Hydrodynamic stability threshold of liquid metal current collectors

J. T. Woo, J. F. Pipkins, S. H. Brown, N. A. Sondergaard, and J. S. Walker

Citation: Journal of Applied Physics 63, 4872 (1988); doi: 10.1063/1.340427

View online: http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.340427
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 Hydrodynamic stability threshold of liquid metal current collectors
J, T. Woo and J. F, Pipkins
Interscience, Inc., 105 Jordan Road, Troy, New York 12180
S. H. Brown and N. A. Sondergaard
Dauid Taylor Research Center, Bethesda, Maryland 20084-5000
J. S. Walker
Uniuersity of Illinois, Urbana. lllinois 61801

(Received 30 July 1987; accepted for publication 14 January 1988)

A mechanism derived from hydrodynamic theory to explain the ejection instability ofliquid
metal current collectors is presented. The ejection mechanism is shown to be caused by the
onset of the Kelvin-Helmholtz instability resulting from the gradient of azimuthal (primary)
flow at the interface between the liquid metal and cover gas. This new mechanism differs from
the previous theory developed by Eriksson [in Electrical Engineering Series, no. 48, edited by
M. Luukkala (The Finnish Academy ofTechllical Sciences, Helsinki, Finland, 1982), who
analyzed the onset of the Kdvin-Hclmhotz instability resulting from the gradient of
meridional (secondary) flow at the interface. Considering the solution to the linearized
Navier-Stokes equations at the liquid metal and gas interface, the azimuthally driven (primary
flow) instability mechanism for the onset of ejection is much more prevalent than the
meridional (secondary) flow driven mechansim. Furthermore, Eriksson's theory requires an
empirical mUltiplicative fractional factor that is not physically justified to predict
experimentally measured ejection points, whereas the present theory is more self-consistent.
Calculations of minimum ejection values from both theories were compared with
corresponding experimental ejection data. The present theory appears to give significantly
better engineering estimates, both quantitively and quaiitatively, for minimum ejection
threshold than Eriksson's theory. The basic mathemtical model presented can serve as the
basis for developing a more complex mathematical model for liquid metal ejection.

I, INTRODUCTION grooved piece were exaggerated for clarity. The space in the
Homopolar devices are high-current, low-voltage, elec- radial gap is filled with liquid metal, which is set into rota-
tromechanical energy converters. A number of different tional motion by drag from the rotation of the inner disk and
types of advanced homopolar devices are presently under is maintained in the groove by centrifugal force. Thus, an
development for a variety of applications. [-5 Because the ef- electrical current path is formed between the disk (rotor)
ficiency of such devices is critically dependent on minimiz- and groove (stator). To minimize both electrical and vis-
ing the power losses in the electrical contacts between the cous power losses, the volume of liquid is chosen to fill the
stator and rotor sections, liquid metals have been used in radial gap while occupying a minimum of the axial gap. As a
place of solid brushes as current collectors to provide the result, when the liquid metal is funy distributed in the collec-
electrical path between the concentric rotor and stator sec- tor, there is a free surface in the axial gap between the liquid
tions. At high rotor speeds, the liquid metal current collector metal and a nonreactive cover gas chosen to prevent oxida-
is subject to flow instabilities, (, leading to almost instanta- tion of the liquid metal. Generally, the radius to the liquid
neous ejection of the liquid metal from the current carrying
region, disrupting the operation of the device. A fundamen-
tal understanding of the observed instability of the liquid
metal flow is needed as a basis for determining operational
limits and for developing designs that lead to more stable
operation at high rotor speeds.
The basic geometry we consider in our study is the clas-
sic tongue and groove illustrated schematically in the cross-
sectional view in Fig. 1, in which an inner disk is fitted in the FIG. !. Typical current col-
circumferential groove of the outer disk. In most situations, lector configuration.
the grooved piece is the stator, and the disk is the rotor. In
some designs the role is reversed, with the grooved piece in
rotation over the stationary disk3 (see Fig. 2). In this study,
we consider only the first case, where the grooved piece is the
stator and the disk is the rotor. In Fig. 1, the radial gap of
width d and the axial gap oflength a between the disk and the

