CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

The fulfillments of the industrial goals were possible only because the modern
industries were able to find innovative technologies that have successfully become
technological developments. Continuous production throughout the period is ensured
only when the final objective is to optimize the production while achieving maximum
profits and achieving minimized production cost. The reason for demanding high
quality un-interruptible power during production process is mainly because of the
modern manufacturing and process equipment that operate at high efficiency requires
stable and defect free power supply for the successful operation of their machines.
Machines, sensitive to power supply variations are to be designed more precisely. For
instance, some instruments like adjustable speed drives, automation devices, power
electronic components etc. fall into the above category.

Cessation to provide the required quality power output may sometimes cause
complete shutdown of the industries which will make a significant financial loss to the
industry concerned. However blame due to degraded quality cannot be simply put on to
the hands of the utility itself. It has been observed that in industries, most of the
conditions that can disrupt the process are generated within the industry itself. For
example, most of the non-linear loads cause transients which can affect the reliability of
the power supply.

The industries may undergo burned-out motors, lost data on volatile memories,
erroneous motion of robotics, unnecessary downtime, increased maintenance costs and
burning core materials especially in plastic industries, paper mills & semiconductor
plants as an outcome of the above irregularities.

The solutions put forth as a consequence of the above mentioned anomalies are
called as utility based solutions and customer based solutions respectively. The finest
examples for those two types of solutions are FACTS devices (Flexible AC
Transmission Systems) and Custom power devices that are based on solid state power
electronic components. FACTS devices are controlled by the utility, whereas the

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 Custom power devices are operated, maintained and controlled by the customer itself
and installed at the customer premises.

1.1 Introduction to DVR

Manufacturing cost and the reliability of those solid state devices have been
improved as new technologies emerged. So, the protection devices which include such
solid state devices can be purchased at a reasonable price with superior performance
than the conventional electrical or pneumatic devices available in the market.
Uninterruptible Power Supplies (UPS), Dynamic Voltage Restorers (DVR) and Active
Power Filters (APF) are examples for commonly used custom power devices. Among
those APF is used to mitigate harmonic problems occurring due to non-linear loading
conditions, whereas UPS and DVR are used to compensate for voltage sag and surge
conditions.

Voltage sag may occur from single phase to three phases. But it has been found
that single phase voltage sags are routine and most frequent in the power industry.
Thus, the industries that use single and three phase supply will undergo several
interruptions during their production process and they are forced to use some form of
voltage compensation equipment.
As soon as the fault occurs the action of DVR starts. On event of fault which
results in voltage sag, the magnitude reduction is accompanied by phase angle shift and
the remaining voltage magnitude with respective phase angle shift is provided by the
DVR. Employing minimum active voltage injection mode in the DVR with some phase
angle shift in the post fault voltage can result in miraculous use of DVR. If active
voltage is less prominent in DVR then it can be delivered to the load for maintaining
stability.

Considering this, a transition process is proposed such that voltage restoration is

achieved by injecting the voltage difference between the pre sag and the in sag (source
side) voltages during the initial first cycle or so the sag. When the sag voltage phasor is
available, the injection voltage is controlled to move progressively from the in phase
injection point to the corresponding minimum active voltage injection point. The initial

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voltage injection magnitude and phase angle of DVR can be categorized into different
cases considering the injection limit that will be discussed further.

The simulation of various 1 phase and 3 phase faults are done using MATLAB.
The present project deals with only voltage sag, voltage swell can be simulated in same
way. The simulation results show the very good performance of the controller
theoretically. The performance of DVR theoretically is tested.

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 CHAPTER 2
POWER QUALITY AND ITS PROBLEM

2.1. What is Power Quality?

The power quality issues are vital concerns to the majority of industries today.
The power quality is an index to quality of current and voltage available to industries,
commercial and household consumers of electricity. The quality of voltage waveform at
the entry point of a consumers premises depends upon the types of loads within those
premises. These loads may be linear (non harmonics producing) and nonlinear
(harmonics producing) in nature. For linear loads, any distortion in the voltage
waveform should be responsibility of the supply authority. Contrary to this, for
nonlinear loads, any deviation from no load to full load voltage waveform is
responsibility of consumer itself. Therefore, the quality of current exactly depends upon
the quality of voltage with the non-harmonics producing loads. On the other hand, for
harmonics producing loads, the quality of current depends upon amount of load,
resulting in a maximum distortion in current at light loads and highest magnitude of the
harmonics current at full load. A power quality problem is defined as an occurrence
manifested in voltage, current, or frequency deviations, which results in failure or
disoperation of end-use equipment. Commercial customers have become more exacting
in their demand for relative quality of power they purchase; variations in flow or
voltage can actually damage and disrupt sensitive electronics, computers, and
microprocessors. As modern society relies more heavily on high tech-processes, power
quality has become even more critical [2, 4, and 36].

Power quality is influenced among other factors by utility operations, customer

load types, and equipment designs. Distribution utilities and their customers, along with
their engineering equipment manufacturers and vendors, generate, propagate, and
receive power quality problems. Electrical disturbances can ensue from problems
within the customer's facility, even though the supply voltage is constant. Achieving
power quality demands a united effort between the utility and the customer.

4
Customers and utilities have a shared responsibility in the mitigation of voltage
variation. Mitigation of the effects on consumer devices from voltage variations can be
achieved only if utilities work with manufacturers in the design of consumer products
so that the products function during normal utility operation.

2.2. Sources of Power Quality Problems

2.2.1. Power Electronic Devices
Power electronic devices are non-linear loads that create harmonic distortion
and can be susceptible to voltage sags if not adequately protected. The most common
'economically damaging' power quality problem encountered involves the use of
variable-speed drives. Variable-speed motor drives or inverters are highly susceptible to
voltage sag disturbances and cause particular problems in industrial processes where
loss of mechanical synchronism is an issue. The ideal solution to problems of this
nature would be for systems engineers to specify equipment that has a 'reasonable level'
of susceptibility to voltage clips from the outset [35, 36].

2.2.2. IT and Office Equipment

IT equipment power supplies consist of a switched mode power supply (SMPS)
and are the cause of a significant increase in the level of 3rd, 5th and 7th harmonic
voltage distortion in recent years. Because the third harmonic is a 'Triplen' harmonic it
is of zero order phase sequence and therefore adds in the neutral of a balanced three-
phase system. The increasing use of IT equipment has led to concern of the increased
overloading of neutral conductors and also overheating of transformers. Recent
developments have seen the use of switched mode power supplies in fluorescent
lighting applications; these lighting applications typically represent in the region of
50% of a modern building's load. Many modern commercial buildings have large
neutral conductors to cope with the levels of third harmonic, which can theoretically
reach three times the magnitude of the fundamental [35, 36].

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2.2.3. Arcing Devices
Electric arc furnaces, arc welders and electric discharge lamps are all forms of
electric arcing devices. These devices are highly non-linear loads. The current
waveform drawn is characterized by an increasing arc current limited only by the
network impedance. Large arc furnace installations have typical current requirements of
tens of thousands of amperes, welding sets draw current in the range of hundreds of
amperes, individual electric discharge lamps draw only fractions of an ampere, but
when it is considered that a large percentage of the domestic and commercial load
requirement is contributed by lighting requirements this has a significant impact. All
arcing devices are sources of harmonic distortion and the arcing load can be represented
as a relatively stable source of voltage harmonics. The effects of arc furnaces are
difficult to mitigate; balancing the phases with other furnaces will not always be
effective as arc furnaces are operated in various modes, leading to phase imbalance. Arc
welders commonly cause transients in the local network due to the intermittent
switching and therefore some electronic equipment may require protection from the
impulsive spikes generated [35, 36].

2.2.4. Large Motor Starting

The dynamic nature of induction machines means that they draw current
depending on the mode of operation; during starting this current can be as high as six
times the normal rated current. This increased loading on the local network has the
effect of causing a voltage sag, the magnitude of which is dependent on the system
impedance. It can take several seconds for motors to reach their rated speed and for this
reason measures are taken to reduce the level of current drawn. These measures are
dependent on the type of motor and drive. Most modern motors employ a sophisticated
power electronic converter 'drive', which in most cases will control the motor's starting
current to a reasonable level. Some lower cost types of motors use series capacitors or
resistors to reduce the starting current. These components are then switched out once
the motor's rated speed has been reached. Autotransformers are used to start some older
motors. These have a variable secondary winding that allows the motor stator voltage to
be controlled and hence the current drawn from the supply [35, 36].

6
2.2.5. Load Switching
The effect of heavy load switching on the local network is a fairly common
problem causing transients to propagate through to other 'electrically close' equipment.
These transients can be of surprisingly large voltage magnitude, but have very little
energy due to their short duration, which is normally measured in terms of
milliseconds. Electronic devices that may be sensitive to these voltage impulses can
have their operation impaired. The effect of load switching on the voltage is typically
encountered in the form of transient activity. This type of transient might occur as the
result of switching in a heavy single-phase load, the effect seen on the voltage
measured nearby. Other equipment can be protected from these switching transients by
electrically isolating them from the affecting equipment [35, 36].

