Infrastructure & Drilling

University of Edinburgh
Oil & Gas Systems Engineering
 Overview of Module
1. Introduction
2. Market Drivers
3. Offshore Structures
4. Onshore Structures
5. Loadings
6. Support Vessels & Helicopters
7. Drilling
8. Types of Wells
9. Control Methods
10. Wellheads
11. Manifolds
12. Subsea Production Systems
13. Oil & Gas Transportation
14. End of Life Activities
2
 Introduction

Exploration

Drilling and Production

Transportation

Refining
3
 The Oil & Gas Production Stream

Upstream: The exploration and extraction of oil & gas

Midstream: Storage, processing and transportation of resources
Downstream: The refining, distribution and marketing of oil & gas products
4
 What drives infrastructure decisions?

Key Drivers
Economic
Every decision must be made with a financial implication in mind.

Technical
What the installation requires in order to operate safely and efficiently.

Reservoir Size & Transportation Process Topsides Platform

Location Access
Type Method Area Weight Type

5
 Market Drivers
Driver Influencing Factors Impact
Is there an export route for Location of find, and Specification of liquids for
oil? proximity to pipelines. tanker much more onerous
Space (Ullage) in pipeline than for pipeline, hence
capacity. more processing needed.
Is there an export route for Location of find, and If no export route, then
gas? proximity to pipelines. may require gas injection
Space (Ullage) in pipeline for disposal of gas
capacity.
What is the water depth? Location of find. Influences what type of
structure may push
towards floating structures
in deeper water.
Size of reserves Geology, understanding of Marginal fields may not
oil/gas in place justify fixed structures, as
6
not easy to re-deploy.
 Market Drivers
Driver Influencing Factors Impact
Type of oil Different oil weights are E.g. Nynas in Dundee
attractive to different prefer very heavy oil for
refineries bitumen production for
roads.
Brent Crude is a good
general mix that any
petrol/fuel refinery would
be able to process.
Type of gas Treatment will influence Weight
weight, e.g. removal of
impurities.
Weight of Topsides Oil spec, gas spec, water More weight means bigger
processing, etc. support, means more
expensive.
7
 Offshore Structures
Global distribution of offshore oil & gas developments

8
 Offshore Structures

Over 10,000 offshore structures worldwide

Ranging from few tens to several hundred thousand tonnes

In water depths of 1m 2km

Constructed from primarily steel and concrete

9
 Offshore Platforms

Up to 520m
Up to 520m
Provides
Well known 450-900m
oil storage
design & Resists
Up to
economical fatigue in
1800m
deep water
Economical
in deep water
Up to 3000m Up to 3000m
Approximate Depths Movable with many uses
Advantage

10
Stability in deep water Up to 3000m
 Gravity-based Structures (GBS)
Modular concrete base
Natural buoyancy provided by air voids during
construction and transportation
Air voids are flooded to sink into position
Can include oil storage tanks in base
Used in water depths up to 520m

Example: Beryl Alpha

Condeep Gravity Based Structure
4-legged jacket RAT (riser access tower) and flare tower are
bridge linked to the main platform
Located 200 miles NE of Aberdeen
Positioned in water depth of 117.5m
Production began in 1976
Weighs approx. 200,000 tonnes
Oil is stored in concrete structure and transferred to tankers 11
Gravity-based Structure Installation
Concrete is poured at an onshore
location

Air is left in storage cells to keep

structure afloat during tow-out

Structure is towed out to position by

boat

The storage cells are flooded to allow

the platform to lower it onto the
seabed

Platform in pictures opposite is the

Hibernia

12
 Steel Jacket Fixed Platforms

Most common >7000 worldwide

Typically 4-16 leg structures

Pile driven into sea bed to resist loadings

Potential for multi-jacket installations

Used in water depths up to 520m

13
Launch Installed Jackets
Jacket is built horizontally
To transport to barge, the jacket is put onto skids
and slid along track of steel beams
When at the offshore location the jacket is slid off
the barge and into the water
Two parallel trusses are used to help the jacket
sustain the reactions during launch
Rocker arms are attached to the stern of the barge
to reduce forces in the jacket

14
 Bridge-Linked Structures
The Claymore complex
Claymore Production Platform (CPP)
Two fixed steel bridge-linked platforms
CPP installed in 1976
CAP installed in 1996
Weighs approx. 44,000 tonnes
CPP is an eight-legged steel jacket
CAP is a four-legged steel jacket
Water depth of 110m
Provides process and drilling facilities
On average manned by 144 people
Exports oil, not gas

Claymore Accommodation Platform (CAP)

