Handling and Using Fertilizers
Soil
It is important for users of fertilizer to
understand the basic physical properties of
fertilizers and how they can be adversely
affected by storage conditions, transport and
handling procedures. It is equally important to
be able to calculate fertilizer product application
rates from recommendations for application of
individual plant nutrients.
This chapter provides a summary of the basic
physical properties of solid fertilizers,
recommended storage, transport and handling
practices, practical information on converting
recommended nutrient application rates to
fertilizer product application rates, hints on
fertilizer applicator calibration, applying
fertilizers through irrigation water, and
guidelines for safe handling of fertilizers.
Fertilizer Quality
Both its physical quality and its plant nutrient
content will determine the suitability of a
fertilizer for a particular use. The nutrient
content, its chemical form, and many factors
that affect the physical quality of fertilizers are
beyond the control of the user and others in the
distribution chain. However, inappropriate
storage and handling can lead to a deterioration
in physical quality, and this in turn may affect
evenness, cost and convenience of application
and losses which may impact on soil and
water quality.
Physical Quality and Properties of
Solid Fertilizer
Fertilizers are supplied in a variety of physical
forms including solids, liquids and - in the case
of anhydrous ammonia - as a compressed gas.
Solid products may be supplied as powders,
crystals, prills, or granules.
The most suitable physical form for a fertilizer is
normally determined by its chemical
characteristics, end-use, and application
method. For example, products that are very
low in solubility must be supplied in a finely
ground form to ensure rapid dissolution and
plant availability, whereas products for
application through fertilizer boxes or
air-seeders will normally be in granular or
prill form.
Australian
Fertility
Manual
The physical quality of a fertilizer is an
important factor affecting the ease, speed and
uniformity of application. Solid products
should be free flowing and free of aggregated
particles (lumps) caused by caking. If
application is being made through a fertilizer
box or broadcast applicator, it is essential that
the product is of a consistent particle size to
ensure an even application pattern.
The majority of fertilizers used in large-scale
agriculture and horticulture are applied in solid
form through some type of application
equipment. The most important physical
problems that can be encountered in the
handling and use of these products are caking or
setting (the formation of aggregated particles or
lumps), excessive moisture uptake, dustiness,
and segregation of particles.
Physical properties are most important for their
influence on the handling and storage
characteristics of fertilizer products, but can
chapter 13
also influence the agronomic performance
of some.
Particle size
Particle size is defined as the particle diameter
range of the material. Particle size analysis is
typically measured by sieving, a process of
separating a mixture of particles according to
their size fraction. Particle size affects
agronomic response; granulation and process
performance (during manufacture); and
blending, storage, handling, and application
properties (1).
Reducing particle size increases the total surface
area of a material. The greater the surface area,
the greater reactivity of the particle. For
products that have low solubility, such as
phosphate rock and lime, grinding the material
to a smaller particle size improves its dissolution
and reaction in the soil solution and its
availability for uptake by plants. Elemental
sulfur (S) also requires a fine particle size to
maximise the surface area available for
Thiobacillus bacteria to convert it to the plant
available sulfate form.
Fine powders, dusty fertilizers, and small
crystals are particularly susceptible to caking or
setting because their larger surface area results
in greater uptake of moisture and reaction with
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AUSTRALIAN SOIL FERTILITY MANUAL
adjacent particles. Dusty materials may pose a health
risk through irritation to eyes and soft tissues. Dusty
and fine materials are susceptible to drift when
broadcast applied.
The particle size range is measured in microns (one
micron = one thousandth of a millimetre) for very fine
materials and in millimetres for granular and prilled
material.
In countries where fertilizer is applied by hand, an
acceptable size range specification might be a product
which falls in the size range of 90% between 1 mm and
4 mm in diameter. However, for products that are to be
applied mechanically or pneumatically, e.g., through
air-seeders, in countries such as Australia, a typical
specification is for a product that is in the size range of
96% between 2 mm and 4 mm diameter.
Particle size is very important for fertilizer blends. A
mis-match in size range, or the degree of uniformity
within a size range, between different blend
components will result in a product that is susceptible
to segregation through vibration during transport,
when stored in piles, or when propelled through the air
by application machinery. The larger particles will tend
to flow to the bottom of a pile while the smaller
particles will be retained further up the slope. The
larger particles also travel further through the air when
propelled from a spreader.
Granule hardness and integrity
The mechanical strength of a granule or prill will
largely determine its ability to withstand the
degradation that can occur in handling and storage.
The crushing strength of a particle is important in
determining the storage properties of a product. For
example a granule which can be crushed between the
thumb and forefinger is classified as soft. If it can be
crushed with the forefinger on a hard surface, it is
regarded as being of medium hardness. If it remains
intact when subjected to pressure by the forefinger
against a hard surface, it is classified as hard(1).
Abrasion will generate fine particles and dust as a result
of granules or prills rubbing against one another
during handling. Prilled materials are generally more
susceptible to abrasion than granular forms of the same
product. The transfer of fertilizers through augers is a
common cause of product degradation through
abrasion.
Products will tend to break up when impacted against a
hard surface. This occurs during loading and discharge
of ships, when bagged product is dropped, and when
product is propelled through application equipment.
Granular materials generally have greater impact
resistance than prilled materials.
Hygroscopicity
Hygroscopicity is an important characteristic of solid
fertilizers because of its effect on the physical quality of
114
a product, which in turn affects storage and handling
properties. Hygroscopicity is defined as the moisture
absorption properties of a fertilizer under specified
conditions of temperature and humidity(1). Most
fertilizers are hygroscopic to some extent because of
their normally high water solubility. The hygroscopic
properties of a fertilizer can be quantified and qualified
by measuring the Critical Relative Humidity (CRH)
and its moisture absorption-penetration
characteristics(1).
The more hygroscopic a fertilizer is, the more problems
one can expect during storage and handling.
The CRH for a range of commonly used fertilizer
products is shown in Table 13.1. The Critical Relative
Humidity is defined as the relative humidity of the
atmosphere at which the material begins to absorb
moisture from the atmosphere and below which it will
not absorb atmospheric moisture(1).
Table 13.1 Critical Relative Humidity (CRH) of some
fertilizer products.
Product CRH (at 30C)
Urea 70-75
Ammonium nitrate 55-60
Ammonium sulfate 75-85
Diammonium phosphate (DAP) 65-75
Monoammonium phosphate (MAP) 70-75
Triple superphosphate (TSP) 75-85
Single superphosphate (*) 80-85
Potassium chloride (Muriate of potash) 70-80
Potassium nitrate 80-85
Potassium sulfate (Sulfate of potash) 75-80
Nitrophosphate (12-5.3-14-1.2Mg) 60-65
*
Single superphosphate data supplied by Incitec Ltd
(Fertilizer Manual 1998)
The CRH normally decreases with increase in
temperature.
Fertilizers vary considerably in their ability to tolerate
absorbed moisture. The factors that most affect the
moisture absorption-penetration characteristics of a
fertilizer are its chemical composition, particle
porosity, particle surface area, and degree of
crystallinity.
It should be noted that a mixture of two fertilizers
generally has a lower critical relative humidity than
either of the constituents. However, in some cases it
will be very significantly depressed, e.g. urea and
ammonium nitrate are incompatible because a mixture
of these two materials has a critical relative humidity of
approximately 18 (at 30C).
Caking of fertilizers
Caking of fertilizers is caused by the formation of
contact points between the particles. A major cause of
caking is the formation of salt bridges (or crystal
bridges) between the particles at the contact point.
These develop during storage as a result of continuing

