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1.

INTRODUCTION

A reinforced concrete flat slab, also called as beamless slab, is a slab supported directly
by columns without beams. A part of the slab bounded on each of the four sides by centre line of
column is called panel. The flat slab is often thickened closed to supporting columns to provide
adequate strength in shear and to reduce the amount of negative reinforcement in the support
regions. The thickened portion meets the floor slab or a drop panel, is enlarged so as to increase
primarily the perimeter of the critical section, for shear and hence, increasing the capacity of the
slab for resisting two-way shear and to reduce negative bending moment at the support. Such
enlarged or flared portion of and a capital. Slabs of constant thickness which do not have drop
panels or column capitals are referred to as flat plates. The strength of the flat plate structure is
often limited due to punching shear action around columns, and consequently they are used for
light loads and relatively small spans.

The flat slab system of construction is one in which the beam is used in the conventional
methods of construction done away with the directly rests on column and the load from the
slabs is directly transferred to the columns and then to the foundation. Drops or columns are
generally provided with column heads or capitals. Grid floor systems consisting of beams
spaced at regular intervals in perpendicular directions, monolithic with slab

A flat slab consists of a reinforced concrete slab that is directly supported by concrete
columns without the use of intermediate beams. C.A.P. Turner constructed flat slabs in U.S.A.
in 1906 mainly using intuitive and conceptual ideas, which was start of this type of
construction. Many slabs were load-tested between 1910- 20 in U.S.A. It was only in 1914 that
Nicholas proposed a method of analysis of flat slabs based on simple statics. This method is
used even today for the design of flat slabs and flat plates and is known as the direct design
method. Structural engineers commonly use the equivalent frame method with equivalent beams
such as the one proposed by Jacob S. Grossman in practical engineering for the analysis of flat
plate structures. Floor systems consisting of flat slabs are very popular in countries where cast-
in place construction is predominant form of construction because of many advantages in terms
of architectural flexibility, use of space, easier formwork, and shorter construction time. Flat

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slabs are being used mainly in office buildings due to reduced formwork cost, fast excavation,
and easy installation.

1.1. DETAILED SPECIFICATION OF BUILDING:

1) EARTHWORK EXCAVATION FOR FOUNDATION:

Foundation trenches shall be dug out to the exact width of foundation and sides shall be
vertically executed earth shall not be placed within the meter of the trench.

2) CEMENT CONCRETE:

Aggregate shall be of insert materials and should be lean hard sound durable, no
observant and capable of developing good bond with moisture

3) AGGREGATE:

The coarse aggregate shall be 40mm size of stone ballast.

4) REINFORCED CEMENT CONCRETE:

Steel reinforced bars shall be deformed steel. It should be free from corrosion loose and
scales, oil grease paints etc. During laying and compacting of concrete. The steel bars
should not be disturbed. Centering and sheltering shall be made with timber or steel
palte close and light of percentage leakage mortar i.e.; shall be (1:2:4) proportion by
volume of slabs, beams and lintels. The rate of reinforced cement concrete shall be for
the complete work excluding steel bars, including all tools and plants.

5) BASEMENT:

Filling the basement with excavation earth including all leads and lifts.

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6) SECOND CLASS BRICKS:

All bricks shall be standard application made of good bricks thoroughly burned
shall be of deep cherry red copper color having bursting strength of 75KN. Cement
mortar shall be used as 1:3 to 1:6 bricks work shall be measured in centimeters.

1.2. STRUCTURAL PLANNING:

After getting an architectural plan of the building, the structural planning of the building
framing is done

Structural planning is first stage in any structural design. It involves the determination of
appropriate form of structure, material to be used, and the structural system, the layout of its
components and the method of analysis. As the success of an engineering project is measured
in terms of safety and economy, the emphasis today being more on economy. Structural
planning is the first step towards successful structural design.

This involves determination of following.

a) Positioning and orientation of column.


b) Posting of beams.
c) Spanning of slabs.
d) Layout of stairs.
e) Selection of footing.
f) Position of shear wall.

1.2.1. POSITIONING AND ORIENTATION OF COLUMNS

A. COLUMNS SHOULD PREFERABLY BE LOCATED AT (OR) NEAR THE CORNER


OF A BUILDING AND AT THE INTERSECTION OF BEAMS/WALLS.

i. The base of column is to support slabs or beams.


ii. The commercial building have normally rectangular pattern of grid system.

B. AVOID LARGER SPANS (OR) C/C DISTANCE BETWEEN COLUMNS

i. Larger spacing of columns not only increases the span and the cost of the beam but it
increases the load on the column at each floor posing problem of stocky columns in
lower storys of a multi-storied building.
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C. COLUMNS ON PROPERTY LINE

i. The columns on property line need special treatment. Since column required certain
area beyond the column
ii. This encountered certain difficulties mainly in providing footing for such columns.
iii. In such cases the column is shifted in side along the side wall to make room for
accommodating the footing within the property line.

D. ORIENTATION OF COLUMN

a. Avoid projection of column outside the wall:


i. Projection of columns outside the wall in the room should be avoided as they not only give bad
appearance but also obstruct the use of the floor space and create problems in placing furniture.

b. Orient the column so that the depth of column is contained in the major plane of bending
(or) is perpendicular to the major is of building

i. The above principle of governing orientation of columns given below can easily understand
(When a column is rigidly connected to beams at right angles) it is subjected to moments in
addition to the axial loads.
ii. In such cases the column should be so oriented that the depth of the column is perpendicular to
the major axis of bending. So as to gets larger moment of inertial and greater moment resisting
capacity.
iii. Since the bending moment will be very large in the plane of the frame (eg: XY plane) the depth
of the column has been provided has been provided in the plane of bending to the moment
resistance capacity the column and reduced Leff/D ratio and increase the stiffness of the
column.

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FIGURE: SHOWING COLUMN PLAN

DESIGN OF COLUMNS

DESIGN OF COLUMN 1:

Specification:

Using M20grade concrete and Fe 415 grade steel

Length of column = 3050mm

Assume b= 230mm, d = 400mm

LOADS:

Self wt of column = density* volume

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=25*3.05*0.23*0.4 =7.02KN

Weight on column due to slab of drawing room = slab pressure*area

=8.25*4.72 =38.94KN

Self wt of beam 1: density*volume acting on column

=25*0.23*0.44*2.29 =5.8KN

Self wt of beam 2: density *volume acting on column

=25*0.23*0.44*2.06 =5.21KN

Total load due to self wt of beam =11.01KN

Wt of walls on column due to beam1: density *volume

=19*2.29*3.05*0.152 =20.17KN

Wt of walls on the column due to beam2: density *volume

=19*2.06*3.05*0.152 =18.15KN

Total loads due to wall loads = 38.32KN

Total load = 95.29KN

Factored load = 1.5*95.29 = 142.99KN

Total load on the ground floor column =factored load * No. of floors =142.94*5

Total load =714.7KN

For axially loaded short column

Pu = 0.4* Fck* Ac+0.67* fy * Asc

Asc = 0.008Ac

714.7*10*10*10= 0.4*20*Ac+0.67*415*0.008Ac

Ac = 699.1mm2
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So provide a size of column = 230*400

Asc = 0.008Ac

= 0.008*69901 = 599.2 =600 (approx.)

No of Bars =Asc/0.785d2 = 600/0.785*12*12 =5.31 =6nos

Provide 6nos of 12mm dia. bars

Transverse reinforcement:

Diameter should not be less than

a Dia of bars of no. 4 = 12/4 =3mm

b 6mm

Hence adopt 6mm diameter bars

Spacing of ties should be least of

a Least lateral dimension for column = 230mm


b 16times the dia. of longitudinal bars =16*12 =192mm
c 300mm

Provide 6mm lateral ties at 200mm c/c spacing.

DESIGN OF COLUMN 2:

Specification:

Using M20grade concrete and Fe 415 grade steel

Length of column = 3050mm


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Assume b= 230mm d = 600mm

LOADS:

Self wt of column = density* volume

=25*3.05*0.23*0.6 = 10.5KN

Weight on column due to slab of passage = slab pressure*area

=9.75*1.22*2.06 = 24.51KN

Weight on column due to slab of drawing room = slab pressure*area

=8.25*2.29*2.06 = 38.92KN

Total load due to slabs = 63.43KN

Self wt of beam 1: density*volume acting on column

=25*0.23*0.44*2.29 = 5.79KN

Self wt of beam 2: density *volume acting on column

= 25*0.23*0.44*2.9 = 8.17KN

Self wt of beam3: density*volume acting on column

=25*0.23*0.44*1.03 = 2.61KN

Total load due to self wt of beam =16.57KN

Wt of walls on column due to beam1: density *volume

=19*3.05*0.23*2.29 = 30.52KN

Wt of walls on column due to beam2: density *volume

=19*0.23*3.05*2.9 = 38.65KN

Wt of walls on column due to beam3: density *volume

=19*3.05*0.23*1.03
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=13.73KN

Total wall load= 82.9KN

Total load = 173.4KN

Factored load = 1.5*173.4

=260.1KN

Total load on the ground floor column =factored load*no of floors

=260.1*5

Total load =1300.1KN

For axially loaded short column

Pu = 0.4*fck*Ac+0.67*fy*Asc (IS: 456-2000 - page48)

1300.1*103= 0.4*20*Ac+0.67*415*0.008Ac

Ac = 127196mm2

So provide a size of column = 230*600

Asc = 0.008Ac = 0.008*127196 =1017.6mm2

Provide 4nos 16mm dia. bars and 2no 12 mm bars

Transverse reinforcement:

Diameter should not be less than

1) Dia. of bar of no. 4 = 16/4 = 4mm

2)6mm

Hence adopt 6mm diameter bars

Spacing of ties should be least of

1) Least lateral dimension for column = 230mm


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2)16times the dia. of longitudinal bars =16*16 =256mm

3)300mm

Provide 6mm lateral ties at 200mm c/c spacing

1.2.2. POSITIONING OF BEAMS

Following are the some of the guidelines for positioning of beams

A. Beams shall normally be provided under the walls (or) below a heavy concentrated load
i. Since beams are primarily to support slabs, its spacing shall be decided by the
maximum span of slabs.
ii. Slab requires the maximum volume of concrete to carry a given load. Therefore the
thickness of slab is required to be kept minimum.
iii. Since in our project the design is of flat slabs the beams are provided only on the
periphery of the building slab.