15
 Compliant Towers
Similar to fixed steel jackets
Narrow and flexible tower
Flexibility allow operation in deep water
Attached to sea floor
Resists small steady waves that cause fatigue
Used in water depths of 450-900m

Example: Petronius Compliant Tower

One of the tallest freestanding structures in the world
Uses flexible pilings to withstand hurricane forces
Located 130 miles South East of New Orleans
Water depth 535m
Installed and began production in 2000
Weighs approx. 40,000 tonnes
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 Tension leg platforms (TLP)
Floating production facility tethered to seabed
Tension legs made from steel pipes or wire ropes connected to foundations
Tensioned legs resist vertical loads from sea and wind. This limits vertical
motion experienced by platform
Foundations are piled into seabed
Used in water depths of up to 1800m

Example: Neptune Tension Leg Platform

Located 120 miles off the coast of Louisiana
Water depth of 1300m
Atlantia SeaStar single column design
Three pontoons with two tendons each
Tendons are 914mm diameter
Foundation piles are 2.5m diameter and 126m
deep
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 Semi-submersibles
Typically a four column design with four pontoons
Uses include: Drilling Rigs, Flotels, Crane Barges, Exploration
Vessels and Production Facilities
Either moored or fixed by dynamic positioning
Lower hull can be filled with water to provide stability
Relies on support ships to tow it into position
Used in water depths of 60m-3000m

Example: Heydar Aliyev Semi-Submersible

Constructed in 2003
Located in the Caspian Sea
Operates in depths between 75-1000m
Used as a Drilling Rig - 9144m drilling capacity
Weighs 20620 tonnes
Accommodates up to 130 people 18
 Floating, Production, Storage and
Offloading units (FPSOs)
Look like a large ship
Ideal for deep water
Either moored or fixed by dynamic positioning
Used in:
Small oil fields as it can be moved
Where there are no pipeline networks for Export
Water depths of 3000m

Maersk Curlew FPSO

Previously a tanker - converted to an

FPSO in 1997
Located 137 miles East of Aberdeen
Operates in water depth of 92m
236m long
Accommodates up to 80 personnel
Weighs 99,800 tonnes 19
 Spar Platforms
Supported by a floating, hollow cylinder with extra weight in the
bottom
Mooring lines used to tether platform to seabed
90% of the structure is underwater giving good stability in deep water
Used in depths of 3000m

Example: Genesis Spar Platform

Located 150 miles South of New Orleans
Operates in water depths of 800m
Platform is held in place by a 14-point mooring
system
Each line is 80m long with a 135mm diameter
Hull was manufactured and transported in two
halves
Weighs 36000 tonnes
Flooding was used to upend the hull 20
 Spar Design Example

Devil's Tower Truss spar platform developed for the Gulf of Mexico
21
586 feet in length and in 5,610 feet of water (deepest spar in the world at installation)
 Offshore Structures Topsides
Crane

Drilling Derrick

Process Area
Helideck
Flare Boom

Accommodation
Modules
Cellar Deck
Lifeboats
Spider Deck

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Offshore Structures below LAT

Pump Caissons

Jacket Conductor Guide Frame

Conductor (wells) Riser
Riser Clamp
Pile Cluster

Subsea Pipeline

Mud Mat
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 Onshore Structures

Drilling rigs are built over land discovered to have oil and/or gas

Drilling rigs sizes and types vary greatly. Some are small and mobile, others are
large and powerful

Service rigs are used to complete wells and drilling rig is relocated to another well.
This allows for increased productivity and efficiency.

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 Loadings
Typical load considerations for all structures (onshore and offshore):

Dead loads - The permanent loading caused by the structure

Live loads - A loading that is considered temporarily imposed to the structure

Environmental loads - Loads caused by environment i.e. wave, wind, ice etc.

Construction loads - Loads associated with the construction or installation of a structure

Accidental loads - Loads caused by unexpected events such as impact or explosion

Onshore structures are typically dominated by dead loads and live loads.
Offshore structures are typically dominated by environmental loads.

