Detail Design of Bridges and Structures

Chapter 12
Bridge Design Manual - 2002 Detail Design of Bridges and Structures
12 DETAIL DESIGN OF BRIDGES AND STRUCTURES

12.1 GENERAL
These detail design recommendations deal only with culverts, retaining walls, and small and
medium size bridges of certain types. Other types or larger bridges should be designed
according to Chapter 3: Load Requirements.
Detail design shall be made either according to the empirical methods in Chapter 13:
Approximate Methods of Analysis (based on Ref. 1) or any other refined design methods, as
long as they follow accepted static and general design rules.
Loads, force effects and minimum requirements stated in Chapter 3: Load Requirements
shall be used for the detail design.
Construction Loads: In addition to the loads specified in Chapter 3: Load Requirements, all
the appropriate construction loads, such as construction live load from machinery and other
equipment, segment unbalance, etc., shall be considered. Construction loads and conditions
frequently determine section dimensions and reinforcing and/or prestressing requirements in
segmentally constructed bridges. It is important that the designer shows these assumed
conditions in the contract documents.
Forms are placed in appropriate sections of the text for checklists in the design of various
piles, piers, abutments, slabs, girders, frame bridges, masonry arch bridges, prestressed
superstructure, and bearings. A final Form 12-12 at the end of the chapter gives a checklist
for the basic steps in the design of concrete bridges. Worked examples of detailed design are
given in the appendix.
12.2 NOTATIONS
The following notations have been used in the recommended methods of calculation:
Acp = total area enclosed by outside perimeter of concrete cross-section (mm2)

Ag = gross area of section (mm2)
Ao = area enclosed by the shear flow path, including area of holes therein, if any
(mm2)
As = area of compression reinforcement (mm2)
As = area of non-prestressed tension reinforcement; area of reinforcing steel (mm2)
As-BW = area of steel in the band width (mm2)
As-SD = total area of steel in short direction (mm2)
At = area of one leg of closed transverse torsion reinforcement (mm2)
Av = total area of steel (mm2)
Av = area of shear reinforcement within a distance s (mm2)
Av = area of transverse reinforcement within a distance s (mm2)
Ethiopian Roads Authority Page 12-1

Chapter 12
Detail Design of Bridges and Structures Bridge Design Manual - 2002
b = design width, usually taken as 1.0 (mm)

bc = perimeter of slab
bo = perimeter of the critical section (mm)
B = footing dimension
B = reduced footing dimension
Bc = outside width of culvert (mm)
Bd = horizontal width of trench (mm)
bv = effective web width taken as the minimum web width within depth dv (mm)
Cd = coefficient for trench installations
c = the distance from the extreme compression fiber to the neutral axis (mm)
d = depth of slab or footing
de = effective depth from extreme compression fiber to the centroid of the tensile
force in the tensile reinforcement (mm)
dv = effective shear depth (mm)
D = pile width (mm)
eB = eccentricity parallel to dimension B (mm)
eL = eccentricity parallel to dimension L (mm)
E = equivalent width (mm)
f2b = stress corresponding to M2b (MPa)
f2s = stress corresponding to M2s (MPa)
fc = compressive strength of concrete
fc = factored stress
fcp = compressive stress in concrete after prestress losses have occurred either at the
centroid of the cross-section resisting transient loads or at the junction of the web
and flange where the centroid lies in the flange (MPa)
fpe = effective stress in the prestressing steel after losses (MPa)
fr = modulus of rupture of concrete
fy = yield strength of reinforcement (MPa)
Fe = soil-structure interaction factor for embankment installations
Ft = soil-structure interaction factor for trench installations
g = acceleration of gravity (m/s2)
H = depth of backfill; notional height of earth pressure diagram; height of soil face
(mm)
Hs = depth of embedment of pile socketed into rock
i = backfill slope angle (DEG)
I = importance category
Ie = effective moment of inertia
Ig = gross moment of inertia
kap = dimensionless bearing resistance coefficient
kh = horizontal acceleration coefficient (DIM)
kh = humidity factor
ks = size factor
kv = vertical acceleration coefficient (DIM)
K = effective length factor to compensate for rotational and translational boundary
conditions other than pinned ends
Page 12-2 Ethiopian Roads Authority

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l = unbraced length (mm)

L = footing dimension
L = span length (mm)
L = reduced footing dimension
L1 = modified span length taken equal to the lesser of the actual span or 18 000 (mm)
M = moment (Nmm)
M2b = Moment on compression member due to factored gravity loads that results in no
appreciable sidesway, calculated by conventional first order elastic frame
analysis, always positive (Nmm).
M2s = Moment on compression member due to factored lateral or gravity loads that
results in no sidesway, , greater than lu/500, calculated by conventional first
order elastic frame analysis, always positive (Nmm).
Ma = maximum moment in a component at the stage for which deformation is
computed (N-mm)
Mc = factored moment
Mcr = cracking moment (N-mm)
Mu = moment from factored loads (Nmm)
NL = number of design lanes
P = load (N)
Pc = the length of the outside perimeter of the concrete section (mm)
Pe = Euler buckling load (N)
Pu = factored axial load (N)
QR = factored uplift resistance (N)
Qs = nominal uplift capacity due to shaft resistance (N)
qp = nominal end bearing resistance of piles driven into rock (MPa)
qu = average uniaxial compression strength of the rock core (MPa)
r = minimum radius of gyration (mm)
R = reduction factor for longitudinal force effects
s = effective span length; spacing of stirrups (mm)
S = spacing of transverse reinforcement
Sd = spacing of discontinuities (mm)
t = drying time (Days)
t = thickness (mm)
td = width of discontinuities (mm)
Tcr = torsional cracking moment (Mnn)
Tn = nominal torsional resistance
Tr = factored torsional resistance
Tu = factored torsional moment (Mnn)
Vc = shear strength (N)
Vc = nominal shear resistance, concrete
Vn = nominal shear resistance (N)
Vp = vertical component of prestressing force (N)
VP = component in the direction of the applied shear of the effective prestressing
force, positive if resisting the applied shear (N)
Vr = factored shear resistance (N)

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Vs = shear resistance, steel

Vu = factored shear force, in section (N)
W = physical edge-to-edge width of bridge (mm)
W1 = modified edge-to-edge width of bridge taken equal to the lesser of the actual
width or 18 000 mm for multi-lane loading, or 9000 mm for single lane loading
(mm)
WE = total unfactored earth load (N/mm)
Weff = effective width of footing
yt = distance from the neutral axis to the extreme tension fiber (mm)
= angle of inclination of transverse reinforcement to longitudinal axis, also taken as
the angle between a strut and the longitudinal axis of a member (DEG)
o = bedrock acceleration coefficient
= slope of wall to the vertical, negative as shown in Figure 12-5 (DEG)
= factor indicating ability of diagonally cracked concrete to transmit tension
c = ratio of long side to short side of the rectangle through which the concentrated
load or reaction force is transmitted
s = density of backfill (kg/m3)
= density of soil (kg/m3)
= angle of friction between soil and abutment (DEG)
sh = strain due to shrinkage
= angle of shear resistance; arc tan (kh /(I - kv)) (DEG)
= angle of inclination of diagonal compressive stresses (DEG)
= angle of crack, usually 45
= skew angle (DEG)
= resistance factors; angle of friction of soil (DEG)
u = resistance factor for uplift capacity
12.3 SEISMIC DESIGN METHODS
Seismic methods are outlined in section 3.19: Earthquake Effects. The Ethiopian Building
Code Standard (EBCS), Vol. 8 Design of Structures for Earthquake Resistance (Ref. 2)
shall be used as a compliment for seismic design of bridges in the country. The importance
category (I) for bridges should be set to I = 1.4. Other load factors and coefficients are given
in section 3.3: Load Factors and Combinations and in section 3.19: Earthquake Effects.
Seismic zones 1 2 3 4
AASHTO (Ref. 1) (o) 0.09 0.19 0.29 0.29
EBCS (Ref. 2) (o) 0.03 0.05 0.07 0.10
Table 12-1 Comparison between Bedrock Acceleration Coefficients
As shown in the Table 12-1, zones 1 to (and including) zone 3 in EBCS correspond
approximately to zone 1 in the AASHTO (Ref.1), meaning that few special precautions have

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to be considered for common bridge types. Only for special substructures and large or
sensitive bridge types in EBCS zone 4, seismic design should be performed according to
section 3.19: Earthquake Effects or any generally recognized method of seismic design that
might be accepted by ERA. The bedrock acceleration ratios above should be compared.
Regarding the limits of the zones see Figure 3-9.
SETTLEMENT CALCULATION METHODS
The most common method used in Ethiopia is shown in the Ethiopian Building Code
Standard, Vol. 7, Foundations, Chapter 6.6.3 Estimation of Settlements in the
Serviceability Limit State (Ref. 3). It can also be recommended for bridges of small and
medium size. However for certain silty soils or deep cohesive soils, as well as for large
bridges, more exact methods are recommended. There are at least three methods where the
soil under the footing is divided into 8 or more strata to a depth, z, under the footing z = 4*
Weff ; where Weff is the effective width of the footing, and the compression of each strata is
calculated with its specific properties.
12.4 FOUNDATIONS
12.4.1 EFFECT OF LOAD ECCENTRICITY
For loads eccentric to the centroid of the footing, a reduced effective area, B' x L', within the
confines of the physical footing shall be used in geotechnical design for settlement or bearing
resistance, as indicated in Figure 12-1. The design bearing pressure on the effective area shall
be assumed to be uniform. The reduced effective area shall be concentric with the load.
Figure 12-1 Reduced Footings Dimensions

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The reduced dimensions for an eccentrically loaded rectangular footing shall be taken as:
B = B 2eB (12.1)
L' = L - 2eL (12.2)
where: eB = eccentricity parallel to dimension B (mm)

eL = eccentricity parallel to dimension L (mm)
Footings under eccentric loads shall be designed to ensure that:

The factored bearing resistance is not less than the effects of factored loads, and
For footings on soils, the eccentricity of the footing, evaluated based on factored loads, is
less than 1/4 of the corresponding footing dimension, B or L.
For structural design of an eccentrically loaded foundation, a triangular or trapezoidal contact

pressure distribution based on factored loads shall be used.
For footings that are not rectangular, similar procedures should be used based upon the
principles specified above.
For purposes of structural design, it is usually assumed that the bearing pressure varies
linearly across the bottom of the footing. This assumption results in the slightly conservative
triangular or trapezoidal contact pressure distribution.
For footings that are not rectangular, the reduced effective area is always concentrically
loaded and can be estimated by approximation and judgment.
12.4.2 SPREAD FOOTINGS
Provisions herein shall apply to the design of isolated footings, combined footings and
foundation mats. The Ethiopian Building Code Standard, Vol.7 Foundations, Chapter 6
(Ref. 3) deals with shallow foundations.
Class A concrete is generally used for most elements of structures, except when another class
is more appropriate, and specifically for concrete exposed to saltwater. Class B concrete is
used in footings, massive pier shafts, and gravity walls.
In sloped or stepped footings, the angle of slope or depth and location of steps shall be such
that design requirements are satisfied at every section. Circular or regular polygon-shaped
concrete columns or piers shall be treated as square members with the same area, for location
of critical sections for moment, shear and development of reinforcement in footings.
Where an isolated footing supports a column, pier or wall, the footing shall be assumed to
act as a cantilever. Where a footing supports more than one column, pier or wall, the footing
shall be designed for the actual conditions of continuity and restraint.

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Flexure
The critical section for flexure shall be taken at the face of the column, pier or wall. In the
case of columns that are not rectangular, the critical section shall be taken at the side of the
concentric rectangle of equivalent area. For footings under masonry walls, the critical
section shall be taken as halfway between the center and edge of the wall.
Moment at any section of a footing shall be determined by passing a vertical plane through
the footing and computing the moment of the forces acting on one side of that vertical plane.
In one-way footings and two-way square footings, reinforcement shall be distributed

uniformly across the entire width of the footing. The following guidelines apply to the
distribution of reinforcement in two-way rectangular footings:
in the long direction, reinforcement shall be distributed uniformly across the entire width
of footing,
in the short direction, a portion of the total reinforcement as specified by Equation 12-3
below, shall be distributed uniformly over a band width equal to the length of the short
side of footing and centered on centerline of column or pier. The remainder of
reinforcement required in the short direction shall be distributed uniformly outside of the
center band width of footing. The area of steel in the band width shall satisfy the
following equation:
As-BW = As-SD( 2 ) (12.3)

+1
where: = the ratio of long side to short side of footing

As-BW = area of steel in the band width (mm2)
As-SD = total area of steel in short direction (mm2)
Shear
Critical Sections: In determining the shear resistance of slabs and footings in the vicinity of
concentrated loads or reaction forces, the more critical of the following conditions shall
govern:
one-way action, eg. longitudinal to the bridge, with a critical section extending in a plane
across the entire width and located at a distance taken at either:
"d", the overall depth of the slab or footing, from the face of the concentrated load or
reaction area, or from any abrupt change in slab thickness where the load introduces
compression in the top of the section, or
at the face of the concentrated load or reaction area where the load introduces
tension in the top of the section.
two-way action, eg. longitudinal and transverse to the bridge, with a critical section
perpendicular to the plane of the slab and located so that its perimeter, bc, is a minimum,
but not closer than 0.5d to the perimeter of the concentrated load or reaction area,

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where the slab thickness is not constant, critical sections located at a distance not
closer than 0.5d from the face of any change in the slab thickness and located such
that the perimeter, bc, is a minimum.
For one-way action, the shear resistance of the footing or slab shall satisfy the general
requirements for shear.
For two-way action for sections without transverse reinforcement, the nominal shear
resistance,
Vn in (N), of the concrete shall be taken as:
0.33
Vn = 0.17 f c bodv f cbodv
c (12.4)
where: c = ratio of long side to short side of the rectangle through which the concentrated
load or reaction force is transmitted
bo = perimeter of the critical section (mm)
dv = effective shear depth (mm)
Where the factored shear force, in section, Vu > Vn (see Figure 12-2), shear reinforcement
shall be added such that Vn = Vc+ Vs in compliance with Nominal Shear Resistance with
angle taken as 45o.
If a haunch has a rise-to-span

ratio of 1:1 or more where the
rise is in the direction of the
shear force under investigation,
it shall be considered an abrupt
change in section and the
design section shall be taken as
"d" into the span with d taken
as the depth past the haunch.
Vu = factored shear force, in section (N)

