Creating a Low-Anxiety Classroom Environment: What Does Language Anxiety Research

Suggest?
Author(s): Dolly Jesusita Young
Source: The Modern Language Journal, Vol. 75, No. 4 (Winter, 1991), pp. 426-439
Published by: Wiley on behalf of the National Federation of Modern Language Teachers
Associations
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/329492
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 Creating a Low-Anxiety Classroom
Environment: What Does Language
Anxiety Research Suggest?
DOLLY JESUSITA YOUNG
Department of Romance Languages
University of Tennessee
Knoxville, TN 37996

CURRENTLY, INCREASED ATTENTION IS BEING language learning. In the past few years,
ever, advances in measurement and th
given to language learners and their perspec-
tives, motivations, beliefs about language have
lear- resulted in much more productive
ning, learning styles, learning strategies, guage
and anxiety research (29). Improved me
language anxieties.1 Regardless of method,and we measurements, alongside a clearer,
know that learners need to adopt attitudes and
precise theory of language anxiety, have l
a better understanding of its sources in
strategies that pay off in terms of low anxiety,
foreign and second language classroom.
high motivation, and ultimately in the ability
to convey information and communicate ideas In the past, research in the area of anx
and feelings. One of the current challenges as in
it relates to second or foreign language
second and foreign language teaching is to ing
pro-and performance was scattered and in
clusive. Some of this research established its ex-
vide students with a learner-centered, low-anx-
iety classroom environment. In our push to
istence.2 Other scholars investigated its effect
create such an environment we need to consult
on language learning and performance3 (see
Appendix for a summary of this research).
research and theory on language anxiety for
classroom implications. While some of this research suggested that a
From a careful examination of the language
relationship between anxiety and foreign or sec-
anxiety literature, six general sources ofond language performance existed,' other fin-
language anxiety can be discerned and dings suggested no relationship between anxi-
numerous suggestions for reducing it can beety and performance (1; 5; 38; 48). Even within
identified. To discuss what can be done to these studies, however, anxiety may have been
reduce language anxiety, we must notnegatively
only related to one language skill and not
to another; conversely, it may have been
identify its sources, but also recognize expres-
sions of stress in learners. This article pro- related to one and not to another (7;
positively
46; 49). In one study (44), second language per-
gresses, therefore, from a general presentation
of language anxiety research, to a discussion
formance was not significantly related to anxi-
of six potential sources of anxiety inety,
thebut seemed to influence the quality of
language
classroom, to a discussion of ways in which anx- performance; in another (23), some
anxiety
iety is manifested in learners, and, finally, to enhanced oral performance.
a list of suggestions for reducing anxiety.The problem with much of the research was
that the relationship between anxiety and lan-
RESEARCH ON FOREIGN AND SECOND guage learning/performance could not be
LANGUAGE ANXIETY
viewed without taking into account an assort-
ment ofto
Until recently, it has been difficult variables, such as language setting,
demonstrate concisely the effects ofanxiety
anxietydefinitions,
on anxiety measures, age of
subjects, language skill, and research design.
Comparisons among studies were often hin-
The Modern Language Journal, 75, iv (1991) dered by a lack of consistencies in a variety of
0026-7902/91/0004/426 $1.50/0
areas. Factors often overlooked when decipher-
?1991 The Modern Language Journal
ing anxiety research results included whether

