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I
don't believe. I must have a reason for a
certain hypothesis. Either I know a thing, and
then I know it - I don't need to believe it.
[Statistics|101]
Chapter Fourteen
Motivation
There are two possible It is said that we can prove anything by statistics except the
outcomes: if the result truth. Well, I think that should be we can prove anything by
confirms the hypothesis, misused statistics except the truth. Because truly, we can
then you've made a prove anything by merely using statistics responsibly.
measurement. If the result
is contrary to the We already know that it can serve as a powerful tool in
hypothesis, then you've discovering and understanding the truth based on collected
made a discovery. data.
= o > o
< o
o
The region of rejection is very small which means that if the null
hypothesis were true, then there is only a small chance of
selecting a sample where the value of the test statistic belongs in
the region of rejection.
The region of rejection is always located at the tail end of the distribution
of the test statistic when Ho is true. For a two-tailed test, the region of
rejection is at the two tail ends of the distribution. As expected, the
region of rejection of a one-tailed test is at one tail end of the
distribution, depending on the direction stated in the alternative
hypothesis.
critical value
p-value reject Ho
a. a Type I error
b. a Type II error
< o z < -z
Case 1: 2 is known
> o X o z > z
Z=
= o o |z| > z/2
n
< o t < -t,n-1
Case 2: 2 is unknown and n 30
X o
> o T= t > t,n-1
= o o S |t| > t/2,n-1
n
< o z < -z
Case 3: 2 is unknown and n > 30 X o
> o Z= z > z
= o o S |z| > z/2
n
Ho: = 0.25
Ha: < 0.25
= 0.01
X o 0.22 0.25
The test statistic is Z = = = -3.3197
S 0.07
n 60
Decision: Since z = -3.3197 < -2.326, we reject Ho.
18 27 29 20 19 25 24 21
24 19 23 28 31 22 27 21
We use Case 2 since the population variance is unknown and sample size is small.
X = 23.625 S2 = 15.45 n = 16
3.9306 3.9306
= 23.625 2.131 , 23.625+ 2.131 = (21.53, 25.72)
16 16
= 0.05
X o 23.625 25
The test statistic is T = = = -1.3993
S 3.93
n 16
Decision: Since |t| = |-1.3993| = 1.3993 < 2.131, we do not reject Ho.
= 0.05
X o 23.625 25
The test statistic is T = = = -1.3993
S 3.93
n 16
Decision: Since |t| = |-1.3993| = 1.3993 < 2.131, we do not reject Ho.
Null Hypothesis (Ho) Alternative Hypothesis (Ha) Test Statistic Region of Rejection
Let p be the population proportion of adults suffering from nervous tension who
will be relived by the new medicine.
Ho: p = 0.75
Ha: p > 0.75
= 0.05
Thus, the new medicine is superior to the one commonly prescribed with
a greater proportion of adults suffering from nervous tension who will be
relieved by it.
Let p be the population proportion of all target consumers who are familiar with
the shampoo commercial.
Ho: p = 0.8
Ha: p < 0.8
= 0.05
Using the 0.05 level of significance, can the auditor conclude that
there is evidence that the average monthly balance is really higher
than Php 3,000.00?
EXERCISES
A television manufacturer claims in its warranty that in the past,
less than 15% of its television sets needed any repair during their
first two years of operation. In order to test the validity of this
claim, a government testing agency selects a sample of 100 sets
and finds that 12 sets required some repair within their first two
years of operation.
(X Y) do
T= ;
Case 2: 2 2
X and Y are X Y < do t < -t,n +n 2
unknown but 2 2 1 1 1 2
X = Y X Y > do Sp n + n t > t,n +n 2
1 2 1 2
X Y = do X Y do |t| > t/2,n +n 2
1 2
n 1 1 S2 2
Sp = X + (n2 1)SY
n1 + n2 2
n1+ n2
n1 n2 v=
2
2
2
2
SX SY
n1 n2
+
n1 1 n2 1
Case 4: 2 2
X and Y are
unknown but n1 > 30 X Y < do (X Y) do z < -z
Z=
and n2 > 30
X Y > do z > z
X Y do S2 S
X+ Y
2
|z| > z/2
X Y = do n1 n2
Suppose the yields of pechay in both types are normally distributed with equal
population standard deviations of 2. Is there reason to believe that the second
type of plot produces a higher yield than the first type of plot? Test at 0.05 level of
significance.
