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Locating of promising stratigraphic traps of

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DOI: 10.1007/s12517-011-0430-4

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Locating of promising stratigraphic traps of
pinch-out type in Iraqnew sense

Ali M.Al-Rahim

Arabian Journal of Geosciences

ISSN 1866-7511
Volume 6
Number 5

Arab J Geosci (2013) 6:1381-1393

DOI 10.1007/s12517-011-0430-4

1 23
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 Author's personal copy
Arab J Geosci (2013) 6:13811393
DOI 10.1007/s12517-011-0430-4
ORIGINAL PAPER
Locating of promising stratigraphic traps of pinch-out type
in Iraqnew sense
Ali M. Al-Rahim
Received: 22 June 2011 / Accepted: 27 September 2011 / Published online: 15 October 2011
# Saudi Society for Geosciences 2011
Abstract Stratigraphic traps of pinch-out type may perform
prolific petroleum locations in Iraq. Reconnaissance of their
expected locations, depth, and geometry was the main task
of the paper. New suggested and developed method is
proposed to determine the sequence of sedimentary cycles of
the stratigraphic trap. The methods of gradient and absolute
second horizontal gradient gives remarkable criteria to
distinguish the location of pinch-out structure even more
reliable from that the analytical signal. Mathematical concept
of the used method is presented in details and tested using a
new designed programmed Excel Separate Sheet. A new
concept for constrain modeling is used to determine the exact
geometry of the pinch-out structure. Many suggested profiles
across the Mesopotamian flank and inside the Mesopotamia
are taken as expected locations for the stratigraphic traps.
The method could determine also the sequence locations of
the sedimentary cycles for the pinch-out structure. The
reconnaissance results of this study may guide the seismic
exploration and confirm their interpretations and give new
sense for interpreting the gravity data.
Keywords Stratigraphic trap . Differential operator .
Gradient and absolute second horizontal gradient .
Constrain modeling . Pinch-out stratigraphic trap in
MesopotamiaIraq
Introduction
One of the important, and also one of the most difficult,
exploration problems confronting the petroleum industry is
A. M. Al-Rahim (*)
College of SciencesDepartment of Geology,
University of Baghdad,
Baghdad, Iraq
e-mail: alial_rahim@yahoo.com
finding stratigraphic traps (Hammer and Anzoleaga 1975).
The term pinch-out is used to describe and classify one of
the many types of stratigraphic and unconformity traps
(Halbouty 1972; Emery and Myers 1996). These types of
traps are not usually discovered using the standard
exploration strategies designed for structural traps (Whaley
2007). Stratigraphic traps, if associated with a major
structure, they often occur in an unexpected place such as
in a down-flank position (Whaley 2007).
The total dependence on only one geophysical method to
define positions, geometry, and depth of these types of
stratigraphic traps is inadvisable. The judicious uses of
gravity gradient method as a rapid, economic, and
complementary reconnaissance approach could greatly help
in guiding seismic confirmation or after seismic work to
confirm the interpretation. It is recommended as an
effective step forward in exploring for stratigraphic traps
of pinch-out type. These are the recommendations of
Hammer and Anzoleaga (1975). They were the first to
apply the concept of gravity gradient to define the pinch-
out properties. Since that time, very little papers on the
subject of the use of gravity gradients to determine
stratigraphic traps are published.
The nature of the gravity problem is illustrated in Fig. 1.
It is apparent from the diagram that the pinch-out is well-
defined by the horizontal (GX) and vertical (GZ) gradient
profiles. The definition is less evident on the gravity curve.
In fact, it is difficult to distinguish the gravity anomaly of
the pinch-out from that of a vertical fault.
The pinch-out edge of a stratigraphic trap is sharply
expressed in the various gravity gradients (horizontal, vertical,
differential curvature) across it. The gradient anomaly
depends upon the dip angle, depth of the pinch-out, and the
existence of density contrast (Hammer and Anzoleaga 1975).
A pinch-out zone might produce a recognizable gravity
anomaly as a result of the density contrast between the
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1382 Arab J Geosci (2013) 6:13811393