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 Dolly J. Young 427
the anxiety two significant sources of learner and
definition anxiety
monious; this rubric. Bailey the
whether contends that competi
inte
(i.e., state, ness
trait, can lead to anxiety
test when language
anx lea
debilitating, compare classroom
themselves to others or to ananide
fined in self-image.
accordance with t
the research;5 and
Similarly, Krashen wheth
suggests that an indi-
designed to examine
vidual's degree of self-esteem is highly related one
a number to languagevariables
of anxiety: ". . . the more I think (m
personality, aboutself-esteem,
self-esteem, the more impressed I am e
of this with its impact. This isdid
research what causes anxiety
not in ad
iety nor dida lot of
it people. People
describewith low self-esteem it
language learning.
worry about what their peers think; they are
Horwitz, concerned with pleasing others. And that
Horwitz, and I C
first to think has to do a foreign
treat great degree with anxiety" (52: la
separate p. 15). distinct
and phe
to languagePricelearning.
reports that the majority of her sub- Th
largely from clinical
jects believed their language skills to be weaker dat
dence (33). We
than those ofhave seen
the others in class; that they in
however, an increase
"weren't in
doing a good job and that everyone else ev
their theory. Empirical
looked down on them; that they should have dat
iety specific to
done much better than they language
did; that if they
reported inhad only worked a little harder they could have (21).
Horwitz
evidence can beat this
been successful found
task" (p. 106). Hembree in M
ner (29-33). investigates
Also developed
the relationship between ability and
has been a body
anxiety and concluded of researc
that "the higher the stu-
dents' perspectives
dent's ability level, the lower the test anxiety"anxi
on
ning. Through interview
(p. 73). It would seem, then, that students who
diaries, and start
self-report
out with a self-perceived low ability level in
learners offer
in a foreign insight
or second language are the likeliest into
addition, interviews
candidates for language anxiety, or any other with
provide insight regardin
type of anxiety for that matter.
from the language instruc
Other potential sources of personal and inter-
(52). In general, the
personal anxieties have been proposed recent
on the
and secondbasislanguage of theoretical considerations. Anxieties anx
theory of an
stemminganxiety
from personal and interpersonal par
learning. issues in the language learning context have
been related to communication apprehension
SOURCES OF LANGUAGE ANXIETY (11; 22; 50), social anxiety (50), and anxiety
specific to language learning. According to
In a close review of the literature Leary, constructs such as speech anxiety,
on anxiety
in language learning, at least sixshyness,
potential
stage fright, embarrassment, social-
sources of language anxiety can be evaluative
identified. anxiety, and communication ap-
Some are associated with the learner, some with
prehension, although not exactly synonymous,
the teacher, and some with the instructional
encompass one psychological phenomenon:
practice. From an analysis of this research,
social anxiety (p. 98). By definition, social anx-
language anxiety arises from: 1) personal and
iety surfaces from "the prospect or presence of
interpersonal anxieties; 2) learner beliefs about evaluation in real or imagined
interpersonal
language learning; 3) instructor beliefs about (p. 102). For Leary, "some of
social settings"
language teaching; 4) instructor-learner inter-such as audience anxiety, speech
these terms,
actions; 5) classroom procedures; anxiety,
and 6) andlan-communication apprehension, are
guage testing. typically used when people experience social
Personal and interpersonal issues are pro-
anxiety while performing or speaking before
bably the most commonly cited and discussed
others" (p. 102). Although social anxiety may
sources of language anxiety in most studies.
contribute to language anxiety, Krashen, Rar-
Low self-esteem and competitiveness are Terrell
din, and the (52) suggest that certain

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 428 The Modern Language Journal 75 (1991)

psychological phenomena areLearner

particular
beliefs about to the
language learning are
a majoras
foreign language setting, such contributor
the conceptsto language anxiety.
of "group membership" andGynanexistential anxiety.
reports on a variety of practices learners
Krashen posits that anxiety believein the language
are important for successful language
learning context is wrapped up
learning. in the
His learners phe-
believe, for instance, that
nomenon he refers to as "club membership."7
pronunciation is the most important practice
He argues that the affectiveinfilter is down
language learning. Otherwhen
preferred learning
practices, of
you consider yourself a member in order
the of popularity,
group were - vocabu-
in this context a member of
lary, the conjugation,
classroom Spanish, communication,
French, German "club," or memorization
whatever the tar-
of grammar, travel to a country
get language group is (p. where
16). the language is spoken, translation, and
Terrell associates foreignmaking
language
friends (p.anxiety
9). Similarly, language
with what he calls "target language learners in Horwitz's
group (20) iden-
study: 1) expressed
tification," similar to Krashen's "group
great concern mem-of their utter-
over the correctness
bership" phenomenon, but Terrell
ances; takes
2) placed a great deal of the
stress on speak-
concept one step further. Terrell ing with "ansuggests that
excellent accent"; 3) supported the
"children acquire their firstnotion that language
language and learning
a sec- is primarily
ond language in order totranslating identify and4) be
from English; a that two
believed
member of the group that speaks years is enough
that timelanguage"
to become fluent in an-
and that "this strong motivation other language;
for and 5) believed some people
identifica-
tion or assimilation forces them to attend to the were more able to learn a foreign language than
input very carefully, so that their output will others. As several of these beliefs are unrealistic
match the input" (p. 27). For Terrell, then, the for the language learner, they could lead to anx-
filter is down when students experience "target iety. For example, most beginning students,
language group identification," similar to Gard- unless they are highly motivated, will not sound
ner's integrative motivation, but this condition like a native speaker. If they believe that pro-
is not sufficient for successful language learn- nunciation is the most important aspect of a
ing. He suggests that a certain amount of at- language, they will end up frustrated and
tention to the input is also necessary, although stressed. The same frustration and anxiety sets
he contends attention does not necessarily im- in if they believe they should be fluent in two
ply anxiety. Like Terrell, Rardin recognizes a years. In other words, when beliefs and reality
positive aspect to a learner's productive state clash, anxiety results.
Instructor beliefs about language teaching
of alertness versus a non-productive state of
stress. are a further source of language anxiety. In
Brandl, the majority of the instructors con-
Krashen and Terrell hold a view of language
anxiety close to that of existential anxietysideredas"a little bit of intimidation a necessary
explained by Rardin and social anxiety andassupportive
ex- motivator for promoting stu-
plained by Leary. For Rardin, existential dents'
anx-performance" (p. 50), and, unlike their
iety is a more profound type of anxiety students, most instructors considered their role
inherently built into the language learning in the language class to be "less a counselor and
pro-
friend and objected to a too friendly and in-
cess that "touches the core of one's self-identity,
one's self image" (p. 35). According to her,authoritative
the student-teacher relationship" (p.
learner's train of thought is somewhat as
49). Instructors who believe their role is to cor-
follows: "If I learn another language, rectI students
will constantly when they make any
somehow lose myself; I, as I know myself error, whoto feel that they cannot have students
be, will cease to exist" (p. 35). Other working
psycho-in pairs because the class may get out
logical phenomena particular to the languageof control, who believe that the teacher should
learning context include Schumann's be doing most of the talking and teaching, and
concept
of "social distance," Guiora's idea of language who think their role is more like a drill ser-