2.2.6. Storm and Environment Related Damage

Lightning strikes are a cause of transient overvoltage often leading to faults on
the electricity supply network. Lightning does not have to strike a conductor in order to
inject transients onto the local network. Impulses can be induced if lightning strikes
near a conductor. The local ground potential can be raised by a nearby strike leading to
neutral current flowing to earth via a remote ground. This can have destructive effects
on sensitive equipment. Lightning strikes that hit overhead lines often cause 'flash-over'
to neighboring conductors as the insulators break down. The strike will therefore not
only consist of a transient over-voltage but also fault-clearing interruptions and sags.
High winds and storm conditions cause widespread disruption to the supply networks.
Long interruptions, above one minute, are generally seen as reliability or quality of
supply issues. Snow and ice build-up have a severe effect on the reliability of overhead
lines. This has obvious power quality/quality of supply consequences. Sea mists in the
vicinity of overhead lines can lead to flashover between conductors. Insulators must be
cleaned on a regular basis in these areas to avoid these problems. In hot and humid
climates dust and heavy dew can cause similar flashover problems, requiring
nonintrusive insulator cleaning methods. Finally, damage due to wildlife, such as birds
colliding with overhead lines, and tree branches touching live conductors is common in

7
rural areas, particularly in the spring. As with any faults, these are potential causes of
power quality problems [35, 36].

2.3. Power Quality Problems

The main types of voltage disturbances that occur in electrical power
distribution systems include the following; Transients, Voltage sags, Voltage swells,
Interruptions, Distortion, Flicker, Noise, Frequency deviations. These voltage
disturbances will cause various power quality problems like electrical equipment
damage, malfunction of computer and other sensitive equipment [2].

Figure2.1 Voltage Reduction Standard of IEEE Std. 1159-1995

This IEEE defined power quality disturbances shown in this chapter have been
organized into seven categories based on wave shape:
1. Transients
2. Interruptions
3. Sag / Under voltage
4. Swell / Overvoltage
5. Waveform distortion
6. Voltage fluctuations
7. Frequency variations.
2.3.1. Transients

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 Potentially the most damaging type of power disturbance, transients fall into
two subcategories:
1. Impulsive
2. Oscillatory

Impulsive
Impulsive transients are sudden high peak events that raise the voltage and/or
current levels in either a positive or a negative direction. These types of events can be
categorized further by the speed at which they occur (fast, medium, and slow).
Impulsive transients can be very fast events (5 nanoseconds [ns] rise time from steady
state to the peak of the impulse) of short-term duration (less than 50 ns).

Note: [1000 ns = 1 s] [1000 s = 1 ms] [1000 ms = 1 second]

One example of a positive impulsive transient caused by electrostatic discharge (ESD)
event is illustrated in Figure2.2.

Figure2.2 Positive impulsive transient

The impulsive transient is what most people are referring to when they say they
have experienced a surge or a spike. Many different terms, such as bump, glitch, power
surge, and spike have been used to describe impulsive transients.
Causes of impulsive transients include lightning, poor grounding, the switching of
inductive loads, utility fault clearing, and ESD (Electrostatic Discharge). The results

9
can range from the loss (or corruption) of data, to physical damage of equipment. Of
these causes, lightning is probably the most damaging.

The problem with lightning is easily recognized after witnessing an electrical

storm. The amount of energy that it takes to light up the night sky can certainly destroy
sensitive equipment. Moreover, it doesn't take a direct lightning strike to cause damage.
The electromagnetic fields, Figure2.3, created by lightning can cause much of the
potential damage by inducing current onto nearby conductive structures.

Figure2.3 Magnetic Field Created by Lightning Strike

Two of the most viable protection methods when it comes to impulsive

transients pertain to the elimination of potential ESD, and the use of surge suppression
devices (popularly referred to as Transient Voltage Surge Suppressors: TVSS, or Surge
Protective Device: SPD).

While ESD can arc off of your finger with no damage to you, beyond a slight
surprise, it is more than enough to cause an entire computer motherboard to stop dead
and to never function again. In data centers, printed circuit board manufacturing
facilities or any similar environment where PCBs are exposed to human handling, it is
important to dissipate the potential for ESD. For example, almost any proper data

10
center environment involves conditioning of the air in the room. Conditioning the air
does not just cool the air to help remove heat from data center equipment, but also
adjusts the amount of moisture in the air. Keeping the humidity in the air between 40 -
55% humidity will decrease the potential for ESD to occur. Youve probably
experienced how humidity affects ESD potential if youve ever been through a winter
(when the air is very dry) when a few drags of your socks across the carpet cause a
tremendous arc to jump from your finger unexpectedly to the doorknob you were
reaching for, or expectedly if you were aiming for someones ear. Another thing you
will see in PCB environments, such as you would see in any small computer repair
business, is equipment to keep the human body grounded. This equipment includes
wrist straps, antistatic mats and desktops, and antistatic footwear. Most of this
equipment is connected to a wire, which leads to the ground of the facility, which keeps
people safe from electric shock and also dissipates possible ESD to ground [2].

SPDs have been used for many years. These devices are still in use today on
utility systems, as well as devices for large facilities and data centers, as well as
everyday small business and home use; their performance improving with advances in
metal oxide varistor (MOV) technology. MOVs allow for a consistent suppression of
impulsive transients, swells, and other high voltage conditions, and can be combined
with thermal tripping devices such as circuit breakers, thermistors as well as other
components such as gas tubes and thyristor. In some cases SPD circuits are built into
the electrical devices themselves, such as computer power supplies with built in
suppression abilities. More commonly, they are used in stand-alone surge suppression
devices, or included with UPSs to provide surge suppression and emergency battery
power should in interruption occur (or when power levels are outside the boundaries of
nominal, or safe, power conditions).

Cascading SPDs and UPS devices, is the most effective method of protection
against power disturbances, for electronic equipment. Using this technique, an SPD
device is placed at the service entrance and is sized to dissipate much of the energy
from any incoming transient. Subsequent devices at the electrical sub-panel and at the

11
sensitive equipment itself clamp the voltage to a level that doesn't damage or disturb the
equipment. Particular attention must be paid to sizing both the voltage rating and the
energy dissipation rating of these devices and coordinating the devices for effective
operation. Also, attention should be paid to how effective the surge suppression device
is in the event that the MOV reaches the point of failure. While an MOV is consistent in
its surge suppression abilities over time, it does still degrade with usage, or can fail if its
rate of effective suppression ability is exceeded. It is important that if the MOV does
reach the point where it is no longer useful, that the SPD have the ability to break the
circuit, and prevent any damaging power anomaly from reaching the equipment it is
protecting.

Oscillatory
An oscillatory transient is a sudden change in the steady-state condition of a
signal's voltage, current, or both, at both the positive and negative signal limits,
oscillating at the natural system frequency. In simple terms, the transient causes the
power signal to alternately swell and then shrink, very rapidly. Oscillatory transients
usually decay to zero within a cycle (a decaying oscillation). These transients occur
when you turn off an inductive or capacitive load, such as a motor or capacitor bank.

When oscillatory transients appear on an energized circuit, usually because of

utility switching operations (especially when capacitor banks are automatically
switched into the system), they can be quite disruptive to electronic
equipment.Figure2.4 shows a typical low frequency Oscillatory Transient attributable to
capacitor banks being energized [2].

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 Figure2.4 Oscillatory transient

2.3.2 Interruptions

An interruption (Figure2.5) is defined as the complete loss of supply voltage or

load current. Depending on its duration, an interruption is categorized as instantaneous,
momentary, temporary, or sustained. Duration range for interruption types are as
follows:
Time
Interruptions
Duration
Instantaneous 0.5 to 30
cycles
Momentary 30 cycles
to 2
seconds
Temporary 2 seconds
to 1
minutes
Sustained greater
than 1
minutes

Table2.3.1 Types of Interruptions

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[A] Instantaneous Interruption [B] Sustained Interruption

Figure2.5 Waveform for Interruption

An interrupt An interruption, whether it is instantaneous, momentary, temporary, or
sustained, can cause disruption, damage, and downtime, from the home user up to the
industrial user. A home, or small business computer user, could lose valuable data when
information is corrupted from loss of power to their equipment [2].

Probably more detrimental is the loss that the industrial customer can sustain
because of interruptions. Many Industrial processes count on the constant motion of
certain mechanical components. When these components shutdown suddenly from an
interruption, it can cause equipment damage, ruination of product, as well as the cost
associated with downtime, cleanup, and restart.

For example, when an Industrial customer, producing yarn, experiences a

momentary interruption, it can cause the yarn extrusion process to "break out," resulting
in excessive waste and downtime. Yarn must be extruded at a certain speed and
consistency for the end product to be of the quality and type expected. The off-spec
yarn must be cleaned out of the spinning machine and the thread lines re-strung. As you
can imagine this takes a great effort, and creates huge downtime. Also, there is waste
due to a certain amount of ruined yarn.

Solutions to help against interruptions vary, both in effectiveness and cost. The
first effort should go into eliminating or reducing the likelihood of potential problems.
Good design and maintenance of utility systems are, of course, essential. This also

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applies to the industrial customer's system design, which is often as extensive and
vulnerable as the utility system.

The term sustained interruption, describes a situation in a commercial utility

system where automatic protective devices, because of the nature of the fault, cannot
bring power back online, and manual intervention is required. This terminology more
accurately describes the situation, rather than the commonly used term outage. The
term outage actually refers to the state of a component in the system that has failed to
function as expected (IEEE Std 100-1992).

When the supply voltage is zero for a period of time in excess of 1 minute, the
long duration voltage variation is called sustained interruption. Human intervention is
required during sustained interruptions for repair and restoration.

