Critical exposition of Sāṁkhya Kārikā

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Critical exposition of Skhya Krik
By
Rmakrishna Narasiha Swmy

Enrollment number 1 5 6 0 0 9 3 7 5
Dissertation(MPYP -001)
Submi t t e d f o r t h e p a r t i a l f u l f i l l m e n t o f t h e d e g r e e o f
M a s t e r o f A rt s i n P h i l o s o p h y ( M A P Y )
Philosophy Programme
School of Inter-disciplinary and Trans -disciplinary Studies
Indira Gandhi National Open University
Supervisor
Dr. H.L.Chandrashekara
Associate Professor
Department of Philosophy Studies
University of Mysore

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By
Enrollment number 156009375
Dissertation(MPYP -001)
Submi t t e d f o r t h e p a r t i a l f u l f i l l m e n t o f t h e d e g r e e o f
M a s t e r o f A rt s i n P h i l o s o p h y ( M A P Y )
P h i l o s o p h y P ro g r a m m e
S c h o o l o f I nt e r - d i s c i p l i n a r y a n d T r a n s - d i s c i p l i n a r y S t u d i e s
I n d i r a G a n d h i Na t i o n a l O p e n U ni v e r s i t y
Supervisor
Associate Professor

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Acknowledgement
I would like to thank Dr.H.L.Chandrashekara, Associate Professor, Department

of Philosophy Studies, University of Mysore for his consent to become guide for this
dissertation and sharing his invaluable time in briefing me about the subtle points of
the subject and providing me with many necessary insights into this subject. I
would like to sincerely acknowledge his guidance in suggesting appropriate literature
for the study, structure and formation of the dissertation and also for reviewing the
draft, suggesting me suitable modification and approving the final script for
submission.
Without his enthusiastic and invaluable guidance, this work would not have
become possible.

30th April 2017
Bengaluru

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Certificate of the supervisor
I, Dr.H.L.Chandrashekara, Associate Professor, Department of Studies in

Philosophy, University of Mysore certify that, I have guided and reviewed the
dissertation 'Critical Exposition of Skhya Krik' prepared by Rmakrishna
Narasiha Swmy, student of MA(Philosophy) with Enrollment number 156009375
for submission of Dissertation(MPYP-001, an elective) for the partial fulfillment of the
degree of Master of Arts (MAPY) in Philosophy conducted by Indira Gandhi National
Open University.
Associate Professor

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Summary
Skhyan ideas and speculations are developed purely on the basis of human
tendencies, experience and the reality of the universe. Skhya is considered as
one of the earliest philosophical thoughts originating from the Indian soil.
Sometimes during the beginning of the last millennium, all these floating ideas,
speculation and concepts on Skhya which can be traced in Vedas and particularly
to epics, canonical and other literature were condensed and systematized into a
compact treatise of seventy verses for the first time by vara Ka as Skhya
Krik. Virtually, it has become hand book of Skhya system. This dissertation
makes an attempt to trace and understand the basic tenets of the Skhya School
of Philosophy as enumerated in this exclaimed treatise known for its precision and
deep thoughts. During this work, interpretation of modern days scholars is also
critically examined for better perspective of the thought from the current day norms.
During this effort, it is very well seen that, the much acclaimed school did not receive
due prominence it deserves due to certain historical reasons during the Sutra period.
Fortunately, of late, this subject is attracting considerable amount of interest by the
scholastic community, in particular, in its effort in tracing and analyzing the origin
and the evolution of Skhyan thoughts during the pre-classical Smkhyan period.
From this effort, it can be concluded, that, critical exploration of this important school
of Indian philosophy during the pre-Skhyan period will lead us to better
understanding of not only the Skhyan school of philosophy, but also the entire
corpus of Indian philosophical thought during its formative years.

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T AB LE O F C O N TE N T S
1. Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 1
2. Historicity of Skhya .................................................................................................................... 8
3. A note on Skhya Krik .......................................................................................................... 14
4. Preliminary exposition .................................................................................................................. 16
5. Metaphysics of Skhya .............................................................................................................. 17
5.1. Skhya Tattva ..................................................................................................................... 17
5.2. Doctrine of Sat-karya-vda .................................................................................................... 18
5.3. Prakrti and its manifestation ................................................................................................. 21
5.4. Gunas ..................................................................................................................................... 22
5.5. Prakrti and its evolutes .......................................................................................................... 24
5.6. Purua .................................................................................................................................... 28
5.7. The Relation between Prakrti and Purusha ........................................................................... 30
5.8. Dualism of Skhya ............................................................................................................... 32
5.9. Is Skhya an atheist or theist? ............................................................................................ 33
5.10. Skhya and Aurobindo's concept of evolution ................................................................... 37
6. Epistemology of Skhya ............................................................................................................ 40
6.1. Perception .............................................................................................................................. 41
6.2. Inference ................................................................................................................................ 42
6.3. Testimony .............................................................................................................................. 43
6.4. Other Pramas ..................................................................................................................... 44
7. Ethics of Skhya......................................................................................................................... 45
7.1. Pessimistic outlook of Skhya ............................................................................................. 46
7.2. 'Tpatraya'- the three torments ............................................................................................ 47
7.3. Kaivalya the final release .................................................................................................... 49
8. Conclusion ...................................................................................................................................... 53
9. Bibliography ................................................................................................................................... 54

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1. Introduction
Skhyan thoughts are considered as one of the earliest philosophical

speculations and as such has left indelible impression of its basic ideas, notions,
tendency and its thought process particularly on matter concerning Reality, human
experience etc on the all other Schools of Indian Philosophy as well as the whole mass
or Indian arts and culture. Much before its emergence as an autonomous classical
School of philosophy during the Darana period in the form of Skhya Krik by
vara Ka, the distinguishing and core features of Skhya doctrine like reality of
physical world, dualism, Gunas, Satkaryavda, Kaivalya etc have made a deep impact
on Indian Philosophical schools. Even though, among the orthodox schools of Indian
philosophy, the philosophy of Vedanta is most visible and held in high esteem today,
the basic tenets of this school is built on the solid platform provided by Skhya and
thus generously accepts the position of Skhya ideas on issues like Reality, human
experiences, cause of suffering, triple sufferings, the three Gunas of Prakrati etc as
embedded in the tenets of Skhya. Sankara, says: 'This doctrine, moreover, stands
somewhat near to the Vedanta doctrine since like the latter, it admits the non-
difference of cause and effect and it, moreover, has been accepted by some of the
authors of Dharma sutras, such as Devala and so on. For all these reasons, we have
taken special trouble to refute the Pradhana doctrine1.' Yoga, yet another influential
and practiced school of philosophy even today, accepts the metaphysics of Skhya
with marginal variation and proceeds on similar lines and puts its metaphysics into
practice. The Skhya and Yoga are so intimately related in its basic tenets that,
they are often referred and studied together as a twin doctrines in the academia and
its practitioners. If not referred explicitly by Skhya, the tendency of this doctrine
can be traced all over Vedic literature and influential and popular texts of Indian epics
like Mahabharata, Bhagvad Git and later day Upaniads. In Mahabharata it is said
that, 'There is no knowledge such as Skhya and no power like that of Yoga. We
should not have no doubt as to Sankhya being the highest knowledge' (
|| ||, Shanti Parva, XII, 304, 2).
This once again goes to show that, before the raise of Daranas and categorization as
schools, the Indian Philosophical thought was evolving and proceeding on different
1
Max Muller, Sacred Books of East, XXXIV ,(Oxford University Press), pp 297-8
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lines of thought processes. The Skhya did not become a well co-ordinated system
until and after the rise of Buddhism. When Buddhism offered a challenge to Realism,
the Skhya accepted the challenge and argued on strictly rational grounds for the
reality of selves and objects2. Richard Garbe, who has made a special study of this
school, says; 'In Kapila's doctrine, for the first time in the history of the world, the
complete independence and freedom of the human mind, its full confidence in its own
powers, were exhibited'3.
Skhya is a Sanskrit word and is used in the etymological sense of thinking
and counting Amara Kosha (I.V.3). Thinking may be with
reference to the basic principles or knowledge of Self. Counting may perhaps refer to
the 25 principles enumerated in Skhya. The double implication of the word has
been set forth by Vijnana Bhikshu in his preface to Skhya Pravachana Bhashya by a
quotation from Mahabharata4. According to him Skhya means knowledge of the
Self through right discrimination. In the early texts, Skhya is used in the sense of
philosophical reflection and not numerical reckoning5 (Dosanam ca gunanam ca
pramanam pravibhagatah. Kamcid artham abhipretya sa samkyety puadhrayatam ).
The weighing of the defects and the merits severally, as one attempts some
interpretation, should be understood as Skhya6. Skhya has not always been for
numerical reference. Sankara quotes a passage where Skhya means knowledge of
the nature of pure spirit. So, in the light of above references, we can consider the
correct meaning of Skhya as discriminating knowledge which is most appropriate
for a School of Philosophy.
It was vara Ka who took up the task of integrating the scattered

Skhyan traditional ideas speculated by different schools into a systematic, coherent
and concise treatise; Skhya Krik. This way, classical Skhya added yet
another independent system based on real life experience to the Indian philosophical
thought. This once again reaffirms the merit of Indian philosophical and religious
thought, which is universal in its approach, built on the Vedic premise 'ekam sad
2
Radhakrishnan Sarvepalli, Indian Philosophy, Volume II, (Oxford University Press), page 231-232
3
Garbe, Richard, Philosophy of Ancient India, (Open court publishing company) Page 30
4
Sharma, Har Dutt , The Samkhya Karika, (Oriental Book Agency, Pune), Page 2,
5
Radhakrishnan Sarvepalli, Indian Philosophy, Vol I, (Oxford University Press), Page 527 and Mahabharata, XII,
11934.
6
Radhakrishnan Sarvepalli, Indian Philosophy, Vol II, (Oxford University Press), P227
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viprh bahudh vadanti..' meaning 'Truth is one, but the learned refer to it in
different names ' (Rig Veda 1.164.46) and, religious and philosophical thoughts in
India have not sprung from a head of single person or a cult, but developed and
continue to evolve on the reflections of generation of Seers spanning several
millennium. This is duly reflected in Skhyan school also where we can find
reference to galaxy of Seers starting from Kapila credited to be founder of this School
followed by Skhya teachers; Asuri, Panchasikha, Vindhya, Varsaganya, Jaigisavya,
Vodhu, Devala, Sanaka, Sanandana, Snatana, Sanatkumara, Bhrgu, Sukra, Kasyapa,
Prsara, Gargya, Gautama, Nrada, Arstisena, Agastaya, Pulasya, Harita, Uluka,
Vlmiki and Suka7 who have worked on Skhya. Apart from these Seers whose
antiquities are practically unknown apart from their names. Following are the
important works on Skhya8.
a) Tattva Samasa: An work of note and as its name indicates, is very brief, hardly more
than a table of contents, as it has been characterized. Tattva Samasa, attributed to
Kapila, is a catechism on Skhya Philosophy, written before 1600 AD. It was
regarded by Max Muller as the oldest work on the subject, but that view is not
generally accepted now.
b) Skhya Sutra: A second work of importance on the system is the Skhya-sutra

or the Skhya Pravachana sutra, ascribed to Kapila himself, but the work, though
much of its material may be really old, is clearly a very late production and cannot be
assigned to a date earlier than the fourteenth century A.D. It has not been referred in
the Sarva Darsana Samgraha. It consists of six chapters. Of these, the first three give
an exposition of the Skhya principles, the fourth gives illustrative stories, and the
fifth refutes rival views and the sixth rounds off the discussion with a recapitulation.
c) Skhya Krik: The classic text book on the Skhya system is the Skhya
Krik by vara Ka, is the earliest available as well as the most popular text book
on Skhya Philosophy. The Skhya Krik claims to be merely a condensation of
an earlier text called the Sastitantra, leaving out only the parables and the refutation
of rival systems. There is considerable controversy over the Sastitantra, and the
available data are not sufficient to allow for any definite statement. There is divergent
opinion regarding the date of its composition. Some authorities assign it to the first
half of the second century A.D., while others contend that it belonged to the third
century AD. and some place it in the fifth century A.D. But, roughly speaking, we may
take its author vara Ka to have been a contemporary of Kalidasa. The work
consists of seventy stanzas and is on that account sometimes designated as the
Skhya Saptati. It contains a brief but exceedingly lucid exposition of the theoretical
teaching of the system and has been described as 'the pearl of the whole scholastic
7
Sharma Har Dutt, Samkhya Karika, (Oriental Book Agency, Pune), page 12,
| ||
8
http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/67067/9/09_chapter%201.pdf, page 64 to 69
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literature of India' . This book with a commentary whose identity is not quite certain,
was translated into Chinese language under the name of 'the Golden Seventy
Discourse' most popularly known as 'Hiranya Saptati' or Suvarna Saptati' by one
Paramartha, a Brahmin of Ujjyayin who went to China in A.D. 546 on the invitation of
its the then Emperor and spent the rest of his life there. It has been commented
upon by several, including Vachaspati; the well-known Advaitic scholar of the ninth
century A.D. Most important commentaries on Skhya are Yukti Dipika (Author
unknown) Matharavrtti of Mathara, Tattva Kaumudi of Vchaspati Mira, and
Jayamangala of Shankaracharya. Another important commentary on Skhya Krik
is Gauapda's Bhashya (8th century A.D.) is considered to be based on the
Matharavrtti, but there is able argument to the contrary.
d) Skhya-Tattva-Kaumudi: It is a philosophical work by Vchaspati Mira.

Vachaspati is supposed to have based his account of the sixty topics on the Raja
Vartika. The Skhya-Tattva-Kaumudi is an excellent exposition of Skhya
Philosophy. The commentary is very lucid and expressive, and like the Yukti-Dipika, it
is not found to indulge in hair splitting argument in elucidating the text of vara
Ka.
e) Skhya-Pravachana-Bhashya: The most important commentary on the is by

Vijnana Bhiksu. It is assigned to the sixteenth century A.D. In it, the author
endeavors to minimize the distinction between the Skhya and the theistic Vedanta,
which he regards as the genuine Vedanta, while the Advaita Vedanta is its modern
falsification. Vijnabhiku known for his commentary on various schools of Hindu
philosophy and his scholarship stated that there is a unity between Vednta, Yoga,
and Skhya philosophies. He has made significant influence on the Neo-Advaita
movement of the modern era. The other important commentary on Skhya is
Sankhyasara (Quintessence of the Sankhya).
f) Yukti Dipika: The Yukti Dipika is the earliest available commentary on the Skhya
Krik of vara Ka. It is the most extensive in extent and the most comprehensive
in import. It expounds the system of Skhya in all possible details and justifies it
with all possible arguments. It resists its best to save the theories of Skhya from
the intellectual onslaught at the hands of other systems. The unique feature of the
Yukti Dipika, which raises it to the height of importance, is the reference to the views
of pre-vara Ka Skhya teachers, the works of which are lost to us. It easily fills
the gaps in the literary continuity of Skhya. It is rightly termed the illuminator of
reasoning (to justify the system of vara Ka). This makes the study of the Yukti
Dipika essential for the complete understanding of Skhya.
g) Skhya Candrika: It is a commentary based chiefly on the work of Vchaspati

Mira written by Narayana Tirtha. Truly speaking, it is a sub-commentary as it is
written on the basis is of Skhya Tattva Kaumudi of Vchaspati Mira which is an
important commentary on Skhya Krik by vara Ka. Some authorities say that
it is a treatise on Gauapda's work.
h) Skhya Taruvasanth: The latest commentary on by Skhya Mudumba

Narasimhasvamin, who tries to relate the Vedanta and the Skhya.