M = moment (Nmm)
P = load (N)
H = horizontal load (N)
W = weight (N/mm)
Fr = field reaction (N/mm)
Figure 12-2 Example of Critical Sections for Shear in Footings

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For two-way action for sections with transverse reinforcement, the nominal shear resistance,
in N, shall be taken as:
Vn = Vc + Vs 0.504 fc *bo dv (12.5)
for which: Vc = 0.166 fc *bo dv , and (12.6)

Vs = Av fy dv / s (12.7)
For the development of shear reinforcement in slabs and footings, the provisions above shall
apply.
If shear perimeters for individual loads overlap or project beyond the edge of the member,
the critical perimeter bo should be taken as that portion of the smallest envelope of individual
shear perimeter which will actually resist the critical shear for the group under consideration.
12.4.3 PILED FOUNDATIONS
General design
Calculation of piled footings for bridges follow the same rules as buildings. Therefore the
Ethiopian Building Code Standard, Vol.7 Foundations, Chapter 7: Pile Foundations (Ref.
3) can be used. The special requirements for bridges in section 6.3 Foundations: Footings on
Piles should however be considered.
All loads resisted by the footing, and the weight of the footing itself, shall be assumed
transmitted to the piles. Piles installed by driving shall be designed to resist driving and
handling forces. For transportation and erection, 1.5 times the self-weight of a precast pile
should be considered for the design.
Any portion of a pile, where lateral support adequate to prevent buckling may not exist at all
times, shall be designed as a column.
The points or zones of fixity for resistance to lateral loads and moments shall be determined
by an analysis of the soil properties.
Concrete piles shall be embedded into footings or pile caps, as specified below. Anchorage
reinforcement shall consist of either an extension of the pile reinforcement or the use of
dowels. Uplift forces or stresses induced by flexure shall be resisted by the reinforcement.
The steel ratio for anchorage reinforcement shall not be less than 0.005 and the number of
bars shall not be less than four. The reinforcement shall be developed sufficiently to resist the
force 1.25 fy As.
For the design of footings, unless the use of special equipment is specified to assure precision
driving of piles, it shall be assumed that individual driven piles shall be out of planned
position in a footing by either 150 mm or one quarter of the pile diameter, and that the center
of a group of piles shall be 75 mm from its planned position. For pile bents, the contract
documents may require a 50 mm tolerance for pile position, in which case that value should

Chapter 12
be accounted for in the design.

Splices in concrete piles shall develop the axial, flexural, shear and torsional resistance of the
pile. Details of splices shall be shown in the contract documents.
If possible piles in tension should be avoided, although this is sometimes not possible in high
abutments. Piers should preferably be designed symmetrically so that the center of rotation of
the entire pile group will be below the bearings.
Required pile penetration should be determined based on the resistance to vertical and lateral
loads and the displacement of both the pile and the subsurface materials. In general, unless
refusal is encountered, the design penetration for any pile should be not less than 3000 mm
into hard cohesive or dense granular material and not less than 6000 mm into soft cohesive
or loose granular material.
Where a portion of a pile lies inside the critical section, the pile load shall be considered to
be uniformly distributed across the width or diameter of the pile, and that portion of the load
which is outside the critical section shall be included in the calculation of shear on the
critical section.
If a large diameter pile is subjected to significant flexural moments, the load on the critical
section shall be adjusted by considering the pile reaction on the footing to be idealized as the
stress distribution resulting from the axial load and moment.
Piling design (driven piles)
The calculations shall be made in the order presented in Form 12-1.

Skin friction pile group may have total strength limit bearing capacity considerable greater
than or less than the sum of the bearing capacity of each pile.
Tip bearing pile group usually has the total strength limit bearing capacity equal to the sum
of the bearing capacity of each pile. Tip bearing piles are usually assumed to behave like
elastic compressed members loose hinged into the pile footing. The settlement of the group
is usually very small and need not to be calculated for the common types of bridges.
Usually batter piles are used to resist horizontal forces. If the piles penetrate friction
material or certain types of over-consolidated clays the side bearing stability shall be used,
but then the horizontal displacement should be calculated as well.
The pile group of abutment and piers should be designed so that the rotation center is above
the bearings.
If the Soil Investigation Report indicates downdrag (negative skin friction), especially for
tip bearing piles this case must be considered. To minimize the downdrag there are different
methods to be used:
a tip with larger area than the pile itself, combined with
asphalt dipped or painted on the surface of the pile
preboring of a hole before inserting the asphalt painted pile itself.

Chapter 12
FORM 12-1: CHECKLIST FOR PILING DESIGN (DRIVEN PILES)
1. List all acting vertical and horizontal forces.

2. Assume a number of piles and their batter.
3. Calculate the resultant roughly by the lever rule method (moment equation through the
bottom edge of the pile cap).
4. Check that the tension in the piles is limited otherwise increase the batter of the piles.
5. Check the approximate compression force in each pile and optimize the number of
piles.
6. Calculate the center of the pile group
7. Merge all the piles with the same batter and distance from the centerline in stacks.
8. Calculate the distance of the resultant exactly
9. Check the rotational center point
10. Calculate the moment of inertia at the center of rotation
11. Calculate the pile forces in each pile by the lever method (moment equations)
12. Table the result, check that every pile is not different from the assumed value.
13. If downdrag is given in the Soil Investigation Report, add the downdrag (= negative
skin friction) to the pile load.
14. If skin friction piles, calculate the long-term settlement of the entire pile group.
(Usually the initial settlement of cohesion piles is neglected). If tip bearing piles, the
settlement usually corresponds to the compression of the piles.
15. Note: Usually the pile group needs design checking after the piling due to
misplacements, broken piles, wrong batter, etc.
Date: ................................ Designer Date: ..................... Responsible Engineer
........................................................................................................................................................................

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Piles Bearing on Rock:
The resistance factor for the tip resistance of piles bearing on rock shall be taken as
specified in section 6.3 Limit States and Resistance Factors. The same applies for the axial
resistance obtained from the pile driving analyzer, where:
pile width exceeds 290 mm, and
rock discontinuity spacing exceeds 300 mm, and
unfilled discontinuity thickness is less than 6.4 mm, or
discontinuities filled with soil or rock debris are less than 25 mm wide
The nominal unit end bearing resistance, qp, of piles driven to rock, in MPa, shall be taken
as:
qp = 3quKapd (12.8)
for which:
Kap = (3 + Sd / D) / 10 * (1 + 300( td / Sd )) (12.9)
d = 1 + 0.4Hs/D < 3.4
where: qu = average uniaxial compression strength of the rock core (MPa)

Kap = dimensionless bearing resistance coefficient from the formula above.
Sd = spacing of discontinuities (mm)
td = width of discontinuities (mm)
D = pile width (mm)
Hs = depth of embedment of pile socketed into rock taken as 0.0 for piles resting on
top of bedrock (mm)
When this method is applicable, the rocks are usually so sound that the structural capacity
will govern the design.
Uplift shall be considered when the force effects, calculated based on the appropriate
strength limit state load combinations, are tensile. When piles are subjected to uplift, they
should be investigated for both resistance to pullout and structural ability to resist tension
and transmit it to the footing.
The uplift resistance of a single pile shall be estimated in a manner similar to that for
estimating the skin friction resistance of piles in compression. Factored uplift resistance QR,
in N, shall be taken as:
QR = Qn = u Qs (12.10)
Where: Qs = nominal uplift capacity due to shaft resistance (N)

u = resistance factor for uplift capacity
The factored load effect acting on any pile in a group shall be estimated using the traditional
elastic strength of materials procedure for a cross-section under thrust and moment. The

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cross-sectional properties should be based on the pile as a unit area. The resistance factors
for axial tension are lower than those for compression. One reason for this is that piles in
tension unload the soil; this reduces the overburden effective stress and hence the uplift skin
friction resistance of the pile.
12.5 RETAINING WALLS
12.5.1 GENERAL
The design of retaining walls is usually made by classic soil pressure theory, similar to that
of abutments. In earthquake zone 4 however, it might be necessary to check sliding by the
Manonobe-Okabe method (Ref. 4) given later in this chapter.
Usually the stability /overturning, lateral sliding and bearing resistance failure should be
checked in the strength limit state. Excessive displacement shall be checked in the service
limit state.
12.5.2 GRAVITY WALLS (STONE MASONRY)
See also following subchapter on masonry abutments.
Stone masonry retaining walls are designed as gravity walls, usually using Masonry Class B
(see Technical Specifications). The methods used are general for all similar structures. The
Ethiopian Building Code Standard, Vol. 7 Foundations, Chapter 8: Retaining Structures
and in particular subchapter 8.6.3 Foundation Failure of Gravity Walls of that document
(Ref. 3), are recommended. The Live Load Surcharge according to section 3.20: Earth
Pressure should be applied, if the retaining wall is close to the traffic.
Class B concrete is usually used in gravity walls and footings. Usually the stability
/overturning, lateral sliding and bearing resistance failure should be checked in the strength
limit state. Excessive displacement shall be checked in the service limit state.
12.5.3 CANTILEVERED RC WALL DESIGN
The cantilevered retaining wall design usually is a tedious iteration problem. Therefore it is
most suited for computers. There are a few commercial programs available at present but a
designer could also prepare his own EXCEL-sheet. If possible, the Standard Detail Drawing
Manual-2002(No. RW-1 for RC Cantilever Retaining Walls with 2-6 m height) should be
used.
Regarding the initial settings of dimensions, for common types of soil the footing width shall
be set to 0.6-0.8 of the height, and depending on the soil bearing capacity, the toe should be
0.2-0.3 of the total footing. If the heel is too short, a "shear wall" is needed under the footing
to resist sliding. In other words, if the safety factor of sliding is not obtained, the heel
dimension should be increased, and if the safety factor of overturning too low, then the toe

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should preferably be increased. For practical reasons the top of the wall shall not be less than
0.2 m. The backfill should be granular or of stone, whichever is available at the site.
Generally, Class A concrete is used for RC retaining walls and Class B concrete is used for
concrete gravity walls and footings.
Regarding loads, the temperature and shrinkage deformation effects and the earthquake loads
should also be applied. For stability computations, the earth loads shall be multiplied by the
maximum and/or the minimum load factors given in section 3.3: Load Factors and
Combinations. Structural failure, lateral sliding, stability /overturning and bearing resistance
failure shall be checked in the strength limit state. Excessive displacement shall be checked
in the service limit state.
In the general case of a cantilever retaining wall where the downward load on the heel is
larger than the upward reaction of the soil under the heel, the critical section for shear in the
footing is taken at the back face of the stem.
A worked example of a concrete retaining wall design is given in the appendix.
12.6 CULVERTS
12.6.1 GENERAL
One of the most common types of culvert is a simple supported reinforced concrete slab on
two or three masonry walls. In this case the bearings shall be made only of a layer of bitumen
felt on top of concrete shelves cast on the stone masonry. The design should however be
according to simple statics as a bridge with the loads from section 3.3: Load Factors and
Combinations, with the following exceptions:
Expansion joints need not to be considered.
For buried structures with more than 0.6 m fill, earthquake forces in all zones shall be
omitted.
12.6.2 DESIGN OF RC CULVERTS
General
Buried structures shall be designed so that no movement of any part of the structure will
occur as a result of scour. In areas where scour is a concern, the wingwalls shall be extended
far enough from the structure to protect the structural portion of the soil envelope
surrounding the structure. For structures placed over erodible deposits, a cutoff wall or scour
curtain, extending below the maximum anticipated depth of scour or a paved invert, shall be
used. The footings of structures shall be placed not less than 600 mm below the maximum
anticipated depth of scour.
Uplift shall be considered where structures are installed below the highest anticipated

Chapter 12
groundwater level. To satisfy this provision, the dead load on the crown of the structure
should exceed the buoyancy of the culvert, using load factors as appropriate.
Pipe structures and footings for buried structures shall be investigated for bearing capacity
failure and erosion of soil backfill by hydraulic gradients.
Design criteria, as specified in the ERA Drainage Design Manual-2002, Chapter 7:

Culverts, section 7.3: Design Criteria for hydraulic design considerations, shall apply. See
also ERA Standard Detail Drawings-2002, Chapter 6: Box Culvert and Slab Culvert
Drawings for standard single and multiple box culverts.
Design
RC Cast-In-Place and Precast Box Culverts: The provisions herein shall apply to the
structural design of cast-in-place and precast reinforced concrete box culverts and cast-in-
place reinforced concrete arches with the arch barrel monolithic with each footing.
These structures become part of a composite system comprised of the box or arch culvert
structure and the soil envelope.
Precast reinforced concrete box culverts shall be manufactured using conventional structural
concrete and forms, or they shall be machine-made with dry concrete and vibrating form pipe
making methods.
Loads and Live Load Distribution: Loads and load combinations specified in Table 3-1 shall
apply. Live load shall be considered as specified in section 3.10: Live Loads. Distribution of
wheel loads and concentrated loads for culverts with less than 600 mm of cover shall be
taken as specified for slab-type superstructures. Requirements for bottom distribution
reinforcement in top slabs of such culverts shall be placed in the secondary direction in the
bottom of slabs as a percentage of the primary reinforcement for positive moment. For
primary reinforcement parallel to the traffic:
1750 s 50% (12.11)
Where s = effective span length (mm).
For primary reinforcement perpendicular to traffic:
3840 s 67% (12.12)
Distribution of wheel loads to culverts with 600 mm or more of cover shall be as specified in
section 3.8: Gravity Loads/Distribution of Wheel Loads through Earth Fills.
The dynamic load allowance for buried structures shall conform to section 3.9: Live
Loads/Buried Components.