Ho: X Y = 0
Ha: X Y < 0
= 0.05
We use Case 1!
Null Hypothesis (Ho) Alternative Hypothesis (Ha) Test Statistic Region of Rejection
A sample of reed warblers were weighed in August and the same set of birds were
weighed in September. Following are the weights of the reed warblers (in grams) in
the sample.
Reed Warbler
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
August 10.3 11.4 10.9 12.0 10.0 11.9 12.2 12.3 11.7 12.0
September 12.2 12.1 13.1 11.9 12.0 12.9 11.4 12.1 13.5 12.3
Is there evidence here to suggest that the mean weight of the reed warblers tends
to be heavier in September than in August? Use a 0.05 level of significance.
Assume that the weights are normally distributed.
Ho: D = 0 i di
Ha: D > 0 1 1.9
2 0.7
= 0.05
3 2.2
4 -0.1
Decision Rule: Reject Ho if t > t0.05,10-1 = t0.05,9 =1.833
5 2.0
di di
6 1.0
1 12.2 10.3 = 1.9 6 12.9 11.9 = 1.0
7 -0.8
2 12.1 11.4 = 0.7 7 11.4 12.2 = -0.8
8 -0.2
3 13.1 10.9 = 2.2 8 12.1 12.3 = -0.2
9 1.8
4 11.9 12.0 = -0.1 9 13.5 11.7 = 1.8
10 0.3
5 12.0 10.0 = 2.0 10 12.3 12.0 = 0.3
i di 10
2 2
10 di 10d
1 1.9
d= i=1 di = 0.88 SD = i=1 = 1.0654
10 101
2 0.7
3 2.2 0.88 0
The test statistic is t = = 2.612
4 -0.1 1.0654
10
5 2.0
6 1.0 Decision: Since t = 2.612 > 1.833, we reject Ho.
7 -0.8
Conclusion: At 5% level of significance, there is sufficient
8 -0.2 evidence to conclude that the mean weight of the birds tends to
9 1.8 be heavier in September than in August.
10 0.3
Null Hypothesis (Ho) Alternative Hypothesis (Ha) Test Statistic Region of Rejection
p1 p2 < 0 Z=
p 1 p2 z < -z
1 1
p (1 p) n + n
p1 p2 = 0 p1 p2 > 0 1 2 z > z
X+Y
p1 p2 0 where p = |z| > z/2
n1 + n2
Males Females
Sample Size 2,015 2,085
Number who think 850 570
shopping is an unpleasant
experience
We want to test the hypothesis that males dislike shopping more than
females at 0.05 level of significance.
Ho: p1 p2 = 0
Ha: p1 p2 > 0
= 0.05
850 570
p1 p2 2015 2085
The test statistic is Z = = = 9.9877
p (1 p) n1 +n1 71 (1 71 ) 1 + 1
1 2 205 205 2015 2085
Test for
Goodness- Independence
of-Fit Test
Test for
Homogeneity
categorical
nominal or
ordinal
nominal or
ordinal
variables
Column Total C1 C2 Cc n
Note that Oi,j is the observed number of elements whose realized value for X
is the ith category and whose realized value for Y is the jth category,
where i = 1, 2, , r and j = 1, 2, , c.
Reject Ho if
2 2
X > ,(r1)(c1 .
r c r c
2 2
Oij Eij Oij
X2 = = n
Eij Eij
i=1 j=1 i=1 j=1
Height of Person
Leader-Follower
Total
Tendency Short Tall
Follower 22 14 36
In-between 9 6 15
Leader 12 32 44
Total 43 52 95
= 0.01
O1,1 = 22 O1,2 = 14
O2,1 = 9 O2,2 = 6
O3,1 = 12 O3,2 = 32
15)(43 15)(52
E2,1 = = 6.8 E2,2 = = 8.2
95 95
44)(43 44)(52
E3,1 = = 19.9 E3,2 = = 24.1
95 95
Naturally, this conclusion applies to the population from where the sample
was taken.
Nutritional Status
Classification
of Subjects Normal 1o 2o 3o
Malnourished Malnourished Malnourished
Normal 332 531 122 11
Anemic 198 404 217 23
MG ACTIVITY!!
Summation
Top 3 Learning Points
3
i th learning point
i=1
[Statistics|101]
Chapter Fourteen