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i) Other works of interest: Aniruddha's Skhya Vrtti (15 Cent. A.D.), Mahadeva's
Skhya Vritti Sara (17th Cent. A.D.), Nagesa's Laghu Skhyasutravrtti of minor
importance, and Vijnanabhikshu s Smkhyapravacanabhasya (16th Cent AD) which is
the most important work on the Skhyapravacanastrtra. Other important works by
Vijnanabhikshu are Skhya Sara Yoga varttika, Yoga-sara-Samgraha and
Vijnanamrta, a commentary on the Vedanta sutra. Two latest works of philosophical
value are Simananda's Skhya Tattva Vivecana and Bhvaganesa's Skhya-tattva-
yatharthyadlpana.
During recent times, we have galaxy of scholars both from West and East who
have made immense contribution to the growing knowledge on Skhya from
different modern day perspectives and terminologies like Theistic/atheistic character,
Ethics, Metaphysics, comparative studies with other Western schools of philosophy.
Critical exposition of Skhya Krik of vara Ka has been made by

studying and analyzing the treatise along with the commentary of Vachaspati Mishra
(Tattva Kaumudi) and other standard book on this School. This dissertation
elaborates and critically examines the doctrine of Skhya Krik from metaphysical,
epistemological and ethical perspective to provide better understanding of this
important pillar of Indian Philosophy. Also, a note on Skhya Krik is included in
the work which discusses the classical text, structure and circumstances leading to the
composition of this classical text.
Two important topics on Skhya viz on Historicity of Skhya and another

contentious matter; whether Skhya is atheistic or not, is discussed to understand
the evolution of Skhyan thought since Vedic times to get a better perspective on
this important thought.
As we know, Skhya is well known for the detailing of the practical aspect of
the nature its materials, its origin, and nature along with its relation with the human
intelligence-mind-ego. Other important contribution of Skhya to Indian thought is
theory of Satkarya Vda based on theory of Casualty (cause and effect) establishing
the fact that, Skhya as a rational philosophy is based on human experience with a
spiritual vision.
The last section on the chapter of Metaphysics briefly discusses the idea of
evolution from Sri Aurobindo's well-known doctrine on Suddha Advaita and compares
it with Skhya's doctrine on cosmic evolution. Considering that, Sri Aurobindo a
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mystic, exponent and practitioner of Vedanta, his interpretation of evolution vis--vis

Skhya, clearly shows how Indian thought on metaphysics has traversed over a
period of two millennium and culminated on works of Sri Aurobindo.
Another significant contribution of Skhya is about Gunas. The term Guna is

generally understood as 'quality,' 'characteristics,' and sometimes as 'moral qualities'
from psychological perspective. But none of these words provide the full import of
the term Guna in Skhyan context. The implicit meaning of Guna can be
understood from the statement 'Prakrti is not made of parts.' Mahadeva in his
Skhya Sutra Vritti Sara says 'Prakrti is not receptacle of Gunas, but is itself the
Gunas . Thus Gunas is neither part or sum or constituent, but of an absolute identify.
Gunas are themselves Prakrti. Hence, the Prakrti is to be taken as being itself Sattva,
itself Rajas, itself Tamas. Prakrti is an indivisible entity identical with itself.
Another important aspect of study of school of philosophy is its stand on

Epistemology i.e source and validity of knowledge. Skhya accepts perception,
inference and testimony as the valid sources of knowledge. The way perception is
treated in Skhya is much different from the ordinary perception i.e sensory inputs
from the five organs. Perception in Skhya is an integrated with the psychological
state called as anthakarana and thus named as Drsta instead of commonly used term
pratayaksha.
The subject of ethics is an important branch of philosophy consisting of

systematizing, defending, and recommending concepts of right and wrongs of human
behavior and action. A system of philosophy is generally tested by its ethical
doctrine. Though a criticism of life, philosophy is judged by its capacity to improve
the quality of life. The fundamental objective of philosophical inquiry in India was
not limited or exclusive abstract theorization, but to find out how best human life can
be lived. This is stated very clearly without any sort of ambiguity in the very first
verse of Skhya Krik itself. Since the whole intellectual activity in India is aimed
at problem of worthy human life, it is essentially ethical. In Indian Philosophy we
often find that the moral concepts are latent and sometimes entangled with
metaphysical and epistemological concerns of the system and needs special effort to
decode them from the metaphysical concepts. The ethical concept of Skhya is
analysed in the light of above stated Indian perspective. In this section, the common
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unsubstantiated charge accusing Indian philosophical system of its pessimistic outlook

is discussed and refuted on the basis that, pessimism is due to dissatisfaction of what
is existing which motivates for continuous quest for improvement in our attitude and
effort towards reaching the ultimate truth which alone can result in happiness to us.
Every being in this world without exception seeks happiness. Leave alone human
being, even an insignificant creature like a worm or ant wants to get away from the
problem. As said earlier, the subject matter of Ethics is concerned with actual action
when humans are confronted with their real life problems. Skhya, doctrine of
reality and enumeration, in its very first verse straightaway starts by enumerating the
the problems confronting all human beings. Dukha-traya-bhigatat, from the
torment by the three-fold (causes of) pain (there arises), jijnasa (a desire for enquiry),
into the means of solving it.
The most common feature of all schools of Indian philosophy percept except
Lokayata (materialist) is every human strive to achieve Moksha also called as Kaivalya
i.e final release from this world. Here the matter of discriminating the true
knowledge from the apparent one is discussed. Being a treatise based on realism, it
states that, the release take place after the dawn of discriminative wisdom inasmuch
as all the subliminal impression of deeds are not spent. Once, there is the cessation
of activity of the Pradhna, for the reason of the purpose having been fulfilled, Purua
attains both absolute and and final Kaivalya (Freedom).
Study and understanding of the basic tenets of Skhya will provide the
students of philosophy the process of organic evolution of not only Skhya school,
but the entire Indian philosophical thought and her culture over the ages. This is
essential for all students of Indian philosophy. During the study of this subject, it can
be very well seen that, the much acclaimed school did not receive due prominence it
deserves due to some historical reasons during the Sutra period. Fortunately, of late,
there is a renewed interest by the scholastic community in particular in its effort in
tracing and analyzing the origin and the evolution of Skhyan thoughts particularly
during the pre-Skhyan period. From this effort, it can be concluded, that, further
investigation on this important school of Indian philosophy which will lead to better
understanding of not only the Skhyan school of philosophy, but also the entire
mass of Indian philosophical thought during its formative years.

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2. Historicity of Skhya
Human knowledge is a human creation. As the time marches on relentlessly,

the accumulated human knowledge keeps getting enriched and evolving from
generation to generation. This is applicable for all human endeavors, whether it is
science, arts, more so in the field of philosophy. Even though the School of Skhya
philosophy attained the classical form as we know today in the exposition of Skhya
Krik by vara Ka, the notion and tendency of Skhya primarily its core motifs
like reality of the physical world, Dualism, Guna etc can be traced all over the ages
from early Vedic thoughts followed by Upaniadic and Epic periods. Hence, effort in
tracing the historicity of Skhya provides us with an opportunity to understand the
evolution of its thoughts in different ages, how it was viewed by the earlier generations
during their times and most importantly, its influence on other philosophical thoughts
and literature.
For the students of Indian philosophy, tracing the historicity of any philosophical
thought or School in chronological order is tedious task for understandable reasons and
hence, we have to be contented by tracing how a particular thought progressed over
the period of ages. Hence, we are inclined to agree with Max Muller, 'In India we must
learn to be satisfied with the little we know, not of the chronology of years but, of
9
chronology of thoughts.' Notwithstanding this assertion, for the purpose of study of
the progression and evolution of Skhyan thought over the ages, it can be classified
into four periods10
a) Ancient speculation from pre Vedic times to the raise of Jainism and early Buddhism
b) Proto-Skhya speculation from 4th Century BC to 1st Century AD, during the period in
which the great epic of Mahabharata was composed
c) Classical Skhya speculation, the period of composition of most authoritative text;

Skhya Krik, other Daranas and commentaries on them during 1st Century AD to
11th Century AD
d) Later Skhya dating from 15th to 17 Century AD during which other important
Skhyans viz Aniruddha, Mahadeva and Vijnanabhikshu reinterpreted the classical
Skhya by composing their commentaries.
9
Muller Max, Six systems of Indian Philosophy, (Longmans Green and Co) Page 308
10
Larson Gerald James, Classical Samkhya-an interpretation of its History and meaning, (Motilal Banarsidass
Publishers Pvt Ltd), Page 75
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One should not forget the fact that, when the early Vedic Seers started
exclaiming and reflecting about the nature, its glory, cause, man's relation with nature,
cosmic forces, past, present, destiny etc., they were not bound or influenced by any
dogmas or schools of philosophies like us. Their expressions were pure freewheeling
reflection of human mind and at the same time exhibiting genuine inquisitiveness and
questions on what we call as Metaphysics today. This expression can be found in the
Rigvedic Sukta pertaining to the Cosmic Creation X, 129 called Nasadiya Sukta - a
classical example of such suggestive reflection and expression. The Seer who
composed this hymn wonders at the insoluble paradox in which the human mind of the
past as well as the present is trapped. He exclaims at the fact that, how the universe
have sprung into existence, i.e. how can something come out of nothing? How can
there be a beginning, before which there was nothing. Much of what puzzled people
three thousand years ago, still puzzles us even today notwithstanding great scientific
discoveries on the secrets of this Universe at multiple levels. One of the motif of
Skhya, Prakrti, can be seen in the very opening stanza of this Sukta which states
'There was neither Asat (non-being) nor Sat (being) in the beginning. No trace of air,
nor heavens, no covering, no refuge, nor water, nor deep abyss....'11. For the Vedic
Seer, the Asat does not mean 'non-existence,' he says that, 'the Asat was not' thus
ruling out absolute non-existence and at the same time 'Sat was not' meaning that,
manifestation of any sort had not taken place. This can be interpreted as Kant's
noumenon state meaning a object or event exists without sense or perception in
contrast with the phenomenon. This interpretation exactly fits with the Skhyan
description of Prakrti as 'sadasat' (of Vyasa Bhashya II, 19) We can find yet another
seed of Skhyan notion in Purusha Sukta of Rig Veda 10.90 wherein, the very first
hymn describes the transcendent totality of all creation is conceived as 'Purusha,' the
Cosmic Person, the Universal Consciousness animating all manifestation. Further, the
Sattva, Rajas and Tamas of Skhya is explained in the Chandogya (VI, 4.1) and
Skhya categories are mentioned in Katha (3.10,11) in a puzzling manner and may
not be identical as explained in Classical Skhya, howsoever the similarities between
them can be hardly ignored. Even though the basic speculations and ideas like Purusa,
Atman, Kaivalya, duhkha (later two of Jainism/Buddhism) which are in still in its
infancy, in later days got transformed to Skhyan ideas, it would be a mistake to
trace the development of Skhya to any one of these traditions. What is much more
11
Rao Ramakrishna K B, Theism of pre classical Samkhya, (Prasaranga, University of Mysore) page 26-27
P a g e | 10
likely that Skhya is a derivative and composite system, a product of wide variety of
speculation from wide variety of contexts both orthodox and heterodox.
The Skhyan ideas started crystallizing into a systematic thought during the
proto Skhyan period coinciding with the Epic period. In them, we can trace
abundance evidence of Skhyan way of thinking and notions. It is a possibility that,
the Epic or more specifically, the Git, was composed during the middle of Upaniadic
age continuing the thought development of Katha Upaniad and succeeding to
vetvatara Upaniad, where we come across the clear evidence of the emergence of
Skhyan thought.
In Katha, considered as the oldest of 'middle' period, one can find first clear
reference to Purusa in II, 18-19 which resembles later Skhya description as it is
unborn, nor does he die, the wise, this ancient one is not slain when the body is slain.
There is an interesting reference in III, 3-4 where one find the metaphor of chariot, the
Atman is considered as the traveler, the Body is the chariot, Buddhi is the charioteer,
the Manas is the reins, indriyas are the horses and objects of sense are their ranges.
That which is joined with the Self, the senses, and the thought-organ, the wise call the
bhoktr (Enjoyer). Purusa is described as such in classical Skhya. In Katha, all
these Skhya like notions are included within the overall Yogic environment and
finally in VI, 10-11 the term, Yoga is specifically mentioned. When the five organs of
perceptional knowledge together with the thought organ are brought to stability, and
the intellect does not stir, that they call the higher goal. This steady control of the
senses they regard as Yoga (practical discipline).
In vetvatara, which is predominantly theistic states that what is immortal and

imperishable is Hara, the lord. In addition, one finds references to many of the other
principles of the Skhya, Avyakta, and Pradhana, Prakrti etc in I.8; I.10 and I.9
respectively. Again here also, all of the above notions are related to Yoga and in II. 8-
10 one gets a much clearer picture of the practice of Yoga. Perhaps, the Bhagavad
Git is the first available record (prior to the vetvatara) to mention a particular way
of thinking, calling it the Skhyan way12. The Git makes use of the term 'Skhya'
not once, but more than half a dozen times. In fact the second chapter of Git is
12
Ibid, page 139-197
P a g e | 11
named as Skhya Yoga. But by naming like this, one should not construe that, this
chapter or other reference of the term Skhya in Git tries to portray the basic
thoughts of Skhya School as explicitly narrated in classical Skhya Krik. The
verse 3 of chapter 3 of Git is emphatic about the right paths to be followed in this
world viz Jnana Yoga of Skhya, and Karma Yoga of the Yogins. Further, the basic
elements of Skhya philosophy like Guna (difference being that, it is treated here as
products of Primal Prakrti instead of being taken as forces of Prakrti as in Skhya
Karika), eternal dualism of Prakrati and Purusha, the active nature of Prakrti and
passive nature of Purusha, all the 25 elements of Skhya doctrine, the knowledge of
distinction of Purusha and Prakrti leading to liberation from Samsara etc are elaborated
in other verses of Git. In this epic, Bhisma tells Yudhisthira:
'The lofty wisdom that is to be found in the Vedas, among great men and in the schools
of the Skhyas and the Yogins, and the variety of knowledge that is obtained from the
Puranas and other works have come, O King, in their entirety from Skhya. Whatever is
of outstanding worth in history and political science, the cherished code of conduct of
disciplined minds and what all is great and useful in everyday life have all come, O noble-
hearted, from Skhya.'
Again (shining) examples of peace, superior power and absolute knowledge that one
comes across are all correctly explained in Skhya which also delineates the highest
norms of both asceticism and sensorial pleasure. 'There is no delusion or confusion in
the Skhya system. It has many virtues and no disadvantages'
(Mahabharata, Santiparva 301/4) We should have no doubt as to Skhya being the
highest knowledge. (Santi parva, 316-2). Further epic (xii.218.14-15) names the
successors of Kapila, the founder of Skhya, as Asuri, Panchsikha, Gargya and Uluka.
From this it can be estimated that, during those time, most staunch theists undertook
the study of Skhya and this could not have been possible, if Skhya was not
founded on Srutis and considered as atheistic during those days. Following this
trend, later Epic account of the Moskshadharma of the Shanti Parva where the thought
has been called for the first time 'Darana' i.e school. The Epic is consistent regard to
the relationship between the Spirit and Matter and creation and destruction of the
world is achieved within the frame work of 25 principles only, with the exception that,
the 25th principle is God himself. It should be noted that, Epic Skhyas were
ignorant of plurality of souls, which form one of the major tenets of the classical