Environmental Loads that Commonly Affect Offshore Installations:

Wind, Wave, Current, Seabed movement

International codes of practice dictate that recurrence intervals for design events must be
considered. For example a 10 year, 100 year and 10,000 year wave event could be considered
when designing a platform. 25
 Loadings

1. Dead & live loads

2. Current load
3. Wave load
4. Wind load
5. Fire and blast load Dead/live
6. Impact load Accidental
7. Dropped object load Environmental

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 Loadings Waves
0 360 Wave Direction

90 270

180
Wave Phase Angle (Degrees)

Waves are generated by the wind on the surface of water

As the wave passes through the structure, the applied
loading varies depending on the phase angle
The air gap is the distance measured between the topsides
and the crest of the wave
A negative air gap occurs when the wave passes onto the
topsides and creates a wave in deck load

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 Loadings Wind
N
NW NE
Wind
+10m Reference
Velocity W E

MSL
SW SE
S
Wind loads act above the Mean Sea Level
A wind interval of less than one minute is considered a gust
A wind interval longer than one minute is considered a sustained wind
Winds with intervals of one hour are analysed with extreme waves and current loads
Extreme wind speeds are analysed without regards to waves
The wind velocity reference point is given as +10m above the Mean Sea Level
Loading is calculated for each area on topsides in relation to each wind direction
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 Support Vessels & Helicopters
Supply Boat
Take supplies to and from offshore installations
Designed to withstand severe weather
Can also be used for towing, handling anchors and
providing fire fighting cover

Standby Boat
Designed to provide first aid facilities to installations
Previous to the Piper Alpha incident converted trawler
boats were used as standby boats
Now specially made boats are constructed

Survey Boats
Used for gathering data on potential oil & gas fields

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 Support Vessels & Helicopters
DSV (Diving Support Vessels)
Provides a stable platform for divers to carry out
operations
These can come in ship form or as a semi-submersible
DSV in the picture to the left is the Uncle John,
regarded one of the most successful DSV in operation

Helicopters
Primary method of transport from onshore to offshore
for personnel
Before helicopters, boat was the main method of
transporting personnel offshore
The Super Puma is the most common type of
helicopter found in North Sea operations

30
 The History of Drilling
1840s: Drilling for oil began when oil was discovered seeping through ground fissures in
Pennsylvania.

Drilling was originally done for water wells and salt but this changed after people realised the
potential of oil.

Percussion drilling was used initially to crush rock:

Drill bit would be lifted and repeatedly dropped on the same spot and broken rock cleared by hand.
This process was continued until the reservoir was reached, usually resulting in a blow out.
This technique was only effective on land for reservoirs that were no more than 20m below the
surface.
Many people were killed and huge volumes of oil and gas were released to the atmosphere.

Late 1800s: oil and gas seeps were noticed in the sea off the coast of California and it was
theorised that there must be offshore oil fields.

Piers were built to reach points far offshore and rotary drilling was developed because
percussive drilling was impossible in water.

1896: The Summerland onshore field was discovered to extend offshore and became the first
offshore oilfield to be drilled.

Early 1900s: Biggest growth of offshore oil and gas drilling. 31

 The History of Drilling
Summerland Oil Field, Santa Barbara,
California, 1896

Summerland Oil Field, Santa Barbara,

California, 2009

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 Cost of Drilling
Depends on: Does not include:

Daily rate of drilling. Risks of explosion.

Extra Services required to drill the Leakages of oil.

well.
Cost of clean-up.
Duration of drilling and the well.
Damage to companies image.
Remoteness of location.

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 Utilities Required
Power Generation Drainage System

Diesel System Instrument Air and Inert Gas

System
Flare System
Fresh Water
Seawater System

Sewage
Cooling Medium System

Firewater Start-Up Operations

Sand Jetting and Separation System Management of Wastes and

Emissions

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 The Drilling Process
Modern drilling uses a rotary drill bit to drill through
rock:
A derrick is setup connected to draw works with drill
lines
The drill lines connect a crown block to the derrick
and draw works which allow it to travel up and down
A hook connects a power swivel to the crown block

Power swivel transmits drilling mud through the drill

string to provide power to the drill bit at the bottom of
the string.

The drill string is a string of segments of pipe that

connect the drill bit to the derrick.

The drill bit grinds up the rock creating drill cuttings.

The drilling mud transports these cuttings back to the

surface allowing constant drilling to occur. The mud is
then filtered using shale shakers to remove cuttings
and is used again.
35
Drill Rig Types
Jackup Rig

36
 Drill Bits (1)
There are two main types of drill bits; Tricone and fixed cutter.

The first two-cone rotary drill bit was developed and patented by Howard Hughes
Snr. in 1909.
It revolutionised the industry by allowing wells to be drilled faster and deeper.

In 1933 the Tricone drill bit was invented and patented by Hughes company (now
Baker Hughes oilfield services).
Patent lasted until 1951 when other companies were allowed to develop there own.

Tricone Drill Bit:

37
 Drill Bits (2)
The second bit developed was a fixed cutter bit which relies on percussion and
rotation of the drillstring.
Fixed cutter bits are typically made of polycrystalline diamond compact (PDC). The fixed
cutter is the more commonly used bit because of durability resulting in fewer bit change
outs.