Theoretical background

The gradients of the gravity field for a pinch-out structure

(shown in Figs. 1 and 2) (Heiland 1940 after (Hammer and
Anzoleaga 1975)) are:

(a) Horizontal gradient (HG):


1 dg r2
HG GX  2sin2 aln sin 2a b 1  b 2
G s dx r1

(b) Vertical gradient (VG):


1 dg r2
VG GZ  sin 2a ln  2sin2 a b 1  b 2
Fig. 1 Gravity and gradient anomalies on a stratigraphic pinch-out. G s dz r1
GX and GZ are the horizontal and vertical gradients of gravity,
respectively. The ordinates are in dimensionless units. The depth to Where G is the gravitational constant. is the
the top of the pinch-out section Z is the unit of distance (Hammer and density contrast in the pinch-out section.
Anzoleaga 1975)
r12 X1  X 2 Z 2

porous sandstone and the adjacent beds or between the r22 X2  X 2 Z T 2

water-saturated and oil-saturated parts of the sandstone
section (Nettleton 1972). The density contrast (0.10.3 g/
cm3) between porous reservoir rocks, saturated with
hydrocarbon fluids at the top and water at the bottom
under reservoir conditions, is sufficient to account for the
relative gravity anomalies associated with some hydrocar-
bon fields (McCulloh 1980). The gravity anomalies caused
by density deficiency related to hydrocarbon reservoirs can
be detected by means of gravity data processing (Aghajani
et al. 2010).
The method described by Hammer and Anzoleaga
(1975) was applied for a profile; the aim and contribution
of the current paper is to apply enhanced method for the
profile and extend it to a map (the gravity field of Iraq) with
enhanced technique using differential operator (Gradient
and absolute Laplacian) and constrained modeling to
reconnaissance the exact locations, geometries, and depths
of the expected stratigraphic traps of pinch-out type along
the Mesopotamian flank of the territories of Iraq. The works
use the concepts of linear filter convolution which are used
widely in image and signal processing and new ideas for
the use of second derivative vertex maxima to constrain the
modeling aspect.


1 X1  X
b1 p=2 tan
Z


1 X2  X
b2 p=2 tan
ZT
These equations, like all gravity gradient equations, are
conveniently non-dimensional.
The horizontal gradient profile gives a better expres-
sion of the up-dip edge of pinch-out from that the
vertical gradient. This fact had been proven by Hammer
and Anzoleaga (1975). For this reason, the analysis will
be limited to the horizontal gradient method and its
absolute second derivative. The point defined of the
steepest slope of the horizontal gradient profiles is nearly
coincident with the edge of the pinch-out (x= 0). In
addition, the point of steepest slope is not shifted
appreciably by the stratigraphic dip angle . The position
and magnitude of the maximum slope is also nearly
independent of the horizontal extension L of the dip slope
as illustrated in Fig. 3. Consequently, the location of the
pinch-out, irrespective of its geometry, is well-defined by
the point of maximum slope on the horizontal gradient
profile (Hammer and Anzoleaga 1975).