4872 J. Appl. Phys.63 (10),15 May 1988 0021 -8979/88/104872-09$02.40 1988 American Institute of Physics 4872

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 STATIONARY
ROTATING
CHANNEL CHANNel
FIG. 2. Meridional second-
ary flow in current collec-
tor configuration.
II
STATIONARY
OISK
metal surface R is much greater than d and a. The cover gas
is also in rotational motion due to drag and, as with the liquid
metal, the azimuthal flow is a function of the position along
the axis, since the boundary conditions require the flow to
match both the moving and stationary surface. The centrifu-
gal forces give rise to secondary circulation flows in both the
liquid metal and the cover gas, which generally have flow
patterns like those shown in Fig. 2. The meridional second-
ary flows form vortices superposed on the azimuthal pri-
mary flow. In general, we were interested in the stability of
this flow field in response to perturbations.
A comprehensive pioneering effort to determine the hy-
drodynamic cause of liquid metal instability in current col-
lectors was performed by Eriksson? He noted that the sec-
ondary flows at the interface between the liquid metal and
the cover fluid have opposite directions and attributed the
ejection instability to the onset of the classical Kelvin-Helm-
holtz instability due to shear in the secondary axial flow at
the interface. 6 In his experiments, a nonreactive cover liquid
was used instead of the previ.ously described cover gas, but
the conditions are generally the same. However, Eriksson's
interpretation suffers from both qualitative and quantitative
discrepancies. First, Eriksson assumed that the ejection
mode was axisymmetric, but his experimentally observed
instabilities generally lack such symmetry. Second, Eriks-
son's theory3 requires the incorporation of an empirical mul-
tiplicative factor to give quantitative agreement with the ex-
perimentally observed stability threshold, especially when
the cover fluid is a gas.
Because of these discrepancies, we chose to examine the
stability of the liquid metal collector from the hydrodynamic
first principles. Although an externally applied magnetic
field generally acts on liquid metal contacts in homopolar
devices, magneto hydrodynamic effects were not addressed
in this paper but will be treated in future work. The hydrody-
namic theory developed in this paper appears to be adequate
to predict the observed ejection phenomena and will form
the basic mathematicai model to study the effects of magnet-
ic field and gravity on ejection in our future work.
In Sec. II we characterize the equilibrium flow distribu-
tion in the channel based on considerations of the solution to
the Navier-Stokes equation in the specific geometry and
boundary conditions of Fig. 1. In Sec. III we analyze the
stability of the equilibrium to obtain a qualitative description
of the instability and quantitative prediction of the threshold
for its onset. In Sec. IV, the theoretical predictions are com-
4873 J. Appl. Phys., Vol. 63, No. 10, 15 May 19B8
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pared with previous experimental results; agreement
between theory and experiment is substantial. Some general
conclusions are discussed in Sec. V.
II. CHARACTERIZATION OF PRiMARY FLOW FIELDS
The dynamics of the system in Fig. 1 are described by
the generalized Navier-Stokes equation 7 ,8:
au + (u.V)u + (llp)VP = vVzu + Flp, (1)
at
where u is the velocity of the fluid with density p, pressure P,
and kinematic viscosity v, acted upon by a general body
force F. The boundary conditions are determined by the ge-
ometry of the system.
For the specific situation ofintere..'lt, the conducting flu-
id in the region between the rotating disk and the stationary
groove is absolutely contained except at the interface with
the inert cover gas between the azimuthally rotating disk and
the stationary sidewall. As we have already noted, although
the situation will become unstable for sufficiently large dif-
ferences between the azimuthal velocities in the liquid metal
and cover gas, stable equilibrium can be expected to establish
itself at lower azimuthal velocities. Therefore, we were pri-
marily interested in the stability ofthe interface at some radi-
al position R in the axial gap of length a. In cylindrical co-
ordinates, the primary flow in beth the liquid metal and the
cover gas is in the azimuthal direction given by U",. Because
of the finite dimensions of the disk and the groove, which
require the flow to vanish at the stationary surfaces and to
match the velocity of the rotating disk at the rotating sur-
face, the azimuthal (primary) flow velocity component is a
function of both the radial and axial position [Le.,
U", = U'" (r,z) J. In addition, there exists secondary flow
with radial Ur = Up (r,z) and axial Uz = Uz (r,z) compo-
nents.
In typical cases of interest, the rotor frequency is about
60 Hz. The liquid metal is usually a sodium-potassium alloy
(NaK) with typical kinematic viscosity 'ilL = 7.5 X 10- 7
m 2 Iso Nitrogen is usually used as the inert cover gas with a
typical kinematic viscosity VG = 1.5 X 10- 5 m 2 /s. The axial
gap distance is typically about 1-2 mm. For these param-
eters, the Reynolds number in the liquid metal is
ReL ::::: 1100, while in the cover gas, ReG Z 60. Therefore, for
flow in the liquid metal with this high Reynolds number, we
can expect the bulk of the fluid to rotate as an inviscid, rigid
body with angular velocity He, where 0 < fie < n.
To approximate the velocity profiles of the system we
first consider the steady, axisymmetric flow of an incom-
pressible fluid between a stationary disk and a rotating disk
at angular frequency equal to .n. 9 For the similarity solu-
tion,9-11 which holds at one or two gap lengths from the
interface, the important parameter is the Reynolds number
Re = fla 2lv, where a is the axial gap length. For small Reyn~
aIds numbers, V versus axial length z is expected to be lin-
ear. With increasing Re, U,p vs z acquires an S shape (Fig.
3). As Re increases to still higher values/ the Sshape evolves
into three regions. If the Reynolds number is sufficiently
large (i.e., Re> 1), then the flow profile can be separated
into three regions (see Fig 4). The three regions are a
0
Woo eta!. 4873
 f&i regio!'"!
in tiquid mattd
FIG. 3. Typical calculated r-R&
primary azimuthal velocity
profiles U ~ (z) for different
near reg!on
Reynolds numbers.
In liquid metal
II :s ; s R + Dis)
interface at t'= R b&tween fluids

near region in
inert ges
II - 0181 '" r " II
boundary layer at the surface of the rotating disk, an inviscid
core, and a boundary layer along the stationary disk surface. faf region in
inert cover gas
The boundary layer thicknesses are estimated to be of order R-ya
(:5!a _ Re- 1 /2.
As mentioned above, the inviscid core rotates as a rigid
body with angular velocity fie, where 0 < fie < fi. Accord- I boundary layer
~ at rotating disk
boundary Caver
at fixed disk
ingly, the azimuthal velocity in the core is UJ;c = ncr while
the radial velocity of the core Urc is equal to zero. The axial U <} I
I
,ur
~~
'!l,
\ lito
component of velocity Uzc is a negative constant, a uniform
flow from the stationary disk to the rotating disk. The pres-
sure difference neglecting gravity effects is equal to the cen-
FIG. S. Assumed meridional streamlines for radial velocity U, and axial
trifugal force: velocity Uz
Pc = Po + !pn~ r. (2)
The azimuthal velocity profile in the boundary layer
along the rotating disk is shown in Fig. 5. As we move from JP =pn2r>pU~ (4)
the core to the rotating disk, U", must rise from ncr to nr. a, C r'
Since the pressure is continuous through both boundary lay- and this imbalance drives a radially inward flow inside the
ers, the centrifugal force inside the boundary layer at the boundary layer with radial velocity U y < O. The net pumping
rotating disk is larger than the radial pressure gradient: action in the boundary layer next to the rotating and the