Different bits can be used for different rock formations:

Tricone drill bits are best suited for soft formations such as clay or sandstone.
Fixed cutter drill bits are more suited to hard formations such as shale and mudstones.

Fixed Cutter Drill Bit:

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 Drill Pipe
Drill pipe is used to transmit drilling mud to the bit and provide power for
the drill bit.

A different type of heavy weight drill pipe is used at the lower end of the
drill string to protect the bit and the bottom hole assembly, which
contains well logging equipment, from being damaged by a build up of hot
drill cuttings.

Drill pipe is typically manufactured in 31 foot lengths.

These pipe segments are usually screwed together in sets of 3 or 4 called a pipe stand.
This is performed prior to drilling to decrease the time between tripping where new
pipe segments will be added to the string.

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 Casing
Casing is a larger diameter drill pipe that is used for supporting the borehole and is
usually cemented in place. It also provides extra support for the surface formation so
that the borehole does not collapse whilst drilling.

Provides isolation for different zones of the well so that hydrocarbons will not seep into
upper formations and find a way to the surface.

Also provides support in the well bore should a blow out occur and will prevent the
surface formation from being blown out by the pressure from a reservoir.

Sizes are between 18 35 inches and the drill pipe will then be lowered through
providing a space between the casing wall and the drill pipe called the annulus. This is
where drill cuttings will rise.

Drill Pipe vs. Casing

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 Deepwater Drilling
Deeper well higher pressure greater challenge in retrieving hydrocarbons.

Deepwater is considered >150 metres water depth but can be up to 3000 metres
in some regions particularly Gulf of Mexico.

As companies ventured offshore, large hydrocarbon deposits were found in more

porous and permeable rock, therefore higher pressure.

Problem with deepwater drilling is controlling pressures at such a depth and this
poses a danger in the form of blowouts as seen in the Deepwater Horizon blow
out in Gulf of Mexico in 2010.

Also important to avoid fracturing rock.

Drilling pressure has to be balanced.

41
 Oil Wells
Oil well is the general term for boring through the Earths surface with intent of
finding and retrieving hydrocarbons.

The well provides a conduit for hydrocarbons to flow from the reservoir to
production and process facilities on the surface.

The life of a well consists of:

Planning
Drilling
Completion
Production
Abandonment

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 Types of Wells
Wells can produce:
Oil only
Oil and Gas
Gas only

Historically natural gas produced was of very low value so was typically disposed of
by flaring.

Natural gas can be used as fuel to power a platform process facilities or injected to
be used as gas lift to increase oil recovery.

With rising oil prices, gas is becoming a preferred source of power for electricity
and heating due to its abundance and relatively low price compared with oil. It is a
cleaner burning fuel compared with oil and coal.

There is new high demand for natural gas in the United States with a boom in
shale gas due to innovation in drilling technology.
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 Types of Wells
Classifying oil wells by their purpose:

Wildcat Wells Drilling with no known data of an area.

Exploration Wells Used to test an area for oil and gas accumulations.

Appraisal Wells Drilling wells to test flow rates and total volumes of hydrocarbons.

Production Wells Used for producing oil and gas.

Injection Wells Used for water or gas injection to increase recovery factor.

Disposal Wells Wells drilled to dispose of produced water, gas or waste that can either
not be disposed of overboard or shipped back to shore.

Satellite Wells Wells that are drilled and connected to a subsea manifold which
produce back to an original production platform. Used when the accumulation is far
from existing wells and is uneconomical to require its own platform.

44
 Drilling Fluids
There are a number of different fluids used in drilling for different reasons
or scenarios that require them.

The main types of drilling fluids are:

Drilling Mud
Cement

Drilling fluids are mixtures of water and additives to change the properties of
the fluid.

Mud is a mixture of water, bentonite and barite (minerals of aluminium and

iron).

Cement is a mixture of water and chalk or calcium based mineral.

45
 Drilling Mud - Function
There are numerous functions for drilling mud:
Primarily used to maintain hydrostatic pressure on the reservoir to prevent the formation
pressure causing a blowout whilst drilling.
Also helps to support the wellbore and prevent collapse.

Secondary functions include:

Circulating cuttings out of the wellbore.
Providing a filter cake against permeable formations that would block the reservoir.
Cooling and lubrication of the drill bit.
Hold cuttings in suspension whilst drilling is halted.
Providing hydraulic power to the drill bit.
Enable formation evaluation.
Reduce tensile and torsional loads on the derrick and drill stem.

