Homeostasis

Homeostasis Across Body Systems
A word about body systems and the AP Biology exam

The AP exam rarely stresses anatomy of body systems unless it relates to adaptations/evolution (2
chamber fish hearts vs. 3 chamber amphibian hearts vs. 4 chamber mammalian hearts) or the actual,
functional physiology of the structure. A student could very well be required to describe the significance
of dendrites, myelin sheath, or Na+/K+ pumps while explaining how neurons carry impulses. A student
would certainly not be asked to list the cranial nerves.
In addition, the AP exam tends to blend body systems in the free response section. A student is more
likely to see a question centered on a theme like transport of amterials via the digestive, respiratory, and
circulatory systems than a pure question on the excretory system for example. This rule is not iron-clad
as 2 pure immune questions have been asked recently (2007 form B and 2005).
The AP exam tends to favor the following systems primarily: Nervous, Immune, Endocrine
The AP exam tends to favor the following systems secondarily: Respiratory, Circulatory, Excretory
The AP exam seems to nearly neglect the integumentary (except as it relates to nonspecific immunity)
and skeletal (except as it relates to classification/evolution) systems.
Note: The homeostasis question on which this prep packet is based was asked nearly identically in 2000
and 2004. If this trend were to persist, one would expect to see the homeostasis question soon.
Homeostasis Basics
Homeostasis is a steady, yet dynamic state. The organism will attempt to maintain a steady state (such as
body temperature in endotherms), but may have to change or make adjustments (dynamic) by shivering in
order to do so. In addition, the organism may shift response entirely in specific situations (positive
feedback below).
Generally homeostatic systems consist of (a) receptor(s), a control center, and (an) effector(s.)
There are 2 primary homeostatic systems:

Positive Feedback: An increase in product results in increasing the rate of the synthesis of that
product. This is the finish what you started mechanism.
Example: ABCD where the synthesis of D activates the enzyme AB-ase thereby
increasing the rate of synthesis of D eventually.
Negative Feedback: An increase in product results in a decrease in synthesis of more product.

This is the mechanism by which levels of a substance remain relatively constant continually.
Example: ABCD where the synthesis of D acts as an allosteric inhibitor of the enzyme
AB-ase

Copyright 2009 Laying the Foundation , Inc., Dallas, TX. All rights reserved. Visit: www.layingthefoundation.org 3
Examples of Positive Feedback: Childbirth & Blood clotting

Child Birth:
Release of oxytocin causes the uterus to begin contracting. The contracting uterus pushes the
baby and increases pressure on the opening of the uterus (cervix). This increase in pressure
results in release of additional oxytocin which will increase contraction strength and
intensitywhich will increase pressure on the cervixwhich will increase oxytocin release
Blood clotting, complement proteins in the immune system, and inflammation are additional
examples of positive feedback loops.
Homeostasis: Hunger
Stomach Fullness:
The hypothalamus monitors the fullness of
volume of the stomach. A stomach with much
empty space results in feelings of hunger.
This explains why calorie poor foods such as
lettuce or celery may curb the appetite
somewhat initially.
Blood Sugar:
When blood sugar is low between meals for
example, glucagon is released from the
pancreas. The presence of glucagon results in
the breakdown of glycogen (polymer of
glucose stored in the liver). The glucose is
dumped into the blood stream raising blood
sugar levels.
When blood sugar is high after a meal for

example, the pancreas will release insulin.
Insulin will remove sugar from the blood and
feed cells while additionally storing excess
sugar as glycogen in the liver. The
hypothalamus monitors blood sugar as well.

Homeostasis: Respiratory Rate & Heart Rate

The exchange of O2 & CO2 occurs at alveoli.
Surface Area: The alveoli are sack-shaped

to greatly increase the surface area across
which O2 and CO2 can diffuse.
Thickness: The alveoli are but a single cell

layer thick leading to more efficient
diffusion of gases across such a thin
membrane.
Exchange: Each alveolus is covered in a

capillary mesh. The capillaries are also a
single cell in thickness to facilitate
diffusion.
The medulla oblongata controls respiratory rate and
blood pressure.
During vigorous exercise an increase in CO2

production will occur as a result of
increased cellular respiration. When CO2 is
dissolved in H2O in the cytoplasm of the red
blood cells it is converted into carbonic acid
as seen in the equation below:
H 2O + CO2 H 2CO3 H + + HCO3
Carbonic acid dissociates into bicarbonate
ions and hydrogen ions resulting in a drop in
pH.
The medulla oblongata (m.o.) receives

information from chemoreceptors
responsible for monitoring pH. When blood
pH drops due to an increase in H+ ions, the
m.o. will respond by stimulating intercostals
and the diaphragm for deeper and more
frequent respirations.
The m.o. also gets feedback on blood

pressure from baroreceptors. The m.o. can
control vessel diameter to adjust for blood
pressure changes.