Fig. 2 Diagram for stratigraphic

pinch-out theory (Hammer and
Anzoleaga 1975)
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Arab J Geosci (2013) 6:13811393
Fig. 3 Horizontal gradient of gravity profiles across pinch-out with
different slope lengths L. The factors 1/S and D for estimating depth to
the pinch-out are indicated (Hammer and Anzoleaga 1975)
Present treatment
To define the exact location for this steepest slope on the
horizontal gradient profile, it is possible to calculate an
absolute second horizontal gradient (ASHG) for the original
GX=HG values. The second absolute gradient (ASHG) is
equal exactly to the absolute second derivative (ASD) of
the original gravity field for the pinch-out structure.
Normally, the zero or minimum point for the line of the
second derivative determines the boundary of the causative
body of vertical contact type which is coinciding directly
on the maxima of the horizontal gradient profile. This is the
base for all depth estimation method in potential method for
gravity and magnetic data (Roest et al. 1992; Debeglia and
Corpel 1997; Beiki 2010). As the boundary contact of the
causative source body change from vertical angle, the
maxima of the second derivative coincide with the corners
of the causative body whatever the angle is. This is a very
important characteristic for the second derivative, while the
horizontal gradient gives a steepest slope at that location.
Algorithm implementation and theoretical examples
To emphasize the present treatment, the equations of GX
and GZ have been programmed using a Microsoft Excel
Spreadsheet (reader can request this Excel sheet directly
from the writer of this paper upon request), then the ASHD
derived from GX and analytical signal (AS) derived from
GX and GZ using the following equation (Nabighian 1972;
Butler 1995; Mousavi 2009):
q mathematical formula used in modeling programs, the
AS GX2 GZ2
and the results shown Fig. 4.
1383
Figure 4a could explain such treatment for a modeled
vertical contact body and Fig. 4b for a modeled pinch-out
structure. The pinch-out edge of a stratigraphic trap is
sharply expressed in the ASHG (ASD for the anomalies
field). Figure 4c, d show an extended model to cover more
than one sequence of sedimentary cycle for a stratigraphic
trap of pinch-out shape. The maxima of ASHG are
coinciding directly with the edge of the multi-sequence of
pinch-out structure. This gives a possibility to constrain the
modeling along these maximum vertexes. The thickness (T)
and dip angle () of each sequence in the pinch-out
structure are highly affected the amplitude of their
characteristics.
Tens of iteration on this Excel spreadsheet by change
T and of the pinch-out structure and all gave excellent
results to distinguish the start and end of pinch-out
structure for more than 1 cycle of theoretical stratigraphic
trap sequences from the ASHG graph. The results are
even more reliable than analytical signal method which
controls the potential method interpretation for more than
40 years.
Depth estimation
Depth estimation given by Hammer and Anzoleaga (1975)
of the pinch-out may be calculated from the horizontal
gradient profile in two ways:
(1) from the maximum slope S.
(2) from the half-width D, (see Fig. 3).
An approximated value for estimating the depth to the
pinch-out is given as:
Z D=2 and Z 2:8=S
Of the two formulas, the second is the more reliable
because it is less sensitive to the geometry of the pinch-out.
These values are adopted for L/Z between 5 and 10. More
explanation to find L and value could be founded in
Hammer and Anzoleaga (1975). For that, constrain model-
ing applied to determine the depth and geometry of the
pinch-out structure and for all L/Z ratios.
Concepts to constrain modeling
Actually, each vertex in the ASHG profile could be
used to constrain the modeling procedure to follow the
causative body geometry. That is because in all
theories include conversion of the volume integralR of
the causative body to a summation of lines integral for
the lines that bounds the boundary of the body to make the
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1384
Fig. 4 The modeled structures and its horizontal gradient (HG1D =GX
in Fig. 1 blue), vertical gradient (GZ green), analytical signal (AS
violet), and absolute second horizontal gradient (2nd red) (ASHG1D)
which is equal to the absolute second derivative (ASD1D) of the
anomalies field. a Vertical contact structure; the zero contour line of
the second derivative determines the boundary of the causative body
of vertical contact type which is coinciding directly on the maxima of
the horizontal gradient profile. b Pinch-out structure1 cycle of
stratigraphic sequence. The pinch-out edge of a stratigraphic trap is
numerical computation procedure easier and simplified;
this is for 3D modeling. While, for 2D modeling, the
conversion include converting surface integral to a lines
R
integral that make the boundary of the causative bodies
(Talwani and Ewing 1960; Gtze and Lahmeyer 1988;
Bijendra and Guptasarma 2001; Pignatellia et al. 2011).
This concept is a part of Green theorem to facilitate the
computation of the gravity effect of the causative bodies
(Dobrin and Savit 1988).
Each line has two vertexes, and these vertexes sign
their signature on the second derivative profile as a
maxima or minima. Using the ASHG, these vertexes
will coincide directly with the maxima. These vertexes
Arab J Geosci (2013) 6:13811393
sharply expressed in the absolute second horizontal gradient
(ASHG1D). c Pinch-out structure2 cycles of stratigraphic sequence,
and d Pinch-out structure3 cycles of stratigraphic sequence. It is
very hard to recognize the sequence of the pinch-out structure from
the gradients fields only and even from the analytical signal, while the
maxima of (ASHG1D) coincide with the vertexes of pinch-out
structure. The thickness (T) and dip angle () of each sequence in
the pinch-out structure are highly affected the amplitude of their
characteristics
could be followed in modeling the causative body later
on in this paper.
Extended the treatment to a map
The same treatment could be applied to a map using firstly
the horizontal gradient in the directions x and y of the map
then doing the same procedure to the horizontal gradient
map with absolute the result values to extract the location
and surface extent of the flank area (pinch-out surface
extent) or taking the absolute second derivative to the main
gravity field.
 Author's personal copy
Arab J Geosci (2013) 6:13811393 1385