2.3.3 Voltage Sag

Voltage sags (dips) are short-duration reductions in rms voltage caused by short-
duration increases of the current, typically at another location than where the voltage
sag is measured. The most common causes of overcurrent leading to voltage sags are
motor starting, transformer energizing and faults. Also capacitor energizing and
switching of electronic load lead to short duration overcurrent, but the duration of the
overcurrent is too short to cause a significant reduction in the rms voltage. Voltage sags
due to short circuit and earth faults are the cause of the vast majority of equipment
problems. Most of the recent emphasis on voltage sags is directed towards these fault-
related sags. Voltage sags are generally seen as undesired events, but a more positive
viewpoint could equally well see them as a consequence of the high reliability of the
power supply. Without the widespread use of protection equipment any fault would lead
to the loss of supply for a large fraction of the customers. The protection significantly
limits the numbers of customers that experience a long interruption, in many cases to
zero. However many customers who would experience an interruption without
protection now experience a voltage sag. This way of protection has been good enough
for many years, but recently more and more problems with end-user equipment are

15
reported due to these voltage sags. Not only has, especially electronic, equipment
become more susceptible to voltage sags, companies have also become less tolerant of
production stoppages. Voltage sags have been mainly associated with short circuit
incidences. Fault occurrences elsewhere can generate voltage sags affecting consumers
differently according to their location in the electrical system. Starting large motors can
also generate voltage sags, although usually not so severe [2].

Figure2.6 voltage Sag

2.3.4 Voltage Swell

Voltage swell is defined as the increase of fundamental frequency voltage for a
short duration. Voltage swells can originate internally in building wiring or externally
on power lines. Voltage swells are the least frequent of the power line problems
representing only about 2 to 3% of all power problems occurring to industry studies.
Voltage swells will normally cause damage to lighting, motor and electronic loads and
will also cause shutdown to equipment. With electronically controlled equipment,
voltage above 6 to 10% above normal may result in damage.

The definitions of sags and swells have evolved over the past fifteen years, as
have the power quality instruments that measure them. Sags, or dips as they are referred
to in the European communities, were initially any reduction in voltage below a user-
defined low limit for between one cycle and 2.55 seconds. Swells, originally referred to
as surges, were similar to sags, except that the voltage exceeded a user defined high
limit. While various definitions relative to the amplitude and duration are still in use,

16
the IEEE 11591995 Recommended Practice on Monitoring Electric Power Quality has
defined them as follows: Sag (dip) a decrease to between 0.1 and 0.9 pu in rms voltage
or rms current at the power frequency for durations of 0.5 cycles to 1 minute. Swell - an
increase to between 1.1 pu and 1.8 pu in rms voltage or rms current at the power
frequency durations from 0.5 to 1 minute [2].

Figure2.7 Voltage Swell

2.3.5 Waveform Distortion
There are five primary types of waveform distortion:
1. DC offset
2. Harmonics
3. Interharmonics
4. Notching
5. Noise

DC offset

Direct current (dc) can be induced into an ac distribution system, often due to
failure of rectifiers within the many ac to dc conversion technologies that have
proliferated modern equipment. DC can traverse the ac power system and add
unwanted current to devices already operating at their rated level. Overheating and
saturation of transformers can be the result of circulating dc currents. When a
transformer saturates, it not only gets hot, but also is unable to deliver full power to the
load, and the subsequent waveform distortion can create further instability in electronic
load equipment. A dc offset is illustrated in Figure2.8.

17
 Figure2.8 DC offset

The solution to dc offset problems is to replace the faulty equipment that is the
source of the problem. Having very modular, user replaceable, equipment can greatly
increase the ease to resolve dc offset problems caused by faulty equipment, with less
costs than may usually be needed for specialized repair work.

Harmonics
A good assumption for most utilities is that the sine-wave voltage generated in
central power stations is very good. In most areas, the voltage found on transmission
systems typically has much less than 1.0 percent distortion. However, the distortion
increases closer to the load. At some loads, the current waveform barely resembles a
sine wave. Electronic power converters can chop the current into seemingly arbitrary
waveforms. While there are a few cases where the distortion is random, most distortion
is periodic, or an integer multiple of the power system fundamental frequency. That is,
the current waveform is nearly the same cycle after cycle, changing very slowly, if at
all. This has given rise to the widespread use of the term harmonics to describe
distortion of the waveform. This term must be carefully qualified to make sense. When
electronic power converters first became commonplace in the late 1970s, many utility
engineers became quite concerned about the ability of the power system to
accommodate the harmonic distortion. Many dire predictions were made about the fate
of power systems if these devices were permitted to exist. While some of these
concerns were probably overstated, the field of power quality analysis owes a great
debt of gratitude to these people because their concern over this new problem of
harmonics sparked the research that has eventually led to much of the knowledge about
all aspects of power quality [2, 13].

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 Figure2.9 Harmonics

To some, harmonic distortion is still the most significant power quality problem.
It is not hard to understand how an engineer faced with a difficult harmonics problem
can come to hold that opinion. Harmonics problems counter many of the conventional
rules of power system design and operation that consider only the fundamental
frequency. Therefore, the engineer is faced with unfamiliar phenomena that require
unfamiliar tools to analyze and unfamiliar equipment to solve.
Although harmonic problems can be difficult, they are not actually very
numerous on utility systems. Only a few percent of utility distribution feeders in the
United States have a sufficiently severe harmonics problem to require attention. In
contrast, voltage sags and interruptions are nearly universal to every feeder and
represent the most numerous and significant power quality deviations. The end user
sector suffers more from harmonic problems than does the utility sector. Industrial users
with adjustable-speed drives, arc furnaces, induction furnaces, and the like are much
more susceptible to problems stemming from harmonic distortion.
Fortunately, if the system is properly sized to handle the power demands of the load,
there is a low probability that harmonics will cause a problem with the power system,
although they may cause problems with telecommunications. The power system
problems arise most frequently when the capacitance in the system results in resonance
at a critical harmonic frequency that dramatically increases the distortion above normal
amounts. While these problems occur on utility systems, the most severe cases are
usually found in industrial power systems because of the higher degree of resonance
achieved. For a fundamental frequency fo, harmonics are the component of the voltage

19
or current which have frequency different than fundamental frequency f o. Harmonics
can be classified into 3 groups [13, 14].

Interharmonics

Interharmonics are those components that are above fundamental component

but are not integer multiple of the fundamental frequency, i.e., mf o for non-integer m
>1. Cycloconverter mainly cause Interharmonics and it is difficult to detect.
Interharmonics are a type of waveform distortion that are usually the result of a signal
imposed on the supply voltage by electrical equipment such as static frequency
converters, induction motors and arcing devices. Cycloconverter (which control large
linear motors used in rolling mill, cement, and mining equipment), create some of the
most significant Interharmonics supply power problems. These devices transform the
supply voltage into an AC voltage of a frequency lower or higher than that of the
supply frequency [2].
The most noticeable effect of Interharmonics is visual flickering of displays and
incandescent lights, as well as causing possible heat and communication interference.
Solutions to Interharmonics include filters, UPS systems, and line conditioners.

Notching
Notching (Figure2.10) is a periodic voltage disturbance caused by electronic
devices, such as variable speed drives, light dimmers and arc welders under normal
operation. This problem could be described as a transient impulse problem, but because
the notches are periodic over each cycle, notching is considered a waveform
distortion problem. The usual consequences of notching are system halts, data loss, and
data transmission problems.

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 Figur2.10 Notching

One solution to notching is to move the load away from the equipment causing
the problem (if possible). UPSs and filter equipment are also viable solutions to
notching if equipment cannot be relocated.

Noise
Noise (Figure2.11) is unwanted voltage or current superimposed on the power
system voltage or current waveform. Noise can be generated by power electronic
devices, control circuits, arc welders, switching power supplies, radio transmitters and
so on. Poorly grounded sites make the system more susceptible to noise. Noise can
cause technical equipment problems such as data errors, equipment malfunction, long-
term component failure, hard disk failure, and distorted video displays.

Figure2.11 Noise

There are many different approaches to controlling noise and sometimes it is

necessary to use several different techniques together to achieve the required result.

Some methods are:

Isolate the load via a UPS
Install a grounded, shielded isolation transformer
Relocate the load away from the interference source
Install noise filters
Cable shielding.
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2.3.6 Voltage Fluctuations

A very rapid change in the supply voltage is called voltage flicker. This is
caused by rapid variations in current magnitude of loads such as arc furnaces in which a
large inrush current flows when the arc strikes first causing a dip in the bus voltage.
Flicker is a very specific problem related to human perception and incandescent light
bulbs. It is not a general term for voltage variations. Humans can be very sensitive to
light flicker that is caused by voltage fluctuations (figure2.12). Human perception of
light flicker is almost always the limiting criteria for controlling small voltage
fluctuations. The sensitivity is a function of the frequency of the fluctuations and it is
also dependent on the voltage level of the lighting. Note that individual step changes in
the voltage, such as would be caused by motor starting or switching a capacitor bank,
are often limited separately from the continuous flicker limits. IEC 61000-2-2 specifies
a compatibility level of 3% for the individual voltage variations. EN 50160 specifies a
limit of 5% for these variations but mentions that more significant variations (up to
10%) can occur for some switching events. Specific recommendations are not provided
in IEEE but individual utilities usually have own guidelines in the range 4-7%. Electric
arc furnaces are the major cause of flickers in distribution and transmission systems.

Figure2.12 Voltage Fluctuations

Any load exhibiting significant current variations can cause voltage

fluctuations. Arc furnaces are the most common cause of voltage fluctuation on the
transmission and distribution system. One symptom of this problem is flickering of
incandescent lamps. Removing the offending load, relocating the sensitive equipment,

22
 or installing power line conditioning or UPS devices, are methods to resolve this
problem [12, 19].

