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Set II: Where does the nucleus go?

BASIC PRINCIPLES:
a. ON A STRESSED SYLLABLE:
The most important decision the speaker has to make in selecting an intonation pattern is
to decide where the nucleus goes. If the nucleus is the last accent in the IP, what is the last
word to be accented?
We know that the nucleus must go on a stressed syllable. By stressed syllable we mean
the syllable that has lexical stress. So, to make a word the nucleus we put a nuclear tone
on its lexically stressed syllable. However, it is essential to know which syllable in each
word bears the stress.
In an intonation phrase, we place the nucleus or nuclear accent on one word that we
distinguish as particularly important for the meaning. take into account these two facts:
- Phonetically, we accent a syllable by giving it a prominent change in pitch, or a
movement in pitch, or the start or a pitch movement. (An accented syllable is also
rhythmically stressed= it has rhythmic beat.)
- pragmatically, we accent a word by accenting its stressed syllable which indicates the the
level of importance of that word for what we are saying.

a. ON OR THE LAST WORD


The nucleus is normally located on or near the last word of the intonation phrase. By
definition, the nuclear accent is the last accent in the IP. But the general tendency for the
nucleus is to be towards the end of the IP. Provided that the last word in an IP is important
for the meaning, it will be accented and capable of bearing the nucleus.
For example: The bridge is about to col 'lapse.
It is only If the words towards the end of the IP are for some reason not accented that the
nucleus will go on an earlier word.
Initials, names of letters and numerals are treated like separate words. In a string of
several letters or numbers the nucleus generally goes on the last one.
For example: she's got a 'ten.

b. CONTENT WORDS AND FUNCTION WORDS:


Generally speaking, we accent content words but not function words. Consequently, the
nucleus is typically placed on the last content word in the IP.
Function words (prepositions, pronouns, auxiliary or modal verbs) only bear a nucleus if
special circumstances apply. If an IP ends with one of these types of words, the nucleus
normally goes earlier. For example,
c. COMPOUNDS:
- Most compounds in English are single-stressed, that is, the main lexical stress goes on
the first element. 'bed time, 'grassland, etc.
- Many English compounds are written as two separate words but the main stress is still on
the first element of the compound. They are called two-word compounds.
'library book.
So far, a lexical item can be either a single word or a compound word. Unless there
is a special reason for it to go elsewhere, the nucleus goes on the last lexical item in
the IP. This is the default tonicity rule.
d. DOUBLE-STRESSED COMPOUNDS
In order to locate the nucleus correctly it is important to identify which compounds
are double-stressed. These are:
-proper names of people
-proper names of roads and public places
-names of institutions such as hotels and schools
- compounds in which the first element names the place or time
-compounds in which the first element names the material or ingredient.
The lexical stress pattern of a double-stressed compound is just like that of a
phrase. Both the lexically stressed syllables are accentable. But the nucleus goes
on the second element. For example: 'Town 'Hall,
IRREGULARITIES AND EXCEPTIONS ? (go to page 106. I dont understand)

THE OLD AND THE NEW (INFORMATION STATUS, SYNONYMS, PROSPECTIVE AND
IMPLIED GIVENNESS)

- information status refer to the fact that in English, the location of the nucleus is
strongly affected by whether the words contain old or new information. The general
rule is that we accent new information , but not old information. That is, we
deaccent or remuve potential accents from old information. If all the information is
new, then we can accent all the lexical items. So the nucles will be placed on the last
lexical item:
for example,
- Synonyms:
because of the fact that when we use synonyms we express with different words a
concept already mentioned, synonyms can be considered as old information. Such
synonyms are usually deaccented.
For example:

-if a word is a hypernym of a word (a word whose meaning includes the meaning of
other words) that is a word already mentioned, then it counts as given information
and the nucleus goes elsewhere. For example,
But if a word is a Hyponym (a specific term used to designate a member of a class)
then it counts as new info. In consequence it is accented and attracts the nucleus.
For example:
- propestive and implied givenness (go to page 114)
It is not only repeated words that tend not to be accented, but also words that are
about to be repeated. (lo unico q entend)