Mathematical concepts: Absolute Horizontal Gradient The gradient operator with the following formula is used
(AHG=GX|) and its Absolute Second Horizontal Gradient to eliminate the sign effects of the HG2D(x, y) values due to
(ASHG) which is equal to the Absolute Second Derivative the direction of calculating the horizontal gradient in two
(ASD) of the causative field: directions:
For a profile (1-D): if g(x) is the gravity field in the x s


2
direction then its absolute horizontal gradient is: @g 2 @g
jHG2Dx; yj
AHG1D GXj j@g=@xj: @x @y

The Absolute Second Horizontal Gradient (ASHG1D) to
(AHG1D) is:
ASHG1D j@AHG1D =@xj
The latter (ASHG1D) is equal to the value of absolute
second derivative (ASD1D) for the gravity field:
 
ASD1D @ 2 g=@x2  ASHG1D
Figure 4a shows an explanation of these concepts.
For a map (2D): If g(x, y) is the gravity field and the
horizontal derivatives of the field are @g=@x in x
direction and @g=@y in y direction, then the horizontal
gradient (HG 2D ) in (x, y) direction is given by:
HG2Dx; y @g=@x @g=@y:
The gradient operator generates a grid of steepest slopes
(i.e., the magnitude of the gradient) at any point on the
surface (Talwani and Ewing 1960; Butler 1995; Pitas 2000;
Mousavi 2009). The gradient operator is zero for a
horizontal surface, and approaches infinity as the slope
approaches vertical.
Applying horizontal gradient again to the last data
|HG2D(x,y)| and take its absolute will produce the absolute
second horizontal gradient (ASHG2D) which is given by:
ASHG2D j@ jHG2Dx; yj=@x @ jHG2Dx; yj=@yj
Again, using absolute is to eliminate the sign effects of
the values due to the direction of calculating the horizontal
gradient.

Fig. 5 Bouguer gravity map of

Iraq (Al-Kadhimi et al. 1984)
with location of the suggested
stratigraphic trap (Abbas 2010).
The Mesopotamian Western
flank is located between 30 and
40 mGal gravity contour lines
and extended along the eastern
part of Iraq (AL-Sayyab and
Valek 1968; Jassim and Goff
2006)

Location of (25) study area. Suggested stratigraphic trap location.

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1386 Arab J Geosci (2013) 6:13811393

The ASHG2D is equal to the absolute second derivative present in the observed data for enhancing the signal-to-
(ASD2D) of the original data and absolute Laplacian noise ratio.
operator r2 gwith the following formula can apply and The smoothing approach utilized in this study use the
explain this concept: concept of linear convolution filter in image processing
  as a low-pass moving average filter with kernel
 2  @2g @2g  dimension 55 with the following parameter (Pitas
r g   
 @x2 @y2  ASHG2D ASD2D