Homeostasis: Red Blood Cells & Hemoglobin

Hemoglobin responds to heat and acidity.
Like all proteins, hemoglobin (Hb) will begin
to change shape as it encounters warmer or
more acidic environments. In this case
however, Hb will undergo slight
conformational changes as it encounters
warmer, more acidic tissues. These fully
reversible, slight changes in shape result in a
decreased affinity for O2. Exercising muscles
are warm (friction) and acidic (lactic acid). Hb
will therefore know to drop off more O2
molecules at muscles that are contracting due
to exercise.
Homeostasis: Temperature Regulation

Why does an organism typically have such a narrow temperature range in which it can live?
Enzymatic reactions, protein shape, and other biochemical events all occur optimally in a specific
temperature range. An excessively high temperature may denature enzymes, while a sharp decrease in
temperature may result in too few collisions of reactants.
Endotherms & Ectotherms:

Endotherms (warm blooded) are able to maintain a steady body temperature regardless (to some
extent) of environmental temperature.
Ectotherms (cold-blooded) are at the mercy of external temperature and must find other means to
regulate body temperature.
Primary methods of temperature regulation

Evaporative cooling: Increasing body temperature:
H2O has a high specific heat meaning that The friction of skeletal muscle (shivering),
it will take a great amount of energy to the flapping of wings, or disengaging the
raise H2O 1o C due to the hydrogen chemiosmotic process of cellular
bonding between H2O molecules. The respiration will all create additional body
evaporation of a thin layer of sweat from heat.
the skin of an animal will require an input
of significant heat. That heat is provided Behavior:
by the animal resulting in cooling of the This is a major method of temperature
animal. regulation in ectotherms. A lizard for
example may sun itself on a rock or seek
Controlling heat exchange: shade in order to maintain an acceptable
Vasoconstriction of deeper vessels and temperature.
dilation of surface vessels will aid in
cooling. As blood passes nearer the Acclimiation:
surface of the body, it will receive some of Some species are able to modify proteins
the benefits of evaporative cooling. The so that they are able to withstand extreme
reverse is true for maintaining warmth. cold. Some species even have antifreeze
like components that aid in maintaining
membrane fluidity.

Homeostasis: Maintaining H2O balance

Water regulation (osmoregulation) is based largely on shuffling solutes and H2O between internal
and external fluids.
Additionally, organisms must rid themselves (excretion) of toxic, nitrogenous waste resulting
from protein catabolism.
Excretion of nitrogenous waste
Water dwelling organisms convert amino groups into ammonia (NH3) and may simply excreted
through diffusion via skin, gills, etc.
Most land dwelling organisms are forced to store nitrogenous waste for extended periods of time
before excretion is possible. NH3 is extremely toxic. How might land dwellers adjust?
Ammonia is modified in the liver and converted to urea. Urea is more than 1x105 times less toxic
than NH3 and can be stored more safely. In addition, urea is extremely water soluble.
Uric acid is an insoluble form of modified NH3 (the white paste in bird excrement is actually uric
acid). Conservation of water is the advantage of uric acid over urea in adults. In addition, egg
layers such as birds and reptiles as a general rule utilize uric acid synthesis so that a developing
organism is not saturated with urine during development.
Osmoregulation: Water dwelling organisms
Saltwater organisms:
The priority is to rid the body of excess NaCl and maintain H2O.
Bony fish for example are osmoregulators. They drink salt water and actively transport NaCl out
through the gills.
Sharks are osmoconformers and actually maintain a significantly higher than normal level of urea
in the blood. Because their osmolarity is somewhat similar to the surrounding water, sharks lose
little H2O to the environment.
Freshwater organisms:
The priority is to maintain electrolytes while riding itself of H2O.
A protist may simply use contractile vacuoles to shoot out excess water
Most multicellular organisms will simply manufacture very dilute urine in order to deal with
excess water.
Osmoregulation: Land dwelling organisms
The basics:
Whether it is the metanephridia of an earthworm, the malpighian tubules of an insect, or the
nephron of a mammal. Most systems proceed as follows:
FilterReabsorb what is valuableSecrete toxinsExcrete

Metanephridia Malpighian Tubules

Mammalian Kidney:
Physical filtration due to pressure Mammalian Kidney
across fenestrated capillaries occurs
at the glomerulus.
Filtrate proceeds into the Bowmans
capsule
The loop of Henle descends down
and back up through the renal cortex
and medulla. The deeper portions of
the medulla are more concentrated in
salt and urea resulting in various
stages of osmosis, diffusion, and
active transport as primarily H2O is
reabsorbed (98-99% of all H2O in the
filtrate is reabsorbed).
Excretion occurs when the
remnants travel through the
collecting duct and are eventually
passed as urine.

Multiple Choice
Questions 1-3 refer to the diagram below.
1. Which of the following best explains the role of the end product (isoleucine) in this diagram?
Isoleucine
(A) acts as a coenzyme.

(B) is an activator of the enzyme.
(C) is a competitive inhibitor of the enzyme.
(D) operates by binding to an allosteric site.
(E) is helping to break down the initial substrate.
2. All of the following statements are true EXCEPT:
(A) This is an example of negative feedback.

