THE GAS TURBINE ENGINE

Gas turbine engines can be classified according to the type of compressor used, the path
the air takes through the engine, and the way power produced is extracted or used.

Compressor types fall into three categories:

1. Centrifugal flow
2. Axial flow
3. Axial-centrifugal flow

In addition, power usage produces the following engine divisions:

1. Turbojet
2. Turbofan
3. Turboprop
4. Turboshaft

Compression is achieved in a centrifugal-flow engine by accelerating air outward

perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the machine, while in the axial-flow type, air is
compressed by a series of rotating and stationary airfoils moving the air parallel to the
longitudinal axis. The axial-centrifugal design uses both kinds of compressors to achieve
the desired compression.

In relation to power usage, the turbojet engine directly uses the reaction resulting from a
stream of high-energy gas emerging from the rear of the engine at a higher velocity than it
had at the forward end. The turbofan engine also uses the reaction principle, but the gases
exiting from the rear of this engine type have a lower energy level, since some power has
to be extracted to drive the fan. (See pages 15-17 for a more detailed explanation of the
operating principles of the fan engine.) Turboprop and turboshaft engines both convert the
majority of the kinetic (energy of motion), static (energy of pressure), and temperature
energies of the gas into torque to drive the propeller in one case and a shaft in the other.
Very little thrust from reaction is produced by the exiting gas stream.

From these basic types of gas turbine engines have come the literally dozens of variations
that are either in actual service or various stages of development. Many combinations are
possible, since the centrifugal and axial flow compressor engines can be used for turbojet,
turbofan, turboprop, or turboshaft applications. Furthermore, within the major
 classifications are a host of variations, some of which are discussed on the following
pages.

CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSOR ENGINES

Variations of this type of compressor include the single- stage; two-stage; and single-stage,
double-entry compressor. The centrifugal design works well for small engines where a
high compression ratio (pressure rise across the entire compressor) is not essential, or
where other design or operational considerations may take precedence.
The principal advantages of the compressor are as follows:
1. Low weight
2. Ruggedness, and therefore resistance to foreign object damage
3. Simplicity
4. Low cost
5. High compressor ratio per stage (with a limited number of stages)
6. High tolerance of "off-design" conditions .

Probably the most famous example (historically speaking) of this type of powerplant is the
Allison Engine J33 , used in the first U.S.A.F. jet, the Lockheed P-80.

Newer versions were used in the T-33, which was a training version of the P-80.
Centrifugal compressors have found wide acceptance on smaller gas turbine engines.
Examples of this application are the Teledyne CAE J69, the Williams International WR27-
1, and the Allison model 250 series HI. Two other examples of engines equipped with a
form of the centrifugal compressor are the Rolls Royce Dart and the AlliedSignal Garrett
TPE331. These two turboprop engines incorporate a two-stage compressor and integral
propeller-reduction gearbox.

The free-power turbine used on many different forms of gas turbines has no mechanical
connection to the primary or gas-generator turbine, which, in this situation, is used only to
turn the compressor in order to supply high-energy gases to drive the free-power turbine.
The design lends itself to variable-speed operation better than the single shaft, and it
produces high torque at low free-power turbine speeds. In addition, this type of powerplant
has the advantage of requiring no clutch when starting or when a load is applied. On the
other hand, single- or fixed-shaft engines, when used as turboprops, allow rapid response
rates. The fixed-shaft engine, even at so-called idle, is running at the same rpm as it is at
100 percent. All that is required to obtain maximum power is to increase fuel flow and the
propeller blade angle. Also, on a power-to-power comparison, the fixed-shaft engine will
burn less fuel since there is no fluidic coupling to create inefficiencies. (Compare the free-
power turbine arrangement to an automatic transmission in a car.)

FIGURE 2-2 Drawings showing the three basic forms of centrifugal compressors and
schematics showing the airflow through each.
(a) and (b) The single-stage centrifugal compressor.
(c) and (d) The two-stage centrifugal compressor (compressors in series).
(e) and (f) The two-stage or double-entry centrifugal compressor (compressors in parallel)
Some centrifugal and axial compressor engines incorporate a heat exchanger called a
regenerator or recuperator. The purpose of the regenerator or recuperator is to return some
of the heat energy that would normally be lost with the exhaust to the front of the
combustion chamber. Less fuel thus needs to be added to reach the turbine limiting temper-
atures, resulting in high thermal efficiency, low specific fuel consumption, and low exhaust
gas temperature. Although regeneration has been used on a number of ground-power
engines, at the time of this writing, no aircraft engines use this method of power recovery
because of excessive weight and/or regenerator air-sealing difficulties.

AXIAL COMPRESSOR ENGINES

Engines using axial compressors may incorporate one, two, or three spools. A spool is
defined as a group of compressor stages, a shaft, and one or more turbine stages,
mechanically linked and rotating at the same speed., and the figure show single-spool, two-
spool, and three-spool engines, respectively. These engines may also include forward or
rear fans, afterburners, and free- power turbines and be used in a variety of applications,
such as turbojet, turbofan, turboprop, and turboshaft engines.