Chapter 12
Modification of Earth Loads for Soil-Structure Interaction: In lieu of a more refined

analysis, the total unfactored earth load, WE, in N/mm, acting on the culvert shall be taken
as:
For embankment installations:
WE = g Fe sBcH*10-9 (12.13)
in which: Fe =1 + 0.20 H (12.14)
Bc
For trench installations:
WE = g FtsBcH*10-9 (12.15)
in which: CdBd 2 (12.16)

Ft = Fe
HBc
where: g = acceleration of gravity (m/s2)

Fe = soil-structure interaction factor for embankment installation specified herein
Bc = outside width of culvert (mm)
H = depth of backfill (mm)
Ft = soil-structure interaction factor for trench installations specified herein
s = density of backfill (kg/m3)
Bd = horizontal width of trench (mm)
Cd = a coefficient specified in Figure 12-3
Fe shall not exceed 1.15 for installations with compacted fill along the sides of the box
section, or 1.40 for installations with uncompacted fill along the sides of the box section.
For wide trench installations where the trench width exceeds the horizontal dimension of the
culvert across the trench by more than 300 mm, Ft shall not exceed the value specified for an
embankment installation.
Precast Box Structures: At all cross-sections subjected to flexural tension, the primary
flexural reinforcement in the direction of the span shall be not less than 0.2% of the gross
concrete area. Such minimum reinforcement shall be provided at the inside faces of walls
and in each direction at the top of slabs of box sections having less than 600 mm of cover.
Where the fabricated length exceeds 5 m, the minimum longitudinal reinforcement for
shrinkage and temperature should be in conformance with section 9.1: Concrete.
If the height of the fill is 600 mm, the minimum cover in the top slab shall be 50 mm for
all types of reinforcement.

Chapter 12
Figure 12-3 Coefficient Cd for Trench Installations
Where welded wire fabric is used, the minimum cover shall be the greater of three times the
diameter of the wire or 25 mm.
Shear in Slabs of Box Culverts: The provisions for shear and torsion in general shall apply
unless modified herein. For slabs of box culverts under 600 mm or more fill, shear strength
Vc shall be computed by:
32AsVude
Vc = 0.178 fc + * bde (12.17)
bdeMu
but: Vc shall not exceed 0.332 fc b de (12.18)
where: As = area of reinforcing steel (mm2)

de = effective depth from extreme compression fiber to the centroid of the tensile
force in the tensile reinforcement (mm)
Vu = shear from factored loads (N)
Mu = moment from factored loads (Nmm)
b = design width usually taken as 1.0 (mm)

Chapter 12
For single cell box culverts only, Vc for slabs monolithic with walls need not be taken less
than
0.25 f c bde (12.19)
and Vc for slabs simply supported need not be taken less than
0.207 f c bde (12.20)

The quantity
Vude/Mu 1.0 (12.21)
where Mu is the factored moment occurring simultaneously with Vu at the section

considered. For slabs of box culverts under less than 600 mm of fill and for sidewalls, the
provisions for shear and torsion in general and in slabs and footings shall apply.
12.6.3 DESIGN OF RC PIPES
Generally the detail design of Reinforced Concrete Pipes should be avoided due to the
prevalence of manufactured pipes. Precast Concrete Pipes shall meet the requirements of
the Technical Specifications.
It should be noted that Bedding Classes, also referred to as Standard Installations, shall
be as indicated in the ERA Standard Detail Drawings-2002.
12.7 SUBSTRUCTURES FOR RC BRIDGES
12.7.1 GENERAL
Regarding earthquake design within Zone 4, see the following subsection of that title.
Creep Coefficient
The creep coefficient shall be estimated as in section 9.3 Reinforced Concrete/Shrinkage and
Creep.
Shrinkage
In the absence of more accurate data, the shrinkage coefficients shall be assumed to be
0.0002 after 28 days and 0.0005 after one year of drying. When mix-specific data are not
available, estimates of shrinkage and creep shall be made using the provisions below.
Shrinkage of concrete can vary over a wide range from nearly nil if continually immersed in
water to in excess of 0.0008 for either thin sections made with high shrinkage aggregates or
for sections which are not property cured.
Shrinkage is affected by aggregate characteristics and proportions, average humidity at the

Chapter 12
bridge site, water/cement ratio, volume to surface area ratio of member, and duration of
drying period.
For moist cured concretes, devoid of shrinkage-prone aggregates, the strain due to
shrinkage, sh, at time t, shall be taken as:

t 3 (12.22)
sh = kskh 0.51 * 10
35.0 + t

where: t = drying time (Days)

ks = size factor (see Figure 12-4)
kh = humidity factor specified in Table 12-2 below
If the moist-cured concrete is exposed to drying before five days of curing have elapsed, the
shrinkage as determined in equation above should be increased by 20%.
12.7.2 PIERS (MASONRY, WALLS, FRAMED, COLUMNS)
Design schedules for the most common three types of piers are presented here. Class A
concrete is generally used for all elements of structures. Class B concrete is used in footings,
massive pier shafts, and gravity walls.
Figure 12-4: Factor ks for Volume-to-Surface Ratio
Average Ambient 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Relative Humidity %
kh 1.43 1.29 1.14 1.00 0.86 0.43 0.00
Table 12-2 Factor kh for Relative Humidity

Chapter 12
Masonry Piers shall be designed in the order presented in Form 12-2.

RC Wall Pier Design
The procedure of calculation will follow the schedule presented in Form 12-2 with the
following alterations:
The bending and shear reinforcement shall be calculated also at some points (at least at
the bottom and at the midpoint) of the wall.
The spalling effect under the bearings should be checked if the bearing plate is small (i.e.
steel girders).
If the stream velocity is high, the pier is high and the water is deep, the load combination
without vertical load from the superstructure and the full stream force shall be dangerous
and should therefore be checked.
RC Frame Pier Design
Framed piers shall be designed according to the schedule in Form 12-3.
12.7.3 ABUTMENTS (STONE MASONRY, RC CLOSED, RC OPENED)
Abutment seats constructed on modular units shall be designed by considering earth

pressures and supplemental horizontal pressures from the abutment seat beam and earth
pressures on the backwall. The top module shall be proportioned to be stable under the
combined actions of normal and supplementary earth pressures. The minimum width of the
top module shall be 0.9 m. The centerline of bearing shall be located a minimum of 300 mm
from the outside face of the top precast module. The abutment beam seat shall be supported
by and cast integrally with the top module. The front face thickness of the top module shall
be designed for bending forces developed by supplemental earth pressures. Abutment beam-
seat loadings shall be carried to the foundation level and shall be considered in the design of
footings.
The minimum dimensions of RC abutments shall be as follows:

Footing : t 0.3 m; on rock trock 0.25m, usually 0.6 m
Abutment : frontwall/stem and headwall t 0.25m, usually 0.5/0.3 m respectively.
Wingwall : t 0.2m, usually 0.3 m
Differential settlement provisions shall apply.

A design schedule of the most common type of abutment, stone masonry, is shown here.

Chapter 12
FORM 12-2: CHECKLIST FOR MASONRY PIERS DESIGN
1. Specify the class of masonry (usually B) and strength of other materials to be used (if
any).
2. Assume some preliminary dimensions. e.g. top width of seat & side batterings. The
sides are to be rounded if the design velocity exceeds 1 m/s and the battering of the sides
usually are chosen as 1:20 upstream and equal downstream, or 1:10 if high water
velocity and high pier.
3. Draw a sketch with the above preliminary dimensions.
4. Divide the wall into parts so that it will be simple to calculate the dead load of the
parts of the pier and their centroidal distance from an arbitrary selected point, usually at
the toe.
5. Calculate the loads transferred from superstructure to the pier; i.e. dead load, live load,
wind loads, longitudinal forces and thermal loads.
6. Calculate the loads directly applied on the pier; i.e. wind load if applicable and stream
force.
7. Calculate the maximum and minimum bearing pressure at the base of pier with the
above loads.
8. Check whether the eccentricity for the maximum bearing pressure is within the
allowable range for the type of foundation material.
9. Check if the ground pressure at the base of the wall is less than the allowable bearing
capacity of the founding material.
10. If the bearing pressure at the base of the wall exceeds the allowable bearing capacity
of the soil either increase the battering and/or provide a reinforced concrete footing.
Revise the dead load of the pier. The final maximum bearing pressure from the
substructure shall be less than or equal to the allowable bearing capacity of the soil.
11. Check the stability of the pier for overturning. The factor of safety against
overturning shall usually be greater or equal to 2.0 according to the serviceability limit
stage. Sometimes the soil stability regarding circular gliding in friction soil should be
checked in cooperation with the Soil Engineer.
12. Check the stability of the pier for sliding. The factor of safety against sliding shall
usually be greater or equal to 1.5 according to the serviceability limit stage.
Note if a RC footing is used the sliding surface is between the concrete and the ground.
The surface between the stone masonry and the concrete should be checked for shear
friction. Note that checking of the stone compression strength at the bottom of the pier
is usually not necessary, since the stone masonry is stronger than the soil bearing
capacity.
If RC footing is provided under the masonry the following order could be applied:
13. Calculate the bearing pressure on top and bottom surface of footing
14. Calculate the moment per meter of footing at halfway between the middle and edge
of wall

Chapter 12
15. Check the adequacy of the footing thickness for flexure and shear.
16. Calculate the flexural reinforcement at the four sides of the cantilever.
17. Draw a sketch of the final dimensions of the pier cross section with the footing
reinforcement (if any)
........................................................................................................................................................................

Chapter 12
Form 12-3: Checklist for RC Frame Pier Design

1. Specify the quality of reinforcement steel; concrete used and their strengths
2. Assume some preliminary dimensions: i.e. top width of seat/cap depth of cap, column
dimensions, footing dimensions
4. Calculate the dead load of the parts of the pier and their centroidal distance from an
arbitrary selected point, usually the toe of the footing.
5. Calculate the load transferred from superstructure to the pier; i.e. dead load, live load,
wind loads, longitudinal forces and thermal loads, usually from the bearing design.
6. Calculate the loads directly applied on the pier; i.e. wind loads, stream forces, collision
loads (if the river is navigable)
7. Calculate the maximum and minimum bearing pressure at the base of pier with the
above loads.
8. Check whether the eccentricity for the maximum soil bearing pressure is within the
allowable range for the actual type of foundation material.
9. Check that the pressure at the base of the footing is less than the allowable bearing
10. If the bearing pressure at the base of the wall exceeds the allowable bearing capacity
of the soil either increase the front and/or back battering and/or provide reinforced
concrete footing. Revise the dead load of the pier. The final maximum bearing pressure
from the substructure shall be less than or equal to the allowable bearing capacity of the
soil.
11. Check the stability of the pier for overturning. The factor of safety against
overturning shall usually be greater or equal to 2.0 according to the serviceability limit
stage.
12. Check the stability of the pier for sliding. The factor of safety against sliding shall
usually be greater or equal to 1.5 according to the serviceability limit stage.
13. Draw a sketch with the loads from superstructure and directly applied on the pier.
14. Analyze the frame with the different load conditions.
15. Design the pier cap for flexure and shear.
16. Design the bracing for flexure and shear (if any)
17. Design the columns (Hint: Calculate the moment magnification factor for the
slenderness effect, prepare the column interaction curve with the assumed dimension and
reinforcement, check if the factored axial load with the simultaneously applied magnified
moment is within the column interaction curve.)
18. Check the minimum steel ratio of the column reinforcement.
19. Design the footing in the longitudinal and transversal direction for flexure; wide
beam and punching shear (a circular column should be converted to an equivalent square
one).
20. Draw a sketch of the final dimensions of the pier cross section with the footing
reinforcement.
21. Prepare bar schedule table.

........................................................................................................................................................................

Chapter 12
Form 12-4: Checklist for Masonry Abutments Design
1. Specify the class of masonry (usually B) and strength of other materials to be used.
2. Assume some preliminary dimensions: i.e. top width of seat usually 0.5 m, front
battering, back battering, etc.
4. Calculate the loads transferred from superstructure to the abutment; i.e. dead load, live
load, wind loads, longitudinal forces (breaking force, shrinkage, creep and thermal loads
all transferred through friction forces from bearings).
5. Divide the wall into parts to make it simple to calculate the dead load of the parts of
the abutments and their centroidal distance from an arbitrarily selected point, usually
taken to be the toe.
6. Calculate the active soil earth pressure from back of wall and the passive earth
pressure from front of wall. Usually the passive earth pressure is neglected since the front
soil adjacent to the wall is susceptible for scour, is loose backfill and hence not effective
in developing the resistance, as well as relatively more shallow in depth.
7. Calculate the maximum and minimum bearing pressure at the base of abutment with
the above loads.
8. Check whether the eccentricity for the maximum bearing pressure is with in the
9. Check if the pressure at the base of the wall is less than the allowable bearing capacity
of the founding material.
10. If the bearing pressure at the base of wall exceeds the allowable bearing capacity of
the soil either increase the front and/or back battering and/or provide reinforced concrete
footing. Revise the dead load of the abutment. The final maximum bearing pressure from
the substructure shall be less than or equal to the allowable bearing capacity of the soil.
11. Check the stability of the abutment for overturning. The factor of safety against
overturning 2.0, according to the serviceability limit stage.
12. Check the stability of the abutment for sliding. The factor of safety against sliding
shall usually be 1.5 according to the serviceability limit stage.
Note that checking of the stone compression strength at the bottom is usually not
necessary, since the stone masonry is stronger than the soil.
The battering of the sides usually follow the outer side of the wingwalls.
If RC footing is provided under the masonry the following applies:
13. Calculate the bearing pressure on top and bottom surface of footing.
14. Calculate the moment per linear width of footing at the point B/4 (which is halfway
between the middle and edge of wall)
16. Calculate the flexural reinforcement at the toe and heel cantilever.
17. Draw a sketch of the final dimensions of the abutment cross section with the footing
reinforcement (if any)
........................................................................................................................................................................

