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BASIC PRINCIPLES:
a. ON A STRESSED SYLLABLE:
The most important decision the speaker has to make in selecting an intonation pattern is
to decide where the nucleus goes. If the nucleus is the last accent in the IP, what is the last
word to be accented?
We know that the nucleus must go on a stressed syllable. By stressed syllable we mean
the syllable that has lexical stress. So, to make a word the nucleus we put a nuclear tone
on its lexically stressed syllable. However, it is essential to know which syllable in each
word bears the stress.
In an intonation phrase, we place the nucleus or nuclear accent on one word that we
distinguish as particularly important for the meaning. take into account these two facts:
- Phonetically, we accent a syllable by giving it a prominent change in pitch, or a
movement in pitch, or the start or a pitch movement. (An accented syllable is also
rhythmically stressed= it has rhythmic beat.)
- pragmatically, we accent a word by accenting its stressed syllable which indicates the the
level of importance of that word for what we are saying.
THE OLD AND THE NEW (INFORMATION STATUS, SYNONYMS, PROSPECTIVE AND
IMPLIED GIVENNESS)
- information status refer to the fact that in English, the location of the nucleus is
strongly affected by whether the words contain old or new information. The general
rule is that we accent new information , but not old information. That is, we
deaccent or remuve potential accents from old information. If all the information is
new, then we can accent all the lexical items. So the nucles will be placed on the last
lexical item:
for example,
- Synonyms:
because of the fact that when we use synonyms we express with different words a
concept already mentioned, synonyms can be considered as old information. Such
synonyms are usually deaccented.
For example:
-if a word is a hypernym of a word (a word whose meaning includes the meaning of
other words) that is a word already mentioned, then it counts as given information
and the nucleus goes elsewhere. For example,
But if a word is a Hyponym (a specific term used to designate a member of a class)
then it counts as new info. In consequence it is accented and attracts the nucleus.
For example:
- propestive and implied givenness (go to page 114)
It is not only repeated words that tend not to be accented, but also words that are
about to be repeated. (lo unico q entend)
FOCUS
1. BROAD AND NARROW FOCUS
Another way of analyzing the linguistic function of tonicity involves the notion of
focus: THE CONCENTRATION OF ATTENTION ON A PARTICULAR PART OF THE
MESSAGE. When we utter an IP, we can either bring everything into focus (BROAD
FOCUS) or we can focus selectively on one part of it (NARROW FOCUS.)
The part of the IP that is placed in focus is called the FOCUS DOMAIN. The nucleus
marks the end of a focus domain.
Maximally, Broad focus means that the focus domain is the whole IP: everything in
the in the IP is brought into focus. We would use broad focus for example, when
answering the question: what happened?
What happened next? - everyone burst out 'laughing.
To give a stretch of utterance broad focus we use a neutral tonicity which means we
have to place the nucleus on the last lexical item.
Differently, in narrow focus, only a part of what is said is brought into focus. For
example, if we are asked a question, and in our answer we repeat part of the
material from the question, then that part will be old information and it will not be
brought into focus. This means that the lexical items in the old info will not be
accented.
For example:
2. CONTRASTIVE FOCUS
contrastive focus is a particular kind of narrow focus. Here the nuclear accent
draws attention to a contrast the speaker is making. Any following material withing
the same IP is unaccented and forms part of the tail of the IP. For example:
you may have started your essay, but have you 'finished it? (in this example the
contrast is between started and finished)
any word can be accented for contrast, including a function word. A pronoun,a
preposition virtually any word can bear the nucleus, if it is contrastive:
e. I'm writing a letter. What are 'you doing?
f. It wasn't 'under the table, but actually 'on it.
4. FINAL DEMONSTRATIVES, THIS, THAT, THESE, THOSE when they are at the
end of the utterance tend to convey new information and attract the nucleus.
Example: 'look at 'this!
'Who's 'that?
The word THERE, also tend to attract the nucleus if it refers to a place that is new
but not if it refers to a place that has already been mentioned.
Example:
'Hold it right 'there! But,
'how long will it take to 'get there?
PHRASAL VERBS
There are a few exceptions to this rule, in particular, prepositions of more that one
syllable tend to be stressed: ,look 'after for example, is (for most speakers) double-
stressed.
Example: is there 'anyone you want me to look 'after?
'Guess who I bumped 'into the other day?
3. Separated particles
when the particle has been separated from the verb (moved to a position after the
verb), the nucleus does not fall on the adverbial particle, it falls on the lexical object.
(a noun or another lexical material)
example: 'take your 'shoes off / I 'want my 'money back.
However, if the object is a pronoun (that is to say, not lexical), the nucleus goes on
the adverbial particle in the regular way.
'Take them 'off.
I 'want it 'back.
NUCLEUS ON LAST NOUN
1. FINAL VERBS AND ADJECTIVES (what happens when verbs or adjectives are
at the end of a sentence or clause? Should they bear the nucleus?)
There is a general tendency: we tend to put a nucleus on a noun where possible, in
preference to other word classes. In various constructions which involve having a
verb at the end of a sentence or clause, we usually deaccent a final verb and place
the nucleus on the preceding noun.
'How's the 'homework going? I've still have an 'essay to write.
The same deaccenting is applied to the final adjectives in sentences such as:
he 'should keep his 'mouth shut.
But if there is no preceding noun to attract the nucleus, then the nucleus goes on
the last lexical item (the verb or the adjective.)
i've 'still got something to 'write.
He should to keep it 'shut.
What did she 'say?
2. EVENTS
the same preference for placing a nuclear accent on a noun rather that a verb in so-
called event sentences. These are sentences describing events, where the verb is
intransitive. The nucleus tends to be located on the subject even if the verb
contains apparently new information.
Example: the 'phone's ringing. / The 'car won't start. / There's a 'train coming
READ CAREFULLY THE EXPLANATION ON PAGE 173!!
WHAT IS KNOWN?
1. KNOWLEDGE: SHARED, COMMON AND IMPUTED
Material is often placed out of focus because it is given by the context in which it
is uttered. This means that the ideas expressed are implicitly treated as already
known by both speakers (shared knowledge) and perhaps by people in general
(common knowledge) for example, train announcements.
Between stations, you may hear a recorded voice announce:
'This train 'terminates at 'edgware.
The word train is not accented because the announcement is made in a train and
you, the hearer, know you are in a train. For that reason train is not new
information: it is shared knowledge. It can be left out-of-focus. Then, as you
approach the a station you may hear:
the 'next station is 'Oval.
Station is not accented because everyone knows the tain stops at stations.
In addition to this, A speaker may locate the nucleus in such a way as to imply that
something is shared or common knowledge or given information, even if there is no
evidence that that is the case. For instance someone might say:
it 'won't make the 'slightest difference, but I shall 'write and com'plain.
This seems to imply that the hearer already knows that it won't make a difference.
We can say that the speaker IMPUTES (OR ATTRIBUTES) this knowledge to the
hearer. That's why the word difference is out of focus. So, accenting the intensifier
or placing the nucleus on an identyfying word, the speaker imputes knowledge and
opinions to the adresse and thus manipulate the direction of the conversation.