ego, and Clarke's theory of "clash of geant's

sciousness" or cultural assimilation. These
psychological phenomena, along with lowthat
esteem and erroneous beliefs about language
learning, may be the seeds for students' lan-
con-than a facilitator's may be contributing
to learner language anxiety. The social context
self-the instructor sets up in the classroom can
have tremendous ramifications for the learners.
Anxieties related to instructor-learner in-

guage anxiety as expressed in fear over speak- teractions are reported in Horwitz et al. (22),
ing in front of others, and in competitiveness. Koch and Terrell, Price, and Young (50).'A

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 DollyJ. Young 429

harsh manner of
viewed as interrelated corre
in light of MacIntyre and
often cited as
Gardner's provokin
recently developed theory regarding
learners foreign language anxiety. MacIntyre and
consistently
sponding incorrectly,
Gardner (33) contend that learners do not begin b
of their the language learning
peers, experience with
and language
look
They also express conce
anxiety. If they experience anxiety, it is most
are perceived
likely state anxiety.in Accordingtheto them, lan- l
the other guagehand,
anxiety occurs only aftertheattitudes and l
studies by emotions
Koch regarding the language
and learning ex-Te
and Youngperience
(50) feel
have been formed. If MacIntyre thaand
is necessary. The
Gardner's theory issue
is correct, this suggests that
is not the problem is not so much in
necessarily the student but
error
ner of error correction
in the language learning experience, i.e., the
most importantly,
methodology. Student language anxiety howmight
Anxieties be an associated
indication that we are doing something
cedures center primari
fundamentally unnatural in our methodology.
the target Helping teachers to recognize the in
language signs of f
ample, Kochanxiety inand
language learners Terrel
is an important
one-half of
step intheir
responding to anxiety in subjec
the classroom.
tations in front of the class and oral skits as the The next section of this article will focus on a
most anxiety-producing activities in their discussion of ways students express anxiety in
Natural Approach classes. Other strong sources their language classes.
of anxiety were oral quizzes and being called
on to respond orally in the target language. In
STUDENT MANIFESTATIONS OF ANXIETY
addition, Young (50) found that more than
sixty-eight percent of her subjects reported feel- Communication apprehension and social
ing more comfortable when they did not have anxiety have previously been related to la
to get in front of the class to speak. Mejias et al. guage anxiety (22; 50). Recognizing learne
and Daly also reported anxiety over speaking manifestations of anxieties related to speaking
in a second language in front of an audience. negative evaluation, and foreign language
Anxieties can stem from aspects of language learning-generated anxieties are important fir
testing. Madsen et al. found that students react steps in coping with language anxiety. Lear
anxiously to particular language test items; offers three categories of behavior arising fro
some test formats produced significantly more social anxiety: 1) arousal-mediated response
anxiety than others. Students also experience 2) disaffiliative behavior; and 3) image-protec
anxiety when they spend hours studying the tion behavior. According to Leary, arousa
material emphasized in class only to find that mediated responses are the side-effects of ind
their tests assess different material or utilize viduals' activation of their sympathetic nervo
question-types with which they have no ex- system. These side-effects serve no real socia
perience. If an instructor has a communicative function and usually accompany all arouse
approach to language teaching but then gives states. Individuals manifest anxiety when the
primarily grammar tests, this likely leads "squirm in their seats, fidget, play with thei
students not only to complain, but also to ex- hair, clothes, or other manipulable object
perience frustration and anxiety. Other stutter and stammer as they talk, and generall
variables that can increase learner anxiety in appear jittery and nervous" (p. 110). Disaffilia
an evaluative situation, like a test (whether tive behaviors are characterized as any action
written or oral), are offered in Daly. He con- that reduce social interactions; these are man
tends that learners experience more apprehen- fested by fewer initiations of conversations, le
sion when the situation is novel, ambiguous, participation in conversations, more allowanc
or highly evaluative. In language testing, the for silent periods in the conversation, fewer in
greater the degree of student evaluation and the stances of silence breakers, and shorter speak
more unfamiliar and ambiguous the test tasks ing periods when in front of an audience.
and formats, the more the learner anxiety pro- Image-protection behavior is characterized by
duced.
smiling and nodding frequently, by seldom
The sources of language anxiety identified
interrupting others, and by giving frequen
in the literature and summarized here could communicative
be feedback such as "uh-huh."

