Earth-Science Reviews, 24 (1988) 383-428 383

Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., Amsterdam--Printed in The Netherlands

Submarine Fans: Characteristics, Models, Classification,

and Reservoir Potential

G. SHANMUGAM and R.J. MOIOLA

ABSTRACT

Shanmugam, G. and Moiola, R.J., 1988. Submarine fans: characteristics, models, classification, and reservoir
potential. Earth-Sci. Rev., 24: 383-428.

Submarine-fan sequences are important hydrocarbon reservoirs throughout the world. Submarine-fan sequences
may be interpreted from bed-thickness trends, turbidite facies associations, log motifs, and seismic-reflection profiles.
Turbidites occurring predominantly in channels and lobes (or sheet sands) constitute the major portion of submarine-fan
sequences. Thinning- and thickening-upward trends are suggestive of channel and lobe deposition, respectively.
Mounded seismic reflections are commonly indicative of lower-fan depositional lobes.
Fan models are discussed in terms of modern and ancient fans, attached and detached lobes, highly efficient and
poorly efficient systems, and transverse and longitudinal fans. In general, depositional lobes are considered to be
attached to feeder channels. Submarine fans can be classified into four types based on their tectonic settings: (1)
immature passive-margin fans (North Sea type); (2) mature passive-margin fans (Atlantic type); (3) active-margin fans
(Pacific type); and (4) mixed-setting fans. Immature passive-margin fans (e.g., Balder, North Sea), and active-margin
fans (e.g., Navy, Pacific Ocean) are usually small, sand-rich, and possess well developed lobes. Mature passive-margin
fans (e.g., Amazon, Atlantic Ocean) are large, mud-rich, and do not develop typical lobes. However, sheet sands are
common in the lower-fan regions of mature passive-margin fans. Mixed-setting fans display characteristics of either
Atlantic type (e.g., Bengal, Bay of Bengal), or Pacific type (Orinoco, Caribbean), or both. Conventional channel-lobe
models may not be applicable to fans associated with mature passive margins.
Submarine fans develop primarily during periods of low sea level on both active- and passive-margin settings.
Consequently, hydrocarbon-bearing fan sequences are associated generally with global lowstands of sea level.
Channel-fill sandstones in most tectonic settings are potential reservoirs. Lobes exhibit the most favorable reservoir
quality in terms of sand content, lateral continuity, and porosity development. Lower-fan sheet sands may also make
good reservoirs. Quartz-rich sandstones of mature passive-margin fans are most likely to preserve depositional
porosity, whereas lithic sandstones of active-margin fans may not.

INTRODUCTION 1978; Tillman and Ali, 1982; Bouma,

Submarine fans constitute major hydro-
carbon reservoirs throughout the world. Con-
sequently, a clear understanding of their
geometry, facies relationships, and reservoir
quality is critical for exploring and exploiting
these deposits effectively. In this regard, sub-
marine fans have become one of the most
thoroughly studied depositional systems in
the rock record (Menard, 1960; Mutti and
Ricci Lucchi, 1972; Middleton and Bouma,
1973; Whitaker, 1976; Stanley and Kelling,
1983/1984; Nelson and Nilsen, 1984; Bouma
et al., 1985a; Mutti and Normark, 1987). Our
understanding of submarine-fan systems,
however, is quite controversial, and disagree-
ment exists in the usage of terminology, facies
models, and concepts (Nilsen, 1980; Walker,
1980a; Hiscott, 1981; Ghibaudo, 1981;
Shanmugam and Moiola, 1985a, b; Shanmu-
gam et al., 1985a).
The purpose of this review is to provide an
up-to-date account of submarine-fan deposits
primarily in terms of their sedimentologic

0012-8252/88/$03.50 ~ 1988 Elsevier Science Publishers B.V.

384
characteristics. A critical review of conven-
tional submarine-fan models is presented. A
classification of submarine fans is proposed
based on tectonic settings. The relationship
between global changes in sea level and their
control of fan growth is utilized to develop a
model for predicting the occurrence of deep-
sea reservoir facies in frontier areas. Finally,
G. (Shan) Shanmugam was born in Sirkali,
Tamilnadu, India. He received his B.Sc. in geology
and chemistry from Annamalai University, south
India, M.Sc. in applied geology from Indian In-
stitute of Technology, Bombay, M.S. in geology
from Ohio University, Athens, and Ph.D. in geol-
ogy from the University of Tennessee, Knoxville.
After receiving his doctorate in 1978, he joined
Mobil Research and Development Corporation in
Dallas, where he is currently a research associate.
Although his primary research interests are clastic
sedimentology and diagenesis, his field studies
include kauri trees (conifer) in North Island of
New Zealand, coal seams in southeastern
Australia, and tower karsts in southern China. He
has published over 40 scientific papers covering a
wide-range of topics, including critique of turbi-
dite facies scheme and submarine-fan models,
fine-grained turbidites and debris flows, eustatic
control of deep-sea sedimentation, secondary
porosity and sandstone composition, foredeep
evolution in the southern Appalachians,
manganese distribution in carbonates, oil genera-
tion from coaly sequences, recognition of braid
deltas, and types and importance of erosional
unconformities. He served as chairman of SEPM
Research Group on Clastic Diagenesis from 1986
to 1987. Present address: Dallas Research Labora-
tory, P.O. Box 819047, Dallas, Texas 75381, U.S.A.
reservoir potential of submarine fans is
evaluated in terms of tectonic setting, deposi-
tional facies, framework composition, and
diagenesis.
This paper summarizes results of our re-
search on submarine fans that has been car-
ried out during the past eight years. This
study is based on: (1) field examination of
ancient submarine-fan deposits in Spain, Italy,
France, Germany, Switzerland, Austria, New
Zealand, Indonesia, and the U.S. (California,
Washington, Oregon, Arkansas, Oklahoma,
Tennessee, and Virginia); (2) analysis of mod-
ern (particularly, D S D P Leg 96 on the Missis-
sippi fan) and ancient submarine-fan deposits
in cores and in seismic sections; and (3) a
synthesis of published information from
nearly 50 modern and ancient fans and
turbidite systems (Table I). Details of m a n y
modern and ancient examples that we used in
this study are given in the C O M F A N (COM-
mittee on FANs) volume (Bouma et al.,
1985a).
Richard J. Moiola, B.A., Ph.D., graduated from
the University of California, Berkeley (U.S.A.) in
1959 and received a Ph.D. in geology from the
same institution in 1969. He joined Mobil Re-
search and Development Corporation in Dallas in
1963, where he is presently manager of Geological
and Geochemical Research. Throughout his career
with Mobil, his principal interest has been the
sedimentology of modem and ancient siliciclastic
depositional systems. Formerly sedimentology
councillor of SEPM, he is currently an associate
editor of the 'Bulletin of the American Associa-
tion of Petroleum Geologists', the 'Bulletin of the
Geological Society of America', and the 'Journal
of Sedimentary Petrology'.
 385

TABLE I
A general list of submarine fans and turbidite systems used in this study
Modem Ancient
Aleutian (Gulf of Alaska) Balder, Paleocene, North Sea
(Kulm et al., 1973) (Sarg and Skjold, 1982)
Amazon (Atlantic Ocean) Blanca, Miocene, California
Astoria (Pacific Ocean) Butano, Eocene, California
Bengal and Nicobar (Bay of Bengal) Cellino, Plio., Italy (Casnedi, 1983)
Bio Bio and Callecalle (Pacific Ocean) Cengio, Oligocene-Miocene, Italy
(Thomburg and Kulm, 1987a) Chugach, Upper Cretaceous, Alaska
Cap-Ferret (Atlantic Ocean) Ferrelo, Eocene, California
Crati (Mediterranean) Forbes, Cret., Calif. (Walker, 1978)
Delgada (Pacific Ocean) Forties, Paleocene, N. Sea (Parker, 1975)
Ebro (Mediterranean) Frigg, Eocene, North Sea
Indus (Arabian Sea) (Heritier et al., 1980)
Hatteras (Atlantic Ocean) Gottero, Cretaceous and Paleocene, Italy
(Cleary et al., 1977) Great Valley Sequence, Upper Cretaceous,
La Jolla (Pacific Ocean) California (Ingersoll, 1978a)
Laurentian (Atlantic Ocean) Greenwich slice, Middle Ordovician,
Magdalena (Caribbean) Pennsylvania (Lash, 1986)
Monterey (Pacific Ocean) Hecho, Eocene, Spain (Mutti, 1977)
Mississippi (Gulf of Mexico) Jackfork, Penn., Arkansas and Oklahoma
Navy (Pacific Ocean) (Moiola and Shanmugam, 1984)
Nile (Mediterranean) Kongsfjord, Precambrian, Norway
(Maldonado and Stanley, 1978) Laga, Upper Miocene-Lower Pliocene,
Orinoco (Caribbean) Italy (Mutti et al., 1978)
(Belderson et al., 1984) Marnoso-Arenacea, Miocene, Italy
Redondo (Pacific Ocean) Peira-Cava, Upper Eocene, France
(Haner, 1971) Red Oak, Pennsylvanian, Oklahoma
Rhone (Mediterranean) (Vedros and Visher, 1978)
San Lucas (Baja California) Repetto, Lower Pliocene, California
(Normark, 1974) (Hsu, 1977; Walker, 1978)
Toyama (Sea of Japan) Sevier, Middle Ordovician,
(Bouma, 1975; Klein, 1985a, b) Tennessee (Shanmugam, 1980)
Wilmington (Atlantic Ocean) Torlesse, Carb.-Cret., New Zealand
Zodiac (Gulf of Alaska) .1
(Stevenson et al., 1983)
Note: See Bouma et al. (1985a) for fans listed without references.
.1 Transitional between modem and ancient fans (Barnes and Normark, 1985)

CHARACTERISTICS OF SUBMARINE FANS velop in shallow-water environments (i.e.,

Definitions and constraints
Bouma et al. (1985a) defined a submarine
fan as " a channel-(levee)-overbank system".
We define submarine fans as channel and
lobe (or sheet sand) complexes formed from
sediment-gravity flows in the deep-sea en-
vironment, commonly beyond the continental
shelf. We do not consider fan-deltas that de-
shelf) as a type of submarine fan (see classifi-
cation by Stow, 1986). Submarine fans, how-
ever, may develop as a separate deep-water
system, downdip from fan-deltas (e.g., Yal-
lahs fan at 1,100 m water depth; Wescott and
Ethridge, 1980). Submarine fans are com-
posed primarily of siliciclastic sediments,
however, calciclastic sediments can also de-
velop submarine fans (Cook et al., 1983). In
this review, we focus on siliciclastic deposits
386

only. Shelf turbidites and slope aprons are i(

topics beyond the scope of this review.

Recognition of both channel and lobe (or
sheet sand) deposits is essential in establish-
ing the existence of a fan system in either
modern or ancient settings. In some cases,
tectonic features (such as the Valencia Trough
truncating the Ebro "fan"; Nelson et al., 1985)
or strong bottom currents (e.g., Wilmington
"fan"; Cleary et al., 1985) may obstruct the
growth of lobes or sheet sands. We do not
consider such incomplete systems to be typi-
cal fans. Thus, if a deep-sea turbidite se-
quence comprises only channel deposits and
lacks lobes or sheet sands, then the sequence
should be described as a "turbidite system",
not a "fan". The term "modern" fan is used
here to refer to present-day deep-sea fans that
are still active or that have been active during
the Quaternary Period. Terms such as "sand-
rich" and "mud-rich" are used in a relative
sense.

