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IN THE SAME SERIES.
Geometric Exercises in
Paper Folding
and
WITH 87 ILLUSTRATIONS
CHICAGO
THE OPEN COURT PUBLISHING COMPANY
LONDON AGENTS
Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co., Ltd.
1901
ill
copyright by
The Open Court Publishing Co.
1901
.
EDITORS' PREFACE.
W. W. Beman.
D. E. Smith.
CONTENTS.
PAGE
Introduction vii
I. The Square I
88, cor. 7)* the triangles YOC and XOC are con-
*These references are to Beman and Smith's New Plane and Solid Geom-
etry, Boston, Ginn & Co., 1899.
x INTRODUCTION.
156 and 70) the triangles AOY and BOX are con-
gruent. Therefore
AY-\- YC=BX+XC,
i. e., AC=BC.
Fig. 2 shows by paper-folding that, whatever tri-
Fig. x.
ures.
* See especially Beman and Smith's New Plane and Solid Geometry, p. 287.
xii INTRODUCTION.
interesting.
T. Sundara Row.
Madras, India, 1893.
I. THE SQUARE.
latter.
the angle 17? A" equals the angle XBY, and that each
Fig. 3.
Fig. 4-
all equal, (3) but the two long sides are equal, and so
also are the two short sides.
Fig. 5-
Fig. 6.
Fig. j.
Fig. 8.
1111
~2' 1"' 16'
6tC '' r ill! *
i. e., the four triangles cut from each square are to-
gether equal to half of The sums of all these
it. tri-
whole of it.
Fig. 10.
(Fig. 11).
Fig. it.
12 GEOMETRIC EXERCISES
bisects AC in B'
31. It can be proved as above that OA, OB, and
OC are equal, and that OA', OB', and OC are also
equal.
scribed circle.
35. The right angle A, of the square, is trisected
IN PAPER FOLDING 13
tudes.
CC = \A C
.
2 2
. CC' = -i)
?>-AC=\\ ?>-AB
= 0.866.... ycAB.
Fig. 12.
: l/3 : 1 4
III. SQUARES AND RECTANGLES.
Fig. 13.
gruent.
If the triangles FGH and HBC are cut off from
Fig. 14.
nABCD = (a+b) 2.
46.EF=a andajF'GIf=(a b)
b, 2.
. . (a =a
b) 2 2
-\-b 2 2ab.
c
Fig- 15
(a + by + {a by = 2a? + 2bK
D O N C
GEOMETRIC EXERCISES
Fig. 17.
IN PAPER FOLDING 19
Fig. iS.
= ^ +^C 2 2
, by 44.
.-. AB-AY=AG-,
= AXK
But A 2
= 4 XM B Y
2 2.
20 GEOMETRIC EXERCISES
3AB-XB = AX
.-. 2
+ X-BC+ CDCP
= AB + BXK 2
AX-XB = AB-XY.
57. Hence rectangle HNAX-XB BX 2.
*The term " golden section " is also used. See Beman and Smith' s New
Plane and Solid Geometry, p. 196.
. ;.
IN PAPER FOLDING 21
58. LetAB = a, XB = x.
Then {a x) = ax, by
2
51.
a x = Sax, by
2 -\- 2
54
.
. x2 Sax -\- a2 =
and x ~ (3 j/5)
Li
= a (l/5 2) = x 0.2360.
2 . .
EA = bEB =~AB
2
4
2 2.
i4 = V^.5 = 1.1180....Xfl.
Li
AB:AX=AX: XB.
The straight line AB is said to be divided "in ex-
treme and mean ratio."
Fig. 19.
lABN=2iNAB.
AN =MN -\-AM
i i i
= BN BM + y^l/ 2 2 2
= AB-XB + AB-AX
= AB 2
IN PAPER FOLDING 23
AN=AB
.-.
Fig. to.
Fig. 21.
Q P
~~PY c V
R O
Fig. 22.
Mark oEBM=BC.
Find <9, the middle point of AM, by folding.
IN PAPER FOLDING 25
.
. triangles DA T and QSP are congruent.
. . PCSP and triangles PSA and CPT are con-
gruent.
.
. CD ABCD can be cut into three parts which
can be fitted together to form the square RBPQ.
Fig. 23-
Fig. 24.