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430 The Modern Language Journal 75 (1991)

According to Leary, "these responses

mances, may serve
a desire to gain teach
to protect an image of the person or
a mental as physical
friendly,(tempora
agreeable, polite, interested, and even
withdrawal sociable,
from the language
without incurring any social ence. risks" (p. 114).
Rardin distinguishes between the typical of foreign
Other manifestations
responses to general anxiety classroom anxiety
and those include nervous
mani-
fested as a result of existential
avoiding eye anxiety.
contact, She
joking, sho
posits that an extreme degree responses (52: p. 26),
of anxiety avoiding act
could
class,
manifest itself "in 'flight' or coming
'fight' unprepared
response pat- to class,
terns with the obvious physiological
different, cutting signs
class, of
putting off
sweaty palms, nervous stomachs, accelerated
foreign language until the last year
heartbeat and pulse rates"in(52:
the p.
last36).
row,More ob-
and avoiding having
in the foreign
vious manifestations of anxiety in thelanguage
foreignin class (2
or second language classroom could surface in
the form of distortion of sounds, inability to
REDUCING FOREIGN AND SECOND
reproduce the intonation and rhythm of the lan-
LANGUAGE ANXIETY
guage, "freezing up" when called on to perform,
A common
and forgetting words or phrases justdenominator
learned or among curre
foreign
simply refusing to speak and language methods
remaining silent.or approaches is
At a subtle, perhaps subconscious level,
emphasis on creating lan-
a "low anxiety classr
guage learners may actuallyatmosphere" (47). Other than
resist learning the Suggestop
language. Rardin posits however,
that merelyrarely are talking
instructors given spec
examples ofabout
about the language, hypothesizing how to it,
go about
and creating a
anxiety atmosphere
analyzing it can also be manifestations ofin anx-
the foreign lang
iety (p. 36). class (For specific suggestions, see 13; 27; a
Horwitz et al. (22) offer 36.).
additional descrip-
From a careful review of research in
tions of anxiety-related behaviors particular
area of language to
anxiety, suggestions for re
ing language
the foreign language classroom anxiety
setting. emerge. These sug
They
tions
suggest that students are focus onwhen
anxious a rangethey
of foreign lang
variables fromor
avoid trying to convey difficult in-class practices and activ
personal
to instructor behavior.
messages in the foreign language; freeze up in
role-play activities; report To deal with
that personal
they and interpersonal
"know" a anx-
certain grammar point but ieties, a variety of techniques
"forget" it during and approaches
a
are calledmany
test or an oral exercise when for. Foss and Reitzel offer several
grammar
points must be remembered; techniques for reducing language
complain of dif- anxiety stem-
mingsounds
ficulties discriminating the from learner andbeliefs, and these same
struc-
techniques
tures of a foreign language apply when dealing
message; confess with personal
and interpersonal
they know the correct answer on a test anxieties.
but They
putargue that
down the wrong one due to nervousness
if students or
can recognize their irrational beliefs
or fears,
carelessness; and over-study they will be
without anyable to interpret anxi-
im-
provement in grades (pp. 126-27).
ety-provoking Steinberg
situations in more realistic ways
and eventually
and Horwitz found that giving more opt to approach rather than
concrete
avoid an anxiety-evoking
versus interpretive information in the foreign situation. To help
studentsbehavior
language was another learner recognize theirresult-
fears about language
ing from language anxiety. learning, Foss and Reitzel recommend that the
instructor
Bailey advises instructors ask students to signs
to recognize verbalize any fears
of too much competitivenessand thenamong
to write themlanguage
on the board. In this
learners, since this leads to increased
way students can see theystates of
are not alone in their
anxiety. She identifies anxieties.
certain Another technique for reducing
behaviors as lan-
signs of competitiveness, guage
such anxiety
as is to use an anxiety
obvious self- graph.
Students chart their
comparison to other classmates and levelpersonal
of anxiety to show
expectations, hostile reactions
that not every toward
phase of an oral other
interaction pro-
duces an equal
students based on comparisons, a amount
desire of anxiety.
to out- An anxiety
do other classmates, an emphasis on the
graph helps pinpoint tests
highest and
level of anxi-
ety in a given
grades with reference to other interaction. perfor-
student An analysis of the