Note: The max practical thickness for commercial/official/public building is 300mm while
minimum is 125mm for fire resistance consideration.

B. Avoid larger spacing of columns from deflection and cracking criteria


i. Larger spans of columns shall also be from the consideration of controlling the
deflection and cracking. This is because it is know that the deflection varies directly
with the cube of the span and inversely the cube of the depth.

1.2.3. SLABS

Slabs are plate elements forming floor and roofs of building and carrying loads primarily by
flexure. Inclined slabs may be used as ramps for multi-storey car parks. A staircase can be
considered be an inclined slab. A slab may be supported by beams or walls and may used as the
flanges of a T-o L-beam. Moreover, a slab may be simply supported or continuous over one
more supports and is classified according to the manner of support:

a) One way slabs spanning in one direction


b) Two way slabs spanning in two directions
c) Circular slabs
d) Flat slabs resting directly on columns with no beams and

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e) Grid floor with ribbed slabs.

1.2.4. INTRODUCTION TO STAIRCASE

Stairs are provided in a building to afford a means of communication between the various
floors, they are called staircase. Since they have to perform the very important function, the
slab over which the steps rest should be designed properly to provide maximum comfort, easy
and safety.

The most important aspect in providing staircase is its location. The location of staircase
should be such as to provide as easy access so that in case of causality, e.g.: fire break, earth,
wood etc. In residential & commercial buildings, it should be placed centrally so as to:

i. Provide easy access from all rooms.


ii. Maintain privacy
iii. In public building, the stair case should be located near the main entrance.

1.2.4.1. REQUIREMENT OF A GOOD STAIRCASE:

A well planned and design stair should provide an easy, quick and safe mode of
communication between the various floors. The general requirements of stairs are given below:

a. Location.
b. Effective span of staircase
c. Distribution of loading on stair
d. Width of stair case
e. Length of flight
f. Materials.
g. Landings
h. Step proportion

DESIGN OF STAIR CASE:

SPECIFICATION:

USE M20grade concrete and Fe415 grade steel

Fck =20N/mm2

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Fy =415N/mm2

Let thread =300mm

Rise =150mm

D L of waist slab = 0.15*25 =375KN/m2

Corresponding load per sq m on plan = 3.91KN/m2

Dead load on steps = (150/2mm avg.)*25

=0.75*25

=1.875KN/m2

Top finish =1KN/m2

Live load =3KN/m2

Total load =9.625KN/m2

Since the landing slab is two way slab, the load on it may be taken as 9.785/2 =4.89

Flight BC:

Effective span = c/c dist between supports = 4.114m

Reaction @ each support = ((9.625*1.98)+4.89*1.07))/2

=12.14KN

Mu = (12.1*2.06)-4.89*1.07*1.53)-((9.625*0.99*0.99)/2)

=12.28

Factored moment = 1.5*12.28 = 18.42

Mu, lim = 2.76bd2

d = 81.88mm

Provide depth of 125mm is adequate:


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Ast =442.91mm2

Spacing = 255.1mm

Provide 12mm dia.. bars with 200mm c/c spacing

Flight AB:

Effective span = c/c dist between supports

=2.867m

Rb*2.867 = (9.625*1.8*0.9)+(4.59*1.067*20.33)

Rb =9.61KN

Ra =12.85

Let the shear force be zero at a dist x from A

12.85-9.625x =0

X=1.34m

Max bending moment

=Ra*x-7.625x2/2

=(12.85*1.34)-((7.625*1.34*1.34)/2)

=10.37KN/m

Factored moment =1.5*10.37 = 15.56KN/m

Ast =368mm2

Provide 12mm dia. bars

Spacing =307mm =200mm

Provide 12 mm dia. bars with 200 mm c/c spacing


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1.2.5. SELECTION OF FOOTING

A building is generally composed of super structure above the ground and a substructure
which forms the foundation below ground. The safe bearing capacity of soli must not be exceed
otherwise excessive settlement may occur, resulting in damage to the building and it service
facilities, such as water or gas mains. Foundation failure can also be effect the overall stability
of the structure so that it is liable to slide, to lift vertically or over turn.

Footing or foundation is defined as the part of substructure, which transmits the loads
form the super-structure to surrounding soil stratum safely. Foundations are classified as two
types.

i. Shallow foundation
ii. Deep foundation

The depth of foundation is less than or equal to the width of the foundation then the foundation
is said to be shallow foundation. If the depth of the foundation is greater than width of the
foundation is said to be deep foundation.

The footings are classified as follows:

a. Isolated under individual column. These may be square, rectangular or circular in plan.
b. Strip footing and wall footing.
c. Combine footing, supporting two or more loads these may be rectangular or trapezoidal
in plan or they may be isolated beam basis join by a beam. The latter case is referred to
as foot strapping.
d. Raft or mat foundation is a large continuous foundation supporting on the column of
structure. This is normally used when soil conditions are poor or differential settlement
is to be provided.
e. In pile foundation, pile caps are sued to tie a group of piles together these may support
isolated columns or group of several columns or group of several columns or loads
leaving columns.

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FIG.: FIGURE SHOWING PLAN OF FOOTING

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FIG.: FIGURE SHOWING FOOTING

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Bearing capacity of soil:

The size of the foundation on permissible bearing capacity of soil:

Total load per unit are under the foundation must be less than the permissible bearing capacity
of the soil to prevent the excessive settlement.

It is important to have an engineering survey made of the soil under a propose structure
so that variation in the strata and the soil properties can be determined. Drill holes or trail pits
should be sunk in situation test such a penetration test performed and the samples of the soil
taken earth bearing pressure and if necessary calculating possible settlement of a structure.

In the design of foundations, the areas of the bases in contact with the ground should be
such that the safe bearing pressures will not be exceeded. Settlement takes place during the
working life of the structure. These loads are to be properly transmitted; footings must be
designed to prevent excessive settlement or rotation, to minimize differential settlement and to
provide adequate safety against sliding and overturning.

Choice of footing type:

The type of footing depends upon the load carried by the column and the bearing
capacity of type supporting soli. For framed structures under study, isolated column footing are
normally referred in case of soil with very low bearing capacities. If such soil or black cotton
soil exits for greater depth pile foundation can be an appropriate choice. If columns are very
closely spaced and bearing capacity of soil is low, raft foundation can also be an alternative
solution. For a column on a boundary line, a combined footing or a strap footing may be
provided.

The type of footing depends upon the load carried by the column and the bearing
capacity of soil.

DESIGN OF FOOTINGS

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Design of footing 1:

Pu =714.1KN (load from slab, beam, columns)

Self wt of footing =10% of load

Total load (P) = 714.1 + (0.10*714.1)

=786.17KN

The safe bearing capacity of soil is found to be (SBC) 350KN/m2

Area (A) = P/SBC

=786.17/350

Area =350m2

The size of column is 230*400

The ratio of length, breadth of footing shall be approximately same as width and depth of column

L/B = 400/230 =1.74

L =1.74b

Area = length *breadth

4.1=2.61b*b

B=1.34m L=1.98m

Provide a footing of size2*1.35m

Net upward pressure intensity (NUPI) = P/A = 714.7/2*1.35 = 265KN/m2

Design for flexure X = ((2-0.4)/2)

X=0.8m

Factored moment:
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Mu = Wx 2/2 = (265*0.8*0.8)/2 = 84.8KN/m

Tranverse moment:

Y = (1.35-0.23)/2

Y = 0.56m

Mu traverse (Or) Mu short =Wy 2/2 = (265*0.56*0.56)/2 = 41.55KN/m

Effective depth of footing:

d=175mm

Provide a depth of 400mm and an effective cover of 50mm

Total depth of footing is taken as 450mm

Area of steel: Ast =607mm2

Provide 12mm dia. bars

Spacing = 186.2mm

Provide a spacing of 150mm c/c

Transverse steel:

i.e.; steel along width of footing

Ast =292mm2

Provide12mm dia. bars

Spacing = (113/292)*1000 = 387mm

Provide a spacing of 200mm c/c

Check for one way shear:

Critical section occurs at a distance d=400mm from the face of column

Shear force (Vu) =1.35*load in shaded area


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=1.35*0.4*265

=143.1KN

Shear stress v =Vu/bd = (143.1/10*10*10)/(1350*400)

=0.265N/mm2

Permissible stress in concrete

Pt= (Ast/bd)*100 = (607/1000*400)*100 = 0.15%

c = 0.28N/mm2

v > c

The section is safe in one way shear

Check for punching shear:

Critical section occurs at a distance d/2 from the face of the column

d/2 = 200mm

Load causing punching shear

V =Pu-load in shaded area

= (714.7)-(0.8*0.63*265) =581.14KN

Punching stress = (581.4*10*10*10)/2(630+800)400 =0.51N/mm2

Clause 31.6.3.1(IS: 456-2000) when shear reinforcement is not provided the calculated shear stress at
the critical section shall not exceed:

