2nd Sem 1st Unit Part 3 of 3 by Shuja (R)

Unit-I (Part-3/3)
Content by: Shuja Hussain

hakimshuja@gmail.com
Govt. Degree College, Anantnag (Kashmir)
STUDY MATERIAL (CBCS) FOR BG ELECTRONICS
2ND-SEMESTER (SESSION: 2016)
Comparator
An analog comparator compares two voltage levels, or one voltage level with some preset
reference voltage, Vref, and produces an output signal based on this voltage comparison. In other
words, the comparator compares the magnitudes of two input voltages and determines which
one is the larger of the two.
An op-amp comparator circuit that compares two input voltages V1 and V2 is shown in the circuit
below. No feedback is used.
The output of an op-amp is given by:
= (1 2 )
Or,
=
Where Ad is the open-loop gain of the op-amp and Ad = V1 V2 is the differential input.
Since Ad is very large, typically in excess of 100,000, even a very small differential input will result
in output attaining one of the two limiting saturation (biasing) level, +VCC or VCC depending on
the polarity of the differential input Ad.
CONTENT BY: SHUJA HUSSAIN 31

Now, let us assume that V1 > V2. The differential input Vd is positive, and since Ad is very large,
output will be limited to +VCC.
Again, when V2 > V1. The differential input Vd is negative output will be limited to -VCC.
Thus the output can have one of only two possible values, i.e. +VCC or VCC, depending on
whether V1 > V2 or V1 < V2.
Comparator with Reference Voltage
Sometimes we need to detect whether an input voltage is more or less than a given reference
constant voltage (VREF), or if the input is a varying signal, when it crosses that reference level.
The output of an op-amp is given by:
= (1 2 )
Where Ad is the open-loop gain of the op-amp and Ad = V1 V2 is the differential input.
= (1 2 )

In this case V2 = VREF. Therefore,
= (1 )
Now, when V1 > VREF. The differential input Vd is positive, and since Ad is very large, output
will be limited to +VCC.
Again, when V1 < VREF. The differential input Vd is negative output will be limited to -VCC.
Thus depending on the magnitude of V1 w.r.t VREF the output will attain one of two possible
values, i.e. +VCC or VCC.
Zero-Crossing Detector
Zero-crossing detector is an application of comparator used to determine when an input voltage

crosses the zero-level. The input signal is applied to one of the input terminals (non-inverting
terminal in the figure) and the other terminal is grounded. The op-amp is used in open loop
without any feedback. Since the open-loop gain is very large, a very small difference voltage
between the two inputs drives the output into either of the two possible saturation (bias) levels,
depending upon the polarity of the differential input. Whenever the input signal crosses the zero
mark, the output switch from one saturation level to other.

Figure shows the result of a sinusoidal input. When the sine wave is positive, the output is at its
maximum positive level (+VCC). When the sine wave crosses 0, the output is driven to its opposite
state and the output goes to its maximum negative level (-VCC).

Introduction to Active Filters
Filters are circuits that are capable of passing signals with certain selected frequencies while
rejecting signals with other frequencies. This property of filters is called selectivity.
The passband of a filter is the range of frequencies that are allowed to pass through the filter.
Stopband is the range of frequencies that are stopped from passing through. Cut-off frequency
(also called critical or break frequency) defines the boundary between passband and stopband.
In terms of general response, the four basic categories of active filters are low-pass, high-pass,
band-pass, and band-stop (or Band-reject).
Low Pass Filter
A Low Pass Filter passes frequencies from dc to cut-off frequency (fH) and blocks all other
frequencies.
High Pass Filter
A high-pass filter is one that blocks all frequencies below and passes all frequencies above the cut-
off frequency.
Band Pass Filter

A band-pass filter passes all signals within a frequency band, between a lower cut-off frequency
and an upper cut-off frequency and rejects all other frequencies that are outside this specified
band.
Band Reject Filter
A band-reject filter blocks a band of frequencies between lower cut-off and upper cut-off
frequencies and passes other frequencies.
This is also known as Band Stop, Band Elimination or Notch Filter.
IDEAL FILTER
In an Ideal filter, there is a sharp transition between passband and stopband at the cut-off
frequency. The ideal response is sometimes referred to as a brick-wall because nothing gets
through beyond the wall at cut-off frequency.

PRACTICAL FILTER
The above ideal response is not attainable by any practical filter. In a real filter, there is a region
called transition region between the passband and the stopband. The response changes at a
steady rate called Roll-Off. The roll-off rate, which is generally measured in dB/decade, depends
on the order of the filter (or number of Poles), which in turn depends on the number of RC circuits
used in the filter. Higher the order of the filter, faster is the roll-off rate.
Since there is no sharp transition between the passband and the stopband, the cut-off frequency
is specified at the point where the response drops 70.7% (or 3dB) from the passband response.

