Utility Scale PV Systems

Utility Scale PV Systems
A Short Workshop on:
Basic Design and Plant Management

EBTKE CONTEX 2014
Jakarta
4-6 June 2014
03/06/2014 www.APEG.us Page 1

Solar PV by GIZ
Course Overview
Session I: Introduction
10.30 - 11.50 to PV and Grid Connected System
Brief Overview: The presentation will provide information on Basic Principles of
Solar PV, Solar PV technology and Components of PV Systems
11.50 - 13.30 Friday pray and lunch break
13.30 - 15.00 Session II: System Design and Planning
Brief Overview: The presentation will provide information on Site Assesment,
System Sizing, and Components Selection
15.00 - 15.30 Coffee Break
15.30 - 17.00 Session IIIa: Operation and Maintenance
Brief Overview: The presentation will provide information on Installation Aspects,
Commissioning, Performance Ratio and Remote Monitoring
Session IIIb: Grid Interconnection
Brief Overview: The presentation will provide information on Utility interface,
components selection and an introduction to load flow study.
17.00 Closing, by GIZ & DGNREEC
What should you get out of it?
Overview of grid connect solar PV systems
and its components
Commissioning guidelines
Ability to size a grid connect system
Develop clarity around the utility interface
Procurement guidelines/specifications

Introduction to PV and Grid Connected System
SESSION

Introduction - Perspective on Renewables
Massive attention on renewable energy internationally
why?
Fossil fuel (ff) contribution/driver of GLOBAL WARMING
Serious ff resource scarcity concerns peak oil
Resulting supply and price volatility

Island Nations
The exposure and impact on the
reliance of fossil fuel is nowhere as
apparent as in Island Nations like
Indonesia
Long expensive - shipping routes for
diesel (also needing diesel)
No lower cost distribution system to
smaller islands(such as rail
system/pipelines) due to scattered land
Increase in global demand by
influential countries such as BRIC
countries (Brazil, Russia, India, China)
Higher demand, concerns of limited
supplies, wars, catastrophes result in
pricing havoc

Renewable Energy
Options: Solar PV & wind:
RE with storage is of interest: Grid connected solar PV and wind is of
interest:
hydro (geology & weather)
Can currently reduce reliance on diesel
biomass to electricity (resource)
but cannot eliminate it on its own.
Base load RE: PV and wind are intermittent resources
Run of river (weather, season) There is a penetration limit to these
Ocean energy (development stage) technologies Storage technologies will
therefore be a key development area for
More the remote Indonesian areas and
islands

Dispatchable vs. Intermittent
Dispatchable: Intermittent:
On demand Not always available
The resource is Some unscheduled
available at all like wind
time
Some are scheduled,
Diesel fuel, like solar PV, but
coal, large dam there is uncertainty
about the amount of
power
Every power system requires some level of dispatchable power.

One cannot run small island grids on solar and wind without storage.

Grid-connected Solar PV
Off-grid is quite different.
Most systems installed in Indonesia are off-grid systems. They are quite different to on-grid
or grid connected systems.
Compared to Off-grid Solar PV

Grid connected: Off-grid:
No storage (grid) Storage (hours to days)
Asynchronous Synchronous
Cheaper (15-25 US$c/kWh) More costly (30 to 50 US$c/kWh)
Power when sun shines Power on demand
Low maintenance More maintenance
Full use of solar energy Solar power lost when batteries full

Cost of a PV system
COST OF A GRID CONNECTED ...INCLUDING INSTALLATION
PV SYSTEM
[CATEGORY
NAME]
[CATEGORY [PERCENTA
NAME], GE]
[VALUE]
[CATEGORY
NAME],
BOS
[VALUE]
15%
[CATEGORY Inverter PV Module

NAME] 10% 60%
[VALUE]
The PV Modules count for more than 65% of the overall system cost are PV module
costs.
The Inverter costs are roughly 10%. While the BOS (structure, wiring, switchgear,
installation) is 20%.
Cost Developments
PV module cost
Downward trend. Why?:
The global PV market has
developed substantial
production capacity.
Increased economies of
scale. Cheaper
production processes are
being developed.
While prices used to be
USD 5 per Wpeak a few
years ago, prices are now
USD 0.50 1.25/Wp.
Further decreases are
expected.
Source: Optics.org
Solar PV contribution for PLN
Solar PV grid systems will There are, however, limitations to
reduce fuel consumption. the overall percentage integration
of solar PV exist.
Solar PV will not reduce
maintenance costs of diesel as High PV penetration levels (30%)
the hours of operation are not in grid may require some short-
reduced. term storage.
The larger the contribution from
solar PV the more stable the
generation price (less
susceptible to oil price
fluctuations).