Chapter 12
FORM 12-5: CHECKLIST FOR RC ABUTMENT DESIGN
1. Specify the class of concrete (usually B) and strength of reinforcement steel to be used.
28-Day Strength Classes are: 28 Mpa for Concrete A and 17 Mpa for Concrete B.
2. Assume some preliminary dimensions: i.e. top width of seat (usually 0.6 m), thickness
of wall, thickness of footing, etc.
4. Calculate the loads transferred from superstructure to the abutment; i.e. dead load, live
load, wind loads, longitudinal forces (breaking force, shrinkage, creep and thermal loads
all transferred through friction forces from bearings).
5. Divide the wall into parts to make it simple to calculate the dead load of the parts of
the abutments and their centroidal distance from an arbitrarily selected point (usually the
toe).
6. Calculate the active soil earth pressure from back of wall and the passive earth
pressure from front of wall. Usually the passive earth pressure is neglected since the
front soil adjacent to the wall is susceptible for scour, is loose backfill and hence not
effective in developing the resistance, as well as relatively more shallow in depth.
7. Calculate the maximum and minimum bearing pressure at the base of abutment with
the above loads.
8. If piled calculate the pile group according to text. (Usually all rows are battered).
9. Check whether the eccentricity for the maximum bearing pressure is within the
10. Check if the pressure at the base of the wall is less than the allowable bearing
11. If the soil bearing pressure at the base of wall exceeds the allowable bearing capacity
of the soil increase the footing. Revise the dead load of the abutment. The final
maximum bearing pressure from the substructure shall be less than or equal to the
allowable bearing capacity of the soil.
12. Check the stability of the abutment for overturning. The factor of safety against
overturning 2.0, according to the serviceability limit stage.
13. Check the stability of the abutment for sliding. The factor of safety against sliding
shall usually be 1.5 according to the serviceability limit stage.
14. Check the compression strength at the bottom of wall
15. Calculate the moment of frontwall (base)/stem at 2-4 points and headwall at base
16. Calculate the moment per linear width of footing and check for shear reinforcement.
18. Calculate the flexural reinforcement at the toe and heel cantilever.
19. Calculate the settlement of the abutment footing.
20. Draw a sketch of the final dimensions of the abutment cross section with the footing
reinforcement
........................................................................................................................................................................

Chapter 12
Masonry Abutments shall be designed as presented in Form 12-4.
The closed reinforced concrete abutment shall be calculated according to the checklist
presented as Form 12-5. Detailed design is similar to that for retaining walls, as presented in
the appendix.
RC Closed and Open Abutment (with counterforts)
Shall be calculated according to the Checklist in Form 12-5. Refer Chapter 5, Section 5.7
figure 5-2.
Earthquake Design of Abutments, Retaining Walls, etc.
There is some possibility of damage to bridge abutments due to earthquakes in Ethiopia.

Damage is typically associated with fill settlement or slumping, displacements induced by
high, seismically caused, lateral earth pressures, or the transfer of high longitudinal or
transverse inertia forces from the bridge structure itself.
Movements of freestanding abutments follow the general pattern of outward motion and
rotation about the top after contact with and restraint by the superstructures. Fill settlements
can be 10 - 15% of the fill height.
Design features of abutments vary tremendously and depend on the nature of the bridge site,
foundation soils, bridge span length, and load magnitudes. Abutment types include free-
standing gravity walls, cantilever walls, tied back walls, and monolithic diaphragms.
Foundation support may use spread footings, vertical piles, or battered piles, whereas
connection details to the superstructure may incorporate roller supports, elastomeric
bearings, or fixed bolted connections. Considering the number of potential design variables,
together with the complex nature of soil abutment superstructure interaction during
earthquakes, it is clear that the seismic design of abutments necessitates many simplifying
assumptions.
For freestanding abutments, such as gravity or cantilever walls, which are able to yield
laterally during an earthquake (i.e., superstructure supported by bearings that are able to slide
freely), the well-established Mononobe-Okabe pseudo-static approach, outlined below, is
widely used to compute earth pressures induced by earthquakes. On the basis of this
simplified approach, recommendations are made for the selection of a pseudo-static seismic
coefficient and the corresponding displacement level for a given effective peak ground
acceleration.
Mononobe-Okabe Analysis
The method most frequently used for the calculation of the seismic soil forces acting on a
bridge abutment is a static approach developed in the 1920s by Mononobe (Ref. 4) and
Okabe (Ref. 5). The Mononobe-Okabe analysis is an extension of the Coulomb sliding-

Chapter 12
wedge theory, taking into account horizontal and vertical inertia forces acting on the soil.
The analysis is further described by Seed and Whitman (Ref. 6), and Richards and Elms
(Ref. 7). The following assumptions are made:
1. The abutment is free to yield sufficiently to enable full soil strength or active pressure
conditions to be mobilized. If the abutment is rigidly fixed and unable to move, the soil
forces will be much higher than those predicted by the Mononobe-Okabe analysis.
2. The backfill is cohesionless, with a friction angle of .
3. The backfill is unsaturated, so that liquefaction problems will not arise.
Equilibrium considerations of the soil wedge behind the abutment, then lead to a value, EAE,
of the active force exerted on the soil mass by the abutment and vice versa. When the
abutment is at the point of failure, EAE is given by the expression:
EAE = 1 g H2 (1 kv)KAE *10-9 (12.23)

2
where the seismic active pressure coefficient KAE is:
2
cos 2 ( ) sin ( + )sin ( )
KAE = * 1 + (12.24)
cos cos cos( + + )
2
cos( + + )cos(i )
where: g = acceleration of gravity (m/s2)
= density of soil (kg/m3)
H = height of soil face (mm)
= angle of friction of soil (DEG)
= arc tan (kh /(I - kv)) (DEG)
= angle of friction between soil and abutment (DEG)
kh = horizontal acceleration coefficient (DIM)
kv = vertical acceleration coefficient (DIM)
i = backfill slope angle (DEG)
= slope of wall to the vertical, negative as shown in Figure 12-5 (DEG)
12.7.9 WINGWALLS
The most common type is stone masonry, which could be designed principally in the same
way as abutments according to the design schedule given for stone masonry above.
RC Wingwalls are usually attached to the RC Abutment (as in Figure 5-3) or to the endwall
(as shown in Figure 5-4). They shall be calculated either by an approximate method in two
points or by a refined method using i.e. the integral analysis method.
Regarding seismic design in zone 4, see Mononobe-Okabe Analysis above

Chapter 12
Figure 12-5 Active Wedge Force Diagram
12.8 SUPERSTRUCTURE FOR RC BRIDGES
12.8.1 CONCRETE GENERAL
Unless otherwise stated, the Ethiopian Building Code Standard, Vol. 2 Structural Use of
Concrete, 1995 (Ref. 8), shall be used.
Flexure
Regarding flexural design see section 9.4: Reinforcement: Flexural Reinforcement.
Shear
The factored shear resistance, Vr, shall be taken as:
Vr = Vn (12.25)
Vn = nominal shear resistance specified in Equation 12.26 and 12.27 (N)

= resistance factor as specified in section 9.3: Concrete
The shear resistance Vn of a concrete member shall be separated into a component, Vc, which
relies on tensile stresses in the concrete, a component, Vs which relies on tensile stresses in
the transverse reinforcement, and a component, Vp, which is the vertical component of the
prestressing force.
The nominal shear resistance, Vn shall be determined as the lesser of:
Vn = Vc + Vs + VP (12.26)

Chapter 12
or
Vn = 0.25 f'c bv dv + VP (12.27)
for which:
Vc = 0.083 f c bvdv
(12.28)
and
Avfvdv (cot + cot ) sin
Vs = (12.29)
s
where: bv = effective web width taken as the minimum web width within the depth dv as
determined above (mm)
dv = effective shear depth as determined above (mm)
s = spacing of stirrups (mm)
= factor indicating ability of diagonally cracked concrete to transmit tension,
= angle of inclination of diagonal compressive stresses (DEG)
= angle of inclination of transverse reinforcement to longitudinal axis, also
taken
as the angle between a strut and the longitudinal axis of a member (DEG)
Av = area of shear reinforcement within a distance s (mm2)
VP = component in the direction of the applied shear of the effective prestressing
force, positive if resisting the applied shear (N)
An approximate method the Sectional Design Model with and is described in section
13.7: Shear- Sectional Design Model.
Torsion
The factored torsional resistance, Tr, shall be taken as:
Tr = Tn (12.30)
where: Tn = nominal torsional resistance specified in Equation 5.37 (Nmm)

= resistance factor specified in section 9.1: Concrete
For normal density concrete, torsional effects shall be investigated where:
Tu > 0.25 Tcr (12.31)

2
for which: Tcr = 0.328 f c Acp 1+
fcp (12.32)
Pc 0.328 f c

Chapter 12
where: Tu = factored torsional moment (Nmm)

Tcr = torsional cracking moment (Nmm)
Acp = total area enclosed by outside perimeter of concrete cross-section (mm2)
Pc = the length of the outside perimeter of the concrete section (mm)
fcp = compressive stress in concrete after prestress losses have occurred either at the
centroid of the cross-section resisting transient loads or at the junction of the
web and flange where the centroid lies in the flange (MPa)
Regions Requiring Transverse Reinforcement: Except for slabs, footings and culverts,
transverse reinforcement shall be provided where either:
Vu > 0.5 0 (Vc + Vp) or (12.33)

Where consideration of torsion is required by Equation 12.31 above.
where: Vu = factored shear force (N)
Vc = nominal shear resistance of the concrete (N)
VP = component of prestressing force in direction of the shear force (N)
Minimum Transverse Reinforcement: Where transverse reinforcement is required, as
specified above, the area of steel shall not be less than:
bvS
Av = 0.083 f c (12.34)
fy
where: Av = area of a transverse reinforcement within distance s (mm2)
bv = effective web width taken as the minimum web width within the depth dv,
modified for the presence of ducts where applicable, as specified in Equation 12.36
below (mm)
S = spacing of transverse reinforcement (mm)
fy = yield strength of transverse reinforcement (MPa)
A minimum amount of transverse reinforcement is required to restrain the growth of

diagonal cracking and to increase the ductility of the section. A larger amount of transverse
reinforcement is required to control cracking as the concrete strength is increased.
Transverse reinforcement, which usually consists of stirrups, is required in all regions where
there is a significant chance of diagonal cracking. Transverse reinforcement may consist of:
stirrups making an angle not less than 45 with the longitudinal tension reinforcement,
welded wire fabric, with wires located perpendicular to the axis of the member, provided
that the transverse wires are certified to undergo a minimum elongation of 4.0%,
measured over a gage length of at least 100 mm including at least one cross wire, or
anchored prestressed tendons, detailed and constructed to minimize seating and time-
dependent losses, which make an angle not less than 45 with the longitudinal tension
reinforcement.

Chapter 12
Torsional reinforcement shall consist of both transverse and longitudinal reinforcement.

Transverse reinforcement shall consist of closed stirrups perpendicular to the longitudinal
axis of the member.
Maximum Spacing of Transverse Reinforcement: The spacing of the transverse

reinforcement shall not exceed the following:
if Vu < 0.1 f'c bv dv, then: s 0.8 dv 600 mm (12.35)
if Vu 0.1 f'c bv dv then: s 0.4 dv 300 mm (12.36)
where: bv = effective web width taken as the minimum web width within the depth dv,
modified for the presence of ducts where applicable
dv = effective shear depth taken as the distance, measured perpendicular to the
neutral axis, between the resultants of the tensile and compressive forces due
to flexure, but it need not be taken less than the greater of 0.9d, or 0.72h (mm)
s = spacing of transverse reinforcement (mm)
In determining bv at a particular level, the diameters of ungrouted ducts or one-half the

diameters of grouted ducts, at that level, shall be subtracted from the web width.
Design and Detailing Requirements: Transverse reinforcement shall be anchored at both
ends. For composite flexural members, extension of beam shear reinforcement into the deck
slab shall be considered when determining if the development and anchorage provisions are
satisfied.
The design yield strength of non-prestressed transverse reinforcement shall not exceed 400
MPa.
Components of inclined flexural compression and/or flexural tension in variable depth

members shall be considered when calculating shear resistance.
Sections near Supports: Regions of members where the plane sections assumption of flexural
theory is not valid shall be designed for shear and torsion using for example the strut-and-tie
model. Where the reaction force, in the direction of the applied shear, introduces
compression into the end region of a member, the location of the critical section for shear
shall be taken as the larger of 0.5 dv cot or dv from the internal face of the support.
The nominal torsional resistance Tn, in Nmm, shall be taken as:

2AoAtfyCot
Tn = (12.37)
S
where: Ao = area enclosed by the shear flow path, including area of holes therein, if any
(mm2)
At = area of one leg of closed transverse torsion reinforcement (mm2)
= angle of crack, usually 45.

Chapter 12
Deformations Deflection and Camber
Deflection and camber calculations shall consider dead load, live load, prestressing, erection
loads, concrete creep and shrinkage, and steel relaxation. For determining deflection and
camber, the elastic behavior shall apply.
In the absence of a more comprehensive analysis, instantaneous deflections shall be

computed using the modulus of elasticity for concrete and taking the moment of inertia as
either the gross moment of inertia, Ig, or an effective moment of inertia, Ie, given by Equation
12.38:
Mcr
3
Mcr 3
(12.38)
Ie = Ig + 1 Icr Ig
Ma Ma
for which:
Mcr = fr Ig / yt (12.39)
where: Mcr = cracking moment (N-mm)

fr = modulus of rupture of concrete
yt = distance from the neutral axis to the extreme tension fiber (mm)
Ma = maximum moment in a component at the stage for which deformation is
computed (N-mm)
For prismatic members, effective moment of inertia shall be taken as the value obtained from
Equation 12.38 at mid-span for simple or continuous spans, and at support for cantilevers.
For continuous non-prismatic members, the effective moment of inertia shall be taken as the
average of the values obtained from Equation 12.38 for the critical positive and negative
moment sections.
Unless a more exact determination is made, the long-time deflection shall be taken as the
instantaneous deflection multiplied by the following factor:
If the instantaneous deflection is based on Ig, the factor: 4

If the instantaneous deflection is based on Ie, the factor: 3.0 - 1.2 (As/As) > 1.6
where: As = area of compression reinforcement (mm2)

As = area of non-prestressed tension reinforcement (mm2)
The contract documents shall require that deflections of segmentally constructed bridges
shall be calculated prior to casting of segments based on the anticipated casting and erection
schedules and that they shall be used as a guide against which actual deflection
measurements are checked.