Permissible stress = 1.2m2

Punching stress < permissible stress

Section is safe in punching

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Design of footing 2:

Pu =1300.5 (load from slab, beam, columns)

Self wt of footing =10% of load

Total load (P) = 1300.5 + (0.10*1300.5)

=1430.6KN

The safe bearing capacity of soil (SBC) 350KN/m2

Area (A) = P/SBC =1430.6/350 = 4.09m

The size of column is 230*600

The ratio of length, breadth of footing shall be approximately same as width and depth of column

L/B = 600/230 =2.61

L =2.61b

Area = length *breadth

4.09=2.61b*b

B=1.25m, L=3.27m

Provide a footing of size 3.3*1.25m

Net upward pressure intensity (NUPI) = P/A = 1300.5/3.3*1.25 = 315.27KN/m2

Design for flexure X = ((3.3-0.6)/2)

X=1.35m

Factored moment:

Mu = Wx 2/2 = (315.27*1.352)/2

= 287.3KN/m

Traverse moment:
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Y = (1.25-0.23)/2

Y = 0.51m

Mu traverse (Or) Mu short =Wy 2/2 = (251*0.512)/2 = 41KN/m

Effective depth of footing: d = 323mm

Provide a depth of 550mm and an effective cover of 50mm

Total depth of footing is taken as 600mm

Area of steel: Ast =1536.6mm2

Provide 12mm dia. bars

Spacing = 73.54mm

Provide a spacing of 70mm c/c

Transverse steel:

i.e.; steel along width of footing

Ast =208.21mm2

Provide 12mm dia. bars

Spacing = (113/208.21)*1000 =542.8mm

Provide a spacing of 200mm c/c

Check for one way shear:

Critical section occurs at a distance d = 350mm from the face of column

Shear force (Vu) =1.25*load in shaded area = 1.25*0.8*315.27 = 315.27KN

Shear stress v =Vu/bd = (315.27/103)/ (1250*550) =0.46N/mm2

Permissible stress in concrete

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Pt = (Ast/bd)*100 = (1536.6/1000*550)*100 =0.28%

c = 0.37N/mm2

v > c

The section is safe in one way shear

Check for punching shear:

Critical section occurs at a distance d/2 from the face of the column

d/2 = 275mm

Load causing punching shear

V = Pu - load in shaded area

= (1300.5)-(1.15*0.78*315.27) = 1017.7KN

Punching stress = (1017.7*103)/2(780+1150)550 =0.48N/mm2

Clause 31.6.3.1(IS: 456-2000)

When shear reinforcement is not provided the calculated shear stress at the critical section shall not
exceed.

Permissible stress = 0.99N/mm2

Punching stress < permissible stress

Section is safe in punching

1.2.6. POSITION OF SHEAR WALLS:

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A shear wall is wall which is designed to resist shear, the lateral force which causes the bulk of
damage in earthquakes. Many building codes mandate the use of shear walls to make homes
safer and more stable.

When a shear wall is built, it is constructed in the form of a line of heavily braced and
reinforced panels. In some regions, shear walls are known as braced wall lines for this very
reason.

An effective shear wall is both stiff and strong.

In multi-story structures, shear walls are critical, because in addition to preventing the failure of
exterior walls, they also support the multiple floors of the building, ensuring that they do not
collapse as a result of lateral movement in an earthquake. When a building has a story without
shear wall, or with poorly placed shear walls, it is known as a soft storied building, referencing
the idea that the story without reinforcement will b soft an vulnerable in the crisis.

Because shear walls are structural in nature, they cannot be moved or cut open. This is an
important issue to consider when building a structure from the ground up, its a good idea to
think about how uses of the space might change, to ensure that a shear wall does not become a
nuisance later .

Shear wall is used not only to resist shear but also to resist flexure. Shear walls should have
enough mechanism for transferring the forces from outer frame to the shear wall. Shear is
generally provided around the centre of mass of the build into minimize the effect caused by the
earthquake.

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2. TYPES OF STRUCTURES:

There are two types of structures they are

a) Load bearing structure


b) Framed structure

Load bearing structure:

It is a structure in which all the loads coming from slabs is taken by walls and distributed to the
soil through foundation. In this neither beams nor columns provided the structure is fully based
on walls. By this structure we can reduce the cost of steel and concrete due to no provision of
beams and columns. But in life of loads bearing structure is very less compared to framed
structure in other way it becomes difficult on the higher levels.

Framed structure:

It is a structure in which all the loads coming from the slab is taken by beam and column
distributed to the subsoil by means of RCC footing. In this type of beams, columns and footings
are provided .hence the structure the cist by decrease the thickness of walls does not takes any
loads from the lab. By framed structure we can construct at higher levels also. Now-a-days the
load bearing structure become absolute in the view of future construction and in cost
comparison there is no much difference between load bearing and framed structure.

2.1. TYPES OF SLABS:

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CHOICE OF TYPE OF SLAB FLOOR

The choice of type of slab for a particular floor depends on many factors. Economy of
construction is obviously an important consideration, but this is a qualitative argument until
specific cases are discussed, and is a geographical variable. The design loads, required spans,
serviceability requirements, and strength requirements are all important.

For beamless slabs, the choice between a flat slab and a flat plate is usually a matter of loading
and span. Flat plate strength is often governed by shear strength at the columns, and for service
live loads greater than perhaps 100 lb/ft2 (4.8 KN/m2) and spans greater than about 20 to 24 ft (7
to 8 m) the flat slab is often the better choice. If architectural or other requirements rule out
capitals or drop panels, the shear strength can be improved by using metal shear heads or some
other form of shear reinforcement, but the costs may be high.

Serviceability requirements must be considered, and deflections are sometimes difficult to


control in reinforced concrete beamless slabs. Large live loads and small limits on permissible
deflections may force the use of large column capitals. Negative-moment cracking around
columns is sometimes a problem with flat plates, and again a column capital may be useful in its
control.

Deflections and shear stresses may also be controlled by adding beams instead of column
capitals. If severe deflection limits are imposed, the two-way slab will be most suitable, as the
introduction of even moderately stiff beams will reduce deflections more than the largest
reasonable column capital is able to. Beams are also easily reinforced for shear forces.

The choice between two-way and beamless slabs for more normal situations is complex. In
terms of economy of material, especially of steel, the two- way slab is often best because of the
large effective depths of the beams. However, in terms of labor in building the floor, the flat
plate is much cheaper because of the very simple formwork and less complex arrangement of
steel. The flat slab is somewhat more expensive in labor than is the flat plates, but the forms for
the column capitals are often available as prefabricated units, which can help limit costs. The
real cost parameter is the ratio of costs of labor relative to material. Few two-way slabs are built
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in areas of high labor costs unless there are definite structural reasons, and many are built where
steel is the most costly item. Hollow -tile slabs are still built in some places, but only where the
cost of both steel and cement is very high relative to labor.

Local customs among builders, designers, and users should not be overlooked when selecting
the slab type. There is a natural human tendency to want to repeat what one has previously done
successfully, and resistance to change can affect costs. However, old habits should not be
allowed to dominate sound engineering decisions.

If a flat plate or flat slab is otherwise suitable for a particular structure, it will be found that
there is the additional benefit of minimizing the story height. In areas of absolute height
restrictions, this may enable one to have an additional floor for approximately each 10 floors, as
compared with a two-way slab with the same clearstory heights. The savings in height lead to
other economies for a given number of floors, since mechanical features such as elevator shafts
and piping are shorter. There is less outside wall area, so wind loadings may be less severe and
the building weighs less, which may bring cost reductions in foundations and other structural
components. There are other cost savings when the ceiling finishes can be applied directly to the
lower surfaces of the slabs.

Beamless slabs will be at a disadvantage if they are used in structures that must resist large
horizontal loads by frame action rather than by shear walls or other lateral bracing. The transfer
of moments between columns and a slab sets up high local moments, shears, and twisting
moments that may be hard to reinforce for. In this situation, the two-way slab is the more
capable structure because of the relative ease with which its beams may be reinforced for these
forces. In addition, it will provide greater lateral stiffness because of both the presence of the
beams and the greater efficiency of the beam-column connections.

The possible choice of a precast one-way floor system, consisting of prestressed concrete
members placed side-by-side and spanning between the beams, girders, or walls and generally
covered by a cast-in-place concrete topping slab, should not be overlooked.

28
2.2. DESIGN OF ONE-WAY SLABS

The structural action of a one-way slab may be visualized in terms of the deformed
shape of the loaded surface. Figure shows a rectangular slab, simply supported along its two
opposite long edges and free of any support along the two opposite short edges. If a
uniformly distributed load is applied to the surface, the deflected shape will be as shown by
the solid lines. Curvatures, and consequently bending moments, are the same in all strips s
spanning in the short direction between supported edges, whereas there is no curvature,
hence no bending moment, in the long strips l parallel to the supported edges. The surface is
cylindrical.

For purposes of analysis and design, a unit strip of such a slab cut out at right angles to the
supporting beams, as in Figure, may be considered as a rectangular beam of unit width, with
a depth h equal to the thickness of the slab and a span la equal to the distance between
supported edges. This strip can then be analyzed by the methods that were used for
rectangular beams, the bending moment being computed for the strip of unit width. The load

29
per unit area on the slab becomes the load per unit length on the slab strip. Since all the load
on the slab must be transmitted to the two supporting beams, it follows that all the
reinforcement should be placed at right angles to these beams, with the exception of any
bars that may be placed in the other direction to control shrinkage and temperature cracking.
A one-way slab thus consists of a set of rectangular beams side by side.