- - > -ap
pU! 2 stationary disks is, respectively,
= p n c r. (3)
r
ar
pC Uq//r - n~r) and p(n~r - U~/r). (5)
This pressure imbalance pumps flow radially outward inside
the boundary layer near the rotating disk; thus, Ur > O. To However, the outward and inward flows must cancel
satisfy continuity, Uzc < O.
In the boundary layer near the stationary disk U'" must
La u, dz= 0, (6)
decrease from fie r in the core volume to zero at the fixed
so the core angular velocity n c ' and thus aPe/ar, the core
disk Therefore, the pressure gradient in the boundary layer
pressure differential, reach a steady equilibrium when the
at the stationary disk satisfies the condition
outward and inward flows in the two boundary layers can-
cel.
Qualitatively, the equilibrium solution can be visualized
as illustrated in Fig. 5. In the far regions in both the liquid
I
I
I
Kayo,~ botndary metal and cover gas ( Ir - R I>a), the flow has the similarity
solution described above. In the near region in the cover gas,
I the accumulated, radially outward flow in the boundary lay-
fixed

I {nviscid core
II disk er near the rotating disk must flow across the core ( Uzc < 0)
and enter the boundary layer near the stationary disk. In the
I I near region in the liquid metal, the accumulated, radially
I inward flow in the boundary layer at the stationary disk
I must flow across the core (Uxe < 0) to the boundary layer at
I the rotating disk. These cross flows occur only near the inter-
I face Ir- R I = OCa).
I In both near regions the fluid elements keep a constant
Z = 0 I

~
,,\.j
,L _R::.---
axis of rotation
#'
angular momentumprU.. , unless they are accelerated or de-
celerated due to the viscous shear of the rotating or fixed
disks. The convective derivative of angular momentum for
the azimuthal angular momentum is

FIG. 4. Three regions at high Reynolds number Re between infinite rotat- - D (prU",) =1"{ V U", Uq,) 2
--7 (7)
ing and fixed disk Dt r

4874 J. Appl. Phys., Vol. 63, No. 10, 15 May 1988 Wooetal. 4874

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 In inviscid regions the angular momentum is
prU.p =/(111), (8a)
where III (r,z) is the Stokes streamfunction for axisymmetric
incompressible flow. The velocities given by

U = 1. aq; and U = _.!. a'II

r raz Z rar
satisfy the continuity equation:
z =0 Z = il
1 a auz
--(rUr ) +-=0. (8b) z ~ IIxial distance
r ar az
FlG. 7, Assumed typical azimuthal flow profile Uo(z) at interface (r = R)
In the liquid metal, the fluid element which travels based on similarity solution in base flow and conservation of angular mo-
along the interface has come from the surface of the fixed mentum at the interface.
disk and so the angular momentum is nearly zero (i.e.,
Utf>L;:::O at r = R). In the cover gas the fluid element which
travels along the interface has come from the surface of the
rotating disk, so that its angular momentum is p?O(i.e.,
U"'G ;::::;01'). Because of the viscous shear forces acting on variations of perturbations to the equilibrium variables by
these fluid elements as they leave either boundary, these ele- linearization of the set of Navier-Stokes equations in cylin-
ments do not maintain constant angular momentum. Be- drical coordinates. 6
cause the kinematic viscosity in the cover gas is generally Neglecting the effects of gravity, the problem is inher-
much larger than in the liquid metal, away from the interface ently cylindrical in geometry (see Fig. 1). The centrifugal
(i.e., base flow) we can expect azimuthal velocities versus force associated with the rotational motion of the fluid is the
axial distance z for the liquid metal (NaK) and cover gas dominant equilibrium force. The stability of the interface at
(nitrogen) similar to those in Fig. 6. The curves in Fig. 6 r = R between two fluids in relative rotational motion was
were calculated from the classical boundary layer solution studied by writing the perturbed equations of motion from
for the steady, axisymmetric flow between two infinite, par- the Navier-Stokes equation to first order for both fluids,
allel disks,N-11 one fixed and one rotating at angular velocity namely
H. These equations were integrated with a fourth-order aU r Uq,u",) U/
Runge-Kutta method between the boundary conditions. Po(-+uVu, - 2 - - -5p-- (9a)
Near the interface, however, axial convection of angular mo-
at r r
mentum will pun the cover gas curve up and the liquid metal = - ~(oP) + TV 2 (8R)8(r- R),
curve down; the expected profiles at the interface are shown or
in Fig. 7. The difference in azimuthal velocity between the au",
Po ( --+uVu.p + - - = ---(8P),
UrU<t 1 a (9b) .
liquid metal and cover gas at the interface is the source of at r raifJ
energy capable of driving the Kelvin-Helmholtz instability.6
We presently attribute the observed disruption in the oper- au z
Po(Tt + uoVu
)
z
a (oP),
= - az (9c)
ation of liquid metal current coHectors to the onset of an
instability driven by this mechanism. The stability criterion where
is derived in the next section. u = tire, + (U., + u",)e", + uze z
The components of the velocity in the perturbed state are
III. PRIMARY FLOW INSTABILITY AT INTERFACE
ur,u""u z ' and U.p is the equilibrium primary azimuthal flow
Having identified a source of energy for driving the Kel~ velocity. The unit vectors are e r , e"" and ez The variables Po,
vin-Helmholtz instability, we estimated the frequency bp, Po, and {jp represent the equilibrium density, perturbed
threshold for excitation of this mode of instability. The sta- density, equilibrium pressure, and perturbed pressure, re-
bility analysis was carried out by examining the temporal spectively. We have neglected the effect of viscosity on the
stability of the fluid flow in response to perturbations. In
writing Eq. (9a), we allowed the density to change discon-
tinuously across the interface between the two fluids at
r = R and included the effects of surface tension T at this
interface.
For convenience in these derivations the interface was
assumed even with the rotor tip. The deviation of the inter-
face from the equilibrium position oR is governed by the
equations:

i!..(8R} + U ~(liR) = u (R) ( lOa)

FIG. 6. Typical calculated azimuthal flow profile U", (z) away from the
at raifJ 7

interface (i.e., base flow). and

4875 J. Appl. Phys., Vol. 63, No.1 0, 15 May 1988 Wooetal. 4875

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 a uti> a
-(Sp) +--(Sp) +ur-=o.
Jpo
(lOb)
We can solve for the perturbed pressure 8Pby solving Eqs.
at r JtjJ at (15a) and (ISh) to obtain
SF = ( - (polky) Hu + ky U{)(z)] uy
We assumed that the fluid is incompressible, so that
8p = 0 everywhere except at the interface. Therefore, in both = [ - (Pc1kz) J[UJ + ky Uo(z) JUz , (17)
fluids we have from which we find the relationship:
VU = O. (11)
uzlu y = kJky . (18)
This approximation is nearly true even in the gas at Substituting Eq. (18) into Eq. (16c) results in the expres-
Mach numbers up to ~O.25. We shall assume that the equi- sion:
librium flow is dominated by the rotational motion, and is of
the form . ky dux
U =1---. (19)
y k 2 dx
(12)
Since the density Po is constant in each fluid except at the
where U Ow is the rotor speed at the interface. For the azi-
interface, we find that the radial component of the flow is
muthal primary flow representation, the perturbed equa-
governed by the following general equation in each region:
tions of motion reduce to

p (aUT + Uo(z) aUT) = _ ~(8P), (13a) (20)

o at R atjJ ar
This differential equation for the perturbed velocity u" has
-~~(OP),
Po ( au",
at +
Uo(z)
R
auq,)=
JtjJ r J
(l3b) the general solution:
Ux =Aekx + Be-- kx. (21)
p (au +z Uo(z) au = _ ~(8P).
z) (Be) The subscripts Land G are used to denote the values in the
Oat R a az
liquid metal and the cover gas, respectively; then U x in the
We have assumed that the wavelength of the distur- liquid metal UL (x) vanishes at x = d, corresponding to the
bance in the azimuthal direction is much less than the cir- surface of the stationary radial groove, and U x in the gas
cumference of the interface 21TR. With this assumption, the Uc; (x) vanishes at x = - R on the axis. Here we assume
terms - 2U",u",/r and u,U",/r in Eqs. (9a) and (9b) are that the distance from the free surface to the horizontal sta-
much smaller than the terms in Eqs. (13). tionary wan is equal to the radial gap d. Applying these
The specific geometry of the system is shown in Fig. L boundary conditions, we obtain, for the liquid metal and for
The region near the interface is far from the z axis, so that the the cover gas:
effects of CUfvature are generally negligible, except fOf the
u L (x) = AL sinh[k(x - d) J, (22)
effect of centripetal force, which appears as the - U~/R
term with the perturbed density {jp. Therefore, we applied and
the following simple transformation to the equations: (23)
x= r- R, (14a) At the interface, the equation of motion for perturbed radial
Y = R;, (14b) flow is given by Eq. (9a), which after transformation to rec-
tangular coordinates and in the short wavelength limit re-
z=z, (14c)
duces to
and we assume that the perturbed quantities in the short
wavelength limit are of the exponential form exp ipo[ (0 + ky Uo(z)] u" - Sp [ U~ (z)/R ] (24)
i(mt + kyY + kzz}, to obtain
= -.!L[BPJ - Tk 2 (oR)o(r-R),
. 1 d dx
l[w+kyUo(z)]u x = ---(OP), (15a)
Po dx ~' u" dpo
Up=l -.
k (w + kyUo(z)] dx'
i[ W + ky Uo(z)} uy = - i 2.(8P) , (1Sb)
Po P dux
/jp= _i_o
2
[w+kyUo(z)]--,
k k dx
i[w+kyUo(z)Ju z = -i~(8P). (15c)
Po {)R = - i{ux(R)/[u + kyUaCz)]}.
With these same assumptions the perturbed Eqs. ( lOa)- Upon substituting the expressions for op, SP, and {)R in Eq.
(11) are (24), the equation at the interface reduces to
i[ W + ky U()(z) loR = U X (R), (l6a) Ux dPo(U~(Z)
Po[u+kyUa(z)]u x - [w+kyUo(z)j dx - R -
i[w + ky Uo(z) ]8p + u" dpo = 0, (16b) (25)
dx
and