Two main types of mud that can be used; water-based and oil-based.
Water is typically used but oil performs better for drilling certain formations such as high
temperature, high pressure reservoirs.
Oil-based mud is a lot more expensive to make and far more harmful to the environment. 46
 Drilling Mud - Properties
The mud is mixed by a mud logger and mud engineer that determine which properties are required
for a mud.

These properties can change as the well deepens, such as higher density to maintain hydrostatic
pressure as the drill bit nears the reservoir and more viscosity to maintain circulation of drill
cuttings.

Major properties that affect the muds functions are:

Mud weight
Viscosity
Gel strength
Mud chemistry

These properties are altered by adding mud additives.

Each of the major properties will be affected by adding the following:

Mud weight - Adding a weighting agent such as bentonite (barium sulphate)
Viscosity - Adding clay or polymers
Gel strength - Adding barite (aluminium phyllosilicate)
Mud chemistry - This can be altered by adding sodium hydroxide and calcium carbonate

47
 Cement
Cement is another common drilling fluid.
Primarily used for setting casing in place, isolating cased off zones in the wellbore and
protecting casing from corrosion.

Cement can also be used for plugging a well whilst changing out a drill bit to prevent
blowouts or well abandonment.

There are 4 main types of cement mix used:

C3S Tricalcium Silicate (Ca.O)3.Si.O2
C2S Dicalcium Silicate (Ca.O)2.Si.O2
C3A Tricalcium Aluminate (Ca.O)3.Al2.O3
C4AF Tetracalcium Aluminoferrite (Ca.O)4.Al2.O3.Fe3.O2

These different cement mixes are used for specific functions:

C3S - Early reaction and begins to set fast which provides strength quickly.
C2S - Slow to develop but provides long term strength.
C3A - Fastest to set but is highly exothermic. Provides early strength but alters
structure late in life.
C4AF - Provides long term strength and protection against scaling.
48
 Fluid Pumping
Pumping is critical to drilling as mud
must be delivered to the drill bit.

If pumping stops then drilling must

be halted because drill cuttings
cannot be removed from the hole.

Heavy duty slurry pumps are used to

deliver the mud down the drill string
to the wellbore.

Once the mud has circulated back up

to the surface shale shakers separate
cuttings from mud using vibration.

Cuttings are observed for information

on the reservoir and will give an
indication as to how close the
reservoir is.

Drilling mud is very expensive to

make and must be recycled. 49
 Directional Drilling
Obtains information, hits targets and stimulates
reservoirs that vertical drilling cannot.

Important for shale wells to artificially induce

permeability.

Slower and more expensive.

The wells can be drilled from much further

away, some horizontal wells have been drilled
from 20+ kilometres away.
Wellheads can be grouped together to reduce
land area required.
Drilling a relief well to help prevent blowout.
Horizontal wells can also reach
reservoirs that would be
impossible to drill vertically such
as in the middle of a built up
area; the well can be drilled
horizontally from far away
(example above).
50
 Kicks
A kick is a well control problem in which the pressure found within the drilled rock
is higher than the mud hydrostatic pressure acting on the borehole or rock face.

The greater formation pressure has a tendency to force formation fluids into the
wellbore:
This forced fluid flow is called a kick.

An underbalance in mud can cause fluids to flow from the reservoir into the
wellbore.

If a kick isnt controlled, it can develop into a blow out.

Warning signs and possible kick indicators observed at the surface:

Flow rate increase.
Mud pit volume increase.
Flowing well with pumps off.
Pump pressure decrease and pump stroke increase.
Decrease in the weight of the drill string.
51
 Controlling a Kick
There are many methods used for controlling a kick:
Drillers method
Weight and Wait
Reverse Circulation
Bullheading
Volumetric method

All the methods are similar but vary slightly in their approach, some aim to
eliminate a kick instantly then restart mud circulation when the well is back under
control and others slowly bring the well under control without stopping
circulation.

Different situations require specific methods, and all have advantages and
disadvantages.

The two most common methods used are the Drillers Method and the Weight and
Wait method.
52
 Drillers Method
The Drillers method uses two circulations of mud to control a kick.

The first circulation balances the shut-in drill pipe pressure (SIDPP) and shut-in casing pressure
(SICP). The original mud is circulated until SIDPP = SICP. This ensures the pressure in the drill pipe
and the annulus are the same to maintain circulation.

The second circulation uses kill mud which is heavier to eliminate the kick by increasing hydrostatic
pressure. The casing pressure is bled off whilst the kill mud is delivered to the drill bit to ensure
that circulation can continue when it rises up the annulus without a rise in pressure from mud
already in the annulus.

The kill mud is circulated until SIDPP = SICP = 0 kpa/psi which will indicate that the kick has been
eliminated.