This simplified analysis, which assumes Poissons ratio to be zero, is slightly conservative.
Actually, flexural compression in the concrete in the direction of la will result in lateral
expansion in the direction of lb unless the compressed concrete is restrained. In a one-way
slab, this lateral expansion is resisted by adjacent slab strips, which tend to expand also. The
result is a slight strengthening and stiffening in the span direction, but this effect is small
and can be disregarded.

The ratio of steel in a slab can be determined by dividing the sectional area of one bar by the
area of concrete between two successive bars, the latter area being the product of the depth
to the center of the bars and the distance between them, center to center. The ratio of steel
can also be determined by dividing the average area of steel per foot of width by the
effective area of concrete in a 1 ft strip. The average area of steel per foot of width is equal
to the area of one bar times the average number of bars in a 1 ft strip (12 divided by the
spacing in inches), and the effective area of concrete in a 1 ft (or 12 inch.) strip is equal to
12 times the effective depth d.

To illustrate the latter method of obtaining the steel ratio r, assume a 5 in. slab with an
effective depth of 4 in., with No. 4 bars spaced 4 1/2 in, center to center.

30
The spacing of bars that is necessary to furnish a given area of steel per foot of width is
obtained by dividing the number of bars required to furnish this area into 12. To furnish an
average area of 0.46 in2/ft, with 4 no. of bars, requires 0.46 /0.20 = 2.3 bars per foot; the
bars must be spaced not more than 12/2.3 = 5.2 in. center to center. The determination of
slab steel areas for various combinations of bars and spacing is facilitated by the following
table:

31
Design moments and shears in one-way slabs can be found either by elastic analysis or
through the use of the same coefficients as used for beams. If the slab rests freely on its
supports, the span length may be taken equal to the clear span plus the depth of the slab but
need not exceed the distance between centers of supports. In general, center-to-center
distances should be used in continuous slab analysis, but a reduction is allowed in negative
moments to account for support width.

For slabs with clear spans not more than 10 ft that are built integrally with their supports,
analysis as a continuous slab on knife-edge supports with spans equal to the clear spans and
the width of the beams otherwise neglected. If moment and shear coefficients are used,
computations should be based on clear spans.

One-way slabs are normally designed with tensile steel ratios well below the maximum
permissible value to have tension failure. Typical steel ratios range from about 0.004 to
0.008. This is partially for reasons of economy, because the saving in steel associated with
increasing the effective depth more than compensates for the cost of the additional concrete,
and partially because very thin slabs with high steel ratios would be likely to permit large
deflections. Thus, flexural design may start with selecting a relatively low steel ratio, say
about 0.20b, setting Mu = Mn and solving for the required effective depth d, given that b =
12 in. for the unit strip.

32
Table : Minimum thickness h of non pre-stressed one-way slabs

Simply supported l/20


One end continuous l/24
Both end continuous l/28
Cantilever l/10

Shear will seldom control the design of one-way slabs, particularly if low tensile steel ratios
are used. It will be found that the shear capacity of the concrete, Vc will almost without
exception be well above the required shear strength Vu at factored loads.

Practical Considerations

The total slab thickness h is usually rounded to the next higher 1/4 in. for slabs up to 6 in.
thickness, and to the next higher 1/2 in. for thicker slabs. The concrete protection below the
reinforcement should call for 2 inch. Below the bottom of the steel. In a typical slab, 1 in.
below the center of the steel may be assumed. The lateral spacing of the bars, except those
used only to control shrinkage and temperature cracks should not exceed 3 times the
thickness h or 18 in., whichever is less. Generally, bar size should be selected so that the
actual spacing is not less than about 1.5 times the slab thickness, to avoid excessive cost for
bar fabrication and handling. Also, to reduce cost, straight bars are usually used for slab
reinforcement.

TEMPERATURE AND SHRINKAGE REINFORCEMENT

Concrete shrinks as the cement paste hardens. It is advisable to minimize such shrinkage by
using concretes with the smallest possible amounts of water and cement compatible with
other requirements, such as strength and workability, and by thorough moist-curing of
sufficient duration. However, no matter what precautions are taken, a certain amount of
shrinkage is usually unavoidable. If a slab of moderate dimensions rests freely on its
supports, it can contract to accommodate the shortening of its length produced by shrinkage.
Usually, however, slabs and other members are joined rigidly to other parts of the structure
and cannot contract freely. This results in tension stresses known as shrinkage stresses. A

33
decrease in temperature relative to that, at which the slab was poured, particularly in
outdoor structures such as bridges, may have an effect similar to shrinkage. That is, the slab
tends to contract and if restrained from doing so becomes subject to tensile stresses.

Since concrete is weak in tension, these temperature and shrinkage stresses are likely to
result in cracking. Cracks of this nature are not detrimental, provided their size is limited to
what are known as hairline cracks. This can be achieved by placing reinforcement in the
slab to counteract contraction and distribute the cracks uniformly. As the concrete tends to
shrink, such reinforcement resists the contraction and consequently becomes subject to
compression. The total shrinkage in a slab so reinforced is less than that in one without
reinforcement; in addition, whatever cracks do occur will be of smaller width and more
evenly distributed by virtue of the reinforcement.

In one-way slabs the reinforcement provided for resisting the bending moments has the
desired effect of reducing shrinkage and distributing cracks. However, as contraction takes
place equally in all directions, it is necessary to provide special reinforcement for shrinkage
and temperature.

Contraction in the direction perpendicular to the main reinforcement. This added steel is
known as temperature or shrinkage reinforcement, or distribution steel.

Reinforcement for shrinkage and temperature stresses normal to the principal reinforcement
should be provided in a structural slab in which the principal reinforcement extends in one
direction only. The minimum ratios of reinforcement area to gross concrete area but in no
case shall such reinforcing bars be placed farther apart than 5 times the slab thickness or
more than 18 in. In no case is the steel ratio to be less than 0.0014.

The steel required by the IS Code for shrinkage and temperature crack control also
represents the minimum permissible reinforcement in the span direction of one-way slabs;
the usual minimums for flexural steel do not apply.

34
2.3. Design of Two-way Slabs:

This section covers the following topics.


Introduction
Analysis and Design
Features in Modeling and Analysis
Distribution of Moments to Strips

2.3.1. Introduction

The slabs are presented in two groups: one-way slabs and two-way slabs. The one-
way slabs are presented in Section 9.2. When a rectangular slab is supported on all the sides
and the length-to-breadth ratio is less than two, it is considered to be a two-way slab. The
slab spans in both the orthogonal directions. A circular slab is a two-way slab. In general, a
slab which is not falling in the category of one-way slab is considered to be a two-way slab.

Rectangular two-way slabs can be divided into the following types.

1) Flat plates: These slabs do not have beams between the columns, drop panels or column
capitals. Usually, there are spandrel beams at the edges.
2) Flat slabs: These slabs do not have beams but have drop panels or column capitals.
3) Two-way slabs with beams: There are beams between the columns. If the beams are wide
and shallow, they are termed as band beams.

For long span construction, there are ribs in both the spanning directions of the slab. This
type of slabs is called waffle slabs.

The slabs can be cast-in-situ (cast-in-place). Else, the slabs can be precast at ground level
and lifted to the final height. The later type of slabs is called lift slabs. A slab in a framed
building can be a two-way slab depending upon its length-to-breadth (L / B) ratio. Two-way
slabs are also present as mat (raft) foundation.

The following sketches show the plan of various cases of two-way slabs. The spanning
directions in each case are shown by the double headed arrows.

35
FIG.: PLAN OF TWO WAY SLABS

The absence of beams in flat plates and flat slabs lead to the following advantages.

1) Formwork is simpler
2) Reduced obstruction to service conduits
3) More flexibility in interior layout and future refurbishment.

Two-way slabs can be post-tensioned. The main advantage of prestressing a slab is the
increased span-to-depth ratio.

The following photographs show post-tensioned flat plate and flat slab.

36
FIG.: FLAT PLATE

37
FIG.: FLAT SLABS

2.4. ANALYSIS AND DESIGN

Analysis

The analysis of two-way slabs is given in Section 31, IS: 456 - 2000, under Flat Slabs.
The analysis is applicable to flat plates, flat slabs and two-way slabs with deflecting beams.
For two-way slabs with beams, if the beams are sufficiently stiff, then the method (based on
moment coefficients) given in Annex D, IS: 456 2000, is applicable.

The direct design method of analyzing a two-way slab is not recommended for prestressed
slabs. The equivalent frame method is recommended by ACI 318-02. It is given in
Subsection 31.5, IS: 456 - 2000. This method is briefly covered in this section for flat
plates and flat slabs.

38
The slab system is represented by a series of two dimensional equivalent frames for each
spanning direction. An equivalent frame along a column line is a slice of the building bound
by the centre-lines of the bays adjacent to the column line.

The width of the equivalent frame is divided into a column strip and two middle strips. The
column strip (CS) is the central half of the equivalent frame. Each middle strip (MS)
consists of the remaining portions of two adjacent equivalent frames. The following figure
shows the division in to strips along one direction. The direction under investigation is
shown by the double headed arrow.

Figure: Equivalent frame along Column Line 2

In the above figure,


l1 = span of the equivalent frame in a bay

l2 = width of the equivalent frame. This is the tributary width for calculating the loads.

The following figure shows a typical elevation of an equivalent frame.

39
Figure: Elevation of an equivalent frame

The analysis is done for each typical equivalent frame. An equivalent frame is modeled by
slab-beam members and equivalent columns. The equivalent frame is analyzed for gravity
load and lateral load (if required), the negative and positive moments at the critical sections
of the slab-beam members are distributed along the transverse direction. This provides the
design moments per unit width of a slab.