Configuration

In theory, submarine fans are considered to

be cone-shaped deposits. In reality, however,
outlines of both modern and ancient fans
(Barnes and Normark, 1985) show a great
variability in shape (Fig. 1). In fact, very few
of the m o d e m fans, with the exception of the
Indus, the Mississippi, the Nile, and possibly
the Amazon, are actually cone-shaped.
Fan-shaped deposits are more likely to de-
velop in large open basins than in small re-
stricted basins (Bouma et al., 1985a). Most
fans are elongate (e.g., Bengal fan), some are
trapezoidal (e.g., Astoria fan), and some are
even more complex in shape (e.g., Delgada
fan). Basin configuration and local tectonic
features on the sea floor contribute to this
variability. Because fan shape varies so
greatly, shape is not an useful criterion for
classifying fans. Modern submarine fans also
vary greatly in size (Fig. 1). For example, the
Navy fan is 15 km long, whereas the Bengal
fan is 3000 km in length.
L_J
Fig. 1. Outlines of selected submarine fans and turbidite
systems showing variability in size and shape. Compiled
from Barnes and Normark (1985, wall chart).
Depositional processes
Sediment gravity flows (Middleton and
Hampton, 1973) are the most important
deep-sea processes in developing submarine
fans. Channelized turbidity currents and asso-
ciated debris flows are the two dominant types
of sediment gravity flows responsible for
transporting and depositing submarine-fan
sediments. Slumps and liquified flows are of
some importance, but grain flows are of little
significance, as their generation requires
slopes of 18 to 37 (Middleton and Hamp-
ton, 1973). The most commonly advocated
mechanisms for triggering sediment-gravity

flows are "oversteepening", "heavy storm
surge and wave action", "earthquakes", and
"pore-water pressure", but none of these
mechanisms is studied fully (Bouma et al.,
1985a).
Turbidites
Major portions of submarine-fan sequences
are composed of turbidites that occur as
channel-fill, lobes, and sheet sands. A turbi-
dite bed represents a single depositional event
from a turbidity flow. Turbidites are rec-
ognized routinely in both modern and ancient
sediments by graded bedding (Kuenen and
Migliorini, 1950), and by a standard sequence
of sedimentary structures known as the
" B o u m a sequence" (Bouma, 1962). A com-
plete Bouma sequence is composed of five
divisions (A, B, C, D, and E), and the se-
quence shows a characteristic upward de-
crease in grain size (positive grading). Al-
though submarine fans consist predominantly
of turbidites, caution must be exercised in
interpreting all turbidite sequences as forming
submarine-fan successions. Turbidites can oc-
cur also as thin sheet deposits (Pilkey et al.,
1980) unrelated to fan development. Fine-
grained turbidites (Piper, 1978; Stow and
Shanmugam, 1980) can be important in cer-
tain submarine-fan systems. Paleocurrent pat-
terns are a major source of information for
interpreting the radial sediment dispersal of
ancient fans. Trace fossils of the Nereites
facies commonly are associated with turbi-
dites (Seilacher, 1967).
Fan components
Although submarine fans are described
routinely in terms of upper (inner), middle,
and lower (outer) divisions, there is no agree-
ment as to the application of these terms
(Barnes and Normark, 1985). The absence of
channels is a major factor in recognizing the
lower part of some modern fans (e.g., Navy
fan), whereas the lower part of other m o d e m
fans contain channels (e.g., Amazon fan).
387
Likewise, on m o d e m fans these divisions do
not conform to changes in gradient (Normark
et al., 1985a). For ancient fans, some authors
(Mutti and Ricci Lucchi, 1972) consider the
presence of "depositional lobes" to be indica-
tive of the lower fan, whereas the presence of
"suprafan lobes" is believed to be indicative
of the middle fan by others (Walker, 1978).
The problem of lobes will be addressed later.
Another disparity in subdividing fans is re-
lated to the basin plain. For example, the
"lower fan" area of the Monterey fan in-
cludes the basin plain, whereas the "lower
fan" area of the Amazon fan does not
(Normark et al., 1985a). These artificial divi-
sions obviously create problems when we at-
tempt to compare one fan with the other. In
general, components of ancient fans (Fig. 2,
upper part of diagram) can be recognized
using the following criteria: (1) the upper fan
by the presence of a major feeder channel
(canyon); (2) the middle fan by a network of
distributary channels and associated over-
bank deposits; and (3) the lower fan by lobes
or sheet sands. Fan components in the rock
record are typically recognized using the
turbidite facies association scheme (Fig. 2,
lower part of diagram) of Mutti and Ricci
Lucchi (1972, 1975). The application of this
scheme is discussed below.
Turbidite facies
The concept of turbidite facies was first
introduced by Mutti and Ricci Lucchi (1972),
who used the term facies to indicate a group
of strata with well-defined sedimentary fea-
tures. Seven basic facies, namely A, B, C, D,
E, F, and G, were proposed (these letters
should not be confused with divisions of the
Bouma sequence). As a rule, a turbidite facies
primarily reflects the mechanism of deposi-
tion. Characteristic associations of turbidite
facies (Fig. 2) are used to identify ancient
submarine-fan subenvironments (Mutti and
Ricci Lucchi, 1972; Walker and Mutti, 1973;
Walker, 1978; Shanmugam and Moiola,
1985a, b). Mutti and Ricci Lucchi (1972) rea-
388

ANCIENT SUBMARINE FAN FACIES

) BASIN PLAIN

DISTRIBUTION OF FACIES
1 ENVIRONMENT 1
FAN
FA SLOPE UPPER MIDDLE L--W-'-O
ER PLAIN DEPOSITIONAL PROCESSES

mm DEBRIS FLOWS, LIOUIFIED FLOWS

DEBRIS FLOWS, LIOUIFIED FLOWS,

TURBIDITY CURRENTS (HIGH
ENERGY)

m m TURBIDITY CURRENTS

mm TURBIDITY CURRENTS
(LOW ENERGY)

m -r LIQUIFIED FLOWS, TURBIDITY

CURRENTS,TRACTION CURRENTS (?)
m

SLUMPS, DEBRIS FLOWS

I ----IBm
___--mm
PELAGIC & HEMIPELAGIC
SEDIMENTATION

Fig. 2. Components of an ancient submarine fan and related distribution of turbidite facies. Note a major canyon in
the upper-fan region, a network of distributary channels in the middle-fan region, and nonchannelized lobes in the
lower-fan region. Facies nomenclature used in Figs. 2-5 is from Mutti and Ricci Luccbi (1972, 1975). From
Shanmugam and Moiola (1985b).

soned that the characteristics of an associ-
ation of turbidite facies express variations of
depositional processes in time and space and,
therefore, furnish the most diagnostic infor-
mation for environmental interpretation of
submarine fans. In general, a channelized se-
quence (upper and middle fan) with its thin-
ning-upward cycles is composed of facies A
and B, whereas a nonchannelized sequence
(lower fan) with its thickening-upward lobe
 389

Fig. 3. Ancient examples of turbidite facies A, B, and C. A. Channel-fill conglomerate (facies A), upper fan, Upper
Miocene, Capistrano Formation, Dana Point, Calif. B. Channel-fill turbidite sandstone showing thinning-upward
trend (facies B), upper fan, Eocene, Hecho Group, near Ainsa, northern Spain. C. Classical turbidite sandstone
showing thickening-upward trend of a depositional lobe (facies C), lower fan, Upper Oligocene-Lower Miocene,
Cengio member, Tertiary Piedmont Basin, northwestern Italy.

cycles is represented by facies C and D. Al- vironments. Ancient and m o d e m examples of

though facies F and G occur in all environ- turbidite facies are shown in Figs. 3, 4, and 5.
ments, facies F is characteristic of any slope Picketing et al. (1986) have also presented
(including levee) and facies G is common in a classification of deep-water facies for both
the basin plain, interchannel, and slope en- modern and ancient sediments. This elaborate
390

Fig. 4. Ancient examples of turbidite facies D, E, F, and G. A. Thin-bedded turbidite sandstones showing noncyclic
trends and remarkable lateral continuity (facies D), note a man within circle for scale, basin plain, Lower Eocene,
Zumaya beach, near San Sebastian, northern Spain. B. Rippled sandstone (facies E), levee associated with upper fan,
Eocene, Hecho Group, near Ainsa, northern Spain. C. Slumped sandstone and shale (facies F), slope, Pennsylvanian,
Jackfork Formation, near Little Rock, Ark. D. Mudstone with local beds of turbidite sandstone (facies G), basin plain,
Upper Cretaceous, Boxer Formation, Great Valley Sequence, Boxer Valley, Calif.

classification, which is a modified version of what complicated to apply in the field.

the original scheme proposed by M u t t i a n d A l t h o u g h turbidite facies associations of
Ricci Lucchi (1972, 1975), is c o m p o s e d of 40 M u t t i and Ricci Lucchi (1972), developed ex-
distinct subfacies. The classification is some- clusively from ancient turbidite sequences, are
 391

Fig. 5. Modern examples of turbidite facies and possible contourites from DSDP Leg 96 Sites, Mississippi fan, Gulf of
Mexico. A. Gravel grading upward into coarse sand, turbidites (facies A and B), mid-fan channel, Site 621. B. Pebbly
mud, debris flow (facies F), mid-fan channel, Site 621. C. Contorted mud and silt, slump (facies F), mid-fan channel,
Site 621. D. Contorted mud and silt, slump (facies F), mid-fan overbank, Site 617. E. Rippled silt (facies E), mid-fan
overbank, Site 617. F. Channel-fill turbidite sand (facies B) and slump (facies F), lower fan, Site 614A. G. Graded
sand layers of turbidity-current origin (facies C?), lower fan, Site 614A. H. Cross-laminated fine sand of possible
contour current-origin (facies E?) lower fan, Site 614A. Scale bar represents 5 cm.

u s e d r o u t i n e l y to i d e n t i f y a n c i e n t s u b m a r i n e - fan environments has not been confirmed

f a n e n v i r o n m e n t s , the true r e l a t i o n s h i p be- f r o m m o d e m fans. F o r this reason, the v e r y
t w e e n t u r b i d i t e facies a s s o c i a t i o n a n d r e l a t e d basic tenet of M u t t i a n d Ricci L u c c h i ' s facies
392

scheme (i.e., particular facies assemblages are
always associated with certain physiographic
fan components or environments) came under
criticism (Shanmugam et al., 1985a).
The definition and significance of facies E
have also caused confusion. For example,
facies E was originally related to overbank
deposition (Mutti and Ricci Lucchi, 1972).
Later, it was considered to be typical of chan-
nel-mouth deposits (Mutti, 1977), and then,
reinterpreted to represent overbank deposits
(Mutti et al., 1981). Most recently, it is again
considered diagnostic of channel-mouth de-
posits (Mutti and Normark, 1987).
Channe&
Submarine-fan channels can be recognized
by their sedimentological and geophysical
characteristics (Table 1I). Thinning- and fin-
ing-upward cycles (Mutti and Ricci Lucchi,
1972; Ricci Lucchi, 1975) are used commonly
to recognize channel deposition because an
upward-widening channel section results in
the emplacement of successively thinner beds.
In most cases, thinning-upward trends may
be due to progressive channel abandonment.
In some cases, well developed levees may
preclude the development of thinning- and
fining-upward cycles. In addition to sand-
stones and conglomerates of turbidity-current
origin, channels can be filled also with con-
torted mudstone and siltstone of slump origin,
pebbly mudstone of debris-flow origin, and
mudstone of hemipelagic and pelagic origin
(Fig. 6). Modem submarine channels can be
depositional, erosional, or mixed deposi-
tional-erosional in origin (Nelson and Kulm,
1973). Ancient channel-fill deposits of these
three types have been discussed by Mutti and
Normark (1987).
Dimensions of submarine channels associ-
ated with most large modem fans are as much
as an order-of-magnitude greater than chan-
nels generally reported for ancient fans (Ta-
ble III). As an extreme example, channels of
the modem Bengal fan are wide enough (18
km) to accommodate most entire ancient fan
systems (such as the Eocene Hecho Group in
Spain). We intentionally list the largest known
modem fans and their channels (Table III) to
demonstrate that although many large chan-
nels exist today, channels of similar size have
not been recognized in outcrops (Whitaker,

TABLE II
Characteristics of submarine fan channel and lobe deposits

Characteristics Channel Lobe

Common thickness
Mass transport processes
Lithology
Sedimentary features
Turbidite facies
(Mutti and Ricci Lucchi, 1972)
Grain size trend
Bed thickness trend
(Mutti and Ricci Lucchi,
1972)
Gamma-ray log
(Selley, 1979; Hill and Wood, 1980)
Dipmeter motif (Selley, 1979)
Seismic reflections
1-50 m 1-50 m
Slumps, debris flows, turbidity currents Turbidity currents
Conglomerate, sandstone, mudstone Sandstone, mudstone
Erosive bases, rip-up clasts, Complete and partial Bouma
lenticular sand bodies sequence, continuous sand bodies
A,B C,D
Fining upward Coarsening upward
Thinning upward Thickening upward
Constant (low) or upward Upward decreasing gamma
increasing gamma pattern pattern
Amount of dip decreases upward Amount of dip increases upward
Discontinuous Continuous, mounded,
bidirectional downlap
(Mitchum, 1985)
 393

\.!511 THINNING UPWARD TURBIDITES

(FACIES A AND B)
1974), perhaps because of size limitations of
outcrops (Shanmugam et al., 1985a). Modern
submarine channels also show well-developed
levees built by overbank deposits that can
~ ~ ~ SLUMPS reach 100 km in width and more than a
(FACIES F) kilometer in thickness. Such large-scale levee
complexes have not yet been recognized in
ancient sequences (Shanmugam et al., 1985a).
\~:~ d:.~.41b/
DEBRISFLOWS Channel-lobe transition
(FACIES F)

Mutti and Normark (1987) emphasize the

importance of the channel-lobe transition
HEMIPELAGITES zone in understanding turbidite depositional
(FACIES G)
systems. They believe this zone is recognized
primarily by the occurrence of facies E de-
posits and mud-draped scours. The signifi-
\ g b ~ ~ ~/ COMBINATION
cance of the channel-lobe transition zone and
(FACIES A, B, F AND G) the criteria for recognizing its existence, how-
ever, require further evaluation.

Fig. 6. Types of submarine channel-fill deposits and

equivalent facies. Facies nomenclature is after Mutti
and Ricci Lucchi (1972, 1975).