internal chemical reactions, dissolution/
recrystallization processes, and/or thermal effects(1).
Adhesive contacts are formed as a result of molecular
attraction between the surfaces in contact. This type of
caking typically occurs from pressure exerted on the
fertilizer when it is stacked in bags or piled in bulk,
usually referred to as bag or pile set. The material
normally reverts to a free-flowing form with a minimal
amount of handling(1).
Surface diffusion of water-salt complexes forming
contact with adjacent particles also causes caking, and
this mechanism is greatly influenced by the porous
structure of particles(1).
Product related factors that influence caking include:
the chemical composition and impurity content,
moisture content, the size and shape of particles, the
mechanical strength and resistance to breakdown, the
hygroscopicity, and temperature when placed in
storage. External factors of importance include:
warehouse storage temperature, atmospheric humidity,
the length of storage time, and the pressure from
stacking or being at the bottom of a pile.
Handling Fertilizers
A containment approach should be adopted for the
handling and use of fertilizer. This means that during
the transport, storage, and any other handling
operations, operators should ensure that the fertilizer is
contained within the transport vehicle or storage site so
that possible adverse environmental effects from
spillage are avoided.
The loss of product during the handling, transport, or
storage of fertilizer is a potential point source of
pollution, which can be effectively managed if
appropriate actions are taken.
Recommended transport procedures
All fertilizer products should be delivered to users free
of any extraneous matter. Loading and unloading
procedures should be designed to minimise product
degradation, e.g. segregation of fertilizer components,
uptake of moisture, physical changes to particle size,
and contamination.
General requirements for the transport of fertilizers
are:
Bulk carriers should be such that no spillage of
fertilizer can occur during transport;
Bulk carriers should be presented in a clean
condition so that no contamination occurs.
Sheeting used to cover bulk product should be free
from contamination;
All bulk loads of fertilizer products should be
securely covered so as to prevent any dust nuisance
during transportation and to prevent moisture
uptake;
HANDLING AND USING FERTILIZERS
Packaged fertilizer should be transported in such a
way that no damage to packages occurs and no
spillage of product occurs;
Packaged fertilizer should be protected from adverse
weather such as rainfall;
Fertilizer classified as a Dangerous Good must be
transported in accordance with the relevant
Transport Regulation and relevant provisions in the
Australian Dangerous Goods Code;
The relevant Transport Regulation limit on load size
must be observed;
After discharging fertilizer, the driver should ensure
that all fertilizer is removed from the vehicle.
Adverse events
In the event of any spillage of fertilizer products, the
driver should take immediate steps to prevent any
further loss or contamination of any waterways. The
driver should minimise any hazard to other road users
and should ensure that no residual product remains
that may pose any immediate or future threat to the
environment.
At the earliest opportunity, the relevant local
government authority should be advised of any spillage
risks to waterways, ponds, lakes, or ground water.
Loading and unloading bulk fertilizer
Fertilizers should be moved with belt conveyors or
tubulators in preference to augers. Worn augers will
crack the granules, creating fines and dust. The dust
forms layers in field bins and silos, which will cause the
product to cake. It is these layers of dust and fines that
attract moisture. Dust has a far greater surface area
than granules and therefore absorbs atmospheric
moisture more quickly.
Storage and handling of bulk
Fertilizer should be kept dry and free from
contamination. One way of achieving this is to use a
storage area with a roof, concrete floor (which includes
a damp proof course), and concrete walls of sufficient
height to allow front end loaders to operate effectively
when loading out of storage. The floor should be
designed to bear the weight of vehicles during loading
and unloading.
To keep the fertilizer in the same condition during
storage, it is important to control any moisture changes
in the fertilizer. Fertilizer to be stored for a period
before use should be covered with impermeable
sheeting to prevent contact with moist air. The cover
should be arranged so that all air movement is
eliminated. Canvas tarpaulins are not suitable because
they are permeable.
Impermeable sheeting placed on top of the fertilizer in
the bin or silo will further protect the fertilizer from
atmospheric moisture. Care is necessary to make sure
115
AUSTRALIAN SOIL FERTILITY MANUAL
that the sheeting does not get sucked into the fertilizer
when emptying the bin.
The period which fertilizer can be stored without
covering depends on weather conditions (humidity)
and the characteristics of the fertilizer (i.e. is the
fertilizer hygroscopic).
Worn auger flights will damage (grind) all fertilizers,
especially coated fertilizers, and should be avoided.
Silos used for storage of fertilizer must be designed to
accommodate the physical properties of the fertilizer
being stored (refer AS 3773 Bulk Solids Containers
Safety Requirements and AS 3744 Loads on Bulk
Solids Containers).
All bulk nitrogen fertilizers, nitrogen/phosphorus
fertilizer mixtures, and compound fertilizers should be
stored in sheds and covered with impermeable sheeting
to exclude moist air. Storage of these products in field
bins or silos is not generally recommended.
Different fertilizers have different flow and bulk density
properties. Where bulk fertilizer is stored in bins and is
unloaded mechanically or by gravity, the bin should be
designed to handle the loads imposed and allow the
stored fertilizer to flow freely. Particular attention
needs to be paid to ensuring that the valley angle of the
cone at the bottom of the silo and the angle of the
unloading chute are sufficiently steep. If in doubt on
any aspect of bin design, seek specialist advice.
Packaged fertilizer
Any packaged (bagged) fertilizer should be stored in
impermeable bags or bags with impermeable liners. If
stored on open wood floors, plastic sheeting should be
placed under the bags and wrapped around the whole
stack.
All packaged fertilizer, including flexible intermediate
bulk containers (FIBC or bulk bags) should be stored
away from direct sunlight and rainfall. Fertilizer in
bulk bags will compact if stored more than 2 high.
Bulk bags should have impermeable sheeting
underneath when stored on dirt or a concrete floor.
Pallets stacked with 50 kg size, or less, bags of fertilizer
should not be stored more than 3 pallets high to avoid
compaction and splitting of bags.
Stocks of packaged fertilizer should be rotated so that
the older fertilizer is used first.
Storage times
In general, the nutrient value of fertilizer is not
diminished in any way during storage. However the
physical handling characteristics of fertilizers in storage
are likely to be adversely affected over time. The
storage conditions, the type of fertilizer, and the
physical condition of the product will determine the
period for which fertilizers can be satisfactorily stored.
116
The greater the impact of any of these factors, the
shorter the safe storage life of the fertilizer.
Storage conditions
Ingress of moisture and humid storage conditions will
increase the likelihood of the product setting or
becoming sticky, regardless of fertilizer type.
Type of fertilizer
Fertilizers containing nitrogen (N) or potassium (K),
including mixtures of them, or either or both with
phosphorus (P) fertilizers are more likely to take up
moisture in humid conditions. Straight P fertilizers are
less affected by humid conditions.
Physical condition of fertilizer
Fertilizer granules that have been physically degraded
and/or contain fines will absorb moisture much more
quickly than non-degraded product. This will lead to a
higher likelihood of the product setting.
In general terms P fertilizer can be stored for longer
periods than N, K, N/P mixtures and N, P and K
mixtures or compound fertilizers.
However, prolonged storage of any fertilizers requires
caution and must take into account the factors which
impact storage life.
Disposal of Packaging and Containers
General
Under no circumstances should any method of disposal
of fertilizer packaging be undertaken where there is any
risk of adverse environmental effects.
Containers
While most fertilizer materials are handled in bulk,
some products are provided in bags of varying sizes and
some as liquids. As a first option, recyclable packaging
should be used if available. For all other situations,
users should ensure that packaging is disposed of in a
manner which minimises the risk of adverse effects on
the health of people or the environment.
Particular attention must be paid to preventing woven
polypropylene packaging from contaminating wool
clips.
Disposal options may include:
Alternative use (users should ensure that the
container is completely empty. For liquid
containers this may mean triple rinsing);
Recycling;
Sanitary landfills users should check with the local
government authority to confirm that packaging
material for fertilizers can be disposed of in landfills
in their region;
Burning in some areas controlled incineration
may be a disposal option.