Short Introduction on PV and Grid Connected System
Houses, Schools, Office Buildings
Off Grid Homes Lighting, cooling, home & garden
Not connected to devices, water pumps, etc.
the power grid
Industry
Telecommunication, Navigation
PV SYSTEMS Systems, Transportation signaling,
Medical power supply systems,
Distributed Residential etc.
On Grid Non-residential
Connected to the Individual homes and buildings,
power grid Centralized Offices, Hotels, Sound Barriers,
Commercial Centers, etc.
Macro/Mini-Grid
Connected to the power Power Plants, Utility Scale, 250
grid but with back-up
kWp up to multiple MWs
Island or village mini-grids, several

public buildings, AC-bus systems,
10 kWp till MW

Centralized - Utility Scale PV Power Plants

What is Considered Small-Medium-Scale PV?
PV installations are typically separated into three categories:
Residential installed in homeowners premises, typically less than 10 kW.
These types of installations are typically connected on the customers side of
the meter and the energy produced is used predominantly on site.
Customer-side generation their interconnection is conducted pursuant to specific
interconnection procedures.
Non-residential includes installations at government buildings and retail
stores ranging from tens of kilowatts (kW) to several MW
Utility scale The PLN has issued separate interconnection
guidelines/procedures for large generators, those with nameplate capacity
greater than 10 MW, and for small generators, those with nameplate capacity
less than or equal to 10 MW.

Trend Toward Large-Scale PV Plants
The price of PV systems has decreased dramatically over the past
years, particularly for large PV systems.
Utility-scale PV plants are typically owned and operated by a third party
and sells the electricity to a market or load serving entity through a
Purchase Power Agreement (PPA).
The 66 megawatt (AC) Alpine

solar photovoltaic facility, is
currently the largest fully
operational solar plant in
California.
Source: NRG Energy, Inc.

System Design - Basics
In preparation for a system design the It is important to choose a proper
following key criteria must be considered: Inverter, including:
Output power desired Voltage range of the inverter

Irradiation Current range or maximum DC
input current of the inverter
Budget available
Open-circuit voltage of the array
What type of installation: (panels/modules)
Roof top or Ground
Number of strings (minimum
Space available string is desired)
PV type -mounted or integrated Inverter efficiency at different
voltage and capacity
Suitable PV Module and Inverter

Important Considerations
Optimum Profitability
Tilt Angle
PV Panel type System Losses (Performance
Inverter type Ratio)
- Shadows, dust
- Panel tolerance
Resource Evaluation - Temperature
- Latitude, Longitude, Altitude - Inverter
- Irradiation Data (internet) - Cables

Note: Position of Sun Throughout the Year
23.45 23.45
degrees degrees
December 22nd March and June

September 21st 21st
December
Solstice Equinox June Solstice
Sun over tropic Sun over tropic Sun over tropic
of Capricorn of Equator of Cancer

Components in the System
Solar
SolarPV array modules,
PV array modules,mounting
mounting
structure structure
String
String combiner andprotection
combiner and protection
All important in the
Lightning
Lightning arrestors
arrestors system design.
Faulty
Faulty string
string protection
protection
DC
DC wiring and structures
wiring and structures
Grid inverter / transformers
Grid inverter / transformers
Metering and switchgear
Metering and switchgear

Questions and Answers
Terima Kasih
03/06/2014 company presentation 2012 Page 21
Systems Design & Planning
SESSION

Designing a PV Grid-tied System
Minimum requirements and standards

Introduction
The presentation provides the minimum knowledge required when designing a PV
Grid connect system.
The actual design criteria could include additional information like available space etc.
Prior to designing any Grid Connected PV system a designer shall either visit the site
or arrange for a work colleague to visit the site
This presentation focuses only on:

Determining the energy yield, specific yield and performance ratio of the grid connect
PV system.
Determining the inverter size based on the size of the array.
Matching the array configuration to the selected inverter maximum voltage and
voltage operating windows.
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presentation 2014 Page 24
Prior to designing any Grid Connected PV system a
Site Visit: designer shall either visit the site and
undertake/determine/obtain the following:
Assess the occupational safety and health risks when working on that particular site.
Determine the solar access for the site.
Determine whether any shading will occur and estimate its effect on the system.
Determine the orientation and tilt angle of the roof if the solar array is to be roof mounted.
Determine how the modules will be mounted on the roof.
Determine the available area for the solar array.
Determine whether the roof is suitable for mounting the array.
Determine how the modules will be mounted on the roof.
Determine where the inverter will be located.
Determine the cabling route and therefore estimate the lengths of the cable runs.
Determine whether monitoring panels or screens are required and determine a suitable
location with the owner

Other Important Documentation
Full Specifications of the system including quantity,
make (manufacturer) and model number of the solar
modules and inverter.
An estimate of the yearly energy output of the system.
This should be based on the available solar irradiation
The certified for the tilt angle and orientation of the array. If the array
designer should will be shaded at any time the effect of the shadows
provide must be taken into account when determining the
yearly energy output.
(as a minimum) The dollar savings this represents based on existing
the following electrical energy pricing
information: A firm quotation which includes all equipment and
installation charges
Warranty information relating to each of the items of
equipment
If possible the savings in CO2 (either tonnes or kg)
could also be provided.

Available Standards for Design
Many countries are have standards in place for designing solar systems.
Most are related to:
Wiring Rules
Cable Selection
Grid connections
Installation of PV Arrays
Lighting Protection
Interconnection
As well as standards for inverters, panels and safety devices

AC Energy Output of a PV Array
The AC energy output of a solar array is the electrical AC
energy delivered to the grid at the point of connection of the
grid connect inverter to the grid.
Average solar radiation data for selected tilt

angle and orientation;
The output of the Manufacturing tolerance of modules;
Temperature effects on the modules;
solar array is Effects of dirt on the modules;
affected by: System losses (eg power loss in cable); and
Inverter efficiency

Design Parameters
Energy Yield: For a specified peak power rating (kWp) for a solar array a
designer can determine the systems energy output over the whole year.
The system energy output over a whole year is known as the systems
Energy Yield
Array Losses/Output
System Losses
Solar Radiation: Solar irradiation is typically provided as kWh/m2 .
However it can be stated as daily peak Sunhrs (PSH). This is the
equivalent number of hours of solar irradiance of 1kW/m2.
Orientation and Tilt
Deration of module

Calculations
Energy Yield:
Esys = Parray_STC x ftemp x fman x fdirt x Htilt x pv_inv x inv x inv-sb
Array Losses/Output
Parray_STC = rated output power of the array under standard test conditions, in watts
ftemp = temperature de-rating factor, dimensionless (refer to next section)
fman = de-rating factor for manufacturing tolerance, dimensionless (refer to next section)
fdirt = de-rating factor for dirt, dimensionless (refer to next section)
Htilt = yearly irradiation value (kWh/m2) for the selected site (allowing for tilt, orientation and shading)
System Losses
pv_inv = efficiency of the subsystem (cables) between array and inverter
inv = efficiency of the inverter, dimensionless
inv-sb = efficiency of the subsystem (cables) between the inverter and the switchboard

Time to Calculate Step-by-step

Derating Modules
1. Derating due to Manufacturers Output Tolerance fman
2. Derating due to dirt fdirt
3. Derating due to Temperature ftemp

Derating
Manufacturer fman Worked Example:
The output of a PV module is specified in The tolerance of the selected
watts and with a manufacturing tolerance module is 3% the worst case
based on a cell temperature of 25 adjusted output of a 291W PV
degrees C. module is therefore around 285W
Historically 5% (0.97 x 300W), or 3% loss from the
rated 300W.
recent years typical figures have been
3% System design must incorporate this
tolerance.