2 2
+ 3 = 13.
2
W PAPER FOLDING 27
Fig. 25.
(1) the square in the center, and (2) the four con-
gruent symmetric quadrilaterals at the corners, to-
Fig. 26.
BM="
l/3
IV. THE PENTAGON.
A M X N B
Fig. 27.
ZRMA=i of a rt. / .
.-. NMR = % of a rt /.
Similarly / PNM= of a rt. / .
i. e., to^-Li
(l 5 l)=^x0.6180.... 58.
[AB
AB* =p 2 + 0/5-1)
h
=f + AJP-^.
32 GEOMETRIC EXERCISES
f = A*- 1
3 1/5
8
= A* 5 + 1/5
l/lO-f-21/5
p = AB
=
^^X 0.9510....=^^ cos 18.
Fig. 28.
^.5 2,4.5
"2 cos 18
i/io + 2i/5
10
:^^X 0.5257....
IN PAPER FOLDING 33
54/5
-=/ Jt = A--\j -^- , P .JB-V5
AB \ 10
= ^.5X0.4253....
76. The area of the pentagon is 5r X\ the base of
e
5
.T,+
^-\T ^ 5
--^-(1/5-1)
1/5 , x- n ^
Then . J^=^--0/5 1) . . . 72
2 cos 36 1/5 +1
34 GEOMETRIC EXERCISES
EF=AB~2RE = ABAB(3Vb)
= AB 0/5 2)... (2)
RF=MN.
RF: RE = RE EF (by 51) : (3)
= ^-H 4 \
5 -
10
!
>
= ^.A^ i
l/25 + 10 i/5,
V
since AB = MN- '
.
. the area of the inner pentagon
= ^ 2
(i/5 2) 2 I 1/25+10T/5
.
= 2 (7 3i/5)
:
= 1 0.145898....
:
Fig. 29.
1 * '-t
Fig. 30.
R = I- AB.
J
'
4 ^
IN PAPER FOLDING 37
= ***. }ab.
4
i
= Kr- AB = 0.6495..
2 .. VAB*.
Also the hexagon = f AB CD.
Fig. 31.
equilateral triangle.
38 GEOMETRIC EXERCISES
triangle.
Fig. 32.
40 GEOMETRIC EXERCISES
fore equilateral.
= |! + f (3-2^2)
IN PAPER FOLDING 41
=T
(4-21/2)
= ^(2-/2).
.:AE=1- 1/2-1/2.
^s
L^^'^/
42 GEOMETRIC EXERCISES
2 Y
w K X
Fig. 34-
XZaV^;
XE = WH=WK;
XX=a a(V'2 l)
= a(2 1/2).
Now KZ* = a* + (l/2 = a? (4 2 l/2)
2
l) 2
.-.HO = !L (2_i/2).
Again 0Z=~V2,
and HZ^^HO + 0Z 1 2
= (6-4i/2 + 2)
= a (2 1/2).
2
= a l/lO 7 1/2.
1-1/10 7^2,
and #/? = -^]/20 14 v 2 .
= ^-2i/2-(6 4l/2)
= a (3 1/2 4)
2 -
= a -l/2-(l/'2 l)
2 2
.
44 GEOMETRIC EXERCISES
= (2 l/2) 2 :l or 2 : (t/2 + l) 2
;
l/2": l/2"+ 1.
VII. THE NONAGON.
Fig. 35-
= <*X0. 4698463.
The area of the nonagon is 9 times the area of
the triangle AOL
= %& sin 40
= -^-X
O
0.6427876
= a X0- 723136.
J
VIII. THE DECAGON AND THE DODECAGON
Fig. 36-
follows :
median section.
Fig. 37-
As in GO,
Fig. 38.
24-
ARITHMETIC SERIES.
Fig. 40.
PAPER FOLDING 53
s= J (* + /)
GEOMETRIC SERIES.
being OPi : OP 2.
Fig. 41.
P P = al/l + r
1 i
i
Pi Ps ar l/r+7
P P
i i =ar'i V-i +r 2
.
OPi
OPb OPi
IN PAPER FOLDING 55
56 GEOMETRIC EXERCISES
a : x = x y=y
: : 2a.
*Ibid., p. 207.
