1

InKulturgeschichten. Altorientalistische Studien fr Volkert Haas Zum 65. Geburtstag,edited

byThomasRichter,DorisPrechelandJrgKlinger,179-89.Saarbrcken:Saarbrcker
DruckereiundVerlag,2002.

SomeThoughtsonMerchantsandTradeintheHittiteKingdom
HARRYA.HOFFNER,JR.(Chicago)

1.INTRODUCTION

1.1ThesubjectoftradeintheHittitekingdomisanambitiousonewhichreallycannotbeadequatelytreatedin
thescopeallowedforasinglepaper.1Forbytradewemustincludenotonlyforeigntradebutdomestic.And
thislattersubjectinvolvesusinthemattersofpricesandbarter,2unitsofweightandmeasureemployedto
determinefairexchange,3andthelegalandillegalproceduresofbuyingandselling.4Ifonereallywantedtobe
comprehensive,itwouldalsobenecessarytoaskquestionsaboutthenatureoftheHittitesocietyandtheaxioms
ofitseconomy.5Myintentionhereismerelytosketchsomethoughtsonmerchantsandtradeasthey[180]are
mentionedinHittitetexts,hopingtoaddtotheearliereffortsofKlengel,6Archiandotherstoelucidatethis
difficultsubject.

1.2Accesstonaturalresourcesandgoodsunavailablewithintheirlandwasalwaysanimportantconsideration
fortheHittitekings.7LongbeforetheemergenceoftheOldHittitekingdom,thepredecessorsoftheserulers
wereincontactwithAssyrianmerchantsinthetradingcolonycentersofAnatolia.Hittitetermsoccasionally

Thepresentarticle,originallydeliveredatthe45thAnnualArchaeologyConferenceofWheatonCollege,
Wheaton,Illinois,USA,onNovember10,2000,ishereofferedtoProfessorV.Haasontheoccasionofhis
birthday,withsincereadmirationforhismanyscholarlycontributionstothefieldsofHittitologyand
Hurritology.
1
WithKlengel197970n.5,Iexcludefromconsiderationheretheexchangeofgoodsthroughroyalgift-giving
and-receivingandthroughreceiptofforeigntribute.
2
OnpricesinHattiseeHawkins1986andKlengel1988.Seealsotheso-calledtariffofpricesin176-186of
theHittitelaws,discussedbyHoffner1997b7-11,140-148,and220-223.
3
ForsuchunitsseevandenHout1990.
4
Amongthesewouldbetheoffencerepresentedbythesomewhatobscuretechnicaltermperan wal-inthe
Hittitelaws,onwhichseemostrecentlyHoffner1997b207.
5
Thislastinparticularhasbeendoneelsewhere:cf.Archi1984,Archi1973,andKestemont1979.A
representativebibliographyofthissubjectcanbefoundinSoucekandSiegelov1996284-292.
6
ThisauthorsEnglishtranslationoftheGermantitleofthearticle(Klengel1979).
7
ThisisnicelyexemplifiedinaverygoodsurveyofHittitecivilization,Macqueen1986.
 2

occurinthecommercialdocumentsofthesecolonies.8ItisalsoknownthatlocalAnatolianmerchantstookpart
inthelong-rangetradeatthetimeoftheOldAssyriancolonies.9Andlater,whenHittiterulersthemselves
extendedtheirinfluencetoareasoutsidetheAnatolianheartland,itwasnaturalforthemtowantaccesstothese
foreignresourcesaswell.

1.2ThesparsenessofourknowledgeofinternationaltradepracticesintheHittitekingdomhasinthepastbeen
attributedtothenatureofthetextualsources.10Somehavesuggestedthateconomicdocumentswereexecutedon
adifferent,perishablemedium:wax-coveredwoodentabletsmentionedinthecuneiformdocuments.11But
othersinmyviewrightlyhaveproposedthatthesparsenessactuallyreflectsaminimalengagementin
foreigntrade.SinceitwaspossibleforHittiterulerstoobtainimportantresourcesfromneighboringcountriesby
incorporatingthesestatesintheirempireastributaries,solongasinternationaltradewascarriedonunderroyal
auspicestherewaslittleneedforitduringtheperiodofHittitehegemonyoverWesternAnatoliaandNorth
Syria.