Selected Parts
Selected PV Module for this example: Selected Inverter for this example:
Trina Solar TSM-

PD14
72 Cell poly
crystalline SUNNY CENTRAL 500CP XT
300 W output Max. DC power 560 kW

Min. input voltage 400 V
Max. input voltage 1000 V

Derating fdirt
Dirt Worked Example Continues:
The output of a PV module can be Assuming power loss due to dirt

reduced as a result of a build-up of of 5% then the already derated
dirt on the surface of the module. 291 W module would now be
If in doubt, an acceptable derating derated further to 276.5W
would be 5% from the already
(0.95 x 291W).
derated figure that includes
manufacturers tolerances

Derating
Worked Example Continues:
Temperature ftemp Assume the ambient temperature is 30oC.
A solar modules output power decreases Therefore the effective cell temperature is
with temperature above 25C and increases
with temperatures below 25C 30oC +25oC = 55oC
Minimum Effective Cell Temp = Ambient
Temperature + 25C Therefore this is 30oC above the STC
temperature of 25oC
Monocrystalline Modules
Assume the 300Wp module used in the example
Monocrystalline Modules typically have a is a polycrystalline module with a derating of -
temperature coefficient of 0.45%/oC. That is 0.45%/oC
for every degree above 25oC the output power
is derated by 0.45%.
Therefore the output power losses due to
Polycrystalline Modules temperature would be:
Polycrystalline Modules typically have a Temperature loss = 30oC x 0.45%/oC = 15% loss
temperature coefficient of 0.5%/oC.
Assuming power loss due to temperature of 15%
Thin Film Modules then the already derated 276.5 W module would
Thin film Modules have a different temperature now be derated further to 235W
characteristic resulting in a lower co-efficient
typically around 0%/C to - 0.25%/C, but (0.85 x 276.5W)
remember to check with the manufacturer

Derating Module
Summary
For the worked example:
A solar module has an derated
output power = Derated output power =
Module power @ STC x Derating 300 x 0.97 x 0.95 x 0.85 = 235W
due to manufacturers tolerances x
Derating due to dirt x Derating due to PSTC X fman X fdirt X ftemp = Pderated output
temperature

DC Output of the Array
The actual DC energy from the For the worked example:

array = the derated output power of Assume that the average daily PSH is 5 and
the module x number of modules x that we want to install a 1 MWp system
(nametag).
irradiation for the tilt and azimuth
angle of the array. There will be 1,000,000W/300W= 3,334
modules in the array.
235 x 3,334 x 5= 3,917,450 Wh or 3,917 kWh

DC System Losses pv_inv

The DC energy output of the Assume that the cable losses for the DC cables
solar array will be further is 3%.
reduced by the power loss This is a DC subsystem efficiency of 97% .

(voltage drop) in the DC Therefore the DC energy from the array that will
be delivered to the input of the inverter will be
cable connecting the solar
array to the grid connect = 3917 kWh x 0.97 = 3799 kWh
inverter.

Inverter Efficiency inv
The DC energy delivered to Assume that the inverter efficiency
the input of the inverter will is 96%.
be further reduced by the
Therefore the AC energy delivered
power/energy loss in the from the output of the inverter will be
inverter.
= 3789 x 0.96 = 3647 kWh

AC System Losses inv-sb
The AC energy output of the For the worked example:

inverter will be further reduced by
Assume that the cable losses for the AC
the power loss in the AC cable
cables is 1%.
connecting the inverter to the grid,
say switchboard where it is
connected. the AC energy from the inverter (and
originally from the array) that will be
delivered to the grid will be =3647 x 0.99
= 3610 kWh

Energy Yield of the Example
Esys = Parray_STC x ftemp x fman x fdirt x Htilt x pv_inv x inv x inv-sb
Array Losses/Output
The worked example included an
Parray_STC = rated output power of the array under standard test conditions, in watts
array of 3,334 modules each with a
STC rating of 300Wp. Therefore ftemp = temperature de-rating factor, dimensionless (refer to next section)
the array is rated 1,000,200 Wp.
fman = de-rating factor for manufacturing tolerance, dimensionless (refer to next
The average daily AC energy that section)
was delivered by the array to the fdirt = de-rating factor for dirt, dimensionless (refer to next section)
grid was 3610 kWh or 3.61 MWh.
Htilt = yearly irradiation value (kWh/m2) for the selected site (allowing for tilt,
Therefore over a typical year of orientation and shading)
365 days then Energy Yield of the
solar array is System Losses
365 days x 3.61 MWh/day = 1,318 pv_inv = efficiency of the subsystem (cables) between array and inverter
MWh/year inv = efficiency of the inverter, dimensionless
Or 1,317,650 kWh / year inv-sb = efficiency of the subsystem (cables) between the inverter and the
switchboard