(16c)

4876 J. AppL Phys., Vol. 63, No.1 0, 15 May i 988 WooetaJ. 4876

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 IntegratingEq. (25) betweenR - andR + EandaHowing root sign represents the discontinuity in the centrifugal force
..... O where R is the interface, we obtain term across the interface and the surface tension between the
liquid and gas phase (cover gas). Both are stabilizing for the
PO dux (x) )
Il.R ( kT[m+kyUo(z)] dx case of a dense fluid (liquid metal) supported by a less dense
fluid (cover gas). The second term under the square root
x k 2 u (R)Il. [PoU~(z)IR]
R symbol which is proportionalto [U OL (z) - U OG (z)] 2 is as~
+------=-----=-
[@+kyUO(Z)]R sodated with coupling of the primary flow velocity into the
Tk 4 ux (RR) perturbations and is always destabilizing. This term is the
+ =0, (26) source of the Kel vin-Helmhol tz instability. 6 In general, be-
[m + ky UO(Z)]R cause of the different dependence of quantities under the
where square root sign on the wave propagation constant k, insta~
biHty can occur in regions of the k spectrum when the sum of
the quantities under the square root sign is negative.
The stability threshold is obtained from Eq. (31) as
is th.e jump or discontinuity that the function f( x) experi.
ences at r = R. Also, it sh.ould be noted that the relationship
[UOL(z) -
~
Po (U~L (z)
UOG(z)]~<-
Tk y )
+--, (32)
holds: PL kyR PL
Il.R{uJ[ m + k" ~)(z}]) = 0, (27) where we have made the approximation ky ~ k and have as-
so that the function is continuous at the interface. Making sumed thatpL >PG andpL U~L >pG U6G' The initial unsta-
use of this continuity condition and the solutions for the ble mode is given by the minimum of the right side of Eq.
perturbed radial flow velocity on either side given by Eqs. (31) with respect to ky:
(22) and (23), the two arbitrary constants ALand A G are (33)
related by
Upon substituting the expression for ky into Eq. (32) and
AG = -AL [m + kyUoG(z)] sinh(kd) . (28) changing the inequality sign to an equal sign, we obtain the
[m+kyUOL<z)] sinh(kR) following criterion for determining the onset of i.nstability:
Evaluating the jump condition in Eq. (27) and making use [UOL (z) - UOG (z)] 2 = 2(PL T)li2UOL (Z)/PGR 1/2
ofEqs. (22), (23), and (28) to obtain the derivatives of the
(34)
perturbed flow velocity, we find
If the azimuthal velocity profiles analogous to those in Fig. 7
{PL [@+ky UoL (z)l}2coth(kd} (29)
are assumed for the primary flow the following approxima-
+ {Po [(j) + ky UOG (z) JP coth(kR) tions can be used where U Ow is the rotary velocity at the
- ka R {Po[ Uo2 (z)IR ]} - k 3T = 0, interface:
where the subscripts Land G denote the liquid metal and (UOL (z) - UOG (Z)]2 = a2U~w' (35)
cover gas, respectively. In the asymptotic limit for = PUow ,
UOL (z)
kR> kd> 1, this equation reduces to:
where a = /3.
2

[PLUOL(Z) +PoUoa(z)j This approximation gives results that agree well with
m
2
+ 2kyC!.l -=-----~---...::.. experiment, as will be discussed later. Equation (34) re-
(PL +Pa)
duces to the following equations, using the above approxi-
k 2 .::.[P_L_U_O_I__2_(Z_}_+_P,-o_U_~G_(Z_).;:;..] mations ofEq, (35):
+ y
(PL+PO)
(36a)
kti}! {p()r U~ (z)/R ]}
(30)
fiO,C<it = 2(p[.1)1!2IPoR 3/2, (36b)
This is a quadratic equation in the frequency (f) of the pertur- and
bation, which has the solution:
UO,Cfit = Rno,cft! .
_ k [PL UOL (z) + Po Uoo (z)]
ill = U O.erit is the critical velocity at the interface in meters
Y (PL +PG) per second at instability, and flo,cril is the critical angular

{ k
(PL +Pa)
[t:.R(poU~(Z)+k2TJ
R
velocity at which instability occurs.
The equation for the critical velocity U a.cn, predicts that
the initial ejection point is inversely proportional to the

k ;PLPO 2 [ UOL (z) - UOG (z)

-
(PL +PG)
1/2. (31) f} square root of the radius of the rotor R, which is a useful
relationship for current collector design.
The theoretically predicted ejection points for different
The first term in Eq. (31) is always real and represents size collectors are compared with experimental ejection
the normal mode of the system in the absence of driving point data taken at the David Taylor Naval Research and
forces. The quantities under the square root sign determine Development Center 12 in the next section. In addition, a
the stability of the system. The first term under the square comparison of results based on a different theoretical model