TABLE III
Dimensions of canyon/channel systems associated with selected modem and ancient submarine fans (Shanmugam et
al., 1985a)

Location of Length Width Depth Levee Reference

canyon/channel (km) (kin) (m) width (km)
Modern *1
1. Bengal fan, Bay of Bengal up to 3000 13-18 150-900 100 Curray and Moore (1974)
2. Indus fan, Arabian Sea up to 500 8-11 300-800 50 V. Kolla (1984, pers. commun.)
3. Amazon fan, Equatorial Atlantic up to 250 3-15 250-600 50 Damuth and Flood (1983/1984)
4. Mississippi fan, up to 400 2-15 150-450 50 Coleman et al.
Gulf of Mexico (1983), Garrison et al. (1982)
5. Rhone fan, Gulf of Lion up to 150 1-10 150-400 40 Droz (1983)
Ancient
6. Doheny channel, 0.2 0.2 40 + Normark and Piper (1969)
Upper Miocene, California
7. Marnoso- Arenacea Fm., up to 100 1.5 60- 70 Ricci Lucchi (1981a)
Middle Miocene, Italy
8. Hecho basin, Eocene, 3-4? 0.1 10 Mutti (1977)
Northern Spain
9. Delaware basin, Permian, 2-3? 0.4 15 + Jacka et al. (1968)
New Mexico and Texas
10. Shale Grit Fm., 3+ 1 50 Walker (1966)
Upper Carboniferous, England

.1 Present-day deep-sea fans that were active during the Quaternary period.
394
Lobes
Lobes are considered to be an important
component of most submarine fans. However,
considerable confusion exists in the literature
concerning the use of the term "lobe". This is
primarily because: (1) the original definition
and meaning of "depositional lobe", as pro-
posed by Mutti and Ricci Lucchi (1972) for
ancient fan sequences, have not been adopted
rigidly by others; and (2) workers on modern
fans have taken the liberty to introduce a
multitude of new terms such as "fan lobe"
(Bouma et al., 1985b), "erosional lobe"
(Thornburg and Kulm, 1987a), "channelized
lobe" (Nelson et al., 1985), and "leveed-valley
lobe" (Normark and Gutmacher, 1985), each
conveying different concepts. The problem is
further complicated because some marine
geologists (Thornburg and Kulm, 1987a) have
used the term "depositional lobe" in a com-
pletely different context than that of Mutti
and Ricci Lucchi (1972) (Shanmugam and
McPherson, 1987).
Selected examples of lobe terminologies and
their usage are summarized in Table IV. It is
clear that the term "lobe" is applied loosely
and with divergent meanings. We suggest that
the term "depositional lobe" be restricted to
TABLE IV
Examples of lobe terminology and their usage
Terminology
Modern fans
Fan lobe (Bouma et al., 1985b)
Depositional lobe (Normark et al., 1986)
Depositional lobe (Bouma et al., 1985c)
Erosional lobe (Thornburg and Kulm, 1987a)
Channelized lobe (Nelson et al., 1985)
Suprafan lobe (Normark, 1970, 1978)
Sandy depositional lobe (Piper et al., 1985)
Ancient fans
Suprafan lobe (Walker, 1978)
Depositional lobe (Mutti and Ricci Lucchi, 1972)
Fan lobe (Nilsen, 1985)
Type II lobe (Picketing, 1985)
(analogous to "new suprafan lobe" of Walker, 1978)
ancient fans. General characteristics of de-
positional lobes (Mutti and Ricci Lucchi,
1972, 1975; Ricci Lucchi, 1975; Mutti, 1977,
1985; and Mutti and Normark, 1987) include
the following: (1) absence of basal channeling
and presence of tabular scours; (2) thicken-
ing-upward cycles (Fig. 7); (3) composed
dominantly of facies C (Fig. 7); (4) grain-size
range of sandstone varies from coarse to fine;
(5) beds are laterally continuous and extend
over several tens of kilometers; (6) sheet-like
geometry; (7) common thicknesses range is
3-15 m; (8) developed at or near the mouths
of submarine-fan channels; (9) enclosed in
finer-grained and thinner-bedded turbidite
facies (facies D); (10) inferred to occur in
lower-fan regions.
Mutti and Ricci Lucchi (1975) explained
the origin of lobes and their characteristic
thickening-upward cycles by analogy with
prograding deltaic lobes. Hiscott (1981), how-
ever, questioned the validity of this compari-
son because he believes that submarine-fan
lobes are constructed by vertical aggradation
rather than by basinward progradation. It is
conceivable that both processes may be re-
sponsible for lobe formation. For example,
Ricci Lucchi and Valmori (1980) recognized
progradational lobes by thickening-upward
Location on fan
Entire fan (Mississippi fan)
Middle fan (Mississippi fan)
Lower fan (Mississippi fan)
Entire fan (Bio Bio "fan")
Upper fan (Ebro "fan")
Middle fan (Navy fan)
Middle and lower fan (Laurentian fan)
Middle fan (examples from California)
Lower fan (Hecho fan)
Lower fan (Chugach fan)
Fan fringe and basin plain
(Kongsfjord fan)

~ / ~
ii:ii:il:
-::7:
i ..:.
. :
' i .":..::- -"::....
DL: DEPOSITIONAL LOBE
LF: LOBE FRINGE
Fig. 7. Depositional lobes of ancient fans showing thickening-upward trends and associated facies: facies nomencla-
ture is after Mutti and Ricci Lucchi (1972, 1975). Modified after Mutti (1977).
trends, and aggradational lobes by a lack of
well defined trends in bed thickness. Mutti et
al. (1978) reported distinct, small-scale, thick-
ening-upward cycles within major thickening-
upward lobe cycles. These minor thickening-
upward cycles, characteristically associated
with lobe sequences, are considered to repre-
sent compensation features or "compensation
cycles" produced by progressive smoothing
out of the depositional relief as a result of
lobe upbuilding or aggradation (Mutti and
Sonnino, 1981). Recently, Mutti and Normark
(1987) deemphasized "major" thickening-up-
ward cycles and emphasized "minor" thicken-
ing-upward cycles as being characteristic of
lobes. Minor thickening-upward cycles can
also be associated with splays that develop in
the inter-channel areas (Moiola and
Shanmugam, 1984). Therefore, depositional
cycles must be interpret d in the context of
their overall facies association.
We suggest that both aggradation and pro-
gradation are responsible for lobe formation,
especially in active-margin settings. At the
bedform scale the system is aggradational,
however, the entire lobe package is a result of
progradation. This simultaneous aggradation
and progradation produces thickening-up-
ward lobe cycles. Depending upon local
gradients and sediment supply, the channel
395
LOWER
- 2
- - I
o
could either shift laterally into a new site
(avulsion) or incise the lobe and build for-
ward. In either case, both aggradation and
progradation are important. The capping of
lobes by channels is a good indication of
progradation. Major thickening-upward cycles
cannot be explained by aggradation alone. A
complete progradational fan sequence would
comprise a major coarsening-upward se-
quence (hundreds to thousands of meters in
thickness) with non-cyclic basin plain facies
at the base, thickening-upward lobe facies in
the middle, and thinning-upward, coarse-
grained channel facies at the top (Fig. 8).
Coarsening-upward sequences (Fig. 9) can
also be generated by lateral shifting of en-
vironments. Most coarsening- and thickening-
upward sequences probably represent a prod-
uct of both aggradation (bedform scale) and
progradation (lobe and fan scale).
Mutti (1985) suggested that lobes attached
to channels are formed by progradation,
whereas lobes detached from channels are
formed by aggradation. Although the former
concept is true, the later concept may not be
valid. The occurrence of lobes without at-
tached channels may be considered a negative
evidence for progradation, but it is certainly
not conclusive evidence for aggradation. Un-
fortunately, there are no standard criteria to
396
MAP VIEW STRATIGRAPHY
POINT OF
CYCLE DEVELOPMENT
|

TIME 1
i I NONCYCL,C
BASIN PLAIN
CHANNEL ~" BASI~ PLAIN

LOBE MINOR THICKENING UPWARD

FAN FRINGE

TIME 2 :' :. MAJOR

..0 ~
I
THICKENING
UPWARD LOBES

TIME 3
THINNING
UPWARD
CHANNEL

TIME 4 .-' "' ':.

l LOBES

Fig. 8. An ideal development of depositional cycles of a prograding fan at a given point (solid circle) through time
(1-4). As fan progrades seaward (to the right), an area of basin plain deposition (Time 1) progressively becomes an
area of fan fringe (Time 2), lobe (Time 3), and channel (Time 4) deposition. A typical progradational fan sequence
would comprise a major coarsening-upward sequence (hundreds to thousands of meters in thickness) at the end of
Time 4.

)'I 'I i;I EEOE" CHANNEL

7t ;" \
,,1~"~'.~\. UPPER FAN

MIDDLE
FAN

LOWER
FAN

BASIN
PLAIN

Fig. 9. Hypothetical vertical cross-section across prograding lower- and middle-fan system. Vertical sequence shown in
cross-section is a result of suprafan lobe switching laterally from position 1, to 2, to 3 (see plan view, upper part of
diagram). Hypothetical electric logs show coarsening-upward prograding-lobe sequences, and fining-upward channel-fill
sequences. From Walker (1978).

recognize aggradational lobes. At present, our
interpretation of lobe origin is based more on
personal prejudice than on data. Irrespective
of their origin, the recognition of lobes serves
an important function for defining the
boundary between nonchannelized (lower fan)
and channelized (middle fan) areas of ancient
submarine fans.
The term "superfan" refers to a morpho-
logic feature observed on certain modem fans
such as the Navy and San Lucas fans
(Normark, 1970, 1974, 1978). The suprafan is
a convex-upward depositional bulge on the
middle fan that develops due to rapid deposi-
tion of coarse sediment and the formation of
braided channels, where the currents exit from
the confines of a leveed fan channel or valley.
Lobes that develop in the suprafan or middle
fan area display the following characteristics:
(1) develop at the termination of the upper-fan
valley (Fig. 10); (2) exhibit an overall
convex-upward relief in radial profile (Fig.
10); (3) contain coarse-grained turbidites
(predominantly sands); (4) inner portions are
channeled and outer portions are unchan-
neled; (5) show braided channels; (6) slumps
are common.
MODERN FAN
,,~
A
c't'Vvotv..u.u,I
~ t
A'
SUPRAFAN
RADIAL P R ~ A ,
Fig. 10. Suprafan model of certain, sand-rich, modern
fans showing a depositional bulge in radial profile.
Simplified after Normark (1978).
397
Suprafan lobes may be typical of certain
small, sand-rich modem fans; however, they
are not representative of large mud-rich fans
in modern oceans (e.g., the Bengal fan).
Normark (1978) equated suprafan lobes of
modern fans to depositional lobes of ancient
fans. Although this comparison is valid in
terms of their overall physiographic positions,
the facies similarities between modern and
ancient fans have not yet been established.
Furthermore, application of a morphologic
term, "suprafan lobe", to ancient fans is mis-
leading.
Other terms (e.g., "fan lobe", "erosional
lobe", "channelized lobe", and "leveed-valley
lobe") create unnecessary confusion because
they do not refer to channel-mouth deposits.
Sheet sands
O'Connell et al. (1985) reported "sheet
sands" from the lower Mississippi fan. Bouma
et al. (1985c) considered these "sheet sands"
as equivalent to the "depositional lobes" of
ancient fans. An examination of lower-fan
cores from the Mississippi fan (Sites 614 and
615 of DSDP Leg 96), however, suggests that
these "sheet sands" do not exhibit thicken-
ing-upward cycles or facies C (Shanmugam et
al., 1986). Although depositional lobes are
comprised typically of sheet sands, not all
,, sheet sands are depositional lobes. Sheet
/ sands, unrelated to lobes, can also develop in
broad channels and in fan-fringe areas. Sheet
sands are common in the lower-fan and fan-
fringe regions of large modern fans such as
the Amazon, Bengal, Indus, and Mississippi.
'SUPRAFAN
0 110KM$
LOBE Geophysical characteristics
Dipmeter and log motifs of channels and
lobes are shown in Fig. 11. Log patterns
reflect primarily the textural and mineralogic
changes, and therefore depositional facies un-
related to submarine fans may produce log
patterns mimicking fan facies. For example,
both fluvial channels and submarine-fan
398

GAMMA LOG ROCK TYPE

A.P.I. UNITS & TEXTURE DIPMETER DATA
Fig. 11. Dipmeter and log motifs of channels and lobes.
Modified after Selley (1979).
channels may generate similar bell-shaped log
patterns.
In seismic reflection profiles, subsurface
canyons and erosional channels can be recog-
nized by their erosional nature. A seismic
example of a major erosional channel (canyon)
in Texas is shown in Fig. 12. Depositional
lobes often exhibit diagnostic seismic char-
acteristics. Mitchum (1985) suggested that ex-
ternal mounded reflections (convex upward)
with internal bidirectionally downlapping re-
flections are indicative of lower-fan deposi-
tional lobes. Other workers have also reported
mounded reflections associated with lobes
from both modem (e.g., Crati fan, Mediter-
ranean; Ricci Lucchi et al., 1985) and ancient
fans (e.g., Balder fan, North Sea; Sarg and
Skjold, 1982). A seismic example of mounded
external reflections that are interpreted as
submarine-fan lobes in South America is
shown in Fig. 13.
Ancient submarine fans with prograda-
tional lobes may also exhibit other character-
istic internal reflections. A strike section may
show hummocky internal reflections of lobe
facies bounded on both flanks by parallel and
continuous reflections of basin plain facies. A
dip section may exhibit chaotic reflections of
the slope facies on the updip side, parallel
reflections of the basin plain facies on the
downdip side, and clinoform reflections of
progradational lobe facies in between. Both
dip and strike sections commonly exhibit
channels above lobes. Reflection boundaries