Specific Energy Yield
The specific energy yield is
expressed in kWh per kWp and it The AC energy from the array
is calculated as follows: was 1,318 MWh/year and the
array was rated at 1MWp.
Therefore the specific energy

yield is:
1,318 / 1.000 = 1,318 MWh per
MWp

Performance Ratio
The performance ratio (PR) is used to Ideal Energy
access the installation quality . The PR
provides a normalized basis so
comparison of different types and sizes
of PV systems can be undertaken. The
performance ratio is a reflection of the Where
system losses. Htilt = yearly average daily irradiation, in
kWh/m2 for the specified tilt angle
Parray_STC = rated output power of the
Where array under standard test conditions, in
Esys = actual yearly energy yield from watts
the system
Eideal =the ideal energy output of the
array.

Performance Ratio Example
The average daily PSH was 5.

Therefore the yearly irradiation (or PSH) would be:
5 x 365= 1,825 kWh/m2 (that is 1825 PSH).
The rated power of the array at STC is 1,000,200 Wp (@kWh/m2).
Therefore the ideal energy from the array per year would be: 1,000.2 kW x 1,825 h =
1,825,365 kWh
The AC energy from the solar array was 1,318,000 kWh per year.
Therefore the performance ratio is 1,318,000 / 1,825,365 = 0.72
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presentation 2012 Page 45
Inverter Selection
The energy output of the array
The matching of the allowable
inverter string configurations with
the size of the array in kW and
the size of the individual
The selection of the inverter for modules within that array
the installation will depend on:
Whether the system will have
one central inverter or multiple
(smaller/string) inverters

Inverter Sizing
Inverters currently available are Worked Example:
typically rated for:
The array comprises 3,334 of the 300
Maximum DC input power. i.e. Wp crystalline modules.
the size of the array in peak
watts; Therefore the array peak power =
3,334 x 300 = 1,000.2 kW = 1MW
Maximum DC input current;
and
Maximum specified output Should the inverter be rated 1,000 kW?
power. i.e. the AC power they
can provide to the grid;

Inverter with Crystalline Modules
Based on figures of :
0.97 for manufacturer,
0.95 for dirt and MATCHING ARRAY VOLTAGE TO THE
MAXIMUM AND MINIMUM INVERTER
0.85 for temperature (Based on
OPERATING VOLTAGES
ambient temperature of 30o C)
The derating of the array is: 0.97
x 0.95 x 0.85 = 0.78

Temperature Effect on Array Voltage
The output power of a solar module is affected by
the temperature of the solar cells.
This variation in power due to temperature is also
reflected in a variation in the open circuit voltage
and maximum power point voltage.
Voltage Windows of Inverters
With the odd exception grid interactive inverters
include Maximum Power Point (MPP) trackers.
Many of the inverters available will have a
voltage operating window.
If the solar voltage is outside this window the
inverter might not operate or the output of the
solar array might be greatly reduced.
In the case where a maximum input voltage is
specified and the array voltage is above the
maximum specified then the inverter could be
damaged.
Minimum Voltage of Inverter
When the temperature is at a maximum then the Maximum Power

Point (MPP) voltage (Vmp) of the array should never fall below the
minimum operating voltage of the inverter.
It is recommended that maximum effective cell temperature of 70C

is used.

Minimum Voltage of Inverter
Working Example:
The module selected has a rated MPP If we assume a maximum voltage drop in the cables of
voltage of 36.9 V and a voltage (Vmp) 3% then the voltage at the inverter for each module
co-efficient of -0.44% /C. would be
An effective cell temperature of 70C is 0.97 x 29.6 = 28.7 V
45 above the STC temperature of
25C. This is the effective minimum MPP voltage input at the
inverter for each module in the array.
Therefore the Vmp voltage would be Assume that the minimum voltage window for an
reduced by inverter is 430 V.
45 x 0.16 (36.9V x 0.44%) = 7.30 V Recommended that a safety margin of 10% is used.
Minimum inverter voltage of 1.1 x 430 V = 473 V

should be used.
The Vmp @ 70C would be
The minimum number of modules in a string is
36.9 V 7.30 = 29.6 V
= 473 / 28.7 = 16.5 rounded up to 17 modules

Maximum Voltage of Inverter
At the coldest daytime temperature the open circuit voltage of the

array shall never be greater than the maximum allowed input
voltage for the inverter.
Therefore the lowest daytime temperature for the area where the
system is installed shall be used to determine the maximum Voc.

