelineonthemetal.

Fig:Scriber

(c)Trysquare:

Itconsistsofasteelbladefittedintoasteelstockalsoknownasthebeam.Bothinner
and outer edges of the blades are kept at perfectly right angles to the stock. This is
similartothecarpenterstrysquareconstructionsbutismoreaccurate.Trysquaresare
usedtocheckwhetheranysurfaceisperpendiculartothetruesquareornot.Itisalsoto
mark a line perpendicular to the true surface. The accuracy of a try square is very
important for a fitter. Hence try square should not be used for striking or supporting
purposeanditsaccuracyisfrequentlychecked.

Fig:TrySquare

(d)Punch:Punchisamarkingtoolmadeofhardenedsteel.Punchisusedformarkingthe
marksonthejobinamorepermanentmannerthanthatofscriber.Aftermarkingwith
scribers,thepunchisplacedonthescribedlineandhammeredtomarkapointasthat
line.Severalsuchpointsaremadeonhescribedline.Usuallytwotypesofpunchesare
usedinfittingshop

(1)PrickpunchItconsistsofataperedportionsharplypointedhavingtheangleof40
degree.Itisusedformarkingsmallmarksontheline.

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(2)Centre Punch Itisused formaking the prick punch holelarger. Usuallythecentres
fordrillingaremarkedusingcentrepunch.Itsangleatthetipisusually60degree.

Fig:Punch

(c) VBlock: Vblock is steel block having a Vshaped groove. It is used for marking or
workingonroundshapedobjects,sothattheobjectscantmovesidewiseandalsodoes
notrotateeasily.TheVblockisplacedoverthesurfaceplateandthejobtobemarked
isplacedovertheupperVoftheblock.Thescribingblockisalsoplacedoverthesurface
plateandisusedformakinglinesonthejob.Theaccuracyofmarkingdependsuponthe
accuracyoftheedgesandsurfacesofVblock.

Fig:VBlock

(f)Angleplate:Angleplatehastwomutuallyperpendicularsurfaceandseveralholeson
thesurface.Itisusedformakingthejobswhentheyareplacedinverticalposition.The
angleplateisplacedoverthesurfaceplateandthejobtobemarkedisplacedinvertical
positionontheangleplateandisheldfirmlyinthispositionusingclampsandbolts.The
scribingblockisusedformakingthejob.

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Fig:AnglePlate

(3)CuttingTools:

(a)HackSaw:Hacksawcontainsametallicframe.Atoneendoftheframeawooden
handle is provided for gripping the saw while at the other end a wing nut is used for
tightening the hacksaw blade. The frames are also of two types. First is solid frame
whoselengthisfixed,secondisadjustableframe.Asthenameimpliesthelengthofthe
adjustableframecanbechangedtoaccommodatethedifferentsizesofblades.
Hacksaw blades are made of either high carbon steel or alloy steel. Usually the push
typebladesareusedwhichcutthemetalinforwardstroke.Hence,theteethofthesaw
pointawayfromtheoperator.Whilefittingthebladeintheframecareshouldbetaken
to fit the blade such that teeth are pointed forward. The blade may be all hard type,
which is hard throughout or may be flexible type. All hard blades are used for cutting
hard material e.g., cast iron alloy steel etc. Flexible type blades are used for general
purposes.
Thethicknessofthebladeisabout0.7mm,thewidthisabout12.7mmandlengthof
thebladevariousfrom20to30cm.Thebladesofthecoarsegroupcontain5to7teeth
percm,whereasthefinegroupcontain8to12teethpercmlength.Setisprovidedon
the blade teeth by blanding the teeth alternate outward and inward. This setting of
bladesgivesacutwiderthanthethicknessofthebladessothatwhilecuttingtheblade
isnotincontactandfrictionisless.

Fig:Sawing

(b)Chisels:Chiselsareusedforchippingoperation.Theyaremadeofcarbonsteel.The
chisels are made in the forging shop. The round bar of carbon steel is heated to the
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plasticstate.Itisthenmadehexagonaloroctagonalasrequired.Thenthecuttingedge
ismadeatoneendofthisbar.Afterthedesiredshapeandcuttinganglesareformed,it
is hardened and tempered. In fitting shop, cold chisels are used, whose cutting angles
varyfrom40to70degreedependinguponthematerialtobecut.

Fig:Chisel

Thecommontypesofchiselsare

(1)Flat chisels flat chisels is used for general chipping operation. It may be used for
chippinglargesurfaces,cuttingmetalsheets,barsetc.

(2)Crosscut chiselcrosscut chisel is also known as cape chisel. It is used for cutting
groovesinlargesurfacespriortousingflatchisel.Itisusedforcuttingkeyways.

(3)HalfroundchiselHalfroundchiselisusedforoilwaysandalsotomakeasmallpilot
hole,priortodrillingahole.

(4)DiamondpointchiselDiamondpointchiselisusedforcuttingveegrooves,cleaning
cornersandsquaringsmallholes.

(5)Side chisel Side chisel is used particularly in removing the surplus metal in cutter
waysandslots.

Fig:TypesofChisel

(4)Files:

Files are most widely used tool of the fitting shop. The different parts of a file are
handle, tang, heel, face, point and edge. The files are made of high carbon steel or
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tungsten steel by forging. Then the teeth are cut, hardened and tempered. The files
usedinfittingshopareclassifiedonthebasisoffollowingfactors.

(1)Lengthoffile:thelengthoffilefromheeltothepointiscalledtheeffectivelengthof
filesasshowninfig.thefilesareavailablefrom10to40cm.thefilesoflength1oto15
cmareusedforfineworkbetween15to25cm.formediumsizedjobsandabove25cm.
longfilesareusedforlargesizedjobs.

(2)Shape:thefilesareproducedindifferentshapesofcrosssectiontobeusedforfilling
thejobsofdifferentshapes.Thecommontypesoffilesare

(a)FlatfileItismostcommonlyusedfilewhichistaperedinwidthandthickness.Itis
doublecutinfaceandsinglecutatedges.

(b)Handfile:Itisparallelinwidthbuttaperedinthickness,ithasonesafeedge,which
doesnothaveteeth.

Otherfilesclassifiedonthebasisofshapesare

Squarefile squaresection

Pillarfile narrowrectangularsection

Roundfile roundsection

Halfroundfile halfroundsection

Triangularfile Triangularsection

Knifeedgefile

(3)Teeth:thefilescanalsobeclassifiedonthebasisofthespacing,thedepthofteeth
andcutofteeth.Theyareoftwotypes.
(a)SinglecutInthistypetheteetharecutinparallelrowacrossthefaceofthefileand
make anangle of0 degreewith thecentre line ofthefile. Theyare usedwhere small
amountofmaterialistoberemovedbutagoodsurfacefinishisdesired.
(b)Double cut this type of file has two types of teeth across the face of the file. One
similartothesinglecutfileandanotherinclinedby75to80degreesothecentrelineof
file.Thisisusedtoremovemorematerial.
Thesinglecutanddoublecutfilesarefurtherdividedaccordingtothecoarsenessofthe
files which actually depends upon the spacing of teeth. They are given below in the
increasingdegreeofsmoothness.
(a)rough(b)bastard(c)sec(d)smooth(e)deadsmooth(f)supersmooth.

Thenumberofteethoffilesperunitlengthincreasesfrom(a)to(f).
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(5)Scrapers:

Scrapersareusedforscrapingwhichisactuallyafinishingprocessoffittingshop.They
contain very hard cutting edge and are made of forged steel. They are forged to the
desiredshapeandthencuttingedgeismadeattheendoftheplace.Thecuttingedgeis
hardenedandtemperedtomakeitabletoscrapthematerialandtomakethesurfaceof
thejobplane.

Fig:TypesofScraper

Fig:Scraping

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SAFETYPRECAUTIONSFORFITTINGSHOP

1. LOOSECLOTHINGSHOULDBEAVOIDED.

2. WEARSHOESWHILEWORKINGINTHESHOP.

3. TOOLSSHOULDBEPLACEDINTHEIRRESPECTIVEPLACEAFTERPROPERCLEANING.

4. ALWAYSUSETHERIGHTTOOLFORTHEJOB.

5. KEEPTHECUTTINGTOOLSSEPARATEFROMTHEMEASURINGTOOLS.

6. SHARP EDGE OF THE CUTTING TOLS SHOULD BE COVERED WHEN THEY ARE NOT IN
USE.

7. MAKE CETAIN THAT ALL TOOL HANDLES ARE SECURELY ATTACHED BEFORE USING
THEM.

8. ALWAYS WEAR GOGGLES WHEN CHIPPING METAL AND WHEN GRINDING EDGE ON
TOOL.

9. HOLD DRIVING TOOLS CORRCTLY SO THAT THEY WILL NOT SLIP OFF THE WORK
SURFACE

10. MAKE SURE THAT WORK TO BE OUT, SHEARED, FILED ETC. IS STEADIED AND
SEWCURE,TOPREVENTTHETOOLFROMSLIPPING.

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FOUNDRYSHOP

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INTRODUCTIONTOFOUNDRYSHOP
Manymethodslikemachining,casting,forging,rolling,extrusionetc.areusedformaking
and giving finishing to components by engineers. Casting is probably the oldest
manufacturing process of producing an engineering article. It is estimated that the art of
making metal castings has been in existence for more than 5000 years. The earlier axe
headswerecastinopenmouldsmadeofstone.Somecastingswereprobablymadeofgold,
brass, copper, silver and bronze. A lifesized portrait head of cast bronze from
Mesopotamiadatesbacktoabout2250BCandstillsurvive.Thefirstfoundrydatesbackto
theShangdynastyofChina17661122BC.