4877 J. Appl. Phys., Vol. 63, No. 10, i5 May 1988 Woo etal. 4877

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 developed by Eriksson 3 based on a secondary flow mecha- theoretic..'
ejection dets ICarr'z) ejection speed
nism will also be discussed.
40 m~ water
11 31') m~ water
IV. COMPARISON OF THEORETICAllY PREDICTED A 2Ilmlwal.., _.- present study
o 10mlw!!te, FIG. 9. Torque vs current
AND EXPERIMENTAL EJECTION
2.25 ~~;::;~=;:=::;:::::=:::::: collector speed (rpm) with
We have compared the stability threshold predicted
from the present study [see Eq. (36a) J with ejection points
rt1
1,511,pm~
I :
water and cover gas of ni-
trogen. Rotor
ter= 316.0 mm; axial
diame-

measured experimentally at the David Taylor Naval Ship !upp",limit)ll

clearance = 3.8 mm; radial
1.200 rpm.....!
Research and Development Center (see Fig. 8).12 For com- ilaw ..,iimitl I clearance = 0.51 mm; ro-
parison, we also evaluated the threshold predicted by Eriks- tor width at tip = 3.18 mm.
son's3 theory for Kelvin-Helmholtz instability driven by
shear in the secondary flow for four different collector con-
figurations. In order to calculate an ejection velocity due to revolutions per minute
the secondary flow driven instability, Eriksson calculates the
maximum value of the secondary base flow amplitude as a
function of the Reynolds number. The value of the
different liquids to determine what parameters control the
secondary flow amplitUde increases steadily at a low Reyn-
ejection phenomenon. These collectors had no radial, azi-
olds number, reaches a maximum at the transition to turbu-
muthal, or axial magnetic fields and thus the ejection was a
lence, and faUs off in the chaotic turbulent regime. The fall-
purely hydrodynamic phenomenon as opposed to a magne-
off point given by Eriksson is different for fluids of differing
tohydrodynamic mechanism. In these experiments, as the
kinematic viscosity. In Figs. 9-12 we have presented two
rotor angular speed increased very slowly, depending on the
ejection points based on the extremes of the range of kine-
volume offiuid, some critical rotor speed was reached where
matic viscosities given by Eriksson; the lower ejection point
drops of liquid metal started to separate at the interface
roughly corresponds to the higher (gaseous cover fluid)
between the liquid metal and gas and to spiral inward toward
kinematic viscosity, while the upper point would correspond
the axis of the disk. Thus the ejection started in a nonazi-
to the lower (liquid cover fluid) kinematic viscosity. In this
muthaBy symmetric mode. As the rotor angular speed in-
way we hope to cover the entire range of possibly predicted
creased beyond this critical point, the entire volume of dis-
ejection points. This comparison gave a good indication of
tributed liquid fell to the bottom of the collector and
the validity of each ejection theory. In the interest ofb;evity,
remained there, making small circular paths. The ejection of
only the revolutions per minute curves and minimum ejec-
the liquid metal was accompanied by a large decrease in ro-
tion points are presented for each collector configuration.
tor torque and a loss of electrical conductivity across the
The experiments were performed using an apparatus
radial gap. In general the ejection point was quite reproduc-
similar to Fig. 8 with slightly differing configurations and
ible. It should also be noted that the r9tor had to be slowed to
about one-third of ejection speed before the fluid became
evenly distributed in the channel again.
Figure 9 presents a series of experimental curves of rotor
torque versus collector angular rotor speed for various vol-
umes of water. Water was used in several experiments in
place of liquid metal because it is easy to use and has many
hydrodynamic properties similar to NaK in current collec-
tor ejection experiments. The cover gas used in the system
was nitrogen. The basic sectional geometry of the collector
tip is shown in the figure inset. The important collector di-
mensions are listed in the title of the figure. The curves show
a pronounced sample size effect on ejection between 20 and

theoretica~
eject,on speed

uns.tab/e It Sml NaK - - Eriksson3

FIG. 10. Torque vs current
- . - present study
collector speed (rpm) with
sodium-potassium alloy
i 0.566 r-r--",""'--r---r--,-,--.,.,.-....,-,,.....,
~
E 0.452
.:
*i UsafI'm
/lowe, limit}
(NaK) and cover gas ofni-
trogen. Rotor diame-

speed
i 0.33$ I
I
I
ter == 228.6 mm; axial
clearance ~~ 1.52 mm; radi-
~ 0.226 I 3,341 rpm-I
I al clearance = 1.27 mm;
g 11.113 ("ppe, limit! I
FIG. 8. Cross section of typical experimental apparatus to measure ejection 2' 3.823 rpm I
rotor width at tip 3.18 mm.
instability and typical experimental curve of torque vs speed. At critical S
speed C, the fluid is ejected from the channel and the torque drops. rBvolutjons per minute

4878 J. Appl. Phys., Vol. 63, No.1 0, 15 May 1988 Wooetal. 4878

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129.174.21.5 On: Tue, 30 Sep 2014 09:45:58
 theon!ltica! nitrogen, Typical values were used for the density of NaK
.I_cden data (CG.rr12~ ejection speed
alloy, PL (850 kg/m3), the density of nitrogen PG (1.25 kg!
1130 ml WSt61"
.. 20 mE water ~ ~ Eriks80nl m 3 ), and the surface tension T (0.110 N/m). The basic sec-
o10 ml water ~._ pr&sent study tional geometry as well as important dimensions are present-
o dry

