Industrial

Instrumentation
Lecture 2
Measurement of Pressure

Module II
Units of pressure – manometers – different types – elastic type pressure
gauges –Bourdon tubes– bellows – diaphragms – Electrical methods – elastic
elements with LVDT and strain gauges –capacitive type pressure gauge –
Piezo resistive pressure sensor – capacitive type– resonator pressure
sensor.
Measurement of high pressure. Low pressure measurements – McLeod
gauge – thermal conductivity gauges –Ionization gauge– hot cathode and
cold cathode types – testing and calibration of pressure gauges – dead
weight tester– Differential pressure transmitter.

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Pressure

Pressure = Force / Area

Stress ( Solids )

Pressure ( Liquids and Gasses )
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Measurement of Pressure

Not an independent variable

Derived from force and area

Depends on other factors like elevation,
density, temperature, flow etc

Usually expressed in terms of atmosphere

Height of barometric column at 0º C at sea
level

76 cm of mercury

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Units

SI unit – Pascal – Metric Units

1 psi = 6894.76 Pa

1 Pa = 1 Newton/m2

1 atm = 10,332 Kg/m2

1 Torr = 1 mm of Hg

Pounds per square inch (psi) –
British Units

Pressure = Height x Density x g

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Units

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Terms and definitions

Density : Mass per unit volume of a material (Kg/m3)

Specific weight : Weight per unit volume (N/m3)

Specific gravity : Ratio of the density of a material to that of

water/air ( dimensionless )

Static Pressure : Pressure of fluids and gasses when not moving

Total vacuum : which is zero pressure or lack of pressure, as

would be experienced in outer space

Vacuum : Pressure measurement made between total vacuum

and normal atmospheric pressure (14.7 psi)

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Terms and definitions

Absolute pressure is the pressure measured with respect to a
vacuum and is expressed in pounds per square inch absolute
(psia)

Gauge pressure is the pressure measured with respect to

atmospheric pressure and is normally expressed in pounds per
square inch gauge (psig)

Differential pressure is the pressure measured with respect to

another pressure and is expressed as the difference between
the two values

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Manometers

Low range pressures

Simplest and accurate

Within 2 Kg/cm2

Differential pressure

U-tube

Well type

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Manometers

Inexpensive

Clear plastic / Glass

Inclined manometers –
increased sensitivity and
resolution

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Manometers

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Manometers

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Ring balance manometer

•Hollow ring ( transparent polythene tube)

•Manomeric fluid ( paraffin or kerosene )
•∆pαr=RMg sinθ
•∆p= kθ
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Manometer fluids

•Should have high density ( not for low p)

•Low vapour pressure
•Freely movable
•Incompressible
•Chemically inert
•Non sticky
•Surface tension errors

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Elastic type pressure gauges

•Bourdon tubes or pressure springs

•Bellows
•Diaphragms
8/13/2009 •3 to 6 MPa bellows and diaphragms 15
Bourdon tube pressure gauge
•Eugene Bourdon ( 1849 )
•Changes shape when pressure is applied
•Bellows
•Diaphragms
•3 to 6 MPa bellows and diaphragms
•C-type, spiral type, twisted tube type and helical
•The free end of bourdon tube produces
displacement or rotation on application of pressure
•Can be converted to electric signals using LVDT
•Usually called as bourdon gauges
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Bourdon tube pressure gauge

•Elliptical cross section

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•C shaped ( Arc length of 27º ) 17
Bourdon tube pressure gauge

•(a) C-type
•(b) spiral type
•(c) twisted tube type
•(d) helical type

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Bourdon tube pressure gauge

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Bourdon tube pressure gauge

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Bourdon tube pressure gauge
•Tip movement is nonlinear ( compound stress )
•Linear – for small tip movements
•Tip movement must match rotational movement
•Multiplication, angularity adjusted by the lever length
•Rotation inversely proportional to lever length
•Good elasticity gives better repeatability
•Elasticity sensitive to temperature
•Phosphor-bronze, silicon-bronze, beryllium-copper, Nickel
alloys, chromium alloys

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Bourdon tube pressure gauge
∆Ф = KФP f(α
α,β,t,R)/E
∆Ф = Tip deflection
Ф = Arc Length
P = Applied Pressure
α = Width of bourdon element
β = Height of bourdon element

t = Thickness of bourdon element

R = Radius of the bourdon arc
E = Elastic modulus of the element
Sensitivity (S) = ∆Ф / ФP
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Diaphragm pressure gauge

•Used for low pressure measurements

•A thin disk of material, Blows outwards
•Converted to twisting or rotational motion
•Mostly metals with spring type

8/13/2009 •Cascading capsules increases sensitivity 23

Diaphragm pressure gauge

•Slack diaphragms ( less elastic )

•Used along with coil spring or elastic elements
•For very low pressure
•Animal skin, impregnated silk, Teflon, Polythene etc

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Diaphragm pressure gauge
•Corrugations improves strength and linear deflection
•Deflection depends on diameter, number, depth and thickness
•Doubling diameter increases deflection 16 times