1.3Ontheotherhand,theimportanceofdomesticmarketsintheorganizationofaHittitecitycanbeseeninthe
apparentrelationshipofthewordforcity,Hittiteappira,totheverbtosell,conductbusiness,Hittite
appiri-.12

1.4Itisimportantthatwekeeptheissuesoflocalbuying,sellingandbarteringseparatefrominternational
exchangeofgoodsuntilsuchtimeaswehaveaclearerpictureoftherelationship,ifany,betweenthetwo.
DocumentsreferringtotheactivitiesofHittitemerchantsdonotusethesameterminologyasisusedinlocaland
privateexchangeofgoods(buy,sell,etc.).Oneofthefewspecificactionsofmerchantsmentionedin
Hittitetextsisfalsifyinghisscales.13Theyseemrathertohavebeeninvolvedintheinternationaltransferofroyal
property,includingbootyandtribute,andasseemstohavebeenthecasewiththemerchantsofUrain
NiqmepasUgaritinthelendingofcapitaltolocalpersons.[181]

2.MERCHANTSANDTHEIRINTERNATIONALA CTIVITES

2.1OnecriterionwhichisanaidtokeepingthetwocategoriesseparateintheHittitetextualevidenceistheuse
ofthetermmerchantitself.Forthereisnoevidencethataseparateclassofmerchantswereactiveinprivate,
non-royaltradeinsideHatti.Todaywespeakofmerchantsinthesenseofthepurveyorsofretailgoodsinlocal

8
SeeBilgi1954.
9
Klengel197969.
10
Klengel197969.
11
WritteneitherSumerographicallyasGI.UR,AkkadographicallyasGILEUorwiththeLuwianloanwords
inHittitegulzi-andgulzattar.SeeGterbock193933ff.Scribesspeciallytrainedtowriteonthesewooden
tabletswerecalledL.MEDUB.SAR.GIscribesofwood.
12
NotedfirstinFriedrich195255,thenlaterinNeu1974108andKlengel197970n.9.
13
SeeKUB31.132iii4-9andKUB30.10rev.12-15belowinnotes24and25.
 3

markets.ButthetermusuallytranslatedmerchantinHittitesources14isusedexclusivelyofwealthyand
importantmenwhoundertheprotectionofthecrownconductedthebusinessofinternationaltradewithallied
countries.TheiractivitiesunderthecrownsometimesinvolveddeliveriestotemplesinsidethebordersofHatti,15
buttheywerenottoourknowledgemiddle-menrunningabusinessinvolvingtheexchangeofgoodswithlocal
buyersandsellers.

3.HOMECITIESOFMERCHANTS

3.1Hittitetextsoccasionallymentionsuchmerchantsandtheirhomecities:UrainwesternCilicia,Kaniinthe
centralCappadocianarea,andZallara,alatiwaraandTapalga,whosepreciselocationsarecurrentlyunknown.

4.THETRAVELSOFTHEMERCHANTS

4.1ThesameHittiteword,laa-,denotedamilitarycampaignandacommercialtrip(CHDL-N4f.).Onlythe
contextcanshowwhichisintendedinanygivenoccurrence.Inlaw42provisionismadefordecidingwhether
ornotcompensationmustbegiventotheheirsofamanwhowashiredbyanothertogoonalaa-anddiedon
thejourney.16Ofcourse,deathonamilitarycampaignwouldbequitecommon.Butinviewofthethreatof
attackontheroadbybandits,thedeathofonehiredtogoonaninternationaltradejourneyisalsopossible.

4.2Apassagefrominstructionsforthepriestsdescribesreasonswhichmightbegivenbyaworshiperfornot
providingtheofferingsnecessaryforaritualforwhichhewasresponsible.Theyincludethreeobligationsfacing
himwhichmakeitimpossibleforhimtomeethisobligation:(1)ajourney(KASKAL-a,Hittitepala),(2)
anupcomingharvest[182](BURU.ME)and(3)theexpenseofpayingthebrideprice(kuata)forasons
marriage.17Whywouldajourney(KASKAL)preventhimfromprovidingtherequiredofferingsontime?It
couldbethatthemanhimselfneededtotakeajourneyandthusbeunavailabletopresideassponsoratthe
festival.Butsincehisobligationisprimarilytoprovideofferingsandperhapsonlysecondarilytobepresentin
person,andbecausetheexcuseofajourneyisassociatedwithharvestsandweddinggifts,itismorelikelythat
thefinancialoutlaynecessitatedbyatripwilldepletetheresourceshewouldotherwiseusetoprovideofferings
fortheritual.Butsincethetextdoesntidentifyhimasamerchant,wecannotassumethatthetrip(KASKAL)
wasaninternationalone.

