Sec 2016 e Proceedings

Structural Engineering Convention 2016
(SEC-2016)
e-Proceedings
Edited By
Dr. A. Rama Mohan Rao

Chairman, Technical & Publications Committee
CSIR-Structural Engineering Research Centre
21-23 December 2016

Venue
CSIR - Structural Engineering Research Centre
CSIR Campus, Taramani, Chennai
Organized by
E N G I N E E R I N G S U S TA I N A B L E S T R U C T U R E S
CSIR - Structural Engineering Research Centre

jointly with
Indian Institute of Technology Madras
Anna University
under the auspices of
Indian Association for Structural Engineering (IASE)
Indian Concrete Institute (ICI)
PREFACE
It is a great pleasure for me to welcome you, on behalf of the organizing committee, to the TenthStructural
Engineering Convention (SEC-2016), which is being organized by CSIR-Structural Engineering Research
Centre (CSIR-SERC), Chennai at its campus jointly with Indian Institute of Technology Madras and
Anna University, Chennai during December 21-23, 2016.
The SEC series began in 1997 with the pioneering efforts of CSIR-SERC and IIT Madras with the aim of
providing a common platform for professional structural engineers, academicians and researchersfrom
all over Indiaand abroad, in the broad fields of structural engineering and structural mechanics, to present
their latest findings, exchange ideas, and establish relationships for future cooperation and subsequent
promotion of research in the area of structural engineering in the country. Young engineers and researchers
from industries, R&D institutions, and universities are specially encouraged to participate and benefit
from this convention. The journey has continued through IIT Bombay, IIT Roorkee, IIT Kharagpur, IISc
Bangalore, SERC, Annamalai University,SVNIT and IIT Delhi.
Structural engineering involves the prediction of strength, stability and integrity of structures under
the action of various loadings and environment, developing their innovative design using creative
manipulation of materials and forms, satisfying functional and safety requirements, realizing their
construction as well as monitoring their health and integrity throughout the service life. The role of
structural engineering and structural mechanics pervade far beyond the traditional domain of civil
engineering, but spans overmechanical, space, aerospace, materials, biomedical, nuclear, naval, arctic and
electronics engineering. The papers contributed in this convention are a reflection of the diverse research
activities in this area and represent the recent developments and futuristic trends in the fundamental
understanding of behavior of materials and structures, performance based design methodologies, and
technologies for sustainable development.
The growing interest in the convention is evidenced from the 527 submissions received, out of which
300 oral and 22 poster presentations have been included in the program. The scientific program also
consists of seven keynote andnine invited lectures. The convention will be attended by 417 delegates
including 190 student delegates.
On behalf of the organizing committee, Igratefully acknowledge the financial support received from the
Platinum sponsors, National Institute of Wind Energy (NIWE), Chennai and Larsen&Tubro Ltd., Chennai;
Gold sponsor,NTPC Ltd.; Silver sponsor, Ultra Tech Cement Ltd.; Bronze sponsors, Adams Technology
Ltd., Spplicetek India, Jindal and Fosroc Chemicals; Co-sponsors, Ultra Ready Mix Concrete (P) Ltd.,
Coimbatore, Oberoi Thermit Pvt. Ltd., Noida, ABV Engineers & Co, Hitech Concrete Solutions Pvt.
Ltd., and Francis Santiago & Associates.I also take this opportunity to place on record my appreciation
to all the members of National Advisory Committee, Organizing Committee, Technical and Publication
Committee, and various other committees constituted for the successful conduct of this grand event.
I would like to extend my sincere thanks to all authors for contributing papers to SEC-2016, and all
delegates for attending it and making the SEC series a success. Finally, I would like to wish you a very
enjoyable stay in this fascinating coastal cosmopolitan city of India, which has an effervescent history,
long marvelous beaches, captivating ancient monuments, magnificent temples, and bustling markets.
Prof. Santosh Kapuria

Chairman, Organizing Committee, SEC-2016
Committees
21-23 December 2016
CSIR-SERC, Chennai, INDIA.
PATRON
Dr. Girish Sahni
Director-General, CSIR & Secretary, DSIR
NATIONAL ADVISORY COMMITTEE

1. Prof. S.K. Bhattacharyya, IIT Kharagpur
2. Prof. S.S. Chakraborty, CES(I), Pvt. Ltd.
3. Mr. A.K. Dadarya, ED(B&S), RDSO
4. Prof. T. K. Datta, IIT Delhi
5. Prof. B. Dattaguru, IISc Bangalore
6. Prof. Durgesh C. Rai, IIT Kanpur
7. Dr. B. K. Dutta, BARC
8. Prof. Gautam Biswas, Director, IIT Guwahati
9. Mr. V.N. Heggade, Gammon India Ltd.
10. Prof. Mahesh Tandon, Tandon Consultants Pvt. Ltd
11. Dr. Manmohan Kalgal, President, ICI
12. Mr. T.V.B.S.S. Murthy, BGR Energy
13. Prof. D. K. Paul, IIT Roorkee
14. Dr. V. Ramachandra, Ultra Tech Cements Ltd.
15. Mr. S.N. Subrahmanyan, L&T Ltd.
16. Prof. Sudhir K. Jain, Director, IIT Gandhinagar
17. Prof. Tarun Kant, IIT-Bombay
ORGANIZING COMMITTEE
1. Prof. Santosh Kapuria, Director, CSIR-SERC Chairman
2. Prof. A. Meher Prasad, IIT Madras Co-Chairman
3. Prof. K.P. Jaya, Anna University, Chennai Co-Chairperson
4. Prof. Anjan Dutta, IIT Guwahati Member
5. Prof. Baidurya Bhattacharya, IIT Kharagpur Member
6. Dr. A. K. Bhaduri, IGCAR Member
7. Prof. B. Bhattacharjee, IIT Delhi Member
8. Dr. P. Devadas Manoharan, Anna University Member
9. Prof. Devdas Menon, IIT Madras Member
10. Prof. C. V. R. Murty, Director, IIT Jodhpur Member
11. Dr. S. Gomathinayagam, DG, NIWE Member
12. Prof. S. Gopalakrishnan, IISc Bangalore Member
13. Prof. R. S. Jangid, IIT Bombay Member
14. Mr. K. Jayasankar, Ultra Tech Cements Ltd. Member
15. Prof. C. S. Manohar, IISc Bangalore Member
16. Prof. K. Nagamani, Anna University, Chennai Member
17. Dr. B. S. Sarma, L&T Ltd. Member
18. Mr. Sthaladipti Saha, L&T Ltd. Member
19. Prof. K.V.L. Subramaniam, IIT Hyderabad Member
20. Prof. Subrata Chakraborty, IIEST Shibpur Member
21. Dr. P.V. Varde, BARC Member
22. Dr. J. Rajasankar, CSIR-SERC Member
23. Dr. B. H. Bharat Kumar, CSIR-SERC Treasurer
24. Dr. K. Ramanjaneyulu, CSIR-SERC Organizing Secretary
Structural Engineering Convention (SEC-2016)
TECHNICAL AND PUBLICATION COMMITTEE