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 DollyJ. Young 431

graph (the highest poin

as student public.
stumbledI'll over
comparisons forget
myeverything.
words when....itI've always
really
graphs counts. Last time Ihelp
could was so nervous I sound- the
same situation with more information and, ed like a robot . . ."
therefore, more realistically (p. 402). And Productive Self-Talk: "I can handle this .
finally, Foss and Reitzel suggest journal writing Just relax . .. take a deep slow breath and
as a good way to help reduce language anxi- I'll start as I rehearsed it."
ety. From their journals, students can "learn
to recognize feelings of inadequacy so they may
Other variations of self-talk include making
arrive at more realistic expectations" (p. 405).
positive statements about yourself (see 36 for
Crookall and Oxford offer a number of ac- detailed examples of this strategy).
tivities, such as Agony Column, Ghost Aven- To reduce anxieties based on learner beliefs,
gers, and Anxious Photos, that can be used Horwitz (20) suggests that instructors "discuss
with language learners to help them examine with their students reasonable commitments for
their language anxieties. For example, in the successful language learning and the value of
activity Agony Column, students participate in some language ability if it is less than fluent"
an editorial simulation where they take on three (p. 286). She contends that "as students' beliefs
roles: themselves (language learners), an about language learning can be based on
"agony aunt" (like a Dear Abby), and a coun- limited knowledge and/or experience, the
selor. In the first phase of this activity students teacher's most effective course may be to con-
write letters to Agony Column in which they front erroneous beliefs with new information.
express any anxieties they have over language In some cases, students may never have had
learning. Then, in groups of three or four, their views about language learning challenged"
students play the role of "Agony Aunt." They p. 292). In addition, instructors may want to
read and discuss a few of the letters and focus hold these brief discussions about the process
on advising on others' anxieties. In the third of language learning periodically throughout
phase of this activity, students function asthe language learning experience.
counselors. The letters are returned with their To decrease anxieties related to instructor
replies and, still in small groups, students beliefs, instructors need to be sensitized to their
discuss their anxieties and react to replies and new role as language teachers in a learner-
soundness of advice given. The final phase con-centered language environment. Unlike the
sists of a debriefing session where the focus isAudiolingual Method, in which the instructor
on feedback from the groups, with one repre- role was almost that of a drill sergeant, some
sentative from each group serving as the group current communicative approaches allow the
voice. Activities such as those described byinstructor to be seen as more of a facilitator
Crookall and Oxford help students get in touch whose responsibility is to provide students with
with their anxieties, an important step in the input and opportunities to communicate in the
process of working them out. language in authentic situations with authen-
To help reduce personal and interpersonaltic materials. This is a new and perhaps threat-
anxieties further, learners may need to par-ning role for the language instructor who
ticipate in some form of supplemental instruc- believes that all errors should be corrected, that
tion or a support group (see 6; 9), work withthe instructor is the authority figure in the
a tutor, join a language club, do relaxation ex- classroom, and who, as in Brandl, believes that
ercises, and/or practice self-talk. Self-talk can some intimidation is necessary for student
be particularly useful for coping with "state anx- motivation. It might be useful for instructors
iety," which refers to an individual's anxiety dueto consciously examine their own language
to a specific evaluative situation, e.g., a test,teaching beliefs to help dispel those beliefs that
a competition, a performance of some sort, etc.negatively impact learners. Because instructor
The following example (from the Learning Re- beliefs about language learning are often
source Center at the University of Texas, reflected in teacher behavior, videotaping or
Austin) demonstrates the role of self-talk. reciprocal class visits might facilitate the iden-
tification and discussion of teacher assumptions
Situation: Walking toward the front of the about language learning. Instructors could also
room for an oral presentation. complete the "Beliefs about Language Learn-
Anxiety-Provoking Self-Talk: "I can't talk in ing Inventory (BALLI)" (20). Above all, in-

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432 The Modern Language Journal 75 (1991)