14
TheHittitewordformerchantwasunattalla,whoseIndo-Europeanderivationisunclear.Theusualwriting
ofthewordiswiththeSumerogramLDAM.GR(Akk.tamkru).
15
SeeforexamplethediscussionofthepassagefromtheoracletextIBoT2.129(CTH574)discussedin
Klengel197975.
16
SeetheeditionandtranslationinHoffner1997b51(withcommentsonp.188)andtheEnglishtranslationin
Hoffner1997a223.Inthesetreatmentsthemilitarycampaignisthepreferredinterpretation.
17
KUB13.4ii58-60,editedbySel198548-49,withEnglishtranslationbyMcMahoninHalloandYounger
19972199.
 4

5.REGULATINGANDPROTECTINGHITTITEMERCHANTSABROAD

5.1Althoughgrantedaccesstoforeigncitiesbytheirking,Hittitemerchantscouldabusetheprivilegeandrun
afoulofthelocalrulerandhiscitizens.Whenthishappened,alocalrulercouldpetitiontheHittiteemperorfor
redress.InonewellknowncaseNiqmepa,kingofUgarit,askedHattuiliIIIforrelieffromHittitemerchants
whosehomecitywasCilicianUra.ThemerchantshadusedtheirpowersofforeclosingondefaultingUgaritian
debtorstoacquirerealestateinUgarit.InhisedictHattuililimitedtheirresidenceinUgarittocertainseasonsof
theyear,requiringthemtoreturntoUraduringthewinterandprohibitingthemfromacquiringrealestatein
Ugarit.18

5.2Thesamesortofinternationalsupervisionguaranteedthesafetyofforeignmerchantsandallowedfor
reparationsinthecaseofmurderandthelossofgoods.AlthoughtheHittitelawsdonotconstitutewhatone
wouldcalladocumentofinternationallaw,certainclausescoveringcasesofthekillingofamerchantawayfrom
hishomecityshowthejurisdictionofHittitelawtoHittitestemporarilyinforeignlandsonofficialbusiness.For
example,law5anditslateparallelversion(III)provideforreparationswhenaHittitemerchantiskilled.19
Differentdispositionsapplydependingonwhetherthekillingoccursabroad(theexamplegivenisinLuwiyain
westernAsiaMinor)orathomeinHatti,andwhetherthemaniskilledwhilecarryingroyalproperty(called
hisu,i.e.,thekingsu thathewasauthorizedtotransport)orinapersonalquarrel.

5.3Butwhetherthekillingoccursabroadorathome,onewhokillsaHittitemerchantmustpayanindemnityof
100minas,anenormoussum.Consideringthatothertextualevidencegivesafigureof3minasforsuchan
indemnity,somesholarsproposeemendingthetwotextwitnesses,bothofwhichread100to1\.Butsince
onewouldhavetoassumethatbothof[183]thescribesresponsiblefortheOldandNewHittitetextwitnesses,
beingfullyawareofthedifficultyofthelargerfigure,stillcorruptedtheeasier1\to100,andtheOld
Hittitescribemadethesamemistakeintwoconsecutivelines,itisbettertoacceptthelectio difficilior,evenif
wefinditdifficulttoexplain.20Klengelssuggestionthattheimpossiblyhighfigurewasintendedasmoreofa
threatthanaroutinelyexactedpaymentandthatitthereforeconferredonmerchantsakindofimmunityis
attractive,evenifwecannotproveit.FromtheHittitelaws,therefore,itisclearthatmerchantswereplaced
underthespecialprotectionofthestate.Ithasbeenclaimedthatthemerchantsmentionedintheselawswerenot
necessarilyHittites:thattheprotectionmayhavebeenextendedtoallmerchantsallowedbythekingtotravel
andtradewithinhisdomain.AlthoughthismayfairlybeclaimedofthewordingintheOldHittiterecension,the
attempttomakeitfittheexpandedwordingoftheNewHittitecopiesislesspersuasive.21If,therefore,itbe
assumedthatthewordingoftheOldHittitewitnessintendedmerchantsofanynationality,theexplicitwording
amerchantofHattiintheNewHittiteversionopensupthepossibilitythataninitiallybroadercommitmentof
thecrownwaslaterlimitedtoHittitemerchants.