Nutrient Content and Quality
The nutrient content and the form in which that
nutrient is present largely determine the performance
of any fertilizer. The form in which the nutrient is
present may affect its availability or its effect on the
plant. Fertilizers may also contain impurities that need
to be taken into account by users, e.g. heavy metals as
discussed in Chapter 11.
In Australia, labelling of fertilizers is required by
legislation administered by State government
authorities. While there may be some difference in the
detail of regulations from State to State, there is a
relatively uniform requirement for the statement of
nutrient content. Fertilizer products must have a label
printed, stencilled, or securely affixed to the package. In
the case of bulk fertilizer, a label or advice note
containing the label information must accompany
each load.
The label or advice note will usually state or contain:
the distinguishing name of the product; the quantity of
fertilizer within the package or bulk delivery; the name
and full business address of the supplier; an analysis of
the ingredients of the fertilizer; and any applicable
warning statements that are prescribed under
regulation. In some States a description of the nature of
the product and a statement of the intended purpose of
the product is also required on the label or advice note.
Statement of nutrient content
The major nutrients, nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P),
potassium (K) and sulfur (S) must be shown on the
label or advice note in the following order: N, P, K, S
with all other ingredients listed in decreasing quantity.
It should be noted that it is only the nutrient content of
the product that appears on the label, and the other
components of the product are not shown. Fertilizer
products are typically mineral salts (e.g. potassium
chloride, diammonium phosphate) or an organic
compound in the case of urea.
A common misconception among people not familiar
with fertilizer products is that all fertilizers include
filler of some description. This is probably because only
the nutrient content is given in the product
specification and label. For example urea is 46% N and
has the chemical formula CO(NH2)2. In a pure sample
of urea the N content is 46.7% and the balance is made
up of carbon (C) 20.0%, oxygen (O) 26.6%, and
hydrogen (H) 6.7%. Potassium chloride has the
Table 13.2 Forms of nutrient to be specified on label.
Nitrogen % Phosphorus %
(N) as urea (P) as water soluble
(N) as ammonium (P) as citrate soluble
(N) as nitrate (P) as citrate insoluble
(N) as other (form to be (P) as other (form to
stated) be stated)
(N) total (P) total
HANDLING AND USING FERTILIZERS
chemical formula KCl and in a pure sample, the K
content is 52.4% and the chlorine (Cl) 47.6%.
A pure sample of diammonium phosphate (DAP) with
the formula (NH4)2HPO4 would contain N 21.2%, P
23.5%, O 48.5%, and H 6.9%. However, because the
phosphate rock used in the manufacturing process
contains a range of impurities such as iron and
aluminum, and these form various salts in the
production process, the analysis of DAP fertilizer will
always be lower than the pure form.
Form of ingredient
The label must state the form and concentration of the
elements N, P, K, and S when present in the fertilizer, in
the forms shown in Table 13.2.
The label must show maximum concentrations for
cadmium (Cd), mercury (Hg), and lead (Pb), where
maximum concentrations of each metal are required to
be shown by regulation. For phosphorus fertilizers, the
cadmium content is also usually shown as a percentage
of the phosphorus content.
For products sold by weight, the concentration of each
ingredient in a fertilizer must be expressed on the label
or advice note as the percentage weight in weight (w/w)
and as the percentage weight in volume (w/v) for all
products sold by volume.
The concentration of each ingredient on the label or
advice note must be placed opposite to that ingredient
on the label or advice note.
Lime, Dolomite and Liming Materials
The definitions of lime, dolomite, and liming materials
currently (1999) vary to some extent from State to
State. The information required on the label or advice
note (with bulk loads) also varies from State to State.
However, the key requirement is that the label contains
sufficient information for the user to assess the capacity
of the product to increase soil pH in relation to its cost.
This capacity is a function of the type of liming
material and, in the case of limestone and dolomite, the
fineness of the particle (refer Selecting a Liming
Material Quality Aspects, Chapter 2). The reactivity
of limestone increases as its particle size decreases.
However, the cost of the product is increased as a result
of grinding, and very fine material is difficult to handle
and apply.
Potassium % Sulfur %
(K) as sulfate (S) as sulfate
(K) as chloride (S) as elemental sulfur
(K) as nitrate
(K) as other (form to (S) as other (form to
be stated) be stated)
(K) total (S) total
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AUSTRALIAN SOIL FERTILITY MANUAL
Some States require the label to show the neutralising
value of the material and the degree of fineness e.g. the
percentage passing through a 250 micron aperture
must be stated.
The neutralising value of a liming material is a
measure of its chemical capacity to influence pH
relative to pure calcium carbonate (CaCO3). Refer
Table 2.3 for a comparison of the neutralising value of
various materials using CaCO3 as the benchmark value
of 100.
The effective neutralising value is a measure of the
products capacity to influence pH, which takes
account of the reactivity of the material as determined
by its particle size as well as its chemical reactivity or
neutralising value.
In some States labels are required to show the grade of
the material according to its Effective Neutralising
Value whereby, Grade 1 must be no less than 85%
effective, Grade 2, no less than 65%, and Grade 3, no
less than 50%. Under current Regulations in these
States, the Effective Neutralising Value is to be
calculated according to the following formula:
Effective Neutralising Value of the material is the sum
of the following values:
(a) the value obtained by multiplying the neutralising
value of the lime by the proportion of lime having
a particle size of not more than 300 microns;
(b) the value obtained by multiplying 60% of the
neutralising value of the lime by the proportion of
lime having a particle size of more than 300
microns but not more than 850 microns;
(c) the value obtained by multiplying 10% of the
neutralising value of the lime by the proportion of
lime having a particle size of more than 850
microns.
The above calculations assume a particle size of 300
microns represents a threshold of 100% relative
effectiveness. However, field research by NSW
Agriculture, Agricultural Research Institute Wagga
Wagga (Scott et al., Aust. J. Agric. Res., 43, 11751185
and Conyers et al., Fertilizer Research, 44: 151161), has
shown that the threshold value should be set at a much
finer particle size. In fact, all recorded studies show that
effectiveness increases with smaller particle size.
Based on this research, a more sensitive method of
calculating the effectiveness of lime, which takes
account of the greater reactivity of particles below 300
micron size has been suggested. The sum of the
following values can then be used to determine the
effective neutralising value and compare different
materials.
(a) the value obtained by multiplying the neutralising
value of the lime by the percentage mass of the
118
lime having a particle size of not more than 75
microns;
(b) the value obtained by multiplying 58% of the
neutralising value of the lime by the percentage
mass of the lime having a particle size of more
than 75 microns but not more than 150 microns;
(c) the value obtained by multiplying 50% of the
neutralising value of the lime by the percentage
mass of the lime having a particle size of more
than 150 microns but not more than 250 microns;
(d) the value obtained by multiplying 42% of the
neutralising value of the lime by the percentage
mass of the lime having a particle size of more
than 250 microns but not more than 500 microns;
(e) the value obtained by multiplying 34% of the
neutralising value of the lime by the percentage
mass of the lime having a particle size of more
than 500 microns but not more than 1000
microns;
(f) the value obtained by multiplying 22% of the
neutralising value of the lime by the percentage
mass of the lime having a particle size of more
than 1000 microns but not more than 2000
microns;
(g) the value obtained by multiplying 12% of the
neutralising value of the lime by the percentage
mass of the lime having a particle size of more
than 2000 microns.
While finer particle size improves the reactivity of lime,
there are practical limitations to spreading ultrafine
product.
Gypsum
The definition of gypsum also currently varies from
State to State.
Gypsum is defined by regulations in some States as
material containing the sulfate salt of calcium (Ca) in
either hydrated or anhydrous form where the amount
of that salt in the material is not less than 50%. In most
States, the label or advice note must state the grade of
gypsum. In some States, the percentage of gypsum
capable of passing through at 2mm sieve must be
specified.
The generally agreed standards are for three grades of
natural or mined gypsum:
Sulfur Minimum (%) Calcium Minimum (%)
Grade 1 15 19
Grade 2 12.5 15.5
Grade 3 10 12.5
Phosphogypsum (a by-product of phosphoric acid
production) must contain a minimum of 14% S and
 HANDLING AND USING FERTILIZERS