(B) This system will maintain a relatively stable amount of end product.
(C) In this system the existence of product decreases the rate of production of that product.
(D) This system displays noncompetitive inhibition.
(E) A lack of enzyme 4 will result in increased rates of inhibition of Enzyme 1.
3. The system above shares much in common with all of the following EXCEPT:
(A) Blood sugar regulation

(B) Temperature regulation
(C) Child birthing
(D) Maintenance of blood pressure
(E) The trp operon

Questions 4-6 refer to the following structures
(A) Malpighian tubules

(B) Alveoli
(C) Nephrons
(D) Medulla oblongata
(E) Metanephridia
4. The primary site of gas exchange in the lungs
5. Responsible for osmoregulation in insects
6. Responsible for osmoregulation in mammals
7. Which of the following correctly describes the order of events in the mammalian kidney?
(A) FiltrationReabsorptionExcretionSecretion
(B) FiltrationReabsorptionSecretionExcretion
(C) ReabsorptionFiltrationSecretionExcretion
(D) SecretionFiltrationReabsorptionExcretion
(E) SecretionReabsorptionFiltrationExcretion
8. Land dwelling mammals are able to regulate body temperature through all of the following
mechanisms EXCEPT:
(A) Sweating
(B) Shivering
(C) Metabolic adjustments
(D) Dilation or constriction of vessels
(E) Increasing specific heat of tissue
9. Damage to the human medulla oblongata would most likely result in which of the following.
(A) Erratic heart and respiratory rate

(B) Increased activity in the malpighian tubules
(C) Inability to properly control blood sugar levels
(D) Inability to properly control absorption in the kidney
(E) Decrease in the secretion of hormones responsible for homeostasis of body temperature

10. Uric acid is the product of which of the following processes.
I. catabolism of carbohydrates
II. catabolism of amino acids
III. fatty acid metabolism
(A) I only
(B) II only
(C) III only
(D) I and II only
(E) I and III only

Free Response
1. The circulatory system is instrumental in delivering oxygen to all cells of the body.
In a controlled experiment, a scientist chose to test the relationship between heart rate and
exercise on a group of individuals. The results are displayed below.
Exercise Heart rate Heart rate Heart rate

Intensity participant participant participant #3
(arbitrary #1 (bpm) #2 (bpm) (bpm)
units)
0 60 70 65
1 65 77 70
2 71 85 77
3 79 91 85
4 86 100 93
5 94 106 100
6 103 113 106
7 111 124 115
8 117 130 122
A. Construct a graph on the grid below.

B. Describe the structure of hemoglobin and describe how this structure aids in optimum
oxygen delivery to working muscles.
C. It is expected that the heart rate will increase in an exercising individual. Describe how
the brain monitors respiratory and heart rate in order to maintain homeostasis. Describe
the corresponding response to vigorous exercise.

Free Response
2. Feedback mechanisms are found throughout biological systems.
A. Describe in detail how a mammal maintains each of the following:
i. body temperature
ii. blood sugar
B. Animals maintain water balance (osmolarity) through various means. Describe methods by
which a saltwater and fresh water fish maintain osmolarity and explain the necessity of specific
adaptations for the success of land dwelling animals with regard to water balance. Give examples
where possible


Homeostasis

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Homeostasis

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Homeostasis Across Body Systems

A word about body systems and the AP Biology exam

There are 2 primary homeostatic systems:

Negative Feedback: An increase in product results in a decrease in synthesis of more product.

Examples of Positive Feedback: Childbirth & Blood clotting

When blood sugar is high after a meal for

Homeostasis: Respiratory Rate & Heart Rate

Surface Area: The alveoli are sack-shaped

Thickness: The alveoli are but a single cell

Exchange: Each alveolus is covered in a

During vigorous exercise an increase in CO2

The medulla oblongata (m.o.) receives

The m.o. also gets feedback on blood

Homeostasis: Red Blood Cells & Hemoglobin

Homeostasis: Temperature Regulation

Endotherms & Ectotherms:

Primary methods of temperature regulation

Homeostasis: Maintaining H2O balance

FilterReabsorb what is valuableSecrete toxinsExcrete

Questions 1-3 refer to the diagram below.

(A) acts as a coenzyme.

2. All of the following statements are true EXCEPT:

(A) This is an example of negative feedback.

(A) Blood sugar regulation

Questions 4-6 refer to the following structures

(A) Malpighian tubules

4. The primary site of gas exchange in the lungs

5. Responsible for osmoregulation in insects

6. Responsible for osmoregulation in mammals

(A) Erratic heart and respiratory rate

10. Uric acid is the product of which of the following processes.

Exercise Heart rate Heart rate Heart rate

A. Construct a graph on the grid below.

2. Feedback mechanisms are found throughout biological systems.

A. Describe in detail how a mammal maintains each of the following:

You might also like