IN PAPER FOLDING 57
HARMONIC SERIES.
or, ab bc = 2ac
-\-
ab
^^b = T~J-
b
0t '
c
a
When a = = b, c b.
IN PAPER FOLDING 59
A X B
Fig. 43-
to CAY.
Find F such that DF=DC.
Fold through EF and obtain FB, such that FB is
11, 13.
13 is 72 .
o
1
IN PAPER FOLDING 63
etc., are
those numbers.
Generally, P + 23 + 3 3
.. ,
+H 3
= (1 + 2 + 3. . .+ ).
(+!)'
. 2n*.
For [( + 1)]*_[(h_1)-]*
= ( + ) ( 2 2 2 = )
2
4
23 = (2-3) (1-2)*
2
3 3 = (3-4) (2-3V
2
4- 3 =[-(+l)] 2 [( 1)-] 5
64 GEOMETRIC EXERCISES
Adding we have
42* s = [(-|-l)] !'
= [*_(_l)]2_|-3(_l)a
= + 3( 1).
1
Now ( l) = + 3( 1),
8
l
2 P = l+-3-2-l
180 = + 3
l 0.
Hence, by addition,
3 = + 3[l-2 + 2-3 + .... + (-
/z -!)].
2
1 .
IN PAPER FOLDING 65
Therefore
*- i y* + ^-
l-2 + 2-3....+ (-l)-=g=--?= (
= 12 22 + 3-|_ +n +2+3 2
. . . .
2
( 1 . . . . + n)
Therefore
12 |
92
I
32,.,, ^ (- )"("
I
3
+ 2 1 1)
,
("+!)
= (+!) ~3~+ 1 1
2~
( + l")(2+l) '
13 _0 = 1 0-1 3 2
23 = 3 1-2 3 2
33 = 5 2-3 3 2
3 ( = (2 1) 1)
3 2 _(_ !).
66 GEOMETRIC EXERCISES
Adding, we have
3 = 12 + 3 +52
+ (2 I)
2 ....
2
= 5 3
A
XI. POLYGONS.
a(2 2 )=i?l/2;
/
/(2 2 )= ff-22-v 2;
J
*(*)= 1 1/2;
A (2 2
) = i? 2 -2.
F'g- 47-
IN PAPER FOLDING 69
= -2i/2.
i? 2
7 GEOMETRIC EXERCISES
course, inadmissible.
sides. Jr
C_ fl _ g D
IN PAPER FOLDING 71
Then
=
p n-AB, P = n-CD, p' = 2n-AE, P' = 2n-FG.
Because OF bisects Z. COE, and AB is parallel
to CD,
CF _
CO __ CO __ CD
~~ ~~
FE 0 AO AB
72 GEOMETRIC EXERCISES
CE _ CD-\-AB
'''FE~ A~B
''
4n-CE n-CD+n-AB
or
\n-FE n-AB
IP _ P+p
2Pp
P'
P+p
Again, from the similar triangles EIF and AHE,
EI __ EF
~AH~ ~AE'
or AE = 2AHEE;
2
tude, AH,
AAOH OH
' '
aAOE
.
IN PAPER FOLDING 73
and OE = OA,
and
0E A ^ 0E
OA ~ OH ~ aAOH '
2AB
B'
'A + A'
74 GEOMETRIC EXERCISES
That is,
R + r + Rr n -\- R 2 r 2 + . . .
n
Also,
R = Rri
i
l or R- Q- =Ri
Ri
and = R\
R%
, and so on.
R
-H-
K\ Ki K%
-5- " -5- = the radius of the circle = -.
zn
IN PAPER FOLDING 75
polygon of 4 sides
R'HR+R')
K - 2R
or in general
R_^_
i+1 _ J_Ri=1
lit* .
R>
= \- + cos a = cos a -
2'
R
R, 2 \ 2
-
76 GEOMETRIC EXERCISES
CS
R k
2-i
multiplying together the different ratios, we get
sin ~i(X
is -
, a result known as Euler's Formula.
za
AC-BC=R-CC iii.
*Beman and
Smith's translation of Fink's History of Mathematics,^.
245 see also their translation of Klein's Famous Problems of Elementary
;
Geometry, pp. i6, 24, and their New Plane and Solid Geometry, p. 212.
tThese theorems may be found demonstrated in Catalan's Thdoremes et
Problemes de G&omUrie Elimeniaire.