18.5% Ca in NSW, a minimum of 14% S and
maximum of 20% free moisture in Queensland, and a
minimum of 17% S and 21% Ca in Victoria.
Elemental (Raw) Sulfur
The grade of elemental (raw) S in any fertilizer must
comply with the following standards for particle size in
most States:
(a) Fine grade less than 0.25 mm;
(b) Medium grade 0.25 to 0.5 mm;
(c) Coarse grade more than 0.5 mm.
In Victoria, where sulfur particles are intended for
ground application, at least 50% of the sulfur particles
must be able to pass through a 0.25 mm sieve and in the
case of aerial application, not more than 30% of sulfur
particles must be able to pass through a 0.25 mm sieve.
Warning Statements on Labels or
Advice Notes for Fertilizers
Warning statements must be shown on labels or advice
notes as required by regulation in each State.
These may relate to possible adverse effects in certain
situations, limitations of use or effectiveness, or health
precautions.
of products. When fertilizing grain crops there are
limits to how much can be applied at sowing, and it
may be necessary to apply part of the N before sowing.
Other crops may require post-sowing applications,
particularly of N.
Various techniques for calculating fertilizer and
nutrient application rates and methods that can be
used to compare the relative costs of different fertilizer
product combinations are set out below.
Fertilizer application rate calculated from
recommended nutrient rate (per hectare)
Required Nutrient rate 100
Required fertilizer rate = ---------------------------------------------------------------------
Fertilizer Analysis (%)
e.g. to apply 75 kg/ha of N as urea (46% N), the
fertilizer rate will be:
75 100
--------------------- = 163 kg/ha
46
The recommended rate to apply should be rounded,
e.g. to 160 kg/ha.
Nutrient rates applied calculated from fertilizer
application rates
Fertilizer Rate Analysis
Nutrient rate = -------------------------------------------------------------
100