If the analysis is restricted to gravity loads, each floor of the equivalent frame can be
analyzed separately with the columns assumed to be fixed at their remote ends, as shown in
the following figure. The pattern loading is applied to calculate the moments for the critical
load cases. This is discussed later.

Figure: Simplified model of an equivalent frame

40
The steps of analysis of a two-way slab are as follows.

1) Determine the factored negative (Mu) and positive moment (Mu+) demands at the

critical sections in a slab-beam member from the analysis of an equivalent frame. The

values of Mu are calculated at the faces of the columns. The values of Mu+are calculated at

the spans. The following sketch shows a typical moment diagram in level of an equivalent
frame due to gravity loads

Figure: Typical moment diagram due to gravity loads

2) Distribute Mu to the CS and the MS. These components are represented as Mu, CS and

Mu,MS, respectively. Distribute Mu+ to the CS and the MS. These components are

represented as Mu,+CS and Mu,+MS, respectively.

41
Figure: Distribution of moments to column strip and middle strips

3) If there is a beam in the column line in the spanning direction, distribute each of Mu,CS

and Mu, +CS between the beam and rest of the CS.

Figure: Distribution of moments to beam, column strip and middle strips

42
4) Add the moments Mu,MS and Mu, +MS for the two portions of the MS (from adjacent

equivalent frames).

5) Calculate the design moments per unit width of the CS and MS.

Design

Once the design moments per unit width of the CS and MS are known, the steps of design
for prestressing steel are same as that for one-way slab. The profile of the tendons is
selected similar to that for continuous beams. The flexural capacity of prestressed slab is
controlled by total amount of prestressing steel and pre-stress rather than by tendon
distribution. But the tendon distribution affects the load balancing. Some examples of
tendon distribution are shown.

FIG.: Typical tendon layouts

43
Maximum spacing of tendons or groups of tendons should be limited to 8h or 1.5 m,
whichever is less. Here, h is the thickness of the slab. A minimum of two tendons shall be
provided in each direction through the critical section for punching shear around a column.
The critical section for punching shear is described in Section 9.4, Two-way Slabs (Part II).
Grouping of tendons is permitted in band beams.

A minimum amount of non pre-stressed reinforcement is provided in each direction based


on temperature and shrinkage requirement. As per IS: 456 - 2000, Clause 26.5.2.1, the

minimum amount of reinforcement (Ast, min in mm2) for unit width of slab is given as

follows.

Ast, min = 0.15% 1000h for Fe 250 grade of steel

= 0.12% 1000h for Fe 415 grade of steel.

The ducts for placing the individual strands are oval shaped to maintain the eccentricity,
reduce frictional losses and convenient placement of crossing ducts. The ducts are not
commonly grouted as the use of unbounded tendon is not detrimental in buildings. The
following photo shows the ducts for the prestressing tendons and the non-prestressed
reinforcement in a two-way slab.

The transverse beam need not be a visible beam, but a part of the slab in the transverse
direction, bounded by the edges of the column or column capital. In presence of beam or
column capital or in absence of beam, the cross-section of the modeled transverse beam is
taken as shown in the following sketches.

44
Figure: Cross-section of modeled transverse beam

The following figure shows the variation of the moment of inertia of the slab beam member.

Figure: a) Elevation of equivalent frame,

b) Variation of the moment of inertia of the slab-beam member

Arrangement of live load

Since the factored live load (wu, LL) may not occur uniformly in all the spans in a floor, a

distribution is considered to generate the maximum values of the negative (Mu) and

45
positive moments (Mu+) at the critical sections. If the distribution of wu, LL is known, then

the load is applied accordingly. If the distribution is not known, then a pattern loading is
considered based on the value of wu, LL with respect to that of the factored dead load (wu,

DL). Of course, the load case with wu, LL on all the spans should be also analyzed.

1) For wu, LL wu, DL

The possible variation in Wu,LL in the different spans is neglected. Wu,LL is applied

uniformly on all the spans.

Figure: Distribution of live load for wu, LL wu, DL

2) For wu LL > wu,DL

+
For maximum value of M in a span, w is applied on the span and the alternate
u u,LL

+
spans. For example, if the maximum value of M in Span BC of the frame below is to be
u
determined, then w is placed in Spans BC and DE. This distribution will also give the
u,LL

+
maximum value of M in Span DE. For maximum value of M near the support, w
u u u


is applied on the adjacent spans only. For example, if the maximum value of M near
LL u
Support B is to be determined, then w is placed in Spans AB and BC.
u,LL

46
Distribution of live load for maximum Mu+ in Spans BC and DE

Distribution of live load for maximum Mu- near Support B

Figure: Distribution of live load for wu LL > wu,DL

Critical section near a support

The critical section is determined as follows.

1) At interior support at the face of support (column or column capital, if any), but not
further than 0.175l1 from the center line of the column.

2) At exterior support at a distance from the face of column not greater than half the
projection of the column capital (if any).

47
3. TYPES OF FLAT SLABS:

Common practice of design and construction is to support the slabs by beams and support
the beams by columns. This may be called as beam-slab construction. The beams reduce the
available net clear ceiling height. Hence in warehouses, offices and public halls sometimes
beams are avoided and slabs are directly supported by columns. These types of construction
are aesthetically appealing also. These slabs which are directly supported by columns are
called Flat Slabs.

The column head is sometimes widened so as to reduce the punching shear in the slab. The
widened portions are called column heads. The column heads may be provided with any
angle from the consideration of architecture but for the design, concrete in the portion at 45
on either side of vertical only is considered as effective for the design.

48
Moments in the slabs are more near the column. Hence the slab is thickened near the
columns by providing the drops as shown in Fig. Sometimes the drops are called as capital
of the column. Thus we have the following types of flat slabs:

(i) Slabs without drop and column head.


(ii) Slabs without drop and column with column head.
(iii) Slabs with drop and column without column head.
(iv)Slabs with drop and column head.

49
The portion of flat slab that is bound on each of its four sides by centre lines of adjacent
columns is called a panel. The panel shown in Fig. has size L1 L2. A panel may be divided
into column strips and middle strips. Column Strip means a design strip having a width of
0.25L1 or 0.25L2, whichever is less. The remaining middle portion which is bound by the
column strips is called middle strip. Fig. shows the division of flat slab panel into column
and middle strips in the direction y.

50
3.1. PROPORTIONING OF FLAT SLABS

IS 456-2000 [Clause 31.2] gives the following guidelines for proportioning.

3.1.1. Drops

The drops when provided shall be rectangular in plan, and have a length in each direction
not less than one third of the panel in that direction. For exterior panels, the width of drops
at right angles to the non continuous edge and measured from the centre-line of the columns
shall be equal to one half of the width of drop for interior panels.

3.1.2. Column Heads

Where column heads are provided, that portion of the column head which lies within the
largest right circular cone or pyramid entirely within the outlines of the column and the
column head, shall be considered for design purpose as shown in Figs.

51
3.1.3. Thickness of Flat Slab

From the consideration of deflection control IS 456-2000 specifies minimum thickness in


terms of span to effective depth ratio. For this purpose larger span is to be considered. If
drop as specified is provided, then the maximum value of ratio of larger span to thickness
shall be

= 40, if mild steel is used

= 32, if Fe 415 or Fe 500 steel is used

If drops are not provided or size of drops do not satisfy the specification, then the ratio shall
not exceed 0.9 times the value specified above i.e.,

= 40 0.9 = 36, if mild steel is used.

= 32 0.9 = 28.8, if HYSD bars are used

It is also specified that in no case, the thickness of flat slab shall be less than 125 mm.

3.2. DETERMINATION OF BENDING MOMENT AND SHEAR FORCE:

For this IS 456-2000 permits use of any one of the following two methods:

(a) The Direct Design Method

(b) The Equivalent Frame Method

3.2.1. THE DIRECT DESIGN METHOD

This method has the limitation that it can be used only if the following conditions are
fulfilled:

52
(a) There shall be minimum of three continuous spans in each direction.

(b) The panels shall be rectangular and the ratio of the longer span to the shorter span
within a panel shall not be greater than 2.

(c) The successive span length in each direction shall not differ by more than one-third of
longer span.

(d) The design live load shall not exceed three times the design dead load.

(e) The end span must be shorter but not greater than the interior span.

(f) It shall be permissible to offset columns a maximum of 10 percent of the span in the
direction of the offset notwithstanding the provision in (b).

Total Design Moment


The absolute sum of the positive and negative moment in each direction is given by

Where,
M0 = Total moment
W = Design load on the area L2 Ln
Ln = Clear span extending from face to face of columns, capitals, brackets or walls but not
less than 0.65 L1

L1 = Length of span in the direction of M0; and

L2 = Length of span transverse to L1

In taking the values of Ln, L1 and L2, the following clauses are to be carefully noted:

(a) Circular supports shall be treated as square supports having the same area i.e., squares of
size 0.886D.

53
(b) When the span adjacent and parallel to an edge is being considered, the distance from the
edge to the centre-line of the panel shall be substituted for L2.

Distribution of Bending Moment in to ve and +ve Moments

The total design moment M0 in a panel is to be distributed into ve moment and +ve
moment as specified below:

Ac is the ratio of flexural stiffness at the exterior columns to the flexural stiffness of the
slab at a joint taken in the direction moments are being determined and is given by

Ac =Kc / Ks

Where,
Kc = Sum of the flexural stiffness of the columns meeting at the joint; and
Ks = Flexural stiffness of the slab, expressed as moment per unit rotation.

Distribution of Bending Moments across the Panel Width:

The +ve and ve moments found are to be distributed across the column strip in a panel as
shown in Table. The moment in the middle strip shall be the difference between panel and
the column strip moments.