0 2 KM
NORTHEAST
110 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 SP

(n
a
z
o
W
u)

Fig. 12. Seismic reflection profile showing an ancient erosional channel (canyon) filled primarily with shale, Eocene,
Dewitt and Lavaca counties, Texas.
 399

1 KM
, ~ SOUTHEAST
SP 6 1 0 6 2 0 6 3 0 6 4 0 6 5 0 6 6 0 6 7 0 6 8 0 6 9 0 7 0 0 710 7 2 0 7 3 0 7 4 0 7 5 0 7 6 0 7 7 0 7 8 0 7 9 0 8 0 0 8 1 0

Fig. 13. Seismic reflection profile showing mounded reflections that are interpreted as Lobes, Oligocene, onshore,
Colombia, South America.

produced by sharp changes between deposi- in Fig. 14. In reality, the two models are
tional facies (e.g., between slope and fan) identical except that lobes are placed in the
may, however, be mistaken for faults. middle part (suprafan lobe) of modern fans
and in the lower part of most ancient fans. If
SUBMARINE-FAN MODELS they prograde, however, both systems would
produce similar vertical sequences. In a lateral
Modern and ancient fans sense, both suprafan lobes and lower-fan lobes
represent the nonchannelized outer part of a
Jacka et al. (1968) were the first to propose submarine fan. Therefore, assigning lobes to
an ancient fan model, which they applied to a either the middle (suprafan) or the lower fan
Permian sequence in the Delaware basin of is inconsequential because this difference ex-
New Mexico and Texas. A detailed model for ists only in terminology and not in terms of
modern fans, based primarily on Californian depositional processes or facies (Walker,
fans, was first introduced by Normark (1970). 1980a).
Subsequently, Mutti and Ricci Lucchi (1972) Walker (1978) proposed a general model
developed a model for ancient fans based on
their detailed studies of fan sequences in the
Northern Apennines (Italy) and south-central SUBMARINE FAN MODELS
Pyrenees (Spain). ~z
"~
O MODERN [ ANCIENT
Modern and ancient fans have been de-
scribed using mutually exclusive data bases
~ ~ UPPER FAN
(Shanmugam and Moiola, 1985b; Mutti and
Normark, 1987). For example, the description
_.~" _g4,DDLEE,"
of modern fans has focused on surface mor- SUPRAFAN / '
phology utilizing high-resolution reflection
profiles and short cores (less than 10 m long, z COWER FAN " " ~ , . . . . . ----~------~'------~'/"/
LOBE /
one exception is DSDP Leg 96), whereas an- f

cient fans typically have been described using BASIN PLAIN

stratigraphic sections and facies variations.

Fig. 14. Comparison of terminology between ancient
Differences in terminology between modern (Mutti and Ricci Lucchi, 1972) and certain modern
(Normark, 1970 and 1978) and ancient (Mutti (Normark, 1970) fans. From Shanmugam and Moiola
and Ricci Lucchi, 1972) fan models are shown (1985b).
400
for submarine fans by combining the major
elements of Normark's (1970) model for mod-
ern fans with those of Mutti and Ricci Lucchi
(1972) for ancient fans. All these general
models with lobes, although widely accepted,
may be misleading because many large mod-
ern fans (such as the Bengal, Amazon, and
Mississippi) apparently lack the development
of lobes. Aspects of lobe development in fans
are discussed below.
Attached and detached lobes of ancient fans
Mutti and Ricci Lucchi (1972) initially pro-
posed a submarine-fan model in which de-
positional lobes are attached to feeder chan-
nels (Fig. 15). A subsequent model (Mutti
and Ricci Lucchi, 1975), however, advocated
detachment of lobes from their associated
feeder channels as a result of sediment
bypassing (Fig. 15). If bypassing persisted for
a considerable length of time, a relatively
thick zone of hemipelagic shale separating
"channel-mouth" deposits from lobe deposits
would develop. Otherwise, progradational
events in both attached and detached lobe
systems should result in identical vertical se-
quences. The existence of this hemipelagic
shale interval could be significant in evaluat-
ing the hydrocarbon potential and produc-
ibility of a fan sequence in that the shale
could act as a permeability barrier between
lower-fan lobes and other potential reservoir
facies in the middle and upper fan. The pres-
ence of a "thick" shale interval between the
"channel-mouth" and lobe deposits, however,
may not necessarily indicate bypassing be-
cause channel avulsion can also result in the
development of a shale interval between
genetically unrelated, but adjacent "channel-
mouth" and lobe deposits. We must point out
that the "channel-mouth" deposits were later
reinterpreted as overbank deposits by Mutti
et al. (1981).
In the Eocene Hecho Group in Spain (type
locality for the detached-lobe model), the dis-
tribution of channels and lobes (Fig. 16A)
with respect to the growing Boltana anticline
suggests a tectonic control (Fig. 16C) for sedi-
ment bypassing (Shanmugam and Moiola,
1985b). Mutti (1979), however, suggested that
a "hydrodynamic readjustment" of turbidity
flows occurs at the channel mouth as the
flows become unconfined, resulting in nonde-
position and the related formation of a bypass
zone (Fig. 16B). Although Mutti (1977) recog-
nized that the anticline was growing actively
during the deposition of the Hecho Group, he
apparently did not perceive its role in devel-
oping the zone of bypassing.
On theoretical grounds, when a flow
spreads out from a channel, it should lose
velocity, causing deposition rather than
bypassing (Walker, 1980b). Bypassing, how-
ever, would be possible if a flow encountered
a sudden downward increase in slope (Komar,
1983). Assuming a flow had been thick enough
to overflow the Boltana anticline, supercriti-
cal flow might have resulted because of an
increase in slope and a related reduction in
flow height (Fig. 16D). Such an increase in
flow velocity, we believe, was responsible for
developing the zone of bypassing along the
western limb of the anticline (Shanmugam
and Moiola, 1985b).
In order for a facies model to be effective,
it should act as a norm, a framework/guide, a
predictor, and a basis for hydrodynamic in-
terpretation (Walker, 1979). The Hecho
Group fails to act as a norm, a framework, or
a guide because no other well documented
detached lobe sequences have been described.
In addition, the distribution of facies may be
difficult to predict using the bypass model
because of the presumed detachment of lobes
from channels, and tectonic control of
bypassing should not be used as a basis for
hydrodynamic interpretation. The bypass
model, however, may be applicable to basins
where growing anticlines, shale diapirs, or salt
domes control fan growth. The bypass model
may also apply to trench slopes with thrust-
controlled bathymetric ridges. When flow
thicknesses of unconfined turbidity currents
exceed the heights of these small ridges in
forearc basins, ridge-bypassing is believed to
 401

ANCIENT SUBMARINE FAN MODEL WITH ATTACHED LOBES

SLOPE

HANNEL

-- MIDDL|
LOBE

~ --LOWEP

.I BASIN I

ANCIENT SUBMARINE FAN MODEL WITH DETACHED LOBES

CHANNEL
MOUTH

SHALE
INTERVAL

LOBE

SBa,: S E D I M E N T B Y P A S S ZONE
SL: S A N D S T O N E L O B E
LF: LOBE FRINGE

Fig. 15. Comparison of ancient fans with attached and detached lobes. Modified after Shanmugam and Moiola
(1985b).

occur by direct upslope flow over the ridge flopping interpretation of the M a r n o s o - A r -
crests ( U n d e r w o o d and Norville, 1986). enacea Formation in Italy. This formation
Confusion in the literature concerning de- was interpreted originally as a fan system
tached lobe models has been created by t i p - with attached lobes (Mutti and Ricci Lucchi,
402

MAP VIEW OF THE HECHO BASIN

10 KM (APPROX.)
I N
I
LOBES " S ' ~ . . . ~

Z ~ _ \,, ",.CHANNELS~

co.,,o,
(MUTTI, 19791
CHANNEL MOUTH CHANNIL
BAR O E P O I I T I DEPOSITS
- SEDIMENT I J / . *:

HYDROOYNAMIC
READJUSTMENT
B
ZONE
FREE FLOW

TECTONIC CONTROL
(THIS S T U D Y )
CHANNEL MOUTH CHANNEL
BAR DEPOSITS DEPOSITS

CHANGING SLOPE AND FLOW

V= VELOCITY
FROUDE NUMBER ~
g =ACCELERATION
DUE TO GRAVITY
d =FLOW THICKNESS

SURCRITICAL SUPERCRITICAL
D
FLOW (Fr<: 11 FLOW (Fr >11

GRADUAL SLOPE S T E E P SLOPE

LOBE ZONE OF BYPASSING CHANNEL

(DEPOSITION) (NON-DEPOSITION) MOUTH
(DEPOSITION)

Fig. 16. Various explanations for the detached lobe model of the Hecho basin in Spain. See text for details. Hydraulic
model of changing slope and flow (D) is modified after Walker (1981) and Komar (1983). From Shanmugam and
Moiola (1985b).
 403

1972). Later, it was considered to be a fan
with detached lobes (Mutti and Ricci Lucchi,
1975; Mutti and Johns, 1978), and more re-
cently, it has been reinterpreted again as a fan
with attached lobes (Ricci Lucchi, 1981a).
Recently, Mutti (1985) introduced three
"models" for ancient turbidite systems,
namely, Type I, Type II, and Type III. Type I
and II systems represent detached and at-
tached lobe models, respectively. Type III
system is composed of channel-levee com-
plexes.
Highly efficient and poorly efficient fan systems
Mutti (1979) proposed two types of fan
systems on the basis of their efficiency to
transport sand. He suggested that turbidity
currents of a mud-rich system transport sand
efficiently over long distances, whereas the
transport efficiency of a sand-rich system is
relatively poor (Table V). Shanmugam and
Moiola (1985b) pointed out the contradic-
tions and confusions created by this type of
fan classification. For example:
(1) All criticisms of the detached-lobe
model, as discussed above, are equally appli-
cable to a highly efficient fan system because
these two systems are synonymous according
to Johns and Mutti (1981).
(2) In a highly efficient system, deposi-
tional lobes are not attached to feeder chan-
nels (Table V). However, Ricci Lucchi (1981a)
views the Marnoso-Arenacea Formation not
only as a highly efficient system but also as a
fan with attached lobes.
(3) Mutti (1979) used the term "efficiency"
only with respect to sediment transport, but
some workers have misapplied this terminol-
ogy. For example, Ricci Lucchi (1981b) re-
ferred to highly efficient mud-rich systems as
"sand-efficient." The term "sand-efficient"
could easily be misinterpreted as indicating a
sand-rich, poorly efficient, system. The real
meaning of the term "sand-efficient" is that
the system is rich in mud and, therefore, it is
efficient in transporting sand.
(4) The world's largest fan, the Bengal,
which is fed by the Ganges and Brahmaputra
rivers, should be classified theoretically as a
"highly efficient" system. The continuous
presence of channels throughout its entire
2500 km length (Curray and Moore, 1974),
however, defies such a classification because a
zone of sediment bypassing is absent.
(5) Ricci Lucchi (1981a, b) classified the
modern Crati fan in the Ionian Sea as a
highly efficient system, but the characteristics
of the Crati fan, such as the presence of

TABLE V
Characteristics of highly efficient and poorly efficient ancient fan systems (compiled from Mutti and Johns, 1978;
Mutti, 1979; Mutti and Ricci Lucchi, 1981)