Calculating Fertilizer and Nutrient
Application Rates
Most recommendations for fertilizer uses are expressed
as recommended rates for application of the individual
nutrients, e.g. 10 kg P/ha plus 60 kg N/ha. The user
must then convert these to rates of fertilizer product.
The choice of fertilizer product may be determined by a
number of factors, including the services provided by
various suppliers, local availability, timing of split
applications, and the most cost effective combination
e.g. if 200 kg/ha of superphosphate (8.6 % available P)
is applied, 17.2 kg P/ha will be applied
200 8.6
---------------------- = 17.2 kg available P/ha
100
Nutrient/Product Rate Ready Reckoners
Ready reckoners for calculating fertilizer and nutrient
rates for various product analyses and a range of
application rates are set out in Tables 13.3 and 13.4.

Table 13.3 Ready reckoner for calculating fertilizer product application rates.
Nutrient Product rate required for various level of nutrient content %w/w
rate kg/ha 5 8.6 10 11 12 15 18 20 21 34 38 41 46 50 82
1 20 12 10 9 8 7 6 5 5 3 3 2 2 2 1
2 40 23 20 18 17 13 11 10 10 6 5 5 4 4 2
3 60 35 30 27 25 20 17 15 14 9 8 7 7 6 4
4 80 47 40 36 33 27 22 20 19 12 11 10 9 8 5
5 100 58 50 45 42 33 28 25 24 15 13 12 11 10 6
10 200 116 100 91 83 67 56 50 48 29 26 24 22 20 12
20 400 233 200 182 167 133 111 100 95 59 53 49 43 40 24
25 500 291 250 227 208 167 139 125 119 74 66 61 54 50 30
30 600 349 300 273 250 200 167 150 143 88 79 73 65 60 37
40 800 465 400 364 333 267 222 200 190 118 105 98 87 80 49
50 1000 581 500 455 417 333 278 250 238 147 132 122 109 100 61
100 2000 1163 1000 909 833 667 556 500 476 294 263 244 217 200 122
In the above table to apply 20 kg of P/ha using MAP (21% P), 95 kg of MAP is required. To apply 40 kg of K/ha using potassium nitrate (38% K), 105 kg of
potassium nitrate is required.

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Table 13.4 Ready reckoner for calculating nutrient application rates.

Product Nutrient (kg/ha) supplied at various analyses (%)
rate kg/ha 5 8.6 10 11 12 15 18 20 21 34 38 41 46 50 82
5 0.25 0.43 0.5 0.55 0.6 0.75 0.9 1 1.05 1.7 1.9 2.05 2.3 2.5 4.1
10 0.5 0.86 1 1.1 1.2 1.5 1.8 2 2.1 3.4 3.8 4.1 4.6 5 8.2
15 0.75 1.29 1.5 1.65 1.8 2.25 2.7 3 3.15 5.1 5.7 6.15 6.9 7.5 12.3
20 1 1.72 2 2.2 2.4 3 3.6 4 4.2 6.8 7.6 8.2 9.2 10 16.4
25 1.25 2.15 2.5 2.75 3 3.75 4.5 5 5.25 8.5 9.5 10.3 11.5 12.5 20.5
30 1.5 2.58 3 3.3 3.6 4.5 5.4 6 6.3 10.2 11.4 12.3 13.8 15 24.6
40 2 3.44 4 4.4 4.8 6 7.2 8 8.4 13.6 15.2 16.4 18.4 20 32.8
50 2.5 4.3 5 5.5 6 7.5 9 10 10.5 17 19 20.5 23 25 41
75 3.75 6.45 7.5 8.25 9 11.3 13.5 15 15.8 25.5 28.5 30.8 34.5 37.5 61.5
100 5 8.6 10 11 12 15 18 20 21 34 38 41 46 50 82
200 10 17.2 20 22 24 30 36 40 42 68 76 82 92 100 164
300 15 25.8 30 33 36 45 54 60 63 102 114 123 138 150 246
500 25 43 50 55 60 75 90 100 105 170 190 205 230 250 410
In the above table urea (46% N) applied at 75 kg/ha supplies 34.5 kg N/ha. Superphosphate (8.6% available P) applied at 200 kg/ha supplies 17.2 kg P/ha.

Conversion of Fertilizer Rates Per To make calculations for the number of trees per
Hectare to Rates Per Metre of Row. hectare use the following formula:
Depending on the type of application equipment and 10000
Number of trees/ha = ----------------
calibration method required, there are several ways to WD
calculate the rate of application for different row
intervals. W = Width between rows (metres). D = Distance
between trees within the row (metres).
kg/ha row spacing (in cm)
Grams (g) per metre of row = -------------------------------------------------------------------
1000 Conversion of fertilizer rates per hectare to rates
kg/ha row spacing (in cm) per square metre.
Grams (g) per 20 metre of row = -------------------------------------------------------------------
50 To convert from kg/ha to grams (g) per square metre
(m2) divide the rate by 10.
kg/ha row spacing (in cm)
Kilograms (kg) per 100 metre of row = -------------------------------------------------------------------
10000 2 kg/ha
g m = -------------
10
Table 13.5 shows the length of row per hectare at
different row widths. Conversely to convert rates per square metre multiply
the rate by 10.
Table 13.5 Length of row/ha by row width.
2
Row width Metres of row/ha kg/ha = g m 10
18 cm (7) 55 555
23 cm (9) 43 478
Fertigation
36 cm (14) 27 778
72 cm (28) 11 364
Fertigation is the application of fertilizers dissolved in
irrigation water. It provides another means of applying
100 cm (40) 10 000
fertilizer nutrients to the soil and can be used to
Table 13.6 shows the number of trees per hectare for complement or replace application in other ways, i.e.
orchard or plantation tree crops at various row and tree dry application through tractor-drawn equipment.
spacings. Mostly, fertigation is used to supplement the overall
fertilizer program. It is most commonly used in tree
Table 13.6 Trees/ha by row width and tree spacing. crops and for post-plant application of fertilizers in
Row Spacing between trees in row (m) annual crops. Those nutrients which are most mobile
width in the soil, i.e. N, K, sulfate-sulfur (SO42), magnesium
(m) 2 3 4 5 6 7
(Mg), and boron (B) are most suited to fertigation.
3 1 667 1 111 833 667 556 476 Well designed and operated irrigation systems allow
4 1 250 833 625 500 417 357 water and nutrients to be placed in the zone of greatest
5 1 000 667 500 400 333 286 root activity, permitting rapid utilization by plants.
6 833 556 417 333 278 238
With the necessary equipment, fertigation is easy and
7 714 476 357 286 238 204
convenient and can save time, labour, machinery and
8 625 417 313 250 208 179 maintenance costs, and fuel. Soil compaction can also
9 556 370 278 222 185 159 be minimised by reducing the number of passes with
10 500 333 250 200 167 143 wheeled equipment.