18
TheAkkadiantextoftheedictofHattuiliIIIconcerningthemerchantsfromUrawasfirstpublishedin
Schaeffer1968103-104.ArecenttranslationisavailableinBeckman1999177.
19
EditioninHoffner1997b19-20;EnglishtranslationbyHoffnerinRoth1995217.
20
SeediscussioninKlengel197971f.andHoffner1997b19,170.
21
AdvocatedinitiallybySoucek1961458f.,seeminglyacceptedbyKlengel197971f.,andviewedsomewhat
skepticallybyImparati1964194n.3.
 5

6.GRANTINGFOREIGNMERCHANTSACCESSTOHITTITEMARKET-CITIES.

6.1OnemustassumethatduringtheHittiteempiresomemerchantsfromforeignlandswereallowedtobring
theirwaresintoHatti.Tobesure,merchantsfrommajorpowerssuchasEgypt,AssyriaandBabylonia,areonly
rarelymentionedinHittitetexts.Whatismentioned,however,isthatthekingallowedcertainKakaeanstobuy
andsellindesignatedcitiesalongthenorthernborder.NotallKakaeantribalgroupsenteredintotreatyalliance
withtheHittitestate.Soonlypersonsfromalliedgroups(calledtakulathoseofapeacetreaty)weregranted
thisaccesstoHittitecities.Thetextreads:

6.2Inaddition:Ifapersonofanallied(Kakaeantribe)comesintoHatti,hemayconductbusiness(appar
ieddu) inwhatevercitytheCommanderoftheBorderProvincesassignstohim.Buthemustnotdobusinessin
anyothercity(just)becausehewishesto.22

6.3Thispassageillustratesthecontrolexercisedbythecrownovercommercialactivitiesalongthevulnerable
outerbordersofthestate.Thatcontrolwasdelegatedtoroyalofficialsinthevariousprovinces.Klengelsuggests
thattheavoidanceofthespecifictermmerchantfortheseKakaeantraderswasdeliberate:thatintheviewof
theHittitestatetheyoccupiedalowerrunginthecommercialorder.23[184]

7.THEMERCHANTINLITERATURE

7.1THEDISHONESTMERCHANTINFIGURESOFSPEECH

7.1.1CertainHittiteroyalprayersfromthepre-imperialperiodemployaspecialfigureofspeechwhenthe
worshiperproteststhathehasnotdoneanythingthatshoulddeservehispresentsufferings.Iquotetwoexamples
fromprayersthatsharethisliterarytopos.

7.1.2Themerchantmayholdouthisscalestowardthesun(god)(toswearhishonesty)andfalsifyhisscales,
butasforme,Ihavedonenothingagainstmygod.24

7.1.3Quitesimilaristhefollowingfromanotheroldprayertext:

7.1.4Themerchantmanmayholdouthisscalestowardthesun(god)(toswearhishonesty)andfalsifyhis
scales,butasforme,whathaveIdoneagainstmygod?25

7.1.5Whileitisalwaysveryhardtograspthemeaningoffolksayingsinanothercultureandtimeperiod,we
mayguessthatthismeans:Asunlikelyasitwouldseemthatamerchantintheemployofthekingwouldfalsify

22
KUB13.27+23.77:87-89(treatywiththeKaka).AGermantranslationofthistextcanbefoundinvon
Schuler196512235.
23
Klengel197973.HecallsthemMarktbesucher,marketvisitors.
24 L
[ DAM.GR-a](5)[UT]U-i GAM-anGI[lzi arzi](6)[nuGI]lzi mara[nuzzi uga ANADINGIR
YA](7)[U]L kuit[ki iyanun]KUB31.132iii4-9(OH/NS).
25 L
DAM.GR-a/L-iUTU-iGIelzi arzi nuGIelzi maranuzzi [uga ANA]DINGIRYA kuit iyanun
KUB30.10rev.12-15(OH/MS)(cf.KUB30.11rev.9-10).
 6

theweighingoutofthekingsgoodsandtakeanoathbythesun-godtoboot,yetitwouldbemorelikelyforthat
tohappenthanformetohavedonesomethingbadenoughtobringonthesesufferings!