1. Dr. A. Rama Mohan Rao, CSIR-SERC Chairman
2. Prof. Amlan K. Sengupta, IIT Madras Member
3. Dr. M.B. Anoop, CSIR-SERC Member
4. Dr. S. Arul Jayachandran, IIT Madras Member
5. Dr. K. Balaji Rao, CSIR-SERC Member
6. Dr. K. Chinnaraju, Anna University, Chennai Member
7. Dr. N. Gopalakrishnan, CSIR-CBRI Member
8. Dr. G.S. Palani, CSIR-SERC Member
9. Dr. G. Raghava, CSIR-SERC Member
10. Prof. B.N. Rao, IIT Madras Member
11. Prof. Ravindra Gettu, IIT Madras Member
12. Dr. Rupen Goswami, IIT Madras Member
13. Prof. S. R. Satish Kumar, IIT Madras Member
14. Dr. Selvi Rajan, CSIR-SERC Member
15. Dr. U. Saravanan, IIT Madras Member
16. Prof. R. Senthil, Anna University, Chennai Member
17. Dr. P.K. Umesha, CSIR-SERC Member
18. Dr.Ing. Saptarshi Sasmal, CSIR-SERC TPC Secretary
FUND RAISING COMMITTEE

1. Dr. G. Raghava, CSIR-SERC Chairman
2. Dr B. Sivarama Sarma, L&T Construction Member
3. Prof. S.R. Satish Kumar, IIT Madras Member
4. Prof. K. Nagamani, Anna University Member
5. Shri K. Jayasankar (M/s. UltraTech Cement Limited) Member
6. Dr P.K. Umesha, CSIR-SERC Member
7. Shri P. Gandhi, CSIR-SERC Member
8. Dr G.S. Palani, CSIR-SERC Member
9. Dr B.H. Bharathkumar, CSIR-SERC Member
10. Dr P. Srinivasan, CSIR-SERC Member
SESSIONS MANAGEMENT COMMITTEE

1. Dr. G.S. Palani, CSIR-SERC Chairman
2. Dr. A. Ramachandramurthy Member
3. Dr. N. Anandavalli Member
4. Dr. G.V. Rama Rao Member
5. Ms. M. Keerthana Member
6. Shri A. Sundaramoorthy Member
REGISTRATION COMMITTEE
1. Dr. S. Vishnuvardhan, CSIR-SERC Chairman
2. Mrs. K. Lakshmi Member
3. Ms. A. Kanchana Devi Member
4. Dr. Mrs. S. Vijayalakshmi Member
5. Mrs. Chitra Sankaran Member
6. Mrs. Niraja P. Member
7. Shri P. Kanagaraju, Member
21-23 December 2016
CATERING COMMITTEE
1. Dr. J. Rajasankar, Chief Scientist, CSIR-SERC Chairman
2. Shri J. Devan, Assistant (F&A) Gr.I Member
3. Shri T. Karthikai Kannan, F&AcO Member
4. Shri S. Muraleeswaran, STO (1) Member
5. Shri K. Nagajothi, Assistant (G) Gr.I Member
6. Shri E. Parthiban, STO (2) Member
7. Ms. J. Rajalakshmi, Sr. Technician (2) Member
8. Shri M. Saravanan, Scientist Member
9. Shri M. Venkatesan. PTO Member
CULTURAL PROGRAM COMMITTEE

1. Dr. Selvi Rajan, CSIR-SERC Chairman
2. Dr. Mymoon Moghul Member
3. Ms. R. Lakshmi Poorna Member
EXHIBITION AND SOUVENIR COMMITTEE

1. Dr. P.K. Umesha, CSIR-SERC, Chairman
2. Dr. S. Selvi Rajan Member
3. Shri K. Dilli Member
4. Dr. S. Parivallal Member
5. Dr. N. Prasad Rao Member
6. Shri K. Gunasekaran Member
7. Shri R.P. Rokade Member
8. Dr.-Ing. Saptarshi Sasmal Member
9. Shri C. Kumarasekar Member
10. Shri R.Ramesh Kumar Member
11. Shri R.D. Sathish Kumar Member
12. Shri. K.Raghvan Member
13. Shri A. Sundaramoorthi Member
14. Shri K. Sankaranarayanan Member
15. Smt. E. Kanmani Member
16. Smt. R. Lakshmi Poorna Member
17. Shri K. Elumalai (CMC) Member
18. Shri G. Jayaraman Member
19. Shri M.S. Balasundram Member
20. Shri D.J. Ravichandran Member
21. CoA Member
22. CoSP Member
23. FAO Member
Plenary Lectures
A Comparison of Three Dimensional Elasticity Solutions for Functionally Graded Plates