Chapter 12
For structures such as segmentally constructed bridges, camber calculations should be based
on the modulus of elasticity and the maturity of the concrete when each increment of load is
added or removed, as specified in section 9.1: Concrete: Shrinkage and Creep.
Axial Deformation: Instantaneous shortening or expansion due to loads shall be determined

using the modulus of elasticity of the materials at the time of loading.
Instantaneous shortening or expansion due to temperature shall be determined with the

Coefficient of Thermal Expansion given in accordance with section 3.21: Temperature
Ranges, Setting Temperature, and Seasonal Temperature.
Seismic Lateral Load Distribution:
These provisions shall apply to diaphragms, cross-frames and lateral bracing, which are part
of the seismic lateral force resisting system in common slab on-girder bridges in Seismic
Zone 4. The provisions of section 3.19: Earthquake Effects: Calculation of Design Forces,
Seismic Zones 1-3 shall apply to Seismic Zones 1-3.
The designer shall demonstrate that a clear, straightforward load path to the substructure
exists and that all components and connections are capable of resisting the imposed load
effects consistent with the chosen load path. The flow of forces in the assumed load path
must be accommodated through all affected components and details including, but not
limited to flanges and webs of main beams or girders, cross-frames, connections, slab-to-
girder interfaces and all components of the bearing assembly from top flange interface
through the confinement of anchor bolts or similar devices in the substructure.
The analysis and design of end diaphragms and cross-frames shall consider horizontal
supports at an appropriate number of bearings. Slenderness and connection requirements of
bracing members that are part of the lateral force resisting system, shall comply with
applicable provisions specified for main member design.
SLABS (RIBBED, PLAIN)
A recommended design checklist/schedule for RC simple span solid slab bridge is given in
Form 12-6. A worked example of a slab bridge design is given in the appendix.

Chapter 12
Form 12-6: Checklist for Single Span RC Slab Design
1. Specify the quality of construction materials used and their strengths

2. Calculate material properties( maximum steel ratio, modulus of rupture, etc...)
3. Assume preliminary dimensions for the different parts of the superstructure
4. Calculate the preliminary thickness of Slab
5. Draw a sketch of the cross section (of the superstructure) with the above preliminary
dimensions
6. Calculate the dead load moment at some fraction intervals of the span length
7. Calculate the dead load shear force per unit width of slab at support
8. Calculate the lateral live load distribution width
9. Calculate the impact factor
10. Tabulate the standard truck & Military loading live load moments at the above-
specified intervals and take the maximum of the two at every point for strategic bridges.
11. Calculate the pedestrian live load (if any)
12. Calculate the live load shear force per unit width of slab at support
13. Prepare envelop for the maximum factored moment at the specified points
14. Prepare the maximum factored shear force at support
15. Calculate the reinforcement required at mid-span and some other bar cutoff points
16. Check the steel ratio of the reinforcement provided at mid-span
17. Calculate the transversal distribution reinforcement required as some percentage of
the reinforcement required at mid-span.
18. Check the adequacy of the slab thickness for shear at support. If the section is not
sufficient, either increase the slab thickness or provide shear reinforcement.
19. Design the edge beam (or the curb, if any)
20. Prepare sketch of the final dimensions of the superstructure with the reinforcement
21. Calculate all the vertical, longitudinal & transversal loads for substructure design and
bearing design
..........................................................................................................................................................................

Chapter 12
Cast-in-place longitudinally reinforced slabs shall be either conventionally reinforced or

prestressed and shall be used as slab-type bridges and culvert tops. The concrete slab, which
shall be solid, voided (with hollow spares), or ribbed (i.e. Texspan), is supported directly on
the substructures.
The distribution of live load shall be determined by a two-dimensional analysis as per the
subchapter above or by the approximate method as specified in Chapter 13: Approximate
Methods of Analysis below. Slabs and slab bridges designed for moment in conformance
with the above-mentioned subchapter, shall be considered satisfactory for shear, otherwise
also the shear should be checked.
If a refined method (Chapter 3: Load Requirements, Section 3.10: Load Fatigue) is used the
aspect ratio of finite elements and grid panels should not exceed 5.0. Abrupt changes in size
and/or shape of finite elements and grid panels should be avoided.
Nodal loads shall be statically equivalent to the actual loads being applied.
Edge beams shall be provided, unless otherwise specified at lines of discontinuity. The edge
of the deck shall either be strengthened or be supported by a beam or other line component,
which shall be either composite with, or integrated in, the deck. The edge beams shall be
designed as beams whose width shall be taken as the effective width of the deck. If the edge
of a deck is composite with a structurally continuous barrier, no additional edge beam is
required.
Equivalent strip widths: The equivalent width of longitudinal strips per lane for both shear
and moment with one lane, i.e., two lines of wheels, loaded shall be determined as:
E = 250 + 0.42 L1W1 (12.40)
(the strip width has been divided by 1.20 to account for the multiple presence effect).
The equivalent width of longitudinal strips per lane for both shear and moment with more
than one lane loaded shall be determined as:
W
E = 2100 + 0.12 L1W1 (12.41)
NL
Where: E = equivalent width (mm)
L1 = modified span length taken equal to the lesser of the actual span or 18 000
(mm)
W1 = modified edge-to-edge width of bridge taken equal to the lesser of the actual
width or 18 000 mm for multi-lane loading, or 9000 mm for single lane
loading (mm)
W = physical edge-to-edge width of bridge (mm)
NL = number of design lanes as specified in section 3.8: Gravity Loads: Vehicular
Live Load.

Chapter 12
For skewed bridges, the longitudinal force effects shall be reduced by the factor r:
r = 1.05 0.25 tan 1.00 (12.42)

Where: = skew angle (DEG)
Transverse distribution reinforcement shall be placed in the bottoms of all slabs, except
culvert tops or bridge slabs, where the depth of fill over the slab exceeds 600 mm, (see
section 5.6: Culverts: Design.) The amount of the bottom transverse reinforcement shall be
determined either by two-dimensional analysis, or the amount of distribution reinforcement
shall be taken as the percentage of the main reinforcement required for positive moment
taken as:
for longitudinal reinforced concrete construction: 1750 / L 50%
for longitudinal prestressed construction: (1750fpe ) / ( )

L * 410 50%
where: L = span length (mm)

fpe = effective stress in the prestressing steel after losses (MPa)
Transverse shrinkage and temperature reinforcement in the tops of slabs shall be provided
near surfaces of concrete exposed to daily temperature changes and in structural mass
concrete. Temperature and shrinkage reinforcement shall be added, so that the total
reinforcement on exposed surfaces is not less than that specified herein.
Reinforcement for shrinkage and temperature shall be in the form of bars, welded wire fabric
or prestressing tendons. For bars or welded wire fabric, the area of reinforcement As in each
direction shall not be less than:
As 0.75 Ag/fy (12.43)
Where: Ag = gross area of section (mm2)

fy = Specified yield strength of reinforcing bars (MPa)
Shrinkage and temperature reinforcement shall not be spaced farther apart than either 3.0
times the component thickness or 450 mm.
The provisions are based on the performance of relatively small-span structures constructed
to-date. Any significant deviation from successful past practice for larger units, which shall
become both structurally and economically feasible under these Specifications should be
reviewed carefully.
GIRDERS (SIMPLE SPAN, CONTINUOUS, BOX)
Simple Span RC Deck Girder Design
Simple span RC Deck Girder Bridges are relatively easy to calculate, but will generally give

Chapter 12
a more expensive superstructure than a continuous one. A recommended design

checklist/schedule for RC single span RC Deck girder bridge is given in Form 12-7. A
worked example of a girder bridge design is given in the appendix.
Some recommended dimensions for cast-in-place girders, box and T-beams are:
The thickness of top flanges serving as deck slab:
same as for bridge decks
not less than 5% of the clear span between fillets, haunches, or webs, unless transverse
ribs at a spacing equal to the clear span are used.
And for the bottom flange thickness not less than either:
140 mm,
1/16 of the distance between fillets or webs of non prestressed girders and beams, or
1/30th of the clear span between fillets, haunches or webs for prestressed girders, unless
transverse ribs at a spacing equal to the clear span are used.
The thickness of webs shall be determined by requirements for shear, torsion, concrete cover
and placement of concrete. For adequate field placement and consolidation of concrete,
usually a minimum web thickness of 200 mm is needed for webs without prestressing ducts.
For girders over about 2.4 m in depth, the above dimensions should be increased to
compensate for the increased difficulty of concrete placement. Changes in girder web
thickness shall be tapered for a minimum distance of 12.0 times the difference in web
thickness.
Reinforcement for Cast-in-place Girder, Box and T-beams
The reinforcement in the deck slab of cast-in-place T-beams and box girders shall be
determined by either the traditional or by empirical design methods. Where the deck slab
does not extend beyond the exterior web, at least one-third of the bottom layer of the
transverse reinforcement in the deck slab shall be extended into the exterior face of the
outside web and anchored by a standard 90 hook. If the slab extends beyond the exterior
web, at least one-third of the bottom layer of the transverse reinforcement shall be extended
into the slab overhang and shall have an anchorage beyond the exterior face of the web not
less in resistance than that provided by a standard hook.
Interior Beams with Concrete Decks: The live load flexural moment for interior beams with
concrete decks shall be determined by applying the lane fraction specified in Chapter 13:
Approximate Methods of Analysis. For preliminary design, the terms Kg/(L*ts3) and I/J shall
be taken as 1.0.
For the concrete beams, other than box beams, used in multi-beam decks with shear keys:
Deep, rigid end diaphragms shall be provided to ensure proper load distribution.
If the stem spacing of stemmed beams is less than 1.2 m or more than 3.0 m, a refined
analysis shall be used.

Chapter 12
Bridge deck overhangs shall be designed for the following design cases considered
separately:
Design Case 1: the transverse and longitudinal forces specified in Table 3-1 - extreme
event limit state.
Design Case 2: the vertical forces specified in Table 3-1-extreme event limit state.
Design Case 3: the loads, specified in section 3.8: Gravity Loads, which occupy the
overhang - strength limit state.
Continuous RC Deck Girder Design
In the design of continuous Bridge Girders it is essential that the settlement at one support is
not considerably greater than the others called uneven settlement.
Moment Redistribution: In lieu of more refined analysis, where bonded reinforcement is
provided at the internal supports of continuous reinforced concrete beams and where the c/de
ratio does not exceed 0.28, negative moments determined by elastic theory at strength limit
states shall be increased or decreased by not more than the following percentage:
+/- % 20 (1 2.36*c/de ) (12.44)
With c = The distance from the extreme compression fiber to the neutral axis (mm)
de = The effective depth from extreme compression fiber to the neutral axis (mm)
Positive moments shall be adjusted to account for the changes in negative moments to
maintain equilibrium of loads and force effects.
Unless otherwise specified, diaphragms (secondary beams) shall be provided at abutments,

piers and hinge joints to resist lateral forces and transmit loads to points of support.
Intermediate diaphragms shall be used between beams in curved systems or where necessary
to provide torsional resistance and to support the deck at points of discontinuity or at angle
points in girders. For curved box girders, having an inside radius less than 240 m, and for
spread box beams, intermediate diaphragms shall be used.
In certain types of construction, end diaphragms shall be replaced by an edge beam or a

strengthened strip of slab, made to act as a vertical frame with the beam-ends. Such types
are low I-beams and double T-beams. These frames should be designed for wheel loads. The
diaphragms should be essentially solid, except for access openings and utility holes, where
required. It should however be remembered that the diaphragms at abutments and piers
usually are used as jacking support for the exchanging of bearings.

Chapter 12
FORM 12-7: CHECKLIST FOR SINGLE SPAN RC DECK GIRDER DESIGN
1. Specify the quality of construction materials used and their strengths

2. Calculate material properties( maximum steel ratio, modulus of rupture, etc...)
3. Assume preliminary dimensions for the different parts of the superstructure
3.1 Assume No of girders, depth, spacings, etc
3.2 Thickness of Slab (between girders and cantilever overhang part)
3.3 Prepare sketch of the cross section of the superstructure with the above preliminary
dimensions
3.4 Specify the number of diaphragms (in the longitudinal sections)
3.5 Prepare sketch of the longitudinal cross section of the superstructure with the above
preliminary dimensions
4. Design of slab in between girders
4.1 Compute the dead load and live load moment and shear forces (with impact)
4.2 Multiply the above values with the specified coefficients
4.3 Calculate the main slab reinforcement
4.4 Calculate the distribution reinforcement
4.5 Check the slab thickness used above for adequency in shear
5. Design of overhang / cantilever slab
5.1 Compute the dead load moment and shear force
5.2 Compute the live loads moments from railing load and truck wheel load and take the
maximum of the two
5.3 Multiply the above values with the specified coefficients
5.4 Design the section for flexure with the above factored moment
5.5 Check the slab thickness used above for adequency in shear
6. Design of Edge beam or Curb (if any)
7. Design of girders
7.1 Exterior Girder load analysis
7.2 Compute the dead loads at some fraction interval of the span length and at the
maximum moment location
7.3 Compute the impact factor for the girder

Chapter 12
7.4 Compute the truck live loads moment and shear forces at the above specified points
7.5 Ditto, but lane load
7.6 Multiply the maximum of the truck and lane moments and shear values with the
specified coefficients
7.7 Ditto the above five steps, but for Interior girder (if more than two girders)
7.8 Tabulate the summary of girder factored shear force and moment values at different
points for design
7.9 Check if the Exterior girder shear and moment are equal to or greater than the Interior
girder
7.10 Prepare envelop for the maximum moment at every specified points
7.11 Compute the effective flange width of slab for exterior (and interior) girders
7.12 Compute the amount of reinforcement required at midspan
7.13 Compute the deflection at midspan and compare with the allowable. If the
preliminary depth of girder is not sufficient, increase the depth and revise starting from
step 7.1
7.14 Compute the length of reinforcement at bar cut off points
7.15 Check the Serviceability requirements at midspan and bar cutoff points
7.16 Compute the extension length required at bar cutoff points
7.17 Prepare shear force diagrams for stirrup spacing
7.18 Compute the stirrup spacing at support and some other points
7.19 Check the maximum stirrup spacing
7.20 Compute the skin reinforcement required
8. Compute the reactions (maximum and minimum at supports)
8.1 Compute the reaction forces for bearing design
8.2 Compute the reaction forces for abutment and pier design
..........................................................................................................................................................................