2.3.7 Frequency Variations

Frequency variation (Figure2.13) is extremely rare in stable utility power

systems, especially systems interconnected via a power grid. Where sites have
dedicated standby generators or poor power infrastructure, frequency variation is more
common especially if the generator is heavily loaded. IT equipment is frequency
tolerant, and generally not affected by minor shifts in local generator frequency. What
would be affected would be any motor device or sensitive device that relies on steady
regular cycling of power over time. Frequency variations may cause a motor to run
faster or slower to match the frequency of the input power. This would cause the motor
to run inefficiently and/or lead to added heat and degradation of the motor through
increased motor speed and/or additional current draw.

Figure2.13 Frequency variations

To correct this problem, all generated power sources and other power sources
causing the frequency variation should be assessed, then repaired, corrected, or
replaced [2, 35].

2.4 Summary

Table2.4.1 Summary of Disturbances with Solutions

Disturbance Possible Possible
Wave Form Effects
Category Causes Solutions

1.Transients

23
 Lightning, ESD,
Loss of data, TVSS, maintain
switching
Impulsive possible damage, humidity
impulses, utility
system halts between 35-50%
fault clearing
Switching off TVSS, UPS,
Loss of data, inductive/ Reactors/Chokes,
Oscillatory
possible damage Capacitive Zero Crossing
loads Switch

2.Interruptions
Switching,
Loss of data, utility faults,
possible damage, CB tripping, UPS, DVR
shutdown component
failures

3. Sag / Under voltage

System halts, Power
Startup loads,
Sag loss of data, Conditioner,
faults
shutdown UPS, DVR

System halts, Power

Under Utility faults,
loss of data, Conditioner,
voltage load changes
shutdown UPS, DVR

4. Swell / Overvoltage
Nuisance DVR , Power
tripping, conditioner,
Load changes,
Swell Equipment UPS, Ferro
utility faults
damage/ reduced resonant control
life Transformers
DVR , Power
equipment conditioner,
Load changes,
Overvoltage damage/reduced UPS, Ferro
utility faults
life resonant control
Transformers
5. Waveform Distortion

24
 Transformers Troubleshoot and
Faulty
heated, ground replace
DC Offset rectifiers, power
fault current, defective
supplies
nuisance tripping equipment
Reconfigure
distribution,
Transformers Electronic loads install
Harmonics heated, (non-linear k-factor
System halts loads) transformers, use
PFC power
supplies
faulty
light flicker, equipment Power
Inter heating, Cycloconverter Conditioner,
harmonics communication freq. converters, Filters,
interference induction motor UPS
arcing devices
Reconfigure
Variable speed
distribution,
System halts, drives, arc
Notching relocate sensitive
data loss welders, light
loads, install
dimmers
filters, UPS
Remove
Transmitters
transmitters,
(radio), faulty
reconfigure
equipment,
System halts, grounding,
Noise ineffective
data loss moving away
grounding,
from EMI/RFI
proximity to
source, increase
EMI/RFI source
shielding, filters

6.Voltage Fluctuations
Reconfigure
distribution,
Intermittent Relocate
System halts,
operation of sensitive loads,
light flicker
load equipment Power
Conditioner,
UPS
7. Power Frequency Variations
Synchronous Standby Upgrade
equipment generators generator
failure, No effect ineffectively governor

25
 on IT equipment governed

CHAPTER 3
VOLTAGE SAG/SWELL MITIGATIONS AND
EQUIPMENTS

3.1. What is Custom Power?

The custom power concept is technological responses to the poor power quality
presently surfacing in factories, offices, and homes. In recent years both industrial and
commercial customers of utilities have reported a rising tide of misadventures related to

26
power quality. Voltage dips and fluctuations, momentary interruptions, harmonics and
transients, and other types of disturbances have always existed on utility systems. In
buildings, the classical manifestation is the blinking digital clock a tie (so to speak)
that is rarely more than an inconvenience, in that it can be fixed readily and cheaply
enough by the manufacturer. But a 2 second loss of voltage at a computer center may
destroy hours of data processing or hundreds of thousands of dollars worth of work.
Even worse, at large machining plants, a 0.1 second voltage sag may cause heavy
production and quality losses. The waveforms classified as affecting power supply
reliability; power outages and brief voltage sags lasting one cycle up to a few seconds
are a more serious matter. Traditionally, they were not reckoned in with the utilitys
outages. Only the number of lengthy power cuts, many tens of seconds long or longer,
and the total time of power cuts per year have been viewed as pertinent. But in the
course of the past decade it is steadily clearer that the number of incidents, duration,
and the level of voltage reduction are essential elements of customers perception of
calibrating reliability [22].

Customers are increasingly demanding quality in the power supplied by the

electric company. In that way, technology, regulations and customer practices are
moving forward in that direction. The most important benchmarks in the suitable
technology to be used in the solution of quality problems are marked by the continuous
upgrade in the characteristics of the power semiconductor devices, such as IGBTs,
GTOs and thyristor. The availability of better and faster electronic devices is followed,
with some time delay, with the appearance of commercial equipment that uses them
have been considerable changes in todays power systems in recent years, as emergence
of privation and deregulation is to provide the customer with reduced costs. The global
competition between utilities leads to utility cost-cutting, downsizing and reducing
maintenance on both transmission and distribution systems. Power systems that are
hierarchically integrated are being separated such that tasks normally carried out within
traditional organizations have been open to competition whenever practical and
profitable. This process is called unbundling, which consists of unbundling of
vertically integrated utilities, unbundling of functions within a corporation and service

27
unbundling. As the consequence, the common structure in the deregulated power
industry is the separation of the generation, transmission and distribution business into
separate entities. The customers, then, would be free to select their desired level of
power quality. However, many technical problems must be solved to realize such a
unbundled power quality service. Customers, who need high quality of power for their
equipment and are becoming better informed about power quality issues, provide the
principal motivation for the utility industry with unbundled services and greater
reliance on competitive forces. There is opportunity for enhanced value of service
through greater choice among customized and competitive services. Yet the utility
industry is likely forced to offer a variety of valued-added unbundled services and
prices to customers so as to increase customer satisfaction and the threat of competition
[23].

With the ever-increasing role of electricity in improving the quality of life,

productivity of manufacturing and service industries, and efficient energy use, power
electronics will play a significant part. The Power Electronics Building Block concept
sponsored by the Office of Naval Research has played a key role in accelerating the
trend towards reduced cost, losses, weight, volume, and much lower engineering effort
to design applications of power electronics. One of the growing power electronics
applications is the Power Quality/Custom Power [22, 23].

Custom power is the employment of power electronic or static controllers in

medium voltage distribution systems for the purpose of supplying a level of reliability
and/or power quality that is needed by electric power customers sensitive to power
quality variations. In other words custom power is intended to protect the customers
from interruptions and voltage reductions originating in the utility system as well as
those transferred to customers from other customers via the utility system and even
internal disturbances [22]. Custom power devices, or controllers, include static
switches, active filters, DVRs, injection transformers, energy storage modules that have
the ability to perform current interruption and voltage regulation functions in a
distribution system to improve reliability and/or power quality. The Custom Power Park

28
concept requires integration of state-of-the-art power quality devices within a utility's
distribution system, which could provide tenants with electronically controlled, cost-
effective, nearly undisturbed energy: energy corrected for major sags, swells, harmonics
and other disturbances. As mentioned in the previous sections, Static Transfer Switch
(STS), Active Filters, Dynamic Voltage Restorer (DVR), and Unified Power Quality
Conditioner (UPQC) so forth are state-of the-art technologies installed to coordinate
with each other and monitor the power supply so as to mitigate disturbances. The
distinguished features of these devices can be combined to create a new technology that
can provide improved quality of electrical service to the tenants of industrial (or
commercial office) sites. The concept can be applied to either a new development or the
upgrade of an existing property. The Custom Power Park combines power quality
controllers with engineering services to develop and maintain integrated high-quality
electric service.

A tenant in the Custom Power Park may be able to dispense with specialized
equipment to condition incoming electric power, and experience improved power
quality. Functions such as power factor correction and power conditioning would
become the responsibility of the Custom Power Park operators and would be achieved
by proper application of power quality controllers. The Park operations center receives
power from multiple distribution feeders and can even combine it with distribution
sources or energy storage systems, and then distribute power to its tenants in the park.
Another possible Custom Power Park design includes a utility corridor with multiple
electric circuits. Electric power with different power quality specifications could be
provided to tenants with different needs. Tenants would be able to connect portions of
their load to appropriate classes of service. If a tenant's load characteristics later change
(as detected by the monitoring system), the tenant may be switched to a different power
quality rate and service level as appropriate [23].

A major benefit to the Custom power park tenant would be that, in most cases,
there would no longer be a need for power correction capacitors on the tenants power
system. This equipment is a major cause of harmonic resonance and overvoltage

29
conditions. Power factor correction could be the responsibility of the Custom Power
Park and would be achieved by proper application of Custom Power Controllers on the
park. Restrictions on tenants would include permission to monitor power system
conditions within the tenants system. If a tenants load characteristics change (detected
by the monitoring system) in such a way that requires additional enhancement by the
park, the tenant may be moved to a different Custom Power rate classification since the
Custom Power rate would be a function of the degree of clean up required by the
tenants processes and system. A further benefit to tenants that results from the in-plant
electrical service monitoring by the park is that the tenant no longer needs power
system experts or consultants on their payroll. The Custom Power Park will provide the
necessary in plant power system engineering expertise for all tenants. This is seen as a
very significant plus for the Custom Power Park concept. Power system engineering
expertise is increasingly difficult to find when needed and surveys show that utility
customers prefer a utility-supplied solution to their electrical service disturbance
problems [24, 27].