120

Fertigation is particularly suited to those situations
where there is a need to split the nutrient usage into a
number of applications during the growing season, as it
is possible to apply the fertilizer on a more regular basis
than is practical where other application methods are
used. Under certain conditions, this may allow better
recovery and utilization of applied plant nutrients,
particularly where leaching is possible. Soils differ in
their ability to hold nutrients, with leaching losses most
likely to occur on sandy soils.
Uniform water application is important, through good
design and system maintenance, to allow even fertilizer
application. So too is accurate irrigation scheduling to
minimize over-watering, which may result in nutrient
loss and soil acidification.
With fertigation, nutrients may be lost past the root
zone on cracking clays when surface (flood) irrigated, if
water (and dissolved fertilizer) flows down cracks and
continuous large pores (old root paths).
Fertigation can often be performed when other types of
application are not possible, such as when aerial
application is not possible due to bad weather or the
soil is too wet to carry agricultural equipment. This
may necessitate watering just to apply fertilizer, but
prevents deficiencies from occurring.
Fertilizers can be applied through most irrigation
systems, e.g. flood, furrow, sprinkler, drip and trickle
systems and through fixed line and travelling systems.
With travelling systems, the fertilizer solution needs to
be injected continuously at a controlled rate.
Fertilizer solutions can be introduced into irrigation
water in various ways, including gravity feed systems
near head ditches for flood and furrow irrigation,
suction devices on the inlet side of centrifugal pumps,
pressure differential (venturi) systems on the outlet
side of pumps, or high pressure injectors which
introduce the solution into the main at a higher
pressure than that present in the sprayline.
Specialist advice should be sought from the suppliers of
irrigation equipment in choosing and setting up a
fertigation system.
Fertilizers are corrosive. Mixing tanks should therefore
be made of polypropylene, fibreglass, or stainless steel.
Avoid the use of mild steel.
Plastic fittings (nylon or polypropylene) are adequate
for fertilizers, but if agricultural chemicals are to be
injected as well (not a common practice in Australia),
stainless steel is recommended.
Fertilizers can corrode copper and copper alloys
(brass), e.g. nitrate solutions. As electric motors
contain copper wiring and internal combustion
engines use copper fuel lines, these should be protected
from irrigation spray, e.g. from centre pivots.
Fertigation injectors should be flushed after use to
prevent scale forming and extend the life of gaskets and
metals.
HANDLING AND USING FERTILIZERS
Fertilizers suitable for use in fertigation
There are many different fertilizers which are suitable
for fertigation, some of which are marketed specifically
for application in this way.
Overseas, in Europe and North America, there is a
wider product choice, reflecting the larger scale and
more intensive nature of their agriculture. With the
exception of some nitrogen fertilizers, most of the
products which are used in fertigation systems in
Australia are imported.
Not all fertilizers are suitable for fertigation, the reasons
being:
(a) the fertilizer is insoluble, e.g. oxides;
(b) the fertilizer contains insoluble impurities,
granulation or coating agents, which may block
filters, nozzles and emitters, e.g. granular
phosphorus fertilizers such as DAP and MAP
which are intended for dry application to the soil;
(c) the fertilizer has a coarse particle size and takes a
long time to dissolve. Soluble fine or solution
grade products, which dissolve more quickly, are
available. Coarse granular and prilled products
can be used, provided they do not contain
excessive amounts of impurities. They do require
more agitation.
Soluble fertilizer salts vary in their solubility and
dissolution rate (speed with which they dissolve);
muriate of potash and potassium nitrate for example,
are more soluble and therefore often used in preference
to sulfate of potash. If the particle size is comparable,
fully hydrated salts, e.g. zinc sulfate heptahydrate, will
dissolve more quickly than less hydrated salts, e.g. zinc
sulfate monohydrate.
Overseas, use is made of fertilizer solutions in fertigation
programs, e.g. polyphosphates and potassium
thiosulfate, but these products are either not available or
are available only in limited quantity in Australia.
Formation of precipitate
When preparing fertilizer solutions containing two or
more different fertilizer salts for injection into
irrigation lines, it is possible that precipitate (sediment)
may form. This occurs if reaction products form which
are either insoluble or less soluble than the original
products. The resultant precipitate may settle to the
bottom of the mixing tank or block filters and emitters.
Precipitate may also form if the water is hard (high in
Ca and Mg), alkaline (high pH), or contains carbonate.
Nitrogen and potassium fertilizers such as urea,
ammonium nitrate, muriate of potash, and potassium
nitrate should not cause precipitate to form.
Anhydrous ammonia will cause insoluble calcium and
magnesium compounds to precipitate in hard water.
Reaction products may form when phosphate, sulfate,
calcium, magnesium and micro-nutrient fertilizers are
used in solution.
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AUSTRALIAN SOIL FERTILITY MANUAL

