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ABSTRACT
Shanmugam, G. and Moiola, R.J., 1988. Submarine fans: characteristics, models, classification, and reservoir
potential. Earth-Sci. Rev., 24: 383-428.
Submarine-fan sequences are important hydrocarbon reservoirs throughout the world. Submarine-fan sequences
may be interpreted from bed-thickness trends, turbidite facies associations, log motifs, and seismic-reflection profiles.
Turbidites occurring predominantly in channels and lobes (or sheet sands) constitute the major portion of submarine-fan
sequences. Thinning- and thickening-upward trends are suggestive of channel and lobe deposition, respectively.
Mounded seismic reflections are commonly indicative of lower-fan depositional lobes.
Fan models are discussed in terms of modern and ancient fans, attached and detached lobes, highly efficient and
poorly efficient systems, and transverse and longitudinal fans. In general, depositional lobes are considered to be
attached to feeder channels. Submarine fans can be classified into four types based on their tectonic settings: (1)
immature passive-margin fans (North Sea type); (2) mature passive-margin fans (Atlantic type); (3) active-margin fans
(Pacific type); and (4) mixed-setting fans. Immature passive-margin fans (e.g., Balder, North Sea), and active-margin
fans (e.g., Navy, Pacific Ocean) are usually small, sand-rich, and possess well developed lobes. Mature passive-margin
fans (e.g., Amazon, Atlantic Ocean) are large, mud-rich, and do not develop typical lobes. However, sheet sands are
common in the lower-fan regions of mature passive-margin fans. Mixed-setting fans display characteristics of either
Atlantic type (e.g., Bengal, Bay of Bengal), or Pacific type (Orinoco, Caribbean), or both. Conventional channel-lobe
models may not be applicable to fans associated with mature passive margins.
Submarine fans develop primarily during periods of low sea level on both active- and passive-margin settings.
Consequently, hydrocarbon-bearing fan sequences are associated generally with global lowstands of sea level.
Channel-fill sandstones in most tectonic settings are potential reservoirs. Lobes exhibit the most favorable reservoir
quality in terms of sand content, lateral continuity, and porosity development. Lower-fan sheet sands may also make
good reservoirs. Quartz-rich sandstones of mature passive-margin fans are most likely to preserve depositional
porosity, whereas lithic sandstones of active-margin fans may not.
TABLE I
A general list of submarine fans and turbidite systems used in this study
Modem Ancient
Aleutian (Gulf of Alaska) Balder, Paleocene, North Sea
(Kulm et al., 1973) (Sarg and Skjold, 1982)
Amazon (Atlantic Ocean) Blanca, Miocene, California
Astoria (Pacific Ocean) Butano, Eocene, California
Bengal and Nicobar (Bay of Bengal) Cellino, Plio., Italy (Casnedi, 1983)
Bio Bio and Callecalle (Pacific Ocean) Cengio, Oligocene-Miocene, Italy
(Thomburg and Kulm, 1987a) Chugach, Upper Cretaceous, Alaska
Cap-Ferret (Atlantic Ocean) Ferrelo, Eocene, California
Crati (Mediterranean) Forbes, Cret., Calif. (Walker, 1978)
Delgada (Pacific Ocean) Forties, Paleocene, N. Sea (Parker, 1975)
Ebro (Mediterranean) Frigg, Eocene, North Sea
Indus (Arabian Sea) (Heritier et al., 1980)
Hatteras (Atlantic Ocean) Gottero, Cretaceous and Paleocene, Italy
(Cleary et al., 1977) Great Valley Sequence, Upper Cretaceous,
La Jolla (Pacific Ocean) California (Ingersoll, 1978a)
Laurentian (Atlantic Ocean) Greenwich slice, Middle Ordovician,
Magdalena (Caribbean) Pennsylvania (Lash, 1986)
Monterey (Pacific Ocean) Hecho, Eocene, Spain (Mutti, 1977)
Mississippi (Gulf of Mexico) Jackfork, Penn., Arkansas and Oklahoma
Navy (Pacific Ocean) (Moiola and Shanmugam, 1984)
Nile (Mediterranean) Kongsfjord, Precambrian, Norway
(Maldonado and Stanley, 1978) Laga, Upper Miocene-Lower Pliocene,
Orinoco (Caribbean) Italy (Mutti et al., 1978)
(Belderson et al., 1984) Marnoso-Arenacea, Miocene, Italy
Redondo (Pacific Ocean) Peira-Cava, Upper Eocene, France
(Haner, 1971) Red Oak, Pennsylvanian, Oklahoma
Rhone (Mediterranean) (Vedros and Visher, 1978)
San Lucas (Baja California) Repetto, Lower Pliocene, California
(Normark, 1974) (Hsu, 1977; Walker, 1978)
Toyama (Sea of Japan) Sevier, Middle Ordovician,
(Bouma, 1975; Klein, 1985a, b) Tennessee (Shanmugam, 1980)
Wilmington (Atlantic Ocean) Torlesse, Carb.-Cret., New Zealand
Zodiac (Gulf of Alaska) .1
(Stevenson et al., 1983)
Note: See Bouma et al. (1985a) for fans listed without references.
.1 Transitional between modem and ancient fans (Barnes and Normark, 1985)
Configuration
) BASIN PLAIN
DISTRIBUTION OF FACIES
1 ENVIRONMENT 1
FAN
FA SLOPE UPPER MIDDLE L--W-'-O
ER PLAIN DEPOSITIONAL PROCESSES
m m TURBIDITY CURRENTS
mm TURBIDITY CURRENTS
(LOW ENERGY)
I ----IBm
___--mm
PELAGIC & HEMIPELAGIC
SEDIMENTATION
Fig. 2. Components of an ancient submarine fan and related distribution of turbidite facies. Note a major canyon in
the upper-fan region, a network of distributary channels in the middle-fan region, and nonchannelized lobes in the
lower-fan region. Facies nomenclature used in Figs. 2-5 is from Mutti and Ricci Luccbi (1972, 1975). From
Shanmugam and Moiola (1985b).
soned that the characteristics of an associ- submarine fans. In general, a channelized se-
ation of turbidite facies express variations of quence (upper and middle fan) with its thin-
depositional processes in time and space and, ning-upward cycles is composed of facies A
therefore, furnish the most diagnostic infor- and B, whereas a nonchannelized sequence
mation for environmental interpretation of (lower fan) with its thickening-upward lobe
389
Fig. 3. Ancient examples of turbidite facies A, B, and C. A. Channel-fill conglomerate (facies A), upper fan, Upper
Miocene, Capistrano Formation, Dana Point, Calif. B. Channel-fill turbidite sandstone showing thinning-upward
trend (facies B), upper fan, Eocene, Hecho Group, near Ainsa, northern Spain. C. Classical turbidite sandstone
showing thickening-upward trend of a depositional lobe (facies C), lower fan, Upper Oligocene-Lower Miocene,
Cengio member, Tertiary Piedmont Basin, northwestern Italy.
Fig. 4. Ancient examples of turbidite facies D, E, F, and G. A. Thin-bedded turbidite sandstones showing noncyclic
trends and remarkable lateral continuity (facies D), note a man within circle for scale, basin plain, Lower Eocene,
Zumaya beach, near San Sebastian, northern Spain. B. Rippled sandstone (facies E), levee associated with upper fan,
Eocene, Hecho Group, near Ainsa, northern Spain. C. Slumped sandstone and shale (facies F), slope, Pennsylvanian,
Jackfork Formation, near Little Rock, Ark. D. Mudstone with local beds of turbidite sandstone (facies G), basin plain,
Upper Cretaceous, Boxer Formation, Great Valley Sequence, Boxer Valley, Calif.