Yashaswini T. LomtePatil
College of Engineering Pune, Shivaji Nagar, Pune 411 005
Tarun Kant
Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, Powai, Mumbai 400 076
Three dimensional (3D) elasticity analysis of functionally graded (FG) plate in cylindrical bending using a mixed semi
analytical approach developed by Kant and Ramesh (1981) is presented.The Youngs modulus of the plate isassumed to vary
exponentially through the thickness, and the Poisson ratio is held constant.In the present model the governing equations of
a two point boundary value problem (BVP) are written as a set of coupled first order partial differential equations in the
thickness direction which in turn are converted to ordinary differential equations using support boundary conditions (BCs).
The solution is then obtained using a numerical integration technique.
As 3D elasticity solutions are assumption free they can be treated as the benchmark solutions for validating various two
dimensional (2D) approximate theories and finite element solutions. All the 3D elasticity solutions are broadly classified in
three categories:displacement based formulation, stress based formulation and mixed formulation.
In displacement based formulation elastic displacements are treated as primary variables and governing equations of two
point BVP are written as a set of coupled second order partial differential equations in terms of elastic displacements. The
solution techniques based on displacement based formulation are Paganos or Srinivas classical approach and series expansion
approach.
In stress based formulation stresses are considered as primary variables. As per the available literature this approach is used
only in special case of cylindrical bending and the governing equations of two point BVP are expressed as a fourth-order
ordinary differential equation in terms of thickness coordinate using Airy stress function.
In mixed formulation generally the elastic displacements and transverse stresses are considered as primary variables. The
governing equations for the two point BVP are written as a set of coupled first order partial differential equations in the
thickness direction in terms of the assumed primary variables. Both state space approach and present mixed semi analytical
approach use mixed formulation technique as the basis of problem formulation.
A comprehensive comparison of present approach with above described solution techniques is done. The mixed semi analytical
approach adopted here is found to be very effective, accurate and straight-forward as both displacements and stresses are
computed simultaneously. It is proposed to extend same methodology for diaphragm supported plates and shells.
Reference
Kant, T., Ramesh, C.K., (1981) Numerical Integration of Linear Boundary Value Problems in Solid Mechanics by
Segmentation Method.Int J Num Meth. inEngg, 17, 1233-1256
1
21-23 December 2016
Atomistic and Continuum Studies of the Mechanics of Graphene for Development of Nanocomposites
Nimal Rajapakse and Nuwan Devapriya*
School of Engineering Science, Simon Fraser University, Canada V5A1S6
Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, University of Toronto, Canada M5S 3G8
We investigated the fracture strength of graphene and the interfacial properties of graphene-polymer nanocomposite using
molecular dynamics and classical continuum concepts. Moreover, we developed an atomistic model to assess the temperature
and strain rate dependent fracture strength of functionalized graphene along various chiral directions. Results indicate that
hydrogen functionalization at elevated temperatures highly degrade the fracture strength of graphene. The functionalization
also deteriorates the interfacial strength of graphene-polymer nanocomposite. Near-crack-tip stress distribution depicted by
continuum mechanics can be successfully used to investigate the impact of hydrogen passivation of dangling carbon bonds
on the strength of graphene. We further derived a continuum-based model to characterize the non-bonded interaction of
graphene-polymer nanocomposite. These results indicate that classical continuum concepts are accurate even at a scale of
several nanometers.
We also developed a homogenous spring model to characterize the influence of surface defects on adhesion properties of
graphene interfaces. The model has been extensively verified using molecular dynamics simulations for graphene-silicon
dioxide interfaces, and the cohesive energy given by the model is in agreement with recently measured energies. Our results
indicate that low concentrations of hydrogen adatoms highly degrade the strength of graphene interfaces; whereas, vacancies
have a negligible impact on the interfacial properties. Using the proposed model, we compared the influence of hydrogen
adatoms on the properties of several commonly encountered graphene interfaces. These findings are useful in analyzing and
designing graphene-based composite materials, where graphene interfaces and surface defects are unavoidable. Furthermore,
the developed model can be parameterized to study the mechanical behaviour of any material interface at the atomic scale.
Acknowledgment: This research was supported by NSERC of Canada.
2
ROLE OF SIMULATIONS IN STRUCTURAL HEALTH MONITORING

Dr. S. Gopalakrishnan
Professor and Chairman, Department of Aerospace Engineering, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore 560 012
Email:krishnan@aero.iisc.ernet.in
Structural Health Monitoring (SHM) concerns with assessing the state of a structure from a predefined input and the measured
outputs. In other words, it falls in the domain of inverse problems. SHM can further be classified into diagnostics, which
deals with the flaw location, size and its severity and prognostics, which concerns with the determination of the remaining
life the structure has as a result of the flaw. SHM is not the part of Non-Destructive Testing (NDT) methodologies, while
NDT can be considered a subset of SHM. SHM is a multi-disciplinary entity, especially in the context of civil structures,
comprising of material science, sensor technologies, NDT technologies and new modeling or simulation methods. This talk
will dwell only on the role of simulations in understanding the state of a structure.
Simulations for SHM have two parts; one is the damage modeling and the second is the damage detection methodologies.
The most common method of analysis of structures is the finite element modeling. However, when the flaw sizes are very
small, FE modeling becomes computationally prohibitive. This is because, the FE modeling requires mesh sizes compatible
with the wavelength of the incident excitation, which is very small requiring high frequency input. There are different variants
of FE modeling which can alleviate the requirement of very small mesh sizes. One such methodology is the use of Time
Domain Spectral FEM, which uses orthogonal functions as interpolating functions for spectral element development. On the
other hand, one can use Frequency Domain Spectral Element methods to solve such high frequency problems, wherein the
governing equations are transformed to frequency domain using Fast Fourier Transform and the problem is numerically or
semi-analytically solved in the frequency domain. This is the most common method to solve wave propagation problems.
This talk will address all of these methods and outline their advantages and disadvantages.
The damage modeling depends on the types of flaws, which are quite different for metals and composites. The most common
forms of flaws in metals are the cracks and the corrosion. The damage mechanics of composites are more complex and
still less understood. The common forms of flaws in composites are the delamination, fiber breaks, matrix cracks, debonds
between the stiffeners and skin in the case of aerospace structures, material degradation due to moisture absorption and more
importantly the failure of adhesively bonded joints. All of these flaws require simplified damage numerical models to work
with the most of the established numerical analysis procedures such as FE or Spectral FE formulations. The development of
these simplified damage models is one of the key objective of this talk.
Damage detection methods are important component of SHM simulations. Important objective here is to determine the state
of the structure without requiring baseline responses. Detection methods will depend on the kind of hardware used in NDT
or the type of numerical procedure adopted for damage modeling. Most of the detection methods are guided wave based
methods while some are vibration-based methods. This talk will address some of these methods in the context of off-line
SHM.
3
21-23 December 2016
Recent Advances in Seismic Design of Precast Concrete Walls

Sri Sritharan, Catherine French, Eric Musselman, Suzanne Nakaki, Sriram Aaleti,
Maryam Nazari, Qingzhi Liu, Jonathan Watkins,Rick Henry and DimitriosKalliontzis
IOWA State University, USA
Damage caused by recent earthquakes and the subsequent economic losses have underscored the need to focus on developing
earthquake resilient buildings. One approach to achieveresilient buildings is to design them with self-centering structural
systems for resistingthe earthquake lateral loads. In the Network for Earthquake Engineering Simulation (NEES) Rocking
Wall project, behaviour of two such systems have been studied in order to advance the seismic design of precast concrete
wall buildings. They include precast Single Rocking Walls (SRWs) designed with unbonded post-tensioning and PreWEC
(i.e., Precast Wall with two End Columns) systems. The wall and end columns in a PreWEC system are also designed with
unbonded post-tensioning. In both systems, the flexural response is dominated by a rocking mode although the energy loss
caused by the wall impacting the foundation during rocking has beentypically ignored inpastresearch. Another topic needing
advancement was identified to be resilience of buildingscontainingseismic resilient structural systems. Structural resilience
of a building also depends on the behaviour of surrounding structural components, especially floors and gravity columns,
and their interactions with the seismic load resistant systems. To ensure a fully resilient building, these interactions should be
understood and they must be adequately addressed in design.
In the rocking wall project, the fundamental characteristics of seismic rocking of both SRWs and PreWECswere first studied
using shake table testing on four SRWs and fourPreWECsystems. Both systems have produced satisfactory responses when
subjected to a suite of small to large intensity earthquake motions. Althoughdrifts and accelerations recorded for SRWs were
satisfactory, they were relatively higher than those recorded for the PreWEC systems. These tests assisted withquantifying
the contributions of different damping components and facilitated the design of rocking walls to be explored as a function of
damping in the system.
To understand the interaction between seismic load resisting systems and the surrounding structures, two PreWEC tests have
been completed with floor diaphragms and other gravity load carrying members such as columns and beams. In the first test,
a cast-in-place concrete floor was rigidly connected to the PreWECwall, while in the second case a precast untopped floor
was connected to the rocking PreWECwall using V-connectors, which facilitated transfer of inertia force from the floor to
the rocking wall,but allowed the wall to uplift with respect to the floor. In the latter case, the gravity load was transferred
through the end columns of the PreWEC systems. Both systems performed extremely well, but the benefits of isolating the
floor interaction was clearly evidenced from these tests. Given the broad utilization of unbonded post-tensioning systems
in this and other research effort, tests were conducted on single and multi-strand anchorage and suitable strain limits for the
unbonded tendons have been established.
Thispresentation will cover thedetails of the different experimental investigations and the findings from these tests and
complementary analytical investigations.
4
Structural Design Challenges and opportunities in Wind Power Plants