FOCUS
1. BROAD AND NARROW FOCUS
Another way of analyzing the linguistic function of tonicity involves the notion of
focus: THE CONCENTRATION OF ATTENTION ON A PARTICULAR PART OF THE
MESSAGE. When we utter an IP, we can either bring everything into focus (BROAD
FOCUS) or we can focus selectively on one part of it (NARROW FOCUS.)
The part of the IP that is placed in focus is called the FOCUS DOMAIN. The nucleus
marks the end of a focus domain.
Maximally, Broad focus means that the focus domain is the whole IP: everything in
the in the IP is brought into focus. We would use broad focus for example, when
answering the question: what happened?
What happened next? - everyone burst out 'laughing.
To give a stretch of utterance broad focus we use a neutral tonicity which means we
have to place the nucleus on the last lexical item.
Differently, in narrow focus, only a part of what is said is brought into focus. For
example, if we are asked a question, and in our answer we repeat part of the
material from the question, then that part will be old information and it will not be
brought into focus. This means that the lexical items in the old info will not be
accented.
For example:
2. CONTRASTIVE FOCUS
contrastive focus is a particular kind of narrow focus. Here the nuclear accent
draws attention to a contrast the speaker is making. Any following material withing
the same IP is unaccented and forms part of the tail of the IP. For example:
you may have started your essay, but have you 'finished it? (in this example the
contrast is between started and finished)
any word can be accented for contrast, including a function word. A pronoun,a
preposition virtually any word can bear the nucleus, if it is contrastive:
e. I'm writing a letter. What are 'you doing?
f. It wasn't 'under the table, but actually 'on it.

3. PRONOUNS AND DEMONSTRATIVES


As we have already seen, we do not usually accent personal pronouns. However, we
do accent a pronoun if it is placed in contrastive focus. We frequently want to
emphazise a contrast between one person and another.
g. I know how she feels but how do you feel?
Although this change of person can be made explicit, it is often left implicit.
h. do you both play tennis?
i. Well I do but my husband doesn't. (implicit)
the general rule is that pronouns are stressed only if they are contrastive. However,
there are various idiomatic expressions in which we focus on the pronoun despite
the fact that there isn't any obvious contrast with any other item.
Example: follow me!
what do I care? I'll be retired by then.
There are a number of idioms that have fixed tonocity: fossilized idiomatic
expressions said with a particular intonation.
Example: good for you!

4. FINAL DEMONSTRATIVES, THIS, THAT, THESE, THOSE when they are at the
end of the utterance tend to convey new information and attract the nucleus.
Example: 'look at 'this!
'Who's 'that?
The word THERE, also tend to attract the nucleus if it refers to a place that is new
but not if it refers to a place that has already been mentioned.
Example:
'Hold it right 'there! But,
'how long will it take to 'get there?

5. REFLEXIVE, RECIPROCAL AND INDEFINITE PRONOUNS


REFLEXIVE (myself, herself, himself, etc )
for emphasis, they are accented. When they are use a true reflexives, they are not usually
contrative, and therefore not accented.
RECIPROCAL (each other, one another)
they are usually not contrastive, not accented.
INDEFINITE PRONOUNS (someone, somebody, something, anyone, anybody, anything)
the same is applied for indefinite pronouns.
6. CONTRASTIVE FOCUS OVERRIDES THE FACTORS (GO TO PAGE 132)
7. CONTRASTIVE FOCUS ON POLARITY OR TENSE (GO TO PAGE 134)
8. DYNAMIC FOCUS (PAGE 138)

NUCLEUS ON A FUNCTION WORD


1. Narrow focus: YES-NO ANSWERS AND TAGS
To give a direct answer we say yes or no (or use a synonym adverb like sure, definitely, no
way, etc) the nucleus goes on that word or phrase.
Have you finished? 'Yes / 'definitely / oh 'sure
The word yes or no (or its equivalent) may be followed by a short sentence fragment
involving a verb that can be an auxiliary or modal verb. this shows whether the sentence is
positive or negative (showing polarity) So we put the nucleus on the verb.
Example: have you finished? 'yes, I 'have / 'yes, I 'have finished
although the word NOT is accentable, the contracted form N'T is not! The accent goes on
the stressed syllable of the word containing it.
Example: is that a fireman? 'No, it's 'not
'No, it 'isn't.
Notice the differece between narrow focus on polarity answer to a yes-no question and
narrow focus on a noun phrase in answer to a wh question:
is peter coming? 'yes, he 'is.
'yes, Peter 'is coming.
Who's coming? 'Peter is.
'Peter's coming.
2. PREPOSITIONS
we have seen that prepositions are usually not accented although they are brought
into contrastive focus. However, there are two circumstances where in broad focus
the nucleus is located on a preposition. Both involve wh questions in which there is
no lexical material (content words)
1- when a prep functions as a complement of TO BE.
Example: look at this boutton? 'What's it 'for?
But if there is lexical material such us: THAT. It follows the usual rule, The nucleus is
on the last lexical item. for example: 'what's that 'button for?
2- when it involves a preposition immediately following a wh word:
for example: you know my essay? 'yes, 'what a'bout it?
When there is lexical material:
for example: you know my essay? 'what d'you want to 'say about it?
3. WH + BE
if a direct or indirect wh question has the pattern WH WORD- BE PRONOUN, then
the nucleus goes on the verb TO BE itself. This need not involve narrow or
contrastive focus of any kind.
(greeting someone) 'how 'are you? / 'tell me how you 'are.
(being showing sth) 'what 'is it? / 'tell me what it 'is.
(hearing someone at the door) 'who 'is it? / I 'wonder who it 'is.
Another example: how would it be? If we met for lunch?
If a speaker answers the question HOW ARE YOU? By repeating the SAME WORDS
BACK, there is normally a change in tonicity. The answer has contrastive focus on
you.
how are you? fine thanks. how are you?
If the verb to be consists of more that one word (has been, will be) the nucleus
goes on the second of them.
Example. welcome back! hows it been? or
Waiter: whatll it be?
SEE PAGE 146 FOR MORE EXAMPLES MOTHER FUCKERS!!!! JEJE
TAKE A LOOK AT OTHER FUNCTION WORDS THAT ATTRACT THE NUCLEUS (which
I considered to be not important but take look at it any way) its on page 148.