P a g e | 12
Skhya Philosophy.13 It can be seen that, Skhya as a differentiated system did

not really begin to emerge during the second period. Many of the distinguishing
features of classical notions of Skhya like doctrine of evolution, tanmatras, plurality
of Purusha, linga sarira etc appeared during the next phase.
It is well known that, vetvatara Upaniad is essentially portrays Skhyan

doctrine by mentioning Skhyan categories. Here the word Skhya and Kapila
have been used for the first time (6,13). Again, the terms Vyatka, Avyakta and Jna are
found (1.8). Similar is the use of Pradhna, Prakrti and Guna is also found (1.10,
4.10, 1.13) These references clearly indicate that, this Upaniad was composed after
the systematization of Skhya doctrine by vara Ka.
In other words, all of the texts in the second period, even those which offer a
description of an emerging Skhya system, can only be characterized as proto-
Skhya speculation.14 During this period, an important notion of Skhyan term,
Ahamkra and its close ally Prakrti as a theory of material starts evolving.
Mahabharata comes out with eightfold vertical theory on Prakrti. We could see the
emergence of doctrine of twenty five principles. During this period, we can notice
that, clear formation of systems, but still go in parallel with each other and sometimes
hopelessly intermixed and the best example is teachings of Bhagavadgita itself. Thus,
both Skhya and Yoga are not treated as separate systems during this period but the
thoughts of Jnana and Skhya yoga lead later to the formation of separate classical
normative systems like Skhya Karika.
The third period extends from 1st Century AD to about 10th Century AD. During
this period, the classical Skhya emerged as an independent school of Philosophy
due to the systematization effort of Skhya doctrine by vara Ka with the
composition of celebrated Skhya Krik. Another curious reference occurs in verse
72 which states that, 'The subject of the entire Sastitantra are indeed in the seventy..'
Whether this Satitantra refers to a work or simply to a systematic presentation of the
doctrine in 'sixty topics' is not clear. However, the verse makes it clear that, Isavara
Ka's text represents a summary of Sastitantra. Vachaspati Mishra in his
13
Ibid, page 199-296
14
Publishers Pvt Ltd), Page, 134
P a g e | 13
commentary on Skhya called Tattva Kaumudi enumerates 'sixty topics' and claims
that, these topics can be found in the text, Rajvarttika. This latter text is no longer
extant. Further there are number of popular commentaries and important ones being
are written by Gaudapada and Vachspati Mishra. However, Skhya started declining
by the end of the third period due to several historical reasons like Sankara's criticism
of Skhya particularly on its Pradhna doctrine, invasion by Muslim marauders which
resulted in great political and social instability across the country, destruction of many
places of learning centered around temples and monasteries in Northern and Western
India. Even though classical Skhya as a school of philosophy declined, its basic
features like Gunas, Prakrti-Pursha made a deep impact on Indian culture and
literature.
Lastly, the Skhya underwent a kind of revival in the 16th Century AD when
Aniruddha and Vijnanabhikshu wrote commentaries called Skhya Pravachana Sutra.
Generally later texts on Skhya are influenced by Vedanta. It is said that,
Vijnanabhikshu in his anxiety to remain in mainstream schools, tries to reconcile with
the orthodox point of view15. There is also greater emphasis on the cosmic side of the
doctrine regarding the periodic creation and destruction of the world. In view of
influence of Vedanta, one has to be cautious in quoting later day Skhyan texts
represent the classical Skhyan thoughts. Like all other Indian thoughts, due to
vagaries of nature and political turmoil, much of the documentation on Skhya is lost
forever posing a challenge to the modern day students of philosophy in reconstruction
of Skhyan thought from whatever fragments are available to us. In his comment, K
C Bhattacharya has made a profound remarks:
'Much of Skhya literature appears to have been lost, and there seems to be no
continuity of tradition from ancient times to the age of the commentators. The
interpretation of all ancient systems requires a constructive effort; but, while in the case
of some systems where we have a large volume of literature and a continuity of tradition,
the construction is mainly of the nature of translation of ideas into modern concepts,
here in Skhya the construction at many places involves supplying of missing links from
one's imagination. It is risky work, but unless one does it one cannot be said to
understand Skhya as a philosophy. It is a task that one is obliged to undertake. It is
a fascinating task because Skhya is a bold constructive philosophy'16
15
Keith, Arthur Berriedale, The Samkhya system, (Oxford University Press) p 112-128
16
Bhattacharya Krishna Chandra, Studies in Philosophy, Volume 1, (Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Pvt Ltd, 1956).
page. 127.
P a g e | 14
3. A note on Skhya Krik
Kapila is generally considered as the founder of Skhya school of philosophy.

Very little is known about him or his works. Even though references are available in
the literature about him and other Skhyan writers succeeding him, again nothing is
known about him or his contribution apart from stating that he is the founder of this
School. Of the standard works on Skhya only three are available at present viz
Skhya Sutra, Tattva Samasa and Skhya Krik. Amongst them, vara Ka's
Skhya Krik is perhaps most popular probably due to its antiquity, structure and
concise nature of the exposition containing just 70 verses in it.
Number of authoritative commentaries are available on this text. The

presentation is outwardly simple, lucid but pregnant with deep thoughts. Skhya
Krik even though a purely philosophical text, in its very first verse, sets the tone of
the treatise by presenting the problem statement straightaway by enquiring into the
cause of suffering. It is so practical and utilitarian particularly for the masses who have
to confront with day-to-day problem of the life, looking for solution and solace to their
suffering. It is so practical and utilitarian in its content! This approach can be seen
to be almost similar to that of early Buddhism. Skhya Krik is very well structured
treatise. The subject matter and the corresponding verses in Skhya Krik is
indicated below17
Preliminary exposition . 1-3
Threefold suffering (Tpatraya) .... 1 Preliminary
I
Final release by discrimination ... 2 exposition
Twenty five Principles .. 3
II Means of knowledge ... 4-8 Epistemology
III Theory of causation and satkaryavda 8-9
IV Theory of causation and doctrine of Gunas . 10-14
V Nature of Prakrti .. 15-16
VI Nature of Purusha 17-19 Metaphysics
VII Relation between Prakrti and Purusha ... 20-21
VIII Emergence and functioning of basic principles . 22-38
IX Transmigration and nature of moral strivings ....... 39-54
X Liberation and soteriological questions 55-69
Ethics
XI On discrimination and release .. 50-69
XII Transmission of the tradition 70-72
17
P a g e | 15
According to Yukti Dipika18, vara Ka, having completed the description of

the fundamental transformation of the Prakrti resulting in the production of 23
evolutes, proceeds to describe the realm of the simple progressing activity
(Praspanda); having completed the description of creation at the level of principles
(Tattva or Rupa sarga), goes to describe the creation at the intellectual and elemental
level (Bhva and Bhautika sarga); having explicated material (Karana Karya) causality
proceeds to elaborate efficient causes and effects (nimitta-naimittika). In other words,
after the description of causal transformations, he proceeds to describe the
phenomenal permutations in terms of the element creation (Bhautika sarga),
intellectual creation (Pratya sarga), Samsara and Kaivalya. The former calls Hiriyanna19
as the 'primary' and later as the 'secondary' evolution.
From the above structure, it can be seen that, the treatise is quite systematic in
its presentation. Each component of the Tattva will be discussed in details under the
chapter 5, Metaphysics of Skhya. This will be followed with discussion of Skhya
school's position from epistemological and ethical point-of-view.
18
Pandeya Ram Chandra, Yukti Dipika, translated and edited version, Page 5
19
M.Hiriyanna, Outlines of Indian Philosophy, (George Allen and Unwin Ltd), page 276-280
P a g e | 16
4. Preliminary exposition
The preliminary exposition of Skhya is similar to the modern day Statement

of problem where the purpose and method adopted of the treatise is stated by the
author. The philosophy of Skhya is built on the basis of reality of concrete human
experience and as such discussion is centered around human beings, their
experiences and problems. Probably, the most discussed and expressed topic of
human experience is happiness and its complement, the suffering. Not only human,
each of the living beings on this earth, desire and seek happiness. Nobody wants to
suffer, however we also accept that, suffering is part of the life which unfortunately
inhibits and comes in the way of our happiness. When such is the case, the basic
human experience of torments of suffering undergone literally by every human being
cannot be ignored and thus needs a close examination for its cause so that, suitable
remedies can be explored and suggested. The doctrine of Skhya is built on the
strong foundation of reason, implicitly cause and effect and such the deliberation is
rooted on this rational ground. The philosophy of Skhya is so practical and
literally down to earth, that, in the very outset (the very first word of the first verse)
the Krik starts by stating this problem haunting all living beings with the help of
the term 'Dukha-traya' meaning torments from three kinds of pains. The three
kinds of pains are identified in Indian philosophical literature as Adhytmika (intra-
organic i.e within our self), dhibhautika (external influences) and dhidaivika
(cosmic/divine influences). The same verse continues to state that, even though
known solutions are available to terminate these torments, they are superfluous and
does not provide permanent solace or solution. Skhya is built on the foundation
of cause and effect. Hence, the treatise will be discussing the causes of the
problems to provide better understanding of them and also suggest appropriate
solution. After all our problems are due to ignorance or knowledge or more
specifically right knowledge.

P a g e | 17
5. Metaphysics of Skhya
As Skhya is based on the Reality and human experience rather than

transcendental notions for the existence of the being, the universe, cosmos etc, and
their inter-relations, the metaphysics of Skhya is based on real life experience.
However, it should not be construed Skhya as yet another variant of Lokayata,
Indian materialist school or too distant from all encompassing Idealist Vedanta which
is built on transcendental experience. Skhya accepts the Vedic Prama as a
source of knowledge and most importantly insists on knowledge of Self through right
discrimination thus distinguishing itself clearly from Lokayata's position.
5.1. Skhya Tattva
The meaning of Tattva can be considered as thatness, principle or reality,

terms basically employed to denote Beings or categories in metaphysics. The third
verse of the Krik lays the foundation of enumeration of categories in Skhya by
listing out 25 Tattvas, the one comes across in their real life experience and also
explaining their nature and inter-relation. These 25 Tattvas are categorised and
depicted with the help of following schematic20. (The evolutes of the Prakrti are
detailed in verse 22 to 24 and will be taken up for discussion under section 5.4)
20
P a g e | 18
The Purusa (Spirit or Consciouness) is an independent concept and is neither

the evolvent nor the evolute. The 'Prakrti' (Primal nature) is non evolute i.e that
gives rise to other tattvas, but by itself is not produced. The group of seven
beginning with the Buddhi also called as Mahat (Great principle) and the rest both
evolvents and evolutes. But, the sixteen (mind and organs of sense, action and
gross elements which are five each) are only evolutes (Vikritih). In brief, the treatise
lays down four-fold divisions of categories based on their respective causal and
productive efficiencies viz evolvents (productive), evolutes (produced), evolvents and
evolutes, and neither evolvents and evolutes.
As indicated in the schematic, 1st principle is called as Purusha and rest twenty
four tattvas (2 to 24) constitute what is called Prakrti and thus forming the two poles
of Skhya based on these two independent concepts and hence Skhya is
considered as dualistic philosophy. The details of Tattvas will be discussed in the
following sections.
5.2. Doctrine of Sat-karya-vda
In Indian philosophy, there are basically three major cosmological theories of

origination (1) Arambha-vda (the theory of atomic agglomeration, based on the
theory of Asatkarya-vda that the effect, which is something newly produced, does
not exist in the cause, propounded by Nyaya Vaiseshika school), (2) Parinama-vda
of Skhya, and (3) Vivartavda (the theory of apparent transformation or of false
appearance of Advaita school). There is also the fourth, Pratityasamutpada-vda, the
theory of dependent origination of Buddhism.
Two of the fundamental notions of Skhya are Satkaryavda and the other
is Gunas. Satkaryavda is the theory of causation. According to this theory, the
effect is always pre-existent in the cause itself in latent or potential state. The
commentary on verse 9 elaborates this as: the effect is ever existent, because,
what is a-karanat (non-existent) can by no means be brought into existence;
because effects take upadana-grhanat (adequate material) cause, things do not

arise indiscriminately from just anything.
because all effects are not sambhava abhavat (producible) from all causes.