Most large gas turbine engines use this type of compressor because of its ability to handle
large volumes of airflow at pressure ratios in excess of 20:1. Unfortunately, it is more
susceptible to foreign-object damage, expensive to manufacture, heavy in comparison to a
centrifugal compressor with the same compression ratio, and more sensitive to "off-
design" operation.

The two major manufacturers of gas turbine engines in the United States are the Pratt &
Whitney Company and the General Electric.
 CENTRIFUGAL TYPE MOTORS

AlliedSignal Garrett TPE331- (T76).

The AlliedSignal Garrett TPE331 is a single- shaft (spool) turboprop engine. The
compressor has two centrifugal stages in series that are driven by three turbine wheels.
Compression ratio is 8:1 and mass airflow is 5.8 lb/s (2.63 kg/s) at 41,730 rpm. Propeller
rpm is reduced to 2000 by means of a 20.86:1 integral gearbox equipped to sense torque. A
reverse-flow combustion chamber is used. Specific fuel consumption is 0.66
pounds/equivalent shaft horsepower/hour (lb/eshp/h) [300 grams/equivalent shaft horse-
power/hour (g/eshp/h)]. and the engine weighs 330 lb [150 kg]. Power is 600 to 700 eshp
approximately, depending on the dash number.

1. Inlet air is drawn into the first-Stage centrifugal compressor.

2. The compressor section consists of two stages of radial impellers of forged titanium.
3. After passing through interconnecting ducting, the compressed air enters the combustor
where fuel is added and the mixture is burned.
4. The hot gases are then expanded through a three-stage turbine which converts the energy in
the gases to shaft power.
5. This shaft power is used to drive the compressor and, through the gearbox, engine
accessories and the propeller.
6. The gases are exhausted rearward via the straight-through- design tailpipe providing
additional thrust.
AVIONES QUE UTILIZAN MOTOR

The Turbo II Aerocommander is equipped with two AlliedSignal Garrett TPE331 engines.

Two AlliedSignal Garrett TPE331 engines are installed in the Mitsubishi MU-2 turboprop aircraft.

ALLISON ENGINE COMPANY J33

The J33 is no longer in production but is included here as an example of a centrifugal

flow turbojet with a double-sided compressor. Since several models were produced, engine
operating parameters are given as ranges and/or approximations. The compression ratio is
approximately 4.5:1; the compressor flows 90 to 100 lb/s [41 to 50 Kg/s] at 11, 800 rpm
and is driven by a single-stage turbine. Fourteen can-type combustion chambers are
interconnected by cross-ignition tubes. Specific fuel consumption is about 1 lb/lbt/h
[102g/N/h]. The engine weighs about 1900 lb [962 Kg]. And produces thrusts up to 6000 lb
[26, 688 N].
 Allison Engine Company GMT-305 Whirlfire

The GMT-305 was designed to be used as as a prime source of power for land vehicles but
is included here to show the rotating regenerator. The GMT-305 Whirlfire is shown in the
cutaway with some of the frame parts omitted for clarity. The arrows show the airflow
through the engine. Air enters the inlet (1), is compressed to over 3 atmospheres (atm) by a
centrifugal compressor (2), and absorbs exhaust heat as it passes through two rotating
regenerators (3). The heated compressed air then enters the combustors (4) where the fuel
nozzles (5) inject fuel for combustion. The combustion gases pass through the turbine vanes
(6) and drive the gasified or gas-generator turbine (7). The gases then drive the power tur-
bine (8), which is not mechanically connected to the gasified shaft. Hot exhaust gas is
cooled to 300-500F [150-260C] as it passes through the self-cleaning, rotating
regenerators (9) and is directed out the exhaust ports (10). The power turbine drives the
power output shaft (11) through a single-stage helical reduction gear. The gasified turbine
drives the accessory shaft (12) through a set of reduction gears.
 AXIAL TYPE MOTORS

Allison Engine Company J71

The 16-stage axial-flow compressor of this turbojet engine flows 160 lb/s
[73 kg/s] at a compression ratio of 8:1 at 6100 rpm. The can-annular
combustor has 10 interconnected flame tubes. A three-stage turbine drives
the compressor. Specific fuel consumption is 1.8 lb/lbt/h [183.5 g/N/h] with
the afterburner in operation. The engine weighs 4900 lb [2223 kg] and
produces 10,000 to 14,000 lbt [44,480 to 62,272 N] under normal and reheat
(afterburner) operation.

Cutaway view of the Allison J71 engine.

Jlison Engine Company 501-D Series (T56)

The 501-D is a single-shaft turboprop engine equipped with a separate propeller-reduction

gearbox that reduces the propeller rpm to 1020. The 14-stage axial-flow compressor is
driven by a four-stage turbine. Compression ratio is 9.5:1, and airflow is 33 lb/s [15 kg/s] at
13,820 rpm. The combustion chamber is the can-annular type with six flame tubes. Specific
fuel consumption is 0.53 lb/eshp/h [241 g/eshp/h], and the weight of the engine is
approximately 1800 lb [817 kg J] The power produced ranges from 3750 eshp (3460 shp
plus about 725 lb [3225 N]) of thrust to almost 5000 eshp, depending on the model.