7.2THEMERCHANTSOFURAANDZALLARA(CTH822:KBO12.42ANDDUPL.)26

7.2.1Thesementionsofthemerchantareshortfiguresofspeech.Butwehaveothercasesofentireliterary
narrativesinwhichmerchantsplayacentralrole.ThegreatSargonofAkkadallegedlyundertookalongand
arduouscampaigntoAnatoliainordertoprotecthismerchantsoperatingthere.27AfragmentofaHittiteliterary
text,whichIeditedoverthirtyyearsagoinanessayinhonorofCyrusGordononhis60thbirthday,hasasits
subjecttheactivitiesofmerchantsfromthecitiesofUraandZallara.UrawaslocatedinwesternCilicia.The
locationofZallaraislesscertain.Someoftherelevantlinesofthisfragmentreadasfollows:

7.2.2We,themerchantsofUraandZallara,arecoming,andhaveplentyandabundanceinourpossession.28
WearebringingmanyNAM.RA-people.Wearedrivingcattle,sheep,horses,mulesandassesinlargenumbers.
Wehavebarleyandwineinlargeamountsinourpossession.Wehaveinourpossessionvaluableitems29as
well:silver,gold,lapislazuli,carnelian,[185]Babylonianstone,quartz,iron,copper,bronze,andtin
whateveriswithinourprerogative,30allinlargeamounts.31

7.2.3Sincethisisonlyafragment,andthereforewithoutimportantcontext,itraisesmanyquestionsthatcannot
yetbeanswered:Wherearethemerchantscomingto?TosomeforeignentrepotorbackhometoHattua?
Whyareonlythemerchantsofthesetwourbancentersinvolvedintheaccount?Itis,ofcourse,possiblethatthe
restofthistabletoritsknownduplicatewillyetbediscovered.Sincewehaveevidenceforatleasttwocopies,
theoddsofdiscoveringmorearehigherthanifonlyonecopyexistedinthearchives.Butforthetimebeingit
posessomewhatofatantalizingenigma.

8.THEMERCHANDISEOFINTERNATIONALTRADE

8.0.1Theabove-mentionedfragmentgivesawidevarietyofitemsofwealththathavebeenseenasthe
merchandiseofferedbytheinternationalmerchants.Butaretheyreallymerchandise?IfwefollowKlengels
ideathattheroyallysponsoredandprotectedmerchantsaremerelytransportingroyalbootyortribute,thenit

26
SeetheeditionandEnglishtranslationinHoffner196835f.anddiscussioninKlengel197973f.Asmalljoin
piecetoABoT49waspublishedasKBo41.128.
27
SeetheliteraturecitedinHoffner196836.
28
Theverbtranslatedofferhereisaterm(p ar-)elsewhereusedtodesribeakingbringinghometoHattua
bootyfromamilitarycampaign.ThisaccordswithKlengelstentativeproposalthatthesemerchantsareacting
asroyallyauthorizedtransportforbooty.
29
Hittitea-a-u-ugoods,wealth.OnthiswordandonthefolktaxonomyofwealthamongtheHittitessee
Watkins1979.
30
Literally,whatever[]isaklai.Onthisword(aklai)seediscussionbelowinparagraph8.0.2.
31
KBo12.42:2-13.
 7

makessensethatitwouldincludeordinaryitemsavailableeverywheresuchaslivestock,cereals,andwine,
alongsideofsomewhichareclearlyluxuryitemsobtainableonlyoutsideofAnatolia(gold,lapislazuli,
carnelian,Babylonianstone,quartz,andtin).OneitemBabylonianstone(NA.K.DINGIR.RA)shows
thisbyitsveryname.Others,althoughlackinganynotationoftheirforeignorigin,areitemselsewhere
associatedwithforeignsources.Forexample,inseveraltextsdescribingritualsforlayingfoundationsofpalaces
ortemplestherearelistsoffoundationdepositsconsistingofdifferentsemi-preciousstonesandindicationsof
thegeographicalsourceofeach:goldfromPirundumi,silverfromKuzza,lapislazulifromMt.Takniyara,
alabasterfromKania,quartzfromElam,copperandbronzefromCyprus(Alaiya)andMt.Takkata.32Ina
medicaltextthereismentionofakindofpowderoreyesalvecalledmarruwaa-thathadtobeimportedfrom
Cyprus.33

8.0.2Asecondindicationthatthemerchantsheremightnotbetransportingwaresforsale,butroyalproperty,is
theuseofthetermaklai-,usuallytranslatedcustomorlaw.WhenIinitiallyeditedthistext,Irenderedit
whateveriscustomary.Klengelfollowedme,usingtheGermanphrasewasfrDingeauchimmerblich
sind.Butinsomepassagesthenounaklai-meansaroyallygrantedprivilegeorprerogative.Itissoused
intheprayerofMuriliIIwherehedescribestheprerogatives(aklai-)grantedtothequeen-mother,whichshe
abused.34TheprerogativeinquestionintheMerchantsofUratextisthatgrantedtotheseprominentmen[186]
totransportthekingsbootyortributetoHattua.Accordingtothisviewtheenumerateditemswouldnot,
therefore,becustomaryinthesenseofbeingrepresentativeofwaresofinternationalcommerce,butarethe
itemsofthekingsbootyortributethatthemerchantshavetheprerogativeoftransporting.