Casting is the process of manufacturing an engineering component by filling up a cavity

withmoltenmetalandallowingittosolidify.Itisthefastestandmosteconomicalprocess
ofproducingcomponents.Itisduetothefactthatthereisnolimittothesizeandshapeof
thearticletobeproducedbycasting.Italsooffersoneoftheeasiestandmosteconomical
methodsofproducingintricateparts.

Foundriescanbeclassifiedintotwomaincategories,(a)ferrousfoundries(b)nonferrous
foundries.Ferrousfoundriescanagainbedividedinto(i)castironfoundries(ii)malleable
iron foundries and (iii) steel foundries. In making a casting the following basic steps are
involved:

a) Patternmaking
b) Mouldandcoremaking
c) Meltingandpouringthemetal
d) Cleaningandtestingthecasting
Afoundrygenerallyconsistsofthefollowingmainsections:

a) Patternmakingshop
b) Sandmixing/preparation
c) Moldingsection
d) Coremakingsection
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 e) Mouldassemblyandhandling
f) Meltingshop
g) Pouring
h) Shakingoutsection
i) Fettlingandfinishing
j) Heattreatmentshop
k) Inspection
Thefollowingrawmaterialsareusedinafoundry:

a) Metalsandalloys
b) Fuelsformelting
c) Fluxesformelting
d) Refractories
e) Sandandbindingmaterials

Foundrytoolsandequipments
Forperformingdifferentoperationslikelifting,shifting,casting,repairingorassemblingan
iteminafoundry,avarietyofhandtoolsandequipmentsisneeded.Dependinguponsize,
shapeandnumberofcastingstobeproducedthefoundrytoolscanbebroadlyclassifiedas
givenbelow.

(a) Handtools:Moldingtools,coremakingtools,patternmakingtoolsetc.

(b) Container:Moldingboxes,coreboxes,ladlesetc.

(c) Finishing and cleaning: Files, chippers, chisels, grinders, sand and shot blasting
machine

(d) Mechanicaltools:Moldingmachines,coremakingmachines,powerriddles,sand
mixersetc.

(e) Sand testing and conditioning equipment, permeability meter, mechanical sieve,
hydraulicpress,hardnesstester,rammersetc.

(f) Metalmelting:Cupola,crucible,tiltingfurnace,oilfiredfurnaceetc.

(g) Testing:Destructiveandnondestructivetestingmachines.

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The various hand tools are used in a foundry for making moulds. A brief description of
varioushandtoolsisgivenbelow.

1. Shovel: It consists of a square iron blade fitted with a Dshaped

woodenhandleasshowninthefigure.Itisusedfortransferringsandtothesand
mixerandpouringsandinthemoldingflask.

2. Strikeoffbar:Itisawoodenormetallicbarhavingatrueedge.It
isusedforremovingthesurplussandafterramminghasbeencompleted.

3. Hand riddle: It is also known as a sieve. It consists of a wooden

frame fitted with a screen of standard wire mesh at its bottom. It is used for
removing foreign materials such as nails, shot metals, splinters of wood etc. from
themoldingsand.Differenttypesofriddlesaredenotedbydifferentnumberslike
8,10,12etc.

4. Vent wire: It is a thin steel rod or wire having a pointed edge at

oneendandawoodenhandleorabentloopattheotherend.Itisusedformaking
smallholescalledventsintherammedsandmouldstopermiteasyescapeofgases
andsteamgeneratedduringcoolingoftheheatedmetal.

5. Trowels: Trowels are made of iron and are provided with a

woodenhandle.Thethreetypesofcommonlyusedtrowelsare

i. Finishingtrowel
ii. Squareendtrowel
iii. Heartshapedtrowel
Trowelsareusedfor

i. Finishingflatsurfacesformolds
ii. Cuttingingots
iii. Makingjoints
iv. Repairingmolds
v. Givingshape
6. Slicks:Slicksareusedforrepairingandprovidefinishingtomoldsurfaceandedges
afterthepatternhasbeenwithdrawn.Thecommonlyusedslicksinafoundryare
i. Heartandleafslick
ii. Squareandheartslick
iii. Spoonandbeadslick
iv. Heartandspoonslick

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v. Leafandspoonslick

Fig. (a)Heartandleafslick (b)Squareandheartslick
(c)Spoonandbeadslick(d)Heartandspoonslick
(e) Leafandspoonslick

Fig.:Rammers(a)Floor(b)Pein(c)Hand(d)Butt

Figure:Lifters

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Fig.(a)Shovel(b)Strikeoffbar(c)Riddle(d)Ventwire

Fig.Trowels(a)Finishing(b)Squareend(c)Heartshaped

7. Lifter/cleaner: The lifters are made of thin sections of steel of various width and
lengths with one end bent at right angles. The lifter is a finishing tool used for
patching deep sections of a mould and removing loose sand from pockets of the
mold.

8. Rammers:Rammersareusedforpackingandrammingthesandinthemoldingbox.
Depending upon the type of casting there are many types of rammers. These are
generallymadeofwoodorsteel.Thecommonlyusedrammersinafoundryare

i. Peinrammer
ii. Handrammer
iii. Floorrammer

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 iv. Buttrammer
v. Pneumaticrammer
9. Swab:Itisasmallbrushhavinglonghempfibres.Aswabisusedforapplyingwater
aroundtheedgesofapattern.Thispreventsthesandedgesfromcrumblingwhen
thepatternisremovedfromthemold.Abulbswabhasarubberbulbtoholdthe
waterandasofthairbrushattheopenend.

10. Spruepin:Aspruepinisalsoknownasarubberpeg.Itisataperedwoodenoriron
rod, which when embedded into top part of the mold known as cope and later
withdrawn produces a cavity known as down gate or runner. Through the runner
themoltenmetalispouredintothemold.

11. Drawspike:Itconsistsofataperedsteelrodhavingalooporringatoneendanda
sharp

12. Smoothers and corner slicks: These are tools used for giving a finishing to and
repairing of round and square comers and edges. (ii) Round and flat surfaces.
Accordingtotheiruseandshape,theyaregivendifferentnames.Mostcommonly
usedtoolsforgivingfinishingandrepairingareinsidesquare,flat,pipe,button,half
roundcomerandeggshaped.
13. Clamps: Clamps are made of steel and are used for holding and clamping the
moldingboxesinproperposition.

Fig.SwabsFig.(a)Spruepin(b)Drawspike

Moldingbox:
A molding box or flask is a container that holds the rammed sand rigidly and allows the
moltenmetaltosolidityaftercastinginamouldcavity.
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Moldingboxesaregenerallymadeintwoparts.Theseareheldinpositionbylocationpins.
Thetoppartiscalledthecopeandbottomiscalledthedrag.Ifthemouldismadeinthree
parts,theintermediatepartiscalledthecheck.Moldingboxesaremadeofwood,castiron
orsteel.Woodenboxesareusedforlimitedproduction.Boxesmadeoffabricatedsteelare
light, robust and can withstand impact In general a molding box must be capable of
withstandingroughhandling.

Figure:Moldingflasks
Selection of a molding box regarding its shape and size mainly depends upon the type of
producttobecast.Sinceitisnotpossibletomakeasmanymoldingboxesasthenumberof
components,itisalwaysbettertostandardizethesizeofmoldingboxes.
Varioustypesofmoldingboxesusedinthefoundryare
(i)Boxtypeflask
(ii)Taperedslipflask
(iii)Snapflask
(iv)Woodenmoldingbox.
Alltheaboveflaskscanbecategorizedunderoneheadcalledremovableflasks.Othertype
of flasks used is permanent and light flasks. Removable flasks are used for small to
moderatesizemoldinglikematchplatemoldingandcopeanddragmolding.
I. Box type flask: Box type flasks are also known as tight or permanent flasks. These are
generallymadeofmetalandareusedforsmallandmediumsizedcastings.Aboxtypeflask
isremovedfromtherammedmouldonlyafterthesolidificationofthecastingiscomplete.
Theseflaskscanberectangularorcircularinshape,buttheformerarecommonlyused.
2.Taperedslipflask:Ataperedslipflaskissimplyknownasaslipflask.Ithastaperedsides
havinganangleof4oforremovaloftheload.Acamactuatedretractableshelf(alsoknown
as sand strip) is attached to the cope. It can be lifted for removal of pattern from the
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moldedsand.Manymouldscanbepreparedfromasingleflaskofthistypeforpouringthe
moltenmetal.
3. Snap flask: It consists simply of a frame work fitted with a hinge at one corner and a
fastener at the diagonally opposite corner. Unlike the box flask it can be opened after
rammingbyremovingthefastenersandmovingitaroundthehinge.Itishighlysuitablefor
massproductionofsmallcastings.
4. Wooden molding box: These are used for produci1lg relatively large sized castings in
small quantities. On the ends are fitted wooden handles for easy handling of flasks. The
sides of the flask are held
together bystrongcrossbars
orRibs.

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Figure:Differentstagesofpreparationofmould

Moldingisacavityinamoldingbox,formedbyapattern.Itissimilarinshapeandsizeto
that of the actual casting plus some allowance as discussed in the chapter of pattern
making.Moldingistheprocessofmakingmoulds.Foundryistheshopwherecastingofthe
jobisdoneinamoldingboxfollowedbyitscleaningbysandblasting,etc.Differentstages
inpreparationofamouldareshowninFigure.
A mould is generally made of heat resistant materials. Silica sand is the most commonly
usedmoldingmaterialasitisabundantlyavailable.Itischeapcanbepackedeasilyintoany
desired shape. It can also withstand very high temperatures and doesn't react with the
moltenmetal.Clayandmolassesareaddedasbindingmaterialsinamoldingsand.Water
provides strength and plasticity to sand and is added in varying proportions to molding
sand.