structors should involve themselves ror correction was

in necessary.
language Whether the in-
teaching workshops, panels, and
structor's conferences
pedagogical philosophy sides with the
in an effort to keep pace with "correct or fossilize"language
current perspective or the noncor-
teaching research and practices. rective "go for meaning" approach, one way to
To reduce anxieties based on instructor- provide correct input without much anxiety is
learner interactions, instructors may need to model
to students' responses; that is, simply
assess their error correction approach as repeat well the correct version of what the students
as their attitudes toward learners. Price's sub- are attempting. For example, if a student's re-
jects gave numerous suggestions for ways in-
sponse to the question "e'Qui quiere hacer el
structors could reduce language anxiety, such Presidente Bush?" was "Quieres subir los
as "giving students more positive reinforce- presupuestos," the instructor would respond "Si,
ment, and helping them to develop more realis- quiere subir los presupuestos." The instructor's Si
tic expectations of themselves by letting them acknowledges that the student conveyed a
know that they weren't supposed to be fluent meaningful message and by repeating with the
or have a perfect accent after two semesters" correct form, quiere instead of quieres, the in-
(p. 107). According to Young's languagestructor provides the appropriate feedback for
learners, instructors who had a good sense of the class. Although we currently do not have
humor and were friendly, relaxed and patient, absolute evidence that modeling is effective, we
who made students feel comfortable, and who also do not have reason to believe it is not.
encouraged students to speak out were cited Modeling,
as from a theoretical perspective,
helpful in reducing foreign language class anx- makes sense. In a modeling approach to error
iety (50). correction, students are not spotlighted in front
Young's subjects also described certain in- of their peers and corrected, but correct feed-
structor characteristics that helped reduce their back is provided for those language learners
anxiety over error correction (50). Their com- who feel they need it. If modeling is to work,
ments suggest that instructors can reduce however, students must learn to listen careful-
language anxiety by adopting an attitude that ly and strategically.
mistakes are part of the language learning pro- Another strategy that addresses the issue of
cess and that mistakes will be made by every- error correction and anxiety stems from the
one. Students felt more at ease when the in- classroom emphasis on grammar. If instructors
structor's manner of correction was not harsh reward students for successful communication,
and when the instructor did not overreact to the message we send to our students is that
there is more to language learning than just
mistakes (p. 9). The most frequent suggestion
made by Price's subjects for alleviating lan-
grammar rules and forms. Brandl provides a
guage anxiety was "that they would feel more
good example of this approach to grammar and
comfortable if the instructor were more like a error correction.
friend helping them to learn and less like an
Student A writes:
authority figure making them perform" (p. 107).
Crookall and Oxford's activity "Mistakes "ich geh zu hausjezt." (correct: Ich gehejetzt nach
Panel" offers students and instructors a unique Hause. [I go home now.])
way of viewing mistakes in the second language Student B writes:
--one that potentially can lead to less anxiety "Jetzt ich gehe zu Hause." (correct: Jetzt gehe ich
over errors. In this activity, students compile nach Hause.)
a list of mistakes expressed over a period of time
and rate the mistakes according to the follow- Brandl explains that "both student A and B
ing criteria: amusement, logic, communicative show some degree of communicative compe-
intelligibility, and learning contribution. In thistence in so far as they can get their message
game, the best mistakes are rewarded but the across. Student B, however, shows a better
real object is to encourage students to "take anlinguistic performance. Student A's sentence
amusing look at errors and realize that they are consists of six errors (three spelling, two gram-
not taboo- and that they can contribute tomar, and one word order mistake). Student B
learning" (p. 147). made only two mistakes (one word order and
Many foreign language learners in studies by one grammar mistake)" (p. 41). In grading, six
Koch and Terrell, Horwitz et al., Horwitz (20), points are assigned to each correct sentence,
and Young (50) felt, nevertheless, that some er-three for linguistic accuracy and three for suc-

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 Dolly J. Young 433

cessful communication.
Hangman. Language games might include
error something as simple asand
correction using the targetgram
emphasis on successful
language to solve a problem. For example, stu- c
correct forms. Students
dent A has a diagram and has to describe it in m
message that
the targetinstructors
language well enough for Student B
in what they have
to draw it. to
Diagrams are compared say
afterward
and this may to check lead
for similarity. In to a
this kind of "game"red
errors and error correction. students focus on communicating information
To decrease anxieties associated with class- to each other for an ultimate purpose.
room procedures, instructors can do more pair Language games with an emphasis on
work, play more games, and tailor their ac-
problem-solving as suggested by Saunders and
tivities to the affective needs of the learner. Crookall can be an effective way to create in-
Koch and Terrell, Price, Young (50), and terest, motivate students, encourage participa-
Omaggio (52) suggest that language anxiety is tion and reduce language anxiety. They advise,
alleviated when students work in small groups, however, that "some care has to be taken in the
do pair work, and experience personalized lan- overzealous introduction of play in simulated
guage instruction. Group work not only ad- contexts within the classroom, especially when
dresses the affective concerns of the students, games have the potential of arousing too much
it also increases the amount of student talk and excitement, anxiety, or competition amongst
comprehensible input (see 26; 28; 43). more experienced or critical participants" (p.
In the Natural Approach there is a concern 171).8
to reduce the learners' affective filter. This is Tailoring activities to the affective needs of
done in several ways. Besides group work, itthe learner is also necessary in dealing with
is the personalized aspect of the Natural Ap-anxieties related to classroom procedures. For
proach that makes students feel the most com- example, speaking in front of the class has been
fortable. Examples of personalizing instructionrepeatedly cited as evoking anxiety. Foss and
include using pictures to present vocabularyReitzel describe an activity that takes into ac-
and associating the vocabulary with studentscount learner's anxiety over speaking in front
and objects in class; personalizing grammar; of the class --oral interpretation. In this kind
and pairing students to work with another stu- of tailored activity students practice reading a
dent or other students. The Natural Approach script orally before an audience only after they
also emphasizes listening comprehension andhave practiced it extensively in a small group
an initial period where students do not have to(p. 403). Another way to tailor activities to meet
speak in the foreign language. the affective needs of the learner is to precede
Krashen suggests that the best way to reduce role plays, usually cited as highly anxi-
language anxiety is to make the message so in- ety-provoking, with activities that build class
teresting that students forget that it is in anotherrapport, such as having students work in small
language (52). According to him, when the groups enough times to get to know each other
teacher drops the book and starts talking about or attending a "fun" foreign film together.
something really important, students listen (p. Typical classroom procedures that fail to re-
22). spond to the affective needs of the learner are
Saunders and Crookall suggest that playing further rejected in Daly. He advises instructors
games with the language can also reduce not to seat students alphabetically, not to re-
language anxiety. They posit that quire presentations from students such as oral
If the learning of a new language provokes inhibition reports and oral readings, and/or not to call on
and caution in the part of the adult who fears ridicule students at random.
because of incompetence in a real situation, the activity To decrease language testing anxieties, in-
of play within game scenarios has great potential. In ef- structors and language programs as a whole
fect the person at play can be more easily forgiven for must develop and oversee the construction of
errors of judgment and poor communication. There is
fair tests that accurately reflect in-class instruc-
always the excuse of unfamiliarity with the social rules,
tion. This suggestion is merely common sense,
roles and norms of a game for novice players (p. 169).
but it bears repeating for the many language
Playing games with the language does not programs that continue to ignore the sound
necessarily mean playing traditional, competi- principle: test what you teach in the context of
tive games such as Jeopardy, Password, or how you teach it.