2000; Surfer Program Version 9.0 2009; Wiggin 2001;
Phillips 1997, 2007).
The Gradient and Laplacian operators are both easy
to use in SURFER POGRAM (Surfer Program Version
9.0 2009). The user needs only to convert the Laplacian 1 1 1 1 1
output to its absolute value using math order and (fabs) 1 1 1 1 1
function which is built-in function Surfer program.
As state earlier, the Gradient and Laplacian operators
1 1 1 1 1
requires computation of absolute horizontal derivatives of 1 1 1 1 1
the first and second orders. It is well-known fact that the 1 1 1 1 1
filter characteristics of these derivatives are essentially
high-frequency enhancement filters. Due to this character-
istic, any high-frequency noise present in the data and any Modeling-quantitative interpretation
white noise in the map due to digitization error get
substantially enhanced, masking the response from the The quantitative interpretation of a potential field data
target. For that smoothing, the gravity map before process- involves estimation of the depth, location, contrast in the
ing the Gradient and Laplacian operators is mandatory to physical property, and the source geometry. Such an
get reasonable results and to suppress high frequencies interpretation suffers from an inherent ambiguity due to a

Fig. 6 Smoothed Bouguer

gravity map of Iraq with a
low-pass moving average filter
to reject all noises which may
amplify during the process for
Gradient and Laplacian Operator

Suggested stratigraphic trap location. (Abbas, 2010)

 Author's personal copy
Arab J Geosci (2013) 6:13811393
lesser number of known quantities than the number of
unknown parameters describing the geological model. It is
impossible to obtain all the information simultaneously
without a prior assumption.
Constrain the body parameter in modeling greatly help
in the final result of the modeling.
The program used in modeling is GeoModel 2.01
(Cooper 2004). The constrain parameters used in modeling
include:
1. Use density contrast =0.1 g/cc. This is accepted
contrast given by McCulloh (1980) for stratigraphic
trap.
2. Use the vertexes of the absolute second horizontal
derivative (ASHD2D) to follow the horizontal locations
for the geometry of the lower part of the causative
body. The modeling in such way will need only to
determine the vertical location of each line segment of
the causative body and thus constrain their modeling.
3. As we get the same shape for the gravity field of the
modeled body with the actual gravity field, a constant
value used to raise or reduce the modeled field to meet
exactly with the actual one. This constant value act as a
regional field removed from the original gravity.
Fig. 7 Gradient operator
applied to the smoothed
Bouguer gravity map (Fig. 6)
Suggested stratigraphic trap location. (Abbas, 2010)
1387
Applied the new treatment
During the first symposium for petroleum and geology of
Iraq, a paper submitted by Abbas (2010) aimed to bring
attention on the existence of stratigraphic trap along the
Mesopotamian Western flankIraq, where the Mesopota-
mian foredeep was influenced by many cycles of Retro-
gradditional and prograditional phases resulting from sea
level changes and these could create various stratigraphic
features along this flank.
For that the new treatment are applied to the Bouguer
gravity field of Iraq (compiled by Al-Kadhimi et al.
(1984) into 1:1,000,000 map) to examine the location
presented by Abbas (2010). The aim is to reconnaissance
the rest part of the Mesopotamia flank and inside the
Mesopotamia area searching for nearly the same gravity
habitat form.
The Bouguer gravity field of Iraq has been digitized with
gird interval 2.5 km (Fig. 5). The gravity map shows two
major gravity lows separated by a major central gravity
high. Detail descriptions and qualitative interpretations for
this map have been presented by Jassim and Goff (2006).
The study of tectonic framework of Iraq completely depend
on the interpretation of gravity, magnetic, seismic data, and
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1388 Arab J Geosci (2013) 6:13811393