Chapter 12
RC Box Girder (and Hollow Pier Column) Design
Box girder bridges are different from ordinary girder bridges in the way the torsion and
buckling of webs have to be considered.
In the absence of more exact analysis, one quarter of the wind force on a box section shall be
applied to the bottom flange of the exterior box beam. The section assumed to resist the wind
force shall consist of the bottom flange and a part of the web. The other of the wind force
on a box section, plus the wind force on vehicles, barriers, and appurtenances, shall be
assumed to be transmitted to the supports by diaphragm action of the deck.
Lateral bracing in the box shall be provided if the section assumed to resist the wind force is
not adequate.
The wall slenderness ratio of a hollow rectangular cross-section shall be taken as (same as
Equation 7-17):
Xu
w = (12.45)
t
where: Xu = the clear length of the constant thickness portion of a wall, according to the
Figure 7-3 (mm)
t = thickness of wall (mm)
w = wall slenderness ratio for hollow columns
See section 7.5: Girders for other parameters.
Spacing of Reinforcement
The center-to-center lateral spacing of longitudinal reinforcing bars shall be no greater than
the lesser of 1.5 times the wall thickness or 300 mm. The center-to-center longitudinal
spacing of lateral reinforcing bars shall be no greater than the lesser of 1.25 times the wall
thickness, or 300 mm.
Cross-ties shall be provided between layers of reinforcement in each wall. The cross-ties
shall include a standard 135 hook at one end, and a standard 90 hook at the other end.
Cross-ties shall be located at bar grid intersections, and the hooks of all ties shall enclose
both lateral and longitudinal bars at the intersections. Each longitudinal reinforcing bar and
each lateral reinforcing bar shall be enclosed by the hook of a cross-tie at spacing no greater
than 600 mm.
Splices
Lateral reinforcing bars shall be joined at the corners of the cross-section by overlapping 90
bends. Straight lap splices of lateral reinforcing bars shall not be permitted unless the

Chapter 12
overlapping bars are enclosed over the length of the splice by the hooks of at least four cross-
ties located at intersections of the lateral bars and longitudinal bars.
Hoops
Where details permit, the longitudinal reinforcing bars in the corners of the cross-section
shall be enclosed by closed hoops. If closed hoops cannot be provided, then pairs of U-
shaped bars with legs at least twice as long as the wall thickness, and oriented 90 to one
another, shall be used.
Bearings for single box sections shall be placed in pairs at supports where practical. Double
bearings shall be placed either inboard or outboard of the box section webs. Placing bearings
outboard of the box reduces overturning loads on the bearings and may eliminate uplift.
12.9 FRAME BRIDGES
12.9.1 GENERAL
There are two common types of frame bridges open frame and closed or cyclic frame. The
open frame is designed as a continuous bridge with some simple frame computer program
(see section 5.11: Software for Bridge Design). For multi span frame bridges with different
span lengths and different heights of support, the calculations will be complicated and use of
a computer program is highly recommended.
It is common to make the deck with 45 chamfers if small span or 1:3 if larger than 8 m
span. If the height of the front-walls exceeds some 5 m it is usually advantageous to batter
the rear side. The moments and shear forces should be computed for every 1/10 of the
theoretical height and the same for the bridge slab.
12.9.2 DESIGN
Advantages:
Horizontal forces are resisted by framed hinges, which provide a more slender structure.
Moments from vertical loads are distributed to corners as well as to span which results in
less maximum moments than a simply supported slab.
Footings will be less than conventional abutment with the same height because some of
the earth pressure on the front-walls is resisted through friction under the footing.
Bearings and expansion joints are not necessary, which make it easier to maintain.
Disadvantages:
Larger spans give a thick and heavy structure with large concrete and steel quantities,
which may give more expensive foundations, than a lighter structure.
Voids (0.5 meters 45-type or 1:3 for larger spans than 12 m) shall be placed at the ends
of the slab, to minimize the quantity of concrete (self weight), which however then
increases the difficulties of reinforcing and casting.
The structural system is indefinite, which gives an increased sensitivity to settlements.

Chapter 12
There are two different ways of tackling the design. The latest method is to consider the
stiffness of the soil by means of springs under the foundation when calculating the statical
system. This however makes the calculation difficult such that computer programs usually
are needed.
Earlier it was common to assume the moment between the foundation and the soil to be
equal to zero, since it then may easily be calculated by hand. In the system calculation it is
most economically favorable to assume that the frame is one single monolithic structure
including the footings. This will give less stiffness, the moment between the footing and the
frame will be less, and a smaller footing and less reinforcement will be required.
Footings on rock shall be provided with a so-called reinforced joint between the footing
and the frame. It should however be checked if the soil is sulfuric (corrosion of the
reinforcement) or if the contractor is familiar with the construction of this type of joint. The
design shall be made in the following order:
At cyclic frames the design begins with an estimate of the dimensions and calculation of the
stiffnesses of each member/node. If appropriate the stiffness or spring coefficients of the
ground should be calculated and inserted in the frame program. The thickness of the fill on
top of the slab is very important for placing of the load (shear) as well as the magnitude of
the load (moments).
Sharply skewed frame bridges (see Figure 5-8) should be avoided since the earth-pressure
might cause the bridge to rotate horizontally due to sliding and the sharp corners might
have resulting uplift forces. Then the bridge and especially the deck should be designed with
some refined method such as FEM-analysis or finite strip method. The requirements are: a >
0.3 b as indicated in Figure 5-8.
FORM 12-8: CHECKLIST FOR FRAME BRIDGE DESIGN
1. Assume preliminary dimensions

2. Determine the Moment of Inertia and gross Area for the non-cracked sections.
3. Load from lateral support displacement (usually 10 mm) should be considered for an
open frame bridge. In earthquake zone 4, a larger displacement shall be needed.
4. Calculate the statical system as an elastic frame analysis.
5. Check moment and shear capacity both in the Service- and Strength limit state.
6. Check Service limit state: cracking, crack widths, deflection
7. Check the Fatigue limit state of some points (corners and mid span)
8. Calculate the moment in at least two directions.
9. Calculate the reinforcement in at least 5 points of the frame deck.
10. Direction of main moment shall be assumed as parallel to the support line usually.
For alignment skewed < 45o or wider bridge the direction of moment varies from point to
point.
11. Draw the envelope of maximum moments and develop the reinforcement
12. Calculate the footings and check for shear.

Chapter 12
12.10 PRECAST CONCRETE BRIDGES
12.10.1 GENERAL
Precast concrete bridges are designed in the same way as cast in-situ bridges. But since the
transport and hauling weight is limited to a maximum of some 200 kN (20 tons) for each
panel, several joints need to be made in this bridge type. For example a 10-m slab for a
bridge has to be spliced at every 1,6 m width not to exceed 20 tons. As many as five trucks
have to transport it to the site, which could be quite costly. Safe dimensions of panels should
be considered by the designer for each particular site.
These joints are the weak point of the structure. If possible they should be filled with
concrete, and reinforced to interact with and achieve the same strength as the adjacent
structure. The panels could also be kept in position by post tensioned tendons inserted in
ducts through the panels. For minor structures (culverts) the joints are often designed to take
shear forces only.
12.10.2 DESIGN
In the design of precast concrete components, all loading, restraint and instability conditions
from initial fabrication to completion of the structure, including, but not limited to, form
removal, storage, transportation and erection shall be considered. For transportation and
erection, the component should be designed for not less than 1.5 times its self-weight. Field
splices shall be used where precast members exceed transportable lengths.
The minimum thickness of any part of precast concrete beams shall be as follows:
top flange: 50 mm (bulb-Tee and double-Tee types)
web, non post-tensioned: 125 mm (only with high quality performance)
web, post-tensioned: 165 mm (only with high quality performance)
bottom flange: 125 mm (bottom flange thickness of box-type sections)
Anchorages for lifting devices should not be cast into the face of a member that will be
exposed to view or to corrosive materials in the completed structure.
The Detail Design and preparation of working drawings are usually made by the Contractor.
All details of reinforcement, connections, bearing seats, inserts or anchors for diaphragms,
concrete cover, openings, and fabrication and erection tolerances shall be shown in the
contract documents.
12.11 ARCH BRIDGES (MASONRY AND CONCRETE)
12.11.1 MASONRY ARCH BRIDGES
The design of a masonry arch bridge shall follow the checklist given in Form 12-9. A worked
example of a masonry arch bridge design is given in the appendix.

Chapter 12
The first step of the design is to choose the most optimal shape of the arch and estimate the
thickness of the arch barrel from Table 12-3 below. At spans less than 25 m the arch should
preferably be a multiple circular curve as in Figure 12-6 below. The quality of stones that can
be obtained at the bridge site must be determined using the compressive strength given in
Table 5-2.
Figure 12-6 Recommended Arch Shape

Note: for v see Equation 5.19
Span opening ( length ) m 8 9 10 12 15 20

Thickness at crown (top) (d ) m 0.55 0.60 0.70 0.75 0.86 0.90
Thickness at abutment (d1) m 0.80 0.90 1.00 1.10 1.20 1.35
Table 12-3 Normal Thickness of Arch Barrel (Arch Ring)
Skewed arch bridges are very complicated both to construct and design (with Finite Element
Modeling, FEM-analysis) and should therefore be avoided.
The stones can be placed either with or without mortar. If with mortar the joints should be as
small as possible, preferably not exceeding 25 mm. The 0.3 - 0.5-m thick stones in the arch
barrel should be placed in some kind of bond. The length of the stones may vary between 0.4
- 0.8 m. The falsework should not be removed until the joints are fully hardened. In order to
compensate for the settlement when falsework is removed, a certain camber should be
applied at the top curve of the falsework.
A hinge made of a 20 mm rolled lead plate with 5 % antimony (yield strength of 40 MPa)
placed in the center of the crown (highest point) of the arch barrel has proved to reduce the
moments to almost zero. The spandrel walls should not be built until the falsework has been
removed, or it will crack due to the deflection from the shrinkage of the mortar. To avoid all
cracks, vertical joints every 5-m should preferably be applied. To reduce the dead load of the
filling on top of the arch but under the roadway, lightweight volcanic stones shall be used as
long as they are strong enough to carry the traffic load. Water outlets near the abutments in
the arch barrel must not be forgotten.

Chapter 12
Form 12-9: Checklist for masonry Arch Bridge Design
1. The shape of an arch shall be selected so as to minimize flexure under the effect of
combined permanent and transient loads.
2. Calculate the dead load.
3. Place the live load on half of the arch and check the compression in point A, B and C.
Usually the crown C is most critical for compression strength (Figure 12-6).
4. The abutments A and B should be checked for the position of the compression line,
which should be within the core. If not, the shape of the arch should be changed.
5. The shear at the abutments at point A should be checked
6. Finally the forces on the superstructure should be calculated.
12.11.2 CONCRETE ARCH DESIGN
Non-reinforced concrete masonry bridges are calculated in the same way as stone masonry,
and the design schedule given above shall be used.
The in-plane stability of the arch rib(s) shall be investigated using a modulus of elasticity
and moment of inertia appropriate for the combination of loads and moment in the rib(s). In
lieu of a rigorous analysis, the effective length for buckling shall be estimated as the product
of the arch half-span length and the factor b =5/2*K as specified in Table 12-4 below:
Rise to Span 3-hinged 2-hinged Fixed Arch

Ratio Arch Arch
0.1-0.2 1.16 1.04 0.70
0.2-0.3 1.13 1.10 0.70
0.3-0.4 1.16 1.16 0.72
Table 12-4 K-Values for Effective Length of Arch Ribs
Where b = moment magnifier for braced mode deflection
For the analysis of arch ribs, the factored moments or stresses shall be increased to reflect
effects of deformations as follows:
Mc = b M2b + s M2s (12.46)
where: M2b = Moment on compression member due to factored gravity loads that results in
no appreciable sidesway, calculated by conventional first order elastic frame
analysis, always positive (Nmm).
M2s = Moment on compression member due to factored lateral or gravity loads that
results in no sidesway, , greater than lu/500, calculated by conventional first
order elastic frame analysis, always positive (Nmm).
fc = b f2b + s f2s (12.47)

Chapter 12
where: f2b = stress corresponding to M2b (MPa)

f2s = stress corresponding to M2s (MPa)
= resistance factor for axial compression
b = Cm / (1- (Pu / Pe)) 1.0 (12.48)
where: Cm = 1.0
Pu = factored axial load (N)
Pe = Euler buckling load (N)
= resistance factor for axial compression
s = 1 / (1- (Pu / Pe)) (12.49)
When using the approximate second order correction for moment above, an estimate of the
short-term secant modulus of elasticity shall be calculated, as specified in section 5.6:
Superstructure for RC Bridges above, based on a strength of 0.40 fc.
The lever rule shall be used for the distribution of gravity loads in arches when analyzed as
planar structures. If a space analysis is used, either the lever rule or direct loading through
the deck or deck system shall be used.
Arch ribs shall be reinforced as compression members. The minimum reinforcing of 1.0% of
the gross concrete area shall be evenly distributed about the section of the rib. Confinement
reinforcement shall be provided as required for columns.
Stability under long-term loads with a reduced modulus of elasticity may govern the
stability. In this condition, there would typically be little flexural moment in the rib and the
appropriate modulus of elasticity would be the long-term tangent modulus and the
appropriate moment of inertia would be the transformed section inertia. Under transient load
conditions, the appropriate modulus of elasticity would be the short-term tangent modulus
and the appropriate moment of inertia would be the cracked section inertia, including the
effects of the factored axial load.
Unfilled spandrel walls greater than 7.5 m in height shall be braced by counter-forts or
diaphragms. Spandrel walls shall be provided with expansion joints, and temperature
reinforcing shall be provided corresponding to the joint spacing. The spandrel wall shall be
jointed at the springline. The spandrel fill shall be provided with effective drainage. Filters
shall be provided to prevent clogging of drains with fine material.
Drainage of the spandrel fill is important for durability of the concrete in the rib and in the
spandrel walls and to control the unit weight of the spandrel fill. Drainage details should
keep the drainage water from running down the ribs.

