Analysis of the behaviour and applications of diodes in simple

circuits
Crisostomo, R.M.1 , Menorca, M.L.R.2 , and Remulla, K.I.T.1
1
National Institute of Physics, University of the Philippines, Diliman, Quezon City

Corresponding author: ktremulla@gmail.com

Abstract
Diodes are non-linear two-terminal devices that only allow for a unidi-
rectional flow of current[2]. In this experiment, the effect of diodes on
alternating current were analyzed using the Shockley equation by creating
a positive-limiter circuit. Aside from this, simple applications in rectifiers
and LEDs were recreated. The results confirm the theoretical behaviour
of diodes as non-linear devices that allow current to flow in only one
direction. For future experiments it is recommended that other LED bulb
diode configurations be explored.

Keywords: diode, rectifier, LED, Shockley equation

1. Introduction
A diode is a polar, two-terminal and non-linear electronic device that forces the current to flow easily in one
direction, but has a very high resistance in the reverse direction. This jump is known as a forward voltage
drop, and is a defining feature of diodes. This is also known as forward-bias. However, the mere presence of
a positive current does not guarantee that electricity will flow through the diode unhindered. The voltage
required for the effects of the diode to become negligible, that is, for the diode to act as a wire, is known as
the threshold voltage[2].
The I-V characteristic of the ideal diode is mathematically summarized in the Shockley equation (1).
 
I = I0 eeV /kT 1 (1)
Where I is the diode current, I0 is the saturation current, V is the voltage, and k is the thermal conduc-
tivity[1].
There are three important applications of diodes explored in this experiment. The first is where the
diode acts as a limiter when used with AC, where it prevents current from flowing through the diode either
above or below the threshold voltage. Circuits that do this are known as Positive and Negative Limiters,
respectively[2]. The second utilizes a simple combination of up to four diodes to convert alternating current
(AC) to direct current (DC). Id est, they prevent the original AC current from changing polarity. Circuits
like these are called rectifiers, and are common in modern electronics. However, rectified voltages from
an AC source still periodically vary, as clearly demonstrated in Figure 1. This variation is called ripple
voltage[2]. It is calculated for half-wave rectifiers by (2) and full-wave rectifiers by (3).
Iload
Vhalf wave = (2)
fC
Iload
Vf ullwave = (3)
2f C
For a true DC current to occur, ripple voltage must be eliminated. This is done by placing a capacitor
in the circuit. It will charge and discharge in between cycles, rendering the current to be truly DC. The
capacitance must be chosen such that
1
Rload C  (4)
f
The third application is probably the most well-known: the light-emitting diode (LED). LEDs are semi-
conductor devices composed of p-type and n-type semiconductors placed in direct contact. This contact is
known as the p-n junction. For current to pass, electrons must jump from the negatively-charged n-area
to the positively charged p-area[5]. When they do this, energy is released in the form of light. Diodes, in
combination with an AC source, may be used to control LEDs (commonly seen in fairy lights).

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Figure 1: Sample circuits of two different rectifier circuits and their theoretical resulting output voltages. a) Sample
diagram for a half-wave rectifier. b) Output voltage of a half-wave rectifier. C) Sample diagram for a full-wave
rectifier. D) Output voltage of a full-wave rectifier.

2. Methodology
In this experiment, the electronic properties of diodes were observed. Five (5) different circuit configurations
were used explored. It consists of 3 different parts: (I) investigating the IV-curve of a diode, (II) considering
different applications of diodes, and (III) exploring LEDs in circuit.
In the first part, the current-voltage relations of a diode were investigated. A pure DC input was used.
Voltage values were varied (ranging from -4 V to +4 V), and a Idiode vs Vdiode plot was made. From the
graph, the threshold voltage was estimated. For the second part, three (3) different applications of

Figure 2: Schematic diagram of the Positive Limiter circuit.

diodes were considered. First a simple (i) half wave rectifier was constructed following Fig. 2. Given the
indicated configuration (sine wave input, Vpp = 20 V, f = 1 kHz, no offset), the input and output waveforms
were plotted. As well, circuit was compared to a half-wave rectifier. After that, another diode in-parallel
was introduced to the circuit. In the case of a (ii) full wave rectifier, another diode is oriented opposite the
direction of the ground (Fig.3). Given the indicated configuration (sine wave input, Vpp = 2 V, f = 1 kHz,
no offset), the input and output waveforms were plotted. Finally, a more complicated circuit of a (iii) full
wave bridge rectifier was assembled (Fig. 4). Given the indicated configuration (sine wave input, Vpp = 10
V, f = 60 kHz, no offset), the input and output waveforms were plotted. All important observations were
recorded. Necessary analysis were made and discussed accordingly. endfigure endfigure

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 Figure 3: Schematic diagram of the Half-wave Rectifier circuit.

Figure 4: Schematic diagram of the Full-wave Rectifier circuit.

Figure 5: Schematic diagram of the a circuit that alternates the light of two LEDs.

Figure 6: Blocking one LED using a diode.