Maximum Voltage of Inverter
Working Example: Array Solution:
Assume the minimum effective cell temperature is 20C, with
We required 3,334 modules
the open circuit voltage ( Voc ) of 41.2 V and a voltage (Voc)
co-efficient of -0.33% /C. Each string must have a max of 23
and a minimum of 17 modules
An effective cell temperature of 20C is 5 below the STC
temperature of 25C. Therefore we could have 159
parallel strings of 21 modules.
Therefore the Voc would be increased by 5 x 0.14 (41.2 x
0.33%)= 0.68 V
The Voc @ 20C would be 41.2 + 0.68 = 41.9V
Assume the maximum voltage allowed by the inverter is

1000V.
The maximum number of modules in the string, is
= 1000 / 41.9 = 23.9 rounded down to 23 modules

Question
How many inverters do we
need to use IF we take the
selected SMA Inverter?
This part and other

component sizing will be
addressed in a PV Grid-
connecting Designer
Course

Review
System Losses
1. Temperature: (9%) +10C 4% received energy
2. Inverter: We can consider about 6%. New inverters can

reach 4%
3. Cable: AC, DC & other electric devices: < 2%
4. Panel tolerance: It shouldnt be higher than 3%
5. Pollution, dispersion & reflectance: aprox.3%
6. Shadowing: They should be below 4%.
7. Other losses (incidences, etc). 2%

Key to Optimize the Performance Ratio
Choose cool locations, as elevated areas

Cleaning the modules in long periods without rain
Select inverters with high efficiency and Maximum

Power Point Tracking (MPPT)
Balance the separation between panel rows (to

Consider extra cable sizing avoiding long avoid shadowing) with the optimization of the
traces with voltage drops surface area
Minimize the impact of breakdowns, with a

preventive maintenance
Choose solar panels with tolerances
between +/-2-3%

Effect of Shadows
In towns and cities where grid connect

systems will be predominant the roof
of the house or building will not
always be free of shadows during
parts of the day.
Care should therefore be taken when
selecting the number of modules in a
string because the shadow could
result in the maximum power point
voltage at high temperatures being
below the minimum operating voltage
of the inverter.

System Configuration
Once the modules and inverters are selected, the configuration of the system
allows to maximize the produced energy
It is possible that in some cases we should consider the use of a different
module or inverter in order to improve the system performance.
The configuration of the systems takes into account:
Maximum input voltage of the inverter
Maximum input current of the inverter
Voltage and current at Maximum Power Point
When designing the solar panel configuration in series and parallels, we must take
into account that the voltage and current of the branch will change depending on the
temperature. Therefore it will be necessary to choose extreme values of the region
for the calculation.

Electrical Calculation
It is very important to take into account:

I. Maximum current in the cables
II. Maximum allowed voltage drop.
III. If there is a long distance the main factor to determine the cable
section will be the voltage drop.
IV. If there is a very short distance the current that flows along the cable
will determine the section of the cable

Questions and Answers
Terima Kasih

Utility Scale PV Systems

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Utility Scale PV Systems

A Short Workshop on:

Basic Design and Plant Management

03/06/2014 www.APEG.us Page 1

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Fossil fuel (ff) contribution/driver of GLOBAL WARMING

Serious ff resource scarcity concerns peak oil

Resulting supply and price volatility

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Every power system requires some level of dispatchable power.

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Compared to Off-grid Solar PV

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[CATEGORY Inverter PV Module

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Island or village mini-grids, several

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The 66 megawatt (AC) Alpine

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following key criteria must be considered: Inverter, including:

Output power desired Voltage range of the inverter

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December 22nd March and June

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This presentation focuses only on:

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Average solar radiation data for selected tilt

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1. Derating due to Manufacturers Output Tolerance fman

2. Derating due to dirt fdirt

3. Derating due to Temperature ftemp

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Trina Solar TSM-

300 W output Max. DC power 560 kW

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Dirt Worked Example Continues:

The output of a PV module can be Assuming power loss due to dirt

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The actual DC energy from the For the worked example:

235 x 3,334 x 5= 3,917,450 Wh or 3,917 kWh

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For the worked example:

reduced by the power loss This is a DC subsystem efficiency of 97% .

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The AC energy output of the For the worked example:

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