Table: Distribution of Moments across the Panel Width in a Column Strip

Per cent of Total


S. No. Distributed Moment Moment

A Negative BM at the exterior support 100

B Negative BM at the interior support 75

C Positive bending moment 60

Moments in Columns

54
In this type of constructions column moments are to be modified as suggested in IS 4562000
[Clause No. 31.4.5].

Shear Force

The critical section for shear shall be at a distance d from the periphery of the column/capital
drop 2 panel. Hence if drops are provided there are two critical sections near columns. These
critical sections are shown in Figs. The shape of the critical section in plan is similar to the
support immediately below the slab as shown in Fig.

For columns sections with re-entrant angles, the critical section shall be taken as indicated in Fig

In case of columns near the free edge of a slab, the critical section shall be taken as shown in
Fig.

55
3.2.2. EQUIVALENT FRAME METHOD

IS 4562000 recommends the analysis of flat slab and column structure as a rigid frame to get
design moment and shear forces with the following assumptions:

(a) Beam portion of frame is taken as equivalent to the moment of inertia of flat slab bounded
laterally by centre line of the panel on each side of the centre line of the column. In frames
adjacent and parallel to an edge beam portion shall be equal to flat slab bounded by the edge and
the centre line of the adjacent panel.

(b) Moment of inertia of the members of the frame may be taken as that of the gross section of

56
the concrete alone.

(c) Variation of moment of inertia along the axis of the slab on account of provision of drops
shall be taken into account. In the case of recessed or coffered slab which is made solid in the
region of the columns, the stiffening effect may be ignored provided the solid part of the slab
does not extend more than 0.15 leff into the span measured from the centre line of the columns.
The stiffening effect of flared columns heads may be ignored.

(d) Analysis of frame may be carried out with substitute frame method or any other accepted
method like moment distribution or matrix method.

Loading Pattern

When the live load does not exceed th of dead load, the maximum moments may be assumed
to occur at all sections when full design live load is on the entire slab.

If live load exceeds th dead load analysis is to be carried out for the following pattern of
loading also:

i. To get maximum moment near mid span th of live load on the panel and full live
load on alternate panel

ii. To get maximum moment in the slab near the support th of live load is on the
adjacent panel only

It is to be carefully noted that in no case design moment shall be taken to be less than those
occurring with full design live load on all panels.

The moments determined in the beam of frame (flat slab) may be reduced in such proportion that
the numerical sum of positive and average negative moments is not less than the value of total
design

Moment M0 = WLn /8

The distribution of slab moments into column strips and middle strips is to made in the same

57
manner as specified in direct design method.

3.3. SLAB REINFORCEMENT

Spacing

The spacing of bars in a flat slab shall not exceed 2 times the slab thickness.

Area of Reinforcement

When the drop panels are used, the thickness of drop panel for determining area of
reinforcement shall be the lesser of the following:

(a) Thickness of drop, and

(b) Thickness of slab plus one quarter the distance between edge of drop and edge of capital. The
minimum percentage of the reinforcement is same as that in solid slab i.e., 0.12 percent if

HYSD bars used and 0.15 percent, if mild steel is used.

Minimum Length of Reinforcement

At least 50 percent of bottom bars should be from support to support. The rest may be bent up.
The minimum length of different reinforcement in flat slabs should be as shown in Fig. (Fig. 16
in IS 456 2000). If adjacent spans are not equal, the extension of the ve reinforcement beyond
each face shall be based on the longer span. All slab reinforcement should be anchored property
at discontinuous edges.

58
59
4. DESIGN PHILOSOPHY

Working Stress Method

The Stresses in an element is obtained from the working loads and compared with
permissible stresses. The method follows linear stress-strain behavior of both the materials.
Modular ratio can be used to determine allowable stresses.

Material capabilities are under estimated to large extent. Factor of safety are used in
working stress method. The member is considered as working stress. Ultimate load carrying
capacity cannot be predicted accurately. The main drawback of this method is that it results
in an uneconomical section.

Limit State Method

The stresses are obtained from design loads and compared with design strength. In this
method, it follows linear strain relationship but not linear stress relationship (one of the
major difference between the two methods of design). The ultimate stresses of materials
itself are used as allowable stresses. The material capabilities are not under estimated as
much as they are in working stress method. Partial safety factors are used in limit state
method.

ULTIMATE STRESS METHOD

In ultimate load method, the working loads are increased by suitable factors to obtain
ultimate loads. These factors are called load factors. The structure is then designed to resist
the desired ultimate loads. This structure is then designed to resist the desired ultimate loads.
This method takes into account the non-linear stress-strain behavior of concrete.

The term safety factor has been used in the working stress method to denote the ratio
between the yield stress and the permissible stress. It had little meaning as far as the ratio
between collapse loads and working load was concerned. The team load factor has been

60
traditionally used to denote the ratio between the collapse or ultimate load to the working
load. The knowledge of load factor is more important than the knowledge of factor of safety.

4.1. DESIGN OF THE FLAT SLAB STRUCTURES

Despite the rapid growth of flat plate/slab construction, literature and tools available for
designers to design and engineer flat plate/slabs in India, has been limited in terms of both
Indian standards and Indian research papers. Indian engineers often have to resort to other
standards to design flat plate/slab. The following is a discussion of the process of designing
flat plate/slabs to meet Indian codes. Limitations in the Indian codes IS 456:2000 are
overcome by utilizing ACI- 318. Maintaining the Integrity of the Specifications

Structural engineers commonly use the equivalent frame method with equivalent beams
such as the one proposed by Jacob S. Grossman in practical engineering for the analysis of
flat plate structures.

Architectural demands for better illumination, lesser fire resistance of sharp corners present
in the form of beams & increase in the formwork cost, optimum use of space leads to the new
concept in the field of structural engineering as Reinforced concrete flat slabs.

61
FIG.: Plan showing staggered interior columns.

The design of flat slab structures involves three steps:

1) Framing system
2) Engineering analysis
3) Reinforcement design and detailing

Framing System:

Initial framing system formulation provides a detailed geometric description of the column
spacing and overhang. Even though the architect provides this part of the design, the
engineer should emphasize on the following:

1) Three continuous spans in each direction or have an overhang at least one-forth times
adjacent span length in case of only two continuous spans.

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2) Typical panel must be rectangular
3) The spans must be similar in length i.e. adjacent span in each direction must not differ in
length by one-third Engineering Analysis:

Flat plate/slab may be analyzed and designed by any method as long as they satisfy
the strength, stiffness and stability requirements of the IS 456:2000. A typical flat plate/slab
can be analyzed by direct design method or equivalent frame method as prescribed by the
code. However, if the flat plate/slab is a typical with unusual geometry, with irregular column
spacing, or with big opening then the designer may have to use finite element method model
analysis using computers. The design of flat plate/slabs irrespective of the methodology used
must first assume a minimum slab and drop thickness and a minimum column dimension to
ensure adequate stiffness of the system to control deflection. The IS 456:2000 code is not
clear on these minimums. Once the slab thickness and column dimensions with boundary
conditions are selected, the structure is loaded for different load cases and combinations
prescribed by the code. The computed forces and moments in the members should be used
for reinforcement design. Critical reactions for the load combinations are used for the design
of the supporting columns and foundations. Reinforcement Design and Detailing
Reinforcement design is one of the critical parts of flat plate/slab design; maximum forces
from the analysis shall be used in the design of the reinforcement. Reinforcement required
for flexure by using minimum slab thickness per table 1 typically will not require
compression reinforcement. The tension steel area required and detailing for appropriate
strips can be Per IS 456:2000, both being similar. However design for punching shears force
(including additional shear due to unbalanced moment).

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Where Ln is clear span in long direction

*Slabs with columns between, along exterior edge. The ratio of flexural stiffness of effective
beam to Flexural stiffness of width of slab bounded laterally by the centerline of adjacent
panel on either side of beam shall not be less than 0.8

** Minimum drop panel shall be at least one-sixth of the span in each direction and project
below the slab at least one-quarter of the slab thickness. In order for the full effective death
of the drop to be used for negative moment reinforcement, the maximum death of the drop
shall not be assumed more than one-fourth of the distance between the edge of the drop and
face of the column. Additionally, drop size can be made as large as possible to reduce
deflection. The absolute sum of the positive and negative moment in each direction is given
by

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Every code suggests any of the two methods as Direct Design Method and Equivalent Frame
Method for analysis of flat slab. Design of Flat slab by Direct Design Method has some
restrictions that:

(a) It should have minimum three spans in each direction.

(b) It should not have staggered column orientation.

Hence Equivalent Frame Method is adopted. Using those calculated moments calculate
negative moments at both left & right support i.e. (M-u) & the maximum positive moments
in the middle of span i.e. (M + u). All the Negative & Positive moments are distributed in the
column strips & Middle strips respectively using equivalent codes.

Still moments in the slab remains unbalanced. These unbalanced slab moments at supports
are transmitted to respective columns. These moments are transferred by punching shear &
flexure in the column. The punching shear produces cracks at the critical section close to the
column faces as shown below,

In such slabs large bending moments and shears develop near the junctions with columns.
Therefore there is a need to spread the column at its top end or thicken the slab over column.

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Fig 4 : Flat slab with drop and column without column head

The shear stress is calculated as given in IS code & ACI. If it is more than permissible the
shear reinforcement is provided.

Behavior of flat slab and flat plates are identical to those of two way slab. Bands of slab in
both directions along column lines are considered to act as beams. Such bands of slabs are
referred as column strips which pass through the columns and middle strips, occur in the
middle of two adjacent columns. The deflections are minimum at supports and maximum at
mid spans. The deflected flat slab at the center of panel shall have saucer shape. Where x
and y is the deflection at midspan in X and Y direction and l x and ly is the span length in X
and Y direction.