If precipitate or scale is likely to form, it may be best to These figures are for saturated solutions and are
seek alternative application methods. Blockages result maxima. They are presented for comparative purposes.
in inefficient application of water and nutrients and It is not practical to achieve these concentrations on
consume time. Scale formation may shorten the life of farm. No more than one-half of these concentrations
equipment, which is costly to replace. (or perhaps one-quarter for products which cause the
temperature to fall) should be used when preparing
In those situations where precipitate is likely to form,
fertilizer solutions.
fertilizer solutions should be prepared immediately
prior to use. Do not allow to stand for an extended
period of time, e.g. overnight, as this increases the risk Calibration of Equipment
or amount of precipitation and the settling of sediment Most manufacturers supply information about how to
in the bottom of mixing tanks. calibrate equipment. If more accurate calibration is
Note: Nutrient-enriched irrigation water may also required, this can be achieved by one of the following
result in increased microbial activity, causing blockages methods:
in irrigation lines and emitters in trickle irrigation
systems. Method 1:
Measure the distance covered (D) in metres to apply a
Solubility known quantity (Q) in kg of fertilizer (e.g. 50 kg).
The following rules of thumb, to be applied in the
order given, are useful in determining the solubility of Method 2:
fertilizer salts in water, although there may be Remove the delivery hoses from the application tynes
exceptions. and collect and weigh the fertilizer in kg (Q) applied
over a measured distance (D) in metres (e.g. 50
(a) All ammonium, nitrate, K, sodium (Na) and Cl metres).
salts are soluble;
The application rate in kg/ha, for either method, can
(b) All oxides, hydroxides and carbonates are then be calculated as follows
insoluble;
10 000 Q (kg)
(c) All sulfates are soluble except for calcium sulfate; Application Rate (kg/ha) = --------------------------------------
D (m) W (m)
Using these rules, calcium nitrate is soluble (rule A). where W = width of the applicator in metres.
Calcium carbonate and magnesium carbonate are
insoluble (rule B). Magnesium sulfate is soluble but For row crop planters, W is the (number of rows) x
calcium sulfate isnt (rule C). (row spacing).
The solubility of various compounds in water is shown Where it is necessary to change the setting on cog or
in Table 13.7. chain drives, the following cog size calculations can be
used:
Table 13.7 Solubility of various fertilizers in water
(kg/100 L at 20C).
Wheel Cogs:
Chemical Name Formula Solubility**
Urea CO(NH2)2 105 Number of teeth required =
Ammonium nitrate NH4NO3 192 Required Rate (kg) Present Number of Teeth
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Ammonium sulfate (NH4)2SO4 75 Present Rate (kg)
Monoammonium NH4H2PO4 37
phosphate Outboard Cogs:
Potassium chloride KCI 34
Number of teeth required =
Potassium nitrate KNO3 32
Present Rate (kg) Present Number of Teeth
Potassium sulfate K2SO4 11 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Required Rate (kg)
Calcium nitrate * Ca(NO3)2.4H2O 129
Magnesium sulfate Mg SO4.7H2O 71 Note: Calibration must be carried out under normal
Solubor Na2B8O13.4H2O 9.5 operating conditions (speed, gear, engine load), with
Copper sulfate Cu SO4. 5H2O 32 the implement in the ground, to avoid variations in
Iron sulfate FeSO4.7H2O 48
wheel slip.
Manganese sulfate MnSO4.7H2O 115
Zinc sulfate ZnSO4.7H2O 44 Care of Application Equipment
Sodium molybdate Na2MoO4.2H2O 65 Fertilizers are corrosive.
*Note: Hydro Calcium Nitrate has the formula 5Ca (NO3)2.
NH4NO3.10H2O, and a solubility of 250 kg/100 L at 200C. Follow equipment manufacturers' recommendations
**Solubility in kg/100 L water at 20C. closely.

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 HANDLING AND USING FERTILIZERS

Clean bins, augers and applicators after use and oil To calculate the fertilizer cost ($/ha):
where recommended.
Required Nutrient Rate (kg/ha) Fertilizer Price ($/t)
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Most fertilizers are corrosive to steel. Ammonium Fertilizer Analysis (%) 10
nitrate and muriate of potash are corrosive to brass.
What is the cost of urea using the prices in Table 13.8
Many factors influence how corrosive a fertilizer is, e.g.; and an application cost of $20/tonne? At a rate of 40 kg
its pH, presence of free acids, and whether it is an ionic N /ha, it is as follows
compound, and if so, the ions it forms; its
40 $420
hygroscopicity, or tendency to absorb moisture. ------------------------ = $36.52/ha
46 10
Additives and coatings are added to fertilizer to reduce
its hygroscopicity. The critical relative humidity of
some common fertilizers is shown in Table 13.1. The Comparing nutrient costs in multiple nutrient
lower the figure, the more likely the product is to fertilizers.
absorb atmospheric moisture. This can be calculated in one of two ways:
1 A cost is allocated to one of the nutrients (based on
Costing the Value of Different Fertilizer other commercially available single nutrient
Products fertilizers), and the residual cost allocated to the
Fertilizers vary in their individual nutrient content and other nutrient. (See Example 1).
in the number of different nutrients that they contain. 2 Alternatively, the value of the multi-nutrient
The choice of fertilizer will depend on a number of fertilizer can be costed using the nutrient costs of
factors, including the agronomic suitability of the single nutrient fertilizers, and this value then
product, the cost of application, convenience of compared to the true price of the multi-nutrient
application, and availability. fertilizer. (See Example 2).
Where products are interchangeable, it will be useful to Examples using Urea (46%N), DAP (18% N, 20% P),
compare relative nutrient costs of alternative products. and triple superphosphate (TSP) (21% P), with the
hypothetical prices as shown in Table 13.8.
Some convenient methods of calculating relative costs
of nutrients supplied by different products are set out Example 1:
below.
Nutrient Costs:
In the examples provided, the hypothetical fertilizer
$400
prices used are shown in Table 13.8. These prices are N in Urea ------------------ = $0.87/kg N
46 10
for calculation of prices given in the example only and
are not taken from any particular source or location. $450
P in TSP ------------------ = $2.14/kg P
21 10
Table 13.8 Hypothetical prices used in examples.
Product Cost/tonne
Relative cost of P in DAP =
Urea $400
DAP $500 Cost of DAP (N analysis 10 Cost/kg on N in Urea)
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
P analysis 10
TSP (triple superphosphate) $450
Using the cost in Table 13.8:
Comparing single nutrient fertilizer costs. $500 ( 180 $0.87 )
--------------------------------------------------- = $1.71/kg of P
200
$/tonne (applied)
--------------------------------------------------------------
nutrient analysis (%) 10
Relative cost of N in DAP =
For example, the applied costs of urea using the
Cost of DAP (P analysis 10 Cost/kg on P in TSP)
hypothetical prices and an application cost of $20 per ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
N analysis 10
tonne is $0.91 /kg of applied nitrogen
Using the cost in Table 13.8:
$400 + $20 (application cost)
---------------------------------------------------------------------- = $0.91
46 10 $500 ( 200 $2.14 )
--------------------------------------------------- = $0.40/kg of N
180
When costing P fertilizers it is important to decide
whether to base the calculation on the their total P This example assumes all products have the same
content or their available P content. In many soil application costs per nutrient and shows DAP is a
situations, the citrate insoluble portion will not be relatively less expensive source of nitrogen and
available for plant growth. phosphorus than the single nutrient products.