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 434 The Modern Language Journal 75 (1991)
Madsen et al. found that students have reac- CONCLUSION

tions to particular language test items. Some

can be more anxiety-evoking than others. If a Language anxiety is a complex, multidim
test has been constructed that accurately reflects sional phenomenon. It manifests itself
in-class practices and if the instructor has been students quite differently depending on et
sensitized to language anxiety, then the test is background, prior language experience, lea
less likely to contain test items which increase personality, and classroom circumstance
students' anxiety, particularly if students have a result, its impact on the learning experi
experienced the test item-type in class. What- is not easily assessed. Through intervie
ever the objective of the test item, pre-test ex- questionnaires, and diaries in language a
posure to the item may help reduce student ety research, the language learner has prov
anxiety and frustration during a language test. insight into language anxiety from the stud
For example, consider a hypothetical situa- perspective, and interviews with langu
tion where the emphasis in class has been on specialists have offered significant insight
proficiency. The instructor develops a test item the impact it has on language teaching, lea
that consists of an incomplete dialogue in which ing, and performance.
the students have to complete the blanks so the This article summarizes language anxie
dialogue makes sense (an integrative, com- research with a focus on classroom implicat
municatively oriented test item with some writ- and offers anxiety reduction strategies, w
ten production and reading comprehension).9 are by no means inclusive. No doubt instru
Although students have participated in dia- tors and learners can identify other sourc
logues and in writing skits in groups, they may language anxiety and offer additional sugg
become frustrated and experience anxiety tions for coping with it. We can conclude,
because of the lack of exposure to this particular ever, that some evidence suggests that
item-type (see 37 for a study describing a situa- sources of language anxiety are interrelated
tion in which discrete-point testing practices did may in part be a result of unnatural classr
not match communicative instruction). methods. Until future research can document
For pre-test exposure to this item-type, the more fully such a contention, it is hoped that
instructor may want to write an incomplete this article has provided a framework that can
dialogue on the board and have students work help the instructor begin to reduce current anx-
in pairs to complete it. Students could then iety in second and foreign language learning.
share their solutions with the class. Once The objective in ridding language learning
students understand that sometimes theyof have
unnecessary anxiety is to create more effec-
to respond to previous statements, sometimes
tive language learning and to instill in students
to something said after the blank, and increased interest and motivation to learn
sometimes to both, and once they realize that another language. All too often foreign lan-
there is not just one right way to respond or guage learners dread their language require-
merely one correct answer and that a variety ment, refuse to enroll in a language class until
of responses are appropriate, they are likely to their last year, or suffer through four semesters
become more comfortable and experience less of a language only to forget it all gladly when
anxiety with the item-type. the requirement is met. Similarly, second lan-
Practice with item-types also gives learners guage learners experience unnecessary levels of
information about "performance expectations." anxiety and resulting unpleasant emotions and
For example, if a test contains contextual situa- stress as they learn the second language. Our
tions, the instructor should give students an ex- task as foreign and second language teachers
ample of the way they will be expected to per- is to create an atmosphere in our classes for ef-
form, e.g., "On the test, I will ask you to res- fective language learning and an attitude in our
pond to a variety of situations, such as, 'What learners that reflects genuine interest and
motivation to learn the language. By reducing
would you say to the hotel clerk if you wanted
to obtain a room for three nights and you language anxiety, we will begin to move in that
wanted to pay half of the bill with your Master- direction. 10
card and the other half with a check?' "