Characteristics Highly efficient Poorly efficient

1. Sediment Mud-rich Sand-rich
2. Source area Large Restricted
3. Sediment feeding system River-delta Beach-canyon
4. Size of fan Large (hundreds of kin) Small (tens of km)
5. Gradient Low High
6. Distance of transport Long Short
7. Amount of fines in suspension Large Small
8. Channels Detached from lobes Attached to lobes
9. Sandstone lobes Large Small
10. Lobe cycles Well developed, Poorly developed,
thickening-upward trends thickening-upward trends
11. Zone of bypassing Present Absent
12. Fan fringe deposits Well developed Poorly developed or absent
13. Basin plain deposits Well developed Poorly developed or absent
404
attached lobes and its small size (about 15 k m
long), favor its classification as a poorly effi-
cient system.
(6) According to Mutti (1979), the zone of
bypassing implies a definite sedimentologic
connotation. It occurs always between the
channel mouths and depositional lobes in a
submarine-fan setting. Without realizing this,
some authors (Labude, 1981) have referred to
the slope as a zone of bypassing.
(7) In a highly efficient system, suprafan
lobes do not occur (Mutti, 1979). Scott and
Tillman (1981), however, applied Mutti's con-
cept incorrectly by proposing a detached lobe
model (i.e., highly efficient system) with
suprafan lobes for the Miocene Stevens Sand-
stone in California.
In summary, it is not practical to classify
fans on the basis of their transport efficiency
alone because a single fan can and c o m m o n l y
does possess properties of both "highly" effi-
cient and " p o o r l y " efficient systems.
,,,< / ~
\'~\ CANYON ~*~~C,I LOBE
~ CHANNEL ^-G TU~.,O~TE F^C,ES
Fig. 17. Conceptual diagram showing development of transverse and longitudinal fans in trench settings. Both types of
fan may develop on trench-slope as well as on trench-floor basins depending on sea-floor topography, and sediment
dispersal. Facies distribution is modified after Underwood and Bachman (1982). Note narrow coastal plain and shelf.
Not to scale.
Transverse and longitudinal fan systems
A transverse fan essentially progrades per-
pendicular to the axis of a basin, whereas a
longitudinal fan progrades parallel to the
basin axis. Dickinson and Seely (1979) dis-
cussed the development of transverse and
longitudinal turbidite systems in forearc
basins. U n d e r w o o d and Bachman (1982) have
suggested that both transverse and longitudi-
nal systems may exist c o m m o n l y in trench-
slope settings. Based on their concept, the
development of transverse and longitudinal
fans in trench settings is illustrated in Fig. 17.
Longitudinal fans that develop along trench
floors are somewhat analogous to the trench
wedges described by Schweller and K u l m
(1978). In trench settings, slumps (facies F)
are an ubiquitous facies, and they occur along
the entire longitudinal fan tract (see Fig. 17).
Transverse and longitudinal fans can de-
velop in other tectonic settings as well. Dur-
(.UTT, ^NO R,CC~ LUCC.~. ~grS)

ing the Ordovician, both transverse and longi-
tudinal fans developed in foredeep basins of
the southern and central Appalachians, re-
spectively (Shanmugam and Lash, 1982; Lash,
1986). Longitudinal transport of turbidity
currents is advocated also for the Plio-Pleis-
tocene sediments that were deposited along a
transform margin in the Ventura basin of
California (Hsu et al., 1980). The Bengal fan,
world's largest modern longitudinal fan sys-
tem, is developed on a remnant ocean basin.
Moiola and Shanmugam (1984) interpreted
the Jackfork Formation (Pennsylvanian) of
the Ouachita Mountains of Arkansas and
Oklahoma as an ancient longitudinal fan sys-
tem (Fig. 18). Although the longitudinal fan
model is typical of the Jackfork Formation,
the model is also applicable to younger Atoka
(Pennsylvanian) and older Stanley (Mississip-
pian) formations. According to Moiola and
Shanmugam (1984), sediments derived pri-
marily from the southern Appalachians and
the Illinois basin formed elongate submarine-
fan complexes that prograded westward, es-
sentially parallel to the axis of a remnant
ocean basin. Graham et al. (1975) explained
that this remnant basin developed as a result
of the collision and partial suturing of the
North American and African/South Ameri-
can continents. Smaller transverse fans may
Fig. 18. Longitudinal fan system of the Jackfork Formation (Pennsylvanian), showing distribution of olistostromes
(arrow) throughout the fan, Ouachita Mountains, Arkansas and Oklahoma. Fan model is modified after Moiola and
Shanmugam (1984), and tectonic framework is after Thomas (1985).
405
have developed at various times along the
southern or northern margins of the basin
(Niem, 1976), but they were insignificant in
comparison to the larger, Bengal-like longitu-
dinal systems that prograded westward along
the axis of the basin. The most distal facies of
these fans may have been deposited as far
away as the Marathon region in southwest
Texas (see Fig. 18).
Olistostromes may be important compo-
nents of longitudinal fans. They occur
throughout this Ouachita deep-water exam-
ple, and were derived primarily from the
northern but also from the southern margin
of the basin. In contrast to transverse fans in
which olistostromes are generally restricted to
the upper part of the system, olistostromes
occur in all parts (upper, middle, lower) of
the Ouachita fans. In any longitudinal sys-
tem, adjacent margins show a large potential
for contributing olistostromes to the basin. As
a fan system develops and progrades axially,
olistostromes will invariably become incorpo-
rated into upper-, middle-, and lower-fan
components. We, therefore, suggest that this
relationship may be an important criterion
for recognizing longitudinal fan systems in
general and that longitudinal systems may be
more common in the rock record than previ-
ously realized.
406
CLASSIFICATION OF SUBMARINE FANS
In the COMFAN volume (Bouma et al.,
1985a), submarine fans are classified into two
basic types, namely, active-margin and pas-
sive-margin fans. We expanded this classifica-
tion to accommodate fans of complex tectonic
settings. Basin types used in our classification
are derived primarily from existing basin clas-
sifications (Dickinson, 1974; Bally and Snel-
son, 1980; Miall, 1984; Klein, 1987; Pettijohn
et al., 1987). In the proposed scheme, fans are
classified into four types based on tectonic
settings: immature passive margin, mature
passive margin, active margin, and mixed set-
ting. We selected tectonic setting as the basic
criterion for our classification because tectonic
elements directly or indirectly control many
factors that determine the type of submarine
fan. These factors include proximity to prove-
nance, width of coastal plain and shelf, sedi-
ment yield, sea-floor gradient, s a n d / m u d
ratio, and basin configuration. Various con-
trolling factors of submarine fans in different
tectonic settings are summarized in Table VI.
Maximum sediment thickness of fans range
commonly from 1000 to 5000 meters in all
tectonic settings (Table VII). Fans deposited
in some trenches and remnant ocean basins
may reach a total thickness of up to 10,000 m.
Immature passive-margin setting (North Sea
type)
This setting represents an early stage of
basin evolution in a divergent margin. Prox-
imal source, narrow coastal plains and shelves,
high gradients, high s a n d / m u d ratios, and
small basins are diagnostic features of this
setting. The basin is floored by continental
crust, and it exhibits characteristics of
aulacogens and failed rifts (Miall, 1984). Fans
developed in this setting are small, sand-rich,
and possessing well-developed lobes. Exam-
ples of this type are the Balder fan of the
North Sea, and Kongsfjord fan of Norway.
Mature passive-margin setting (Atlantic type)
This setting represents an advanced stage
of basin evolution in a divergent margin. Dis-
tal source, wide coastal plains and shelves,
low gradients, low s a n d / m u d ratios, and large
basins are diagnostic features of this setting.
The basin is floored by oceanic crust. Fans
developed in this setting are large, mud-rich,
and lack well-developed lobes. Sheet sands
rather than lobes are present commonly in
the lower-fan areas. Examples of this type are
Amazon (Atlantic Ocean) and Mississippi
(Gulf of Mexico) fans.
Active-margin setting (Pacific type)
This setting represents convergent, trans-
form, and collision margins. Proximal source,
narrow coastal plains and shelves, high gradi-
ents, high s a n d / m u d ratios, and small basins
are diagnostic features of this setting. The
basin is floored by either oceanic crust or
continental crust. Barnes and Normark (1985)
included only accretionary, subduction, and
transform basins under active margins, but
we expanded the scope of this category to
incorporate trench-slope, trench-floor, fore-
arc, backarc, transform, and foredeep basins.
Descriptive details of these basin types are
given by Crowell (1974), Dickinson (1974,
1977), Bally and Snelson (1980), and Miall
(1984).
Trench-slope, trench-floor, forearc, and
backarc basins are related to B-subduction
zone (Benioff Zone). Transform basins are
known to develop on both convergent and
divergent margins. Although foredeep (or
foreland) basins develop on continental crusts
that are adjacent to A-subduction margin
(Bally and Snelson, 1980), they exhibit fea-
tures (such as proximity to provenance, and
narrow coastal plains and shelves) that are
typical of basins associated with B-subduc-
tion zone. Active-margin basins are usually
small and restricted, but some trenches are
thousands of kilometers long. Fans developed
in active-margin setting are small, sand-rich,
 407

TABLE VI
Factors affecting fan development in active and passive margins (Modified after Shanmugam et al., 1985b)

Factor Active and immature passive margin Mature passive margin

Tectonic influence Large Small
Eustatic influence Small to large Large
Coastal plain and shelf Narrow Wide
Distance of transport Short Long
Sediment yield Small to large Large
Feeding system Small rivers, littoral drift cells Large rivers
Sea-floor gradient High Low
S a n d / m u d ratio High Low
Lower-fan deposits Lobes Sheet sands and channels
Basin configuration Small and constrained Large and open
Basin plain deposits Poorly developed Well developed
Fan size Small (tens of km) Large (hundreds of km)
Examples Navy (Pacific Ocean) Amazon (Atlantic Ocean)
Toyama .1 (Sea of Japan) Mississippi (Gulf of Mexico)
Balder (North Sea)

.1 Existence of well developed lobes is not established.

TABLE VII
Maximum thickness of selected fans in various tectonic settings

Setting and example Basin type Maximum thickness (m)

Immature passive margin
Balder North Sea type 240
Frigg North Sea type 800
Kongsfjord North Sea type 3200

Mature passive margin

Amazon Atlantic type 4200 * 1
Laurentian Atlantic type 2000 *
Mississippi Atlantic type 4000 * x

Active margin
Astoria Trench floor 2200 * a
Blanca Transform 1000 * 1
Cellino Foredeep 1500
Chugach Trench floor 10 000 * 1
Delgada Transform 3000 * 1
Gottero Trench slope 1500 * a
Great Valley Sequence Forearc 8000
Hecho Foredeep 3500 * 1
Marnoso-Arenacea Foredeep 1000 * 1
Monterey Transform 2000 * 1
Zodiac Trench floor 1600 * a
Mixed
Bengal Remnant ocean basin 5000 * 1
Indus Remnant ocean basin 3000.1
Jackfork and related formations Remnant ocean basin 10 000

*1 Barnes and Normark (1985)

See Table I for fans listed without references
408
and exhibit lobes commonly. Examples of
this type are Chugach (trench floor), Green-
wich slice (trench floor), Gottero (trench
slope), Great Valley Sequence (forearc),
Toyama (backarc), Hecho (foredeep), Laga
(foredeep), Marnoso-Arenacea (foredeep),
Cellino (foredeep), Red Oak (foredeep), Sevier
(foredeep), Navy (transform), and Stevens
(transform) fans. Some of the best developed
lobes are reported to occur in foredeep basins.
Although some trench-fill sequences show well
developed lobes (Chugach fan), selective off-
scraping of turbidites along subduction zones
(Scholl and Marlow, 1974) may make it dif-
ficult to recognize lobe cycles in many de-
formed trench sequences.
Mixed setting
This category is necessary to accommodate
fans that cannot be classified readily into one
of the other three types. For example, the
Bengal and Indus fans, bounded by both pas-
sive and active margins, are considered to
occupy elongate remnant ocean basins (Dick-
inson, 1977). This type of setting refers to
ocean basins that exist just prior to crustal
collision in areas of plate consumption
(Graham et al., 1975). As collision proceeds,
orogenic highlands shed great quantities of
sediments that are eventually deposited as
submarine fans in elongate remnant ocean
basins. Although the Bengal fan is classified
as a fan deposited in a remnant ocean basin
or mixed setting, the fan certainly exhibits all
the characteristics of a mature passive-margin
fan because it is controlled by factors that are
typical of mature passive margins (large sedi-
ment yield, long-distance transport of sedi-
ments, wide coastal plain and shelf, and low
sand/mud ratio). A similar case can be made
for the Indus fan as well. Another modern
example of mixed-setting fan is the Orinoco
in the Caribbean, which is bounded by a
passive margin (Atlantic type) to the south
and the Lesser Antilles Deformed Belt (Pacific
type) to the north (Case et al., 1984). The
Orinoco fan exhibits braided channels that
are characteristic of active-margin fans. A
previously discussed example of an ancient
submarine-fan succession in a mixed setting
(remnant ocean basin) is the Pennsylvanian
Jackfork Formation of the Ouachita Moun-
tains (Moiola and Shamugam, 1984).
Comparison of fans
In modern oceans, submarine fans develop
on both active- and passive-margin settings;
however, most ancient fans have been de-
scribed primarily from active-margin settings
(Normark et al., 1985a). Klein (1985b) sug-
gested that active-margin tectonic elements
tend to favor preservation of deep-water
turbidites and related deposits. Active margins
(e.g., trench, backarc, forearc, transform, and
foredeep, among others) usually produce
small, sand-rich fans, whereas mature passive
margins develop large, mud-rich fans. A sim-
ple explanation for this variance is that an
active-margin coastal drainage (e.g., Santa
Clara River of southern California) will pro-
duce higher sand percentages than a passive-
margin drainage (e.g., Mississippi River) at
the same latitude (Gorsline, 1980). Exceptions
to this general trend may occur.
Active-margin and mature passive-margin
fans exhibit most properties of poorly effi-
cient and highly efficient systems, respectively
(Table V). Shanmugam et al. (1985b) dis-
cussed general differences in sediment yield
and fan growth in active- and passive-margin
settings. Channels on mature passive-margin
fans (Fig. 19) tend to be relatively long, non-
bifurcating, of low gradient, and largely sinu-
ous. By contrast, channels on active-margin
fans are short, steep, and of low sinuosity. It
is here speculated that this variation might be
explained reasonably by analogy with the pat-
terns of fluvial channels, which are strongly
controlled by the type and amount of sedi-
ment load moved through the channel
(Schumm, 1977, 1981).
The relatively fine-grained (mud-rich) char-
acter of the transported sediment associated
with channels on mature passive-margin fans,
 409