Fig. 5. Modern examples of turbidite facies and possible contourites from DSDP Leg 96 Sites, Mississippi fan, Gulf of
Mexico. A. Gravel grading upward into coarse sand, turbidites (facies A and B), mid-fan channel, Site 621. B. Pebbly
mud, debris flow (facies F), mid-fan channel, Site 621. C. Contorted mud and silt, slump (facies F), mid-fan channel,
Site 621. D. Contorted mud and silt, slump (facies F), mid-fan overbank, Site 617. E. Rippled silt (facies E), mid-fan
overbank, Site 617. F. Channel-fill turbidite sand (facies B) and slump (facies F), lower fan, Site 614A. G. Graded
sand layers of turbidity-current origin (facies C?), lower fan, Site 614A. H. Cross-laminated fine sand of possible
contour current-origin (facies E?) lower fan, Site 614A. Scale bar represents 5 cm.
scheme (i.e., particular facies assemblages are In some cases, well developed levees may
always associated with certain physiographic preclude the development of thinning- and
fan components or environments) came under fining-upward cycles. In addition to sand-
criticism (Shanmugam et al., 1985a). stones and conglomerates of turbidity-current
The definition and significance of facies E origin, channels can be filled also with con-
have also caused confusion. For example, torted mudstone and siltstone of slump origin,
facies E was originally related to overbank pebbly mudstone of debris-flow origin, and
deposition (Mutti and Ricci Lucchi, 1972). mudstone of hemipelagic and pelagic origin
Later, it was considered to be typical of chan- (Fig. 6). Modem submarine channels can be
nel-mouth deposits (Mutti, 1977), and then, depositional, erosional, or mixed deposi-
reinterpreted to represent overbank deposits tional-erosional in origin (Nelson and Kulm,
(Mutti et al., 1981). Most recently, it is again 1973). Ancient channel-fill deposits of these
considered diagnostic of channel-mouth de- three types have been discussed by Mutti and
posits (Mutti and Normark, 1987). Normark (1987).
Dimensions of submarine channels associ-
Channe& ated with most large modem fans are as much
as an order-of-magnitude greater than chan-
Submarine-fan channels can be recognized nels generally reported for ancient fans (Ta-
by their sedimentological and geophysical ble III). As an extreme example, channels of
characteristics (Table 1I). Thinning- and fin- the modem Bengal fan are wide enough (18
ing-upward cycles (Mutti and Ricci Lucchi, km) to accommodate most entire ancient fan
1972; Ricci Lucchi, 1975) are used commonly systems (such as the Eocene Hecho Group in
to recognize channel deposition because an Spain). We intentionally list the largest known
upward-widening channel section results in modem fans and their channels (Table III) to
the emplacement of successively thinner beds. demonstrate that although many large chan-
In most cases, thinning-upward trends may nels exist today, channels of similar size have
be due to progressive channel abandonment. not been recognized in outcrops (Whitaker,
TABLE II
Characteristics of submarine fan channel and lobe deposits
TABLE III
Dimensions of canyon/channel systems associated with selected modem and ancient submarine fans (Shanmugam et
al., 1985a)
.1 Present-day deep-sea fans that were active during the Quaternary period.
394
TABLE IV
Examples of lobe terminology and their usage
~ / ~ LOWER
ii:ii:il:
-::7:
i ..:.
. : - 2
o
DL: DEPOSITIONAL LOBE
LF: LOBE FRINGE
Fig. 7. Depositional lobes of ancient fans showing thickening-upward trends and associated facies: facies nomencla-
ture is after Mutti and Ricci Lucchi (1972, 1975). Modified after Mutti (1977).
trends, and aggradational lobes by a lack of could either shift laterally into a new site
well defined trends in bed thickness. Mutti et (avulsion) or incise the lobe and build for-
al. (1978) reported distinct, small-scale, thick- ward. In either case, both aggradation and
ening-upward cycles within major thickening- progradation are important. The capping of
upward lobe cycles. These minor thickening- lobes by channels is a good indication of
upward cycles, characteristically associated progradation. Major thickening-upward cycles
with lobe sequences, are considered to repre- cannot be explained by aggradation alone. A
sent compensation features or "compensation complete progradational fan sequence would
cycles" produced by progressive smoothing comprise a major coarsening-upward se-
out of the depositional relief as a result of quence (hundreds to thousands of meters in
lobe upbuilding or aggradation (Mutti and thickness) with non-cyclic basin plain facies
Sonnino, 1981). Recently, Mutti and Normark at the base, thickening-upward lobe facies in
(1987) deemphasized "major" thickening-up- the middle, and thinning-upward, coarse-
ward cycles and emphasized "minor" thicken- grained channel facies at the top (Fig. 8).
ing-upward cycles as being characteristic of Coarsening-upward sequences (Fig. 9) can
lobes. Minor thickening-upward cycles can also be generated by lateral shifting of en-
also be associated with splays that develop in vironments. Most coarsening- and thickening-
the inter-channel areas (Moiola and upward sequences probably represent a prod-
Shanmugam, 1984). Therefore, depositional uct of both aggradation (bedform scale) and
cycles must be interpret d in the context of progradation (lobe and fan scale).
their overall facies association. Mutti (1985) suggested that lobes attached
We suggest that both aggradation and pro- to channels are formed by progradation,
gradation are responsible for lobe formation, whereas lobes detached from channels are
especially in active-margin settings. At the formed by aggradation. Although the former
bedform scale the system is aggradational, concept is true, the later concept may not be
however, the entire lobe package is a result of valid. The occurrence of lobes without at-
progradation. This simultaneous aggradation tached channels may be considered a negative
and progradation produces thickening-up- evidence for progradation, but it is certainly
ward lobe cycles. Depending upon local not conclusive evidence for aggradation. Un-
gradients and sediment supply, the channel fortunately, there are no standard criteria to
396
MAP VIEW STRATIGRAPHY
POINT OF
CYCLE DEVELOPMENT
|
TIME 1
i I NONCYCL,C
BASIN PLAIN
CHANNEL ~" BASI~ PLAIN
TIME 3
THINNING
UPWARD
CHANNEL
l LOBES
Fig. 8. An ideal development of depositional cycles of a prograding fan at a given point (solid circle) through time
(1-4). As fan progrades seaward (to the right), an area of basin plain deposition (Time 1) progressively becomes an
area of fan fringe (Time 2), lobe (Time 3), and channel (Time 4) deposition. A typical progradational fan sequence
would comprise a major coarsening-upward sequence (hundreds to thousands of meters in thickness) at the end of
Time 4.
MIDDLE
FAN
LOWER
FAN
BASIN
PLAIN
Fig. 9. Hypothetical vertical cross-section across prograding lower- and middle-fan system. Vertical sequence shown in
cross-section is a result of suprafan lobe switching laterally from position 1, to 2, to 3 (see plan view, upper part of
diagram). Hypothetical electric logs show coarsening-upward prograding-lobe sequences, and fining-upward channel-fill
sequences. From Walker (1978).