New technologies utilizing power electronics based concept have been

developed by Westinghouse as a part of the Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI)
Custom Power Program for advanced distribution to provide additional options for the
utility and its large commercial and industrial customers. Known as Custom Power
Products, the technologies described provide the utility with the ability to offer
individual customers or groups of customers (industrial or office parks) opportunity to
obtain specified levels of power quality from standard service utility distribution
system.

In a Custom Power system customer receives specified power quality from a

utility or a service provider or at-the-fence equipment installed by the customer in
coordination with the utility, which includes an acceptable combination of the
following features:

No (or rare) power interruptions

30
 Magnitude and duration of voltage reductions within specified limits.
Magnitude and duration of overvoltage within specified limits.
Low harmonic voltage.
Low phase unbalance.
Acceptance of fluctuating, nonlinear and low power factor loads without
significant effect on the terminal voltage.

This can be done on the basis of an individual, large customer, industrial / Commercial
Park or a supply for a high tech community on a wide area basis [22].

3.2 Need for Custom Power Devices

1. Most of the interruptions and voltage reductions occur in the utility system on
account of lightning faults on transmission and distribution lines, low frequency
dynamic swings of the transmission system, trees touching the wires equipment failure,
switching, etc. Voltage sags may also be a consequence of large load changes affecting
customers own equipment or affecting other equipment via the utility system.

2. Impulses, switching surges and overvoltage affecting the insulation, would most
likely result from lightning strikes and switching events in the transmission and
distribution system.

3. Temporary overvoltage lasting from several cycles to several seconds would largely
result from large load changes, capacitor switching, transformer switching, dynamic
stability swings, excessive leading-VARs during light loads, etc. in the utility system.

4. Voltage unbalances in a three-phase supply would occur mostly due to large

unbalanced loads on a utility's distribution lines and long lines with unbalanced phase
impedances.

5. Harmonics would most likely be the consequence of high harmonics in the customer
load, or the saturation of a utility's transformers. These harmonics would then be
amplified by the natural resonances in the utility system and/or the customer system.

31
 6. There are a number of reasons for the choice of the Custom Power concept for many
customers and on a long term basis for most customers. These reasons are:
The customers are better served if they receive a comprehensive solution to their power
supply problems from the power supply service providers.
Most of the voltage reductions and interruptions result from events that involve the
utility system.
In general, the total cost of the solutions that involve the utilities' own systems would
be much less than the cost of solutions put in place by the individual customers.
At least from the point of view of reliability, migration to the Custom Power concept
seems to be inevitable [35].

3.3 Custom Power Devices

Custom Power Devices provide customers, or even groups of customers
(industrial or office parks), an opportunity to obtain specified levels of power quality
from standard service utility distribution systems. On the utility side of the meter,
studies have indicated that a majority of the process disruptions can be eliminated by
using power line conditioners and redundant feeder systems operating in conjunction
with fast acting circuit breakers and fault isolators. To perform the line conditioning,
Custom Power devices such as the following are being developed by the EPRI [35].
There are many types of Custom power devices like those listed below:

1) Active Power filters(APF)

2) Battery Energy storage systems(BESS)

3) Distributed Static Compensators(DSTATCOM)

4) Distribution series Capacitors(DSC)

5) Dynamic Voltage Restorer(DVR)s

6) Super conducting Magnetic Energy systems(SEMES)

7) Static Electronics Tap Changers(SETC)

32
 8) Solid State Transfer Switches (SSTS)

9) Unified power quality conditioner

10) Static VAR Compensators(SVC)

11) Thyristor Switched Capacitors(TSC)

12) Uninterruptible Power Supplies (UPS)

3.3.3. Active Power Filter

Passive tuned filters have been used to minimize low-frequency current
harmonics while high-pass units have been connected to attenuate the amplitude of high
frequency current components. However, high-pass filters present disadvantages due to
the resistance connected in parallel to the inductor, which increases the filter losses and
reduces the filtering effectiveness at the tuned frequency. The most critical aspects of
passive filters are related to the fact that they cannot modify their compensation
characteristics following the dynamic changes of the nonlinear load, the performance
dependence they present with the power system parameters, and the probability of
series resonances with the power systems equivalent reactance. Another technical
disadvantage of passive filters is related to the small design tolerances acceptable in the
values of L and C. Small changes in the value of L or C modify the filter resonant
frequency. For example, a 5% difference in the selected value of L or C in a second-
order LC filter tuned at 250 Hz (fifth harmonic) modifies the required resonant
frequency in 7% with respect to the selected design value, affecting the filter current
harmonic compensation performance. Also, the passive filter generates at fundamental
frequency reactive power that changes the system voltage regulation, and if the filter is
not designed properly or disconnected during low load operating conditions,
overvoltage can be generated at its terminals (Peng, 1998), (Rivas et al., 2003). Also,
passive filters often need to be significantly overrated to account for possible harmonic
absorption from the power system. Passive filter ratings must be coordinated with
reactive power requirements of the loads and it is often difficult to design the filters to
avoid leading power factor operation for some load conditions. There are two

33
approaches to the mitigation of power quality problems. The first approach is called
load conditioning, which ensures that the equipment is less sensitive to power
disturbances, allowing the operation even under significant voltage distortion. The other
solution is to install line conditioning systems that suppress or counteracts the power
system disturbances. A flexible and versatile solution to voltage/current quality
problems is offered by active power filters. Active filters have the advantage of being
able to compensate for harmonics without fundamental frequency reactive power
concerns. This means that the rating of the active power can be less than a conquerable
passive filter for the same nonlinear load and the active filter will not introduce system
resonances that can move a harmonic problem from one frequency to another.

The active power filter uses power electronic switching to generate harmonic
currents that cancel the harmonic currents from a load. Figure 3.5 shows the
components of a typical active-power-filter system and their interconnections. The
information regarding the harmonic current, generated by a nonlinear load, for
example, is supplied to the reference-current/voltage estimator together with
information about other system variables. The reference signal from the current
estimator, as well as other signals, drives the overall system controller. This in turn
provides the control for the PWM switching-pattern generator. The output of the PWM
pattern generator controls the power circuit via a suitable interface. The power circuit in
the generalized block diagram can be connected in parallel, series or parallel/series
configurations, depending on the connection transformer used [36, 37, 38, 39].

34
 Figure 3.1 Generalized block diagram for active power filter

3.3.4. Dynamic Voltage Restorer (DVR)

DVR injects a voltage component in series with the supply voltage and
therefore can be regarded as a controlled voltage source, compensating voltage sags and
swells on the load side. Control response is on the order of 3msec, ensuring a secure
voltage supply under transient network conditions. Voltage injection of arbitrary phase
with respect to the load current implies active power transfer capability. This active
power is transferred via the dc link, and is supplied either by a diode bridge connected
to the ac network, a shunt connected PWM converter or by an energy storage device.
This device is described in the next chapter in full detail [15, 18, 19].

3.3.5. Unified Power Quality Conditioner (UPQC)

Poor power quality in a system could be due to different factors such as voltage
sag, voltage swell, voltage outage and over correction of power factor and unacceptable
levels of harmonics in the current and voltage. Modern solution for poor power quality
is to take advantage of advanced power electronics technology. Recent research efforts
have been made towards utilizing a device called unified power quality conditioner
(UPQC) to solve almost all power quality problems. The main purpose of a UPQC is to
compensate for supply voltage flicker/imbalance, reactive power, negative-sequence
current, and harmonics. In other words, the UPQC has the capability of improving
power quality at the point of installation on power distribution systems or industrial
power systems. The UPQC, therefore, is expected as one of the most powerful solutions
to large capacity loads sensitive to voltage flicker/imbalance [15, 35].

Mainly there are two types of UPQC: One is a general UPQC for power
distribution systems and industrial power systems. The other is a specific UPQC for a
voltage flicker/imbalance-sensitive load, which is installed on his own premises by an
electric power consumer.

35
Unified Power Quality Conditioner (UPQC) for non-linear and voltage sensitive loads
has following facilities.
1. It eliminates the harmonics in the supply current, thus improves utility current
quality for nonlinear loads.
2. UPQC provides the VAR requirement of the load, so that the supply voltage and
current are always in phase, therefore, no additional power factor correction
equipment is necessary.
3. UPQC maintains load end voltage at the rated value even in the presence of supply
voltage sag.
4. The voltage injected by UPQC to maintain the load end voltage at the desired
value is taken from the same dc link, thus no additional dc link voltage support is
required for the series compensator.

Figure 3.2 Basic configuration of UPQC

UPQC consists of a series active filter and a shunt active filter. Figure 3.7 shows a basic
system configuration of a general unified power quality conditioner consisting of the
combination of a series active filter and a shunt active filter. The general UPQC will be
installed at substations by electric power utilities in the near future.
1. The main purpose of the series active filter is harmonic isolation between a sub-
transmission system and a distribution system. In addition, the series active filter
has the capability of voltage flicker/imbalance compensation as well as voltage
regulation and harmonic compensation at the utility-consumer point of common
coupling (PCC).

36
2. The main purpose of the shunt active filter is to absorb current harmonics, to
compensate for reactive power and negative-sequence current, and to regulate the
dc link voltage between both active filters.

37
 CHAPTER 4
PRINCIPLE AND OPERATING MODE OF
DYNAMIC VOLTAGE RESTORER (DVR)

A power electronic converter based series compensator that can protect critical
loads from all supply side disturbances other than outages is called a dynamic voltage
restorer. The restorer is capable of generating or absorbing independently controllable
real and reactive power at its AC output terminal. This device employs solid-state
power electronic switches in a pulse-width modulated (PWM) inverter structure. It
injects a set of three-phase AC output voltages in series and synchronism with the
distribution feeder voltages. The amplitude and phase angle of the injected voltages are
variable thereby allowing control of the real and reactive power exchange between the
device and the distribution system. The DC input terminal of the restorer is connected
to an energy source or an energy storage device of appropriate capacity. The reactive
power exchanged between the restorer and the distribution system is internally
generated by the restorer without AC passive reactive components. The real power
exchanged at the restorer output AC terminals is provided by the restorer input DC
terminal from an external energy source or energy storage system.