P a g e | 19
because an efficient cause can produce only that for which it is saktasya
(efficient) and finally.
because the effect is of the same karana-bhavat (essence) as the cause. There
can be always argument from the nave or less informed stating that, they
cannot see the pre-existence of effect in its cause. In anticipation of such
argument, Verse 8 states that, the non perception is due to its subtlety and not
due to its na abhavat (non-existence). It is akin to saying that, just because, a
visually impaired person cannot apprehend the color of the sky or shape of the
elephant, it does not mean to say that, it does not exist at all! Similar is several
phenomena like electricity, potential energy in stored water etc., whose power is
subtle and cannot be perceived with ease. Hence, the cause is apprehended
through its effects, these effects are Mahat (Great principle) and the rest; some
of them are similar and some are dissimilar to Prakrti (the Primordial Matter)
It states elsewhere that all manifest things must have a single ultimate cause,
the reason being, according to the commentaries, to avoid an infinite regress of
causes and effects. This is the fundamental doctrine based on phenomenal Reality
on which the whole edifice of Skhyan philosophy is constructed.
The Skhyasaptati-vtti discusses two types of causes: (1) productive

causes, which entail fundamental Prakrti, Buddhi, the 'I'-maker, and the subtle
elements; and (2) cognitive causes, which includes five types of misconception,
twenty-eight types of dysfunctions (of the sense- and activity-capacities, mind,
and Buddhi), nine contentments, eight types of attainment and the cognitive
constructions of the eight predispositions.
There are also scattered discussions on material, efficient and instrumental

causes, but these are merely adopted from other Indian schools. Smkhya seemed
more interested in specific causal sequences and correlations between its various
enumerated lists than in an elaborate theory of causality in itself. Two significant
interpretations on satkaryavda is referred to indicate its logical consistency.
Prakrti is orderly. The ta (cosmic order) that makes Prakrti appear to be

composed of sub-systems arranged hierarchically with each sub-system being
progressively inclusive, coordinating and interdependent is traditionally held to be the
main basis of the doctrine of pre-existent effect or Sat-Karya-vda or the doctrine of
P a g e | 20
real transformation or Parinamavda, which R.A.Sinari states is 'the earliest and

epistemologically the most valuable attempt made in Indian Philosophy to set up a
theory of causal order.' All phenomena, belonging to the surface and/or the deeper
structure of Prakrti, are Parinama i.e. transformation, of one and the same
substratum.21
The vetvatara Upaniad says: 'Know Maya to be Prakrti.' But,
both the Skhya School and the Brahma Sutras base their understandings of the
process of transformation for origination of things on the will of the creator.
Badarayana by stating: (Brahma Sutra 2.2.26), declares that Existence
does not come out of non-existence. The entire creation is the result of Brahmans
will (Brahma Sutra 1.4.24), and that all transmigratory existence has
no beginning - (Brahma Sutra 2.1.36)22.
The continuity between the cause and the effect is an important aspect of the
Skhya doctrine of Satkaryavada. According to Skhya, there is a continuity
lurking behind the diversity of the universe. The diverse objects beginning from
Mahat downwards are the result of a continuous unfoldment of causes into effect,
whereas in the reverse process of dissolution the effects merge into their causes. All
the processes of causation fall within the sphere of the all pervasive Prakrti. We
have seen that transformation and continuity and not mere succession are the very
essence of the Skhya theory of causality. This aspect of the Skhya theory is in
accordance with the principle of conservation and transformation of matter and
energy. In the words of Sen Gupta23, 'Before actual production, the effect exists in
the Guna collocation in the form of potential energy on account of certain obstacles
which prevent its actualization; but as soon as the barriers are removed, the energy
gets a free passage and produces the necessary transformation known as the effect.
Thus conservation and transformation of matter and energy from one form to
another seem to be the basis of the Skhya theory of causation.'
21
Feuerstein George, The Philosophy of Classical Yoga, (Inner traditions International), page 3032
22
Swami Gambhirananda, Brahma Sutra Bhashya of Shankaracharya. page 414, 294, 364.
23
Gupta, Anima Sen, The Evolution of Samkhya School of thought, (Munshiram Manhohar Lal), Page 42.
P a g e | 21
Thus, Satkaryavda of Skhya is not only scientific, logically consistent and

robust but, also Sruti and modern science validates it. Due to this inherent strength,
Satkaryavda is one of the most important and valuable contribution of Skhya to
the Indian philosophical thought.
5.3. Prakrti and its manifestation
Prakrti is name for the noumenal condition i.e which can be be sensed or
perceived i.e in contrast with the phenomenon. This state is described in Sanskrit
with a single term 'Avyakta,' 'Mula Prakrti,' 'Pradhna' or Primordial cause. It is
unborn i.e non-evolute and eternally existing by the side of Purusha. Prakrti
includes both the outer world and the ever-fluctuating inner world of the mind. The
reality of such a primordial Unseen entity is established on the basis of inductive
reasoning; from an examination of the phenomenal particulars to the universal
noumenon. The modus operandi is the concept of causation developed by the
Skhya philosophers under the name 'Satkarya Vda' associated with the 'Parinama
Vda'24 Further, the Verse 8 asserts that, its non-perception is due to its subtlety
and not due to its non-existence. It is apprehended through its effects; these effects
are the Mahat (24 great Principles) and the rest; some of them are similar and some
are dissimilar to Prakrti, the Primordial Matter.
According to Satkarya Vada, which literally means 'pre-existence of the effect'

in the cause itself, the phenomenal world of experience points to a source for
without which it would not exist. And that source thought unseen is not non-
existent, for the reality of the world of experience points to its existence. Thus the
Skhya proves the existence of a primal cause which it calls as Avyakta as the
ground of all objective manifestation. What is seen by us in the material reality is
nothing but the manifestation of the Mula Prakrti. So, what we see in the
phenomenal world is the manifestation or cosmic dance of the Prakrti. It is
something like potential energy of stored water getting converted into kinetic energy
in a hydro electric power station. The 'unseen' potential energy of the stored water,
which is subtle in nature and cannot be perceived by ordinary person who cannot
visualize the potential or does not know how to transform it, gets converted to
24
Rao Ramakrishna K B, Theism of pre classical Samkhya, (Prasaranga, University of Mysore), page 47
P a g e | 22
kinetic energy when it flows over the turbine which in turn generates the electric
power. The principle of Parinama i.e the mechanism of manifestation of potential to
kinetic i.e from Avyakta to Vyakta is effected through what are called as the concept
of 'Gunas,' a very important contribution of Skhyan thought to the Indian
philosophy.
5.4. Gunas
One of the two fundamental notions of Skhya is Gunas and the other
being Satkaryavda which was discussed earlier. The change from the most
undifferentiated to the most differentiated state of existence is made possible by
three 'Gunas' of Prakrti namely Sattva, Rajas and Tamas. This notion enquires into
the relationship of the Gunas vis--vis the concept of Prakrti. The word Guna
connotes various meaning depending on the context. It is generally understood as
'quality,' 'characteristics,' 'moral qualities.' But none of these words provide the full
meaning in the Skhyan context. Even among the commentators of Skhya
there is no unanimity for an equivalent English word for Guna! Some call it as
'attributes,' 'constituent,' 'component factor,' 'element' etc. To overcome the
difficulty in grasping the import of Gunas in the modern terminology, it is better to
analyze the implicit meaning of Verse 10 of Krik. This verse states in ambiguous
terms 'The manifested is producible, non eternal, non pervasive, active, multiform,
dependent, serving as a mark of inference, aggregate of parts and subordinates.
The Unmanifest is the opposite of this' The implicit meaning is quite clear 'Prakrti is
not made of parts.' Mahadeva in his Skhya Sutra Vritti Sara says 'Prakrti is not
receptacle of Gunas, but is itself the Gunas (I,61). Thus Gunas are Prakrti by
themselves and hence it is neither part or sum or constituent, but of an absolute
identity and hence a force by themselves. It is clear from above explanation that,
the Prakrti is to be taken as being itself Sattva, itself Rajas, itself Tamas. Prakrti is
an indivisible entity identical with itself25.
The purpose of Gunas is explained in 16th verse of the Krik, 'The Unmanifest
cause exists because of (1) finite number of special objects (2) homogeneity (3)
Evolution being due to the efficiency of the cause (4) the differentiation between
cause and effect (5) the operation through the three attributes by combination and
25
Ibid, page 52
P a g e | 23
modification like water, through difference arising from diverse nature of the several
of receptacles of the attributes. Even though water is released from the clouds is of
common taste only, yet, it gets modified into different tastes like sweet, sour, saline,
bitter, pungent etc according as it comes in contact with the different modifications
of earth and become transformed into the juice of fruits such as coconut, palm etc.
In the same manner owing to the combination and mutual suppression of the
subservient Gunas, the Gunas of Primordial Nature come to be predominant one by
one and thereby bring about diverse modifications in the state of various products.
The phenomenal condition of Prakrti, that is, the disturbed state of the
equilibrium of the Gunas, implies a varying proportion of these forces, which go the
make up the variety of the manifested world, in the following manner:
a. If the force making for 'existence-in-itself' (Sattva), predominates, the
manifestation exhibits the physical characteristics of buoyancy and illumination and
the psychological characteristic of pleasure.
b. If the force making for 'change-in-itself' (Rajas) predominates, the manifestation

exhibits the physical characteristics of movement and the psychological
characteristics of pain and passion.
c. If the force making for 'denial-of-existence' (Tamas) through change

predominates, the manifestation exhibits the physical characteristics of heaviness
or inertia and the psychological characteristic of despondency or dejection.
Skhyans being basically realist and natural 'evolutionists,' consider that

substances are not different from the qualities and vice-versa. Substance is quality
and quality is substance and any difference can be only theoretical abstraction and
does not satisfy a practical or logical reasoning. So the Skhyans characterize the
Gunas not only as psychological qualities viz 'priti,' 'apriti,' but also as physical
characteristics of 'laghu,' 'prakasha' etc. (verse 13-14)26
Verse 12 of Krik explains the attributes of Gunas where it is stated that,

they represent pleasure, pain and delusion; they serve the purpose of illumination,
action and restraint and they are mutually dominating and supporting, productive
and cooperative. Verse 13 comes out with a beautiful metaphor in explaining the
single purpose of that of an oil lamp. Wick and oil, though opposed to the action of
26
Ibid, page 64
P a g e | 24
fire, when bought together, they cooperate to perform the task of producing the
light. In the same way, Sattva, Rajas and Tamas forces although of different
nature, cooperate and effect their single purpose of bringing about the emancipation
of the Purua as has been explained in the verse 31 'serving the purpose of Purua is
the sole motive for the activity of the instruments; by nothing else is an instrument
(organ) made to act.'
It is the disturbance of the balance of these three Gunas which triggers the
evolution of the Prakrti into the Vikrti. Hence, in evolution there is no real difference
between good or bad. That in which is Tamas is predominant will be physical matter
and that in which Sattva is predominates, it will be indescribable matter. Everything
being the manifestation of Prakrti due to Gunas, there is no difference between
'matter' and 'energy' as the former is only a form of the energy called Prakrti.
5.5. Prakrti and its evolutes
The Vachspati Misra's commentary on Verse 20 suggests that, through the

proximity of Prakrti and Purusha, the insentient evolute, the Prakrti appears as if it is
intelligent and similarly, also from agency belonging to the Gunas, the Purusha which
is neutral appears as if it were the Agent. In other words, Prakrti begins to manifest
when it is disturbed due to proximity of spirit. Verse 22 and 24 explain the evolution
of 24 principles in detail. Prakrti is the Unmanifest Mahat, the Great Principle, and
Ahamkra, the 'I'-principle. The set of sixteen consist of eleven sense organs, and
five tanmatras (primary elements). Since this set is limited by sixteen, it is known as
set of sixteen. From the five Primary elements out of the above sixteen, evolve five
elementary substances such as Space, Earth, Water, Air and Fire. Of the evolutes of
Prakrti, excepting the Tanmatras and Mahabhutas, the rest have 'psychological
functions' to perform besides being 'cosmic' evolutes themselves. The set of sense
organs are can be generally classified as internal and external. The former consisting
of Buddhi, the Ahamkra and Manas, the later comprising of five indriyas for sourcing
the knowledge about the physical world and five motor organs for action. The
specific differences between the external and the internal organs are declared in
verse 30 as 'the externals act on the present time and the internal organs at all the
three times.'

P a g e | 25
The explanation of Buddhi in verse 23 is very illuminating. If, Sattva

dominates, and accordingly its characteristics functions are determined. As Sattva is
'illuminating,' Buddhi in which Sattva is predominant is illumination. Dharma
(equanimity), knowledge, viraga (dispassion) and aishwarya (power) are its
manifestations when force of Sattva dominates. Buddhi is considered as
ascertainment or will. And the reverse of these, when Tamas attribute thrives. The
statement that, Buddhi is ascertainment in apposition (together) intended to indicate
that, there is no difference between the function and the functionary. It is well
known in this world that, all functionaries first think over the matter; and then
consider themselves as entitled to do it and determine that, they ought to do it and
then proceed to do it. No, this determination that a certain thing has to be done, is
of the Buddhi which has acquired sentiency owing to its proximity to the sentient
faculty of the Spirit. The power of determination is the special operation of the
Buddhi and Buddhi is not different from operation. This is a explanation of Buddhi in
so far as this definition distinguishes Buddhi from all classes of similar and dissimilar
things.
The word Abhimana employed in Verse 24 literally means Ahamkra (self

love). Ahamkra is 'egoism' or self-assertion. The ego centricity, involved in self-
assertions as observed in ideas which are well-thought of an reasoned and take such
forms as 'I am entitled to this,' 'he is performing the act,' 'I am competent to do
this,' 'hence I am' etc are the unique operations of this Ahamkra, depending upon
which the Buddhi determines like; this should be done by me etc. Its different
products are mentioned from that proceeds a two-fold evolution. The two forms of
this evolution are stated; the set of eleven consisting of the sense organs and the
five-fold Primary elements. The word 'Eva,' meaning one and only in the Karika has
the force of emphasizing that only two sets of evolutions proceed from the 'I'
principle and nothing else. Verse 25 elaborates by stating that, the set of eleven
abounding in Sattva proceeds from the Vikrti form of 'I' principle; they are Tamas.
From the Taijasa form of 'I' principle proceed both of them. From the Vaikrata 'I'
principle abounding in Sattva force having properties of buoyancy and illumination,
proceed the set of eleven sense organs. From the Bhutadi, 'I' principle abounding
the Tamas force, the set of Primary elements are proceed. How so? Because the set
of five Primary elements about in Tamas attribute. The 'I' principle, though one and
P a g e | 26
uniform, evolves products of diverse kinds according as it either dominated or

suppressed by one or other of the three Gunas.
Organs of Jnana (cognition) are well known eye, ear, nose, tongue and skin.
The organs of motor action are speech, hand, feet, excretory and generation. To
complete the enumeration of Prakrti Tattvas, Verse 27 describes the 11th sense
organ, the mind. The mind possesses the nature of both the buddhindriyas (sensory)
and Karmendriyas (motor organs). It is the deliberating principle, and is also called
as sense organ since it possesses properties common to these organs. Its
multifariousness nature and also its external diversities are owing to special
modifications of the attributes. Mind is also an indriya, for it has similar functions
with both sets of organs. Verse 33 introduces a unique concept of Indian thought
called 'Anthakarana' (internal organ) to explain the functioning of Manas together
with Buddhi and Ahamkra; an integrated description and understanding of the term
cognition.
Larsen27 considers the concept of Linga as equivalent to Karana or the