SAFETYPRECAUTIONSFORFOUNDRYSHOP
[1] DRESSPROPERLYFORTHEWORKTOBEDONE.
[2] REFRAINFROMPRACTICALJOKES.
[3] ALWAYSSTICKTHESHOVELINSANDPILE.
[4] DONOTEXERCISEEXCESSIVEWEIGHT.ASKFORASSISTANCEWHENLIFTINGORROLLINGA
HEAVYMOULD.
[5] USETHEVENTWIREWITHGREATCARE.AVOIDYOURSTICKINGFINGERSORHANDFROM
THESHARPPOINT.
[6] WEARSAFETYGOGGLESWHENTAPPINGFURNACESORHANDLINGMOLTENMETAL.
COPYRIGHTDEPARTMENTOFPRODUCTIONENGINEERING,BIT,MESRA,RANCHI
[7] DONOTPERMITWATERTOCOLLECTONTHEFLOORAROUNDAFURNACE.
[8] DONOTTHROWDAMPORWETMETALINTOFURNACECRUCIBLEORLADLE.
[9] BLOWAIRTHROUGHCRUCIBLEFURNACEBEFOREATTEMPTTOLIGHTIT.ITWILLPREVENT
EXPLOSIONCAUSEDBYACCUMULATEDGASINTHEFURNACE.
[10] DONOT WEDGE PIECES OF METAL INTO A CRUCIBLE WHEN CHARGING IT. THE METAL
WILLEXPANDWHENHEATEDANDWILLCRACKTHECRUCIBLE.
[11] LADLESSHOULDBETHROUGHLYDRYANDWARMBEFOREMETALISPOUREDINTOTHEM.
[12] DONOTPLACEYOURFACEDIRECTLYOVERSPRUESORRISER.
[13] STORECRUCIBLEINAWARMORDRYPLACE.
[14] IF YOU HAVE AN ACCIDENT, HOWEVER SLIGHT, REPORT IT TO YOUR INSTRUCTOR
IMMEDIATELY.
[15] SAFETYFIRST,LASTANDALWAYSSHOULDBETHEFOUNDRYSLOGAN.

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MACHINESHOP

INTRODUCTIONTOMACHINESHOP
Allmanufacturingprocessescanbeclassifiedbroadlyunderthreecategories:Metalcutting,
Metalforming,andMetalcasting.Metalcuttingisdoneinvariousmachinetoolspresentin
themachineshop.

Machinetoolsarekindofmachinesonwhichmetalcuttingormetalformingprocessesare
carried out. The functions of machine tools are holding the workpiece, holding the tool,
moving the tool or the work piece or both relative to each other and supply energy
required to cause metal cutting. Every machine tool has a primary cutting tool for metal
removal.

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The various types of machine tools are Lathe machine, Milling machine, Drilling machine,
Shapingmachine,Planningmachine,BroachingmachineandGrindingmachine.

InthislabworkyouwillbeintroducedtotwotypesofmachinetoolsnamelyLathemachine
andshapermachine.

In any metal cutting the three most important machining parameters are: cutting speed,
feed,anddepthofcut.

CuttingSpeed:Cuttingspeedisthedistancetraveledbytheworksurfaceinunittimewith
reference to the cutting edge of the tool. For example, if workpiece is rotating past the
cutting tool, it is the peripheral speed of the wokpiece. The cutting speed, v is simply
referredtoasspeedandusuallyexpressedinmm/min.

A lower or higher cutting speed may be chosen depending on variations in depth of cut
(large depth of cut requires lower cutting speed) and feed (lower feed requires higher
cuttingspeed).

Feed:Thefeedisthedistanceadvancedbythetoolintooralongtheworkpieceeachtime
thetoolpointpassesacertainpositioninitstraveloverthesurface.Incaseofturning,feed
isthedistancethatthetooladvancesinonerevolutionoftheworkpiece.Onashaper,the
feedisthedistancethattheworkpieceismovedrelativetothetoolforeachcuttingstoke.
Feed f is usually expressed in mm/rev. Sometimes it is also expressed in mm/min and is
called feed rate. The surface finish produced by machining depends on the feed used. A
lowfeed,ingeneralproducesfinesurfacefinish.

Depthofcut:

Itisthedistancethroughwhichthecuttingtoolisplungedintotheworkpiecesurface.Thus
it is the distance measured perpendicularly between the machined surface and the
unmachined (uncut) surface or the previously machined surface of the workpiece. The
depthofcutdisexpressedinmm.

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CENTRELATHE
Ofthemanystandardandspecialtypesofturningmachinesthathavebeenbuilt,themost
important,mostversatile,andmostwidelyrecognizedistheenginelathe/centrelathe.

Thebasicenginelathe,whichisoneofthemostwidelyusedmachinetools,isveryversatile
when used by a skilled machinist. However, it is not particularly efficient when many
identicalpartsmustbemachinedasrapidlyaspossible.

Although the standard engine lathe is not a high production machine, it can be readily
tooled up for many onepiece or shortrun jobs. It is also possible to modify the basic
machineformanyhigherproductionapplications.Themodernenginelatheprovidesawide
rangeofspeedsandfeedswhichallowoptimumsettingsforalmostanyoperation.There
have been advances in headstock design to provide greater strength and rigidity. This
allows the use of high horse power motors so that heavy cuts with carbide tools are
practical.Toutilizethishighpowerwithoutlosingaccuracy,newlathesincorporateheavier
beds,widerhardenedways,anddeepersectionedcarriages.

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COMPONENTSOFCENTRELATHEANDTHEIRFUNCTIONS:

Bed:The bedofthelatheisitsbackbone. Itmustberigidenoughtoresistdeflectionin
anydirectionunderload.Thebedismadeofcastironorasteelweldment,inaboxorI
beamshape,andissupportedonlegs,acabinet,orabench.TheBedformsthebaseofa
Lathemachine.Itprovidesaheavyrigidframeonwhichalltheotherbasiccomponentsare
mounted. The headstock and the tailstock are located at either end of the bed and the
carriagerestsovertheLathebedandslidesoverit.

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Ways:ThewaysofthelathearetheflatorVshapedsurfacesonwhichthecarriageandthe
tailstockaremovedleftandright.Eachhasitsseparatepairofways,oftenoneflatsurface,
for stability, and one Vway for guidance in a perfectly straight line. These ways are
hardened and scraped or ground to close tolerances. The basic accuracy of movement of
thecarriagedependsontheways.

Headstock: The headstock is the powered end and is always at the operators left. This
containsthespeedchanginggearsandtherevolving,drivingspindle,towhichanyoneof
severaltypesofworkholdersisattached.Thecenterofthespindleishollowsothatlong
barsmaybeputthroughitformachining..Alivecentre,afaceplate,colletorachuckcan
befittedtothespindlenosetoholdanddrivethework.Headstockspindlecanbedrivenby
a stepped pulley and a belt or by transmission gears in the headstock. The Lathe with a
steppedpulleydriveisgenerallycalledbeltdriveLathe.ThegeardrivenLatheisreferredto
asgearedheadLathe.

HeadstockbeltdriveandbackGeararrangement
Noseoftheheadstock,wherevariousworkholdingdevicesmaybefitted

COPYRIGHTDEPARTMENTOFPRODUCTIONENGINEERING,BIT,MESRA,RANCHI
Tailstock:Thetailstockislocatedontheinnerwaysattherightendofthebed.Thishastwo
mainuses:
1. It supports the other end of the work when it is being machined between centers,
and
2. Itholdsatoolforperformingoperationssuchasdrilling,reaming
Thetailstockisnonrotatingbutonhardenedways,itcanbemoved,totheleftorright,to
adjusttothelengthofthework.Itcanalsobeoffsetforcuttingsmallangletapers.

Carriage:Thecarriagecanbemovedleftorrighteitherbyhandwheelorpowerfeed.This
provides the motion along the Zaxis. During this travel turning cuts are made. Carriage
consistsofthefollowingparts:(1)Saddle,(2)Crossslide,(3)Compoundslideorcompound
rest,(4)Toolpost,and(5)Apron.

Saddle: Thesaddle isan Hshapedcasting that fits over the bed and slidesalongthe bed
ways.Itcarriesthecrossslideandtoolpost.

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CrossSlide:Thecrossslideismountedonthecarriageandcanbemovedinandout(Xaxis)
perpendicular to the carriage motion. This is the part that moves when facing cuts are
madewithpowerfeed,oratanytimeacutmustbemadesquarewiththeZaxis.This,or
the compound, is also used to set the depth of cut when turning. The cross slide can be
movedbyitshandwheelorbypowerfeed.

Compound Rest: The compound rest is fitted on the top of the crossslide, is used to
supportthecuttingtool.Itcanbeswiveledtoanyanglefortaperturningoperationsandis
movedmanually.

Itcanbemovedinandoutbyitshandwheelforfacingorforsettingthedepthofcut.Itcan
alsoberotated360degreesandfedbyitshandwheelatanyangle.Thecompounddoes
not have any power feed but it always moves longitudinally with the cross slide and the
carriage.

Tool Post: The tool post is mounted on the compound rest. This can be any of several
varietiesbutinitssimplestformismerelyaslottedcylinder,whichcanbemoved,left or
right in the Tslot in the compound and clamped in place. It can also be rotated so as to
presentthecuttertotheworkatwhateverangleisbestforthejob.

Apron: The apron attached to the front of the carriage, holds most of the control levers.
These include the levers, which engage and reverse the feed lengthwise (Zaxis) or
crosswise(Xaxis)andtheleverwhichengagesthethreadinggears.Theapronisfastened
tothesaddle,housesthegearsandmechanismsrequiredtomovethecarriageandcross
slideautomatically.