4.1 Principles of DVR Operation

A DVR is a solid state power electronics switching device consisting of either

GTO or IGBT, a capacitor bank as an energy storage device and injection transformers.
It is connected in series between a distribution system and a load that shown in Figure
4.2. The basic idea of the DVR is to inject a controlled voltage generated by a forced
commuted converter in a series to the bus voltage by means of an injecting transformer.
A DC capacitor bank which acts as an energy storage device, provides a regulated dc
voltage source. A DC to Ac inverter regulates this voltage by sinusoidal PWM
technique.

38
 During normal operating condition, the DVR injects only a small voltage to
compensate for the voltage drop of the injection transformer and device losses.
However, when voltage sag occurs in the distribution system, the DVR control system
calculates and synthesizes the voltage required to maintain output voltage to the load by
injecting a controlled voltage with a certain magnitude and phase angle into the
distribution system to the critical load [9].

Figure 4.1 Principle of DVR with a response time of less than one millisecond

Note that the DVR capable of generating or absorbing reactive power but the
active power injection of the device must be provided by an external energy source or
energy storage system. The response time of DVD is very short and is limited by the
power electronics devices and the voltage sag detection time. The expected response
time is about 25 milliseconds, and which is much less than some of the traditional
methods of voltage correction such as tap-changing transformers [8].

4.2 Location of Dynamic Voltage Restorer

Among the voltage transients (sags, swells, harmonics), the voltage sags are
the most severe disturbance. The users may improve end-use devices or use protection

39
devices to reduce the number of voltage sags. But overall solution to mitigate the
voltage sags and recovering the load voltage to the pre-fault value is using a Dynamic
Voltage Restorer (DVR). It is a solid state DC to AC switching power electronic
converter that injects three single-phase AC voltages in series between the feeder and
sensitive load. Furthermore DVR can be designed to reduce phase unbalance and
compensate voltage harmonics. Using a DVR is more reliable and quick solution to
maintain with a clean supply of electricity for customers. But standby losses, equipment
costs and required large investigation for design are the main drawbacks of DVR. The
DVR is connected in the utility primary distribution feeder as shown in Figure. This
location of DVR will mitigate the certain group of customer by faults on the adjacent
feeder.

Figure 4.2 The Location of DVR

The energy storage unit is common voltage source for PWM

inverter and it is composed of DC capacitor bank. The PWM inverter
unit produces required missing voltage by evaluating the control unit
signals and this compensating voltage is inserted to the system by
injection transformers.

40
4.3 Components of DVR

A typical DVR consist of the following major components [5]:

Voltage Source Inverter (VSI)
Injection Transformer
Harmonic Filter
Energy Storage Unit
Bypass switch
Control and Protection System

Figure4.3 Simplified DVR blocks

41
 Figure 4.4 Basic Elements of Dynamic Voltage Restorer

4.3.1. Voltage Source Inverter (VSI)

A voltage source inverter is energized by a stiff DC voltage supply of low

impedance at the input as shown in Figure 4.5. The output voltage is independent of
load current. Voltage source inverters are widely used in low and high power
applications such as motor drives, traction, UPS and bi-directional AC-DC converters
[13].

42
 Figure 4.5 Main circuit configuration of VSI
In the voltage source inverter, the values of output voltage variations are
relatively low due to capacitor but it is difficult to limit current because of capacitor.
The inverters are then connected in series to the distribution line through a set of three
single-phase injection transformers. The most common voltage source inverter types
are single-phase and three-phase bridge inverters as shown in Figure 4.6.

(a) Basic single phase inverter

(b) Basic three-phase inverter

Figure 4.6 Basic single and Three phase inverter

The three single-phase Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) voltage source inverters
will be used in this thesis. PWM switched inverters provide better performance to
control unsymmetrical and especially overcurrent during unbalanced faults. The voltage
control is achieved by modulating the output voltage waveform within the inverter. The
rating of PWM voltage source inverter is low in voltage and high in current because of

43
using the step up injection transformer. The main advantage of PWM inverter is
including fast switching speed of the power switches. PWM technique offers simplicity
and good response. Besides, high switching frequencies can be used to improve on the
efficiency of the converter, without incurring significant switching losses [13, 14, 19].

The basic idea of PWM is varying the on or off periods at a constant frequency
so that the on periods are longest at the peak of the wave. The control of switch duty
ratio adjusts the output voltage. The switch duty ratio (Dr ) can be expressed as
Dr=Ton/T, Where, Ton is the ON interval; T is the switching period; Dr is varied from
zero to one depending on the level of the reference signal. The PWM modifies the
width of the pulses in a pulse train by using control signal. When the value of control
voltage increases, it results wider pulses. The waveform of control voltage for a PWM
circuit will determine the waveform of the produced voltage.In Figure 4.7, sinusoidal
control wave is compared with carrier wave, which has a higher frequency. Between the
crossover points, where the value of the triangle wave is lower than the value of the
sinusoidal waveform, S3 and S4 are triggered, at other times S1 and S2 are triggered. In
this type of PWM, the pulse width is varied throughout the half cycle in a sinusoidal
manner and low order harmonics are eliminated.This comparison produces the output
waveform at the same fundamental frequency with the control voltage. The sinusoidal
input voltage allows the inverter switches to be turn-off or on at or very near input
voltage zero crossing. This switching technique virtually eliminates switching losses.

44
 Figure 4.7 Switching strategies for PWM inverter

Due to the produced output voltage is not pure sinusoidal waveforms; it will
have voltage values at other frequencies. The harmonics can cause the increase of the
rms value and the peak value of the distorted waveform. The connection type of
transformer and filtering unit eliminate the basic harmonics. The inverter requires an
inductance to eliminate the current ripples. If large inductance is used, it will increase
the impedance of DVR so increased voltage drop on DVR system.

4.3.2 Voltage injection transformers

The high voltage side of the injection transformer is connected in series to the
distribution line, while the low voltage side is connected to the DVR power circuit. For

45
a three-phase DVR, three single-phase or three-phase voltage injection transformers can
be connected to the distribution line, and for single phase DVR one single-phase
transformer is connected [21]. For the three-phase DVR the three single phase
transformers can be connected either in delta/open or star/open configuration as shown
in Figure 4.6 [15].

Delta/open Star/open
configuration configuration
Figure 4.8 Connection methods for the primary side of the injection transformer

The basic function of the injection transformer is to increase the voltage

supplied by the filtered VSI output to the desired level while isolating the DVR circuit
from the distribution network. The transformer winding ratio is pre-determined
according to the voltage required in the secondary side of the transformer (generally
this is kept equal to the supply voltage to allow the DVR to compensate for full voltage
sag) [21]. A higher transformer winding ratio will increase the primary side current,
which will adversely affect the performance of the power electronic devices connected
in the VSI.The rating of the injection transformer is an important factor when deciding
the DVR performance, since it limits the maximum compensation ability of the DVR
[13]. Further the leakage inductance of the transformer brings to a low value to reduce
the voltage drop across the transformer. In order to reduce the saturation of the injection
transformer under normal operating conditions it is designed to handle a flux which is

46
higher than the normal maximum flux requirement [21]. The winding configuration of
the injection transformer mainly depends on the upstream distribution transformer.

If the distribution transformer is connected in -Y with the grounded neutral,

during an unbalance fault or an earth fault in the high voltage side, there will not be any
zero sequence currents flow in to the secondary. Thus the DVR needs to compensate
only the positive and negative sequence components. As such, an injection transformer
which allows only positive and negative sequence components is adequate [4].
Consequently the delta/open configuration can be used (shown in Figure 4.6-left).
Further this winding configuration allows the maximum utilization of the DC link
voltage [11,21]. For any other winding configurations (such as star/star earthed) of the
distribution transformer, during an unbalance fault all three sequence components
(positive, negative and zero) flow to the secondary side. Therefore the star/open
configuration (Figure 4.6-right) should be used for the injection transformers, which
can pass all the sequence components [11,21].

4.3.3 Filtering Schemes

In the design of DVR, special attentions must be paid to the filtering scheme as
it is related with the system dynamic response. Two filtering schemes were seen from
the recent literature, which are the inverter-side filter and line-side filter [12], [13].
Figure 4.7 shows the configuration of the inverter-side filter, and Figure 4.8 depicts that
of the line-side filter.

Figure 4.9 Inverter-Side Filter

47
 In the scheme of inverter-side filter, a series inductor Lf and a shunt capacitor Cf
are inserted between the transformer and switching devices. From the view point of
harmonic elimination, the inverter-side filter scheme may be a preferable one. Yet, as
the insertion of the inductor may introduce an additional voltage-drop component
across the series transformer, it is also found that the magnitude and phase difference
between the fundamental components of voltage has appeared on both sides of the
filter, implying that an inadvertent choice of the filter design would significantly
downgrade the DVR control performance [20].