'thirteen fold instruments' (anthakarana plus senses and motor organs, five each).
He has based his interpretation E.A.Welden's analysis28 on this subject. According to
him, Linga means characteristic mark or 'mergent' meaning emerging. In the former
sense it signifies that which characterizes man. In the later sense it is that which
disappears or vanishes when enlightenment or isolation is achieved. When taken
together with the five tanmatras, the linga is then characterized as linga-sarira or
subtle body. The linga-sarira is the transmigrating entity and includes both the
thirteen fold instrument and the five tanmatras.
With respect to the transmigrating entity i.e linga, another kind of causation
occurs, which according to classical Skhya, explains why the Linga additional
notion, the 'predispositions' (bhva) is required. The predispositions that bind and
liberate are classified into three and into eight types respectively. The three are
Innate, Natural and Acquired. The verse 38 describes the term Tanmatra meaning
'subtle,' 'indiscernible' or 'trifle.' The five Tanmatras are Sabda (sound), Sparsha
27
28
Ibid, The Samkhya Term, Linga,' P 445-459
P a g e | 27
(tactile), Rupa (form), Rasa (taste) and Gandha (smell). They are 'remembered' as
the discernible, because they are Santa (calm), Ghora (turbulent) and Mudha
(deluding). As we know these perceptions are very difficult to be described using
words and hence appropriately called as 'subtle elements.' Krik just states these
elements emerge from the subtle elements but offers no illumination on the process
itself. The other eight dispositions are Dharma (meritorious actions), which leads to
rebirth in a higher life, Adharma (demerit), Jnana(cognition) which leads to
liberation, ajnana (ignorance) leading to bondage, viraga (detachment) leading to
dissociation from the activities of Prakrti, raga (attachment) producing the cycle of
birth and death, aisvarya (power) conducive to controlling circumstances and
anisvarya (weakness) leading to loss of control. The positive four (1,3,5,7) are
considered sattvic, their opposites are considered tamasic. The Bhva which is
Jnana, rather, is salvation-knowledge or the 'knowledge' which distinguishes the
absolute otherness of Purua with respect to Prakrti. By the same token, the Bhva
which is ajnana is not simple ignorance. It is, rather the fundamental lack of
salvation knowledge which in turn leads to ordinary knowledge of the manifest
world.29
The predispositions and the subtle body cannot operate without each other.
The subtle body is composed of the internal organs, the ten capacities and the five
subtle elements. It does not experience anything, but is the repository that holds
the predispositions. Impelled by these predispositions, the subtle body is reborn
from life to life, until the predispositions are eliminated by knowledge. The subtle
body is neither a 'self' nor invariant, since it is perpetually being modified by the
predispositions influenced by the fluctuations of praktic experience.
Having fulfilled its purpose, Prakrti ceases functioning, sometimes understood

to mean that the qualities return to an equilibrium from which no further
'transformations' emerge. Attaining separation from the body, Purua attains
everlasting 'isolation' or 'freedom' (Kaivalya).
29
Ibid, page 192
P a g e | 28
5.6. Purua
In early Vedas, Purua meant a cosmic man whose sacrifice by the Gods
created all life. This was one of many creation theories discussed in the Vedas. In
the Upaniads, the Purua concept no longer meant a being or cosmic man. The
meaning changed into an abstract essence of the Self, Spirit and the Universal
Principle that is eternal, indestructible, without form and is all pervasive. The
interpretation of Purua in Skhya has cosmic connotations, the actual
interpretation is slightly different from what is generally understood.
The verses 10 and 11 clearly distinguishes and establishes the dualism of

Skhya by differentiating between Manifest and Unmanifest (Purusha) by
describing them that they are viparitam (reverse). Prakrti is said to be composed of
Gunas (heterogeneous forces resulting in multiplicity of the objects). That is to say
that, the Unmanifest is without cause, eternal, pervasive, inactive and not subjected
to change. Even though the Unmanifest possesses the activity of evolution, yet,
there is no mobility in it. The Unmanifest is therefore One, not a component, non-
mergent and independent. It is a passive witness to material reality, including
mental phenomena, which are seen as part of the materiality of the body.
The justification for the existence of Purua is elaborated in various ways in

verse 17. The Purua exists because parathatvat (for another's sake), trigunadi-
viprayat (absence of three Gunas), adhisthanat (controlling agency), bhoktrbhvat
(experiencer or enjoyer) and pravrtteh Kavilyartham (final release). This can be
interpreted as, the Purusha is, the Self within, who observes the outer phenomenal
world, the body, and the movements of the mind. Purusha is identified with an
individual's true and eternal Self.
Probably, the major and contentious stand of interpretation of Purua in

Skhya vis--vis, general Upaniadic tendency and in particular Vedanta is cited in
Verse 18 in which the multiplicity of the Purua (Spirit) is established on the basis of
(1) individual allotment of janana-marana-karananam (berth-death-organs), (2) from
non-simultaneity of activities and (3) from the diverse modification due to the three
Gunas. On what basis is the plurality of Purua is established? Because there is
P a g e | 29
definite individual allotment of birth, death and the organs. Birth is the connection
of the Spirit with mind, I-Principle, Great Principle and experiences; it is not any kind
of modification. Death is only giving up that body is immutable and eternal. It
cannot be said that, all these are connected with one Spirit dwelling in all the bodies.
If born, all would be born, when one dies, all would die, should one become blind
etc, then all else too would become blind. On one going out of the mind, all would
go out of mind; thus there will be confusion. This can be explained and possible
only if, a distinct Purua dwelling in each set of body is accepted. If the spirit were
accepted as one in all the bodies, then, when the Spirit is active in one body, all the
bodies would become active and there would be simultaneous movement in all the
bodies. This absurdity can be done away with if the Spirit is accepted in multiple, i.e
each Spirit in each body. Thus, Skhya posits the existence of an infinite number
of similar but, separate Puruas, none superior to any other.
Verse 19 summarises the explanation of Purua and concludes that, it is

established that, the Purua is the pure witness, Kaivailyam (solitary), he is Madhya-
sthyam (neutral as it is not associated with Gunas like Prakrti), spectator and non
agent. The properties of being sentient, conscious and non-objective indicate the
characteristics of being a witness and a Seer. A sentient being alone can be a Seer
and an insentient being; one becomes a witness only when objects are shown to
him; he is a witness to whom objects are exhibited. In daily life we find that, the
two parties of a dispute show the object of the dispute to the witness; in a similar
way, the Prakrti also exhibits its creations to the Purua who thus becomes the
witness.
Purua, prior to the liberation, watches prakti's transformations and 'suffers'

the pain of old age and death. But those transformations are merely an unconscious
movement, a 'dance' designed to show Purua that in its own nature it is never
bound or liberated. 'Then, standing aside like an spectator, Purua views Prakrti who,
having fulfilled her purpose, stops, turning her back on the seven forms' (Verse 65),
i.e., all the predispositions except knowledge. Though Purua and Prakrti are still
conjoined, no new creation is generated, no new predispositions are created. By the
attainment of correct knowledge, the seven predispositions cease to cause further

P a g e | 30
embodiment, and yet, 'like a potter's wheel that continues to spin even after the
potter has stopped applying force' embodiment continues for a while.
Notwithstanding this rather nave, weak and unconvincing logic on defending

the multiplicity of Purua which may appear to be convincing at phenomenal level,
one has to accept that, Skhya recognises the spiritual principle, the Purusha, as a
part of the scheme of Reality, which perhaps saves Skhya from becoming
naturalist or material philosophy30
5.7. The Relation between Prakrti and Purusha
The two poles of Skhya philosophy, the Purusha is conceived as

the subjective, absolute, independent, imperceptible, unknowable, above any
experience, static, ubiquitous, all-conscious, all-pervasive, motionless, unchangeable,
immaterial, without desire and beyond any words or explanation. Purusha (like the
Brahman of Vedanta) is the Transcendental Self. It remains pure and 'non
attributive consciousness.' Here Purusha stands for the Supreme spirit
and Prakrti stands for matter.' Purusha (spirit) is the first principle of Skhya.
Prakrti is the second, the material principle of Skhya. Purusha is neither produced
nor does it produce. In contrast, Prakrti is the universal, dynamic, objective
principle and of subtle nature that can be seen only when it evolves due to internal
forces represented by Gunas. According to Skhya, the efficient cause of the
world is Purusha and the material cause is the Prakrti. Of course, Skhya does not
come out with convincing reply on this postulation. Prakrti is not produced, but it
produces. Prakrti is uncaused and eternal. It itself is not produced but, it has
inherent potential or tendency to produce. Naturally, the question regarding their
relationship arises to understand the full import of Skhya philosophy.
Verse 62 states that, the Spirit is never bound, nor does it ever migrate nor is
it emancipated. It is the nature alone, supporting many beings, that is bound,
migrates and released. Bondage, migration and release are merely ascribed to the
Purua in just the same way as defeat or victory is attributed to the King though, in
reality the soldiers are either defeated or victorious. Though it is the soldiers who
30
Rao Ramakrishna K B, Theism of pre classical Samkhya, (Prasaranga, University of Mysore), page 74
P a g e | 31
take part in the battle, yet the King suffers the effect of grief or profit, he being the
supporter of his soldiers. In a similar way, though, in reality, both enjoyment and
release belong to Prakrti, yet due to the absence of discrimination of Purua being
quite distinct from Prakrti, they are attributed wrongly to Purua. Thus, Prakrti and
Purus are always only in proximity to one another, never in actual contact. This is a
puzzling notion if one thinks of Prakrti and Purua are two concepts.
Because of the proximity, a kind of interplay or dialectic occurs between

Prakrti and Purua. The purpose of this interaction and dialectic, according to Verse
21, is to bring about the salvation of the release or Purua. This verse states, for the
exhibition of nature to the Purusha and for the emancipation of the Spirit, (there is a
conjunction between the Spirit and Nature) like the union between the lame and the
blind can achieve a purpose i.e reaching the definite place. Thus, from this
conjunction proceeds the creation. The purpose behind such an activity of
manifestation in the Prakrti is to serve the Purusha i.e to bring about a realization in
Purusha that he is different from Prakrti, thus leading to his liberation from the
association or bonds with Prakrti. The manifestation of Prakrti in the form of
phenomenon world is the consequence of such a purpose.
Verse 57 in this context says, just as the secretion of milk which is

unintelligent is for the sake of the nourishment of the calf, similar is the action of the
Pradhna of for the sake of release of Purua. It is seen that insentient entities also
act towards a definite purpose, eg milk, though inert, acts in the form of flowing for
the nourishment of the calf. In a similar way, the Prakrti though insentient, is
engaged in action for the purpose of bringing emancipation to the Purua. Verse
58 and 59 continuing the same thought says that, even as people engage in actions
to relieve desires, so also the Unmanifest engages in activity for the emancipation of
the Spirit. As a dancing girl ceases to dance after having exhibited herself to the
spectators, so also, the Prakrti ceases to operate after having exhibited herself to
Purua. Samyoga, (proximity) interpreted in the light of Purshartha, makes
evolution or the transformation of the Prakrti, teleological31
31
Ibid, 75
P a g e | 32
In conclusion it can be said that, in Skhya the cause of ignorance and

bondage is due to inability or failure to discriminate between the two primary
principles of reality, Purusha and Prakrti. Liberation is Kaivalya, the complete
detachment of Purusha (the soul or spirit) from its entanglement in Prakrti, or
material nature.
5.8. Dualism of Skhya
The whole doctrine of classical Skhya philosophy is based on dualistic

concept of Purua and Prakrti representing the individual (not universal)
consciousness on the other hand and the unconscious phenomenal world. Hence the
essence of Skhya is based on this thread of dualism. If we remove this thread,
the entire Skhya philosophy collapses and will have no existence as an
independent philosophical doctrine. Skhya dualism is not a typical dualism of
Spirit/Being or Subject/object etc. Purusha and Prakrti are considered as two poles
who will never meet even though they may have certain similar characteristics. This
assertion is reflected throughout Skhya Krik. To buttress this stand, classical
Skhya text never make attempt to find out any cosmological or transcendental
cause which will try to find out common connection or relation between them, least
the stated dualistic position will crumble to make it or even remotely look like that of
monistic or idealistic philosophy. Thus in classical Skhya, man is viewed as a
psycho-physical unity. Thought and extension, mind and body etc are viewed simply
as different dimensions or attributes of the manifest world which sprang up from
Primordial Prakrti. This unity is maintained by the doctrine of Gunas, which,
function both on the psycho-mental level as well as on the gross or physical level.
The dualism of classical Skhya centers around the distinction of the

conscious and the unconscious. The Purua is unconsciousness. Yet the Purua
which is consciousness is not cosmic consciousness. It is rather, simply the fact of
individual, impersonal consciousness, the consciousness which renders man's life and
the manifest world possible. Thus the Purua is simply the fact of consciousness.
Putting this another way, one might say that, since the Mlaprakrti together with its
Gunas makes up everything that, is in the manifested and phenomenal world, the
Purua is nothing or the presence of nothingness in the world. It is a kind emptiness

P a g e | 33
at the very heart of the world view. Consciousness is always consciousness of

something, and this insight is the heart of Skhya dualism32.
5.9. Is Skhya an atheist or theist?
This subject has drawn considerable attention among the scholars since the
days of Sankara to modern day thinkers. Among six orthodox schools of Indian
Philosophy, only Skhya has been time and again asked to establish its stand on
Theism. Each and every commentator while discussing Skhya, is certain to
explore and respond to this query in their own way. Of course, of late it has drawn
good interest as we have access for considerable material to take up this enquiry
with vigour. The term theism is understood in different ages in different ways. In
earlier ages, it was based on whether a particular School accepts the Prama of
Sruti (means Vedas) or not, as one of the accepted methods of acquiring the valid
knowledge. As we know, Buddhism and Jainism were categorical in stating that they
do not accept the Prama of Sruti. Hence, they became straightaway 'atheist' from
the point-of-view of earlier thinkers. Modern interpretation of this classification is
based on whether a particular School has belief in the existence of a God or Gods, or
a creator who can be cosmic or otherwise or any other force which intervenes in the
affairs of the universe including that of human being. From this position, of course
the concept of God can be diverse based on their cultural history leading to variants
of theism itself. What is important is that, the belief in some seen or unseen force
or in better word 'cause' behind the phenomenal universe. (Exception being, later
day Buddhism took up religious practices like main stream Hindus, which are not in
consonant with the teachings and stand of early Buddhism, but still insist that they
are atheists)
Before taking up the assessment it needs to be appreciated that, Indian