Dr. S. Gomathinayagam
DG/NIWEgomsluft@gmail.com
Complicated are the composite material behavior, when multi-facettedcomponents, subjected to multi-disciplinary static/
dynamic/fatigue/environmentally interactive loadings need to be accounted with built-in uncertainties in the structural design.
The challenges get many fold when the sizes of rotor blades and wind turbine support tower heights reach 80+ and 160+
metres. When wind power plants (WPPs) in clusters of two or more wind turbine generators (WTGs), are installed onshore,
the structural tower and foundation costs (usually termed as balance of Plants, BoP) are only 15% of overall project cost, in
offshore WPPs this is over 60% including installation and commissioning. There are other components which are mechanical
gears, gear shafts, yaw and blade pitch system functional designs. The most significant challenges are in the design of
rotor blades which need extremely high strength to weight ratios, owing to the complex airfoil shapes continuously varying
sectional cross sections along the length of the blade, which are usually made of GFRP ( Glass fiber reinforced Plastics/
polymers). Modern large rotor blades further use very effectively the carbon fibers instead of glass.
With every engineering material cost increasing, the levelized cost of energy (LOE) from wind plants is decreasing because of
technological advancements in the aero-dynamic and structural design of large rotor blades, taller steel, concrete (RCC/PSC)
, hybrid, and composite cored steel shell towers, and related power electronic convertors and gear and Generator systems.
Still in each component design there are many challenges to improve energy capture from wind. The rotor blades which are
about 54 m long are difficult to transport through rural roads where wind sites are now identified. Split blade concepts, and
ambient temperature joining of segments are yet to be perfected. In addition these blades are manufactured with hundreds of
layers of fibers and resins and laminate debonding in fatigue is not yet proven. Due to remote location of offshore/onshore
wind turbines continuous structural health monitoring and the need for increased reliability is essential. Very long blade
transportation require pre-logistical planning and design of fixture systems with flexibility to negotiate sharp curves in roads
with closely spaced habitats in villages. The stress analysis of blades have to specially consider these handling situational
load conditions even at design stage.
Wind power is proportional to cube of wind velocity, thus taller the tower higher will be the annual energy production (AEP in
number units (kWh) of electricity generated) from seasonal wind. This forces alternate material choices other than steel when
it becomes essential to reduce the environmental impact ( cutting of forest/trees ). It has been proven that beyond a hub-height
of 70m reinforced concrete/prestressed (pre/post tensioning) hold a big promise not only as a structurally efficient design
but also in the techno economic viability and logistical point of view. In contrast to established expertise of tall chimney and
cooling towers the WTG support tower-foundation systems are integral part of WTG as it is a machine foundation subjected
dynamic operational loads . In addition these towers have to be designed to survive extreme loads too. The review paper
provides an overview of structural anlysis,design,testing and monitoring challenges to blades and towers. The changing role
of structural design engineers to understand site specific needs of not only onshore/offshore individual wind turbine sites
but also to foresee the dynamic effects of wind turbine wake induced turbulence in wind power plants (WPPs) as a cluster
of WTGs . The purpose of the paper is to make in India with effective (Academic+Industrial+Research : AIR ) mutually
beneficial indigenous structural design of WTGs.
5
INDUSTRYS EXPECTATION OF R&D IN STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING

Mr. S. Kanappan
Head & Chief Executive, L&T GeoStructure.
This keynote address traces the direction of the construction industrys expectation related to R&D in structural engineering.
In the context of more conducive government policies and better financing models, there is likely imminent infrastructure
growth and development in the country across sectors, in which structural engineering will play a key role. Various futuristic
focus areas of research should include:
Development of new materials to offset the scarcity of existing resources, which will also enhance material performance
Design which will encompass and deliver in critical situations like high seismic, wind and impact loads
Effective monitoring of building health
Foundations with large diameter piles
Deep shafts for rainwater harvesting, sewage collection and disposal
Navigational structures and locks
Role of aesthetics in structural engineering
Buildability of design
Research for climactic change
In the prevailing situation, all institutions must tie up with industries to orient their development activities in the area of
fundamental and application-oriented research.
6
INVITED TALKS
Road Map for Upgrading Earthquake Resistant Design in India