TheapronhandwheelcanbeturnedmanuallytomovethecarriagealongtheLathebed.
ThishandwheelisconnectedtoagearthatmeshesinarackfastenedtotheLathebed.The
automaticfeedleverengagesaclutchthatprovidestheautomaticfeedtothecarriage

Feedrod:Thefeedrodisalongshaftthathasakeyway.Thepoweristransmittedfromthe
lathespindletotheaprongearsthroughafeedrodviaalargenumberofgears.Thefeedrod
COPYRIGHTDEPARTMENTOFPRODUCTIONENGINEERING,BIT,MESRA,RANCHI
isusedtomovethecarriageorcrossslideforturning,facingandallotheroperationsexcept
threadcutting.

Leadscrew: The leadscrew is powered by gears from the head stock and is used for
providing specific accurate mechanized movement to the carriage for cutting threads on
the workpiece. The leadscrew has a definite pitch. A splint nut is used to engage the
leadscrewwiththecarriage.Insomelathes,theleadscrewperformsthefunctionsoffeed
rodandthereisnoseparatefeedrod.

Apronmechanism:Apronmechanismisusedfortransferringrotarymotionofthefeedrod
andtheleadscrewintofeedmotionofthecarriage.Bothautomaticlongitudinalandcross
feedcanbeprovidedtothecarriagebygearsandclutchengagements.Themechanismis
so designed that when the halfnut is engaged with the lead screw, the automatic feed
motion from the feedrod is disconnected. There is an interlocking device when prevents
simultaneousengagementofthecarriagewiththefeedshaftandleadscrewandsavesthe
machine from any probable damage. This arrangement of the apron is called foolproof
mechanism.

The half nut or split nut mechanism: The half nut makes the carriage to engage or
disengagewiththeleadscrew.Itcomprisesofapairofhalfnutscapableofmovinginorout
ofmeshwiththeleadscrew.Thehalfnutcanbeengagedwiththeleadscrewbymeansof
aleverprovidedontheapron.Thismechanismiscalledhalfnutmechanism.Thehalfnutor
splitnutisusedonlyforthreadcutting.

CUTTINGTOOLSFORLATHES
Toolsusedinlathemachineareofvariousmaterials:Highspeedsteel,cementedcarbide,
ceramicetc.
Different types of tools are used in lathe for different operations as shown in the figure
below:

WorkHoldingDevices:
Inlatheworkthethreemostcommonworkholdingmethodsare:
Heldinachuck:Threejawselfcenteringchuck,Fourjawindependentchuck,
magneticchuckandhydraulicchuck.
COPYRIGHTDEPARTMENTOFPRODUCTIONENGINEERING,BIT,MESRA,RANCHI
 Heldbetweencenters
HeldinacolletChuck

Threejawselfcenteringchuckandfourjawindependentchuck

TYPESOFOPERATONSTHATCANBEPERFORMEDONCENTRELATHE:

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Variousturningoperations:(a)chamfering,(b)parting,(c)threading,(d)boring,(e)drilling,(f)knurling.

1) Turning:TurningisthemostcommonlyusedoperationinLathe.Byturningoperation
excessmaterialfromtheworkpieceisremovedtoproduceacylindricalorconeshaped
surface.Twoofthecommontypesofturningare:
i. Straightturning:Inthisoperationtheworkisheldinthespindleandisrotatedwhole
the tool is fed past the work piece in a direction parallel to the axis of rotation. The
surfacegeneratedisacylindricalsurface.
ii. Taperturning:Atapermaybedefinedasauniformincreaseordecreaseindiameterof
a work piece measured along its length. In a Lathe taper turning is an operation to
produce a conical surface by gradual reduction in diameter from a cylindrical job.
Taperturningcanbedonebythefollowingways;
a) Byaformtool.
b) Bysettingoverthetailstock.
c) Byswivelingthecompoundrest.
d) Bytaperturningattachment.
e) Bycompoundfeed.
2) Facing:Facingisanoperationforgeneratingflatsurfaceattheendsofaworkpiece.In
thisoperationthefeedgivenisinadirectionperpendiculartotheaxisofrotation.
3) Chamfering:Itisanoperationofbevelingtheextremeendofaworkpiece.Thisdoneto
removeunwantedmetalprojectionsat theends andtoprotectendoftheworkpiece
frombeingdamagedandtohaveabetterlook.
4) Parting:In.thisoperationaflatnosetoolisusedtocuttheworkpiece,withfeedinthe
directionperpendiculartotheaxisofrotation
In parting operations the workpiece rotates while the tool carries out a radial feed
movement.Apartingtoolisdeeperandnarrowerthanaturningtool.Itisdesignedfor
makingnarrowgroovesandforcuttingoffparts.

COPYRIGHTDEPARTMENTOFPRODUCTIONENGINEERING,BIT,MESRA,RANCHI

5) Knurling:Knurlingisprocessofembossingadiamondshapedpatternonthesurfaceof
theworkpiece.Thepurposeofknurlingistoprovideaneffectivegrippingsurfaceona
workpiecetopreventitfromslippingwhenoperatedbyhand.Knurlingisdonewitha
specialtoolcalledknurlingtool.Thistoolconsistsofasetofhardenedsteelrollersina
holderwithteethcutontheirsurfaceindefinitepattern.

6) GroovingorRecessingOperations:Groovingorrecessingoperationsistheoperationof
reducingthediameterofaworkpieceoveraverynarrowsurface.Groovingorrecessing
operations, sometimes also called necking operations, are often done on workpiece
shoulderstoensurethecorrectfitformatingparts.Whenathreadisrequiredtorunthe
fulllengthoftheparttoashoulder,agrooveisusuallymachinedtoallowfulltravelof
the nut. Grooving the workpiece prior to cylindrical grinding operations allows the
grinding wheel to completely grind the workpiece without touching the shoulder. A
groovingtoolissimilartoapartingtool.

7) Drilling/reaming/ boring: These are operations to accurately make holes on a

workpiece. These operations use the tailstock of the lathe. The tool is held on the
tailstockandisfedtowardtherotatingworkpiece.
A lathe can also be used to drill holes accurately concentric with the centerline of a
cylindricalpart.First,installadrillchuckintothetailstock.Makecertainthatthetang

COPYRIGHTDEPARTMENTOFPRODUCTIONENGINEERING,BIT,MESRA,RANCHI
 onthebackofthedrillchuckseatsproperlyinthetailstock.Withdrawthejawsofthe
chuckandtapthechuckinplacewithasofthammer.
Move the saddle forward to make room for the tailstock. Move the tailstock into
position,andlockitinplace(otherwiseitwillslidebackwardasyoutrytodrill).Before
startingthemachine,turnthespindlebyhand.You'vejustmovedthesaddleforward,so
itcouldinterferewiththerotationofthelathechuck.Alwaysuseacenterdrilltostart
the hole. You should use cutting fluid with the center drill. It has shallow flutes (for
addedstiffness)anddoesn'tcutaseasilyasadrillbit.Alwaysdrillpastthebeginningof
thetapertocreateafunneltoguidethebitin.Thedrillchuckcanberemovedfromthe
tailstockbydrawingbackthedrillchuckasfarasitwilleasilygo,thenaboutaquarter
turnmore.
Boring is an operation in which a hole is enlarged with a single point cutting tool. A
boringbarisusedtosupportthecuttingtoolasitextendsintothehole.Becauseofthe
extension of the boring bar, the tool is supported less rigidly and is more likely to
chatter. This can be corrected by using slower spindle speeds or by grinding a smaller
radiusonthenoseofthetool.
8) Thread cutting: Thread cutting is one of the most important operations performed on
Lathe. Theprinciple ofthread cuttingis to produce a helicalgroove on a cylindrical or
conical surface by feeding the tool longitudinally when the job is revolved between
centersorbyachuck.Thelongitudinalfeedshouldbeequaltothepitchofthethreadto
becut.Fordifferentkindsofthreadsdifferenttoolhastobeused.

THESHAPERMACHINE

The shaper is a relatively simple machine. It is used fairly often in the tool room or for
machiningoneortwopiecesforprototypework.Themetalworkingshaperwasdeveloped
by James Nasmyth in 1836. Shaper is a machine tool to produce flat surfaces. The flat
surfacesmaybehorizontal,verticalorinclined.Theshaperusessinglepointtoolsandcuts
only in straight lines. The shaper handles relatively small work. The cutting stroke of the
shaper is made by moving the tool bit attached to the ram. The shaper cut only in one
direction,sothatthereturnstrokeislosttime.However,thereturnstrokeismadeatupto
twicethespeedofthecuttingstroke.Theshaperisarelativelysimplemachine.Itisused
fairlyofteninthetoolroomorformachiningoneortwopiecesforprototypework.Tooling
issimple,andshapersdonotalwaysrequireoperatorattentionwhilecutting.

COPYRIGHTDEPARTMENTOFPRODUCTIONENGINEERING,BIT,MESRA,RANCHI

1.Tablesupport,2.Table,3.Clapperblock,4.Apronclampingbolt,5.Downfeedhandwheel,
Ahorizontalshaper
6. Swivel base degree graduations, 7. Position of stroke adjustment, 8. Ram block locking
handle,9.Ram,10.Column,11.DrivingPulley,12.Base,13.Feeddisc,14.Pawlmechanism,
COMPONENTSOFASHAPERMACHINE:
15.Elevatingscrew

Ram: The ram slides back and forth in dovetail or square ways to transmit power to the
cutter.Thestartingpointandthelengthofthestrokecanbeadjusted.

COPYRIGHTDEPARTMENTOFPRODUCTIONENGINEERING,BIT,MESRA,RANCHI
Toolhead:Thetoolheadisfastenedtotheramonacircularplatesothatitcanberotated
formakingangularcuts.Thetoolheadcanalsobemovedupordownbyitshandcrankfor
precisedepthadjustments.Attachedtothetoolheadisthetoolholdingsection.Thishasa
toolpostverysimilartothatusedontheenginelathe.Theblockholdingthetoolpostcan
berotatedafewdegreessothatthecuttermaybeproperlypositionedinthecut.