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4.2.1. Objective

A Reinforced Concrete flat slab floor is a significant advancement in the building technology.
It has been observed that possible failure mode of the Reinforced concrete Flat slabs is
punching that occurs in the vicinity of a column. The main objective of the study is to study
method of analysis and design of flat slab with staggered column by IS 456-2000 The code
has specified the fixed coefficients for lateral and transverse distribution of moments as per
direct design method and equivalent frame method. The project is aimed to determine the
effect of staggered column spacing and its combination of shapes such as circular,
rectangular and square columns. Project is also aimed to prepare the Excel worksheet for
analysis and design of the flat slab with staggered column by equivalent frame method.

Scope of Work

The project works is concerned with the Analysis and Design of Flat slab with and without
staggered column and to prepare the worksheet for analysis and design of flat slabs. The
scope of work will be as below.

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1) Analysis and design of flat slabs is to be carried out for staggered columns using Equivalent
Frame Method with IS 456-2000.
2) Preparation of excel worksheet analysis and design of flat slab with staggered column as per
IS 456-2000.

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4.3. DESIGN OF FLAT SLABS BY IS: 456

The term flat slab means a reinforced concrete slab with or without drops, supported
generally without beams, by columns with or without flared column heads (see Fig. 12). A
flat slab may be solid slab or may have recesses formed on the soffit so that the soffit
comprises a series of ribs in two directions. The recesses may be formed by removable or
permanent filler blocks.

Longer span Shorter span

L1 =6.6 m , L2 =5.6 m L1 =5.6 m , L2 =6.6 m

( i ) column strip ( i ) column strip


= 0.25 L2 = 1.4 m = 0.25 L2 = 1.65 m
But not greater than 0.25 L1 = 1.65 m But not greater than 0.25 L1 = 1.4 m

(ii) Middle strip (ii) Middle strip


= 5.6 (1.4+1.4) = 2.8 m = 6.6 (1.4+1.4) = 3.8 m

1.4 m 1.4 m
C.S C.S

3.8 m 2.8 m
M.S M.S

1.4 m 1.4 m

C.S C.S

5.6 m 6.6 m

The drops when provided shall be rectangular in plan, and have a length in each direction
not less than one- third of the panel length in that direction. For exterior panels, the width

of drops at right angles to the non- continuous edge and measured from the centre -line of

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the columns shall be equal to one -half the width of drop for interior panels.

Since the span is large it is desirable to provide drop.

Drop dimensions along:

Longer span Shorter span

L1 =6.6 m , L2 =5.6 m L1 =5.6 m , L2 =6.6 m

Not less than L1 /3 = 2.2 m Not less than L1 /3 = 1.866 m

Hence provide a drop of size 2.2 x 2.2 m i.e. in column strip width.

Where column heads are provided, that portion of a column head which lies within the
largest right circular cone or pyramid that has a vertex angle of 90and can be included
entirely within the outlines of the column and the column head, shall be considered for
design purposes.

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Column head dimension along:

Longer span Shorter span

L1 =6.6 m , L2 =5.6 m L1 =5.6 m , L2 =6.6 m


Not greater than L1 /4 = 1.65
m Not greater than L1 /4 = 1.4 m

Adopting the diameter of column head = 1.30 m =1300 mm

f) Depth of flat slab:

The thickness of the flat slab up to spans of 10 m shall be generally controlled by


considerations of span ( L ) to effective depth ( d ) ratios given as below:

Cantilever 7; simply supported 20; Continuous 26. For slabs with drops, span to effective depth
ratios given above shall be applied directly; otherwise the span to effective depth ratios in
accordance with above shall be multiplied by 0.9. For this purpose, the longer span of the panel
shall be considered. The minimum thickness of slab shall be 125 mm

Depth of flat slab:

Depth considering along:

Longer span Shorter span

L1 =6.6 m , L2 =5.6 m L1 =5.6 m , L2 =6.6 m


= 256.6 =215.6
Say 260 mm Say 220 mm

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The unbalanced slab moments at various supports are transmitted to respective columns. This
unbalanced slab moment is shared by the column above & below in proportion to their
relative stiffness. These moments are transferred by punching shear & flexure in the column.
The punching shear produces cracks at the critical section close to the column faces as shown
below,

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Fig: Critical section for shear

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ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF FLAT SLAB:

DESIGN OF INTERIOR PANEL:

STEP 1:

Thickness of slab:

d=1/26 =5.74*103/26 =220mm (maximum length is been selected)

Provide 12mm dia. bars with a clear cover of 20mm

Overall depth D=220+12/2+20=246

STEP 2:

Loads:

Live load = 4kn/m2

F.F = 1.5kn/m2

Wall load = (0.23*2.954*5.74*19.2)* 4/2* (5.74*8.07) = 6.93kn/m2

Total load = 12.43kn/m2

Length of panel = 11.2m

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Width of panel = 15.9m

Design strip having width 0.25*11.2 = 2.8m but not greater than 0.25*15.9 = 3.97m on each
side of column centre line

Thus middle strip along L1 = 11.2 3.97 = 7.23m

Width of column strip along L2 = 15.9 3.97 = 12m

Assume the size of columns as 900*900mm

Drop:

Size of drop not less than L/3*L/3 = 11.2/3*15.9/3

Adopt size of drop as 3.84*5.36= 20.6m2

Column head:

De should be less than 0.2*L1 = 0.2*11.2 = 2.24 not greater than = 0.25* 15.9 = 3.97m

Adopt dia. of column head De = 2.24+3.97/2 = 3.10m, r = 1.55m

Area of column head A = 3.14*1.5552 = 7.54m2

Value of Ln along length and width Ln = 11.2 2.75 = 8.45m

Ln = 15.9 2.75 = 13.15m

STEP 3:

Bending moment calculations:

The absolute sum of the +ve and avg. ve B.M in each direction shall be taken as:

Mo = WLn/8

W = W* L2*Ln = 12.43* 11.22* 13.15 = 1833.95KN

Mo = WLn/8 = 1833.95* 13.15/8 = 3014.55N-mm

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STEP 4:

Distribution of moments:

The negative design moment shall be located at the face of rectangular supports ,circular
supports being treated as square supports having the same area .

Total negative moment = 0.65 Mo= 1959.45 N-mm

Total positive moment = 0.35 Mo =1055.09 N-mm

STEP 5:

Bending moment of column strip:

Column strip: Negative moment at an interior support

At an interior support, the column strip shall be designed to resist 75% of the total negative
moment in the panel at the support.

Negative design moment = 75% of negative moment = 1469.58 N-mm

Column strip: Positive moment for each span, the column strip shall be designed to resist
60% of the total positive moment in the panel.

Positive design moment = 60% of positive moment = 633.05N-mm

STEP 6: Bending moment of middle strip:

Negative design moment =25% of negative moment = 489.86 N-mm

Positive design moment = 40% of positive moment = 422.03 N-mm

Middle strip:

Negative moment = 1959.45 1469.58 = 489.87 N-mm

Positive moment = 1055.09 633.05 = 422.04 N-mm

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STEP 7: Check of depth of slab

Finding depth in slab

d=633.05/1.5*3750=196.45

However provide a depth of 200mm

STEP 8: Depth of drop:

Drop depth in field should be 1.75 times or 2 times the depth of slab thus

Provide a depth of = 1.75*depth of slab

d = 350mm

Providing 12mm dia. main bar overall thickness of slab

Hence, depth of slab = 200 mm

depth of drop = 350 mm

Slab reinforcement spacing:

Spacing: The spacing if bars in flat slab shall not exceed two times the slab thickness, except
where the slab is of cellular or ribbed construction.

STEP 9: Reinforcement in drop:

Pt = 50 *(1-1-(4.6*1959.49*106/ 2.5*3750*350*350) / (500/25)

Ptt = 1.20%

Ast = 1.20* 3750*350/100 = 15750mm2

Ast per meter length = 4200 mm2

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Spacing: 3.14*16*16/ 4200 * 1000 = 148mm C/C

Provide 16mm dia. bars C/C spacing of 150mm only.

STEP 10: Reinforcement in column strip:

Pt = 50* 1-1-(4.6*1959.49*106/ 2.5*3750*350*350) / (500/25)

Pt = 0.80%

Ast = 0.80*3750*200/100 = 6000mm2

Ast per meter length 1600mm2

Spacing = 3.14*144/ 1600*1000 = 165mm

Provide 12mm dia. bars with C/C spacing of 150mm.