IN PAPER FOLDING 77
OAfOAi^H*.
By theorem i,
.-. OA OAi = R.
x
teen sides.
Here*
OA x OA-i OA OAi OAs OA OA OA = F*.
3 6
7 8
OA OAi = F( OA + OA )
x
3 5
OA r OA =F(OA OAi)
s 6
OA OA = F(OA + OA )
z h 2 8
OA -OA = F(OAxOA )
e 7 4
Suppose
OA + OAi = M, OA 0A = N,
s 6 1
OA +OA B = F, OAxOA i= Q.
2
The principal steps are given. For a full exposition see Catalan's Thio-
rimes et Problemes de Giomitrie Elimentaire, The treatment is given in full
in Bemao and Smith's translation of Klein's Famous Problems of Elementary
Geometry^ chap. iv.
. ]
m PAPER FOLDING 79
MN=R PQ=R t
,
2
{M N) (P Q) = R.
Also by substituting the values of M, N, P and Q in
we get
(M N) (P Q) = 4R 2.
mined.
Again
OA -\-OA s = P,
2
OArOAz = RN.
Hence OA% is determined.
MN=\R{\ + l/T7).
P-Q = ^R( 1+1/17).
^ = ^(1 + 1/17 + 1/34 2i 17).
N= R ( 1 l/T7 +l/34 + 2 V 17)
04 =^[_ l+i/T7 + l/34 2i 17
8
8o GEOMETRIC EXERCISES
Fig. 51.
DE = M N,
D'=zE~Q;
.
IN PAPER FOLDING. 81
also
FH=N, . {DE + FH) FH^DF'^R2 ;
= RN.
But FF' + F'H'=F.
.-. F'F=OA s.
XII. GENERAL PRINCIPLES.
these processes.
gruent.
I 1 1 1 1
X- A' O A X
Fig. 52.
See Beman and Smith's New Plane and Solid Geometry, p. 56.
f
84 GEOMETRIC EXERCISES
gons.
t/.,p. 5.
IN PAPER FOLDING. 85
symmetry. J
In the first case the revolution is outside the given
plane, while in the second it is in the same plane.
If in the above two cases, the two figures are halves
of one figure, the whole figure is said to be symmetric
Fi K- 53-
Fig 54-
metry.
Fig- 55-
Fig. 56.
Fig. 58.
parallel.
of Euclid's Elements.*
P B:AP = BD:A.
S 3
94 GEOMETRIC EXERCISES
IN PAPER FOLDING. 95
1,1 1 - 1
'"
l-2 + 2-3'---+(_
(n l)n
1-
n
smaller lines.
The points where AB crosses the perpendiculars
are the required points of section.
= (a-\-b + + c )-MP.
If the multiples are all equal to a, we get
a(AP+ BP+ CP+ ....)=na -MP
n being the number of points.
= n-(P +OP 2 2
).
Now
AB + AC + AD +
2 2 2
.. ..^2n-P2 .
Similarly
BA + BC + B> + ..
2 2 2
.. = 2,rP 2
Adding
2(AJ3* -{-AC i + AD + ....) = n-2n-P
2 2
.
minimum.
If M be the mean center and P any other point
not belonging to the system,
%PA 2 = 2MA 2 +2PM2 ,
(where 2 stands for "the
sum of all expressions of the type").
.-. 2PA 2
is the minimum when PM=0, i. e.,
Simson's line.
early.
bisector.)
2^ = JF=T
or
sects it.
the points.
circumference.
Fig. 61.
inscriptible in a circle.
*The above figures and proof are from Beman and Smith's New Plane
and Solid Geometry, p. 129.
io8 GEOMETRIC EXERCISES
AB =AZ>-AF
2
AB =OA-AE.
i
AE=-AD-AF OA
2AD-AF
AZ> + AF'
Fig. 65.
rent.
... OL 2 0'Z i =0 2 0 M ,
i
.
circle.
Fig. 66.
Fig. 69.
and mn 0K= : 1 : n.
. . pm mn:PK- 0K= r n
2
:
3
.