Clapper Box: The clapper box is needed because the cutter drags over the work on the
returnstroke.Theclapperboxishingedsothatthecuttingtoolwillnotdigin.Oftenthis
clapperboxisautomaticallyraisedbymechanical,air,orhydraulicaction.

Table: The table is moved left and right, usually by hand, to position the work under the
cutter when setting up. Then, either by hand or more often automatically, the table is
movedsidewaystofeedtheworkunderthecutterattheendorbeginningofeachstroke.

Saddle:Thesaddlemovesupanddown(Yaxis),usuallymanually,tosettheroughposition
ofthedepthofcut.Finaldepthcanbesetbythehandcrankonthetoolhead.

Column: The column supports the ram and the rails for the saddle. The mechanism for
movingtheramandtableishousedinsidethecolumn.

Toolholders:Toolholdersarethesameastheonesusedonanenginelathe,thoughoften
largerinsize.Thecutterissharpenedwithrakeandclearanceanglessimilartolathetools,
though the angles are smaller because the work surface is usually flat. These cutters are
fastenedintothetoolholder,justasinthelathe,butinaverticalplane.

WorkHolding:Workholdingisfrequentlydoneinavise.Theviseisspeciallydesignedfor
useinshapersandhaslong wayswhichallowthejawsto open up to14inchesormore;
thereforequitelargeworkpiecescanbeheld.Thevisemayalsohaveaswivelbasesothat
cutsmaybemadeatanangle.Workwhich,duetosizeorshape,cannotbeheldinthevise,
is clamped directly to the shaper table in much the same way as parts are secured on
millingmachinetables.

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Shaper Size: The size of a shaper is the maximum length of stroke which it can take.
Horizontal shapers are most often made with strokes from 175 to 900 mm long, though
somesmallerandlargersizesareavailable.Thelengthofthestrokeindicates,inadditionto
the general size of the machine, the size of a cube that can be held and planed in the
shaper. Therefore the crossfeed and the maximum height that can be accommodated is
approximatelyequaltothestokelength.

In addition to the stoke length, other particulars like cutting to return stroke ratio,
individualmotordrive,numberandamountoffeedetc.

DriveMechanisms

Shapersareavailablewitheithermechanicalorhydraulicdrivemechanisms.Figuresshow
diagramsofbothshaperdrivemechanisms.

MechanicalDriveorCrankandSlottedLinkMechanism

The less expensive shaper, the one most often purchased, uses a mechanical drive. Most
shaping machine uses Crank and Slotted link mechanism, although sometimes Whitworth
quickreturnmechanismisalsoused.

CrankandSlottedLinkMechanism

Thebullgearisdrivenbyapinionwhichisconnectedtothemotorshaftthroughagearbox
withfour, eight or more speedsavailable.Thespeed of the bull gearmay be changed by
differentcombinationofgearingorbysimplyshiftingthebeltonstepconepulley.Bolted
tothecentreofthebullgearisaradialslide(notshowninfigure).Thisslidecarriesasliding
block, into which the crank pin is fitted. The crank pin connects the slotted link and the
sliding block.Theslotted link which isknown asrocker arm is pivotedat the bottom end
attachedtotheframeofthecolumn.Theupperendoftherockerarmisconnectedtothe
COPYRIGHTDEPARTMENTOFPRODUCTIONENGINEERING,BIT,MESRA,RANCHI
ram.Asthebullgearrotatescausingthecrankpintorotate,theslidingblockfastenedto
thecrankpinwillrotateonthecrankpincircle,andatthesametimemoveupanddown
theslotintheslottedlinkgivingitarockingmovementwhichiscommunicatedtotheram.
Thustherotarymotionofthebullgearisconvertedtoreciprocatingmotionoftheram.

Theprincipleofquickreturnmotion:

WhenthelinkisinthepositionABandAC,theramwillbeintheextremepositions.The
forwardcuttingstrokethereforetakesplacewhenthecrankrotatesthroughangleD1MD2
and the return stroke takes place when the crank rotates through the angle D1LD2. The
angularvelocityofthecrankpinbeingconstantthereturnstrokeisthereforecompletedin
shorter time than forward stroke. Therefore this mechanism is known as quick return
mechanism.
Cutting time
Therefore,
Return time

Cuttingtimetoreturntimeratiovarieswithin2:1andthepracticallimitis3:2.

Adjustmentoflengthofstroke:

The distance of the sliding block from the centre of the bull gear can be varied radially
within the radial slide. If the sliding block is brought inwards i.e. towards the centre the
lengthofstrokewillbereduced,andviceversa.

Adjustmentofthepositionofstroke:

The position of the ram relative to the work can also be adjusted. The rocker arm is
connected to a screw on the ram. The position of this connection can be varied on this
screw.Sotherancanbepositionedadjustingthisbymeansofaleverandwheelprovided
ontopoftheram.

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SAFETYPRECAUTIONSFORMACHINESHOP
1. NEVER ATTEMPT TO OPERATE ANY MACHINE UNLESS YOU ARE FULLY AWARE OF THE
MEANSOFSTOPPINGTHEMACHINEIMMEDIATELY,SHOULDANYEMERGENCYARISE.
2. NEVERENGAGEANYOPERATINGLEVERORCONTROLUNLESSYOUKNOWINADVANCE,ITS
DIRECTIONORWHATITSEFFECTWILLBE.
3. NEVER IDLY PLAY WITH CONTROL HANDLES ETC. ON ANY MACHINE WHETHER IT IS
RUNNINGORSTANDING.
4. UNDERNOCIRCUMSTANCESDISTRACTTHEATTENTIONOFANYOTHEROPERATORWHILST
HISMACHINEISUNDERPOWER.
5. NEVER LEAN AGAINST OR REST THE HANDS ON ANY MOVING PART, EVEN THOUGH THE
MOVEMENTBESLOW,ASYOUMAYEASILYBETRAPPEDUNEXPECTEDLYATSOMEPOINTOF
ITSTRAVERSE.
6. NEVEROILORMAKEANYADJUSTMENTSTOAMACHINE,WHICHISINMOTION.
7. NEVERSTARTAMACHINEORENGAGEAFEEDUNTILYOUARECERTAINTHATTHEWORKIS
ADEQUATELYSECURED.
8. NEVERLEAVEWRENCHESORKEYSINPOSITIONWHENSETTINGUPORREMOVINGWORK.
9. NEVERCHANGEABELTPOSITIONWHILSTITISRUNNING.
10. ALWAYS REMOVE CHIPS WITH A BRUSH OR OTHER SUITABLE MEANS AND NEVER WITH
HANDS OR FINGERS. NEVER ATTEMPT TO BLOW THEM AWAY. YOU MAY EASILY BLOW
THEMINTOTHEWORKINGPARTSOFMACHINEANDFARMOREEASILYANDLIKELYRECEIVE
SOMEINTHEEYES.
11. WHENYOULEAVETHEMACHINEALWAYSTURNOFFTHEPOWER.
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12. BEFOREPUTTINGONTHEPOWER,BESURETHATTHEWORKISSECURELYFASTENED.
13. WHILETHEMACHINEISRUNNINGNEVERTHROUGHTHEBACKGEAR.
14. DONOTWEARLOOSEGARMENTSWHILEWORKINGONAMACHINE.

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WELDINGSHOP

INTRODUCTIONTOWELDINGSHOP
The American Welding Society has made each welding process definition as complete as
possiblesothatitwillsufficewithoutreferencetoanotherdefinition.

The AWS definition for a welding process is "a materials joining process which produces
coalescence of materials by heating them to suitable temperatures with or without the
applicationofpressureorbytheapplicationofpressurealoneandwithorwithouttheuse
offillermaterial".

COPYRIGHTDEPARTMENTOFPRODUCTIONENGINEERING,BIT,MESRA,RANCHI
Weldingmaybealsodefinedasjoiningoftwopiecesofmetalsbyapplicationofheat,with
orwithoutapplicationofpressureandwithorwithoutadditionoffillermaterials.

Welding finds huge application in industry as a most efficient method of joining metals.
Welding is extensively used in construction or manufacture of automobile cars, aircrafts,
electronicequipments,shipsandbridgesetc.

Theheatsourcemaybe:

anelectricarc:asinelectricarcwelding.

agasflame:asingaswelding.

electricresistanceheating:asinresistancewelding.

Classificationofwelding:
Allweldingprocessescanbeclassifiedundertwobroadheadings:
PlasticWeldingorpressurewelding.
FusionWeldingornonpressurewelding
PlasticWeldingorpressurewelding:Inplasticwelding,thepiecesofmetaltobejoined
are heated to a plastic state and then forced together by external pressure. This
procedureisusedinresistancewelding,thermitweldingwherepressureisrequired.
FusionWeldingornonpressurewelding:Infusionweldingthemetalstobejoinedare
heatedtoamoltenstateandareallowedtosolidifytogetherintoaninseparablejoint.
Thisincludesallarcweldingandgasweldingprocesses.