schools of Philosophies more so is Skhya did not spring up from the head of one
founder or a prophet notwithstanding that the origin of each school is assigned to a
particular founder or a seer. These 'founders' are more or less remain as mythical
and sometimes mysterious figurative heads without any historical particulars or
details about their time, place, parentage etc except by their name. Only scanty
32
P a g e | 34
and often contradictory details is available on them. This goes to prove that, the all
Indian philosophical thoughts, without exception have organically evolved over a
period of time sometimes spanning millennium before it got crystallized and took the
classical form as we know today. As detailed earlier in chapter on Historicity, this is
more so true in the case of Skhya thought also. One can see the evolution of
Skhyan thought, its motifs, ways of thinking etc right from the early Vedic period
down to Epic ages. The Skhyan thought crystallized into well structured and
popular Classical treatise authored by vara Ka's Skhya Krik composed
some times during 1st AD to 4th Century AD. Following this, several other classical
treatise on Skhya were composed in later years. To be fair on the assessment
whether Skhya is theistic or not, the analysis should be based on not only on the
the classical treatises, but also on the basis on earlier Skhyan thoughts available
in these literatures, of course in a scatter matter. This is one of the pre-requisites of
the true academic spirit.
Classical Skhya is dualistic to the core. There is no scope for third force
there. The moot point is that, nowhere in the classical treatise, we come across
statement denying the existence of God or anything like that. Classical Skhya
does not try to hypothesize or explain whether any 'third force' is existing behind the
concept of Purua and Prakrti which according to them is not required to explain
their metaphysics and hence, the existence of a God or any other transcendental
spirit etc is not ushered into their treatise to interconnect or to demonstrate that,
such thing existed behind these two poles. Skhya remains just indifferent to
postulation of God or does not accommodate it in their thought.
On the other hand, right from Vedic to Epic age we find plenty of evidence to
show that, early Skhyan thoughts are based on Sruti Prama. The trigger for
the debate whether Skhya is theistic or not can be traced to Sankara's criticism of
classical Skhya in his Bhashya (commentary) on Vedanta Sutra accusing it as not
as per the Shruti Prama thus implicitly calling Skhya doctrine as atheist.
Sankara being the towering personality of great eminence who has been
undisputedly credited for single handedly resurrecting the decadent Hinduism by
reinterpreting the Sruti in the true spirit of Upaniads, his criticism naturally carried
much weight down the ages and so is this question.
P a g e | 35
It will be highly unfair on our part to show that, either Sankara or Badarayana,
the composer of Veda Sutra erred in their judgment. One has to always remember
and appreciate that, these two towering personalities lived during trying medieval
period and unlike us, apart from oral tradition, they had limited exposure to the
evolution of entire historical perspective of the philosophical thoughts. Modern day
scholars are fortunate in that respect as they can have access to massive knowledge
base accumulated over several millenniums and also have better historical
perspective when compared to those thinkers. Hence, modern day scholars are
better equipped to reconstruct and reassess the Skhyan thought, particularly on
this probing question.
Skhya could be divided into two; one Sesvara (theistic) and other Nirvara
(atheistic) Skhya33. Dr Sharma in his assertion states that 'let the theists not take
the Nirvara Skhya, propounded in the Krik as rooted in Sruti, but who can
take exception to the vaidika character of the Sesvara Skhya propounded in the
Upaniads, the Mahabharata and the Puranas?' To buttress his argument, he cites
the declaration: 'Yatha srutani Darana' as a synonym of Skhya in Shanti Parva
(310,25) of Mahabharata, the description of Tamas in Rig-Veda (X,129,3),
explanation of Aja (the unborn) as the name of Pradhna in Rig-Veda (X,82,6) etc.
He continues to cite that, the Satkaryavda was first introduced in Chandogya
Upaniad (VI-2, 1 and 2) which is considered as one of the most ancient Upaniad
along with Brihadaranyaka. Also, Chandogya (VI 4,1) refers to the earlier form of
the Sattva, Rajas and Tamas of the Skhya philosophy in symbolic colors of white,
red and black. He also cites the Skhya categories are clearly stated in the later
Upaniads eg in Katha (III-10). He makes a significant observation in stating that,
vetvatara Upaniad is essentially a Skhya Upaniad. It abounds in Skhya
categories (VI-13, V-2) and words of classical Skhya like Pradhna, Prakrti, and
Guna can also be found (I-13, I-14, I-4 etc). We have see these assertions of seers
during the proto Skhyan period in chapter on Historicity. Dr Sharma also
cautions simply on the basis of presence of a few technical terms of Skhya, we
should not jump to the conclusion that, particular Upaniad propounds Skhya
33
Sharma Har Dutt, The Samkhya-Karika with commentary of Gaudapadacharya (English translation) (Oriental
book agency) Page 4-6
P a g e | 36
doctrines. After all Upaniads are repositories of ancient thoughts of Seers who
were not bound or bogged down by Doctrines or Systems like us!
Dr. K.B.Ramakrishna Rao, an eminent scholar of our age in his masterly thesis
on 'Theism of Pre-classical Skhya' elaborately reconstructs the Skhyan thought
right from the beginning of the Vedic period down to modern day thinkers in the light
of true academic spirit. He puts forth the hypothesis stating that, the doctrine of
Skhyan thought, particularly of the pre-classical period is based on the firm
foundation of Sruti and hence it is theist. For some unknown reasons, this aspect
was ignored in classical Skhya. The gist of scriptural evidence unearthed by him
in support of his hypothesis is as follows34.
Brahman of the early literature could be claimed as the initial step towards the
concept of objective Prakrti of the later Skhyas. The hypothesis seems to get
strengthened, when the synonyms of the Prakrti or Avyakta of later times are
provided, it is Brahman that is mentioned, but not Atman as stated in Kramadipika.
The source of this reference can be found in Katha Upaniad (III,15) where the
Avyakta, the objective principle, is described so.
Rig-Veda X,114,8 speaks of Brahman which according to Sayana is 'Jagat Karanam

vastu.' Again, 'Brahman' is used in the sense of 'sarira' or body in Rig-Veda
IX,67,23. The Taittariya Brahmana (II, 8,8,10) says, 'Brahman created this universe
and the words, and that they are inside Brahman' etc. These passages make it
possible to show that, the objective universe was traced to Brahman, the spiritual
entity. This indicates that, Brahman forms the first step in the evolution of idea of
Prakrti of the later times. But such a theory does not mean that, Brahman in early
literature was conceived as a non-spiritual or material principle as the Prakrti has
been conceived throughout the later Skhya. The transition comes with the
splitting of objective principle into 'para' (Higher) and 'apara' (Lower), of which the
first is spiritual and the latter is not. In fact, Mundaka starts with this idea. The
spiritual and a conscious principle like the Brahman was transformed in the course
of thought development into Prakrti of the Skhyans.
The early literature up to Mundaka and Katha, Atman/Purusha was

considered as subject and Brahman/Akshara was considered as object.
In Mundaka, Atman/Purusha was treated as Brahman or Akshara

(spiritual) and Brahman as non-spiritual.
In Katha, Akshara/Avyakta was treated as spiritual or Akshara (spiritual)

and Mahan atma as non-spiritual. In this stage the objective spirit was
split.
34
Rao Ramakrishna K B, Theism of pre classical Samkhya, (Prasaranga, University of Mysore), page 435-444
P a g e | 37
During post Mundaka period i.e Bhagavad Git, Atman/Purusha was

considered as Para-Prakrti/Mahan Brahma/Sanatna-Avyakta, all spiritual
principles. Apara-Prakrti/Brahman/Avyakta is considered as non-spiritual
principle.
During Epic Skhya period, Atman/Purusha was considered as

Avyakta/Prakrti/Pradhna, all non-spiritual principles. Here the split
principle is rejected.
The last stage is significant one, for it turns the thought on the objective principle
towards the classical idea of Prakrti, which is the material principle. This thought
is followed up consistently by all the later Schools.

.
Dr. Rao concludes his thesis with very insightful remarks: 'The whole
confusion arises when we do not discriminate between the stages of development in
a thought process. To conceive Skhya as one readymade and unaltered thought-
system coming down from the mythological Paramrshi Kapila unalloyed through the
ages, and to imagine that atheistic character of the thought of the classical period
was also true of its historical past would be the greatest blunder, at any rate, not
consistent with an academic spirit.'
5.10. Skhya and Aurobindo's concept of evolution
Sri Aurobindo's concept of evolution was based on integral yoga explored in

his main monumental work, The Life Divine (1939). Rejecting the traditional Indian
approach of striving for Moksha (liberation from the cycle of death and rebirth,
or Samsara) as a means of reaching happier, transcendental planes of existence,
Aurobindo held that terrestrial life itself, in its higher evolutionary stages, is the real
goal of creation. He believed that the basic principles of matter, life, and mind
would be succeeded through terrestrial evolution by the principle of 'Supermind''35
(Integral Yoga) explained by him as an intermediate power between the two spheres
35
Supermind is a plane between the "upper hemisphere" of pure being-consciousness, and the "lower
hemisphere" of life in the universe (mind, life, and matter). This plane enables the Real Ideas of the
Supreme to manifest as forms of that force in creation. It is the power that enables creation, by dividing
the Force into the forms, forces, and powers in the universe. Supermind is a plane of perfect
knowledge, that has the full, integral truth of anything. It is a plane that Man can rise to, above his
current limited mentality, and have perfect understanding through revelations of that truth. Supermind
is a force and power that is leaning down on the earth's consciousness. We can open to it, in order to
transform the various aspects of our being, as well as set right the conditions of life, creating sudden
good fortune ("instantaneous miraculousness") for the person opening to it.

P a g e | 38
of the infinite and the finite. Such a future consciousness would help to create a
joyful life in keeping with the highest goal of creation, expressing values such as
love, harmony, unity and knowledge and successfully overcoming the age-old
resistance of dark forces against efforts to manifest the divine on earth.
While comparing the concept of evolution as put forth by Skhya and Sri
Aurobindo, one should bear in mind that, there was a time gap of almost two
millennium between the development of these two concepts by their respective
authors. The concept of evolution as narrated in vara Ka's Skhya Krik
was composed in the beginning of the past millennium and of Sri Aurobindo in 20 th
Century. As we have seen earlier, the treatise of Classical Skhya was the first
effort in codifying the Skhyan concepts which was prevalent during those days.
When Sri Aurobindo took up the reconstruction of Indian philosophical thought based
on his reflections and Sdhana, he had access to the wealth of philosophical treatises
authored by number of Acharyas and elaborate commentaries and criticism by great
many thinkers. As said earlier, Indian philosophy has not sprung up from the head
of one person or a sect. We should consider that, what we have today as the
Indian Philosophy is a narrative and cumulative effort of generation of Seers from the
days of Vedic period till our time which spans at least three millenniums. Being a
living and vibrant philosophy, it keeps evolving and gets richer day by day.
The originality of Aurobindo's thought is most clearly exemplified in his finding

a way out to the age-old problem of one and many in which he established the basic
unity of reality. Aurobindo maintains the unity of Reality giving adequate space for
the multiplicities of the universe. Aurobindo develops his theory of the Oneness of
Reality by re-interpretation of Maya, coexistence of Spirit and Matter, reconstruction
of the one and many, theory of Cosmic Consciousness and finally through this theory
of Involution and Evolution.
Aurobindo maintains, that the reception of both Spirit and Matter and the
thesis that Matter is also Brahman can be unacceptable to a rational mind unless we
admit a series of ascending terms (Life, Mind, Supermind, and the grades that link
the mind to Supermind) between Spirit and Matter. Without the reception of the
intermediary grades in the identification of Spirit and Matter, representing each in
P a g e | 39
terms of the other, will be an artificial creation of the thought. As already stated in
the beginning, the second presupposition of Purna (Integral) Advaita is faith in the
'involution' (descent) already involved in Matter and Mind in life because in essence
Matter is a form of veiled life, life of a veiled form of Consciousness. Aurobindo
describes Involution is the process by which the Omni present Reality i.e Absolute
Brahman extends itself to create a universe of separate form out of its force and
energy. This is akin to a seed that already has the essence of the tree that will
emerge from it, provides conducive conditions are made available. The reason for
involution is Lila (Delight). The Delight of Being (the Spirit/Absolute) moving to
Delight of Becoming (the cosmos). He states 'an involution of Spirit in Matter is the
beginning.' The involution is the necessary condition of evolution.
Here a question emerges as to why Aurobindo conceives existence as a

process or evolution?36 For him, the ultimate purpose of human existence is the
realization of Sachchidananda37. The attainment of this goal depends on the
gradual development that the person achieves. Therefore evolutionary process is a
must for the following reasons:
i. In the initial stages of evolution, namely matter, life and mind, are already matter of
our own experience. What is inevitable is the experience of the center of undivided
power Sachchidananda. However because of of the separation of first three above
stages, which are from the spiritual source, there results a lapse which culminates in a
total Inconscience out of which come an involved Being and Consciousness which have
to emerge from gradual existence.
ii. Therefore the evolution becomes an inevitable reality in human existence. Aurobindo
maintains that, evolution first develops, as it is bound to develop. In Matter, Life
appears and living physical being; in Life, Mind Manifests as embodied thing and living
beings; in Mind, ever increasing power and activities in forms of Matter, the Supermind
or Truth-Consciousness must appear, inevitably by the very force of what is contained
in the Inconscience and the necessity in Nature to bring it into manifestation.
36
Ghose Aurobindo, Sri Aurobindo Ashram Archives and Research Library (1993). The integral Yoga: Sri
Aurobindo's Teaching and Method of Practice: Selected Letters of Sri Aurobindo.
37
Sachchidananda (Sanskrit: ) is a compounded Sanskrit word consisting of 'sat,' 'cit' and 'ananda,' all
three considered as inseparable from the nature of ultimate reality called Brahman in Hinduism. Sat ( ) In
Sanskrit means 'being, existing,' 'living, lasting, enduring,' 'real, actual,' 'true, good, right,' 'beautiful, wise,
venerable, honest,' or 'that which really is, existence, essence, true being, really existent, good, true'. Cit ( )
means 'to perceive, fix mind on,' 'to understand, comprehend, and know,' 'to form an idea in the mind, be
conscious of, think, and reflect upon'. nanda ( ) means 'bliss, happiness, joy,' 'pure happiness, one of
three attributes of Atman or Brahman in the Vedanta philosophy'.

P a g e | 40
iii. Supermind appearing in living being and must bring about by the same law, by an
inherent necessity and inevitability, the dynamic manifestation here of the divine
Existence.
Thus Aurobindo states that, 'Life has begun from involution there cannot be
but evolution; the evolution is not possible, but inevitable, in the sense that,
involution is in view of evolution. Only then the very purpose of involution is
actualized, namely the Divinization of the material world occurs.
In contrast, the treatise of classical Skhya philosophy is based on the

dualist concept of Purua and Prakrti which represent individual (not universal)
consciousness on the other hand and the unconscious phenomenal world. Hence
the essence of Skhya is based on the thread of dualism. If we remove this
thread, the entire Skhya philosophy will collapses and will have no existence as
an independent treatise. Skhya dualism is not a typical dualism of mind/body or
subject/object etc. Purusha and Prakrti are considered as two poles who will
never meet even though they may have certain similar characteristics. This
assertion is reflected throughout the Krik.
Even though, we find certain commonalities in concept regarding certain

basics like Spirit and Existence, Skhya fails to provide satisfactory explanation in
arriving at the relation between them in Krik is often crude and also it fails to
explain the phenomenon behind these poles. Skhya is satisfied in stating that,
these two just exist by themselves. Somehow, the human mind is not ready to
accept this argument. As said earlier, when classical Skhya was composed, the
speculation was still in its infancy and it was evolving. We can see the
philosophical thought on evolution finally crystallizing into to the most satisfactory
Vedanta doctrine only after Sankara. The Purna Advaita of Sri Aurobindo is
perhaps one more step in the evolution before we can decode the secret behind
the Universe.
6. Epistemology of Skhya
The very 2nd verse of the Krik categorically states about the pramana (valid
source of knowledge) for understanding the Universe and the phenomenon and to
resolve the problems enumerated in the first verse implicitly meaning overcoming the

P a g e | 41
ignorance i.e with the help of right knowledge. It employs the term 'nusrvika'
meaning, heard or listened, implicitly referring to the Vedic evidence or
knowledge which according to the tradition is an oral testimony. The verse
states that, the scriptural means is like the obvious means since it is linked with
avisuddhi (impurity), ksaya (decay) and atisaya (excess). The means contrary to
both and proceeding from the Discriminative Knowledge of the Manifest and
Unmanifest and the Spirit, is superior. Even though Vedas suggest either the
path of Karma (implicitly taken as rituals) or the Jnana for the final release, the
Krik is referring to the later and at the same time rejecting the path of rituals
to overcome the miseries of life which it considers as ineffective due to impurity,
exaggeration etc as Vedas prescribe animal sacrifice etc for the attainment of
ends or desires. Again the heaven dwellers are not free from jealousy. This
implicit meaning becomes explicit in the second line which is the sum total of
epistemology of Skhya where it is stated that, Vijnana (discriminative
knowledge) of Avyakta (unmanifest) - Vyatka (manifest) jna (cogniser) is
considered as auspicious, superior and thus preferable.
The 4th Verse of the Krik explicitly states the well recognized methods of
Pramana (valid knowledge) are: Dam (perception), Anumna (inference) and
ptavachanam (valid testimony) are the means. Here, the term Prama (means
of cognition) indicates the things to be defined; Prama is that by which things
are rightly cognised; because of this explanation, Prama comes to be
recognized as a instrument of right cognition. And this is a citta Vritti
(modification of the mind) in relation to an object, which is free from (such
defects as) ambiguity, perversion and non-apprehension. Right cognition is the
result brought about by this instrument in the form of apprehension by a human
agent, and its means is Prama. By this, the definition of Prama does not
apply to all other means which lead to doubt, wrong apprehension and
recollection.
6.1. Perception
In verse 5, vara Ka provides the definition perception as Dam