Deflection (d) = kN(∆P)Dntm/E

N = Number of corrugations
∆P = Applied pressure
D = Diameter of the element
T = Thickness of the element
E = Modulus of elasticity
Usually n=4 and m= -1.5
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Bellows Element gauge

•Thin walled cylindrical shells with deep convolutions

•Cascaded capsules sealed at one end, with axial displacement
•Made from continuous piece of thin metal
•Fastening several individual diaphragms
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Bellows Element gauge
•Turning from a solid stock of material ( low hysteresis )
•Soldering or welding stamped annular rings ( high hysteresis )
•Rolling a tubing
•Hydraulically forming a drawn tubing
•Maximum stroke length and maximum pressure
•Stroke length can be increased by increasing diameter and folds
•Phosphor bronze, silicon bronze, beryllium copper, stainless steel
•Low corrosion, hysteresis loss, pressure range, ease of fabrication

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Bellows Element gauge
•Used with separate
calibrating springs
•Compression type
•Expansion type
•Receiver elements
•Used in pneumatic loops

d = P1αe/(kb+ks)
αe= effective area
kb and ks are spring constants

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Electrical methods
•Resistive, Inductive and capacitive
•Pressure sensitive resistance ( Piezoresistive )
•Elastic elements with strain gauges
•Stretched or compressed
•Resistance changes ( length )
•Primary and secondary

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Resistive type

•Silicon wafer as diaphragm and gauge

•Excellent mechanical property (linear)
•Non chemical compatibility
•Isolating diaphragm needed
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 Resistive type

•Arrangement for high sensitivity

•Temperature compensation

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 Resistive type

•Bourdon tube, Diaphragm (elastic elements) as primary sensing element

•Potentiometer as the secondary sensing element
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 Resistive type

•Bellows ( elastic element ) and manometer tube as primary sensing element

•Potentiometer as the secondary sensing element

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 Resistive type

•Resistance ratio element gauge

•Bellows as primary and strain gauge as the secondary sensing element

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 Resistive type

•Bridgman type ( primary )

•Pressure from all sides, changes the resistance
•Rp = R0(1+β∆P) , where β = pressure coefficient of resistance
•Used at high pressures ( small β ) and constant temperature (temperature coefficient
of resistance)
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Inductive type

•Elastic elements with LVDT

•Deflection of the diaphragm/bellows moves the core

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Inductive type

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Inductive type
•Reluctance of the coil is altered
•Coils have equal number of turns
•When P1 = P2, e0 = 0
•P1 ≠ P2,
e iKx
e0 =
2(R 0 + Kd)
e 0 ∝ ∆p

•R0 = Initial reluctance of the coil

•x = small displacement of diaphragm
•d = Initial distance between coil and diaphragm
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 Capacitive type

•Movable steel diaphragm

•Spherical depression of 0.0025cm
Ex
e 0 = e1 ~ e 2 =
d
x = displacement of diaphragm
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d = diameter of diaphragm 39
Capacitive type

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Capacitive type

•Cylindrical capacitor
•Very small change in
capacitance
•0.5% change for 10Mpa change
•Only used at high pressures
•Used along with resonance ckts

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 Piezoelectric type
•Discovered in 1880 by the Jacques and Pierre Curie brothers
•Certain crystals produce e.m.f when deformed
•Applying pressure along certain axes
•Charge asymmetry within crystal
•Inverse piezoelectric effect ( electric -> mechanical )
•Natural ( Quartz, Tourmaline )
•Synthetic ( Barium titanate, Lead Zirconate )
•Natural crystals are polarized
•Synthetic crystals baked under strong D.C field for polarization
•Direction sensitive

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Piezoelectric type

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Piezoelectric type

•Electric axes (X), Mechanical axes (Y)

•Synthetic crystals can be moulded into any shape or size
•Mostly used for dynamic pressure measurements
•Surface charge proportional to applied force
•Q = d F , d is the charge sensitivity of the crystal

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Piezoelectric type
ε 0 εr A
C=
t
Q dF
E0 = = ( )t
C ε 0 εr A
E0 = gpt

A = Area
d = Charge sensitivity
F = Applied force
t = Thickness of the crystal
g = Voltage sensitivity
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Piezoelectric type

•Quartz is the most stable

•Lower temperature stability, good sensitivity, linearity
•Low hysterisis, chemically inert, elastic nature
•PZT are small in size, light weight and rugged
•Pressure range 1:105
•Temperatures upto 350°C
•Smart sensors ( amplifiers and signal conditioner packed together )
•Not suitable for steady state pressures or slow varying pressures

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Comparison of pressure sensors

Type Pressure range Frequency range Linearity

Manometer Up to 0.2MPa 1 to 2Hz Linear

Ring Balance Up to 0.2MPa 0.1 to 1Hz Non-Linear

Elastic Element 2 to 700MPa 1 to 100Hz Approx-Linear

Strain gauge on 0 to 200MPa Upto 2KHz Linear

diaphragm
LVDT with elastic 0 to 70MPa Upto 400Hz Linear
element
Capacitance 0 to 10MPa Upto 3KHz Non-Linear