ApplicationsofWelding:
Weldingisusedinindustryasaneffectivetoolintheformof

Regular method of production of metal structures and components for
automobile,aircraft,railwayandmanyotherconstructionindustries.
Aneasyandeffectivemethodofonsiterepairsandmaintenanceorrebuildingof
broken parts of a machine or structure. Industries, where welding finds most
extensiveuse,aregivenbelow:
Automobile and Transport industry wherein cars, trucks, jeeps and many other
transportationmachinesandequipmentsarefabricated.
Material handling equipment such as overhead cranes, jib cranes and tower
cranes are manufactured by welding along with their auxiliary equipment like
trolleys,liftingaidsandgadgets.
RailRoad industry wherein major fabrication and welding is involved in the
production of locomotive under frames, bogies, trolleys, railway bridges,
electrificationnetwork,signalingequipment,lightingtowers,platformshedsand
godowns,storagetanksandbodiesandframesofrailwaycoaches.
Bridgeconstructionindustryutilizesweldingasthemostpopularmeansofjoining
steelbridge components or structural, in a factory or at the construction site.
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 Joining of steel reinforcement for castin place concrete bridges is also done by
welding.
Ship building industry involves welding in the construction of ship body or
structures including decks, supporting girders and framework, platforms and
manyotherstructures.
Aircraft industry involves considerable use of welding for joining aircraft
components of alloy steels, stainless steels and aluminium alloys. Besides the
fabrication of the aircraft body, frames, mounts, fuel tanks, ducts and fittings,
welding is used for the production of allied equipment that help aircraft
operationsandmaintenancelikematerialhandlingsystems,transportmeansfor
manandluggage,sheds,fuelstoragetanksandmanysuchstructures.
ChemicalandPetroleumindustrymakegooduseofweldingforthefabricationof
plantandmachinery,stainlesssteelvesselsandstoragetanksbesidesmanyother
structures.
PressureVesselsandTanksareusedinvariousindustriesforstoringoffuel,and
otherliquids.Thesearemadebyweldingtogetherthebentsteelplates.Oil,gas
andwaterstoragetanksarealsosteelfabricated.
ManufacturingofMachinetoolsandproductiontoolsincludemassproductionof
machine tool frames, columns, beds and other auxiliary supports, press and die
equipment for cold and hot forming of steel and nonferrous metals. These
involveweldingasamajormeansoffabrication.

ToolsandSafetyEquipmentsinwelding:

Goggles: Goggles with glasses are used to protect the eyes of the welder from the light
sparksproducedduringwelding.
Face Shield: A face shield is also used to protect the eyes of the welder from the light
sparksproducedduringwelding.Itisnormallyheldinhand.

ChippingHammer:Achippinghammerisusedtoremoveslagswhichformduringwelding.

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GroundClamp:Itisconnectedtotheendofthegroundcable.Itisnormallyclampedtothe
weldingtableorthejobitselftocompletetheelectriccircuit.

Wirebrush:Thewirebrushisusedtocleanthesurfacetobewelded.

Electrode Holder: It is a device used for mechanically holding the electrode and
conductingcurrenttoit.

Edgepreparation:
To obtain sound welds, it is desirable that weld should completely penetrate the metal
thickness.Theheatwillnotbeabletomeltthejointedgestotheirentirethicknessitthick
platesaretobewelded.Completebecomesmoreimportantincaseofbuttjoints.Henceto
obtaingoodbuttjointsedgepreparationisrequired.Edgepreparationmayofthefollowing
types:

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Typesofweldedjoints:

Typesofweldingpositions:

AClassificationofcommonweldingprocesses:

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ARCWELDING:
Arc welding is a group of welding processes wherein coalescence is produced by heating
withanelectricarcorarcs,mostlywithouttheapplicationofpressureandwithorwithout
theuseoffillermetaldependinguponthebaseplatethickness.

EquipmentsusedinArcWelding:
Arcweldingpowersource.
Electrodesorweldingrods.
Electrodeholder
Cablesandcableconnectors.
Earthingclamp.
Chippinghammer.
Safetygoggles
Apron.
Handgloves.

ArcWeldingPowerSource:

During arc welding process a power source is required to maintain the arc between
electrodeandthe basemetal.Thepowersourcemaybe:D.CGenerator,A.Ctransformer
withD.Crectifier,A.C.transformer.

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D.C Generator: D.C Generator is run either by an electric motor or diesel engine. This
generatorssuppliesvoltageintherangeof15to50voltsandoutputcurrentisintherange
of200to600ampere.WhenD.C.currentisusedthepolaritieswillbefixed.Thetwotypes
ofpolaritiesthatareusedare:
DirectCurrentStraightpolarity(DCSP):Whenworkispositiveandelectrodeisnegative.
DirectCurrentReversePolarity(DCRP):Whenworkisnegativeandelectrodeispositive.
Astheheatgeneratedissplitintotwopartsintheratioof66%atthepositivepoleand33%
at the negative pole.Thereforefor welding thinmaterialstheworkis madenegative and
electrodepositive(DCRPisused).Forweldingheavy

ACTransformer:
ACtransformerchangeshighvoltageandlowamperagetolowvoltageandhighamperage.
Themainadvantageofthetransformerovergeneratorislowcostandeaseofoperation.
Sincetherearenomovingpartsintheequipmenttheoperationisnoiseless.The
disadvantageofthetransformeristhatthepolaritycannotbefixed.
ACTransformerwithDCrectifier:
Inthismachinethepowersuppliedisfirststeppeddownbymeansofatransformertothe
requiredvoltageandthensiliconcontrolledrectifiersareusedtoconvertACtoDC.

PrinciplesofMetalArcWelding/ShieldedMetalArcWelding(SMAW):

ShieldedMetalArcWelding(SMAW)isoneoftheoldest,simplestandmostversatileofall
weldingtechniquesandabout50%ofallindustrialapplicationandmaintenanceweldingis
performed by this. The process is generally used in construction, ship building, and for
maintenancework.TheSMAWprocessisbestsuitedforworkpieceofabout3to19mm,
althoughthisrangecaneasilybeextendedusingmultipass.
ShieldedMetalArcWeldingusesacoatedconsumableelectrode.Thiscoatingproducesa
gasshieldandslagtoprotecttheweldfromtheatmosphere.Thusthisweldingprocessis
calledshieldedmetalarcwelding.

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Tostartthearc,initiallythewelderhastobrieflytouchthetipoftheelectrodetothework
piecetocompletethecircuit.Thentheelectrodeisremovedtoaslightdistancefromthe
workpiece,thisinitiatesanarc.
The arc so produced generates intense heat which melts the tip of the electrode, the
coatingandaportionoftheadjacentbasemetal.Thismoltenmetalisallowedtosolidify
togethertoformasolidinseparablejoin.
Asthecoatingontheelectrodemeltsandvaporizes,itformsaprotectiveatmospherethat
stabilizes the arc and protects the molten and hot metal from contamination. Fluxing
constituentsuniteswithanyimpuritiesinthemoltenmetalandformslagwhichfloatson
the surface of the molten metal. This slag coating protects the hot molten metal from
oxidation and slowsdownthe cooling rateto prevent formation of hardbrittlestructure.
Theslagsolidifiesoverthemetalandistheneasilychippedfromtheweldwhenitiscooled.
InShieldedMetalArcWeldingbothACandDCcanbeused.

ArcweldingProcedure:
The surface to be welded is cleaned and the edges of the plates may be filed for
perfectjointandmorestrength.
Theweldingrodisheldintheelectrodeholderandthegroundclampisclampedto
theplatetobewelded.
The electric arc produced melts the welding rod and joins the two metal plates.
Maintainagapof3mmbetweentheplateandtheweldingrod.
Completetheweldingprocessbyremovingtheslagusingchippinghammer.

Symbolicrepresentationofdifferentweldjoint:
Symbolicrepresentationofsquarebuttweld

Symbolicrepresentationoflapweld

Symbolicrepresentationofteefilletweld

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Symbolicrepresentationofsingleveeweld

Symbolicrepresentationofdoubleveeweld

SAFETYPRECAUTIONSFORWELDINGSHOP
[16] INSTRUCTIONS AND PRINTED RULES COVERING OPERATIONS OF EQUIPMENT
SUPPLIEDBYTHEMANUFACTURERSHALLBESTRICTICALLYFOLLOWED.
[17] WORKINGAREAANFFLOORSHOULDBEKEPTCLEAN.
[18] BEFORE STARTING WELDING ENSURES THAT THE WELDING EQUIPMENT IS
ADEQUITELYEARTHED.

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[19] WELDERSSHOULDWEARDEYANFFIREPROOFPROTECTIVECLOTHS.
[20] TOPREVENTTHEARCRAYSFROMREACHINGHIS/HERBODY.
[21] ONESHOULDNOTLOOKATANELECTRICARCWITHTHENAKEDEYE.
[22] TOPREVENTWELDERHEADFROMRADIATION,SPATTERANDHOTSLAGAHELMET
ORHANDSHIELDMUSTBEWORN.
[23] WEARSHOESWHILEWORKINGINSHOP.
[24] NOINFLAMMABLEMATERIALSHOULDBEPRESENTINTHEWELDINGSHOP.
[25] WELDERSSHOULDNOTLEAVEELECTRODEHOLDERONTHETABLEORINCONTACT
WITHAGROUNDEDMETALLICSURFACE.
[26] WELDERSSHOULDMAKEUSEOFGOGGLESWITHCLEARGLASSESWHILEHE/SHEIS
CHIPPINGOFFSCALE,SLAGETC.
[27] IF YOU HAVE AN ACCIDENT, HOWEVER SLIGHT, REPORT IT TO YOUR INSTRUCTOR
IMMEDIATELY.

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CARPENTRYSHOP

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INTRODUCTIONTOCARPENTRYSHOP
The term carpentry is used with wood working. Wood works such as making wooden
partition,roofing,flooring,etc.arecarpentryworks.Tounderstandthis,basicknowledgeof
all the materials and tools used in carpentry is necessary. The term joinery is used with
makingofdoors,windows,woodenframes.Teak,Mahogany,Sal,Mango,Deodar, Padak,
etc.arethecommonlyusedwoodsincarpentryworks.

Inthisshopthestudentswillrequiredtostudythetools,machinesused,methodsofjoining
andprocessesemployedinthecarpentryshop.