The advantages of the Drillers method is that fewer calculations are required and circulation can
begin immediately, circulation is also maintained.

The disadvantages are that a kick has more time to develop due to the original mud being
circulated which means hydrostatic pressure is less than the reservoir pressure. The difference in
pressures mean that there is more stress and strain at the bottom of the drill string which can lead
to ballooning/bursting or collapsing the drill string.
53
 Weight and Wait Method
The Weight and Wait method only uses one circulation.

When a kick is detected the well is shut in and the required kill mud weight is
calculated.

The SICP is bled off while the kill mud is circulated in. The mud is circulated until it
reaches the surface through the annulus and if SICP = SIDPP = 0 then the kick has
been eliminated.

The advantages are that a kick has no time to develop due to shutting in the well
so there is no chance of it creating a blowout. High pump pressures arent
required to circulate out the kick before circulating in the kill mud.

The disadvantages are that gas from the kick can migrate upwards through the
annulus during the shut-in, complicating restart procedures. There are more
calculations to do and if the wrong mud weight is calculated the procedure must
be repeated.
54
 Blowouts
Kicks develop into blowouts if no action is taken and /or safety measures are
ineffective.

Uncontrolled release of hydrocarbons after pressure control systems have failed.

A spark during a blowout can lead to oil or gas fire.

Formation fluids flow up the wellbore and annulus during a kick but reach the surface
during a blowout.

Blowout preventers (BOPs) are used to isolate the well while hydrostatic balance is
regained.

Once all contaminant has been circulated out, the casing pressure should have reached
zero.

Blowouts can occur during well testing, well completion, production or work over
activities.

55
 Blow Out Preventers

BOP Ram Types:

a Blind ram

b Pipe ram
BP Macondo Blowout
c Shear ram

The annular preventer and rams typically appear

stacked on top of each other with the annular
preventer on top with the 3 different rams beneath as
seen in the picture on the right.
56
 Completions
Once the well is drilled and cased, it has to be completed which enables oil or gas
production.

Acids and fracturing fluids may be pumped into the well to fracture, clean, prepare
and stimulate the reservoir.

Area above the reservoir section is packed off inside the casing and connected to
the surface via a smaller diameter pipe called tubing.

This provides a redundant barrier to leaks as well as allowing damaged sections to

be replaced.

The smaller area of the tubing produces reservoir fluids at a higher velocity,
minimising liquid fall back and creating additional back pressure.

57
 Production Stage
Once the well has been drilled the top is usually fitted with a christmas tree.

A christmas tree is a collection of valves that regulate pressures, control flows and
allow access to the wellbore.

The outlet valve of a christmas tree can be connected to a distribution network of

pipelines and tanks.

Christmas trees on their own can produce the well but sometimes artificial drive
methods are required.

The well will flow as long as the pressure in the reservoir is greater than the
pressure at the wellhead.

58
 Wellhead
Wellhead sits on top of the well that leads to the
reservoir:
Provides the structural and pressure-containing
interface for the drilling and production
equipment
Allows easy access to the well

A Christmas tree is mounted on top of the

wellhead

Surface wellheads are onshore or on the

deck of an offshore installation

Wellhead Subsea wellheads are underwater and are

used in subsea production systems
59
 Christmas Tree
Primary production device but also large role in
Swab Valve
Wing Valves safety.
Sits on top of the wellhead.
Valves which regulate flow and isolate tree from
well.
Consists of:
Lower master gate valve (LMGV).
Upper master gate valve (UMGV).
UMGV Wing valves (PWV and KWV).
Swab Valve.
LMGV

60
 Manifolds

Surface Manifold Subsea Manifold

An assembly of pipes, valves and fittings by which fluid from one or more sources is
selectively directed to various process systems
Connect wells to export pipelines and risers
Merge flow from several wells and transfer them to flowlines
Manage the distribution of injected water, gas and chemicals
Onshore the manifold creates efficient reservoir utilisation by splitting the flow from
pipes into gas, oil, water etc.
Offshore, dry completion wells feed into production manifolds whereas subsea
production systems feed into production risers
61
 Subsea Production Systems
Wells located on sea floor rather than the
surface

Petroleum extracted from seabed then tied-

back to pre-existing offshore or onshore facility

Current horizontal distance possible from well

to facility is 250km

These systems cannot drill, they can only

perform extraction

Allows one platform to service many wells over

a large area

Smaller, less economically viable reservoirs

becoming more attractive due to lower costs

Used at depths of >500m

62
 Subsea Pipelines

Typically anchored to seabed or buried in trenches for protection against corrosion

and sea currents
Some have a coating of concrete to reduce buoyancy and increase protection
Vertical pipelines are called risers. These transport drilling tools, power lines,
dredge pipes and cold water in addition to oil & gas
Worlds deepest gas pipeline being developed. When finished it will be 2900m
underwater
Costly to implement so emphasis is put on getting it right the first time around