FINAL, BUT NOT NUCLEAR


1. EMPTY WORDS AND PRO-FORMS
There are certain words and phrases that tend not to receive the nucleus even
though they may be that last lexical item in the IP.
Some nnouns for example, have little meaning of their own: especially vague
general nouns such as things, people. Those are called empty wordsand they are
usually not accented.
Example: I 'keep 'seeing things. / 'what are you going to 'tell people?
Sometimes expressions like THE MAN, THE WOMAN, ETC, mean little more that HE,
SHE. Like pronouns , therefore, they are not accented when used in that way.
Example: I 'can't 'stand that woman- (I 'can't 'stand her)
Numerals (one, two, three) tend to be accented. However, when ONE is used as a
pronoun a pro-form that is a kind of function word- is not accented and so does
not take the nucleus.
'can I borrow your 'ruler? 'I haven't 'got one.
With a plural or mass noun, the pro-form corresponding to ONE is SOME or ANY.
When used in this way, some and any are not accented too.
'could I borrow some 'sugar? 'I haven't 'got any.
When ONE is used after an adjective, it is not accented.
Example: i'll take this one.
Would you like a 'green one or a 'red one?
Against this general principle, ONE is usually accented in the expressions THE
ONE, THE RIGHT/ WRONG/FIRST/ONLY ONE, WHICH ONE.
Example: (seeing an empty box) you took the 'last 'one.
2. VOCATIVES (page 153)
3. REPORTING CLAUSES (155)
4. ADVERBS OF TIME AND PLACE (156)
5. OTHER UNFOCUSED ADVERBS AND ADVERBIALS (158)

PHRASAL VERBS

1. Verb plus adverbial particle.


A phrasal verb consists of a verb plus a particle that may be an adverb (away, back,
together) or a preposition that can also function as an adverb (by, down, on, up.) the
general rule is that phrasal verbs are lexically DOUBLE-ACCENTED, WITH THE
PRIMARY STRESS GOING ON THE PARTICLE.
Example: she 'passed a'way.
I'll get something to bring 'back with me.
'let the children run a'bout a bit.
There are a few exceptions such as: pour down
it was 'really 'pouring down.
2. Verb plus prepositional particle
a prepositional verb consist of a verb plus a particle that is clearly a preposition:
look at, send for, rely on. These mostly SINGLE- STREESED, WITH THE PRIMARY
STRESS GOING ON THE VERB. THE PREPOSITION IS NOT ACCENTED.
Example: here are the photos 'May I 'look at them?

There are a few exceptions to this rule, in particular, prepositions of more that one
syllable tend to be stressed: ,look 'after for example, is (for most speakers) double-
stressed.
Example: is there 'anyone you want me to look 'after?
'Guess who I bumped 'into the other day?
3. Separated particles
when the particle has been separated from the verb (moved to a position after the
verb), the nucleus does not fall on the adverbial particle, it falls on the lexical object.
(a noun or another lexical material)
example: 'take your 'shoes off / I 'want my 'money back.
However, if the object is a pronoun (that is to say, not lexical), the nucleus goes on
the adverbial particle in the regular way.
'Take them 'off.
I 'want it 'back.
NUCLEUS ON LAST NOUN

1. FINAL VERBS AND ADJECTIVES (what happens when verbs or adjectives are
at the end of a sentence or clause? Should they bear the nucleus?)
There is a general tendency: we tend to put a nucleus on a noun where possible, in
preference to other word classes. In various constructions which involve having a
verb at the end of a sentence or clause, we usually deaccent a final verb and place
the nucleus on the preceding noun.
'How's the 'homework going? I've still have an 'essay to write.
The same deaccenting is applied to the final adjectives in sentences such as:
he 'should keep his 'mouth shut.
But if there is no preceding noun to attract the nucleus, then the nucleus goes on
the last lexical item (the verb or the adjective.)
i've 'still got something to 'write.
He should to keep it 'shut.
What did she 'say?