397
recognize aggradational lobes. At present, our Suprafan lobes may be typical of certain
interpretation of lobe origin is based more on small, sand-rich modem fans; however, they
personal prejudice than on data. Irrespective are not representative of large mud-rich fans
of their origin, the recognition of lobes serves in modern oceans (e.g., the Bengal fan).
an important function for defining the Normark (1978) equated suprafan lobes of
boundary between nonchannelized (lower fan) modern fans to depositional lobes of ancient
and channelized (middle fan) areas of ancient fans. Although this comparison is valid in
submarine fans. terms of their overall physiographic positions,
The term "superfan" refers to a morpho- the facies similarities between modern and
logic feature observed on certain modem fans ancient fans have not yet been established.
such as the Navy and San Lucas fans Furthermore, application of a morphologic
(Normark, 1970, 1974, 1978). The suprafan is term, "suprafan lobe", to ancient fans is mis-
a convex-upward depositional bulge on the leading.
middle fan that develops due to rapid deposi- Other terms (e.g., "fan lobe", "erosional
tion of coarse sediment and the formation of lobe", "channelized lobe", and "leveed-valley
braided channels, where the currents exit from lobe") create unnecessary confusion because
the confines of a leveed fan channel or valley. they do not refer to channel-mouth deposits.
Lobes that develop in the suprafan or middle
fan area display the following characteristics: Sheet sands
(1) develop at the termination of the upper-fan
valley (Fig. 10); (2) exhibit an overall
O'Connell et al. (1985) reported "sheet
convex-upward relief in radial profile (Fig.
sands" from the lower Mississippi fan. Bouma
10); (3) contain coarse-grained turbidites
et al. (1985c) considered these "sheet sands"
(predominantly sands); (4) inner portions are
as equivalent to the "depositional lobes" of
channeled and outer portions are unchan-
ancient fans. An examination of lower-fan
neled; (5) show braided channels; (6) slumps
cores from the Mississippi fan (Sites 614 and
are common.
615 of DSDP Leg 96), however, suggests that
these "sheet sands" do not exhibit thicken-
MODERN FAN
ing-upward cycles or facies C (Shanmugam et
,,~
A
al., 1986). Although depositional lobes are
c't'Vvotv..u.u,I comprised typically of sheet sands, not all
,, sheet sands are depositional lobes. Sheet
/ sands, unrelated to lobes, can also develop in
broad channels and in fan-fringe areas. Sheet
sands are common in the lower-fan and fan-
fringe regions of large modern fans such as
the Amazon, Bengal, Indus, and Mississippi.
~ t 'SUPRAFAN
0 110KM$
LOBE Geophysical characteristics
0 2 KM
NORTHEAST
110 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 SP
(n
a
z
o
W
u)
Fig. 12. Seismic reflection profile showing an ancient erosional channel (canyon) filled primarily with shale, Eocene,
Dewitt and Lavaca counties, Texas.
399
1 KM
, ~ SOUTHEAST
SP 6 1 0 6 2 0 6 3 0 6 4 0 6 5 0 6 6 0 6 7 0 6 8 0 6 9 0 7 0 0 710 7 2 0 7 3 0 7 4 0 7 5 0 7 6 0 7 7 0 7 8 0 7 9 0 8 0 0 8 1 0
Fig. 13. Seismic reflection profile showing mounded reflections that are interpreted as Lobes, Oligocene, onshore,
Colombia, South America.
produced by sharp changes between deposi- in Fig. 14. In reality, the two models are
tional facies (e.g., between slope and fan) identical except that lobes are placed in the
may, however, be mistaken for faults. middle part (suprafan lobe) of modern fans
and in the lower part of most ancient fans. If
SUBMARINE-FAN MODELS they prograde, however, both systems would
produce similar vertical sequences. In a lateral
Modern and ancient fans sense, both suprafan lobes and lower-fan lobes
represent the nonchannelized outer part of a
Jacka et al. (1968) were the first to propose submarine fan. Therefore, assigning lobes to
an ancient fan model, which they applied to a either the middle (suprafan) or the lower fan
Permian sequence in the Delaware basin of is inconsequential because this difference ex-
New Mexico and Texas. A detailed model for ists only in terminology and not in terms of
modern fans, based primarily on Californian depositional processes or facies (Walker,
fans, was first introduced by Normark (1970). 1980a).
Subsequently, Mutti and Ricci Lucchi (1972) Walker (1978) proposed a general model
developed a model for ancient fans based on
their detailed studies of fan sequences in the
Northern Apennines (Italy) and south-central SUBMARINE FAN MODELS
Pyrenees (Spain). ~z
"~
O MODERN [ ANCIENT
Modern and ancient fans have been de-
scribed using mutually exclusive data bases
~ ~ UPPER FAN
(Shanmugam and Moiola, 1985b; Mutti and
Normark, 1987). For example, the description
_.~" _g4,DDLEE,"
of modern fans has focused on surface mor- SUPRAFAN / '
phology utilizing high-resolution reflection
profiles and short cores (less than 10 m long, z COWER FAN " " ~ , . . . . . ----~------~'------~'/"/
LOBE /
one exception is DSDP Leg 96), whereas an- f
for submarine fans by combining the major suggests a tectonic control (Fig. 16C) for sedi-
elements of Normark's (1970) model for mod- ment bypassing (Shanmugam and Moiola,
ern fans with those of Mutti and Ricci Lucchi 1985b). Mutti (1979), however, suggested that
(1972) for ancient fans. All these general a "hydrodynamic readjustment" of turbidity
models with lobes, although widely accepted, flows occurs at the channel mouth as the
may be misleading because many large mod- flows become unconfined, resulting in nonde-
ern fans (such as the Bengal, Amazon, and position and the related formation of a bypass
Mississippi) apparently lack the development zone (Fig. 16B). Although Mutti (1977) recog-
of lobes. Aspects of lobe development in fans nized that the anticline was growing actively
are discussed below. during the deposition of the Hecho Group, he
apparently did not perceive its role in devel-
Attached and detached lobes of ancient fans oping the zone of bypassing.
On theoretical grounds, when a flow
Mutti and Ricci Lucchi (1972) initially pro- spreads out from a channel, it should lose
posed a submarine-fan model in which de- velocity, causing deposition rather than
positional lobes are attached to feeder chan- bypassing (Walker, 1980b). Bypassing, how-
nels (Fig. 15). A subsequent model (Mutti ever, would be possible if a flow encountered
and Ricci Lucchi, 1975), however, advocated a sudden downward increase in slope (Komar,
detachment of lobes from their associated 1983). Assuming a flow had been thick enough
feeder channels as a result of sediment to overflow the Boltana anticline, supercriti-
bypassing (Fig. 15). If bypassing persisted for cal flow might have resulted because of an
a considerable length of time, a relatively increase in slope and a related reduction in
thick zone of hemipelagic shale separating flow height (Fig. 16D). Such an increase in
"channel-mouth" deposits from lobe deposits flow velocity, we believe, was responsible for
would develop. Otherwise, progradational developing the zone of bypassing along the
events in both attached and detached lobe western limb of the anticline (Shanmugam
systems should result in identical vertical se- and Moiola, 1985b).