3. Results and Discussion

In the first part of the experiment, the effect of diodes in a circuit were investigated through its characteristic
curve as seen in Figure 6. The measured voltage across Vdiode , and current through Idiode , the diode for

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 Figure 7: Characteristic curve of a diode

varying input voltages generated an exponentially-increasing plot. This goes to show that diodes are non-
linear devices [1]. According to the Shockley equation, its exponential increase is usually described by the
equation below which was discussed in the introduction.
Moreover, this behaviour is a characteristic of a forward voltage drop [2]. This means that the voltage at
the anode is 0.5 V (which was the estimated threshold voltage from the plot), more than the voltage at the
cathode. At this point, the diode cannot hold the current back, and thus the first recorded current value of
0.1 mA.

Figure 8: Input and Output Waveforms generated from a Half-wave rectifier circuit

Consequently, when the power supply was changed into an alternating current in place of the direct
current, and an input Vpp was set to be much larger than the forward drop, the generated plot as seen in
Figure 7, showed a clipped positive portion in its output waveform. This means that as the input signal
goes positive (or increases), the current is drowned to the ground, and prevented from being passed out of
the circuit. This behavior suggests that the diode is again, forward biased, which then acts as a (parallel)
positive limiter to the circuit. This simple application of diodes in a circuit is known as half-wave rectifier
[2].
Similarly, when another diode is connected in parallel to the first diode in the circuit, positive and negative
clipping was observed as seen in Figure 8. This means that during the positive change of the input signal,

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 Figure 9: Input and Output Waveforms generated from a Full-wave rectifier circuit

the first diode is forward-biased. And at its negative change, the second diode is forward-biased as well.
Preventing signals from going out at both instances. The diode in this case then behaves as a (parallel)
positive and negative limiter. An application of this kind of circuit setup is full-wave rectifiers [2].

Figure 10: Input and Output Waveforms generated from a Full-Wave Bridge Rectifier circuit

Adding a capacitor across the diode to a full-wave bridge rectifying circuit, the input signal was filtered
in order to obtain a genuine dc [1]. Upon doing this in the experiment, the generated plot showed slightly
shifted and negatively clipped sine waves as seen in Figure 9. This could be interpreted as; the capacitor
starts to charge up when the voltage from the rectifier exceeds the voltage across it. And at every half-
cycle when the voltage at the bridge drops, the capacitor discharges to supply the circuit. The measured
amplitude of the ripple voltage was 42.4 mV , which deviates by 75.3% from the theoretical Vripple , 172 mV .
When the capacitor filter was removed, a maximum output voltage of 4.56 V was recorded. However, the
obtained waveform as seen in Figure 5, did not follow the expected output. Theoretically, therectified
output waveform would display a series of half sine waves with voltages ranging between zero to 2 times
the RM S voltage [3,4]. Consequently, when the capacitance was increased, the amplitude of the ripple
voltage decreased. This behaviour follows from its theoretical description.
Using two resistors and an alternating current, two LEDs were made to blink one after the other every one
second. This pattern was obtained on the basis that the second diode (LED) pushes back the current that

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 Figure 11: Observation of the blinking pattern and frequency of two LEDs

reaches it to keep the current flow unidirectional. But as the circuit reaches the diodes threshold voltage,
LED 2 starts to light up as it cannot hold off anymore current and consequently, the light produced in LED
1 starts to fade as the current through it passes through a resistor then drowns in the ground.

Figure 12: The effect of an additional diode in the blinking pattern of two LEDs

The circuit was modified by inserting one diode terminal in between the two LEDs. By doing this, all of
the current that was supposed to go through LED 2 was pushed back towards the current direction through
LED 1. This kept LED 2 off while LED 1 lights up every one second. The instance that LED 1 was off
signifies the drowning of current through the ground.

Conclusion
At the end of the experiment, different circuit configurations which included diodes, were explored. It can
be concluded that diodes are nonlinear devices. Certain applications of these diodes include half-wave, full-
wave, and full-wave-bridge rectifiers. Each of the following rectifiers convert alternating current input signal
to direct current output, flowing only in one direction. Finally, having been able to allow current to flow in
one direction, a diode was introduced to control the simple system of blinking LED bulbs. This made the
nearest bulb in parallel to continue blinking, while preventing current flow to the other bulb (connected to
the diode). That is, when the first bulb is off, current through it drowns in the ground.
For future experiments it is recommended that other LED bulb diode configurations be explored. In-
creasing the number of bulbs, and varying the blinking patterns could be an interesting exploration.

References
[1] Abesa, A.J., et.al., Analysis on the Current-Voltage Characteristics of Light-Emitting Diodes using
Shockley equation.,National Institute of Physics, University of the Philippines-Diliman., 2016.

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[2] Horowitz, P. et.al., The Art of Electronics, 3rd edition, Chapter 1.2.,Cambridge University Press,
2015.
[3] The Capacitor Filter., Retrieved from http://www.tpub.com., Accessed 25 February 2017
[4] Poole, I., Capacitor Smoothing Circuits & Calculations., Retrieved from http://www.radio-
electronics.com., Accessed 25 February 2017