Chapter 12
12.12 COMPOSITE STEEL/CONCRETE BRIDGES
Steel and Concrete Composite Bridges should be calculated according to Chapter 3: Load
Requirements (see also Ref. 1). They should be calculated as an ordinary girder bridge with
the following important exceptions.
The data for the assumed transformed section in which the concrete slab is interacting
together with the steel girders should be calculated. Then the system calculation and the
concrete slab should be designed, first transversally and then longitudinally. If end-walls
with attached wingwalls are used, the punching effect from the end plate of the steel beams
must be considered for the design of the end-walls. Before the end-wall is designed however
the wingwalls should be calculated in order to use the continuous moments in the end-walls.
In order to distribute the compression forces in the concrete slab a minimum longitudinal
reinforcement of 1% shall be inserted with a certain spacing.
The steel girders are sometimes made as a hybrid structure i.e. of different steel qualities
with a high tensile steel in the bottom flange that is more strained, and with intermediate
steel in the web and in the top flange. The girders used are to be checked for fatigue, and if
continuous, also for construction loads, i.e. order of concreting the bays if the beams are used
as falsework.
Steel structures should be cambered during fabrication to compensate for dead load
deflection of the whole superstructure and for vertical alignment. Selective changes to
component length, as appropriate, shall be used for truss, arch and cable-stayed systems to:
adjust the dead load deflection to comply with the final geometric position,
reduce or eliminate rib shortening,
adjust the dead load moment diagram in indeterminate structures.
Structural steel, including bracing, cross-frames and all types of gusset plates, except for
webs of rolled shapes, closed ribs in orthotropic decks, fillers and in railings, shall be not less
than 8 mm in thickness.
The web thickness of rolled beams or channels and of closed ribs in orthotropic decks shall
not be less than 7.0 mm.
Where the metal is expected to be exposed to severe corrosive influences, it shall be

specially protected against corrosion, or sacrificial metal thickness shall be specified.
The need for diaphragms or cross-frames shall be investigated for all stages of assumed
construction procedures and the final condition. This investigation should include, but not be
limited to, the following:
transfer of lateral wind loads from the bottom of the girder to the deck and from the deck
to the bearings,
stability of the bottom flange for all loads when it is in compression,

Chapter 12
stability of the top flange in compression prior to curing of the deck, and
distribution of vertical dead and live loads applied to the structure.
If permanent cross-frames or diaphragms are included in the structural model used to

determine force effects, they shall be designed for all applicable limit states for the calculated
force effects. As a minimum, diaphragms and cross-frames shall be designed to transfer wind
loads, and shall meet the following slenderness requirements:
l/r 140 for Tension members subject to stress reversals;

l/r 240 for Bracing members subject to stress reversals;
K* l/r 120 for Compression main members;

K* l/r 140 for Compression bracing members;
where: l = unbraced length (mm)

r = minimum radius of gyration (mm)
K = effective length factor. Physical bracing lengths shall be multiplied by an
effective length factor, K, to compensate for rotational and translational boundary
conditions other than pinned ends. For bolted or welded end connections at both
ends: K = 0.750. For pinned connections at both ends: K = 0.875
Connection plates for diaphragms and cross-frames shall be welded or bolted to both
compression and tensioned flanges of the cross-section.
At the end of the bridge and intermediate points where the continuity of the slab is broken,
the edges of the slab shall be supported by diaphragms or other suitable means.
Connections and splices for main members shall be designed at the strength limit state for
not less than the larger of:
the average of the flexural moment, shear or axial force due to the factored loadings at the
point of splice or connection and the factored flexural, shear or axial resistance of the
member at the same point, or
75% of the factored flexural, shear or axial resistance of the member.
End connections for diaphragms, cross-frames, lateral bracing or floorbeams for straight
flexural members shall be designed for the factored member loads.
An example of a composite bridge design is presented in the appendix CB.
12.13 TIMBER BRIDGES
12.13.1 GENERAL
Sawn lumber shall comply with the requirements of EBCS-5 (Ref. 10) and the Technical
Specifications.

Chapter 12
When solid sawn beams and stringers are used as continuous or cantilevered beams, the
grading provisions applicable to the middle third of the length shall be applied to at least the
middle two-thirds of the length of pieces to be used as two-span continuous beams and to the
entire length of pieces to be used over three or more spans or as cantilevered beams.
12.13.2 DIMENSIONS
Structural calculations shall be based on the actual net dimensions for the anticipated use
conditions. Dimensions stated for dressed lumber shall be the nominal dimensions. Net
dimensions for dressed lumber shall be taken as 12 mm less than nominal, except that the net
width of dimension lumber exceeding 150 mm shall be taken as 20 mm less than nominal.
For rough-sawn, full-sawn, or special sizes, the actual dimensions and moisture content used
in design shall be indicated in the contract documents.
These net dimensions depend on the type of surfacing, whether dressed, rough-sawn, or full-
sawn.
The designer should specify surface requirements on the plans. Rough-sawn lumber is
typically 3 mm larger than standard dry dressed sizes. It is impractical to use rough-sawn or
full-sawn lumber in a structure that requires close dimensional tolerances.
For more accurate dimensions, surfacing can be specified on one side (S1S), two sides
(S2S), one edge (S1E), two edge (S2E), combinations of sides and edges (S1S1E, S2S1E,
S1S2E) or all sides (S4S).
12.13.3 MOISTURE CONTENT
The moisture content of lumber 100 mm or less in nominal thickness shall not be greater
than 19 %.
12.13.4 BASE RESISTANCE AND MODULUS OF ELASTICITY
Base resistance and modulus of elasticity for sawn lumber shall be as specified in Tables 11-
1 to 11-3.
Allowable stresses are provided for ten-year load duration and dry use. Factors listed in this
Chapter transform allowable stress to the lower 5th percentile of the ultimate stress for two-
month load duration and wet use.
12.13.5 REQUIREMENT FOR PRESERVATIVE TREATMENT
All wood used for permanent applications shall be either of the special quality and kind
given in section 11.3 Requirements for Timber, or pressure impregnated with wood
preservative in accordance with the requirements of the Technical Specifications.

Chapter 12
Insofar as is practicable, all wood components should be designed and detailed to be cut,
drilled, and otherwise fabricated prior to pressure treatment with wood preservatives. When
cutting, boring, or other fabrication is necessary after preservative treatment, exposed,
untreated wood shall be specified to be treated in accordance with the requirements of the
Technical Specifications.
Unless otherwise approved, all structural components that are not subject to direct pedestrian
contact shall be treated with oil-borne preservatives. Pedestrian railings and nonstructural
components that are subject to direct pedestrian contact shall be treated with water-borne
preservatives or oil-borne preservatives in light petroleum solvent.
The oil-borne preservative treatments have proven to provide adequate protection against
wood attacking organisms. In addition, the oil provides a water-repellant coating that reduces
surface effects caused by cyclic moisture conditions. Water-borne preservative treatments do
not provide the water repellency of the oil-borne treatment, and components frequently split
and check, leading to poor field performance and reduced service life.
Direct pedestrian contact is considered to be contact that can be made while the pedestrian is
situated anywhere in the access route provided for pedestrian traffic.
Preservative treated wood shall be tested and inspected in accordance with the requirements
of the Technical Specifications. Fire retardant treatments shall not be applied unless it is
demonstrated that they are compatible with the preservative treatment used as recommended
by the product manufacturer and applicator. Use of fire retardant treatments is generally not
recommended.
An example of a timber bridge design is given in the appendix TB.
12.14 OTHER TYPES OF BRIDGES
12.14.1 PRESTRESSED CONCRETE BRIDGES
To calculate prestressed concrete bridges without software is a tedious job, especially for
continuous bridges. Post tensioned simply supported single span beams may however be
calculated by hand. They should be calculated according to Chapter 3: Load Requirements
(see also Ref. 1).
Prestressed Superstructure design:

Chapter 12
FORM 12-10: CHECKLIST FOR PRESTRESSED SUPERSTRUCTURE DESIGN
1. Interaction between deck and girder shall be assumed

2. Calculate the Moment of Inertia with the Modulus of Elasticity
3. Calculation of system for the following cases:
Construction stage
Mounting of beams, if precast beams
Casting of deck in different construction stages
Pavement loads
Traffic loads
4. Calculation of the cross-sections with cracked section
5. Joints perpendicular to the strands shall be reinforced with at least 0.5% in every part
(deck, web, etc.)
For prestressed bridges or parts thereof the following shall apply:

Tensioning Schedule shall be made by the designer for post-tensioned beams, etc.
Construction Schedule if necessary (complicated structures)
Quality Control Schedule shall be made for concreting, welding, piling etc., by the
Designer. It shall consist of a general part and documentation, reporting requirements,
and a technical part for sensitive and essential parts of the bridge construction.
12.14.2 STEEL TRUSS BRIDGES
In half-through-trusses the compressed top chord of a simple span truss shall be designed to
resist a lateral force of not less than 4.0 kN/m length, considered as a permanent load for the
Strength I Load Combination and factored accordingly (note: Rectangular hollow pipes are
especially well suited as compressed members in this case).
The lever rule shall be used for the distribution of gravity loads in trusses when analyzed as
planar structures. If a space analysis is used, either the lever rule or direct loading through
the deck or deck system shall be used.
Where loads, other than the self-weight of the members and wind loads thereon, are
transmitted to the truss at the panel points, the truss shall be analyzed as a pin-connected
assembly.
Effective Length Factor, K: Physical column lengths shall be multiplied by an effective

length factor, K, to compensate for rotational and translational boundary conditions other
than pinned ends. In the absence of a more refined analysis, where lateral stability is
provided by diagonal bracing or other suitable means, the effective length factor in the
braced plane, K, for the compression members in triangulated trusses, trusses and frames
shall be taken as:
for bolted or welded end connections at both ends: K = 0.750

for pinned connections at both ends: K = 0.875

Chapter 12
Minimum Thickness of Steel: Structural steel, including bracing, cross-frames and all types of
gusset plates, except for fillers and in railings, shall be not less than 8 mm in thickness.
An example of a steel truss bridge is given in the appendix GB. This is a pedestrian bridge,
and was chosen to give an example of a loading significantly different from that of a standard
bridge.
12.14.3 LARGE SPAN BRIDGES (ABOVE 50M SPAN)
Large span bridges ( 50 m) should be calculated according to AASHTO LRFD Bridge

Design Specifications, 2nd edition (Ref. 1) or later, together with Chapter 3 Load
Requirements.
12.15 BEARING DESIGN
Regarding recommended bearing types, see section 8.3: Bridge Details: Bearings. The
suitability of various types of bearings as depicted in Figures 8-1, 8-2 and 12-7 is indicated in
Table 12-6.
The most common bearing design in Ethiopia is the "Steel Plate Bearing" with two steel
plates on top of each other without a PTFE layer in between. A dowel is used as guide and to
resist transversal loads. This bearing is economical and usually made out of local "Medium
Grade Steel." Although it is likely that this type of bearing will loose some of its mobility
after some decades of corrosion, it functions quite well. It is however, recommended to use a
PTFE layer. An example of such a design is given in the appendix.
The design Flow Chart should be as follows;
FORM 12-11: CHECKLIST FOR BEARING DESIGN
1. Calculate all relevant vertical and horizontal loads on the bearing

2. Select steel quality
3. Check the steel plates according to section 8.3: Bridge Details: Bearings
4. Check horizontal forces resisted by the friction steel concrete (i.e. =0.5)
5. Check the necessary dimension of dowels and anchor bolts to resist the remaining
horizontal force.
6. Check the actual concrete pressure
7. If PTFE is used, check the actual PTFE pressure

Chapter 12
Type of Bearing Movement Rotation about Resistance to Loads

Bridge Axis Indicated
Long. Trans. Long. Trans. Vert. Long. Trans. Vert.
Plain Elastomeric Pad S S S S L L L L
Fiberglass-Reinforced Pad S S S S L L L L
Steel-Reinforced S S S S L L L S
Elastomeric Bearing (e.g.
PFTE)
Plain Sliding Bearing S S U U S R R S
Curved Sliding Spherical R R S S S R R S
Bearing
Curved Sliding Cylindrical R R U S U R R S
Bearing
Disc Bearing R R S S L S R S
Double Cylindrical Bearing R R S S U R R S
Pot Bearing R R S S L S S S
Single Roller Bearing S U U S U U R S
Multiple Roller Bearing S U U U U U U S
Table 12-5 Suitability of Different Bearing Types