(perception) is the prati-visayadhya-vasayh (ascertainment) of each respective object
by the senses. Here, the term drsta has been used instead of Pratyaksha. This

P a g e | 42
term is very significant as perception is defined in terms of sensory input plus

knowledge and not just sensory input. This knowledge is qualified by 'pertaining to
individual object.' Such a definition also is unique in the arena of Indian
Philosophy38. Knowledge of all kinds, according to vara Ka is the function or
attribute of Buddhi (verse 40) Buddhi is taken in the sense of both; actual agent of
knowing and means of knowledge. All cases of immediate experiences are not due
to sense-object contact. The experiences namely 'I am happy,' 'I am sorry' etc do
not required the help of sense organs and Manas. So what really happens is a part
of intellect runs out through the organ of sense to assume the form of an object
(Vritti). The other part reflects the image of conscious spirit. Thus the term
Pratyaksha is not applicable in these cases because though the experience is
immediate, it is not just sensuous means i.e not just a raw data input obtained from
the respective organs. In order to cover such cases, the term drsta is only
appropriate. So the Spirit, which in reality is free from activity, contact, agency and
such other qualities becomes active or agent through its image reflected in the
intellect. The real enjoyer or agent is the reflected image of the spirit.
Interpreting the definition of vara Ka, Vachaspati states that perception is

a modification of the mind which gives definite cognition of objects affected by the
sense-object contact. In his opinion, through Karana (senses), Buddhi (intellect),
Ahamkra (ego), Manas (mind) meaning anthakarana, the external object is
apprehended by the subject. When an object incites the senses the Manas arranges
the sense impression into a precept, the ego refer it to the self and intellect forms
the concept.
6.2. Inference
The verse 5 also introduces the second source of knowledge; Anumna

(inference). Inference is declared to be of three kinds and it is preceded by a
knowledge of the middle term (linga) and major term (lingi) which can be termed as
sign and signage. Vachspati explains the definition elaborately. He states that linga
(pervaded i.e vyapya, less extensive) and the major term, lingi (pervasive or more
extensive i.e vyapaka). Inference leads to conclude the presence of Major term in
the Minor term on the basis of concomitance of Middle and Major terms and the
38
Biswas Mukta, Samkhya-Yoga Epistemology, (DK Printworld Private Ltd), Page 117-118
P a g e | 43
cognition of the presence of Middle term in the Minor terms. For example, we see
smoke (middle term) on the hill (minor term). Now we remember the concomitance
of smoke (middle term) and fire (major term). Thus we conclude that there is fire
(middle term) on the hill (middle term) thus completing the syllogism.
The inference is of three kinds, Pravavat (a priori), Sesvat ( a posteriori) and

Samanyatodista (commonly seen). The explanation of inference is perhaps
influenced by the Nyaya.
First of all, inference is of two kinds: Vita (positive) and Avita (negative).
Positively postulating inference cognized through the method of agreement is the
Vita which the negative inference got through the method of difference is Avita. Of
these two, the Avita inference is called Sesvat (a posterior, i.e inferring the cause
Karana through the effect, karya); Sesa is that which remains, the residue; hence the
inference which has the residue for the subject matter is Sesvat inference. It has
thus been described (in Nyavybhasya 1.1.5); 'The Sesvat inference is that in which,
with regard to an object, some of the likely properties being denied and eliminated,
and there being no likelihood of their belonging to some others, we have the
cognition of that, which remains (undenied and uneliminated).' An example of Avita
inference go through the negative method will be cited in Verse 9. Vita inference is
twofold (a) A-priori- Puravat and (b) Samanytodsta based on general observation.
6.3. Testimony
The verse 5 also introduces the third source of knowledge; apta vachanam
(valid testimony) and apta Sruti (statement of trustworthy person). The disciple,
immediately after hearing his teacher utter some command like bring the cow etc,
acts in a certain manner above that the understanding of the sense of words uttered
by the teacher is the cause of action by the student. From this he recognizes the
connection between the words used and their meaning. From this it follows that,
the Verbal testimony is preceded by inference; consequently valid verbal testimony is
defined after inference. It is defined as 'Statements made by trustworthy persons
and the Vedas' Here aptavachana indicates the thing to be defined while the rest of
the sentence indicates its definition. The word 'apta' means that which is right; that
P a g e | 44
is right also a revelation (Sruti) is 'aptasrtuh' thus, Sruti stands for that cognition of
meaning of a sentence which is brought about by that sentence.
Valid testimony, is self-attested and self-authoritative, i.e it is always right
inasmuch as it is brought about the by the words of the Vedas which are not
authored by any human being and because it is therefore free from all defects (such
as falsehood which render words unreliable). It is for the same reason that the
knowledge derived from the Smrti (canonical work), itihasa (history) and purana
(myths) is also regarded as right because they have the Vedas as their source.
6.4. Other Pramas
Skhya do not consider Upamana as a distinct source of valid knowledge.

According to them, the knowledge obtained through Upamana is verbal, inferential or
perceptual as the case may be. Thus, Upamana is considered as means of verbal
testimony. For example, 'gavaya is like the cow.' This is purely verbal when it is
uttered by an elderly experienced person to cognize an an inexperienced person
about the unknown animal gavaya. So, when it has been perceived in the Gavaya it
must be so in cow also. Thus, there is nothing left to be the object of a different
means of cognition in the form analogy. Thus we affirm that analogy is found be
either perceptional or inferential or Verbal. However, according to Vachaspati, the
instructive sentence that the cow is similar to a gavaya which is held to be a distinct
source of knowledge is really verbal testimony.
Similarly, arthapatti (presumption) also not a separate Prama. In support of

presumption as a distinct Prama, the ancients have put forward the following
example. 'Chaitra who is alive is not seen in the home.' Here, the existence of
Chaitra somewhere else is cognized by means of presumption through he is not seen
in the house. As a matter of fact, this too is a case of inference. With regard t one's
own body, the concomitance is easily recognized as when we know that an existing
finite object which is not present in one place present in another place, and also that
when a finite object is present in one place, it is not present in another place.
Therefore with the help of the minor premise that the living Chaitra is not at home
we get the understanding that he must be somewhere outside the house. So this is
clear case of inference.

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7. Ethics of Skhya
The subject of ethics (or moral philosophy), is an important branch of

philosophy that involves systematizing, defending, and recommending concepts of
right and wrong human behavior and action. A system of philosophy is generally
tested by its ethical doctrine. Through the criticism of life, philosophy is judged by
its capacity to improve the quality of life. While discussing Ethics in Indian
philosophy, there are some Western scholars who doubt whether there is anything
called as 'Indian ethics' due to the very nature of philosophizing among Indian
Schools which outwardly appear to be pessimistic, spiritualistic etc. Such misplaced
and wrong perception about Ethics in Indian philosophy is due to several historical
reasons like lack of proper understanding the construction and essence of Indian
philosophical thought, trying to read Indian philosophy on the lines of other cultures
particularly, the West. The fundamental objective of philosophical inquiry in India is
not exclusively abstract theorization, but to find out how best human life can be
lived. Since the whole intellectual activity in India is aimed at problem of worthy
human life, it is essentially ethical. Thus we often find moral concepts are latent and
sometimes entangled with metaphysical and epistemological concerns of the system.
In the words of S.Radhakrishnan: 'Any ethical theory must be grounded in
metaphysics, in a philosophical conception of relation between human conduct and
ultimate reality. As we think ultimate reality to be, so we behave. Vision and action
go together'39 As the intellectual enterprise itself is essentially ethical, Indian
thinkers hardly felt any need for separate or distinct ethical theories as in West. For
an ancient thinker this could be as ridiculous as asking for tumbler full of water when
we are standing on the banks of a sweet water lake! So independence of ethics is
nothing short of a misnomer in Indian intellectual activity which is essentially ethical
in character and substance. The schools of Indian philosophy are not concerned
with superfluous semantic analysis of linguistic words like 'good' 'bad' right' 'wrong
etc,' but are concerned more with practical purpose of the ethical ideas40.
As stated above, the moral concepts in Indian philosophical school is

entangled with metaphysical ideas and obviously the major challenge for the student
of Indian philosophy is identify, understand and comment on the fundamental ethical
39
Radhakrishnan Sarvepalli, Radhakrishnan's metaphysics and ethics, (Motilal Banarsidass) page 295
40
Ravi Illa, Foundations of Indian Ethics, (Kaveri Books), Page 9-11
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concepts given the rich variety of ethical ideas available and the widely differed
treatment of these ideas. With this in background, an attempt is made to cull out
the ethical ideas from the classical Skhya treatise.
7.1. Pessimistic outlook of Skhya
This is one of the general misplaced charge leveled against Indian

philosophical thought. Such charges are leveled by people who do not have in depth
understanding or integrated approach to the Indian thoughts. Yes, outwardly, not
only Indian philosophies, in fact all schools of philosophies appears to be pessimistic
when looked at, particularly when they begin. If there is a bereavement in the
family or if anyone visits the hospital or a burial ground and thinks or expresses
himself about the momentariness of the life, he cannot be named as a pessimist.
Everyone knows that, such thoughts are generally a transient thought and all of get
on with our day today work hoping for a better tomorrow. The dictionary meaning
of pessimistic is 'a tendency to see the worst aspect of things or believe that the
worst will happen.' Even though, the Indian philosophical treatises generally starts
by explaining and enumerating the problems faced by humans (may appear to be
pessimistic, but in fact a stark reality), it always ends with an optimistic note. In
fact, only Humans only can express and share their real or imagined problems and
miseries. This faculty is unfortunately not available for other animals. The
wonderful thing with humans is that, they can not only express, analyze and come
with suitable remedies for their problems. All the scientific advancements are
targeted for better and comfortable life. Such effort by mankind would not have
happened, if the caveman was happy with whatever he had! This is the major
difference between human and the other animals. This was clearly understood by
Indian seers since time immemorial. This fact is reflected not only in philosophy but
also in the arts and culture. Hardly there is any drama in Sanskrit which can be
considered as tragedy. All epics, stories, dramas, legends, music concerts, stage
show (which includes Bollywood films!) etc without exception end with a note of
optimism called as Mangalam meaning auspiciously ending with wises for a better
tomorrow for all (sarve jana sukhino bhvantu).

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Radhakrishnan's views on this matter is worth quoting41: 'Indian philosophy is

pessimistic if by pessimism is meant a sense of dissatisfaction with what is or exists.
In this sense all philosophy is pessimistic. The suffering of the world provokes the
problem of philosophy and religion. Systems of religion which emphasize redemption
seek for an escape from life as we live it on earth. But reality in its essence is not
evil. In Hindu philosophy the same word sat indicates both reality and perfection.'
Prof Bosanquest writes: ' I believe in optimism, but I add that, no optimism is worth
its salt that does not go all the way with pessimism and arrive at a point beyond it.
This, I am convinced, is the true spirit of life; and if anyone thinks it dangerous, and
an excuse for unjustifiable acquiescence in evil, I reply that all truth which any touch
of thoroughness has danger for practice.42
7.2. 'Tpatraya'- the three torments
Every being in this world without exception seeks happiness. Leave alone
human being, even an insignificant creature like a worm or ant wants to get away
from the problem. As said earlier, the subject matter of Ethics is concerned with
actual action when humans are confronted with their real life problems. Skhya,
doctrine of reality and enumeration, in its very first verse starts by enumerating the
the problems confronting all human beings. Dukha-traya-bhigatat, from the
torment by the three-fold (causes of) pain (there arises), jijnsa (a desire for
enquiry), into the means of solving it. Even though visible means are available for
solving these problems, (normal, commonly suggested ones) there is no certainty
about its efficacy. Hence, it needs a thorough contemplation and analysis.
The three kinds of pain constitute 'Dukha-traya,' triad of pain. These are
Adhytmika (intra-organic), dhi-bhautika (caused by external bodies and influences)
and dhi-daivika (caused by cosmic power or agencies). Here, the intra-organic is
twofold viz bodily and mental. Bodily pain are caused by Tridosha (bodily bio-
elements as per Ayurveda is caused by disorder of Vata [airy element], pitta [fiery
element connected with gastric fluids] and kapha [watery element, characterized by
heaviness, cold etc]). Mental miseries are caused by lust, anger, greed, infatuation,
41
S. Radhakrishnan, Indian philosophy, Volume I, (Oxford University Press), Page 16
42
Schopenhauer Arthur, Social and International ideals, P.43, 'Optimism, when it is not merely the thoughtless
talk of such as harbour nothing but words under low foreheads, appears not merely as an absurd but also as a
really wicked way of thing, as a bitter mockery of the unspeakable suffering humanity.'
P a g e | 48
fear, envy, grief and non-perception of particular objects. All these are called 'intra-
organic' as they are amenable to internal remedies. Pains that are responsive to
external remedies are of two varieties; they are dhibhautika and dhidaivika. The
former misery is caused by other human beings, animals, birds, reptiles, plants and
inanimate bodies and the later is caused by evil influences of cosmic forces.
Hundreds of easy remedies for physical pain are present by eminent

physicians. For removal of mental sufferings also we have easy remedies in the form
of attainment of objects of enjoyment like charming women, pleasing drinks, food,
cosmetics, dress, ornaments etc. Likewise, we also have easy remedies for the
removal of extra-organic miseries such a proficiency in the science of ethics and
politics, residence in safe place etc. In the same way, we have easy remedies to get
get rid of troubles caused by supernatural agencies, in the shape of gems, charms
etc. The verse used the term 'ekantatyantato abhava' meaning there is the absence
of certainty of the removal of pain; also since we see the recurrence of pain that was
once cured there is also the absence of permanency of the cure affected. Thus,
though easily available, the obvious means do not bring about absolute and
permanent cure or solution to these problems. Therefore, the inquiry into this
doctrine is certainly not superfluous. Accepted that, there is no visible means by
which the triad of pain could be removed absolutely. But people may argue that, we
have means prescribed in the Vedas such as Jyotistoma and host of other ritualistic
rites which will certainly and permanently remove the three kinds of pain. The Sruti
also declares; 'one desiring heavenly enjoyments should perform sacrifices.'
The position of Skhya Krik on the efficacy of this method is discussed in

the 2nd verse. It states: 'The scriptural means is like the obvious means since is
linked with the impurity, decay and excess. Gaudapada say, 'Linked with impurity
because it involves slaughter of animals.' It is said: 'According to the injunction in
the Asvamedha, six hundred animals, minus three are slaughtered at midday'
Although, Dharma is prescribed in Srutis and the Smrits, still on account of the
mixture (adulteration) of items, it is full of impurity. The means contrary to the both
is better because it is free from impurity, destruction and inequality. How is it
acquired? The author replies 'from the right cognition of Manifest, Unmanifest and
knower' The manifest are Mahat and the rest; that is intellect, ego and the five
P a g e | 49
subtle elements and eleven organs and five gross elements, The unmanifest is the
Pradhna. The Knower is Purusha. The special characteristics of the Manifest,
Unmanifest and the Knower are detailed in the previous sections under the
metaphysics of Skhya. The means contrary to both and proceeding from the
discriminative knowledge of the Manifest and the Unmanifest and the Spirit, is
superior. This is the sure way overcoming the problems.
7.3. Kaivalya the final release
In classical Skhya, it is important to emphasize that, ajnana or 'lack of

knowledge' or 'ignorance' is really equivalent to ordinary, everyday knowledge for it
is because of the 'lack of knowledge' that ordinary knowledge arises! Man's
knowledge of the world and his place in the world is because of 'lack of knowledge.'
This 'lack of knowledge' means lack of salvation knowledge i.e lack of the knowledge
that Purusha is apart or separate from the manifest and unmanifest world. Thus
ajnana or 'ignorance' or 'lack of knowledge' is not a kind of mistake or blunder which
originally set the process of creation in operation. It is, rather, the natural or normal
result of the coming together of the Purusha and the Mula Prakrti. As we have
discussed, the Purua is pure, translucent consciousness and a witness. On the
other hand, Mlaprakrti is is simply undifferentiated consciousness, thing-ness or that
which is witnessed. The issue is each one of these two principles appears as what it
is not. Salvation knowledge is is a special kind of 'knowledge' which brings one to
the realization of the Purua itself apart from its appearing as what it is not. The
salvation-knowledge, which arises in the Bhva, Jnana or the Buddhi represents a
final discrimination that moves beyond ordinary knowledge, and it is necessary now
to examine this salvation knowledge closely.
The ethical thought found in Skhya Krik like all Indian philosophical
schools presupposes and concludes with two important beliefs: Samsara (cycle of
birth and death) and Kaivalya (liberation). Entire metaphysical structure of
Skhya is based on these two strong beliefs. Both these beliefs, we need to
affirm, are ethical as they are integrally connected with another moral concept called