quences. The existence of this hemipelagic In order for a facies model to be effective,
shale interval could be significant in evaluat- it should act as a norm, a framework/guide, a
ing the hydrocarbon potential and produc- predictor, and a basis for hydrodynamic in-
ibility of a fan sequence in that the shale terpretation (Walker, 1979). The Hecho
could act as a permeability barrier between Group fails to act as a norm, a framework, or
lower-fan lobes and other potential reservoir a guide because no other well documented
facies in the middle and upper fan. The pres- detached lobe sequences have been described.
ence of a "thick" shale interval between the In addition, the distribution of facies may be
"channel-mouth" and lobe deposits, however, difficult to predict using the bypass model
may not necessarily indicate bypassing be- because of the presumed detachment of lobes
cause channel avulsion can also result in the from channels, and tectonic control of
development of a shale interval between bypassing should not be used as a basis for
genetically unrelated, but adjacent "channel- hydrodynamic interpretation. The bypass
mouth" and lobe deposits. We must point out model, however, may be applicable to basins
that the "channel-mouth" deposits were later where growing anticlines, shale diapirs, or salt
reinterpreted as overbank deposits by Mutti domes control fan growth. The bypass model
et al. (1981). may also apply to trench slopes with thrust-
In the Eocene Hecho Group in Spain (type controlled bathymetric ridges. When flow
locality for the detached-lobe model), the dis- thicknesses of unconfined turbidity currents
tribution of channels and lobes (Fig. 16A) exceed the heights of these small ridges in
with respect to the growing Boltana anticline forearc basins, ridge-bypassing is believed to
401
SLOPE
HANNEL
-- MIDDL|
LOBE
~ --LOWEP
.I BASIN I
CHANNEL
MOUTH
SHALE
INTERVAL
LOBE
SBa,: S E D I M E N T B Y P A S S ZONE
SL: S A N D S T O N E L O B E
LF: LOBE FRINGE
Fig. 15. Comparison of ancient fans with attached and detached lobes. Modified after Shanmugam and Moiola
(1985b).
occur by direct upslope flow over the ridge flopping interpretation of the M a r n o s o - A r -
crests ( U n d e r w o o d and Norville, 1986). enacea Formation in Italy. This formation
Confusion in the literature concerning de- was interpreted originally as a fan system
tached lobe models has been created by t i p - with attached lobes (Mutti and Ricci Lucchi,
402
Z ~ _ \,, ",.CHANNELS~
co.,,o,
(MUTTI, 19791
CHANNEL MOUTH CHANNIL
BAR O E P O I I T I DEPOSITS
- SEDIMENT I J / . *:
HYDROOYNAMIC
READJUSTMENT
B
ZONE
FREE FLOW
TECTONIC CONTROL
(THIS S T U D Y )
CHANNEL MOUTH CHANNEL
BAR DEPOSITS DEPOSITS
SURCRITICAL SUPERCRITICAL
D
FLOW (Fr<: 11 FLOW (Fr >11
Fig. 16. Various explanations for the detached lobe model of the Hecho basin in Spain. See text for details. Hydraulic
model of changing slope and flow (D) is modified after Walker (1981) and Komar (1983). From Shanmugam and
Moiola (1985b).
403
1972). Later, it was considered to be a fan (2) In a highly efficient system, deposi-
with detached lobes (Mutti and Ricci Lucchi, tional lobes are not attached to feeder chan-
1975; Mutti and Johns, 1978), and more re- nels (Table V). However, Ricci Lucchi (1981a)
cently, it has been reinterpreted again as a fan views the Marnoso-Arenacea Formation not
with attached lobes (Ricci Lucchi, 1981a). only as a highly efficient system but also as a
Recently, Mutti (1985) introduced three fan with attached lobes.
"models" for ancient turbidite systems, (3) Mutti (1979) used the term "efficiency"
namely, Type I, Type II, and Type III. Type I only with respect to sediment transport, but
and II systems represent detached and at- some workers have misapplied this terminol-
tached lobe models, respectively. Type III ogy. For example, Ricci Lucchi (1981b) re-
system is composed of channel-levee com- ferred to highly efficient mud-rich systems as
plexes. "sand-efficient." The term "sand-efficient"
could easily be misinterpreted as indicating a
Highly efficient and poorly efficient fan systems
sand-rich, poorly efficient, system. The real
Mutti (1979) proposed two types of fan meaning of the term "sand-efficient" is that
systems on the basis of their efficiency to the system is rich in mud and, therefore, it is
transport sand. He suggested that turbidity efficient in transporting sand.
currents of a mud-rich system transport sand (4) The world's largest fan, the Bengal,
efficiently over long distances, whereas the which is fed by the Ganges and Brahmaputra
transport efficiency of a sand-rich system is rivers, should be classified theoretically as a
relatively poor (Table V). Shanmugam and "highly efficient" system. The continuous
Moiola (1985b) pointed out the contradic- presence of channels throughout its entire
tions and confusions created by this type of 2500 km length (Curray and Moore, 1974),
fan classification. For example: however, defies such a classification because a
(1) All criticisms of the detached-lobe zone of sediment bypassing is absent.
model, as discussed above, are equally appli- (5) Ricci Lucchi (1981a, b) classified the
cable to a highly efficient fan system because modern Crati fan in the Ionian Sea as a
these two systems are synonymous according highly efficient system, but the characteristics
to Johns and Mutti (1981). of the Crati fan, such as the presence of
TABLE V
Characteristics of highly efficient and poorly efficient ancient fan systems (compiled from Mutti and Johns, 1978;
Mutti, 1979; Mutti and Ricci Lucchi, 1981)
attached lobes and its small size (about 15 k m Transverse and longitudinal fan systems
long), favor its classification as a poorly effi-
cient system. A transverse fan essentially progrades per-
(6) According to Mutti (1979), the zone of pendicular to the axis of a basin, whereas a
bypassing implies a definite sedimentologic longitudinal fan progrades parallel to the
connotation. It occurs always between the basin axis. Dickinson and Seely (1979) dis-
channel mouths and depositional lobes in a cussed the development of transverse and
submarine-fan setting. Without realizing this, longitudinal turbidite systems in forearc
some authors (Labude, 1981) have referred to basins. U n d e r w o o d and Bachman (1982) have
the slope as a zone of bypassing. suggested that both transverse and longitudi-
(7) In a highly efficient system, suprafan nal systems may exist c o m m o n l y in trench-
lobes do not occur (Mutti, 1979). Scott and slope settings. Based on their concept, the
Tillman (1981), however, applied Mutti's con- development of transverse and longitudinal
cept incorrectly by proposing a detached lobe fans in trench settings is illustrated in Fig. 17.
model (i.e., highly efficient system) with Longitudinal fans that develop along trench
suprafan lobes for the Miocene Stevens Sand- floors are somewhat analogous to the trench
stone in California. wedges described by Schweller and K u l m
In summary, it is not practical to classify (1978). In trench settings, slumps (facies F)
fans on the basis of their transport efficiency are an ubiquitous facies, and they occur along
alone because a single fan can and c o m m o n l y the entire longitudinal fan tract (see Fig. 17).
does possess properties of both "highly" effi- Transverse and longitudinal fans can de-
cient and " p o o r l y " efficient systems. velop in other tectonic settings as well. Dur-
,,,< / ~
Fig. 17. Conceptual diagram showing development of transverse and longitudinal fans in trench settings. Both types of
fan may develop on trench-slope as well as on trench-floor basins depending on sea-floor topography, and sediment
dispersal. Facies distribution is modified after Underwood and Bachman (1982). Note narrow coastal plain and shelf.