C. V. R. Murty and Rupen Goswami
Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Madras
Earthquake Resistant Design is nuanced by the specific circumstance that earthquake ground shaking induces inertia forces in
the structures the extent of these induced forces depends on the structural characteristics of the structures. Historic evolution
worldwide of earthquake resistant design methods, which have ensured increased protection of the built environment (and
hence of the people), underlined the need for constant review and upgrade of design guidelines and practices.
In India, the first standard came into force in 1960 towards ensuring increased protection of structures against effects of
earthquake ground shaking. Thereafter, six revisions have been made over these six decades; each of these revisions attempted
to bring significant change at the conceptual level. Notwithstanding these changes, the overall growth of standards has been
slow for a nation that has been adding significant amount of infrastructure in the interim decades and that will in the decade
ahead. The first transition was made from stiffness-based design to strength-based design over the first four decades, and the
second from strength-based design to strength-based capacity design over the last two decades. But, two major transitions
are yet to be embarked in India from strength-based capacity design to displacement-based design, and subsequently
from displacement-based design to energy-based design. These two transitions require a large mass of academics, R&D and
industry personnel these principal stakeholders need to organize themselves urgently to prepare the new design standards
with higher levels of safety.
The more critical issue is that even if the standards are developed, there is a need for a suitable environment to implement
in practice. At least for ensuring all new constructions to be earthquake resistant, the nation needs to work along five tracks
in parallel... and development of design standards & their regular upgrade will be just one part of the said effort. These five
tracks are: (1) Typologies, (2) Safety, (3) Human Resource Development, (4) Practice and (5) Policy.
The Invited Lecture will provide details of the upcoming two levels of new standards that need to be prepared in India in
time ahead.
7
21-23 December 2016
Improved Super-elastic IsolationSystem using a Ferrous based Shape Memory Alloy (FNCATB)
Sudib Kumar Mishra1 and Subrata Chakraborty2
1
Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur, UP
2
Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Engineering Sciences and Technology, Shibpur, Howrah
Super-elastic characteristic of Shape Memory Alloy (SMA) has been widely exploited in base isolation system to mitigate
seismic vibration effects. Apart from the shape memory effect, the property of super-elasticity of SMA helps in reducing the
residual displacement of an isolator along with significant energy dissipation capability. The commonly adopted variant of
SMAs for this purpose are Nitinol and Cu-Al-Be alloy, because of their excellent super-elastic damping and re-cantering
capability. However, such SMAs are not viable economically for bulk application due to high cost involved those alloys. An
Iron based Shape Memory Alloy, referred as Fe-Ni-Co-Al-Ta-B (FNCATB) has been proposed recently and shows substantial
super-elasticity characteristic. Because of its ferrous origin, this SMA has potential for being a cost effective alternative.
Additionally, the alloy shows substantial super-elasticity that can also be exploited for improved solution over the conventional
Nitinol based system. In the present study, the FNCATB based super-elastic wires are employed as restrainers in conjunction
with the pure frictional bearing, termed as the Superelastic Friction Base Isolator (S-FBI). The improved performance of the
FNCATB based S-FBI over the conventional Nitinol based S-FBI is demonstrated. For performance assessment, the response
analysis of structure augmented with such devices are performed in time domain using suite of ground motion records. In
doing so, the experimental force-deformation dataset available for the FNCATB are fitted in the existing Wilde's model to
characterize the super-elastic force-deformation behaviour. The performance of a shear building isolated by the FNCATB
S-FBI is numerically demonstrated. For this, the optimal parameters for both the FNCATB and Nitinol based S-FBI systems
are obtained for comparative study of the performances of the building-isolator systems. The optimal response analysis under
recorded motions and comparison thereafter reveal the improved performances, either in terms of enhanced efficiency of
the isolation or reduced peak displacement of the bearing and elimination of residual displacement. It is also noted that the
FNCATB S-FBI requires much less volume of material as estimated from the pertinent optimal parameters of the isolators.
Keywords: Seismic Vibration Control, Iron based Shape Memory Alloy-FNCATB, Friction Base Isolator.
8
Lessons to be learnt from structural failures

V.N. Heggade
Sr. Vice President &Member, Board of Management of Gammon India Limited.
Structural failures invariably culminate in injury and loss of life as such Structural safety isof primary importance right from
the inception of conceptual design and should not be calibrated by other objectives like cost, political pressures to complete
the job in hurry, etc. The failures and partial failures in majority of cases are caused by one non-vigilant mistake arising
because a vital problem has not been recognized, has been underestimated or recklessly treated.
In this era of engineering science other load bearing structures like Machines say for example car makers can run a pilot
series of simulated load testing to remedy defects before going into mass production, but the one-off nature and size of
civil engineering structures make it impossible to test their load bearing capacity in entirety and remove defects before
construction. Laboratory load testingisnormally displacement oriented where the behaviourof the test specimen is not brittle,
the ultimate load is hardly evident because testing can be smoothly continued into the de-strengthening stage and the failure
process appears to be quite harmless. In reality, structures are mostly load controlled and the collapse of scaffolding or of
an entire structure is always a dramatic and tragic event with very serious consequences.
Continuing with the causes of accidents, either the possibilities of failure werenever visualised, conditions were not thoroughly
investigated or that in some way rashnesswas predominant during design or construction. Also on some occasions, successful
structures have been the cause of failure in later structures when seemingly unimportant changes, such as in size or slenderness,
turned secondary factors into major influences. Currently in vogue safety theory based on a probability approach, which is
the basis for all new standards internationally, is unlikely to reduce the failures and collapse of structures as the causes are not
statistically distributed, but are rather errors that do not fit into any probabilistic distribution.
Another issue is engineers quest for increasingly challenging load-bearing structures such as bridges with wider spans and
of lighter design, cranes of higher lifting capacity and taller pylons and towers, it can happen that due to the limitations of
their standard of knowledge, they fail to identify hitherto unknown phenomena and dangers. The designers often extrapolate
secondary affects arising out of scale effects. The secondary affects in small structures may not govern the design as such in
standard designing practice might have been ignored but when the structures become taller, slimmer, wider, longer and larger
these secondary effects may govern the design as such may not deserve to be ignored as extrapolation. In this context it is
interesting to note that Construction is always in a state of continuous development, progressing through emergencysituations
and constantly breaking new ground in actual projects, creating something new, and there is no law to restrict tallness,
length,largeness and find stretched solutions under constrained situations. In the absence of restrictive controls in the form
of laws professional self-control based on knowledge, experience, balanced judgment and responsibility attains paramount
importance. Control and self-control are the two poles between which the practice of designing innovative load-bearing
structures moves, particularly when the area of technology involved is in a state of rapid development. These professional
self-controls are honed by lessons learnt by set-backs. Thus the documentation of failures is the corner stone for future
innovative designs.
Despite the importance of documentation for future innovative designs and in spite of huge coverage in the press and the
Internet, it is difficult to get hard facts about the failed structures. The news item in the papers released invariably satisfy
the general publics appetite for sensation but those involved avoid frank statements for fear of possible legal consequences.
Incidentally for avoiding any legal consequences, extra precaution will be taken in the detailed presentation to mention only
those details which are in the public domain as many illustrations are matter of subjudice. For this reason, many times the real
cause of the failure is never known. In the recent past the incidence of the structural failureshas shifted to the Asian continent.
This is explained by the enormous economic growth in many Asian countries and the pressing need for infrastructure to be
built fast. There are a number of extremely fast-tracked projects under construction. It is always the construction schedule
which is more important than safety regulations and accident prevention. This unfortunate development seems to continue
for few more years.
No structure is designed and built by a single engineer.Acompetent team membersmust cooperate and be absolutely willing to
cooperate for successful bridge building. Any conflict or misunderstanding between the professionals involved can be critical
and must be resolved before the project is continued and construction commences. Every stage of every job must be carefully
organised with clear definition of the areas of responsibility and the boundaries between different activities. At the same time
every person involved must be prepared to support his colleagues even beyond his own particular field of action. The team
member especially chief designer and project manager should have the ability to visualise accident scenario and communicate
9
21-23 December 2016
to each other before the commencement of each critical activity. This aspect is well established by an investigation, carried
out in Switzerland, by Matousek and Schneider in 1978 , after investigating 400 cases, gave the following classification for
the reasons of failure:
Errors in design, calculation and planning =37%
Errors in construction =35%
Errors in design and construction = 18%
Damage during service = 5%
Miscellaneous = 5%
Even much more important than this classification was their remarkable conclusion that about 1/3 of all damage cases and
about of all cases with human injuries could have been avoided, without any additional control, with normal attention and
adequate reaction of the person who is next in the chain of architect, engineer, contractor and executor. Moreover, they
stated that with a wellorganizedcontrol system more than 75% of all errors with material consequences and 90% with human
consequences would have been detected in due time.
10
GEOPOLYMER COMPOSITES A NEW SUSTAINABLE MATERIAL FOR 21ST CENTURY