PASSIVE MARGIN FAN ACTIVE MARGIN FAN

/i ~\

MIDDLE FAN

'

,~'~
,#_ ';:

'
: =

i
/,OVVE.
~' DEPOSITIONAL LOBES

BASIN PLAIN
<' : ::

I'~
i: '': :"" >l .!j ,.
' /"
LI _ _ A~B A N D O N E D CHANNELS

J
BASIN PLAIN

Fig. 19. Comparison of mature passive-margin fans (left, hundreds of km long) with active-margin and immature
passive-margin fans (right, tens of km long); note presence of lobes in active-margin fans.

such as the Amazon and Mississippi, gives fans may be segmented, as is common on
rise to excellent bank stability and favors the modern alluvial fans (Denny, 1967). An ex-
development of a single, largely sinuous chan- ample of such a segmented active-margin fan
nel. Channel shifting in such a system is is the Navy fan, in which abandoned lobes
probably by multiple means, namely, meander have been documented (Normark and Piper,
shift, meander-bend cutoff, as well as by peri- 1972; Normark et al., 1979).
odic avulsion high on the fan. This channel The short, steep, and radial-shaped char-
shifting is observed on modern passive-margin acter of active-margin fans as a whole, is
fans by the widespread occurrence of aban- considered to be a direct consequence of the
doned channels and lateral accretion deposits relatively coarse-grained nature of its sedi-
(Damuth et al., 1983; Stelting et al., 1985). ment. Constant lateral shifting (by avulsion)
The sand-rich character and steeper gradi- of the channels about a point at the canyon
ent of active-margin fans should, by contrast, mouth maintains the equidimensional radial
favor the development of a braided channel profile that characterizes these fans. In con-
system. Braided channels are a diagnostic fea- trast, the finer-grained sediment of mature
ture of fans bearing suprafan deposits passive-margin fans typically produces a nar-
(Normark, 1974) that are developed com- row, elongate fan as a product of greater
monly on active-margin fans (e.g., Navy, San overall channel stability. More importantly,
Lucas, Redondo). A long-range side-scan mature passive-margin fans do not develop
sonar (Gloria) survey of the Orinoco deep-sea depositional lobes (Shanmugam et al., 1986),
fan (mixed setting), which abuts against the whereas active-margin fans usually do. Con-
deformation front of the Barbados Outer sequently, active margin-fans exhibit
Ridge, also reveals a braided distributary sys- mounded seismic reflections in the lower-fan
tem (Belderson et al., 1984). Active-margin area, whereas the sheet-like sand bodies of
410

TABLE VIll
Comparison of a mature passive-margin fan (modem) with immature passive-margin and active-margin fans (ancient)

Features Mature passive-margin fans Immature passive-margin

and active-margin fans
Upper fan
Major canyon Present Present
Turbidite facies No data A, B, D, E, F, G
Middle fan
Sinuous channels Common Not well-documented
Channel-fill deposits Slumps, debris flows, Slumps, debris flows,
turbidites, hemipelagites turbidites, hemipelagites
Overbank deposits Extensive Limited
Overbank slumps Common Rare
Thinning-upward trends Common Common
Turbidite facies A, B, E, F, G A, B, C, D, E, F, G
Seismic reflections Semi-transparent, lens-shaped channel-levee Discontinuous and
complex; high-amplitude zone near base of channel channelized
Lower fan
Low sinuosity channels Numerous Absent
Channel-fill deposits Slumps, debris flows, turbidites Absent
Typical lobes Absent Well-documented
Sheet sand Common Absent or rare
Turbidite facies B, C?, D, F C,D
Seismic reflections Continuous, semi-transparent to chaotic flat Mounded reflections
lenses with small channel structures with bidirectional downlap
Examples Mississippi fan Balder, Chugach,
Great Valley Sequence,
Hecho, among others
Note: Mature passive-margin fans are not common in the ancient record.

IMMATURE PASSIVE MARGIN MATURE PASSIVE MARGIN

ACTIVE MARGIN

MOUNDED SHEET
BIDIRECTIONAL DOWNLAP CONTINUOUS. PARALLEL
(SARG AND SKJOLD, 1982;
MITCHUM, 1985)

Fig. 20. Idealized seismic reflection profiles of lower-fan areas in different tectonic settings. Length of seismic section
represents tens of km for immature passive margin and active margin (left), and hundreds of km for mature passive
margin (right).

TURBIDITE FACIES
PASSIVE MARGIN
CHANNEL-FILL
(A,B,F)
OVERBANK
(E,F)
t MIDDLEFAN
CHANNEL-FILL
(A,B,F)
CHANNEL-FILL
(B,F)
SHEET SAND
LOWERFAN
(D)
BASIN PLAIN
(D & G)
Fig. 21. Idealized stratigraphic sections showing distribution of turbidite facies in mature passive-margin fans (left
section, hundreds of meters in thickness) and in active-margin fans (right section, tens of meters in thickness); note
differences in facies association between lobes and sheet sands. Facies nomenclature is after Mutti and Ricci Lucchi
(1972, 1975).
mature passive-margin fans generate parallel
and continuous reflections (Table VIII, Fig.
20).
A comparison of active-margin fans (e.g.,
Hecho fan) and mature passive-margin fan
(e.g., Mississippi fan) shows major differences
in facies association in the lower-fan area
(Shanmugam et al., 1986). These differences
can be explained by the development of lobes
in active-margin fan and sheet sands in ma-
ture passive-margin fan (Fig. 21). The turbi-
dite facies scheme (Mutti and Ricci Lucchi,
1972), which was developed exclusively from
ancient active-margin fans, should be applied
to mature passive-margin fans with qualifica-
tions.
It might be speculated further that, as with
fluvial channels (Schumm, 1977, 1981), the
dimensions of channels on submarine fans
are greatly dependent upon sediment yield
and rate of discharge. Thus, the somewhat
wider, deeper, and longer channels of
passive-margin fans may be attributed to
larger discharge flows. In both tectonic set-
411
ACTIVE MARGIN
CHANNEL-FILL MIDDLEFAN
(A,B,F)
LOBE ]
(C,D)
LOBE
(C,D)
j LOWERFAN
BASIN PLAIN
(D & G)
tings, channelization and related fan growth
seem to occur mainly during periods of low
sea level (Shanmugam et al., 1985b).
Sarg and Skjold (1982) interpreted the
Paleocene Balder fan in the North Sea (imma-
ture passive margin) as a sand-rich fan with
"suprafan" lobes. Thus, immature passive-
margin fans are very similar in character to
those of active-margin fans. We believe that
early-stage passive-margin settings (North Sea
type) favor sand-rich fans because of a nearby
source and steep gradients, whereas in a ma-
ture passive margin (Atlantic type), mud-rich
fans develop because of a distant source and
gentle gradients. Tectonic control of sub-
marine-fan types is illustrated in Fig. 22. Large
mud-rich fans (Mississippi, and Amazon fans)
may be classified as open-basin fans (Nelson
and Kulm, 1973) or as elongate fans (Stow et
al., 1985; Stow, 1986), whereas small sand-rich
fans (Navy, and Monterey fans) may be clas-
sified as either restricted-basin fans (Nelson
and Kulm, 1973) or as radial fans (Stow et al.,
1985; Stow, 1986). Exceptions to this general
412
I M M A T U R E PASSIVE M A R G I N
MOUNDED LOWER FAN
tliI
SAND-RICH SMALL FANS
M A T U R E PASSIVE M A R G I N
SHEET LIKE LOWER FAN
MUD-RICH LARGE FANS
ACTIVE MARGIN
MOUNDED LOWER FAN
SAND-RICH SMALL FANS
Fig. 22. Tectonic control of submarine fan types.
Lower-fan geometry is described in terms of "mounded"
(lobes) and "sheet-like" (sheet sands) seismic reflec-
tions. In all three cases, sediments were derived from
the left. As an example, only trench basin is shown for
active-margin setting. Wavy lines represent sea level.
trend, however, do occur. For example, the
Magdalena fan, located along an active
margin, exhibits characteristics of a mature
passive-margin fan (Kolla and Buffier, 1985).
We find that classifying fans on the basis of
their shape (radial and elongate) is not practi-
cal. Radial fans develop on both active (Navy
fan) and passive margins (Nile fan), and
elongate fans develop on active margins (Crati
fan), on passive margins (Laurentian fan),
and on mixed settings (Bengal fan). Because
of this diversity, proposition of a single, all-
encompassing fan model is not practical.
We believe that conventionally accepted
fan models with suprafan lobes (Normark,
1978; Walker, 1978), or depositional lobes
(Mutti and Ricci Lucchi, 1972, 1975) may
represent only active-margin or immature
passive-margin fans, not mature passive-
margin fans (Fig. 19). In order to apply con-
ventional channel-lobe fan models to turbi-
dite sequences of any tectonic settings, the
presence of lobes must be established based
on sedimentologic and seismic characteristics.
EUSTATIC CO N TRO L OF SUBMARINE FANS
Global lowering of sea level is the primary
factor in the development of submarine fans
(Shanmugam and Moiola, 1982a, b, 1984;
Shanmugam et al., 1985b). We have used the
global sea-level curve of Vail et al. (1977),
now referred to as the coastal onlap curve
(Vail and Todd, 1981), as our standard refer-
ence because of its coverage of the entire
Phanerozoic. A refined sea-level curve for the
Mesozoic and Cenozoic intervals has been
presented recently by Haq et al. (1987). Global
changes in sea level are controlled primarily
by tectonism and glaciation; however, glacia-
tion is considered to be the only mechanism
capable of causing relatively rapid (more than
1 cm/1000 yr) fluctuations in sea level (Vail
and Hardenbol, 1979). Short-term rapid
fluctuations in sea level appear to be related
to glaciation (Shanmugam and Moiola,
1982a). Long-term gradual fluctuations in
global sea level appear to be controlled by
changes in mid-oceanic ridge volume (spread-
ing rate), subsidence of the continental
margin, and sediment compaction. Changes
of intraplate stress-fields caused by changing
plate movements have also been considered
as a cause for sea-level fluctuations (Cloe-
tingh, 1986).
During the last few million years, sedimen-
tation and growth of most modern submarine
fans have been controlled by Plio-Pleistocene
glacioeustatic sea-level fluctuations. During
the relatively short (5,000 to 20,000 years)
interglacial phases such as the Holocene, re-
cession of continental glaciers has caused sea
level to rise to or above its present level.
These high stands move the locus of fiver
sedimentation landward. The great width and
low gradient of most shelves generally restrict
river deposition to deltas on the innermost
shelf, and the large amounts of terrigenous
sediment that are needed to build submarine
fans cannot reach the continental slope or
 413

HIGH SEA LEVEL rise. Hence, fan development is temporarily

halted or diminished greatly during the
highstands of sea level. In contrast, during
glacial phases such as the Wisconsin, sea level
was lowered from 40 to 150 m below the
present level. Most continental shelves be-
/-" o// came emergent, and rivers discharged their
sediment loads directly into the heads of sub-

] 200 M
/ marine canyons at or near the shelf break.
LOW SEA LEVEL
Fig. 23. Eustatic models showing development of fans
during periods of low sea level, and occurrence of
non-fan turbidites during periods of high sea level.
Simplified after Shanmugam and Moiola (1982b).
Thus, large quantities of terrigenous sediment
were transported to the deep sea via turbidity
currents and related gravity flows, and sub-
marine fan development was greatly accel-
erated (Fig. 23). This scenario is perhaps more
representative of passive-margin settings
where wide coastal plains and shelves are
affected dramatically during low sea level.
DSDP core data from the passive-margin
Mississippi fan indeed demonstrate that the
"nondecompacted" rate of sedimentation was
extremely high during low sea level (600-1100
cm/1000 years) but low (2-13 cm/1000 years)
during high sea level (Fig. 24) (Kohl et al.,
1985).
Exceptions to the above trend do occur
because in certain active-margin settings,
tectonic uplift is a major control on sediment
yield and on fan growth (Klein, 1984, 1985a).
For example, in two submarine fans of the
western Pacific (an unnamed fan at DSDP

DSDP LEG 9 6 SITES

I m ~ ~ ~ ERICSON Z O N E REMARKS
Ii~ll ~ tFOll~Ol

=~ ~t M,DO~E
E~ LOWER FAN

F] BI ZONE
z IN TERGLACIATION,
o-,1.ooo YEA.S
HIGH SEA LEVEL
(HOLOCENE)

1500- MIDDLE FAN LOWER FAN

F-
lOOO-
_ N 11,000
ZONE Y
85,000 YEARS
GLACIATION,
LOW SEA LEVEL
(WISCONSIN)