Figure 4.10 Line-Side Filter

As for the DVR design of line-side filter, it can be implemented by placing the
filtering scheme on the line-side of the series transformer as Figure 4.8 depicts. In such
a line-side filter scheme, the leakage flux of series transformer is served as the filtering
inductance, and the capacitor is placed across the transformer winding. By use of this
design, the system will no longer require a physical inductor, avoiding the problem
encountered in the inverter-side filter. However, similar to the inverter-side filter
scheme, a transport delay is also encountered between the input and output of the filter
network that may be attributed to the utilization of the line-side filter. Note that while
the DVR along with the filtering scheme is devoted to cancel out the incoming
nuisance, this resultant transport delay may instead offset the dynamic response in a
significant manner, or even lead to a system compensation failure [14, 20].
4.3.4 By-pass switch
48
 Since the DVR is a series connected device, any fault current that occurs due to
a fault in the downstream will flow through the inverter circuit. The power electronic
components in the inverter circuit are normally rated to the load current as they are
expensive to be overrated. Therefore to protect the inverter from high currents, a by-
pass switch (crowbar circuit) is incorporated to by-pass the inverter circuit [9, 11].
Basically the crowbar circuit senses the current flowing in the distribution
circuit and if it is beyond the inverter current rating the circuit bypasses the DVR circuit
components (DC Source, inverter and the filter) thus eliminating high currents flowing
through the inverter side. When the supply current is in normal condition the crowbar
circuit will become inactive [8].

4.3.5 Energy Storage Unit

The energy storage unit supplies required power for compensation of load
voltage during voltage sag. The reactive power exchanged between the DVR and the
distribution system is internally generated by the DVR without any ac passive reactive
components, e.g. reactors or capacitors. Real power exchanged at the DVR ac terminals
must be provided at the DVR dc terminal by an auxiliary energy storage system or grid
itself. For most DVR applications, the energy source can be an electrolytic capacitor
bank. The selection of the optimum topology and DVR ratings is related with the
distribution of the remaining voltage, the outage cost and investment cost.

Table4.3.1 Energy Storage Devices Used in General Applications

49
Energy Storage Storage
Major pros Major drawbacks
Device Mechanism
Battery chemical low relative costs, maintenance, limited lifetime,
know-how, high energy long access time to the whole
density stored energy, use of
(10 to 100 Wh/kg) environmentally unfriendly
materials
Conventional electrical fast access time to limited energy density
Capacitor stored energy, high (< 0.1 Wh/kg)
power density (< 100
kW/kg)
Ultra capacitors electrochemical high energy density slower access time than
(1 to 10 Wh/kg) conventional capacitors, still
available only to low voltage
Flywheel mechanical high power density low energy storage density,
high losses (using mechanical
bearings), maintenance
SMES magnetic fast access to the whole too high costs
available energy, high
power density

Different storage devices are discussed and a comparison is made based on the
percentage Efficiency, Energy density [W-h/kg], Power density [kW/kg], Sizes [MW-
h]. On basis of comparison it is suggested that SMES, Flywheels and Ultra Capacitors
seems to be better for storage requirements in DVR systems for achieving efficiency
over 90% [13].

50
4.4 DVR Operation Modes

The basic operation principle of DVR is measuring the missing voltage by using
control unit and injecting the dynamically controlled missing voltage in series to the
line and providing the load voltage unchanged during sag. The phase angle and
amplitude of the injected voltage are variable during sag. This will allow the control of
active and reactive power exchange between the DVR and the distribution system.
Generally, the operation of the DVR can be categorized into three operation mode:
protection mode, standby mode (during steady state) and injection mode (during sag).

4.4.1 Protection Mode

The DVR will be isolated from the system if the system parameters exceed the
predetermined limits primarily current on load side. The main reason for isolation is
protecting the DVR from the over-current in the load side due to short circuit on the
load or large inrush currents. The control system detects faults or abnormal condition
and manages bypass (transfer) switches to remove the DVR from system thus
preventing it from damages as shown in Figure 4.3.

51
 Figure 4.11 Scheme of the protection mode
During the overcurrent period, S1 will be closed; S2 and S3 will be opened so
there will be another path for current to flow. By removing the DVR from system at
fault condition, the effects of additional disturbances that can be caused by the DVR are
prevented onto the system.

4.4.2 Standby Mode

In standby mode (normal steady state conditions), the DVR may either go into
short circuit operation or inject small voltage to compensate the voltage drop on
transformer reactance or losses. Short circuit operation of DVR is generally preferred
solution in steady state because the small voltage drops do not disturb the load
requirements. The solid-state bypass switches are used to perform short circuit
operation and they are placed between the inverter and secondary (low side) of series
injection transformer as shown in Figure 4.10.

Figure 4.12 Scheme of the standby mode

If the distribution circuit is weak there is need to inject small compensation

voltage to operate correctly. During short circuit operation, the injected voltages and
magnetic fluxes are virtually zero thereby full load current pass through the primary.

52
The DVR will be most of the time in normal mode operation. During standby mode
(normal operation), the short circuit impedance of the injection transformer determines
the voltage drop across the DVR.

4.4.3 Injection Mode

The primary function of Dynamic Voltage Restorer is compensating voltage

disturbances on distribution system. To achieve compensation, three single-phase ac
voltages are injected in series with required magnitude, phase and wave shape. The
types of voltage sags, load conditions and power rating of DVR will determine the
possibility of compensating voltage sag.

4.5 DVR Compensation Techniques

The compensation control technique of the DVR is the mechanism used to track
the supply voltage and synchronized that with the pre-sag supply voltage during a
voltage sag/swell in the upstream of distribution line. Generally voltage sags are
associated with a phase angle jump in addition to the magnitude change.
Therefore the control technique adopted should be capable of compensating for voltage
magnitude, phase shift and thus the wave shape. But depending on the sensitivity of the
load connected downstream, the level of compensation of the above parameters can be
altered. Basically the type of load connected influences the compensation strategy. For
example, for a linear load, only magnitude compensation is required as linear loads are
not sensitive to phase angle changes. Further when deciding a suitable control
technique for a particular load it should be considered the limitations of the voltage
injection capability (i.e. the rating of the inverter and the transformer) and the size of
the energy storage device. Compensation is achieved via real power and reactive power
injection. Depending on the level of compensation required by the load, three types of
compensation methods are defined and discussed below namely pre-sag compensation,
in-phase compensation and energy optimization technique [10, 11].

53
 The circuit for a simple power system with a DVR is shown in Figure below.
The supply voltage, Load voltage, Load current and the voltage injected by the DVR
are denoted by Vs, Vload , Iload and VDVR respectively.

Figure 4.13 Simple power system with a DVR

When the system is in normal condition, the supply voltage (Vs) is identified as
pre-sag voltage and denoted by Vpre-sag. In such situation since the DVR is not
injecting any voltage to the system, load voltage (Vload) and the supply voltage will be
the same.

During voltage sag, the magnitude and the phase angle of the supply voltage can
be changed and it is denoted by Vsag. The DVR is in operative in this case and the
voltage injected will be VDVR. If the voltage sag is fully compensated by the DVR, the
load voltage during the voltage sag will be Vpre-sag.

There are four different methods of DVR voltage injection which are
i. Pre-sag compensation method
ii. In-phase compensation method
iii. In-phase advanced compensation method
iv. Voltage tolerance method with minimum energy injection.

54
4.5.1. Pre-sag Compensation

Pre-sag compensation is a method which is generally used for nonlinear loads such as
thyristor controlled drives. In nonlinear loads the voltage magnitude as well as he phase
angle needs to be compensated. Figure4.12 below describes the pre-sag compensation
technique. A higher rated energy storage device and voltage injection transformers are
needed for this technique [10].

Figure 4.14 DVR compensation Techniques.

4.5.2 In-phase Compensation

55
 This technique of compensation is generally used for active loads. Only
compensation for voltage magnitude is required whereas no phase compensation is
required. In this particular method the compensated voltage is in phase with the sagged
voltage. This particular compensation technique is shown in Figure. It is clear from the
Figure4.12, that there is a phase shift between the voltages before the sag and after the
sag. It should be noted that the techniques mentioned in A and B need both the real and
reactive power1 for the compensation and the DVR is supported by an Energy storage
device [10].

4.5.3 In-phase advanced compensation method

In this method the real power spent by the DVR is decreased by minimizing the
power angle between the sag voltage and load current. In case of pre-sag and in-phase
compensation method the active power is injected into the system during disturbances.
The active power supply is limited stored energy in the DC links and this part is one of
the most expensive parts of DVR.
The minimization of injected energy is achieved by making the active power
component zero by having the injection voltage phasor perpendicular to the load
current phasor. In this method the values of load current and voltage are fixed in the
system so we can change only the phase of the sag voltage. IPAC method uses only
reactive power and unfortunately, not al1 the sags can be mitigated without real power,
as a consequence, this method is only suitable for a limited range of sags [10].

4.5.4 Energy optimization technique

In this particular control technique the use of real power is minimized (or made
equal to zero) by injecting the required voltage by the DVR at a 90 phase angle to the
load current. Figure 4.6 depicts the energy optimization technique. However in this
technique the injected voltage will become higher than that of the in-phase
compensation technique. Hence this technique needs a higher rated transformer and an
inverter, compared with the earlier cases [10, 11]. Further the compensated voltage is
equal in magnitude to the pre sag voltage, but with a phase shift.

56
 CHAPTER 5
TEST SYSTEM AND SIMULATION RESULTS
5.1 Test System Data

Figure5.1 Single line Diagram of Simulated Test System

Single line diagram of the test system shown in the figure5.1 for DVR is
composed by a 13 kV, 50 Hz generation system, feeding two transmission lines through
a 3- winding transformer connected in Y/S/S, 13/115/115 kV. Such transmission lines
feed two distribution networks through two transformers connected in S/Y, 115/11 kV.
To verify the working of DVR for voltage compensation a fault is applied at point X at
resistance 0.66 U for time duration of 200 ms. The DVR is simulated to be in operation
only for the duration of the fault.