satellite images which have been integrated with well and
outcrop data to construct a series of isopach and structural
maps covering the whole parts of Iraq, and a depth of
basement map (Jassim and Goff 2006). The Mesopotamian
Western flank is located between 30 and 40 mGal gravity
contour lines and extended along the eastern and south-
eastern part of Iraq (AL-Sayyab and Valek 1968; Jassim
and Goff 2006) Fig. 5.
The interpretation results (presented by Abbas 2010) of
the three 2D regional seismic sections covering almost the
central part of the Mesopotamia; indicate the presence of
many stratigraphic aspects. These regional lines cover an
area of about 120 km long and 5 km wide. The stratigraphic
anomalies located within Lower Cretaceous Mauddud
formation and Upper Jurassic Gotnia formation. This
interval as drilling revealed in the central Iraq is highly
promising from the hydrocarbon point of view. The
locations of these regional lines are shown in Fig. 5 and
superimposed on the Bouguer gravity map of Iraq to
analyze their gravity habitat. The aim is to reconnaissance
the rest part of the Mesopotamia using the Bouguer gravity
map of Iraq and searching for nearly the same gravity
habitat form.
The process is started with smoothing the Bouguer gravity
map of Iraq (Fig. 6) with a low-pass moving average filter
with kernel dimension 55 to reject all noises that may
amplify during the process for Gradient and Laplacian
operators. Then, gradient operator applied to the smoothed
Bouguer gravity map Fig. 7 and Laplacian operator applied to
the smoothed Bouguer gravity map and presented as absolute
value in Fig. 8 to delineate the agreeable and conformable
locations of stratigraphic traps of pinch-out type.
Results
Many slice profiles taken across maps (Figs. 6, 7, and 8)
and shown in Fig. 8 searching for areas of high gravity
gradient and ASHG maxima along the Mesopotamia flank
and inside the Mesopotamia and using any available data
from previous studies along the territories of Iraq. These
profiles form the data used in the second step, that is the
constrain modeling to define the geometry and depth of the
pinch-out structures.
A slice profile AA taken across the middle part of Iraq
and compared with section presented by Jassim and Goff

Fig. 8 Laplacian operator

applied to the smoothed
Bouguer gravity map (Fig. 6)
and presented as absolute
values. Profile A-A taken across
the middle part of Iraq to
compare the results with
schematic section for the same
area. Profile B-B across the
stratigraphic trap suggested by
Jassim and Goff (2006). Profiles
P1, P2, P3, P4, P5, and P6 are
taken on different location along
the Mesopotamia Western flank.
Profiles P7 and P8 are taken
along the Mesopotamia between
Euphrates and Tigris rivers.
Locations of these profiles
follow the maxima of the ASHG
in eastwest direction where the
basement going more deep in
this direction. The interpretation
results for these profiles shown
in Fig. 11

Suggested stratigraphic trap location. (Abbas, 2010)

 Author's personal copy
Arab J Geosci (2013) 6:13811393
(2006; page 59) Fig. 9. Following the maxima of the ASHG
profile, it is possible to partition the profile to zones of
pinch-out habitat structures (thinning upward formation
cycles). These zones named from A to J and play important
locations for pinch-out structures or stratigraphic traps (if
the three necessary conditions for petroleum accumulation
available, they are mature source rockpermeable reser-
voir rocktrap composed of structural cap rock).
Another profile B-B (Fig. 8) across the stratigraphic
trap presented by Abbas (2010) has been constrain
modeled and the result shown in Fig. 10. A constrain
modeling used to distinguish the geometry of the pinch-
out structures. Each line vertexes of the body geometry
Fig. 9 A slice profile A-A taken across the middle part of Iraq and
compared with section presented by Jassim and Goff (2006), page 59.
Following the maxima of the ASHG profile, it is possible to partition
the profile to zones of pinch-out habitat structures (thinning upward
formation cycles). These zones named from A to J and play important
1389
has been determined from the ASHD profile (see the dash
line on the red profile and its connection to body line
vertexes). Some difficulties are faced during modeling the
first part of the pinch-out structure due to expected rising
in the basement relief in this part (Jassim and Goff 2006
Figs. 4, 5, and 6 page no. 48). The depth to the top of the
structure is nearly 2.8 km and the bottom reaches 5.6 km;
this result coincides with the suggested formations depth
suggested by Abbas (2010). New suggested sequence of
sedimentary cycle with more depth is shown in the same
figure.
Profiles from P1 to P8 (Fig. 8) taken across Mesopota-
mia flank and inside the Mesopotamia and treated using the
locations for pinch-out structures or stratigraphic traps (if the three
necessary condition for petroleum accumulation available, which are
mature source rock-permeable reservoir rock-trap composed of
structural cap rock)
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1390 Arab J Geosci (2013) 6:13811393