Not to scale.
405
ing the Ordovician, both transverse and longi- have developed at various times along the
tudinal fans developed in foredeep basins of southern or northern margins of the basin
the southern and central Appalachians, re- (Niem, 1976), but they were insignificant in
spectively (Shanmugam and Lash, 1982; Lash, comparison to the larger, Bengal-like longitu-
1986). Longitudinal transport of turbidity dinal systems that prograded westward along
currents is advocated also for the Plio-Pleis- the axis of the basin. The most distal facies of
tocene sediments that were deposited along a these fans may have been deposited as far
transform margin in the Ventura basin of away as the Marathon region in southwest
California (Hsu et al., 1980). The Bengal fan, Texas (see Fig. 18).
world's largest modern longitudinal fan sys- Olistostromes may be important compo-
tem, is developed on a remnant ocean basin. nents of longitudinal fans. They occur
Moiola and Shanmugam (1984) interpreted throughout this Ouachita deep-water exam-
the Jackfork Formation (Pennsylvanian) of ple, and were derived primarily from the
the Ouachita Mountains of Arkansas and northern but also from the southern margin
Oklahoma as an ancient longitudinal fan sys- of the basin. In contrast to transverse fans in
tem (Fig. 18). Although the longitudinal fan which olistostromes are generally restricted to
model is typical of the Jackfork Formation, the upper part of the system, olistostromes
the model is also applicable to younger Atoka occur in all parts (upper, middle, lower) of
(Pennsylvanian) and older Stanley (Mississip- the Ouachita fans. In any longitudinal sys-
pian) formations. According to Moiola and tem, adjacent margins show a large potential
Shanmugam (1984), sediments derived pri- for contributing olistostromes to the basin. As
marily from the southern Appalachians and a fan system develops and progrades axially,
the Illinois basin formed elongate submarine- olistostromes will invariably become incorpo-
fan complexes that prograded westward, es- rated into upper-, middle-, and lower-fan
sentially parallel to the axis of a remnant components. We, therefore, suggest that this
ocean basin. Graham et al. (1975) explained relationship may be an important criterion
that this remnant basin developed as a result for recognizing longitudinal fan systems in
of the collision and partial suturing of the general and that longitudinal systems may be
North American and African/South Ameri- more common in the rock record than previ-
can continents. Smaller transverse fans may ously realized.
Fig. 18. Longitudinal fan system of the Jackfork Formation (Pennsylvanian), showing distribution of olistostromes
(arrow) throughout the fan, Ouachita Mountains, Arkansas and Oklahoma. Fan model is modified after Moiola and
Shanmugam (1984), and tectonic framework is after Thomas (1985).
406
In the COMFAN volume (Bouma et al., This setting represents an advanced stage
1985a), submarine fans are classified into two of basin evolution in a divergent margin. Dis-
basic types, namely, active-margin and pas- tal source, wide coastal plains and shelves,
sive-margin fans. We expanded this classifica- low gradients, low s a n d / m u d ratios, and large
tion to accommodate fans of complex tectonic basins are diagnostic features of this setting.
settings. Basin types used in our classification The basin is floored by oceanic crust. Fans
are derived primarily from existing basin clas- developed in this setting are large, mud-rich,
sifications (Dickinson, 1974; Bally and Snel- and lack well-developed lobes. Sheet sands
son, 1980; Miall, 1984; Klein, 1987; Pettijohn rather than lobes are present commonly in
et al., 1987). In the proposed scheme, fans are the lower-fan areas. Examples of this type are
classified into four types based on tectonic Amazon (Atlantic Ocean) and Mississippi
settings: immature passive margin, mature (Gulf of Mexico) fans.
passive margin, active margin, and mixed set-
ting. We selected tectonic setting as the basic Active-margin setting (Pacific type)
criterion for our classification because tectonic
elements directly or indirectly control many This setting represents convergent, trans-
factors that determine the type of submarine form, and collision margins. Proximal source,
fan. These factors include proximity to prove- narrow coastal plains and shelves, high gradi-
nance, width of coastal plain and shelf, sedi- ents, high s a n d / m u d ratios, and small basins
ment yield, sea-floor gradient, s a n d / m u d are diagnostic features of this setting. The
ratio, and basin configuration. Various con- basin is floored by either oceanic crust or
trolling factors of submarine fans in different continental crust. Barnes and Normark (1985)
tectonic settings are summarized in Table VI. included only accretionary, subduction, and
Maximum sediment thickness of fans range transform basins under active margins, but
commonly from 1000 to 5000 meters in all we expanded the scope of this category to
tectonic settings (Table VII). Fans deposited incorporate trench-slope, trench-floor, fore-
in some trenches and remnant ocean basins arc, backarc, transform, and foredeep basins.
may reach a total thickness of up to 10,000 m. Descriptive details of these basin types are
given by Crowell (1974), Dickinson (1974,
1977), Bally and Snelson (1980), and Miall
Immature passive-margin setting (North Sea (1984).
type) Trench-slope, trench-floor, forearc, and
backarc basins are related to B-subduction
This setting represents an early stage of zone (Benioff Zone). Transform basins are
basin evolution in a divergent margin. Prox- known to develop on both convergent and
imal source, narrow coastal plains and shelves, divergent margins. Although foredeep (or
high gradients, high s a n d / m u d ratios, and foreland) basins develop on continental crusts
small basins are diagnostic features of this that are adjacent to A-subduction margin
setting. The basin is floored by continental (Bally and Snelson, 1980), they exhibit fea-
crust, and it exhibits characteristics of tures (such as proximity to provenance, and
aulacogens and failed rifts (Miall, 1984). Fans narrow coastal plains and shelves) that are
developed in this setting are small, sand-rich, typical of basins associated with B-subduc-
and possessing well-developed lobes. Exam- tion zone. Active-margin basins are usually
ples of this type are the Balder fan of the small and restricted, but some trenches are
North Sea, and Kongsfjord fan of Norway. thousands of kilometers long. Fans developed
in active-margin setting are small, sand-rich,
407
TABLE VI
Factors affecting fan development in active and passive margins (Modified after Shanmugam et al., 1985b)
TABLE VII
Maximum thickness of selected fans in various tectonic settings
Active margin
Astoria Trench floor 2200 * a
Blanca Transform 1000 * 1
Cellino Foredeep 1500
Chugach Trench floor 10 000 * 1
Delgada Transform 3000 * 1
Gottero Trench slope 1500 * a
Great Valley Sequence Forearc 8000
Hecho Foredeep 3500 * 1
Marnoso-Arenacea Foredeep 1000 * 1
Monterey Transform 2000 * 1
Zodiac Trench floor 1600 * a
Mixed
Bengal Remnant ocean basin 5000 * 1
Indus Remnant ocean basin 3000.1
Jackfork and related formations Remnant ocean basin 10 000
/i ~\
MIDDLE FAN
'
,~'~
,#_ ';:
'
: =
i
/,OVVE.
~' DEPOSITIONAL LOBES
BASIN PLAIN
<' : ::
I'~
i: '': :"" >l .!j ,.