Dr. Somnath Ghosh
Professor of Civil Engineering & Dean, Faculty of Engineering & Technology
Jadavpur University, Kolkata 700 032.West Bengal
E-mail: sngceju@gmail.com Phone - 9831025676
Geopolymer is a class of aluminosilicate binders synthesized by activation of solid aluminosilicate source materials such as
fly ash, granulated blast furnace slag obtained from industrial wastes or calcined clays like metakaoline, with an alkali metal
hydroxide and silicate solution. These binders are currently attracting widespread attention due to their potential utilization
as a high performance, environmental friendly and sustainable alternative to portland cement.
Geopolymerisation is a complex multiphase exothermic process, involving a series of dissolution-reorientation-solidification
reactions analogous to those observed in zeolite synthesis. High alkaline solutions are used to induce the silicon and aluminium
atoms in the source material to dissolve and form Geopolymer gel. The sol gel formation (or polymerization) may be assisted
by application of heat, followed by drying. The Geopolymer gel binds the loose coarse aggregate, fine aggregate and un-
reacted source material to form Geopolymer composites. The portland cement free Geopolymer composites have many
advantages like less curing time, earlier development of higher mechanical strength, very little drying shrinkage and low
creep, excellent resistance to sulfate attack, good acid resistance and resistance to high temperature. The strength development
in Geopolymer composites depends on the chemical composition, morphology and reactivity of source materials, chemical
composition of activating solution and curing process.
Keywords: Fly Ash, Geopolymer, Alkaline activator, Exothermic process, Compressive strength.
From Deterministic to Risk-informed and Further to Risk-based Approach

P.V. Varde
Head, Research Reactor Services Division, Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, Mumbai. Email: Varde@barc.gov.in
The traditional approach to design, operations and regulations has been deterministic in nature in Nuclear Industry. However,
there is growing interest in employment Risk-informed approach, as it is evident from the available publications. The
Probabilistic Risk Assessment (PRA) methodology is the major driver for implementation of risk-informed approach. The
benefits are many, the major benefit is it provides flexibility in decision making with needed confidence. However, for deriving
full benefits, it is imperative to move towards risk-based approach where, the probabilistic and deterministic concepts are
used as per the requirements of the analysis along with additional features, like improved understanding of human factors,
robust methods for uncertainty modelling, implementation of tools and methods for prognostics and health management.
This paper also discusses the R&D need for implementation of Risk-based approach. An example has been discussed in
brief.
11
12
CSIR-SERC, Chennai, INDIA. 21-23 December 2016
GEOPOLYMER COMPOSITES
A NEW SUSTAINABLE MATERIAL FOR 21ST CENTURY
By
Dr. Somnath Ghosh

Professor of Civil Engineering & Dean, Faculty of Engineering & Technology
Jadavpur University, Kolkata 700 032.West Bengal
E-mail: sngceju@gmail.com Phone - 9831025676
Abstract
Geopolymer is a class of aluminosilicate binders synthesized by activation of solid

aluminosilicate source materials such as fly ash, granulated blast furnace slag obtained from
industrial wastes or calcined clays like metakaoline, with an alkali metal hydroxide and silicate
solution. These binders are currently attracting widespread attention due to their potential
utilization as a high performance, environmental friendly and sustainable alternative to
portland cement.
Geopolymerisation is a complex multiphase exothermic process, involving a series of

dissolution-reorientation-solidification reactions analogous to those observed in zeolite
synthesis. High alkaline solutions are used to induce the silicon and aluminium atoms in the
source material to dissolve and form Geopolymer gel. The sol gel formation (or
polymerization) may be assisted by application of heat, followed by drying. The Geopolymer
gel binds the loose coarse aggregate, fine aggregate and un-reacted source material to form
Geopolymer composites. The portland cement free Geopolymer composites have many
advantages like less curing time, earlier development of higher mechanical strength, very little
drying shrinkage and low creep, excellent resistance to sulfate attack, good acid resistance and
resistance to high temperature. The strength development in Geopolymer composites depends
on the chemical composition, morphology and reactivity of source materials, chemical
composition of activating solution and curing process.
Keywords: Fly Ash, Geopolymer, Alkaline activator, Exothermic process, Compressive

strength.
1. Introduction
The Portland cement is conventionally used as the primary binder to produce concrete.
However, the environmental issues associated with the production of Portland cement are well
known. The production of one ton of cement emits approximately one ton of carbon dioxide
and disturbs the atmosphere. Approximately, 7% of the total greenhouse gas emission to the
earths atmosphere is contributed , worldwide, from production of cement. In addition, the
extent of energy required to produce cement is only next to steel and aluminium. The
development of new Geopolymer binder is a breakthrough technology, which provides a cleaner
and environmentally-friendlier alternative to Portland cement. The Geopolymer binders are
inorganic polymers synthesized by thermal activation of solid aluminosilicate source material
with an alkali metal hydroxide and silicate solution.
13
Somnath Ghosh
Fly ash, which is rich in silica and alumina, has full potential to use as one of the source material
for Geopolymer binder. It is a fine powder recovered by electrostatic precipitation from the
gases of burning coal during the production of electricity in thermal power plants, it is available
abundantly worldwide. According to 2000 estimation, the annual global coal ash production
was more than 600 million tons. In the India, the annual production of fly ash is approximately
110 million ton and its generation is likely to reach 170 million tons by 2010. Presently, as per
the Indian Ministry of Environment & Forest Figures, only 20% of Ash is being used in
manufacturing cements, construction concrete, block & tiles and some are disposed off in
landfills and embankments but a huge amount of fly ash is unutilized.
Despite the resemblance of Geopolymers to the traditional cement, the chemistry and
application of Geopolymers are unique. The chemistry of Geopolymer is analogous to
aluminosilicate gels and/or zeolites. It is also revealed from the previous research that the
strength development in Geopolymer depends on the chemical composition, particles size, and
reactivity of source material, the composition of activating solution and curing process.
2. Comparison of conventional Cement and Geopolymer binder
Portland cement Geopolymeric binder