Active Filters
Active filters use transistors or op-amps combined with passive RC, RL, or RLC circuits. The active
devices provide voltage gain and other benefits, while the passive circuits provide frequency
selectivity.
Active filter have the following advantages over passive filters:
1. Due to the gain provided by the active element like an op-amp, signal is not attenuated.
2. Due to the high impedance provided by the op-amp, there is no loading on the source.
3. Low output impedance provided by the op-amp ensures that the filter can drive a number
of other devices at its output.
4. Active filters are easier to tune.
5. Active filter can be designed without the bulky and costlier inductors and are hence lighter
and cheaper.
6. Active filters are easier to fabricate in integrated form.
Active Low-Pass Filter
The figure shows a first-order (single pole) active low-pass filter with single frequency selective
RC circuit.
Since current drawn by the ideal op-amp input is zero, we have

=
(1 )
1
= ( + )

Now,
1
=
1 +
Therefore,
1 1
=( )( + )
1 +
1 + 1
=( )( )
1 + 1
But,
1 +
=
1

=
Therefore,
1
() =
(1 + )
Or,

() =
(1 + )
..(1)
Where,
1
= ()

..(2)
=
Or,
1
= ()
2
..(3)
From eq(1) we find that the transfer function of the filter circuit is frequency dependent and the
amplitude will decrease with increase in the frequency.
The magnitude of eq(1) is:

| ()| =
1 + ( )2
..(4)
And its phase angle is:
= tan1 ( )
..(5)

Case (1)
At lower frequencies ( << H), the denominator of eq(4) approaches 1. Substituting = 0 in
eq(4) we get:

| ()| =
1 + 0
| ()| =
Thus, low frequency signals appear at the output with a constant gain of AVF.
Case (2)
At cut-off frequency, = H, eq(4) the reduces to:

| ( )| =
1 + 1
Or,

| ( )| =
2
| ( )| = 0.707
Thus at = H, output will reduce to 70.7% of its maximum value of AVF.

Case (3)
At higher frequencies ( >> H), the denominator of eq(4) approaches infinity. Substituting
= in eq(4) we get:

| ()| =
1 +
| ()| = 0
Thus, at higher frequencies the output reduces to zero.

Active High-Pass Filter
The figure shows a first-order (single pole) active high-pass filter with single frequency selective
RC circuit.

Since current drawn by the ideal op-amp input is zero, we have

=
(1 )

=

1
= ( + 1)

Now,
1
=
1 +
Therefore,
1 1 +
= ( )( )
1 +
Or,
1 +
=( )( )
1 1 +
But,
1 +
=
1
=
Therefore,

() =
(1 + )
1
() =

(1 )

1
() =

(1 )
..(1)
Where,
1
= ()

..(2)
=
Or,
1
= ()
2
..(3)
From eq(1) we find that the transfer function of the filter circuit is frequency dependent and the
amplitude will increases with increase in the frequency.
The magnitude of eq(1) is:

| ()| =
1 + ()2
..(4)
And its phase angle is:

= tan1 ( )
..(5)
Case (1)
At lower frequencies ( << L), the denominator of eq(4) approaches infinity. Substituting =
0 in eq(4) we get:

| ()| =
1 +
| ()| = 0
Thus as the frequency reduces below L, the output approaches zero.

Case (2)
At cut-off frequency, = L, eq(4) the reduces to:

| ( )| =
1 + 1
Or,

| ( )| =
2
| ( )| = 0.707
Thus at = L, output will reduce to 70.7% of its maximum value of AVF.

Case (3)
At higher frequencies ( >> L), the denominator of eq(4) approaches 1. Substituting = in
eq(4) we get:

| ()| =
1 + 0
| ()| =
Thus, higher frequency signals appear at the output with a constant gain of AVF.

2nd Sem 1st Unit Part 3 of 3 by Shuja (R)

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2nd Sem 1st Unit Part 3 of 3 by Shuja (R)

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Unit-I (Part-3/3)

Content by: Shuja Hussain

The output of an op-amp is given by:

CONTENT BY: SHUJA HUSSAIN 31

Comparator with Reference Voltage

CONTENT BY: SHUJA HUSSAIN 32

In this case V2 = VREF. Therefore,

Zero-crossing detector is an application of comparator used to determine when an input voltage

CONTENT BY: SHUJA HUSSAIN 33

CONTENT BY: SHUJA HUSSAIN 34

Introduction to Active Filters

Band Pass Filter

CONTENT BY: SHUJA HUSSAIN 35

CONTENT BY: SHUJA HUSSAIN 36

Active Low-Pass Filter

Since current drawn by the ideal op-amp input is zero, we have

CONTENT BY: SHUJA HUSSAIN 38

CONTENT BY: SHUJA HUSSAIN 39

Thus at = H, output will reduce to 70.7% of its maximum value of AVF.

Thus, at higher frequencies the output reduces to zero.

CONTENT BY: SHUJA HUSSAIN 40

Active High-Pass Filter

CONTENT BY: SHUJA HUSSAIN 41

Since current drawn by the ideal op-amp input is zero, we have

CONTENT BY: SHUJA HUSSAIN 42

And its phase angle is:

Thus as the frequency reduces below L, the output approaches zero.

Thus at = L, output will reduce to 70.7% of its maximum value of AVF.

CONTENT BY: SHUJA HUSSAIN 44

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