' /"
LI _ _ A~B A N D O N E D CHANNELS
J
BASIN PLAIN
Fig. 19. Comparison of mature passive-margin fans (left, hundreds of km long) with active-margin and immature
passive-margin fans (right, tens of km long); note presence of lobes in active-margin fans.
such as the Amazon and Mississippi, gives fans may be segmented, as is common on
rise to excellent bank stability and favors the modern alluvial fans (Denny, 1967). An ex-
development of a single, largely sinuous chan- ample of such a segmented active-margin fan
nel. Channel shifting in such a system is is the Navy fan, in which abandoned lobes
probably by multiple means, namely, meander have been documented (Normark and Piper,
shift, meander-bend cutoff, as well as by peri- 1972; Normark et al., 1979).
odic avulsion high on the fan. This channel The short, steep, and radial-shaped char-
shifting is observed on modern passive-margin acter of active-margin fans as a whole, is
fans by the widespread occurrence of aban- considered to be a direct consequence of the
doned channels and lateral accretion deposits relatively coarse-grained nature of its sedi-
(Damuth et al., 1983; Stelting et al., 1985). ment. Constant lateral shifting (by avulsion)
The sand-rich character and steeper gradi- of the channels about a point at the canyon
ent of active-margin fans should, by contrast, mouth maintains the equidimensional radial
favor the development of a braided channel profile that characterizes these fans. In con-
system. Braided channels are a diagnostic fea- trast, the finer-grained sediment of mature
ture of fans bearing suprafan deposits passive-margin fans typically produces a nar-
(Normark, 1974) that are developed com- row, elongate fan as a product of greater
monly on active-margin fans (e.g., Navy, San overall channel stability. More importantly,
Lucas, Redondo). A long-range side-scan mature passive-margin fans do not develop
sonar (Gloria) survey of the Orinoco deep-sea depositional lobes (Shanmugam et al., 1986),
fan (mixed setting), which abuts against the whereas active-margin fans usually do. Con-
deformation front of the Barbados Outer sequently, active margin-fans exhibit
Ridge, also reveals a braided distributary sys- mounded seismic reflections in the lower-fan
tem (Belderson et al., 1984). Active-margin area, whereas the sheet-like sand bodies of
410
TABLE VIll
Comparison of a mature passive-margin fan (modem) with immature passive-margin and active-margin fans (ancient)
MOUNDED SHEET
BIDIRECTIONAL DOWNLAP CONTINUOUS. PARALLEL
(SARG AND SKJOLD, 1982;
MITCHUM, 1985)
Fig. 20. Idealized seismic reflection profiles of lower-fan areas in different tectonic settings. Length of seismic section
represents tens of km for immature passive margin and active margin (left), and hundreds of km for mature passive
margin (right).
411
TURBIDITE FACIES
PASSIVE MARGIN ACTIVE MARGIN
CHANNEL-FILL
(B,F)
SHEET SAND
LOWERFAN
LOBE
(C,D)
j LOWERFAN
(D)
Fig. 21. Idealized stratigraphic sections showing distribution of turbidite facies in mature passive-margin fans (left
section, hundreds of meters in thickness) and in active-margin fans (right section, tens of meters in thickness); note
differences in facies association between lobes and sheet sands. Facies nomenclature is after Mutti and Ricci Lucchi
(1972, 1975).
mature passive-margin fans generate parallel tings, channelization and related fan growth
and continuous reflections (Table VIII, Fig. seem to occur mainly during periods of low
20). sea level (Shanmugam et al., 1985b).
A comparison of active-margin fans (e.g., Sarg and Skjold (1982) interpreted the
Hecho fan) and mature passive-margin fan Paleocene Balder fan in the North Sea (imma-
(e.g., Mississippi fan) shows major differences ture passive margin) as a sand-rich fan with
in facies association in the lower-fan area "suprafan" lobes. Thus, immature passive-
(Shanmugam et al., 1986). These differences margin fans are very similar in character to
can be explained by the development of lobes those of active-margin fans. We believe that
in active-margin fan and sheet sands in ma- early-stage passive-margin settings (North Sea
ture passive-margin fan (Fig. 21). The turbi- type) favor sand-rich fans because of a nearby
dite facies scheme (Mutti and Ricci Lucchi, source and steep gradients, whereas in a ma-
1972), which was developed exclusively from ture passive margin (Atlantic type), mud-rich
ancient active-margin fans, should be applied fans develop because of a distant source and
to mature passive-margin fans with qualifica- gentle gradients. Tectonic control of sub-
tions. marine-fan types is illustrated in Fig. 22. Large
It might be speculated further that, as with mud-rich fans (Mississippi, and Amazon fans)
fluvial channels (Schumm, 1977, 1981), the may be classified as open-basin fans (Nelson
dimensions of channels on submarine fans and Kulm, 1973) or as elongate fans (Stow et
are greatly dependent upon sediment yield al., 1985; Stow, 1986), whereas small sand-rich
and rate of discharge. Thus, the somewhat fans (Navy, and Monterey fans) may be clas-
wider, deeper, and longer channels of sified as either restricted-basin fans (Nelson
passive-margin fans may be attributed to and Kulm, 1973) or as radial fans (Stow et al.,
larger discharge flows. In both tectonic set- 1985; Stow, 1986). Exceptions to this general
412
tliI
SAND-RICH SMALL FANS
EUSTATIC CO N TRO L OF SUBMARINE FANS
] 200 M
/ marine canyons at or near the shelf break.
Thus, large quantities of terrigenous sediment
were transported to the deep sea via turbidity
currents and related gravity flows, and sub-
marine fan development was greatly accel-
LOW SEA LEVEL erated (Fig. 23). This scenario is perhaps more
representative of passive-margin settings
where wide coastal plains and shelves are
affected dramatically during low sea level.
DSDP core data from the passive-margin
Mississippi fan indeed demonstrate that the
"nondecompacted" rate of sedimentation was
extremely high during low sea level (600-1100
cm/1000 years) but low (2-13 cm/1000 years)
during high sea level (Fig. 24) (Kohl et al.,
1985).
Exceptions to the above trend do occur
Fig. 23. Eustatic models showing development of fans
during periods of low sea level, and occurrence of
because in certain active-margin settings,
non-fan turbidites during periods of high sea level. tectonic uplift is a major control on sediment
Simplified after Shanmugam and Moiola (1982b). yield and on fan growth (Klein, 1984, 1985a).
For example, in two submarine fans of the
western Pacific (an unnamed fan at DSDP
=~ ~t M,DO~E
E~ LOWER FAN
F] BI ZONE
z IN TERGLACIATION,
o-,1.ooo YEA.S
HIGH SEA LEVEL
(HOLOCENE)
F-
lOOO-
_ N 11,000
ZONE Y
85,000 YEARS
GLACIATION,
LOW SEA LEVEL
(WISCONSIN)
Fig. 24. "Nondecompacted" rate of sedimentation during periods of high and low sea levels in the Mississippi fan.
Simplified after Kohl et al. (1985).