8.0.3Athirdargumentconcernstheverbsused.Particularlytheonetranslatedaboveashaveinourpossession
(p ar-).Thistermoftendescribesthekingtransportinghisbooty(orhavingittransported)backhometo
Hattua.35

8.0.4Afinalconsiderationconcernsthepoliticalandideologicalfunctionofliterarytextswithinthestate
archivesofHatti.AfewforeignliterarytextstranslatedintoHittitesuchastheGilgameshepic,theHurrianepic
titledTheSongofRelease,theKumarbimyths,andtheCanaaniteElkuniramyth,havebeenfoundinthe
Hittitearchives.TheycannotbeexpectedtoshowthetypicalHittiteideologicalconcerns.Butallnative
documentsintheroyallibraryhaveastheirraison dtretheglorificationoftheHittitestateheadedbytheking.
Onewouldnotexpect,therefore,anativeliterarytextinvolvingHittitecharactersthatglorifiedoneparticular
sectorofsociety,namelymerchantsoftwonamedcities.Ifthisfragmentisreadascelebratingthecommercial
successesofagroupofHittitemerchantsandadmittedlywithoutthewidercontextwecannotsayforsure

32
KBo4.1i35-41(CTH413).SeethecomprehensivestudyoftermsformineralsinHittitetextsinPolvani
1988.
33
KUB44.63+KUB8.38iii11,editedinStBoT19:30.Incidentally,thispassagesuggeststhattheverbin
Hittiteforimport(i.e.,bringfromanothercountry)wasarnu-.
34
KUB14.4i12-13,editeddeMartino199824,37,translating.ascondotta(cf.alsoibid.40f.).Thepositive
expressionaklai privilege,rightiscontrastedwiththenegativeUL a-a-rawhatisnotpermitted(toher).
35
Cf.CHDPsubp ar(k)-.p.254,section1a.
 8

thatthiswasitspurpose,itfailstojustifyitsexistenceinthearchive.Ontheotherhand,ifitcelebratestherole
ofthemerchantsasbringingwealthacquiredbythekingandhisgods,itfitsperfectlythecharacterofthetypical
Hittiteliterarydocument.

8.1AGRICULTURALLABOR

8.1.1KlengelsunderstandingoftheroleofHittitemerchantsininternationalinterchangesalsomakesbetter
senseofthementionintheUratextoftheNAM.RA-people.TheNAM.RA-people(Hittitearnuwala)arekept
distinctinHittitetextsfromslaves,whoarereferredtowiththeSumeriantermsRmaleslaveandGME
femaleslave.36TheSumerianwordn a m - radenotesbootyincludingcaptives,prisonersofwar(Akkadian
allatu).37SincetheearliestdaysofHittitologyithasbeenknownthattheNAM.RA.MEweregroupsof
personsseizedinbattlefromdefeatedopponentsandwhocouldbesettledbythekinginanyareainneedof
agriculturalexploitation.38Inhis1933bookKleinasienAlbrechtGoetzedescribedtheNAM.RAasfollows:
Theybelongtospecificlands,settlementsortemples,thattheymaynotleave.Ifdiscontentedwiththeirlot
theyevercrossoverintoaforeignland,diplomaticexchangesimmediatelyariseconcerningtheirextradition.
Theyformagoodportionofthespoilsofwarandassucharetransplantedfromonelandtoanotherinorderto
settlenewlyfoundedvillagesorinordertoputstretchesofwastelandundercultivation.39[187]

8.1.2AlthoughotherHittitetextsmentionprivateindividualsbuyingandsellingHittiteslaves,evenforeign
ones,thisisneverassociatedwiththeactivitiesofmerchants.40Andtheslavesinquestionarenevercalled
NAM.RA,butRforthemaleslaveandGMEforthefemale.ItisunlikelythenthattheNAM.RA-people
whomthemerchantsofUrahaveintheirpossessionareordinaryslavesforsaleacrossinternationalborders.