Piezo electric 0 to 70MPa Upto 10KHz Made Linear

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Low pressure measurement
•Conventional methods unable to measure very low pressures
•Low pressures are measured in torr
•Classified into mechanical and electrical types

Type Lowest measurable pressure (Torr)

Manometer 0.1

Bellows 0.1

Bourdon tube 10

Diaphragm 10-3

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 Mechanical Type
•McLeod gauge
•Compress a small quantity of low
pressure
•P = K h2
•Independent of gas composition
•Error if condensable gas present
•Not suitable for continuous
measurement
•Non linear scale
•Lowest pressure 10-4 torr
•Mercury vaporizes below this value

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 Thermal Type
•At normal pressure heat conductivity is independent of pressure
•At low pressures, heat conductivity starts falling
•Due to low availability of gas molecules
•Lesser number of molecules take part in carrying away the heat
•Thermal gauges utilizes this lowering of heat conduction
•Heat loss due to conduction, convection and radiation must be small
•Convection loss is negligible
•Conduction loss due to lead wires minimized by proper construction
•Radiation loss minimized by low emissivity metal
•Surface deterioration due to oxidation and carbonization

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 Pirani gauge
•Coiled tungsten or platinum wires
•Current of about 10 to 100 mA
passed ( 70 to 400°C )
•Gauge is connected to one arm of
bridge circuit
•At low pressures, the heat
conduction is low, increasing the
temperature of the filament (PTC).
• Three modes- Constant voltage,
constant current and null balance

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 Pirani gauge
•In constant voltage mode, the
current versus pressure is obtained
•In the constant current mode,
variation of the resistance with
pressure is obtained
•Voltage or current is adjusted using
potentiometer for a null reading and
this change in voltage or current is
the measure of the pressure
•Pirani gauge is composition
dependent and require calibration
•Can measure up to 10-3 torr
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 Thermocouple gauge
•Temperature of the hotwire (H) is
now directly measured by
thermocouple (C)
•A constant current is passed
through the heating element
•High impedance voltmeter gives
the reading directly
•Sensitivity is proportional to the
current and pressure
•Mainly used for comparison
purposes
•Composition dependent
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Thermocouple gauge

Sensitivity maximum at 10-2 torr for I=22.3 mA

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Ionization gauge
•Hot cathode type and cold cathode type
•A potential difference is impressed across a column of gas
•The applied voltage is kept above ionization potential of gas
•Free electrons from cathode are accelerated
•The electrons collide with the gas molecules creating +ve ions
•At low pressures more than one collision is unlikely
•Rate of production of positive ions is proportional to pressure
•Sensitivity of the gauge is given by
ip
S=
Pig

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Ionization gauge
•The grid is maintained at higher positive potential
w.r.t cathode and plate
•Plate is kept negative w.r.t cathode
•Positive ions generated between plate and grid are
collected by the plate
•And positive ions between plate and cathode are
collected by cathode
•Internal control type and external control types
•Plate and grids interchanged

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Ionization gauge
•Pressure ranges between 10-8 to 19-3 torr
•Negligible response time
•Sensitivity higher for external control type
•Internal control type have more linear range
•Gases with higher molecular weights yields more
ion currents
•More than 10-3 torr, positive ions make greater
impact on cathode and heats up
•Internal control type is more temperature stable
than External type, due to cancellation by
secondary electrons
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 Ionization gauge
•Cold cathode type
•Philips cold cathode ionization gauge
( PIG)
•Pair of cathodes and a hollow anode
•Magnetic field helps ionization
•Potential above 2KV applied
•Electric field initiates electron emission
•The current produced is not linear with
pressure, due to interaction of +ve ions
•Pressures upto 10 -5 torr

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 Ionization gauge
•Rectangular box type insulated titanium anodes
•Electrodes are very thin and arranged as cells
•Separation between crate and cathode is small
•Potential in the range of 5KV is applied
•Electrons are emitted from cathode and move
towards anode, creating positive ions ( collision
with gas molecules)
•These created +ve and –ve ions create large
current in external circuit
•Pressures as low as 10 -9 torr can be measured

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 Ionization gauge

•Radioactive ionization gauge

•Alphatron
•10 -13 to 10 -9 A flows through R

•Radioactive ionization gauge uses alpha particles to ionize the gas

•Ions formed are collected by the electrode is propotional to the pressure
•A high impedence meter is used to measre the voltage
•Pressures from 103 to 10 -3 torr can be measured

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 Testing and calibration
•Dead weight pressure gauge
•Used for testing and calibrating pressure gauges
•Pascal’s law ”A change in the pressure of an enclosed incompressible fluid is
conveyed undiminished to every part of the fluid and to the surfaces of its
container ”
•It consist of a handle operated piston, hollow cylinder with measuring piston, oil
reservoir and needle valves
•The cylinder is filled with oil
•Handheld piston is drawn out and oil is allowed to fill the system
•Suitable weights are placed on the piston
•Gauge for testing is connected and piston is moved so that the weight just floats
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Dead weight pressure gauge

•p – pA is gauge pressure
•Accuracy is 0.01%

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Differential pressure
Transmitter

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