STUDYOFTOOLSUSEDINCARPENTRYSHOP

Proper knowledge of tools and their use is a prerequisite for a skilled carpenter. The
followingarethecommonlyusedtoolsinthecarpentryshop.

MarkingandMeasuringTools

Marking and measuring tools are used to produce components to an exact size. The
commonlyusedtoolsaregivenbelow.

Carpenter'sfoldingrule:Itisusedtomeasureandmarkdimensions.Thecommonlyused
carpenter'sruleismadeofwood.Itconsistsoffourpieceseach150mmlongandhinged
together by means of pins and hinges. It is graduated, on both sides in millimeters,
centimetersandinches.Itcanbefoldedandcarriedeasily.

Steel rule: It is also used for measuring and marking dimensions. It is made of steel. It is
graduatedonbothsidesinmillimeters,centimetersandinches.Itisavailablein150mm(6
inches)and300mm(12inches)length.

COPYRIGHTDEPARTMENTOFPRODUCTIONENGINEERING,BIT,MESRA,RANCHI
Try square: It is used for marking and checking right angles. It consists of a steel blade
rivetedatrightanglestotheedgeofmachinedstock.Thestockwheninuseactsasafence
andthebladeasguideformarking.Thelengthofbladevariesfrom150mmto300mm.,

Bevelsquare:Itisalsocalledaslidinglevel.Itissimilartothetrysquarebuthasablade
thatcanbeswivelledtoanyanglefrom0to180degrees.

Mitresquare:Itissimilartoatrysquareinconstruction,butitsbladeisfittedtothestock
atanangleof45degrees.

Markinggauge:Itisusedformarkinglinesparalleltotheedgesofawoodenpiece.Ithas
one marking pin. After the stem has been set to the required position, its face is placed
againsttheedgeofthewoodenpiece.Themarkingpinispresseddownfirmlyandthestem
ismovedagainsttheedge.Itmarksalineparalleltotheedgeonthewoodenpiece.

CuttingTools

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Ripsaw:Itisusedforcuttingwood.Thebladeofripsawiseitherstraightorskewbacked.
Thebladeisfittedinawoodenhandle.Ripsawisabout700mmlongandcontains3to5
teethper25mmlength.Thecorrectangleforripsawingis60degrees.

Crosscut saw: It is similar in shapeto therip saw. Itisalsocalled hand saw. Sawing and
cuttingatrightanglestothegrainiscalledcrosscutting.Thecorrectangleforcrosscutting
is45degrees.Itis550to650mmlongcontaining6to8teethper25mm.

Tenon or back saw:It is usedfor fineand accurate work. It consists ofa veryfineblade,
whichisreinforcedwitharigidsteelback.Itslengthvariesfrom350mmto450mmwith10
to12teethper25mm.

Dovetailsaw:Itissimilartothetenonsawbutsmallerinsize.Thenumberofteethvaries
from 12 to 18 teeth per 25 mm. It is used for carpenting works such as making dovetail
joints.

ChiselsThesearecuttingtoolsusedforshapingandfittingwoodenpieces.Itconsistsofa
steelbladeandawoodhandle.Thedifferenttypesofchiselsusedincarpentryworksare
givenbelow.

Firmer chisel It is used by hand pressure or with a mallet for cutting square recesses in
woodenpieces.Ithasaflatbladeof5to25mmwidthand125mmlength.Theendofthe
bladeisbevelledtoformacuttingedge.

MortisechiselItisusedforcuttingheavypiecesormortises.Itconsistsofaheavyblade
withstrongshoulderandiscapableofwithstandingheavystrains.Ithasanironridgefitted
at the shoulder of the blade to absorb the heavy shock of the mallet. One side of the
mortisechiselisplanewhiletheothergraduallytaperstowardstheedge.Ithasalengthof
200to400mmandwidthof8to16mm.

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PlaningTools

These are used for smoothening plane surfaces. Some commonly used planes are given
below.

WoodenjackplaneThemainpartsofawoodenjackplanearestockorbody,nose,throat,
wedge,capiron,planeironandhandle.Thebottomofthestockisknownasthesolewhich
isperfectlysmooth.Thethroatinthestockisformedtoadjusttheironsandwedge.The
planeironisthemaincutterwhichcutsandsmoothensthewood.Thisisfittedinthestock
andisalwaysinclinedtoanangleof45degreeswiththesole.Thecapironisusedtostiffen
thecutterandpreventrattlingandbreakingduringuse.Jackplanesareavailablefromsizes
350to450mmlengthandthebladewidthvariesfrom50to75mm.

MetaljackplaneIthelpsasmootheroperationandproducesabetterfinishthanawooden
jack plane. The body of a metal jack plane is made from grey iron casting or steel. The
handleismadeofwoodandtheplaneironissecuredintheplanecasingbyascrew.

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StrikingTools:Toolslikechisels,nails,etc.requirepressurefromthetoptodrivetheminto
thewood.Thispressureisobtainedbystrikingoperationsusinghammersandmallets.

Crosspeenhammerorwarringtonhammer:Itismadeofforgedhighcarbonsteel.Ithasa
face,peenandahandle.Thehandleismadeofbambooandfittedtightlyintheeyewith
helpofawedgetoavoidanyslipoutwheninuse.Thesehammersareidentifiedbyweight
whichrangesfrom200gmto500gm.

Clawhammer:Thisservesboththepurposeofahammerandapairofpincers.Theclawis
used for pulling out nails. These hammers are classified according to their weights. The
weightofitsheadrangesfrom250gmto675gm.

Mallet:Ithasaflatastrikingfacewhichisusedtogivelightblowstotoolshavingwooden
handlelikechisel.Itismadeofhardwoodandisroundorrectangularincrosssection.

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BoringTools

These are used for making round holes in wood. Some commonly used boring tools are
givenbelow.

GimletItisusedformakingsmallholesinwood.Theseare oftwotypes:(a)plain gimlet

and(b)twistedgimlet.Ithasafluteandawoodenhandle.Itisheldinbothhands,rotated
andpressedsimultaneouslydownwardtoboreholes.Thescrewpointatthebottomactsas
apilotandhelpsincenteringthetool.

Auger It is used for making big holes in wood. It has a steel bar with fluted teeth and a
handle.Theupperportionofthebarisplainanditstopendformseyetofitinthehandle.It
canboreholesof25mmdiameter.

RatchetbraceItisadeviceusedforholdingdifferenttoolbittoproduceholesinwoods.It
consistsofacrankhavingahemisphericalwoodenheadatthetop,awoodenhandleinthe
middleandachucktoholdthetoolbitatthebottom.Theratchetarrangementisprovided
abovethechucktopermittherotationofthebitinonlyonedirection.Thebraceisrotated
bythehandandtheheadispresseddownwardtoproduceahole.

WheelbraceItisalsousedtoproduceaholeinwood.Itconsistsofaforgedbodyanda
woodenhandleatthetop.Thecentralportionconsistsoftwomeshinggearsandacrankto
rotatethechuckfittedatthebottomofthebrace.Thecrankisrotatedandthehandleis
presseddownwardtoproduceahole.Itismostlyusedtoproducesmallandaccurateholes
usingdifferentkindsofdrills.

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HoldingTools

Toenablethecarpentertoperformdifferentoperationsaccurately,theworkpieceisheld
firmly.

Carpenter'sbenchviceItisfixedinacarpenter'sbenchwhichisaheavytableofhardwood
usually3to3.5mlong,nearly70cmwideand70cmhigh.Itconsistsofafixedjawanda
movablejaw.Thefixedjawisrigidlyfittedonthebenchandthemovablejawismounted
on ascrewand twosliding rods.The screw headisprojected outsidethe movable jaw in
ordertocarryahandle.Thescrewworksinsideafixedhalfnutthatisengagedtomovethe
movableJaw.

CcramporGcrampItisusedtoholdsmallerworkpiece.Itconsistsofanironframeanda
screwwithahandlerodorthumbscrew.

MiscellaneousTools

COPYRIGHTDEPARTMENTOFPRODUCTIONENGINEERING,BIT,MESRA,RANCHI
RaspfileItisusedtofilecurvedsurfacesinwood.Itismadeofsteelandhassemicircular
crosssection. A rasp is also known as a wooden file as shown in fig. it has sharp cutting
teeth on its surface. A file,as shown in fig. (b) is used for giving a smooth finishing and
removingraspmarksorscratchesleftonthesurface.Filesusedinwoodworkingarehalf
round,doublecutandbastardfileswiththeirsizesvaryingfrom15to45cm.

PincerApincerasshownin fig.consistsoftwo steel forgedarmsandhingedcrosswise.

Thetwojawsarehardened,temperedandgroundsothattheirouterfacesareplaneand
innerfacesarelevelled.Onearmhasaballendandtheotherarmhasaclawend.Itisused
forpullingoutnailsfromwood.

ScrewdriverItisusedtoscrewandunscrewthescrews.Itisavailableinvariousshapesand
sizes.

CarpentryJointswhentwoormoresurfacesfromaclosefitting,itiscalledajoint.Joints
areclassifiedinto

1. Plainorbuttjoints

2. Lapjoints.

PlainorbuttjointsInthisjointoneendorsideofonepieceisplacedagainsttheendof
theother.Buttcanbefurtherclassifiedas(a)straightjoint(b)Cornerjoint

Lap joints In lap joints, two wooden pieces cross each other and at the same time
remaininthesameplane,sothatanevensurfaceisobtainedatthejoint.Lapjointscan
befurtherclassifiedas

1. Mortiseandtenonjoint

2. Lapdovetailjoint

3.Tlapjoint

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WOOD TURNING LATHE: It is one of the most important machines used in a carpentry
shop, employed primarily for turning parts. Parts manufactured by this machine are
cylindrical,sphericalandtaperedinshape.Awoodworkinglatheconsistsofarobustcast
iron body, main motor, cone pulley system, spindle, tool post, head stock, live and dead
centres and a speed control device. On a wood working lathe a wooden piece is rotated
betweentwocentresandasharpedgedtoolisheldinthetoolpost.Asworkpiecerotates
thecuttingtoolpassesacrossitandremovetheextramaterialthusprovidingitthedesired
shape.