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 Dolly J. Young 435
specifically his essay "Joining the Literacy Club," which ap-
NOTES pears in Smith's book of the same name, published by
Heineman, 1988.
80Oxford and Nyikos also suggest that with some cognitive
styles
1Although Gardner (14) has studied this area for or personality types, game playing or group work
thirty
years, only recently has the foreign languageitself
profession
can be anxiety-evoking.
begun to pay significant attention. 9An example of this type of test item would look
2See, for example, references 1; 3; 5; 7; 12; something 15; 16; 22; like the following: Context: Jose runs into Rober-
23; 38; 42; 45. to and Cristina (a newly married couple) at the Sears depart-
3See, for example, references 3; 5; 7; 15; 16; 23; 42; 45; ment store. All three are students at the local university.
46; 48; 51. Jose: iRobertoy Cristina, que'sorpresa encontrarles aquien el almacin
4See, for example, references 7; 12; 15; 16; 23; 44; 45; de Dillards!
46; 51. Cristina:
5State anxiety refers to an unpleasant emotional condi- Jose: Muy bien gracias. Y, ccd'mo estdn Uds.?
tion or temporary state, while trait anxiety refers to a stable Roberto:

propensity to be anxious. Trait is a permanent personality Cristina: Jose, eque haces por aqui?
trait. Anxiety leading to improved performance is called Jose:
facilitating anxiety and anxiety leading to impaired per- Roberto: Tambien busco ropa nueva. Hay una gran variedad de
formance is called debilitating anxiety. Test anxiety refers ropa en este almacin. eQudL tipo de ropa quieres comprar?
to the unpleasant emotion due to a given task, e.g., a test 10I acknowledge and thank Janet Swaffar and Rebecca
(51). Oxford for the many useful suggestions they made on an
6See, for example, references 2; 11; 22; 24; 34; 35; 39; 50. early draft of this paper. I also acknowledge the insightful
7Krashen borrows this concept from Frank Smith's work, comments made by the MLJ referees.

Clash of Consciousness." Language Learning 26

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 DollyJ. Young 437
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Appendix (see pages 438-39).

Information about The Modern Language Journal

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occasional essays on the state of the profession. pending on merit.
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APPENDIX

Quantitative Research on Anxiety and Foreign or Second Language Learning up to

Lan
Language Anxiety Anxiety Multifactor Related
Researcher(s) Setting Population Interpretation Measure Study Anxi

Backman SLL University students Foreign lan- Attitude and motiva- Yes Anxiety and p
guage class tion questionnaire ment test, or
anxiety comprehension, and high
oral sk

Bartz FLL University students Trait anxiety 16 Personality Ques- Yes Communicative c
tionnaire petence oral/writing

Brewster FLL Adults Trait anxiety Items on a personality Yes Anxiety and
test grade with equal w
given

Chastain FLL University students Test anxiety Test Anxiety Scale Yes Anxiety and f
and Manifest Anxiety grade
Scale high in al

Dunkel FLL University studnets Trait anxiety Items on a psycho- Yes Anxiety and
logical test placement te
Gardner et al. (16) SLL Junior and senior Classroom Items on an attitude Yes Anxiety and
high anxiety motivation question- skills G
naire Grade

Gardner et al. (15) SLL High school Speaking anxi- Five-item anxiety Yes Anxiety and
ety in French scale skills
class

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Kleinmann SLL University Facilitating/ Facilitating/Debili- No Anxiety and s
students debilitating tating Anxiety skills
anxiety

Pimsleur et al. FLL Junior and senior Trait anxiety Manifest Anxiety Yes Anxiety and in
high Scale and previous langu
experience

Scott FLL University Test anxiety Affective question- Yes Anxiety and test
students naire format were mor

Steinberg & SLL Adults Test anxiety Test Anxiety Scale No Anxiety and or
Horwitz and Multiple Affect
Adjective Checkli

Swain & Burnaby SLL Children Trait anxiety Items on a personality Yes Anxiety and F
(45) measure reading
Tucker et al. SLL Junior high Classroom Items on an attitude Yes Anxiety and Fren
anxiety motivation battery reading c

Westcott (48) FLL High school State anxiety Motivation, Aptitude, Yes Anxiety and
Peer Influence and

Anxiety Test

Wittenborn et al. FLL University Foreign lan- Items on a self-report Yes Anxiety and
students guage test of study habits grade bet
anxiety grade for F

Young (51) FLL University State anxiety STAI/FLCAS and Yes Anxiety-speaking
students CIQ anxiety-dictation durin
State Anxiety durin
Inventory significa
FL Class Activity OPI
Scale & Cognitive troll
Interference Inventory

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