Fig. 24. "Nondecompacted" rate of sedimentation during periods of high and low sea levels in the Mississippi fan.
Simplified after Kohl et al. (1985).
414

Site 210, and Toyama "fan" at DSDP Site fore, influenced primarily by lowstands of sea
299), turbidite deposition has been correlated level in most tectonic settings.
with periods of tectonic uplift (Klein, 1985b). The following hydrocarbon-bearing sub-
In particular, in island-arc settings coastal marine-canyon and fan deposits occur on both
plains and shelves are very narrow, and sedi- active- and passive-margin settings, and they
ment is transported directly into deep water all correlate with periods of low sea level: (1)
(Fig. 17). In certain arc systems (e.g., the the Pennsylvanian (Atokan) Red Oak Sand-
northern Middle America Trench, DSDP Leg stone in Oklahoma; (2) the Lower Permian
66) where an abundant source of terrigenous Cook Channel of the Jameson Field in Texas;
detritus is available, large submarine canyons (3) the Upper Cretaceous Woodbine-Eagle
funnel coarse clastics directly to the trench Ford Interval in Texas; (4) the Paleocene
floor, effectively bypassing depositional sites sequence of Forties and Montrose Fields in
even along the lower slope (Underwood and the U.K., North Sea; (5) the Paleocene Balder
Karig, 1980). In these cases, eustatic control Field in the Norwegian North Sea; (6) the
of fan growth may be overshadowed by Paleocene Cod Fan in the Norwegian North
tectonic control. Sea; (7) the Lower Eocene Yoakum Channel
In general, however, most modern fans of in Texas; (8) the Lower Eocene sequence of
active margin (Astoria, Navy, Coronado, and the Frigg Field in the North Sea; (9) the
Monterey), mature passive margin (Amazon, Upper Oligocene Lower Hackberry Sand-
and Mississippi), and mixed setting (Bengal stone in Texas; (10) the Upper Oligocene
and Indus) exhibit accelerated growth during Puchkirchen Formation in Austria; (11) the
periods of low sea level associated with Upper Miocene Stevens Sandstone of south-
Pleistocene glacials. These fans, however, have eastern San Joaquin Valley in California; (12)
been dormant during the Holocene and previ- the Upper Miocene Puente Formation of
ous interglacials (periods of high sea level). Wilmington Field in California; (13) the
The development of a submarine fan is, there- Lower Pliocene Repetto Formation of

CHANGES OF SEA LEVEL

IN METERS
EPOCHS RISING FALLING TURBIDITE RESERVOIRS
~ - - 300 0 300
FLEIST .'----:~--'--"- '~J~--~::------:- 1. MISSISSIPPI CANYON (LA)
FL,O . . . ~---~-
. . . . . .
2. REPETTO FM. VENTURA FLD (CALIF)
L _~ 3~4 3. STEVENS SANDSTONE (CALIF.)
4. PUENTE FM., WILMINGTON FLD (CALIF)
0"' M _
O_ . . . . . . L .....
:E
E ~ ......

L - 5. PUCHKIRCHEN FM., MOLASSE BASIN

~) _~ PRESENT (AUSTRIA)
-- SEA LEVEL 6. HACKBERRY FM. (TEXAS)
E ',~
L

M
7. YOAKUM CHANNEL (TEXAS)
8. FRIGG FLD (U.K.-NORWAY BORDER N.-SEA)

9. FORTIES FLD (U.K.N.-SEA)

10. MONTROSE FLD (U.K.N.-SEA)
-
a. E \ 9 1 11. COD FAN (NORWEGIAN N.-SEA)
12. BALDER FLD (NORWEGIAN N.-SEA)

Fig. 25. Correlation of hydrocarbon-bearingsubmarine canyon and fan deposits with periods of low sea level. From
Shanmugam and Moiola (1982a).

Ventura Field in California; and (14) the
Pleistocene Mississippi Canyon in Louisiana.
The relationship of Tertiary and Quaternary
hydrocarbon-bearing submarine-canyon and
fan deposits to the global sea-level curve is
shown in Fig. 25.
During highstands of sea level, major fans
do not grow significantly because of limited
sediment yield into the deep sea caused by
trapping of land-derived sediment on shelves.
Only infrequent, generally minor turbidity
flows reach the deep sea where they tend to
mantle previously developed lowstand fans or
to form a non-fan (starved fan) sequence
(Fig. 23). A starved-fan sequence may super-
ficially resemble the nonchannelized portions
of an active fan system. The main difference
is that a non-fan sequence is characteristically
non-cyclic, whereas fan sediments deposited
between distributary channels or as lobes ex-
hibit commonly thickening-upward trends. In
the modern Atlantic, turbidite sand layers of
non-fan affinity are described by Pilkey et al.
(1980). In the southwestern part of the
Madeira Abyssal Plain, turbidites were re-
ported to have developed during periods of
both regression and transgression (Weaver
and Kuijpers, 1983).
Although submarine fans become dormant
during highstands of sea level, the deposition
of hemipelagic sediments continues. These
hemipelagic sediments may drape the entire
fan to form an effective hydrocarbon seal.
This scenario appears to be applicable to the
Balder field of the North Sea, where shale
occurs as a hemipelagic drape over the entire
suprafan complex (Sarg and Skjold, 1982).
Such mud drapes can, in general, form seals
associated with stratigraphic traps (see Fig.
9).
RESERVOIR POTENTIAL
Prediction of submarine fans
Episodes of low sea level may result not
only in the formation of fans but also in the
erosion of the shelf and the formation of
415
C O A S T A L AND A L L U V I A L PLAIN NEARSHORE
" " " " F
CANYON CU~ ~
EROSIONAL
SLOPE
SUBMARINE FAN
LOBE
Fig. 26. A predictive model of submarine fans using
erosional unconformities. Modified after Vail and Todd
(1981).
related unconformities. As a result, major
erosional unconformities on the shelf may be
associated downdip with submarine-fan com-
plexes (Fig. 26). The downdip occurrence of
coeval deep-sea fans may be predicted by,
recognizing erosional unconformities (Shan-
mugam, 1988) on the shelf, identifying regres-
sive facies tracts, and establishing a temporal
relationship between the age of a given seismic
package and a low stand of global sea level
(Shanmugam and Moiola, 1982b).
Tectonic setting and sand distribution
In general, active-margin fans should
possess the best reservoir potential because of
their sand-rich character. Wilde et al. (1985)
discussed the reservoir potential of the mod-
ern Monterey fan. In this fan, thick intervals
of sand (up to 500 m) are present in the
middle- and lower-fan areas. Other active-
margin fans may also develop similar sand-
rich packages. For example, the Los Angeles
basin (California), developed by right-lateral
strike-slip faulting along the San Andreas
fault, has produced more than 7.3 billion bbl
of oil from submarine-fan sandstones (Redin,
1984).
The Cellino Formation of Early Pliocene
age in central Italy produces gas from lower-
fan depositional lobes (Casnedi, 1983). This
submarine fan was developed as a result of
filling of the peri-Adriatic foredeep basin.
Thick accumulation of turbidites (nearly 1500
m) in this basin has been attributed to a high
rate of subsidence and a large supply of sand
caused by a strong uplift in the source area.
416
Immature passive-margin fans are com-
parable to active-margin fans in their sand
distribution. An example is the Balder fan of
the North Sea. Small, sand-rich, scarp-fed
fans developed during Late Jurassic in re-
sponse to a syn-rift tectonic cycle in the North
Sea, whereas post-rift fans formed during Late
Paleocene and Early Eocene time (Watson,
1984). Nearly 23% of estimated recoverable
reserves of 23 billion bbl of oil and 50 tcf of
gas occurs in submarine-fan reservoirs in the
North Sea Hydrocarbon Province (Watson,
1984).
Mature passive-margin fans are mud-rich
systems, however, they tend to show increas-
ing sand content downfan. In the lower Mis-
sissippi fan, the presence of "sheet sands"
(O'Connell et al., 1985) suggests that a possi-
bility exists for reservoir development in the
lower-fan areas of even large mud-rich fans.
The Early Wisconsin "fanlobe" of the Missis-
sippi fan is reported to contain 65% net sand
(Bouma et al., 1985c). Unfortunately, mature
passive-margin fans are seldom preserved in
the rock record.
Mixed-setting fans such as the Indus
possess potential for reservoir development
primarily in the lower-fan areas where non-
channelized sheet sands are present (Kolla
and Coumes, 1987).
Sediment dispersal and sand distribution
In addition to overall tectonic settings, the
nature of sediment dispersal also controls the
distribution of sand. For example, in the
Ventura basin of California, longitudinal
transport of sediments is proposed (Hsu et
al., 1980). The exploration importance of the
longitudinal fan model is that it predicts the
locality of the potential reservoir sands to be
in the central and deepest parts of the trough.
Conversely, the transverse fan model predicts
potential reservoir sands at the basin flank
(Hsu et al., 1980).
Depositional facies and reservoir quality
Channel and lobe deposits form reservoirs
throughout the world (Table IX). Favorable
reservoir properties of channels and lobes in-
clude their thickness (up to 50 m), porosity
(up to 30%), and permeability (up to 4000
mD). The reservoir potential of submarine
fans may be considered in terms of the facies
scheme of Mutti and Ricci Lucchi (1972,
1975). The reservoir potential of these facies
has been inferred from their lithology, layer
thickness, facies continuity, and potential for
preservation of depositional porosity or
primary porosity (see classification of poros-
ity in sandstones by Shanmugam, 1985).
Turbidite facies with high s a n d / m u d ratio
exhibit generally higher depositional porosity
than facies with low s a n d / m u d ratio (Bjor-
lykke, 1983). We have used this relationship
to derive the depositional porosity curve
shown in Fig. 27. Overall reservoir potential
in terms of lithology, thickness, continuity,
and porosity is also illustrated in Fig. 27.
Reservoir potential illustrated in Fig. 27,
however, does not take into account all aspects
of diagenesis that ultimately control reservoir
quality.
Facies A (conglomerates, pebbly sand-
stones, and pebbly mudstones) exhibits mod-
erate reservoir potential because of abundant
depositional matrix. Facies B (massive sand-
stones) shows better reservoir potential than
facies A because deposits of facies B are
commonly better sorted and more continuous
than those of facies A. Examples of facies B
sandstones that produce hydrocarbons in-
clude the Balder Field of the North Sea (Sarg
and Skjold, 1982) and San Joaquin basin of
California (Scott and Tillman, 1981). Facies
C (classical turbidites) shows the best poten-
tial for reservoir development. These sand-
stones commonly form thickening-upward
lobe sequences that have good lateral continu-
ity, and high depositional porosity. For exam-
ple, the Lower Pliocene Cellino Formation in
Italy produces hydrocarbons from deposi-
tional lobes made up of facies C (Casnedi,
 417

TABLE IX TABLE IX (continued)

Selected examples of hydrocarbon-bearing turbidite res- Reservoir Features
ervoirs
Lower Permian, sandstone: 33 m
(Compiled from: Parker, 1975; Bloomer, 1977; Hsu, Midland basin, Texas Porosity: 10-15%
1977; Walker, 1978, 1980b; Vedros and Visher, 1978;
Bacoccoli et al., 1980; Heritier et al., 1980; Hill and Red Oak Sandstone, Thickness of channel
Wood, 1980; Siemers et al., 1981; Sarg and Skjold, Pennsylvanian, sandstone: 50 m
1982; Casnedi, 1983; Shanmugam and Moiola, 1985a; Okla. Porosity: 10-15%
and this study) Permeability: 100 mD