P a g e | 50
Karma43 which means moral action resulting in merit or demerit44. As we know,

Ethics is not concerned with speculation but deals with action and hence, 'practical'
and 'utilitarian' in its outlook. So, when action is involved, for obvious reasons, there
should be 'some-one' who chooses, acts and of course takes responsibility for the
consequences of the action. If we read the Krik carefully, the first 38 hymns are
devoted for describing the structure of the phenomenal world in terms of 25 Tattvas
of Skhya and in hymn 39, for the first time mentions on transmigration and thus
begins the ethical thought of vara Ka. From Verse 39 onwards, vara Ka,
delineates an ethical teleology and elaborates in details the exact process of its
concrete actualization i.e 'how can one here and now strive after Kaivalya
(liberation), by impression of being subjected to the mighty law of Samsara
(transmigration)45. Verses 44 to 68 are concerned solely with the question of
Kaivalya. All of the preceding verses dealing with the emergence and functioning of
the manifest world serve as a kind of prelude or preparation of the doctrine of
salvation is well articulated in the last fourteen verses.
The verse 56 states that, this evolution from Mahat down to Specific entities is
brought about by the modifications of Prakrti in the interest of another appearing as
if in her own interest, for the release of each individual Purua. That is the manifest
world appears because of the presence of Purua, and functions for the sake of
Purua. In other words, the manifest world serves its own purpose by serving the
purpose of the other, a fact derived from Satkarya vda itself. The next three verses
(57-59) illustrate this notion of Purshartha with the help of similes on secretion of
milk by cow for the nourishment of calf, dancer etc., Prakrti is like a dancer who
performs for a spectator (implicit, Purua) and after completing the purpose, simply
walks off the stage or ends her act. It each of these similes it is important to note
that, Prakrti is not served except in so far as it fulfills its own function as servant.
Ultimately the Prakrti is unconsciousness, and since the classical Skhya is concern
43
The term 'karma' as such is conspicuous by its absence in the Samkhya Karika, though the 'Karma doctrine' is
present, elaborated through the conception of Bhavas or fundamental dispositions in Verse 43-45, 52. For a
discussion on the meaning of the word, refer Christopher Chapple, Karma and Creativity, State University of
New York Press and Charles F.Keyes 'The study of popular ideas of Karma,' University California Press, 1-24
44
Furtado Vincent G, Classical Samkhya Ethics, A study of ethical perspectives of ., (Media House, Delhi) Page 42
45
Ibid, page 43
P a g e | 51
only with isolation of pure consciousness or Purua, the world itself is irrelevant apart
46
from its functions as a means to salvation.
Pleasure and pain, joy and sorrow really belong to the Buddhi and the mind.
The Purua is free from them all. But on account of ignorance, it fails to distinguish
itself from the mind and the intellect , and owns them as parts of itself so much so
that, it identifies itself with the body, the senses, the mind and the intellect. The
Self considers itself to be happy or unhappy when the mind and intellect, with which
it identifies itself, become so, in the same way in which a father considers himself
fortunate or unfortunate in view of his son's good or bad performance or a master
feels insulted by an insult to his own servant. It is this want of Viveka
(discrimination) between the self and mind-body that is the cause of all our troubles.
We suffer pain and enjoy pleasure because the experiencing Drasta (subject) in us
wrongly identifies with the experiencing Drisya (the objects) including pleasure and
pain. Verse 44 reiterates by Dharma (virtue), ascent to higher planes, and by
Adharma (vice) descent to lower planes take place; by Jnana (knowledge),
apavargah (Release) is obtained and viparyat (reverse), one gets bound. But this
knowledge is is not merely an intellectual understanding of the truth. It must be a
direct knowledge or clear realization of the fact that, the self is not the body and the
senses, the mind and the intellect. Once we realize or see that, out self is the
unborn and undying spirit in us, the eternal and immoral subject of experience, we
become free from all misery and suffering. Hence, a direct knowledge of the truth is
necessary to remove the illusion of the body or the mind as myself. Right now, we
have a direct and an undoubted percept that, I am particular psychophysical
organism47 To realize the self we require spiritual training with devotion and
constant contemplation of, the truth that, the Purua is not the body, the senses, the
mind or the intellect. The verse 64 elaborates this assertion, 'Thus from the practice
of Truth, is produced the wisdom in the form of Na Asmi (I am not), Na me (nothing
is mine), Na Aham (not I) which is final, pure on account of the absence of error,
and absolute. The word Tattva in the verse refers to the correct knowledge i.e its
origin of the entities. Following the method described earlier, through the practice
of the knowledge of the Tattvas, through a long course earnest and uninterrupted
46
Larson Gerald James, Classical Samkhya, (Motilal Banarsidass), page 203
47
Chatterjee S and Dutta D, An Introduction to Indian Philosophy,(Rupa Publishers), page 266
P a g e | 52
exercise (implicitly meaning practices as taught in Yoga), there arises the direct
knowledge of the distinction of the Sprit from the Matter. It is only the constant
practice of the thing that brings about a direct knowledge of the very same thing.
The nature of knowledge is clearly stated as I am not, nothing is mine, not-I. This
denies all activity in the Self as is declared. Therefore, all operations, both external
and internal, such a determination, self consciousness, observation and apprehension
etc are all denied in the Purusha. The idea of 'Not I' arise because of the absence of
all impulse for activity in the Purusha. It can be interpreted as: The sentence ' I
am' not means that, I am the spirit, not the Evolvent. Because of the non productive
nature, the non-agency is indicated as 'I am not.' Being a non-agent, the sense of
ownership also is not there; hence the expression 'nothing is mine.'
Verse 67 and 68 further clarifies this thought. Being a treatise based on

Realism, it states that, the release does not take place immediately after the dawn of
discriminative wisdom inasmuch as all the subliminal impression of deeds are not
spent. This is compared with the whirl of the potter's wheel which continues to
revolve due to its momentum even after the potter ceases his effort at revolving at
the wheel. Hence, in course of time, separation from the body has taken place, and
there is the cessation of activity of the Pradhna, for the reason of the purpose
having been fulfilled, Purua attains both absolute and and final Kaivailyam
(Freedom).

P a g e | 53
8. Conclusion
The classical Skhya treatise, and in particular tendencies and thought

during the pre-classical era have contributed immensely to the rich variety, diversity
and universal appeal to the entire Indian thought during its formative years. From
the critical exploration of the early Indian thoughts in Vedic literature and in
particularly in the great epics prior to the raise of Daranas, it can be seen that,
Skhyan ideas were the most popular philosophical thought. This is obviously as
Skhyan thoughts were based on the firm foundation of human experience and
reality of the universe. Its contribution on basic tenets of Skhya like Pradhna,
Drsta, Satkaryavda, Gunas etc to Indian thought is invaluable. Undoubtedly,
Skhya Krik, in its systematization of presentation of complex philosophical
thought in simple, lucid, unambiguous and with clarity, set the trend for the
presentation of philosophic thoughts into simple treatise so that, humanity can look
towards philosophy for solution for their day-today problems. The systematization
trend became a role model for the presentation of later day Daranas. This is one
of the most important contribution of Skhya thought and Krik to the Indian
philosophy. Even though the Skhya Krik known for its splendid and bold
constructive thought could not satisfactorily explain some of its metaphysical
concepts, particularly the correlation between Spirit, Matter in the background of all
comprehensive Unity, the contribution of Skhyan ideas to the Indian thought
during its formative times cannot be underestimated. To trace, decode and
estimate the Indian thought process, during the pre and proto Skhyan period
which coincides with the formative years of Indian philosophy, ample unexplored
opportunities for in-depth study of pre-medieval literature, particularly the epic of
Mahabharata is available for the students of Indian philosophy. Such effort will
certainly add value to the existing corpus of knowledge on Indian philosophy, its
understanding and application in practical life.

P a g e | 54
9. Bibliography
i. Virupakshnanada, Skhya Krik of vara Ka with commentary (Tattva

Kaumudi) of Vchaspati Mira, (English translation)
ii. Larson Gerald James , Classical Skhya
iii. Rao Ramakrishna K B, Theism of pre classical Skhya
iv. Sharma Har Dutt, The Skhya-Krik with commentary of Gaudapadacharya

(English translation)
v. Radhakrishnan Sarvepalli, Indian Philosophy Vol I and Vol II
vi. Chatterjee S and Dutta D, An Introduction to Indian Philosophy
vii. Davies John, Philosophy of Ancient India
viii. Muller Max, Six systems of Indian Philosophy
ix. Keith, The Skhya system
x. Bhattacharya K C, Studies in Skhya Philosophy, Volume 1
xi. Pandeya Ram Chandra, Yukti Dipika (translation and edited)
xii. M.Hiriyanna, Outlines of Indian Philosophy
xiii. Feuerstein George, The Philosophy of Classical Yoga
xiv. Gambhirananda Swami, Brahma Sutra Bhashya of Shankaracharya
xv. Ghose Aurobindo, Sri Aurobindo Ashram Archives and Research Library
(1993). The integral Yoga: Sri Aurobindo's Teaching and Method of Practice
xvi. Biswas Mukta, Skhya-Yoga Epistemology
xvii. S.Radhakrishnan, Radhakrishnan's metaphysics and ethics
xviii. Ravi Illa, Foundations of Indian Ethics
xix. Schopenhauer Arthur, Social and International ideals
xx. Furtado Vincent G, Classical Skhya Ethics, A study of ethical ...,
xxi. Mahabharata
xxii. http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/67067/9/09_chapter%201.pdf
accessed on 12th April 2017

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Critical exposition of Skhya Krik

Rmakrishna Narasiha Swmy

Critical exposition of Skhya Krik

Critical exposition of Skhya Krik

Critical exposition of Skhya Krik

I would like to thank Dr.H.L.Chandrashekara, Associate Professor, Department

Rmakrishna Narasiha Swmy

Critical exposition of Skhya Krik

Certificate of the supervisor

I, Dr.H.L.Chandrashekara, Associate Professor, Department of Studies in

Critical exposition of Skhya Krik

Critical exposition of Skhya Krik

Critical exposition of Skhya Krik

Critical exposition of Skhya Krik

Critical exposition of Skhya Krik

Critical exposition of Skhya Krik

Skhyan thoughts are considered as one of the earliest philosophical

Skhya is a Sanskrit word and is used in the etymological sense of thinking

and counting Amara Kosha (I.V.3). Thinking may be with

It was vara Ka who took up the task of integrating the scattered

b) Skhya Sutra: A second work of importance on the system is the Skhya-sutra

d) Skhya-Tattva-Kaumudi: It is a philosophical work by Vchaspati Mira.

e) Skhya-Pravachana-Bhashya: The most important commentary on the is by

g) Skhya Candrika: It is a commentary based chiefly on the work of Vchaspati

h) Skhya Taruvasanth: The latest commentary on by Skhya Mudumba

Critical exposition of Skhya Krik

Critical exposition of Skhya Krik of vara Ka has been made by

Two important topics on Skhya viz on Historicity of Skhya and another

mystic, exponent and practitioner of Vedanta, his interpretation of evolution vis--vis

Another significant contribution of Skhya is about Gunas. The term Guna is

Another important aspect of study of school of philosophy is its stand on

The subject of ethics is an important branch of philosophy consisting of

unsubstantiated charge accusing Indian philosophical system of its pessimistic outlook

Critical exposition of Skhya Krik

Human knowledge is a human creation. As the time marches on relentlessly,

c) Classical Skhya speculation, the period of composition of most authoritative text;

In vetvatara, which is predominantly theistic states that what is immortal and

Critical exposition of Skhya Krik

Skhya Philosophy.13 It can be seen that, Skhya as a differentiated system did

It is well known that, vetvatara Upaniad is essentially portrays Skhyan

3. A note on Skhya Krik

Kapila is generally considered as the founder of Skhya school of philosophy.

Number of authoritative commentaries are available on this text. The

According to Yukti Dipika18, vara Ka, having completed the description of

The preliminary exposition of Skhya is similar to the modern day Statement

Critical exposition of Skhya Krik

As Skhya is based on the Reality and human experience rather than

5.1. Skhya Tattva

The meaning of Tattva can be considered as thatness, principle or reality,

The Purusa (Spirit or Consciouness) is an independent concept and is neither

5.2. Doctrine of Sat-karya-vda

In Indian philosophy, there are basically three major cosmological theories of

because effects take upadana-grhanat (adequate material) cause, things do not

Critical exposition of Skhya Krik

The Skhyasaptati-vtti discusses two types of causes: (1) productive

There are also scattered discussions on material, efficient and instrumental

Prakrti is orderly. The ta (cosmic order) that makes Prakrti appear to be

real transformation or Parinamavda, which R.A.Sinari states is 'the earliest and

The vetvatara Upaniad says: 'Know Maya to be Prakrti.' But,

no beginning - (Brahma Sutra 2.1.36)22.

Thus, Satkaryavda of Skhya is not only scientific, logically consistent and

5.3. Prakrti and its manifestation