CaO + SiO2 Al2O3 + SiO2
14500C (Calcination) 50 to 1000C

+ Alkali activating solution
Clinker phase - Si O Al O -
Hydration Polycondensation
C-S-H + Ca(OH)2 Aluminosilicate gel
Figure 2.1 : Comparison of conventional and Geopolymer cement
A simple comparison of conventional cement and Geopolymer binder is shown in Fig. 2.1. The
traditional cements are composed of calcium silicate hydrate( C-S-H) gel and calcium
hydroxide Ca(OH)2 phases, where as Geopolymer cement is composed of Aluminosilicate gel
consists of 3D framework of -O- Si - O - Al- O-. This difference is important in two aspects.
Firstly, there is no calcination step in Geopolymer synthesis, thus avoiding the release of CO2
with saving of large energy and secondly Geopolymer of three dimensional sol gel framework
without calcium, is much more resistance to chemical attack than calcium rich cement.
3. Geopolymerisation
Geopolymerisation is a very complex multiphase exothermic process, involving a series of

dissolution-reorientation-solidification reactions. High alkaline solutions are used to induce the
silicon and aluminium atoms in the source material to dissolve and form Geopolymer gel. The
gel formation (or polymerization) process, may be assisted by application of heat, followed by
drying. The reaction steps in Geopolymerisation are complex, because they usually occur
simultaneously. The reaction occurs in three main steps: dissolution, polymerisation, and
crystallisation of aluminosilicate. Dissolution is initiated by the hydrolytic attack of alkali metal
14
cations on the aluminosilicate structure of the solids. The Hydrolysis is then followed by the
dissolution of Al and Si precursors into solution, in which the Al and Si precursors reorganizes
to form chains, which finally grow to become nuclei. Immediately after the initiation of the
dissolution process, Polycondensation (polymerisation) occurs simultaneously with
dissolution, leading to the formation of Geopolymer gel.
The chemical reaction of aluminosilicate oxides (Si2O5,Al2O2) with alkali polysilicate yielding
polymeric Si-O-Al bonds. The following equation shows an example of Geopolymerisation by
alkali in to poly(Sialate-siloxo)
NaOH, KOH
(Si2O5,Al2O2)n + nSiO2 + nH2O ------------------- n(OH)3- Si-O-Al-O-Si-(OH)3 (3.1)
|
(OH)2
NaOH, KOH | |(-) |

n(OH)3- Si-O-Al-O-Si-(OH)3 ------------------- (Na, K) - (-Si-O-Al-O-Si-O-) + nH2O
(+)
| | |
O O O (3.2)
| | |
4. Field applications of Geopolymers
The new Geopolymer materials can be successfully used in pre-cast concrete products,
structural and non-structural members for building systems and bridge structures, railway
sleepers, electric power poles, sewer system, and other products for infrastructure, waste
containment/encapsulation, road bases, and marine structures etc. Further, the production of
different building material like fire resistant bricks & wood panels, insulated panels and walls,
decorative stone artifacts, foamed (expanded) Geopolymer panels for thermal insulation, low
energy ceramic tiles, is possible by using these materials.
5. Few Research Findings
Effect of NaOH molarity on Effect Na2SiO3/NaOH ratio on

compressive strength of Geopolymer compressive strength of Geopolymer
15
Somnath Ghosh
Effect of fly ash/activator ratio on Effect water/Geopolymer solid ratio on

compressive strength of Geopolymer compressive strength of Geopolymer
Microstructure of Geopolymer Binder
Fly ash before reacting with NaOH. Fly ash after reacting with NaOH.
16
Curing duration vs. compressive strength. Curing temperature vs. compressive strength.
Concluding remarks
The Geopolymer binders may be treated as future environment friendly alternative to Portland
cement. However, for these materials to achieve their full technological and commercial
potential, a much deeper understanding of their formation and the knowledge of their
engineering properties in fresh and hardened state is still necessary.
17
Somnath Ghosh
References
Publications of Prof. Dr. Somnath Ghosh
1. Book on Fly ash Based Geopolymer Composites: Manufacturing and Engineering

Properties-LLPH Germany- Available through Amazon .com
2. Book on High Temperature Resistant Fly ash Based Geopolymer Composites:

Physical and Mechanical behavior- LLPH Germany- Available through Amazon .com
3. Book on Strength and Durability of Fly ash based Geopolymer composites

- LLPH Germany- Available through Amazon .com
18
21-23 December 2016
Estimation of Residual Crack Widths in Post-Yield Response Range

Saurabh Shiradhonkar and Ravi Sinha
Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, Mumbai, 400076, India
rsinha@civil.iitb.ac.in
Under extreme loading conditions, such as an earthquake, members of the building are often subjected to load higher than
their elastic capacity. An estimate of peak seismic response of the member under seismic loading is useful to determine
the residual seismic capacity of individual members and that of the complete building. The maximum crack width due to
damage in concrete members occur under peak seismic excitation. Due to transient nature of seismic loading, crack widths
are observed after the earthquake, i.e., when the seismic load is removed, and are therefore smaller than their peak values.
Therefore prediction of peak response experienced by RC members from the crack widths measured at zero dynamic force
condition will greatly enhance the ability to estimate safety margins in a damaged RC building.
The residual capacity margins also form the basis to define building performance levels, ranging from immediate occupancy
to collapse prevention states. These performance levels are used in the assessment of existing building and seismic design
of new buildings (ASCE-41). In order to provide a definitive relationship between performance levels and residual capacity,
the former are often expressed in terms of engineering response parameters as well as observable quantities such as crack
widths.A proxy of key performance levels in terms of measurable residual crack widths is also very useful for post-earthquake
visual damage assessment of the buildings after an earthquake.
Crack width evaluation is one of the serviceability requirements in design of RCmembers. The estimation of maximum crack
width under service loading conditions is well studied in the literature. The maximum crack width at a RC member section
is mainly caused by the tensile weakness of concrete and is a function of bar diameter, bar spacing, fracture energy of the
concrete and modulus of elasticity of concrete and steel. A number of different expressions are proposed in literature for
estimation of maximum crack width and crack spacing under service loading. Even though parameters influencing maximum
crack widths are accounted in the available expressions, these expressions have been validated for measured crack widths in
only pre-yield phase of reinforcement. However, since response under seismic loading is highly inelastic, there is a need to
assess crack widths in RC members under various damage conditions. There is also a need to develop relationship between
the maximum and residual crack widths so that residual crack widths can be used to assess the maximum damage to the
member.
In the present study, an expression for estimating residual crack width based on mechanics of cracking has been proposed.
Available experimental data from past studieshave been numerically simulated in order to validate the numerical model and
to develop crack width expressions in pre-yield and post-yield response ranges. The numerically simulated responses are
then used to determine relationship betweenresidual crack width and maximum crack width in terms of maximum curvature
ductility demand. The effect of cyclic loading on degradation of concrete strength and its impact on crack width has also been
incorporated. The proposed expression is useful to infer the maximum flexural response of the member from the residual
crack widths observed after an earthquake and thus provides a relationship between damage to a RC member and residual
crack widths. The use of the relationship is expected to significantly improve the accuracy of estimation of structural damage
to RC buildings after an earthquake.
19
ESTIMATION OF RESIDUAL CRACK WIDTHS IN POST-