Reservoir Features
Repetto Fm., Channel width: 250-450 m
Lower Pliocene, Thickness of channel 1983). In general, facies D (sandstones lack-
Ventura Field, Calif. sandstone: 13-40 m
"Suprafan" lobe thickness: 65 m
ing lower divisions of the Bouma sequence)
Permeability range: 1-250 mD displays moderate reservoir potential. Facies
E (ripple-laminated and lenticular sand-
Cellino Fm., Lobe thickness: 25 m
Lower Pliocene, Length: 30 km
stones) shows slightly better reservoir poten-
Central Italy, tial than facies D. Facies F (slumps) and
facies G (pelagic and hemipelagic shale) show
Stevens Sandstone, Channels and lobes
Upper Miocene, "Suprafan" lobe thickness:
minimal potential for forming reservoirs.
San Joaquin basin, 50 m
Calif. Porosity: 16% Framework composition, diagenesis, and res-
Permeability: 20 mD eruoir quality
Eocene Channels and lobes
Frigg Field, Total sand thickness: 400 m Framework composition of sandstones
North Sea Porosity: 25-32% primarily reflect different tectonic settings of
Permeability: 1200-1600 mD provenance terranes (Dickinson and Suczek,
Paleocene Thickness of channel 1979). Framework composition commonly
Forties Field, sandstone: 50 m controls reservoir quality via diagenesis. A
North Sea "Suprafan" lobe thickness: compilation of framework composition of
35 m
Porosity: 25-30%
submarine-fan sandstones shows that active-
Permeability: 1000-4000 mD margin fans contain abundant rock fragments
and feldspar (Table X), whereas passive-
Paleocene "Suprafan" lobe thickness:
Balder Field, 20-60 m
margin fans are enriched in quartz (Table
North Sea Net sand: 25-60% XI). A high percentage of coarse-grained un-
stable framework grains (e.g., feldspar and
Namorado, Total sand thickness: 100 m
Cretaceous to Porosity: 30%
rock fragments) is present in active-margin
Tertiary, Permeability: 1000 mD
settings because of the short distance between
Campos basin, the source area (provenance) and the site of
offshore Brazil fan development. In mature passive-margin
Forbes Sandstone, "Suprafan" lobe thickness:
settings, in contrast, the long-distance trans-
Upper Cretaceous, 10-60 m port of sediment tends to destroy the unstable
Grimes Field, Calif. Length: 8.8 km grains, thereby, concentrating stable quartz
Width: 4.8 km grains. In the Amazon fiver system, for exam-
Winters Sandstone, Channels (and lobes?) ple, QFR (quartz, feldspar, and rock frag-
Upper Cretaceous, Thickness: 7-10 m ments) ratios of sand average 4 7 : 8 : 4 5 near
Sacramento Valley, Porosity: 23-27% the headwaters, and 85:3:11 near the river
Calif. Permeability: 150-950 mD mouth, some 3000 km downstream (Franzi-
Cook Sandstone, Thickness of channel nelli and Potter, 1983). Crook (1974) has also
418
LITHOLOGY
F ~1
Lg
PRINCIPAL
ENVIRONMENT
A CHANNEL
B CHANNEL
C LOBE
D LOBE FRINGE
E GVERBANK
F SLOPE
BASIN PLAIN
Fig. 27. Reservoir potential of turbidite facies. Details of lithology, layer thickness, and lateral continuity are from
Mutti and Ricci Lucchi (1975); depositional porosity is inferred from amounts of depositional matrix in each facies.
The reservoir-potential trend is a composite of aforementionedproperties.
suggested that quartz-rich deep-sea sands are
indicative of tectonically quiescent Atlantic-
type continental margins.
Submarine fans associated with island arcs
are commonly depleted in quartz and en-
riched in volcaniclastic sediments (e.g., Aleu-
tian, Mariana, and Toyama, see Table X),
however, rare exceptions showing quartz-rich
sandstones do occur (e.g., Greenwich slice,
Torlesse, Zodiac, see Table X). Underwood
(1986) explained that quartz-rich sandstones
in arc-related settings may be produced by
transportation of mineralogically mature sedi-
ments from neighboring continental sources
into forearc and backarc environments, and
by long-distance axial transport of sediments
on the trench floor.
The differential composition between ac-
tive- and passive-margins is important in con-
trolling major diagenetic processes, namely
mechanical compaction, chemical compac-
tion, cementation, and dissolution. In general,
quartz-rich sandstones show a high degree of
framework stability, and possess the optimal
I
LATERAL DEPOSITIONAL RESERVOIR
CONTINUITY POROSITY POTENTIAL
POOR LOW HIGH POOR GOOD
potential for preserving high depositional
porosity during burial diagenesis (Nagtegaal,
1978). For example, quartz-rich sands of the
mature passive-margin Mississippi fan are
clean, possess high porosities (20-30%), and
show only minor pore-reducing diagenetic ef-
fects (Roberts and Thayer, 1985).
Feldspathic sandstones may show similar
framework stability as quartz-rich sandstones,
however, alteration of feldspars results com-
monly in pore-tilling authigenic kaolinite.
Lithic sandstones possess the least potential
of retaining depositional porosity because of
their susceptibility to mechanical and
chemical compaction (Nagtegaal, 1978).
Sandstones containing significant volumes of
ductile lithic fragments can undergo a total
destruction of intergranular porosity during
mechanical compaction as a result of plastic
deformation of lithic fragments (Rittenhouse,
1971). A positive aspect of feldspathic and
lithic sandstones deposited on active-margin
fans is that they may be prone to developing
secondary porosity during burial diagenesis
 419

TABLE X
Framework composition of selected fans in active-margin settings

Fan Basin type Q F R

Modern
Astoria .1, Pacific Ocean Trench floor 35 41 24
(Gergen and Ingersoll, 1986)
Callecalle "1, Chile Trench Trench floor 20 40 40
(Thornburg and Kulm, 1987b)
Delgada .1, Pacific Ocean Transform/trench 27 38 35
(Gergen and Ingersoll, 1986)
Zodiac "1, Gulf of Alaska Trench floor 38 33 29
(Stewart, 1976) (size fraction: 0.149-0.25 mm)
Aleutian .1, Gulf of Alaska Forearc .2 7 34 59
(Underwood, 1986) (DSDP Site 186)
Trench slope 27 35 38
(DSDP Site 181)
Mariana *1 W. Pacific Ocean Forearc/backarc * z 0 18 82
(Packer and Ingersoll, 1986)
Toyama "1 Sea of Japan Backarc * 2 13 24 63
(Packer and Ingersoll, 1986)
Ancient
Stevens (Upper Miocene), Cafif. Transform 30 15--40 10
(Boles, 1984)
Marnoso-Arenacea (Mioc.) Italy Foredeep 27-40 19-25 4-12
(Gandolfi et al., 1983)
Great Valley Sequence .1, (Upper Forearc .3 31 33 36
Cret.), Ca. (Ingersoll, 1978b)
Torlesse .1 (Tri.-Jr.), NZ Trench/trench slope 50 30 20
(Dickinson, 1971)
Greenwich slice (M. Ord.), Pa. Trench floor 62-71 8-,31 3-30
(Lash, 1987)
Sevier (M. Ord.), Tenn. Foredeep 33-61 2-3 1-11
(Shanmugam, 1978)
Q = quartz (%); F = feldspar (%); R = rock fragments (%).
.1 Recalculated to 100%.
.2 Poor in quartz and rich in volcanic fragments.
.3 Average of nine petrofacies (Table 1 in Ingersoll, 1978b).

by dissolution of unstable framework grains.
In backarc basins of the western Pacific
Ocean, development of secondary porosity by
leaching is attributed to thermally driven fluid
circulation (Lee and Klein, 1986).
Arc-derived sandstones show progressive
stages of diagenetic destruction of reservoir
quality with increasing depth of burial (Gal-
loway, 1979). These diagenetic stages include:
(1) early calcite pore fill; (2) growth of authi-
genic clay rims (300-1300 m); (3) laumontite
or phyllosilicate pore fill (1000-3000 m); and
(4) late calcite pore fill/replacement and sili-
ceous overgrowths (deeper than 3000 m). Be-
cause both oil generation and late-stage di-
agenesis of arc-derived sandstones are tem-
perature-controlled, these sandstones enter the
zone of very low porosity and permeability
(the economic basement) when these sand-
stones reach the interval of petroleum genera-
tion and initial migration. Furthermore, sub-
duction complexes are not good exploration
targets because of porosity reduction induced
by tectonic loading and strata disruption
420

TABLE XI
Framework composition of selected fans in passive-margin and mixed settings

Fan Tectonic setting Q F R

Modern
Amazon .1, Equatorial Atlantic Mature passive margin 58 38
(Damuth and Fairbtidge, 1970)
Mississippi, Gulf of Mexico Mature passive margin 40-60 7-15 10-25
(Roberts and Thayer, 1985)
Hatteras, W. North Atlantic Mature passive margin 66 17 3
(Cleary et al., 1977)
Wilmington, W. North Atlantic Mature passive margin 65 20 10
(Ayers and Cleary, 1980)
Hudson and surrounding areas, Mature passive margin 66 11 10
Western North Atlantic
(Hubert and Neal, 1967)
Nile, Mediterranean Mature passive margin 70 13 16
(Bartolini et al., 1975)
Bengal *z, Bay of Bengal Mixed (remnant ocean) 57 28 14
(Ingersoll and Suczek, 1979)
Indus . 2 Arabian Sea Mixed (remnant ocean) 43 30 27
(Suczek and Ingersoll, 1985)
Ancient
Balder (Paleocene), North Sea Immature passive margin 80-90 6-12
(Sarg and Skjold, 1982)
Kongsfjord (Precambrian), Immature passive margin 60-90 5-30 1-10
Norway (Picketing, 1985)
Jackfork (Pennsylvanian), Mixed 77 3 4
Arkansas and Oklahoma (remnant ocean basin)
(Morris et al., 1979)
Q = quartz (%); F = feldspar (%); R = rock fragments (%).
.1 Average of 89 samples (Table 2 in Damuth and Fairbridge, 1970).
.2 Recalculated to 100%.

caused by shear deformation (Dickinson and
Seely, 1979).
In passive-margin settings, in contrast,
porosity preservation extends into the liquid
window, and therefore sandstones still retain
good reservoir potential at the depth of oil
generation (Galloway, 1979). In mature pas-
sive-margin fans, secondary porosity is more
likely to be generated by dissolution of ce-
ment than by dissolution of stable quartz
grains.
In summary, passive-margin fans are
quartz-rich, and may contain high primary
porosity and variable amounts of secondary
porosity caused by dissolution of cement. Ac-
tive-margin fans are usually quartz-poor, and
may exhibit low primary porosity and vari-
able amounts of secondary porosity due to
dissolution of unstable framework grains.
SUMMARY
(1) Submarine-fan sequences are composed
predominantly of turbidite packages that oc-
cur as channel and lobe (or sheet sand) de-
posits.
(2) Facies associations in conjunction with
bed-thickness trends can be used to identify
upper, middle, and lower fan environments.
(3) Channel deposits are characterized by
thinning-upward trends and associated facies
A and B of Mutti and Ricci Lucchi's (1975)

scheme. In seismic-reflection profiles, chan-
nels can be recognized usually by their ero-
sional nature.
(4) Lobes are considered to be turbidite
sand bodies that develop at the mouths of
channels. These lower-fan, nonchannelized,
sand bodies are recognized by their distinct
thickening-upward cycles, and facies C and D
in ancient fans. Mounded seismic reflections
appear to be indicative of lower-fan deposi-
tional lobes.
(5) "Suprafan lobes" are morphological
features that are characteristic of certain
small, sand-rich, modern fans. Their identifi-
cation in the rock record is tenuous at best,
and the application of this morphologic term
to ancient fans is considered inappropriate.
(6) We consider most ancient fans as sys-
tems in which depositional lobes are directly
attached to feeder channels. Fans with de-
tached lobes do not appear to be common in
the geologic record.
(7) Classification of fans based on their
transport efficiency is not practical.
(8) Olistostromes may occur in any part
(upper, middle, lower) of a longitudinal-fan
sequence, whereas they are restricted to upper
parts of a transverse-fan sequence.
(9) Submarine fans can be classified into
four types based on their tectonic settings
namely immature passive-margin fans (North
Sea type), mature passive-margin fans
(Atlantic type), active-margin fans (Pacific
type), and mixed-setting fans.
(10) Small, sand-rich fans with lobes are
characteristic of both immature passive-
margin and active-margin settings. Large,
mud-rich fans without lobes are common in
mature passive-margin settings. Conse-
quently, conventional channel-lobe models
may not be applicable to mature passive-
margin settings.
(11) Lower-fan regions of the modern Mis-
sissippi fan (mature passive margin) show
major differences in facies associations from
ancient fans (active margin). These dif-
ferences can be attributed to development of
421
sheet sands in mature passive-margin fans
and lobes in active-margin fans.
(12) Sea level is the primary factor control-
ling the growth of submarine fans. Submarine
fans are associated typically with periods of
low sea level. Exceptions to this general trend,
however, may occur in certain active-margin
settings where uplift can control fan growth.
(13) Channel-fill sandstones in most
tectonic settings are potential reservoirs. De-
positional lobes of immature passive-margin
and active-margin fans show the most favor-
able reservoir quality. If preserved, lower-fan
sheet sands of mature passive-margin fans
may also form good reservoirs.
(14) Mature passive-margin fans are en-
riched in quartz, show a high degree of frame-
work stability, and possess the optimal poten-
tial for preserving depositional porosity
(primary porosity). Lithic sandstones, com-
mon to active-margin fans, undergo extensive
physical and chemical compaction during
burial and, thus, are least likely to preserve
their depositional porosities. Secondary
porosity caused by the dissolution of cement
may be common in passive-margin fans,
whereas dissolution of unstable framework
grains can be expected in active-margin fans.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We wish to thank G. de V. Klein, M.B.
Underwood, J.E. Damuth, J.G. McPherson,
and an anonymous reviewer for critically re-
viewing the manuscript; E. Mutti for guiding
us through the Hecho basin; J.S. Wickham,
and J.K. Sales for helpful discussions on
tectonic settings; M.K. Lindsey, N.D. Pine,
and J. Livermon for drafting; the Ocean
Drilling Program for permission to examine
cores from the Mississippi fan (DSDP Leg
96); S. O'Connell and J.E. Damuth for assist-
ing in DSDP core examination at Lamont.-
Doherty Geological Observatory; and Mobil
Research and Development Corporation for
permission to publish this paper.
422
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