63
64
 Transporting Oil & Gas - Pipelines
Flowlines & Gathering Lines
Travel short distances
Transports oil and/or gas to processing
facilities
Small diameter (from 50 305mm)

Feeder Lines
Transports processed oil and/or gas to
transmission lines
Product Lines
Up to 508mm diameter
Carry refined petroleum products from
refinery to distribution centre
Transmission Lines
Travel long distances Distribution Lines
Crude oil delivered to refineries or Enable local distribution from a
storage transmission system
Natural gas delivered to industry or Low pressure pipes
distribution system
Can be large but majority are less than
Large diameter (can be over 1m) 152mm in diameter
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 Transporting Oil & Gas Tankers
Tankers:

Developed after a need for mass distribution in WWII

Crude tankers carry unrefined oil from platform to refinery and range from 5000 to
450,000 metric tons

Product tankers carry refined oil from refinery to market and range from 5000 to 80,000
metric tons

Tanker Incidents - Explosions led to the introduction of inert gas systems

Norwegian VLCC Kong Haakon VII - 1969

Shell Oil Marpessa - 1969 66

 Transporting Oil & Gas Tankers
Oil Tanker Classification:
Product Carriers
26-50,000 metric tons
MCCs (Medium Crude Carriers)
70-150,000 metric tons
Short haul trips
They can load at most terminals
worldwide
VLCCs (Very Large Crude Carriers)
150-299,000 metric tons
Long haul operations
Smaller size to ULCCs allows greater
flexibility for discharging
ULCCs (Ultra Large Crude Carriers)
300-500,000 metric tons
Mainly used for long haul operations
Require specially built terminals to
discharge cargo
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 Transporting Oil & Gas Tankers
Gas Tankers (more commonly known as Gas Carriers or LNG Carriers)
Fully pressurised carriers
Designed for pressures in the cargo tank over 11 bar
Primarily transport LPG
Semi-pressurised carriers
Designed for pressures in the cargo tank between 0.5 11 bar
Flexible but expensive and difficult to operate
Fully refrigerated carriers
Designed for pressures in the cargo tank below 0.7 bar
Can transport large volumes in proportion to weight

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Transportation - Tanker vs. Pipeline
Tanker Export
Carries hydrocarbons at lower pressures than pipelines
Larger process areas creating extra weight on offshore installations
Can easily transport hydrocarbons anywhere
Weather dependent

Pipelines
Smaller process area
Can transport hydrocarbons at higher pressures
Feasibility is dependent on installation location
Difficult to maintain

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 Well Abandonment
The life of a well is shortened when the economic limit is raised.

When the economic limit is reached the well becomes a liability and is abandoned.

At this limit there may still be a significant amount of oil in the reservoir, so it may
be temporarily abandoned.

Wells would be temporarily abandoned in the hope that the market would change.

Lease provisions, governmental regulations, liability and tax can cause

abandonment.

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 Asset Decommissioning
Decommissioning is the final stage in a platforms life and is regulated by the
Department of Energy and Climate Change using legislation under the Petroleum
Act 1998 (for UK oilfield developments).

All wells must be plugged using kill mud and cement to ensure there is no seepage
after abandonment.

Drill cuttings must be disposed of and any dumped during the initial drilling of the
well must be recovered and removed.

Pipelines must be sealed and buried or bundles must be collected and removed.

Topsides and jackets must be removed up to 60 metres below the surface.

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Artificial Reefs
Abandoned oil rigs can become
home to ocean creatures after use
by being submerged.

Minerals Management Service

requires rig removal within a year
after abandonment therefore
turning into artificial reefs saves
costs and time.