Table5.1.1 System Parameters

System Device
Inverter Specifications
Transmission Line Parameter
PI Controller
Parameters /standards
IGBT based,3 arms , 6 Pulse
Carrier Frequency =1080 Hz,
Sample Time= 5 s
R=0.001 ohms , L=0.005H
Kp=0.5 , Ki=50, Sample time=50 s

57
58
5.2 Discrete PWM-Based Control Scheme
In order to mitigate the simulated voltage sags in the test system of each
compensation technique, also to compensate voltage sags in practical application, a
discrete PWM-based control scheme is implemented, with reference to DVR. The aim
of the control scheme is to maintain a constant voltage magnitude at the sensitive load
point, under the system disturbance. The control system only measures the rms voltage
at load point, for example, no reactive power measurement is required. Figure 5.4
shows the DVR controller scheme implemented in MATLAB/SIMULINK.
The DVR control system exerts a voltage angle control as follows: an error
signal is obtained by comparing the reference voltage with the rms voltage measured at
the load point. The PI controller processes the error signal and generates the required
angle to drive the error to zero, for example; the load rms voltage is brought back to
the reference voltage which is shown in Figure5.4 of the Controller.

Figure 5.3 Indirect PI Controller

The controller input is an error signal obtained from the reference voltage and
the value rms of the terminal voltage measured. Such error is processed by a PI
controller the output is the angle , which is provided to the PWM signal generator. It is
important to note that in this case, indirectly controlled converter, there is active and
reactive power exchange with the network simultaneously: an error signal is obtained
by comparing the reference voltage with the rms voltage measured at the load point.
The PI controller process the error signal generates the required angle to drive the error
to zero, i.e., the load rms voltage is brought back to the reference voltage [39, 40].

59
 Figure5.4 Simulink model of Controller

It should be noted that, an assumption of balanced network and operating

conditions are made. The modulating angle or delta is applied to the PWM generators
in phase A, whereas the angles for phase B and C are shifted by 240 or -120 and 120
respectively. So, the converter reference voltage is generated and this is used for
triggering the gate of the Voltage source converter.

Figure5.5 firing angle controller scheme/Generation of Gate Pulse

The sinusoidal signal Vcontrol is phase-modulated by means of the angle .

VA = Sin (t +)
VB=Sin (t+-2/3)
VC = Sin (t ++2/3).

60
 Figure5.6 firing Pulse Generated
The modulated signal Vcontrol is compared against a triangular signal in order to
generate the switching signals for the VSC valves. The main parameters of the
sinusoidal PWM scheme are the amplitude modulation index of signal, and the
frequency modulation index of the triangular signal. The amplitude index is kept fixed
at 1 pu, in order to obtain the highest fundamental voltage component at the controller
output.
Ma= V control/ V tri

Where,
V control is the peak amplitude of the control signal
V tri is the peak amplitude of the triangular signal
The switching frequency is set at 1080 Hz.
The frequency modulation index is given by,
Mf= fs/f1= 1080/60 =18, Where f1 is the fundamental frequency.
The modulating angle is applied to the PWM generators in phase A. The angles
for phases B and C are shifted by 240 0 and 1200, respectively. It can be seen in that the
control implementation is kept very simple by using only voltage measurements as the
feedback variable in the control scheme. The speed of response and robustness of the
control scheme are clearly shown in the simulation results.
5.3 Simulation Results for Sag
5.3.1 Single line to ground Fault Sag

61
 Figure 5.7 Single line to ground Fault Sag

5.3.2 Double line to ground Fault Sag

62
Figure 5.8 Double line to ground Fault Sag

63
5.3.3 Three phase to ground Fault Sag

Figure 5.9 Three phase to ground Fault Sag

64
5.3.4 Line-Line to ground Fault Sag

Figure 5.10 Sag during Line to Line Fault

65
5.4 Simulation Results for Swell
5.4.1 Single Line to ground Swell

Figure 5.11 Single line to ground Swell

66
5.4.2 Double Line to ground Fault Swell

Figure 5.12 Double line to ground Swell

67
5.4.3 Three phase Line to ground Fault Swell

Figure 5.13 Three phase to ground Swell

68
5.4.4 Swell During Line-Line Fault

Figure 5.14 Swell During Line-line Fault

69
 The simulation results showed clearly the performance of the DVR in mitigating
voltage sags and swells. The DVR handled both balanced and unbalanced situations
without any difficulties and injected the appropriate voltage component to correct rapidly
any anomaly in the supply voltage to keep the load voltage balanced and constant at the
nominal value. The efficiency and the effectiveness in voltage sags/swells compensation
showed by the DVR makes it an interesting power quality device compared to other
custom power devices.

70
 CHAPTER 6
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

6.1 Conclusion
Dynamic voltage restorers (DVR) are used to protect sensitive loads from the
effects of voltage sags/swells on the distribution feeder. In all cases it is necessary for the
DVR control system to not only detect the start and end of a voltage sag but also to
determine the sag depth and any associated phase shift. The DVR, which is placed in series
with a sensitive load, must be able to respond quickly to voltage sag if end users of
sensitive equipment are to experience no voltage sags.

The carefully chosen four case studies have been realized to verify the operation
and performance of the designed system in MATLAB/Simulink program. The results have
verified the efficiency, flexibility and transient response capability of the developed control
strategy. The designed DVR has provided a regulated and sinusoidal voltage across the
sensitive load. The nearly perfect sinusoidal output voltages have resulted in improvements
in the current and power quality of the sensitive load.

As conclusion, voltage sag/swell is unwanted phenomenon which unavoidable but

can be reduced using all techniques, but not limited to the techniques that have been
discussed. There is no one mitigation technique that will suitable with every application,
and whilst the power supply utilities strive to supply improved power quality, it is up to the
applications engineer to minimize power quality problems. It means, power quality
problem cannot be eliminated but we can reduce and try to avoid this problem form occur.

The best way to avoid power quality problem is by ensuring that all equipment to
be installed in the industrial plants are compatible with power quality in the power system.
This can be achieved by procuring equipment with proper technical specifications that
incorporate power quality performance of its operating electrical environment.

71
6.2 Recommendation

Mitigating voltage sags/swell requires a lot of intensive research especially in developing

custom power device to help distribution system to achieve desired power quality has been
insisted by many customer or end-user. Here an attempt is made to simulate the system for
the Voltage sag mitigation and it is almost same for the swell mitigation. Even though
exhaustive work was targeted and several simulations runs were performed for Voltage
sags and Swell mitigation. There are still rooms of improvement that can be achieved
further, for the technique that have been included in this thesis and other techniques that are
also available.

Due to the time constraints, following points were not covered here which are proposed to
be done as a future work.

1. The DVR is considered the best cost-effective solution against the voltage Sags/ swell.
However, DVR has two main drawbacks which are the need of an energy storage device
that could be quickly operated and existence of harmonics in the system during the fault
period. Some studies have proposed to reduce the drawbacks and cost of DVR and improve
the response of it.
2. The new researches to reduce the cost and improve the response of DVR are the addition of
DC/DC converter for minimizing the energy storage device, transformer-less DVR and
absence of energy storage device.
3. The application of voltage tolerance compensation method for injection strategy and three-
level converter to minimize the harmonic content are other interesting alternatives.
4. The developed control strategy and designed DVR should be tested by connecting the
DVR into a real network where the efficiency and accuracy of the proposed system can be
better evaluated.
5. The efficiency and performance comparison of fuzzy controlled DVR with pqr theory, dq0
theory, neural network and PI controller based DVR.
6. The detailed study for the effect of voltage stability, transient characteristics of the system,
voltage unbalance, voltage harmonics and various load types on the performance of DVR.
7. Application of proposed control algorithm to other kinds of series type voltage
compensators such as series active filters, static synchronous series compensators and

72
 bootstrap variable inductances.
8. Mitigation of zero sequence components from the sensitive load side by improving the
proposed control scheme if the transformer is not delta connected.

By performing the suggestions for future recommendation on this topic, the DVR
technology can be rapidly and efficiently developed and employed.

73
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78
 APPENDIX A
Abbreviations

Symbol Description
AC Alternating Current
DC Direct Current
IEEE Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
SMES Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage
BESS Battery Energy Storage Systems
CBEMA Computer Business Equipment Manufacturers Association
FACTS Flexible AC Transmission Systems
APF Active Power Filters
DSC Distribution Series Capacitors
DSTATCOM Distribution Static Compensator
DVR Dynamic Voltage Restorer
GTO Gate Turn-Off Thyristor
SVC Static Var Compensator
TCSC Thyristor controlled Switched Capacitors
UPQC Unified power quality conditioner
UPS Uninterruptible Power Supplies
VSC Voltage Source Converter
IGBT Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistors
MOSFET Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistors
IGCT Integrated Gate Commutated Thyristor
IPAC In-phase Advanced Compensation
KV kilovolt
MVA megavolt ampere
MVAR mega volt amps reactive
MW megawatt
Hz Hertz

79
ms millisecond
pu Per unit
PCC point of common coupling
PWM Pulse Width Modulation
RMS root mean square
SLGF Single-Line to Ground Fault
DLGF Double-Line to Ground Fault
THD Total Harmonic Distortion
SSTS Solid State Transfer Switch

80
 APPENDIX B
Nomenclature

Symbol Description Unit

A Area of parallel plates on capacitor m2
C Capacitance F
Ecap Energy stored in capacitor J
Ecoil Energy stored in coil (of SMES device) J
F Force N (kgm/s2)
I Current A
L Inductance H (henry)
R Resistance (ohm)
V Voltage V (volt)
t Time s

81