8.1.3InwhatfollowsIwillexploresomeoftheformsoftransferbyindividuals(notmerchants)whichcrossed
internationalboundaries.

8.1.4ItisnotclearthatindividualscouldlegallysellHittiteslavestoforeigncountries.Hittiteslaveswere
occasionallyabductedtoothercountries.Andsincestealingaslave,whetherornotonetransportedhimtoa
foreignland,wasacrime,thereislegislationpunishingsuchactionsintheHittitelaws.Butsincethisabduction
isexpressedasinvolvingcrossinginternationalboundaries,weshouldlookcloserat19-21:

36
OntheterminologyoffreeandunfreepersonsinHittiteliteratureseeGterbock1972;Giorgadze1974.
37
CAD/1248,allatuA,meaning1.InHittitetextsNAM.RAisconfinedtohumanbooty,animalsor
inanimateobjects.
38
ThedefinitivestudyofthisHittitesocialclassisthatofAlp1950-1951.
39
Goetze1957106(translationofGoetzesGermanbythepresentauthor).
40
KUB21.29iii36-37withduplicateKUB23.123:9(treatyofHattuiliIIIwiththecityofTiliura),with
GermantranslationinvonSchuler1965147.Thelinesinquestionread:Ifanyonebuysamaleorfemaleslave
ofthelandoftheKaka.TheexistingtextualevidencedoesnotmentionEgyptian,Assyrian,WestSemiticor
Aiyawan(i.e.,Mycenean)slaves,althoughthesemaywellhaveexistedinHatti.Whatismentionedisthe
guyingofmaleandfemaleslavesfromthesemi-nomadicKakatribestothenorth.
 9

8.1.5(19a)IfaLuwianabductsaperson,manorwoman,fromthelandofHatti,andleadshim/herawayto
thelandofLuwiya-Arzawa,andsubsequentlythepersonsownerrecognizeshim/her,.(19b)IfaHittite
abductsaLuwianmaninthelandofHattiitself,andleadshimawaytothelandofLuwiya,formerlytheygave
12persons,butnowheshallgive6persons,andheshalllooktohishouseforit.(20)IfaHittitemanabductsa
maleslavebelongingtoanotherHittitemanfromthelandofLuwiya,andleadshimheretothelandofHatti,and
subsequentlytheabductedslavesownerrecognizeshim,theabductorshallpaytheslavesowner12shekelsof
silver,.(21)IfanyoneabductsthemaleslaveofaLuwianmanfromthelandofLuwiyaandbringshimto
thelandofHatti,andhisownerlaterrecognizeshim,theownershalltakebackonlyhisownslave;thereshallbe
noadditionalcompensation.41

8.1.6Itwillbenotedthatallfourscenariosinvolvecrossinginternationalboundaries,butthatthereisa
gradationofthefinesdependingonthefollowingfactors:(1)thenationalityoftheabductorandabducted
person,and(2)theplacesfromwhichandtowhichthepersonisabducted.42Themostseverecaseiswhena
LuwianabductsaHittitefromHattitoLuwiya,andtheleastsevereiswhensomeone(presumablyaHittite)
abductsaLuwiansslavefromLuwiyatoHatti.AndsincethefinesareobviouslyweightedtofavortheHittites,
itisclearthatatthetimeofthedraftingoftheselawsthelandofArzawawasunderHittitedomination,afact
thatweknowfromhistoricaltexts.Aregulationofslaveabductionfromanequalally,suchasEgypt,wouldnot
besoweighted.

8.2SELLINGCAPTIVESBACKTOTHEIRHOMECOUNTRYFORARANSOMPRICE(M):

8.2.1Anotherkindoftradeinpersonsistheransomingofcaptivestakeninbattle.Thatsuchransomingmust
havebeenpracticedhasbeenlongsuspected.Butexplicitevidenceforitonlycametolightwiththepublication
ofatabletfromthenorthernHittiteprovincialcenterofTapikka(modernMaatHyk)thatrecordsthenames
ofcaptivemen,theirhomelands,whetherornottheywereblinded,andtheirrespectiveransomprices.Ihave
treatedthistabletas[188]partofasoontobepublishedstudyofthelong-termtreatmentofcaptivesinbattle.43
Theransomprice(SumerogramM,=Akkad.mu)forthehostagesisexpressedinnumbersofmen,women,
boys,girls,oxenandgoats.Andtherelativevalueofeachcaptivewasindependentofwhetherornothehad
beenblinded(asSamsonwas).Obviously,inthiscase,sincetheMaatlistofcaptiveswasadocumentofthe
royaladministrationinTapikka,wearenotdealingwithatransferbyaprivateindivdual,but(again)bythestate
inthepersonoftheking.Thesemen,women,childrenandlivestockwouldhavebecomethepropertyofthe
king.