414
Site 210, and Toyama "fan" at DSDP Site fore, influenced primarily by lowstands of sea
299), turbidite deposition has been correlated level in most tectonic settings.
with periods of tectonic uplift (Klein, 1985b). The following hydrocarbon-bearing sub-
In particular, in island-arc settings coastal marine-canyon and fan deposits occur on both
plains and shelves are very narrow, and sedi- active- and passive-margin settings, and they
ment is transported directly into deep water all correlate with periods of low sea level: (1)
(Fig. 17). In certain arc systems (e.g., the the Pennsylvanian (Atokan) Red Oak Sand-
northern Middle America Trench, DSDP Leg stone in Oklahoma; (2) the Lower Permian
66) where an abundant source of terrigenous Cook Channel of the Jameson Field in Texas;
detritus is available, large submarine canyons (3) the Upper Cretaceous Woodbine-Eagle
funnel coarse clastics directly to the trench Ford Interval in Texas; (4) the Paleocene
floor, effectively bypassing depositional sites sequence of Forties and Montrose Fields in
even along the lower slope (Underwood and the U.K., North Sea; (5) the Paleocene Balder
Karig, 1980). In these cases, eustatic control Field in the Norwegian North Sea; (6) the
of fan growth may be overshadowed by Paleocene Cod Fan in the Norwegian North
tectonic control. Sea; (7) the Lower Eocene Yoakum Channel
In general, however, most modern fans of in Texas; (8) the Lower Eocene sequence of
active margin (Astoria, Navy, Coronado, and the Frigg Field in the North Sea; (9) the
Monterey), mature passive margin (Amazon, Upper Oligocene Lower Hackberry Sand-
and Mississippi), and mixed setting (Bengal stone in Texas; (10) the Upper Oligocene
and Indus) exhibit accelerated growth during Puchkirchen Formation in Austria; (11) the
periods of low sea level associated with Upper Miocene Stevens Sandstone of south-
Pleistocene glacials. These fans, however, have eastern San Joaquin Valley in California; (12)
been dormant during the Holocene and previ- the Upper Miocene Puente Formation of
ous interglacials (periods of high sea level). Wilmington Field in California; (13) the
The development of a submarine fan is, there- Lower Pliocene Repetto Formation of
M
7. YOAKUM CHANNEL (TEXAS)
8. FRIGG FLD (U.K.-NORWAY BORDER N.-SEA)
Fig. 25. Correlation of hydrocarbon-bearingsubmarine canyon and fan deposits with periods of low sea level. From
Shanmugam and Moiola (1982a).
415
EROSIONAL
SLOPE
SUBMARINE FAN
Immature passive-margin fans are com- Depositional facies and reservoir quality
parable to active-margin fans in their sand
distribution. An example is the Balder fan of Channel and lobe deposits form reservoirs
the North Sea. Small, sand-rich, scarp-fed throughout the world (Table IX). Favorable
fans developed during Late Jurassic in re- reservoir properties of channels and lobes in-
sponse to a syn-rift tectonic cycle in the North clude their thickness (up to 50 m), porosity
Sea, whereas post-rift fans formed during Late (up to 30%), and permeability (up to 4000
Paleocene and Early Eocene time (Watson, mD). The reservoir potential of submarine
1984). Nearly 23% of estimated recoverable fans may be considered in terms of the facies
reserves of 23 billion bbl of oil and 50 tcf of scheme of Mutti and Ricci Lucchi (1972,
gas occurs in submarine-fan reservoirs in the 1975). The reservoir potential of these facies
North Sea Hydrocarbon Province (Watson, has been inferred from their lithology, layer
1984). thickness, facies continuity, and potential for
Mature passive-margin fans are mud-rich preservation of depositional porosity or
systems, however, they tend to show increas- primary porosity (see classification of poros-
ing sand content downfan. In the lower Mis- ity in sandstones by Shanmugam, 1985).
sissippi fan, the presence of "sheet sands" Turbidite facies with high s a n d / m u d ratio
(O'Connell et al., 1985) suggests that a possi- exhibit generally higher depositional porosity
bility exists for reservoir development in the than facies with low s a n d / m u d ratio (Bjor-
lower-fan areas of even large mud-rich fans. lykke, 1983). We have used this relationship
The Early Wisconsin "fanlobe" of the Missis- to derive the depositional porosity curve
sippi fan is reported to contain 65% net sand shown in Fig. 27. Overall reservoir potential
(Bouma et al., 1985c). Unfortunately, mature in terms of lithology, thickness, continuity,
passive-margin fans are seldom preserved in and porosity is also illustrated in Fig. 27.
the rock record. Reservoir potential illustrated in Fig. 27,
Mixed-setting fans such as the Indus however, does not take into account all aspects
possess potential for reservoir development of diagenesis that ultimately control reservoir
primarily in the lower-fan areas where non- quality.
channelized sheet sands are present (Kolla Facies A (conglomerates, pebbly sand-
and Coumes, 1987). stones, and pebbly mudstones) exhibits mod-
erate reservoir potential because of abundant
Sediment dispersal and sand distribution depositional matrix. Facies B (massive sand-
stones) shows better reservoir potential than
In addition to overall tectonic settings, the facies A because deposits of facies B are
nature of sediment dispersal also controls the commonly better sorted and more continuous
distribution of sand. For example, in the than those of facies A. Examples of facies B
Ventura basin of California, longitudinal sandstones that produce hydrocarbons in-
transport of sediments is proposed (Hsu et clude the Balder Field of the North Sea (Sarg
al., 1980). The exploration importance of the and Skjold, 1982) and San Joaquin basin of
longitudinal fan model is that it predicts the California (Scott and Tillman, 1981). Facies
locality of the potential reservoir sands to be C (classical turbidites) shows the best poten-
in the central and deepest parts of the trough. tial for reservoir development. These sand-
Conversely, the transverse fan model predicts stones commonly form thickening-upward
potential reservoir sands at the basin flank lobe sequences that have good lateral continu-
(Hsu et al., 1980). ity, and high depositional porosity. For exam-
ple, the Lower Pliocene Cellino Formation in
Italy produces hydrocarbons from deposi-
tional lobes made up of facies C (Casnedi,
417
Reservoir Features
Repetto Fm., Channel width: 250-450 m
Lower Pliocene, Thickness of channel 1983). In general, facies D (sandstones lack-
Ventura Field, Calif. sandstone: 13-40 m
"Suprafan" lobe thickness: 65 m
ing lower divisions of the Bouma sequence)
Permeability range: 1-250 mD displays moderate reservoir potential. Facies
E (ripple-laminated and lenticular sand-
Cellino Fm., Lobe thickness: 25 m
Lower Pliocene, Length: 30 km
stones) shows slightly better reservoir poten-
Central Italy, tial than facies D. Facies F (slumps) and
facies G (pelagic and hemipelagic shale) show
Stevens Sandstone, Channels and lobes
Upper Miocene, "Suprafan" lobe thickness:
minimal potential for forming reservoirs.