1. 13O,---.-..---...--.,..--,---r---. FIG. 11. Torque vs current ed in the figure. The possible range of ejection values calcu-
collector speed (rpm) with lated by Eriksson's theory are compared with the threshold
1.G17
water and cover gas of ni-
o,!l!)if predicted by this theory.
trogen. Rotor diame-
~ O.-n1 ter = 320.8 mm; axial Eriksson's predicted range of values gives lower ejection
~ 0.678 clearance = 1.524 mm; ra- speeds than the experimental data, whereas the present theo-
1:
dial clearance C~ 0.51 mm; ry provides a good engineering estimate for the ejection of
J:~:t
~ 0.339,
rotor width at tip = 4.85
mm.
the liquid, The dashed lines show the maximum and mini-
mum ranges of ejection values determined by the range of
'" C.22G
S secondary flow profiles compiled and presented by Eriksson
11.113
based on his theory. The reader should consult work by
G.O '----7.;;'.;;;-----;;=---;;;;!;;;;----;=~5000=...
revohJtions per minut9
Eriksson for more details. Even with the use of an empirical
correction factor Eriksson's theory predicts a range of
threshold values that are much lower in angular speeds than
experimental data.
30 ml of water, There was little or no effect between sample Figure 11 presents the torque speed curve with water
sizes of 10 and 20 ml and between 30 and 40 ml. and a cover gas of nitrogen at liquid sample sizes of 10, 20,
Using the theory presented in this paper, the stability and 30 m!. The figure insert is a sectional diagram of the
threshold for the geometry of Fig. 9 was calculated to be rotor tip. Figure 12 presents the torque versus speed curve
2064 rpm. This threshold value depends only on the density with NaK and a cover gas of nitrogen.
of the two fluids, the surface tension of the liquid metal, the In all cases, the predictions of our theory agree well with
rotor radius, and the assumed azimuthal flow profiles at the the data, but the threshold predicted by Eriksson is generally
interface based on reasonable hydrodynamic arguments. In too low.
contrast, Eriksson's3 theory requires additional specifica-
tion of the collector axial clearance, and the kinematic vis-
cosity ofliquid and cover gas. Eriksson's theory also requires v. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
the incorporation of an empirical fractional factor in the We have presented an alternative mechanism for dis-
mathematical expressions to obtain reasonable agreements. ruption of the stable liquid flow field in a liquid-metal cur-
He arbitrarily replaces the term (Pzlpl - .011.02) in his rent conector due to excitation of the Kelvin-Helmholtz in-
mathematical formulation for ejection by 8 [1 - 2.5 (PII stability. This mechanism gives reasonable agreement with
.02), where PI is the density of the cover gas and P2 is the experimental data. It differs from the mechanism presented
density of the liquid metal. This empirical replacement keeps previously by Eriksson, 3 although the Kelvin-Helmholtz in-
(.02/.01 - P llpl) from becoming very large when PI is small stability 6 is used in both theories as the basic mode for ejec-
as in this problem, tion. This theory is based on the difference in azimuthal pri-
Figure 10 presents an experimental ejection curve of ro- mary flow velocity between the liquid metal and cover gas at
tor torque versus collector rotor speed with a sample size of9 the interface as the driving mechanism of the instability.
ml of sodium potassium alloy (NaK). The inert gas was Eriksson's theory uses the difference in counterstreaming
secondary meridional flow velocities at the interface
between the liquid meta! and cover gas as the driving mecha-
th.o,etical
nism of the instability. Because the primary flow term in the
"lactic" data !C.",12) election .p....d linear instability theory, when related to the current collec-
6 ml Na/( - - Erlklllio,,3 tor problem, will be a hundred times larger than the second-
.... 4 ml NaK
II or 2 m! NaK _. - p.8nnt study
ary flow term, it seemed reasonable to expect that the pri-
mary azimuthal flow would be the dominant mode of
FIG. 12. Torque vs current
I collector speed (rpm) with ejection, and that a theory of ejection should be based on this
1"-2,706 I1'm
sodillm-potassium alloy mechanism. We believe this is the fundamental reason that
';: I (NaK) and cover gas ofni- Eriksson's theory, based on the secondary driven flow insta-
~~ G.4&! I[UJ I trogen. Rotor diame-
ter = 127.0 mm; axial
bility, required the arbitrary correction factor to place it in
I i
i" c.m
o clearance c= 1.52 mm; radi- the experimentally observed frequency ranges.
I al clearance = 0.508 mm; To calculate the critical ejection point it is necessary to
'!:.
..~t).226 ! I rotor width at lip = 4.85 determine the equilibrium flow velocity profile across the
I ....i mm.
interface. Approximations to these profiles for the liquid
2 I ~ metal and cover gas are estimated from hydrodynamic theo-
0.113 I
I ry based on the principle of conservation of angular momen-
().oUa~~~~~~~~
2.000 4.000 6.000 8.000 10.000
tum, for flow between two infinite disks in which one disk is
revolutions per minute rotating and the other disk is stationary. In Eriksson's theo-