_ 1-3
-f 2
2
+3 2
.. + (_ I) XC3NK 2
( 1)(2 1)
2n s 3n* + n XD^A
1-2-3-J
3-2^ + 6^Jx a
1 1 1 \
^
= -j of iV.A'in the limit, i. e., when n is oo.
.
The curvilinear area OPK=\ of CDNK, and the
parabolic area OPN=\ of nuNK.
243. The same line of proof applies when any
diameter and an ordinate are taken as the boundaries
of the parabolic area.
IN PAPER FOLDING
K
122 GEOMETRIC EXERCISES
FA:AO = FA':A'0
= FA + FA':AO + A'0
= AA': 00'
= CA CO.
:
= FA':A'0
=FA :A0.
If EO = FO, FP is at right angles to FO, and
FP=FP'. PP' is the latus rectum.
In the ellipse PN 2
: AN- NA' is a constant ratio.
tion
2
y
2 =b (2ax x 2
2 ~)
PC: AC.
251. Fig. 71 shows how the points can be deter-
mined when the constant ratio is less than unity.
Fig. 72.
Fig- 73-
PN:A'N=RD:A'D.
Again, from the triangles, APJV and DAR,
PN:AN=AD:RD.
.-. PN"1
: AN-A'NAD A'D, a : constant ratio,
less than unity, and it is evident from the construc-
tion that iVmust lie between A and A'.
CB'=CB = b;
CA' CA = CA' = a.
Fold CD any line through C and make CD CA.
Fold DN perpendicular to CD. Fold NQ perpen-
dicular to CA and make NQ=DN. Fold ^"cut-
ting CA in S. Fold B'S cutting QNin P.
Fig. 74-
QN _A"C
TN~lC'
x(2a-\-x) a2
Squaring,
yl b2
'
b2
or f=-$ (2ax + x 2
).
y
2
= (2a-\-x)x.
In this case the construction is simpler as the ordi-
nate of the hyperbola is itself the geometric mean be-
r 2 cos 2ff =a 2
or r 2 = cosa 20
sa
on the curve.
Y
Fig- 75-
a
OB =
cos 20'
See Taylor's Ancient and Modern Geometry of Conies, examples 308, 390
with lootnote.
XIV. MISCELLANEOUS CURVES.
THE CISSOID.
y 2
(2a x)=x 3
.
.-. RN:PM=CD:CE.
=OC CD 2
:
2
,
.-. CD:C = OC 2
:CD*.
CD:CF=OC:CD
. OC:CD = CD:CF=CF:CE
.
.-. OA OD = EC 2 -
THE WITCH.
269. If OQA NQ an
(Fig. 79) be a semicircle and
xy 1 =a 2
(<? .v).
Fig. 79.
Y
,
Fin. 81.
coming infinite.
Fig. 82.
stant.
the curve.
i 4o GEOMETRIC EXERCISES
. CA CF 2 =6 2 = (CA-\-CF)(CACF)
2
=F'A-FA.
Produce FA and take AT=FK. In AT take a
point J/ and draw MK. Fold JOf' perpendicular to
When x = c, y= (e l -\- _1
<?
)
when x = 2<r, y= w Li
(<?
2
+ e~^) and so on.
/ = -(yJr V'}
/- 1
*
l e <*)
y .
I 42 GEOMETRIC EXERCISES
c V e =y
' -\- Vy 2 -
V '
2 c 2
is found by taking the geometric mean be-
tween y -\- c and y c
Fig. 83.
THE LIMACON.
IN PAPER FOLDING H3
Fig. 85.
r2 =a 2
cos2d.
Let O be the origin, and OA=a.
Produce AO, and draw OD at right angles to OA
Take the angle A OP =6 and A OB-2 d.
= OB-OA
= acos28-a
= a cos 20.
2
Fig. 86.
THE CYCLOID.
280. The cycloid is the path described by a point
on the circumference of a circle which is supposed to
roll upon a fixed straight line.
THE TROCHOID.
281. If as in the cycloid, a circle rolls along a
THE EPICYCLOID.
282. An epicycloid is the path described by a point
on the circumference of a circle which rolls on the
circumference of another fixed circle touching it on
the outside.
THE HYPOCYCLOID.
283. If the rolling circle touches the inside of the
THE QUADRATRIX.*
284. Let OACB be a square. If the radius OA of
SUNDARA ROW, T.
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