Note: S = suitable
U = unsuitable
L = Limited suitability
R = Rarely used
Since the Steel reinforced elastomeric bearing is economical compared to a steel roller
bearing it is recommended as a first choice for medium/larger bridges with moderate loads
and movements. The catalogue from an approved manufacturer usually gives the allowable
vertical and transversal loads. It is however important to check if the bearing can resist the
deflection angle for the selected type of bearing. Otherwise, a thicker bearing with more
layers must be selected. If the transversal load exceeds the capacity of this type of bearing a
steel roller bearing or another type (i.e. Pot bearing) needs to be selected, although they shall
be more expensive. Bearing types are shown in Figure 12-7 (see also Figures 8-1 and 8-2).
The behavior of bearings is quite variable, and there is very little experimental evidence to
precisely define for each limit state. is taken to be equal to 1.0 where a more refined
estimate is not warranted. The resistance factors are often based on judgment and experience,
but they are generally thought to be conservative.
GEOMETRIC REQUIREMENTS
The dimensions of the bearing shall be chosen taking into account both the contact stresses

Chapter 12
and the movement of the contact point due to rolling. Each individual curved contact surface
shall have a constant radius. Bearings with more than one curved surface shall be symmetric
about a line joining the centers of their two curved surfaces.
Figure 12-7 Common Bearing Types
Bearings shall be designed to be stable. If the bearing has two separate cylindrical faces, each
of which rolls on a flat plate, stability shall be achieved by making the distance between the
two contact lines no greater than the sum of the radii of the two cylindrical surfaces.
A cylindrical roller is in neutral equilibrium. The provisions for bearings with two curved
surfaces achieves at least neutral, if not stable, equilibrium.
A worked example of a roller bearing design is also given in the appendix RB.
12.16 SOFTWARE FOR BRIDGE DESIGN
12.16.1 GENERAL
There are hundreds of different computer programs used by Design Engineers in different
countries. It has proven most practical to use a simple 2D-frame program, which allows for
movable loads and load groups, as long as it is easy to insert the input data. These are used
more frequently than the more sophisticated FEM programs, which generally are more
tedious to use, although they usually give a more exact result. There are also called
"modified FEM-programs" adopted to the USA Codes: AASHTO LRFD Specifications,
AISC, ACI, AITC, etc. Sometimes these are combined with a CAD-program such as Visio

Chapter 12
Draw or Visio PRO, which can import and export .dxf-files.
STRUCTURAL DESIGN PROGRAMS
Strip Step II is a simple general program for 2-dimensional frames, which is inexpensive.
Unfortunately it is not useful for movable loads, which means the designer has to place the
loads in the most unfavorable position, before calculating the moments and forces in each
node or for each member.
STRUCT.etc PLUS (USA) is a general "modified Matrix"-program using STAAD3-2D

for two-dimensional multiple analysis of Concrete, Steel or Timber Structures in the same
run. It has a built-in AISC Steel beam Section Library and CAD facilities able to generate
corresponding STAAD3-2D input tables.
CONSPAN LRFD 1.0 (Leap software, USA) is used for simple and continuous prestressed
concrete bridge superstructures. It is a Windows 95/NT program available in metric units
and it works with automatic Moving Load Analysis with predefined LRFD-loads as well as
user-defined loads. It optimizes for the least number of Strands and uses all common Strand
types.
Curved & Straight Steel Bridge Design & Rating (MDX Software, USA) is mainly used for
composite steel girder and box girder bridges with complex girder systems and/or complex
geometry. It generates an optimal girder design according to AASHTO LRFD, ASD or LFD
Code, including shear connectors, transverse stiffeners, bearings, bracings, etc. in metric
system.
Brigade (Sweden) is a program, with an English Manual, tailor-made for RC Frame

Bridges, which unfortunately is quite expensive.
Otherwise most structural design calculations, without complicated iterations and loops, can
quite easily be written in EXCEL and/or MathCAD. MathCAD is one of many
mathematical programs, that makes it relatively easy to handle difficult mathematical
expressions such as Differential Equations, Fourier series, etc. It is written in clear formula
expression and may easily be imported by Excel and included in an Excel sheet. Some
examples of other simple but time saving and quality improving programs are:
RC beam moment and shear design, Properties of Cross section of RC Girder Deck,
RC T-beam design, Design of RC End wall, RC Wingwall design, Bearing
design, RC Punching design, RC Column design, RC Footing design, RC
Footings for Masonry Abutments, Cantilever RC Retaining wall, Gravity Retaining
wall design, Properties of Cross section of welded steel beam, Welded Steel Beam
shear design, Prestressed (post tensioned) RC beam design, etc.
It is very important that such programs are thoroughly checked before use by others than the
programmer, otherwise it is almost impossible to find errors or bugs in the design.

Chapter 12
A skilled EXCEL programmer can of course make even more complicated programs, which
shall be different combinations of the above mentioned small sheets, such as:
RC Slab superstructure design program
RC T- girder superstructure design program
RC Box girder superstructure design program
Piers with framed columns on either combined or isolated footings
12.16.2 FINITE ELEMENT MODELING (FEM) PROGRAMS
STAAD III is probably the most widespread (110 000 worldwide users) 3-dimensional FEM
program for structural design. It is especially suited for certain curved and/or box girder large
bridges. It is often sold together with Stardyne and Visual Draw in a packet called
STAAD/Pro Core (at present 29 000 Br/each; "upgrade version" is available for 3 500 Br).
SAP 2000/NL PUSH is another similar widely used structural design analysis program. It is
very suitable for bridges since it includes movable loads. Its earlier versions Sap 80 and 90
have been used by students at Addis Ababa University.
These large and universal programs shall be adapted to the specific design wanted. This will
make them faster and easier to use for the common designer who does not need all the
features in the general programs.

Chapter 12
FORM 12-12: CHECKLIST FOR BASIC STEPS FOR THE DESIGN OF CONCRETE BRIDGES
This outline is intended to be a generic overview of the design process using the simplified
methods for illustration. It should not be regarded as fully complete, nor should it be used as
a substitute for a working knowledge of the provisions of this section.
BEAM AND GIRDER SUPERSTRUCTURE DESIGN

A. Develop General Section
Roadway Width (Highway Specified)
Span Arrangements
Select Bridge Type
B. Develop Typical Section
Top Flange
Bottom Flange
Webs
Structure Depth
Reinforcement
Minimum Reinforcement
Temperature and Shrinkage Reinforcement
Effective Flange Widths
Identify Strut and Tie Areas, if any
C. Design Conventionally Reinforced Concrete Deck
Deck Slabs
Minimum Depth
Empirical Design
Traditional Design
Strip Method
Live Load Application
Distribution Reinforcement
Overhang Design
D. Select Resistance Factors
Strength Limit State (Conventional)
E. Select Load Modifiers
Ductility
Redundancy
Operational Importance
F. Select Applicable Load Combinations and Load Factors
G. Calculate Live Load Force Effects
Select Live Loads and Number of Lanes
Multiple Presence
Dynamic Load Allowance
Distribution Factor for Moment
Interior Beams with Concrete Decks
Exterior Beams

Chapter 12
Skewed Bridges
Distribution Factor for Shear
Interior Beams
Exterior Beams
Skewed Bridges
Reactions to Substructure
H. Calculate Force Effects from Other Loads identified
I. Investigate Service Limit State
Evaluate P/S Losses
Stress Limitations for P/S Tendons
Stress Limitations for P/S Concrete
Before Losses
After Losses
Investigate Durability
Crack Control
Investigate Fatigue, if applicable
Calculate Deflection and Camber
J. Investigate Strength Limit State
Flexure
Stress in P/S Steel - Bonded Tendons
Stress in P/S Steel - Unbonded Tendons
Factored Flexural Resistance
Limits for Reinforcement
Shear (Assuming no Torsional Moment)
General Requirements
Sectional Design Model
Nominal Shear Resistance
Determination of and
Longitudinal Reinforcement
Transverse Reinforcement
Horizontal Shear
K. Check Details
Cover Requirements
Development Length - Reinforcing Steel
Development Length - Prestressing Steel
Splices
Anchorage Zones
Post Tensioned
Pre Tensioned
Ducts
Tendon Profile Limitation
Tendon Confinement
Curved Tendons
Spacing Limits
Reinforcement Spacing Limits

Chapter 12
Beam Ledges
SLAB BRIDGES
Generally, the design approach for slab bridges is similar to beam and girder bridges
with some exceptions as noted below.
A. Check Minimum Recommended Depth
B. Determine Live Load Strip Width
C. Applicability of Live Load for Decks and Deck Systems
D. Design Edge Beam
E. Shear
F. Distribution Reinforcement
G. If Not Solid
Check if Voided Slab or Cellular Construction
Check Minimum and Maximum Dimensions
Design Diaphragms
Check Design Requirements
SUBSTRUCTURE DESIGN
A. Establish Minimum Seat Width
B. Compile Force Effects Not Compiled for Superstructure
Water
Effect of Scour
Earthquake
Temperature
Superimposed Deformation
Vehicular Collision
Braking Force
Centrifugal Force
Earth Pressure
C. Analyze Structure and Compile Load Combinations
Load Combinations
Special Earthquake Load Combinations
D. Compression Members
Factored Axial Resistance
Biaxial Flexure
Slenderness Effects
Shear (Usually Earthquake Induced)
Reinforcement Limits
Bearing
Durability
Detailing and Seismic
E. Foundations (Structural Considerations)
Scour
Footings

Chapter 12
REFERENCES
1. AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications, SI Units, 2nd Edition, 1998.

Washington: American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials.
2. The Ethiopian Building Code Standard (EBCS), Vol. 8, Design of Structures for
Earthquake Resistance, 1995.
3. Ethiopian Building Code Standard (ECBS), Vol. 7, Foundations, 1995.
4. Mononobe, N. Earthquake-proof Construction of Masonry Dams. In Proc., World
Engineering Conference, Vol 9, 1929.
5. Okabe, S. General Theory of Earth Pressure. Journal of the Japanese Society of Civil
Engineers, Vol 12, No. 1, 1926.
6. Seed, H. B. and R. V. Whitman. Design of Earth Retaining Structures for Dynamic
Loads. In Proc., ASCE Specialty Conference on Lateral Stresses in the Ground and
Design of Earth Retaining Structures, American Society of Civil Engineers, New York,
1970.
7. Richards. R. and D. G. Elms. Seismic Behavior of Gravity Retaining Walls. Journal
of the Geotechnical Engineering Division, ASCE, Vol 105, No. GT4, 1979.
8. Ethiopian Building Code Standard (ECBS), Vol. 2, Structural Use of Concrete, 1995
9. Taylor, A. W., R. B. Rowell, and J. E. Breen. Design Behavior of Thin Walls in
Hollow Concrete Bridge Piers and Pylons. Research Report 1180-1F. Center for
Transportation Research, University of Texas at Austin, 1990.
10. Ethiopian Building Code Standard (ECBS), Vol. 5, Utilization of Timber, 1995.

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Chapter 12

Bridge Design Manual - 2002 Detail Design of Bridges and Structures

12 DETAIL DESIGN OF BRIDGES AND STRUCTURES

Acp = total area enclosed by outside perimeter of concrete cross-section (mm2)

Ethiopian Roads Authority Page 12-1

b = design width, usually taken as 1.0 (mm)

Page 12-2 Ethiopian Roads Authority

l = unbraced length (mm)

Ethiopian Roads Authority Page 12-3

Vs = shear resistance, steel

12.3 SEISMIC DESIGN METHODS

EBCS (Ref. 2) (o) 0.03 0.05 0.07 0.10

Table 12-1 Comparison between Bedrock Acceleration Coefficients

Page 12-4 Ethiopian Roads Authority

SETTLEMENT CALCULATION METHODS

12.4.1 EFFECT OF LOAD ECCENTRICITY

Figure 12-1 Reduced Footings Dimensions

Ethiopian Roads Authority Page 12-5

where: eB = eccentricity parallel to dimension B (mm)

Footings under eccentric loads shall be designed to ensure that:

For structural design of an eccentrically loaded foundation, a triangular or trapezoidal contact

12.4.2 SPREAD FOOTINGS

Page 12-6 Ethiopian Roads Authority

In one-way footings and two-way square footings, reinforcement shall be distributed

As-BW = As-SD( 2 ) (12.3)

where: = the ratio of long side to short side of footing

Ethiopian Roads Authority Page 12-7

If a haunch has a rise-to-span

Vu = factored shear force, in section (N)

Figure 12-2 Example of Critical Sections for Shear in Footings

Page 12-8 Ethiopian Roads Authority

Vn = Vc + Vs 0.504 fc *bo dv (12.5)

for which: Vc = 0.166 fc *bo dv , and (12.6)

Ethiopian Roads Authority Page 12-9

be accounted for in the design.

Piling design (driven piles)

The calculations shall be made in the order presented in Form 12-1.

Page 12-10 Ethiopian Roads Authority

FORM 12-1: CHECKLIST FOR PILING DESIGN (DRIVEN PILES)

1. List all acting vertical and horizontal forces.

Ethiopian Roads Authority Page 12-11

Piles Bearing on Rock:

where: qu = average uniaxial compression strength of the rock core (MPa)

Where: Qs = nominal uplift capacity due to shaft resistance (N)

Page 12-12 Ethiopian Roads Authority

12.5 RETAINING WALLS

12.5.2 GRAVITY WALLS (STONE MASONRY)

See also following subchapter on masonry abutments.

12.5.3 CANTILEVERED RC WALL DESIGN

Ethiopian Roads Authority Page 12-13

A worked example of a concrete retaining wall design is given in the appendix.

12.6.2 DESIGN OF RC CULVERTS

Page 12-14 Ethiopian Roads Authority

Design criteria, as specified in the ERA Drainage Design Manual-2002, Chapter 7:

1750 s 50% (12.11)

Where s = effective span length (mm).

For primary reinforcement perpendicular to traffic:

3840 s 67% (12.12)

Ethiopian Roads Authority Page 12-15

Modification of Earth Loads for Soil-Structure Interaction: In lieu of a more refined

in which: CdBd 2 (12.16)

where: g = acceleration of gravity (m/s2)

Page 12-16 Ethiopian Roads Authority

Figure 12-3 Coefficient Cd for Trench Installations