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 Useful Websites and References
(Infrastructure)
1. Offshore Geotechnical Engineering E.T. Richard Dean
2. Offshore Engineering Angus Mathers
3. ABB Oil and Gas Production Handbook
4. Subsea Engineering Handbook Yong Bai and Qiang Bai
5. Subsea Pipelines and Risers Yong Bai and Qiang Bai
6. Dynamics of Offshore Structuers James F. Wilson
7. From T-2 to Supertanker: Development of the Oil Tanker Andrew G. Spyrou
8. http://www.rigzone.com
9. http://www.offshore-technology.com/projects
10. http://www.api.org/oil-and-natural-gas-overview/transporting-oil-and-natural-gas/oil-tankers/~/media/Files/Oil-and-Natural-
Gas/Tankers/Tankers-LoRes.pdf
11. http://www.ens-newswire.com/ens/may2011/2011-05-18-091.html
12. http://s08.static-shell.com/content/dam/shell/static/usa/downloads/alaska/os101-ch3.pdf
13. http://www.maerskdrilling.com/Documents/PDF/Drillingrigs/Specific-Rigs/heydar_aliyev.pdf
14. http://www.marinetraffic.com/en/ais/details/ships/8765565/vessel:HEYDAR_ALIYEV
15. http://naturalgas.org/naturalgas/extraction-offshore/
16. http://www.maersk-fpsos.com/Documents/Factsheet_Curlew_web.pdf
17. http://www.politico.com/blogs/jonathanmartin/0808/McCain_finally_gets_to_oil_rig.html
18. http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/454269/petroleum
19. http://ecokita.my/wp-content/uploads/2013/10/oil-field-1-web.jpg
20. http://completioninfo.com/christmas_tree.html.html
21. http://www.glossary.oilfield.slb.com/
22. http://www.mtcltd-blog.com/gallery/offshore-onshore-package/
23. http://www.ge-energy.com/products_and_services/products/subsea_trees_manifolds_and_connection_systems/Cluster_Manifolds.jsp
24. http://www2.emersonprocess.com/SiteCollectionImages/News%20Images/SubseaGraphic_HiRes.jpg
25. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2117.html
26. http://www.penspen.com/downloads/papers/documents/oilandgaspipelines.pdf
27. http://www.cepa.com/about-pipelines/types-of-pipelines/natural-gas-pipelines
28. http://www.penspen.com/downloads/papers/documents/thestructuralintegrityofoilandgastransmissionpipelines.pdf
29. http://www.technip.com/en/press/technip-lay-world%E2%80%99s-deepest-gas-pipeline-shell-gulf-mexico

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 Useful Websites and References
(Drilling)
1. http://www.oilspillcommission.gov/sites/default/files/documents/DEEPWATER_ReporttothePresident_FINAL.pdf
2. http://www.geomore.com/oil-and-gas-traps/
3. http://petrochase.com/blog/how-does-an-oil-formation-take-place/
4. http://www.encapgroup.com/drilling/
5. http://www.epicwelldrilling.com/well-diagram/
6. http://www.petroleum-machine.com.p022_10_1.html
7. http://www.offshore-technology.com/features/featuredisused-oil-rigs-living-reefs-pictures
8. http://www.stockopedia.co.uk/content/independant-resourses-hit-by-second-well-disappointment-in-tunisia-49150/
9. http://www.offshoreenergytoday.com/conocophillips-hires-essar-wildcat-rig-for-drilling-offshore-indonesia/
10. http://www.premier-oil.com/premieroil/glossary
11. http://www.glossary.oilfield.slb.com/en/Terms.aspx?LookIn=term%20name&filter=kick
12. http://petrowiki.org/Kicks
13. http://www.lloyds.com/news-and-insight/news-and-feactures/market-news/industry-news-news-2013/piper-alpha-after-the-fire
14. http://oils.gpa.unep.org/facts/natural-sources.htm
15. http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2010/07/100722-bp-gulf-oil-seeps-leaks-science-environment-nation/
16. http://www.manaspetroleum,com/s/Kyrgy.asp?ReportID=175759,175764
17. http://geology.com/articles/horizontal-drilling/
18. http://money.cnn.com/2008/10/07/smallbusiness/horizonal_well.fsb/
19. http://offshore-technology.com/features/feature1033
20. http://www.3datdepth.com/applications-2/
21. http://www.woodgroup.com/SiteCollectionDocuments/news-tech-articles/2007-05_DevelopRightConceptOffshore_Mustang.pdf
22. http://www.petrostrategies.org/Learning_Center/production.htm
23. http://www.offshore-technology.com/projects/elgin/elgin5.html
24. http://aoghs.org/offshore-technology-history/offshore-oil-history/
25. http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/systems/ship/platform-spar.htm
26. http://cenvironment.blogspot.co.uk/2010/05/seven-types-of-offshore-oil-production.html
27. http://www.greenworldtrust.org.uk/Science/Scientific/abiotic.htm
28. http://anjungsainssmkss.wordpress.com/2012/10/24/hydrocarbons/
29. http://www.sjvgeology.org/oil/exploration.html
30. http://blogs.ft.com/energy-source/2011/03/24/reasons-behind-failure-of-the-blowout-preventer-in-the-macondo-well/#axzz2bq0Q8zRz

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