4879 J. AppL Phys., Vol. 63, No. 10, 15 May 1988 Woo etai. 4879

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129.174.21.5 On: Tue, 30 Sep 2014 09:45:58
 ry (based on counterstreaming secondary flow at the inter-
face), the calculation is based on base flow profiles he pre-
sented in the literature3 between two infinite disks.
Comparisons of both theories with experimental results
show some noticeable trends. In the present theory, the
change in the primary azimuthal flow velocity across the
interface is sufficiently rapid that it can be represented by a
discontinuity. The theoretically estimated ejection value
provides for a practical engineering estimate in all cases COI1-
sidered (sec Figs. 9-12). The range of threshold values cal-
culated for Eriksson's theory using the correction factor
tends to underestimate the experimental ejection point. The
maximum range of ejection points in some cases is in the
range of experimental data. However, these maximum val-
ues still do not agree as well with the experimental data as the
present theory based on the radial gradient of the primary
flow profiles across the interface. The minimum range of the
ejection points calculated from Eriksson's theory is general-
ly too low.
Because the ejection of liquid metal from the current
collector can seriously affect the operation of homo polar de-
vices, it is very important to be able to predict the stabiHty
threshold with reasonable accuracy. The experimental data
exhibit a general tendency toward greater stability with in-
creased filling of liquid metal; however, operationally, to
minimize frictional losses, it is desirable to minimize the vol-
ume of liquid metal in the system. Although the present the-
ory does take into account the volume of liquid metal
through the (11R) 3/2 dependence of the critical frequency
[Eq. 36(b) L it does not adequately predict some of the fine
features observed experimentally. For example, in the data
of Fig. 9, there is a pronounced effect when the sample size is
increased from 20 to 30 ml, but change of sample size from
10 to 20 mI, or from 30-40 mI, has very little effect, if any. On
the other hand, the data in Fig. 11 exhibit a more consistent
trend toward increase in the stability threshold with in-
creased filling level.
We believe that the dependence of the stability thresh-
old on filling level is determined by the details of the equilib-
rium flow profiles in the channels, which were not accounted
for in the present theory. In more general terms, we have
constructed the equilibrium solution by assuming that the
flow field consists of a far region and a near region in each
fluid across the interface. For a typical filling levels, the radi-
al dimension of the liquid is comparable to the axial width of
the gap. Therefore, there is no really identifiable far region
for the liquid metal. Thus, the equilibrium flow never
achieves the similarity solution far from r = R. Instead, it
must satisfy U", = 0 at the top of the wall. This brings in the
corner (see Fig. 1), which is related to the excess volume of
the liquid metal. When the excess volume is small, (arl ru:)
is small, the top wall has a strong influence, and U 0[, is re-
duced everywhere, including r = R. With a large excess vol-
ume, (b.rI !lz) is large and there is a paraHellength of rotor
and stator with liquid metal so a shear ftow is established.
Therefore, U OL is everywhere larger and the interface is
more stable.
4880 J. Appl. Phys., Vol. 63, No. 10, 15 May 1988
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129.174.21.5 On: Tue, 30 Sep 2014 09:45:58
Furthermore, the appropriate Reynolds number for the
liquid or gas is not obvious because R G, and Re may not be
the same for the gas with b.r = OCR), !lz = a, and for the
liquid with fl.r = 0(0), ru: = o.
Finally, there is the question of the appropriate bound-
ary condition at the liquid and gas interface. From the usual
considerations of the boundary condition at the free surface
(see, for instance, Landau and Liftshitz7 ), the free surface
will be in the shape of a concave surface. For ease oftheoreti-
cal development, we represented the interface as a fiat, hori-
zontal plane. Such simplification obviously contributes
towards inability to accurately determine the equilibrium
distribution.
At a more specific level, the equilibrium flow must also
depend on the cross-sectional shape of the channel in which
the liquid metal is situated. To more accurately determine
the stability threshold would require numerical solution of
the Navier-Stokes equation in a particular configuration,
which, in principle, can always be done.
The nonlinear Navier-Stokes equations are being solved
numerically for specific rotor and stator cross sections to
develop high performance designs. However, we believe that
the model presented [Eq. (36)} describes the important,
basic considerations for the development of such designs.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors wish to express their appreciation to Dr. F.
J. Young, President of Scientific Division of Frontier Timber
Co., Bradford, PA, for helpful discussions on this topic. This
work was supported in part by the David Taylor Naval Ship
Research and Development Center under Contract No.
NOO167-85-C-0015 and the IR/IED program at
DTNSRDC.
JH. o. Stevens, M. J. Superczynski, T. J. Doyle, J. R Harrison, and H.
Messinger, IEEE Trans. Magn. 13, 269 (1977).
'T. J. Doyle, J. H. Harrison, and A. Cha.ikin, in Star Symposium, Naval
Arch. Mar. Engr. Spring Mceting, New London, CT (Society of Naval
Architects and Marine Engineers. New York, 1978), pp. 1-7.
'J.-T. Eriksson, in Electrical Engineering Series, no. 48. edited by M. Luuk-
kala (The Finnish Academy of Tcchnical Sciences. Helsinki, Finland,
1982).
4H. O. Stevens and M. J. Cannell, David Taylor Naval Ship Research and
Dcve\opnwnt Center, Report No. DTNSRDC/PAS-81-14, Bethesda,
MD (1981).
'R. 1.. Rhodenizer, Final Report, Task 4 and 5, General Electric Co., Con-
tract No. NOO024-68-C-5415 (1971), pro 7-35.
oS. Chandrasekhar. Hydrodynamic and Hydromagnetic Stability (Claren-
don, London, 1961), Chap. 11.
'1.. D. Landau and E. M. Lifshitz, Fluid Mechanics (Pergamon, Reading,
MA,1959).
KG. K. Batchelor, An Introduction to Fluid Dynamics (Cambridge Univer-
sity Press, Cambridge, London, 1967).
"T. H. Von Karman, Z. Ang. Math. Mech. 1, 233 (1921).
lOG. K. Batchelor, Q. J. Meeh. App!. Math. 4, 29 (1951),
lie. J. Stephenson, J. Fluid Mech. 38, 355 (1969).
12S. L Carr, David Taylor Naval Ship Research and Development Center,
Rep. No. PAS-77-17 (1977).
Woo etal. 4880