Fig. 10 Profile B-B (Fig. 8)

across the stratigraphic trap
presented by Abbas (2010) has
been constrain-modeled and the
result is shown in Fig. 10. A
constrain modeling used to
distinguish the geometry of the
pinch-out structures. Each line
vertexes of the body geometry
have been determined from the
ASHD profile (see the dash line
on the red profile and its
connection to lower body line
vertexes). Some difficulties are
faced during modeling the first
part of the pinch-out structure
due to expected rising in the
basement relief in this part
(Jassim and Goff 2006; Figs. 4,
5, and 6; page no. 48). The
depth to the top of the structure
is nearly 2.8 km and the bottom
reaches 5.6 km; this result
coincides with the suggested
formations depth suggested by
Abbas (2010). New suggested
sequence of sedimentary cycle
with more depth is shown in the
same figure

same procedure of constrain modeling. Locations of these Conclusion

profiles follow the maxima of the ASHG in eastwest direction
where the basement going more deep in this direction (Buday
and Jassim 1987; Jassim and Goff 2006). The results are
shown in Fig. 11ah. For profile P4 and P5 (Fig. 11 e, f)
the density contrast used is 0.15 due to reaching the
influence of saliferous Hormuz Salt deposition (AL-
Sayyab and Valek 1968; Buday and Jassim 1987; Beydon
1991; Al-Rahim 1997; Jassim and Goff 2006). Also, each
model can observe the sequence of sedimentary cycles for
each stratigraphic trap. Determination of such properties
from gravity data is not easy task at all. Any further
information from drilled well for density contrast and
formation depth may integrate the constrain modeling.
All these profiles locations determine an expected
location for stratigraphic trap of pinch-out type. Some of
these profiles describe the whole sequence of the sedimen-
tary cycles due to basement thinning out toward to the
western flank of the Mesopotamia.
Many other locations in Iraq have the same habitat (see
Fig. 8), but the efforts in this paper are concentrated on the
Mesopotamian region only.
Stratigraphic traps of pinch-out type are prolific petroleum
locations in Iraq. Reconnaissance of the expected locations,
their depth, and geometry are the tasks of this paper. The new
suggested and developed method could also determine the
sequence of sedimentary cycles of the stratigraphic trap. The
gradient and absolute second horizontal gradient ASHG give
remarkable criteria to distinguish the location of pinch-out
structure even more reliable than analytical signal.
The future exploration for stratigraphic traps should be
focus on synclinal areas. In such settings, trapping mecha-
nisms like lateral depositional pinch-out, lateral facies change,
clastic macroform, and channel fill offer promising future
exploration opportunities, particularly for deeper water facies,
such as those associated with submarine fan and slope
environments. An overview of the overall exploration
potential for the Iraqi territories can be used as an analogue
to infer which geological setting are likely to provide
significant opportunities for stratigraphic trap in Iraq.
The reconnaissance results of this study may guide the
seismic exploration to confirm their interpretations.
 Author's personal copy
Arab J Geosci (2013) 6:13811393 1391

a Profile P1 b Profile P2

c Profile P3 d Profile P4

Fig. 11 ah describes the suggested stratigraphic trap. Profile model can observe the sequence of sedimentary cycles for each
locations are shown in Fig. 8. The proposed constrain modeling used stratigraphic trap. Determination of such properties from gravity data
to distinguish the geometry of the pinch-out structures. Also, each is not easy task at all
 Author's personal copy
1392 Arab J Geosci (2013) 6:13811393

e Profile P5 f Profile P6

g Profile P7 h Profile P8

Fig. 11 (continued)
 Author's personal copy
Arab J Geosci (2013) 6:13811393
Acknowledgments The author would like to thank the anonymous
reviewer of this paper for their excellent suggestions and reviewing
the manuscript of it.
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