2. EVENTS
the same preference for placing a nuclear accent on a noun rather that a verb in so-
called event sentences. These are sentences describing events, where the verb is
intransitive. The nucleus tends to be located on the subject even if the verb
contains apparently new information.
Example: the 'phone's ringing. / The 'car won't start. / There's a 'train coming
READ CAREFULLY THE EXPLANATION ON PAGE 173!!

ACCENTING OLD MATERIAL

1. REUSING THE OTHER SPEAKER'S WORDS


sometimes, in a conversation one person echoes back words that another speaker
has just said. Since the second speaker wishes to comment or ask questions about
this material, naturally he accents it.
I can't \stand /wisky. You can'st stand /wisky?
Sometimes the echoed word, although repeated, clearly conveys new information:
you 'say your name's /smith? \yes, \smith.
In this example the first speaker asks the second for information. Supplying that
information involves repeating a word just used for the first speaker. Thus the same
word is reused by the 2nd speaker and the info it conveys is new. That's why it's
brought into focus.
More example: Red or \ white? I'll have the \white, please.
2. REUSING YOUR OWN WORDS
we can also repeat ourselves for emphasis, giving the same information more than
once, and presenting it as fresh each time, focusing on it as new.
I 'can't ac'cept it, I just can't ac'cept it.
This may involve reaccenting the same words as in the example just given or
reaccenting the same ideas while expressing them differently. e.g by using
synonyms.
I 'hate her / I de'test her / I can't 'stand her.

WHAT IS KNOWN?
1. KNOWLEDGE: SHARED, COMMON AND IMPUTED
Material is often placed out of focus because it is given by the context in which it
is uttered. This means that the ideas expressed are implicitly treated as already
known by both speakers (shared knowledge) and perhaps by people in general
(common knowledge) for example, train announcements.
Between stations, you may hear a recorded voice announce:
'This train 'terminates at 'edgware.
The word train is not accented because the announcement is made in a train and
you, the hearer, know you are in a train. For that reason train is not new
information: it is shared knowledge. It can be left out-of-focus. Then, as you
approach the a station you may hear:
the 'next station is 'Oval.
Station is not accented because everyone knows the tain stops at stations.
In addition to this, A speaker may locate the nucleus in such a way as to imply that
something is shared or common knowledge or given information, even if there is no
evidence that that is the case. For instance someone might say:
it 'won't make the 'slightest difference, but I shall 'write and com'plain.
This seems to imply that the hearer already knows that it won't make a difference.
We can say that the speaker IMPUTES (OR ATTRIBUTES) this knowledge to the
hearer. That's why the word difference is out of focus. So, accenting the intensifier
or placing the nucleus on an identyfying word, the speaker imputes knowledge and
opinions to the adresse and thus manipulate the direction of the conversation.

2. DIFFICULT CASES OF TONICITY: SEE PAGE 182!!!

BREAKING THE STREAM OF SPEECH INTO TONE UNITS (BRAZIL)


When language is written or printed, it appears to the eye as divided into words, but
when language is spoken it is heard by the ear as divided into tone units. when we
speak, we break the stream of speech into pieces. These pieces are called tone
units. In order to show where a tone unit is, we use the symbol // (double
boundaries). Notice that the sounds that make up a tone unit usually run together in
a way we are accustomed to thinking of the separate sounds of single words as
being run together.
In each tone unit, we make one syllable more noticeable than the others. We shall
call this syllable a PROMINENT SYLLABLE. And we shall indicate it with UPPER-
CASE LETTERS.
It was DARK / it was WINter.
When there are two prominent syllables in a tone unit, they are not made noticeable
in quite the same way. In the last prominet syllable in each of these tone units (but
not in the first) there is a fall in pitch. We shall the syllable where this fall occurs the
TONIC SYLLABLE. This syllables will be UNDERLINED.
//The LASt of the SHOp assistants//
Breaking up the stream of speech helps a listener in TWO WAYS:
a. the language is handed out in small parcels which can be interpreted one at
time.
b. the grouping of words within a message into longer or shorter sections helps
the listener to undestand the message as a whole.
As well as dividing the up your speech into tone units in different ways, you can
vary the way you attach prominence to particular words. example:
HELPING THE LISTENER TO FOLLOW THE MESSAGE.
when you choose to put prominent syllables in some words but not others you are
helping the listener to follow your message.
PURPOSE OF THE PROMINENCE
it helps the listener to know which words he or she should pay particular attention
to.

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