San Joaquin basin, 50 m
Calif. Porosity: 16% Framework composition, diagenesis, and res-
Permeability: 20 mD eruoir quality
Eocene Channels and lobes
Frigg Field, Total sand thickness: 400 m Framework composition of sandstones
North Sea Porosity: 25-32% primarily reflect different tectonic settings of
Permeability: 1200-1600 mD provenance terranes (Dickinson and Suczek,
Paleocene Thickness of channel 1979). Framework composition commonly
Forties Field, sandstone: 50 m controls reservoir quality via diagenesis. A
North Sea "Suprafan" lobe thickness: compilation of framework composition of
35 m
Porosity: 25-30%
submarine-fan sandstones shows that active-
Permeability: 1000-4000 mD margin fans contain abundant rock fragments
and feldspar (Table X), whereas passive-
Paleocene "Suprafan" lobe thickness:
Balder Field, 20-60 m
margin fans are enriched in quartz (Table
North Sea Net sand: 25-60% XI). A high percentage of coarse-grained un-
stable framework grains (e.g., feldspar and
Namorado, Total sand thickness: 100 m
Cretaceous to Porosity: 30%
rock fragments) is present in active-margin
Tertiary, Permeability: 1000 mD
settings because of the short distance between
Campos basin, the source area (provenance) and the site of
offshore Brazil fan development. In mature passive-margin
Forbes Sandstone, "Suprafan" lobe thickness:
settings, in contrast, the long-distance trans-
Upper Cretaceous, 10-60 m port of sediment tends to destroy the unstable
Grimes Field, Calif. Length: 8.8 km grains, thereby, concentrating stable quartz
Width: 4.8 km grains. In the Amazon fiver system, for exam-
Winters Sandstone, Channels (and lobes?) ple, QFR (quartz, feldspar, and rock frag-
Upper Cretaceous, Thickness: 7-10 m ments) ratios of sand average 4 7 : 8 : 4 5 near
Sacramento Valley, Porosity: 23-27% the headwaters, and 85:3:11 near the river
Calif. Permeability: 150-950 mD mouth, some 3000 km downstream (Franzi-
Cook Sandstone, Thickness of channel nelli and Potter, 1983). Crook (1974) has also
418
LITHOLOGY
F ~1 I
Lg
LATERAL DEPOSITIONAL RESERVOIR
PRINCIPAL CONTINUITY POROSITY POTENTIAL
ENVIRONMENT
POOR LOW HIGH POOR GOOD
A CHANNEL
B CHANNEL
C LOBE
D LOBE FRINGE
E GVERBANK
F SLOPE
BASIN PLAIN
Fig. 27. Reservoir potential of turbidite facies. Details of lithology, layer thickness, and lateral continuity are from
Mutti and Ricci Lucchi (1975); depositional porosity is inferred from amounts of depositional matrix in each facies.
The reservoir-potential trend is a composite of aforementionedproperties.
suggested that quartz-rich deep-sea sands are potential for preserving high depositional
indicative of tectonically quiescent Atlantic- porosity during burial diagenesis (Nagtegaal,
type continental margins. 1978). For example, quartz-rich sands of the
Submarine fans associated with island arcs mature passive-margin Mississippi fan are
are commonly depleted in quartz and en- clean, possess high porosities (20-30%), and
riched in volcaniclastic sediments (e.g., Aleu- show only minor pore-reducing diagenetic ef-
tian, Mariana, and Toyama, see Table X), fects (Roberts and Thayer, 1985).
however, rare exceptions showing quartz-rich Feldspathic sandstones may show similar
sandstones do occur (e.g., Greenwich slice, framework stability as quartz-rich sandstones,
Torlesse, Zodiac, see Table X). Underwood however, alteration of feldspars results com-
(1986) explained that quartz-rich sandstones monly in pore-tilling authigenic kaolinite.
in arc-related settings may be produced by Lithic sandstones possess the least potential
transportation of mineralogically mature sedi- of retaining depositional porosity because of
ments from neighboring continental sources their susceptibility to mechanical and
into forearc and backarc environments, and chemical compaction (Nagtegaal, 1978).
by long-distance axial transport of sediments Sandstones containing significant volumes of
on the trench floor. ductile lithic fragments can undergo a total
The differential composition between ac- destruction of intergranular porosity during
tive- and passive-margins is important in con- mechanical compaction as a result of plastic
trolling major diagenetic processes, namely deformation of lithic fragments (Rittenhouse,
mechanical compaction, chemical compac- 1971). A positive aspect of feldspathic and
tion, cementation, and dissolution. In general, lithic sandstones deposited on active-margin
quartz-rich sandstones show a high degree of fans is that they may be prone to developing
framework stability, and possess the optimal secondary porosity during burial diagenesis
419
TABLE X
Framework composition of selected fans in active-margin settings
by dissolution of unstable framework grains. (4) late calcite pore fill/replacement and sili-
In backarc basins of the western Pacific ceous overgrowths (deeper than 3000 m). Be-
Ocean, development of secondary porosity by cause both oil generation and late-stage di-
leaching is attributed to thermally driven fluid agenesis of arc-derived sandstones are tem-
circulation (Lee and Klein, 1986). perature-controlled, these sandstones enter the
Arc-derived sandstones show progressive zone of very low porosity and permeability
stages of diagenetic destruction of reservoir (the economic basement) when these sand-
quality with increasing depth of burial (Gal- stones reach the interval of petroleum genera-
loway, 1979). These diagenetic stages include: tion and initial migration. Furthermore, sub-
(1) early calcite pore fill; (2) growth of authi- duction complexes are not good exploration
genic clay rims (300-1300 m); (3) laumontite targets because of porosity reduction induced
or phyllosilicate pore fill (1000-3000 m); and by tectonic loading and strata disruption
420
TABLE XI
Framework composition of selected fans in passive-margin and mixed settings
caused by shear deformation (Dickinson and may exhibit low primary porosity and vari-
Seely, 1979). able amounts of secondary porosity due to
In passive-margin settings, in contrast, dissolution of unstable framework grains.
porosity preservation extends into the liquid
window, and therefore sandstones still retain SUMMARY
good reservoir potential at the depth of oil
generation (Galloway, 1979). In mature pas- (1) Submarine-fan sequences are composed
sive-margin fans, secondary porosity is more predominantly of turbidite packages that oc-
likely to be generated by dissolution of ce- cur as channel and lobe (or sheet sand) de-
ment than by dissolution of stable quartz posits.
grains. (2) Facies associations in conjunction with
In summary, passive-margin fans are bed-thickness trends can be used to identify
quartz-rich, and may contain high primary upper, middle, and lower fan environments.
porosity and variable amounts of secondary (3) Channel deposits are characterized by
porosity caused by dissolution of cement. Ac- thinning-upward trends and associated facies
tive-margin fans are usually quartz-poor, and A and B of Mutti and Ricci Lucchi's (1975)
421
Damuth, J.E. and Flood, R.D., 1983/1984. Mor- Gorsline, D.S., 1980. Deep-water sedimentologic condi-
phology, sedimentation processes, and growth pat- tions and models. Mar. Geol., 38: 1-21.
tern of the Amazon deep-sea fan. Geo-Marine Graham, S.A., Dickinson, W.R. and Ingersoll, R.V.,
Letters, 3: 109-117. 1975. Himalayan-Bengal model for flysch dispersal
Damuth, J.E., et al., 1983. Distributary channel in the Appalachian-Ouachita system. Geol. Soc. Am.
meandering and bifurcation patterns on Amazon Bull., 86: 273-286.
deep-sea fan as revealed by long-range side-scan Haner, B.E., 1971. Morphology and sediments of Re-
sonar (GLORIA). Geology, 11: 94-98. dondo submarine fan, southern California. Geol.
Denny, C.S., 1967. Fans and pediments. Am. J. Sci., Soc. Am. Bull., 82: 2413-2432.
265: 81-105. Haq, B.U., Hardenbol, J. and Vail, P.R., 1987. Chronol-
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[Received April 13, 1987; accepted after revision August 19, 1987]