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CircularSaw

Thecircularsawisthemostimportantsinglemachineusedinthecarpentryshop.Itisused
for a large number of operations like cross cutting, leveling, and grooving. Circular saw
consistofacastirontable,acircularcuttingblade,mainmotor,elevatinghandwheeland
tiltinghandwheelasshowinfig..

BandSaw

Abandsawconsistoftwowheelsofequaldiameter,aframetable,sawguider,sawtension
arrangement,wheelguardandendlesssteelbladehaveteethoverit..

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SAFETYPRECAUTIONSFORCARPENTRYSHOP

1.NEVERWEARLOOSECLOTHES.

2. WHILE WORKING WITH CUTTING TOOLS LIKE CHISELS MAKE SURE THAT CUTTING IS
PERFORMEDINTHEDIRECTION,AWAYFROMTHEBODY.

3. ALWAYSUSESAWELLSHARPENEDTOOL.ABLUNTTOOLNOTONLYTAKESMORETOOL
NOT ONLY TAKES MORE TIME BUT THERE ARE CHANCES OF SLIPPING THAT MAY
RESULTINACCIDENTS.

4. NEVERKEEPBOARDSOROTHERPIECESCARRYINGNAILSONTHEFLOOR.

COPYRIGHTDEPARTMENTOFPRODUCTIONENGINEERING,BIT,MESRA,RANCHI
5. ALWAYSKEEPTHETOOLSATPROPERPOSITIONWHENNOTINUSE.THEYSHOULDNOT
BESCATTEREDONTHEBENCHORWORKFLOOR.

6. KEEPTHEFLOORAREAFREEFROMOBSTRUCTIONS.

7. OPERATE THE MACHINE ONLY WITH THE PERMISSION OF THE SHOP INCHARGE OR
WHENYOUAREFAMILIARWITHIT.

8. ALWAYSKEEPTHESHOPFLOORCLEANANDFREEFROMDEBRISORSCRAP.

9. HOLDTHEJOBFIRMLYWITHCLAMPINGDEVICESWHILEWORKINGONMACHINES.

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FORGINGSHOP

INTRODUCTIONTOFORGINGSHOP

COPYRIGHTDEPARTMENTOFPRODUCTIONENGINEERING,BIT,MESRA,RANCHI
Forging consists of plastic deformation of the metals at elevated temperatures into the
predeterminedshapesandsizesusingcompressiveforcesexertedthroughforgingdiesbya
hammer,pressoranyothermeans.Theprocessrefinesthestructureofthemetalsrenders
it stronger by setting the direction of grains. It can be classified as: Hand Forging and
MechanicalForging.Handforgingiscarriedoutwiththehelpofhandtoolsandislimitedto
smallercomponents.Ontheotherhand,themechanicalforgingconsistsofforgingcarried
out with the help of mechanical equipments such as drop hammers, steam hammers,
pneumatichammers,varioustypesofpresses(screwpresses,hydraulicpressesandsteam
presses)etc.

TOOLS&EQUIPMENTS:

1. Forge or Hearth: It is used for heating the job in hand forging by use of some form of
furnace known as forge or hearth. It consists of a hearth for holding combustible coke, a
tuyereforleadingforcedairinthehearth,ablowerforsupplyingairunderslightpressure
andaproperlydesignedchimneyandductforcarryingawaythesmokeandgasesproduced
by the combustion. Generally, a small water tank is also provided along with hearth for
quenchingpurposes.

2.Anvil:Itisaheavyblockofironorsteelonwhichtheheatedmetalisforgedwithweight
SMITHS FORGE
of about 80 to 300 Kg. it is mounted on a heavy block of wood embedded in the soil to
which it is secured by spikes or clamps. Usually, the body of anvil is provided with a
hardenedtop20to25mmthick.HornorBeakprovidedononesideisusedforbending
orformingcurvedshapes.Facesisusedforalltypesofforgingoperations,whereasTail
isprovidedwithtwoholes.OneissquarecalledHardieHole,whichisusedforsecuring
theshanksofvarioustoolssuchashardies,swagesetc.Theotherholeisroundandknown
asPritchelHole,whichisusedforpunchingholes.Theledgebetweentheanvilfaceand
beakisoftencalledChippingBlock,whichisusedforrestingmetal,whilecuttingthrough
achisel.

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SWAGE BLOCK

3.SwageBlock:Itisablockofcastironorsteelcarryingnumberofholesforholdingbars
duringbendingoperationsetc,aswellasnumberofslotsofvariouscrosssectionsalongits
foursidefaces.Itisuseforpunchingholesinforgingsandissupportedatasuitableheight
onastand,whichcanholditbothflatwiseandedgewise.Slotsprovidedatfoursidesare
usedforshapingandsmootheningtheforgings.Itisusedforreducingorfinishingthejobto
roundorhexagonalformandaremadewithhalfgroovesofdimensionsoftheworkpieceto
bemade.Thesearemadeupofhighcarbonsteelintwohalves;tophalfandbottomhalf,
whichmaybeseparateormaybeconnectedbyastripofspringsteel.

4. Fuller: It is used for drawing out the metal of the forging and finishing grooves and
concavesurfaces.Thesearemadeofhighcarbonsteelintwohalves;bottomhalfisheldin
hardieholeandtophalfisheldbysmithandstruckbyhisassistant.

5.FlatterorSmoother:Ithasasquarebodyfittedwithahandle,aflatsquarebottomand
FULLERS

areusedforlevelingandfinishingflatsurfacesintheforgings.

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6. Punch and Drift: Punch is a tapered tools made in various sizes and shapes used for
producing holes in the forgings supported on the anvil. Drift is a large sized punch for
enlargingpreviouslypunchedholestothedesiredsizes.

Work Piece

(a). PUNCH (b). DRIFT

7. Hammer: It constitute the principal striking tools used in hand forging

operations.Theyaremadeofforged steelandmaybeclassifiedintotwotypes;
HandHammersandSledgeHammers.Ingeneral,thehammershavethefollowing
parts; pein, eye, cheeks and striking face. Sett Hammer is used for finishing
cornersandconfinedspaces.

DOUBLE ENDED SLEDGE HAMMER SETT HAMMER

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8.Chisel:Itisusedforcuttingthemetalinhotorcoldstateandthus,knownashotorcold
chisels subsequently. Cold chisel is made of high carbon steel and has its edge hardened
andtemperedwithanangleofabout600,whereasahotchiselismadeofmediumcarbon
steel and has an angle of about 300, not necessarily hardened. The chisels are used in
conjunctionwithabottomtoolcalledHardie,whosesquareshankisfixedintheHardie
Holeontheanvilface.

(a)

(a). COLD CHISEL (b). HOT CHISEL

9.Tong:Itisusedforholdingtheworkduringforgingoperationsandconsistsoftwopieces
ofmildsteelbarsrivetedtogetheratthehinge.Theycanbeclassifiedasflat,roundhollow,
squarehollow,pincertongsdependingupontheshapesofthejaws.

a).closeflattong b).hollowbittong c).pincertong

d).ducknecktong e).hoptong f).angletong

g).picktong h).linktong i).shinglingtong

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10.Gauge:Itisawedgeshapedtoolhavingcurvedcuttingedgeandisusedtocutalonga
curvesimilartochisel.

11. BickIron: It has the same shape as that of anvil but smaller in size. It has one horn
(bick),oneflattaperedtailattheotherendandonetaperedsquareshankfittingthehardie
holeoftheanvil.

BICK IRON

12.Blower:Itisusedtoblowtheairinthefurnaceforfiringcoalandisoperatedeitherby
handorbypower.

13.Shovel:Itisusedtoputcoalinthefurnace,toremoveashfromthesurfaceandtoset
thecoalpiecesinthefurnace.

14.PokerandRake:Pokerisusedtoremovetheclinkerfromthefurnaceandtoloosenthe
compactcoalpiecesinthefurnaces.Rakeisusedtoplacecoalpiecesonthetuyere.

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HARDIES

SAFETYPRECAUTIONSFORFORGINGSHOP
1. ALWAYSWEARPROPERCLOTHES,FOOTWEARANDGOGGLES.
2. TONGGRIPSHOULDBERIGID,ESPECIALLYATTHETAPEREDENDOFTHEJOB;
3. ALWAYSUSEPROPERTONGSACCORDINGTOTYPEOFWORK;
4. HAMMERING SHOULD BE PROPER DURING TAPERING TO AVOID JUMPING OF THE
WORKPIECE;
5. THE HANDLE OF HAMMER SHOULD BE TIGHTLY FITTED IN THE HEAD OF THE
HAMMER;
6. THEANVILSHOULDBEFREEFROMMOISTUREANDGREASEBEFOREUSE;
7. WORKPIECEMATERIALMUSTBEHEATEDTOPROPERTEMPERATURETOCARRYOUT
THEOPERATIONSEFFICIENTLY;
8. HANDLETHEHEATEDPARTSANDSTOCKCAREFULLY;
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9. USELIGHTHAMMERBLOWSFORFINISHINGOPERATIONS;
10. DONOTUSEHEAVYHAMMERSFORBENDINGOPERATIONS;
11. STAND ALWAYS IN A POSITION, SUCH THAT CHIPS, SCALES ETC. DO NOT STRIKE OR
HITBODYPARTS.

END

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