STEP 11: Reinforcement in middle strip:

Pt = 50* 1-1-(4.6*1959.49*106/ 2.5*3750*350*350) / (500/25)

Pt = 0.92%

Ast = 0.92*3750*200/100 = 6900mm2

Ast per meter length = 1840 mm2

Spacing = 3.14/4 * 144/ 1840 * 1000 = 196.3mm

Provide 12mm dia. bars with C/C spacing of 200mm

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RESULT:

CODE IS-456

Shape of test specimen for Cube


concrete strength (mm) 150x150x150

Grade of concrete(N/mm) 20

Grade of steel (N/mm) 415

Negative moment(KN-m) 188.5

Positive moments(KN -m) 90

Area of reinforcement(mm) 4209

Thickness of slab for 170

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Serviceability criteria(mm)

Punching shear Safe

5. POST-TENSIONED FLAT PLATE/SLAB

Post-tensioned flat plat/slabs are a common variation of the conventional plate


structure where most of the reinforcement is replaced by post-tensioned strands of very high
strength steel. The structural advantage of post tensioning over conventional RCC is that the
slab is nearly crack- free at full service load. This leads to a smaller deflection compared to
conventional RCC because of the higher rigidity of the un-cracked section. Hence reduction
in thickness of the slab compared to conventional RCC is the rationale for using post-
tensioning system for spans over 10m and above. Further the lack of cracking leads to a
watertight structure. Flat plat/slab design and build contractors in India claim a 20% cost
reduction compared to conventional RCC. However, our observation of post-tensioned flat
plat/slab constructions used in two construction projects in India built by post tensioned
concrete contractors utilizing PT system has been that there is no reduction in thickness of
the slab compared to conventional RCC and the slabs are not crack free at service loads.
Hence, the actual deflection in these structures is similar to that of theoretically computed
RCC deflection. In addition, water tightness was not achieved in one of the projects. And
with respect to costs involved, there is an escalation in cost by 15-20% rather than reduction
as claimed by PT design & build contractor. And another disadvantage in using post
tensioned system in commercial buildings in India is its lack of flexibility to create openings
or drill into slabs to anchor services system when the slab is completed with post tensioning.
Invariable the owner in India is not sure of the occupant when he starts the building and may
have to change or create opening in slabs after construction to satisfied occupants
requirement, which is not possible with a PT system.

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6. TYPES OF LOADS:

A structure should be strong enough to support the loads acting on it. Hence estimation of
the loads which sufficient accuracy is very essential in structural design. A structure may be
acted upon many types of loads. Dead loads are estimated based on unit weight of materials.
The live loads on floors and the wind loads are obtained. The effect of earthquake load is also
considered and the loads are calculated according to the standards of building codes.

a. Dead load: They are permanent or stationery loads

b. Live load: They are either moving or movable loads without any acceleration or impact. The
floor slabs are designed to carry either UDL or concentrated load

c. Impact load: Impact load is caused by vibration or impact

d. Wind load: Wind load is primarily horizontally load caused by movement of air relative to
earth. The details of wind load is given by IS: 875 (part -3)

e. Seismic load: The seismic load is caused due to seismic waves caused by the moment of
earth surface or vibration of earth surface. The details of seismic load is given in IS: 1893
(2002).

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6.1 APPLICATIONS OF FLAT-SLAB R/C STRUCTURES IN SEISMIC REGIONS

INTRODUCTION:

Advantages of flat-slab reinforced concrete structures are widely known but there are also
known the disadvantages concerning their earthquake resistance. It is remarkable that both IS
Reinforced Concrete Code and Seismic Code do not forbid the use of such structural
systems however both Codes provide specific compliance criteria in order such structures to
be acceptable. The advantages of these systems are:

1. The ease of the construction of formwork.


2. The ease of placement of flexural reinforcement.
3. The ease of casting concrete.
4. The free space for water, air pipes, etc between slab and a possible furred ceiling.
5. The free placing of walls in ground plan.
6. The use of cost effective prestressing methods for long spans in order to reduce
slab thickness and deflections as also the time needed to remove the formwork.
7. The reduction of building height in multi-storey structures by saving one storey
height in every six storeys thanks to the elimination of the beam height.

These structural systems seem to attract global interest due to their advantages mainly in
countries in which the seismicity is low. The application of flat-slab structures is
restrained due to the belief that such structures are susceptible to seismic actions,

6.2. PARAMETRICAL STUDY

SPECIFICATIONS OF 3D STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS

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Four different cases of 3D structural systems were examined. The categories include the
following structural systems:

a) flat-slab supported only by columns


b) flat-slab with parametric beams supported by columns
c) flat-slab supported by columns and shear walls
d) flat-slab with parametric only beams supported by columns and shear walls.

The aforementioned systems were studied for all possible storey heights which can be
implemented namely one to nine storey buildings with or without basement, (underground
storey). The plan view of the four analyzed structural systems is given a side view of the
nine storey building with its basement is illustrated. The cross section of the columns is
decreased, in both dimensions, by 5cm from one storey to a sequentially higher storey.
Two load combinations were used:

a) The first which imposes ultimate limit states vertical loading i.e. 1.35g+13.50q,
b) The second one which imposes seismic loading provided by the Greek Earthquake.

6.3. MODELLING

Vertical elements columns and shear walls were modeled in all cases with linear
beam elements. The difference between the models is located on one hand in the use or not
of diaphragm action of slabs and on the other hand in the use of shell or linear elements
for the modeling of the slab. At the shell element the mass was considered to be
concentrated on slab and in the first case it was modeled using a thin mesh at openings
without considering a diaphragm action for the slab. In the second case the slab was
modeled using a thin mesh at openings considering the diaphragm action of the slab.

For the linear model the equivalent frame method was applied according to 9.1.7 of the
Greek Concrete Code. The effective width of the slab was calculated based on the
equation: lx = bo + 2hs of the Greek Concrete Code and the mass was considered
concentrated at the nodes of the elements. It has to be noted the fact that the results of
analyses using linear elements were more favorable than those using shell elements to
model the slabs. In the present study, only the least favorable results were taken into

83
account.

84
Analyses of structural systems have shown that fundamental period is not affected
significantly neither by the density of the slab mesh nor by the use of diaphragm action,
since the differentiation between the results is no more than 0.1%. So the type of thin
mesh was adopted along with the use of diaphragm action which provides satisfying
results.

6.4. RESULTS

The Analyzed flat-slab structures were assessed by checking the compliance criteria of
both IS & RC Codes mentioned above. The checks lead to the acceptance or rejection of
the analyzed flat-slab structures for the design seismic action. In the variation of
coefficient as well as the total seismic actions -axial and shear loading for each case- are
given correspondingly.

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Second order effects

Critical criterion for the acceptance or not of a structural system was found to be the
criterion of second order effects. Values of inter storey drift sensitivity coefficient ,
according to analyses of all types of structural systems in question, are shown in Fig.

Design

After a great number of analyses, serious problems were spotted concerning,


specifically, flat slab structures. The crucial ones are:

a) Due to the slight reduction of behavior factor which is utilized, q = 3 instead of

86
q = 3.5, but most importantly due to the absence of strong beams, the stresses of the
vertical structural elements and mainly those of the shear walls (which have a minimal
difference compared to vertical cantilevers) are found to be unusual high. This fact is
reflected to the foundation requirements and moreover it brings out the necessity of a
greater number (than usual) of shear walls to be utilized in the framework of the structure
in order to achieve a rational resistance of seismic actions.

b) The necessity for ductile systems to be led exclusively to a bending type of failure
suggests creates the need, in the specific case, that the punching shear resistance, wherever
it applies, must be at least over 40% of the corresponding flexural resistance in the same
position. This over strength can be assured by assuming a behavior factor q = 3.0/1.4 =
2.14, which only concerns design of slabs against punching shear. Design of slabs, as well
as design of vertical elements, against bending must be done using q=3.

c) In most cases for punching shear design critical loading is the combination of non
seismic loads only. The seismic load combination is critical where vertical elements are
close to each other as well as in the case of slabs which are supported at the edge of shear
wall sections or at the corners C-shaped walls (e.g. walls used for staircases). It is notable
that the last two cases concern (are crucial) more the upper storeys than the bottom storey.

87
d) When two vertical elements are close to each other in plan, it is prudent to place beams in
between, as the punching shear stress is severe in this case and the resulting slab
thicknesses which are required in order to comply with criterion of VRd2 are not realistic.

e) Finally, one indirect confrontation of punching shear related problems in slabs can be
achieved by the use of more shear walls in the structural system. Shear walls reduce the
earthquake displacements resulting in a reduced punching shear stress on slabs.

7. CONCLUSION
88
1. Flat plate/slab construction is a developing technology in India. Flat plate/slab can be
designed and built either by conventional RCC or post-tensioning. However, due to issues
mentioned above with pt construction in India and its higher cost, conventional rcc should
be the preferred choice for spans up to 10 meters.

2. Design of conventional RCC flat plate/slab in India, utilizing Indian codes, has many
shortcomings, which have to be addressed and revised soon. Until then Indian engineers
will continue to use Indian codes in combination with other standards to design and analyze
flat slabs/plates.

3. The positive mid-span moment is increasing and negative moment is decreasing when we
analyze the slab with Equivalent Frame Method. The negative moments section shall be
designed to resist the larger of the two interior negative design moments for the span
framing into common supports.

4. Negative & Positive moments at exterior support is increases for IS 456-2000 for
Equivalent Frame Method.

5. In the Exterior support, the total design moments (M o) are distributed as 100% in column
strip and 0% in middle strip in both the case IS 456-2000 & the total design moments (M o)
are distributed as 75% in column strip and 25% in middle strip.

6. In flat slab (with & without staggered column) in both cases the punching shear criteria is
satisfy except Interior columns as per IS 456

89
8. REFERENCES:
1. P.C. Varghese Advanced Reinforced Concrete Design, prentice hall of India limited,
New Delhi, EEE (2002).
2. Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi, IS 456:2000, Plain and Reinforced Concrete -
Code of Practice, Fourth Revision, July (2000).
3. M.Anitha, B.Q.Rahman and JJ.Vijay, Analysis and Design of Flat Slabs Using Various
Codes, International Institute of Information Technology, Hyderabad, April (2007).

4. Indian Standard IS 456:2000, Plain and Reinforced Concrete Code of Practice.

5. Purushothaman P., Reinforced Concrete Structural Elements, Tata McGraw-Hill


Publication Company Ltd. New Delhi. 1984

6. Gowda N Bharath; Gowda S. B. Ravishankar; A.V Chandrasekhar, Review and Design of


Flat Plate/Slabs Construction in India.

7. Structural Design Guide to the ACI Building code, Third edition, Van Nostrand Reinhold
Company. New York. 1985.

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