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AUSTRALIAN SOIL FERTILITY MANUAL
Example 2:
N cost as Urea = $0.87/kg N
P cost as TSP = $2.14/kg P
Value of DAP at straight nutrient costs:
N 180 0.87 = $156.60
P 200 2.14 = $428.00
Total Value = $584
In this example, DAP costs $84/t ($584 $500) less
than purchasing an equivalent amount of N and P as
the straight products, urea and TSP.
If, however, the cost of DAP was more than purchasing
the equivalent amount of N and P as the single nutrient
products, urea and TSP, it then has to be considered
whether this additional cost will be offset by savings in
application costs or agronomic benefits.
Occupational Health
Physical handling
Packaged fertilizers for use in agriculture and
horticulture vary in size from several kilograms, in the
case of some micro-nutrients, up to 1 tonne in the case
of flexible intermediate bulk containers (FIBC) for
large-scale users. The packaging weights of most
concern are those in the 1655 kg size, as these are often
handled manually and incorrect handling can lead to
muscle and skeletal strain and injury.
Packages 16-55 kg size
The National Occupational Health and Safety
Commission has issued a National Code of Practice for
Manual Handling [NOHSC 2005:(1990)] which
provides advice and guidelines for manual handling.
The Code notes that as weight increases from 16 kg to
55 kg, the percentage of healthy adults who can safely
lift, lower or carry the weight decreases and states that
mechanical assistance and/or team lifting
arrangements should be provided to reduce the risk of
injury associated with these heavier weights. It also
states that no person should be required to lift, lower or
carry loads above 55 kg unless mechanical assistance or
team lifting arrangements are provided to reduce the
risk of injury.
Flexible intermediate bulk containers (FIBC)
Guidance for the use of FIBCs are outlined in
Australian Standard AS 3668 1989.
AS 3668 states that before lifting any filled FIBC, it is
important that:
(a) it is inspected for any damage which may render it
unsafe;
(b) the lifting loops, or other lifting devices are
positioned according to the manufacturers
124
recommendations and show no signs of
deformation or deterioration;
(c) the hooks, bars, or forklift truck tines employed
for lifting should have rounded edges or be
protected by wrapping;
(d) the stability of the load is checked when the FIBC
is to be moved or stacked on a pallet;
(e) the stated load weight is checked against the safe
working load (SWL) before lifting it; and
(f) the forklift is confirmed to have adequate capacity
to carry suspended load.
In addition to these guidelines the following
procedures are recommended: -
if stacking two high, pack FIBCs in a pyramid
fashion on good, dry hardstand;
ensure that the FIBC does not protrude beyond the
pallet;
when lifting always attach the lifting device to all of
the lifting points provided on the FIBC ensuring
the load is evenly spread;
if using a lifting frame, use locked hooks;
tilt the mast of the forklift rearward when lifting or
moving a FIBC;
do not stand directly under a suspended FIBC;
always use a safety frame when emptying a FIBC.
Dust
Dust exposure is the most common Occupational
Health issue in the handling of fertilizers.
The following precautions must be taken with all
products.
Avoid inhaling dust;
Avoid contact with eyes and skin;
Wash hands after use;
Refer to the Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS).
The following general precautions are extracted from a
typical MSDS for most commonly used fertilizers
which are not classified as dangerous goods:
Engineering controls
Avoid generating and inhaling dusts. Use in
well-ventilated area. Keep containers closed when not
in use.
Personal protection
Avoid eye contact and repeated or prolonged skin
contact. Wear overalls, safety glasses, and impervious
gloves. Avoid generating and inhaling dusts. If dust
exists, wear dust respirator meeting the requirements of

AS/NZS 1715 and AS/NZS 1716. Always wash hands
before smoking, eating, drinking, or using the toilet.
Anhydrous ammonia
Anhydrous ammonia is a liquefied gas, stored and
applied under pressure. If it is accidentally released, it
forms a poisonous gas. It should only be handled by
specifically trained personnel. Anhydrous ammonia is
classified as a Dangerous Good and is subject to
regulations under State Occupational Health and
Safety and Transport of Dangerous Goods regulations.
Refer to the Material Safety Data Sheet available from
the manufacturer or supplier for further information.
Nitrate fertilizers
Many are classified as oxidising agents. They can
decompose in fire, causing the fire to burn fiercely, and
release toxic nitrogen oxide gas. Oxidising agents are
classified as Dangerous Goods and are subject to
regulations under State Occupational Health and
Safety and Transport of Dangerous Goods regulations.
Oxidising agents such as potassium nitrate and
ammonium nitrate can produce an explosive mixture
with diesel fuel or other carboniferous material. Refer
to the Material Safety Data Sheet available from the
manufacturer or supplier for further information.
Micro-nutrient fertilizers
Some micro-nutrient fertilizers are classified as poisons
i.e. they are toxic to humans, if ingested, e.g. many
HANDLING AND USING FERTILIZERS
copper (Cu), boron (B), selenium (Se) and zinc (Zn)
compounds. Users should observe the safety
precautions contained on the labels. Refer to the
Material Safety Data Sheet available from the
manufacturer or supplier for further information.
Liming materials
Burnt lime (calcium oxide) and slaked lime (calcium
hydroxide) are highly alkaline substances and are
particularly corrosive to eyes and soft skin and tissue.
Users should avoid exposure by wearing appropriate
protective equipment. Refer to the Material Safety Data
Sheet for further information.
Acknowledgements: This chapter has drawn on
information provided by Incitec Ltd from their internal
documents for dealer training, Material Safety Data
Sheets, and Information Bulletin on Fertigation (July
1998) and has quoted extensively from the Fertilizer
Manual 1998, edited by United Nations Industrial
Development Organization and International Fertilizer
Development Center. FIFA is grateful to these
organisations for permission to use their material.
References
Fertilizer Manual. (1998). Edited by United Nations
Industrial Development Organization and
International Fertilizer Development Center, Kluwer
Academic Publishers Dordrecht, The Netherlands.
125