8.3NON-HUMANMERCHANDISE

8.3.1ThepassagefromtheliterarytextaboutmerchantsfromUraandZallaramentionedalso:cattle,sheep,
horses,mulesandassesbarleyandwinesilver,gold,lapislazuli,carnelian,Babylonianstone,quartz,iron,

41
EditioninHoffner1997b29-31withcommentaryon179-180.
42
SeethetableonHoffner1997b180.
43
Hoffner2001.
 10

copper,bronze,andtinwhateverbelongstoourprerogative,44allinlargeamounts.Whetherasingle
merchantwouldoffersuchalargeamountofgoodscanbequestioned.Butthatalltheseitemswerepartof
internationalaswellasdomestictradecannot.AlmostathousandyearslaterKingSolomonimportedhorses
fromKue(Cilicia),approximatelythesameareaasHittiteUra.45

8.3.2ThecorpusofHittitecuneiformtextsexcavatedfromHattuaisofatypethatdoesnotraisetheexpectation
thatgoodsacquiredinforeigntradewouldbeitemized.Buthereandthereinthecorpusthereareisolated
examples.Klengelcorrectlynotesthatsomeoftheforeignlandswithwhichluxuryitemsareassociatedinthe
textswereneverwithintheHittitesphereofcontrol:forexampleEgypt,BabyloniaandCyprus.46Tothesewe
mayaddAssyriaandAiyawa,whichinmyopinionismainlandGreece.47

8.3.3InthecorpusofHittiteinventorieseditedbySiegelov1986thefollowinglandsorcitiesaresomeof
thoseassociatedwithinventoriedgoods:Aiyawa,Alaiya(Cyprus),Amurru,Arawanna,Arinna,Arpa,
Arpuzziya,Azzi(tothenortheastinthedirectionofArmenia),alpa(Aleppo),anana,urri(Hurrianstates
tothesoutheast),Ikkuwaniya(Iconium-Konya),Iuwa(totheeast),Karaduniya(Babylonia),Kaka,
Kizzuwatna(Ciliciaanditsmountainoushinterlandtothenorth),Lawazantiya,Lukka(Lycia),Maa(in
westernAnatolia),Mizri(Egypt),Ninuwa(Assyria),apinuwa(OrtakyintheCorumprovince),and
Taruntaa(insouth-centralAnatolia).

8.3.4Theinventorieswereconcernedwithitemsinthekingstreasury,notitemspossessedbyprivate
individuals.Forthisreasonweareagainnottalkingabouttrade.Manyoftheitemsareclearlylabelledaspartof
tribute(arkamma).Otherswerepartofbooty(A KASKAL).[189]

9.CONCLUSION

9.1Hittitemerchantswereextensionsoftheking,actingforhiminthetransferringofhisbootytothehomeland,
theweighingandcheckingoftribute,transportingittothehomeland,andindistributingroyalresourcesto
beneficiarytemples.Whiletheywereinforeigncapitals,theyactedaslenderstolocalpersons.Theywerenot
merchantsinthesenseofordinarypurveyorsofgoods.Becausetheyrepresentedtheking,theyenjoyed
specialprotectionagainstrobbery,assaultandmurder.Andforthisreasonalsotheywerecelebratedinliterary
textsandcitedinproverbialsayingsasexamplesofpersonsheldtothehigheststandardsofhonestyand
exactitude.Buttextsdealingwithmerchantspertainexclusivelytothisclassofroyalagentsandcannotoffer
usevidencefortheroutine,daytodaytradingonalocallevelintheHittitekingdom.Forthisweneedtoexplore

44
Seeaboveinparagraph8.0.2.
45
1Kings10:28AndSolomonsimportofhorseswasfromEgyptandKue,andthekingstradersreceived
themfromKueataprice.
46
Klengel197971withn.12.
47
ThereismentionofavesselcalledU..LfromthelandofAiyawa.Thisconstitutesevidenceforan
exchangeofgoodswiththeAegeanpowerofAiyawa,quitelikelyMycene.

 11

amuchwiderbodyofevidence.Thishasnotyetbeendone,butitneedstobeconsideredaprioritytaskforthe
nextdecade.

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