YIELD RESPONSE RANGE
Saurabh Shiradhonkar1, Ravi Sinha2
1,2
Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, Mumbai 400076, India
Crack width calculation is one of the serviceability requirements in the structural concrete elements.
Estimation of maximum crack widths under service loading, when response remains in linear range, is well
studied in literature. However, when an RC building is subjected to extreme loading such as an earthquake,
peak response of RC members are usually in the post-yield region. The applicability of available crack
width formulation in post-yield response range has not been studied in literature. Additionally, the
relationship between maximum crack width that occurs at peak response, and residual crack width that
occurs at the end of loading, is not available in published literature. Such relationship is useful to trace the
peak loading experienced by the member from its condition, observed at the zero force condition. In the
present study, the available crack width formulae are reviewed thoroughly and validated in pre and post-
yield response ranges by reproducing observed experimental responses. The simulated experimental
responses are also used to develop a relationship between residual and maximum crack widths. The effect
of cyclic loading on the residual crack width is also presented in the present paper.
Keywords: maximum crack width, residual crack width, nonlinear response
1 Introduction finally leads to bond slippage and increase in the crack

opening. Increase in maximum crack width due to bond
Cracking of concrete is a complex phenomenon and
slippage is estimated by integration of the steel and
mainly caused by the tensile weakness of concrete.
concrete strains between initial cracks (or transfer length)
Cracking of RC section is characterized by axial tensile
and generally found as twice of bond slip for symmetrical
strain, bar diameter, bar spacing, fracture energy of the
cracking behavior. Fracture mechanics models are also
concrete and modules of elasticity of concrete and steel.
studied to capture the increase in cracking caused by
When an RC section is subjected to an incremental load,
bond slippage.
initial cracking on tension side occurs as tensile strain at
Several formulae have been proposed to estimate the
bottom fiber exceeds limiting tensile strain in concrete.
maximum crack width and crack spacing. In the present
The initial cracking in RC section is governed by the
study, the available crack width formulae are reviewed
tensile strength of the concrete. Strength criterion
thoroughly and validated in pre-yield and post-yield
governs cracking till tensile strain in bar reaches limiting
response ranges by reproducing observed experimental
tensile strain in the concrete. After this stage, an
responses. The simulated experimental responses are
additional increase in crack width value is because of
then used to develop a relationship between residual and
slippage of the bond between concrete and reinforcement
maximum crack widths.
bar. Generally, strength criterion remains valid for crack
During seismic loading, the members of the building
widths of the order 0.10-0.50 mm, while bond slippage
frames experience several cycles of load reversals.
predominately contributes in higher crack width values.
Therefore, the effect of cyclic loading on the residual
During the initial cracking phase, strains in steel and
crack width is also studied using published experimental
concrete remain equal for a portion of the element
responses.
between the cracks and therefore no slippage occurs. If
crack spacing is greater than twice the transfer length (lt)
of the bond, another crack occurs between initial cracks 2 Available Formulae to Estimate of Maximum
as concrete stress reaches the tensile capacity. Once crack Crack Width
spacing varies between lt and 2lt crack development
Several formulae have been proposed to estimate the
stabilizes and no new cracks are formed. At initial
maximum crack width and crack spacing. Borosnyoi and
cracking, concrete between cracks remains stress-free at
Balazs [1] extensively reviewed the development of
the crack surface and steel carries the entire load; but
flexural crack and summarized most relevant formulae
during crack stabilization phase concrete between cracks
for crack spacing. The available crack width formulae are
is subjected to tensile stresses due to the bond between
either based on mechanics models such as fracture
steel and concrete. The development of bond stress
1
Former graduate student, saurabh.coep@gmail.com
2
Professor, rsinha@civil.iitb.ac.in
21
mechanics models [2, 3], bond-slip models [4, 5] etc. or crack stabilization phase, an increase of load causes an
empirical relationships developed by fitting of a large increase of the crack widths and maximum crack width
number of experimental data [6]. Development of various at the level of reinforcement is proportional to the strain
crack width formulae has been discussed in this section. in the concrete, as explicitly mentioned by Frosch [7].
Bazant and Oh [2] expressed crack spacing and The Gergely and Lutz [6] crack width formula has
crack widths as a function of strain energy released due been developed by empirical relationships based on
to initial tensile stress exceedance (strength criteria) and fitting of a large number of experimental data. The
bond slip, using fracture theory. This theory differentiates Gergely and Lutz crack width formula is widely used in
micro or initial cracks, caused before tensile strain in bar design codes such as ACI 318-08 [8] to calculate crack
exceeds limiting tensile strain in the concrete, and widths at various performance levels. The maximum
increase in the crack widths caused by bond slippage. It crack width is estimated as,
was mentioned that, as the strain is increased the first
cracks appear at a certain strain and subsequently further Wmax = 0.076b f s3 3 dc Ac 10-3 (2)
cracks are produced which causes the crack spacing to
diminish as the strain grows. where, dc is distance from center of bar to extreme
Oh and Kang [3] proposed formulae to estimate tension fiber.
crack width and spacing on the basis of cracking theory. Eurocode-2 [9] proposed the following equation for
Cracking theory was proposed by Bazant and Oh [2] to predicting the crack width,
estimate crack spacing and maximum crack width
formula using energy criterion of fracture mechanics as
0.425k1k2 db
well as the strength criterion. The strength criterion Wmax = 3.4 cover +
e sme cm (3)
indicates whether the fracture formation can initiate reff
while the energy criterion indicates whether the fracture A
can actually form. Bazant and Oh [2] expressed crack with reff = s and
spacing as the function of axial tensile strain, bar Ae
diameter, bar spacing, fracture energy of concrete and its f ct (1 + hreff ) (4)
elastic modulus. Oh and Kang [3] extended this cracking f s - kt
reff
f
theory and proposed the following formula to estimate (e sme cm ) = 0.6 s
the crack width, by minimizing nonlinear function of Es Es
above-mentioned variables weighted by the constants
against experimental data for best prediction. Where kl is coefficient that accounts bond properties (0.8
for HYSD bars, 1.6 for plain reinforcement) and k2 is
t
4.5
coefficient that accounts the strain distribution. The value
159 b of k2 is equal to 0.5 for sections with pure bending and
h-d
Wmax = db b (e s - 0.0002) 1 (1) 1.0 for sections with pure axial tension. kt accounts
Ac 3 duration of loading (0.4 for long term and 0.6 for short
+2.83 term loading). fct is tensile strength of concrete and is
nb As1 the modular ratio.
where, is the ratio of distance between neutral axis and

tension face to distance between neutral axis and centroid Allam et al. [10] verified Oh and Kang [3] and
of reinforcing steel. Ae is the effective stretched concrete Gergely and Lutz [6] crack width formulas discussed
area db and As1 are diameter of bar and its area, above and several other empirical formulas available in
respectively. (h-d) is distance between neutral axis and Egyptian, Eurocode and British codes against the crack
tension face, s is strain in steel, nb is number of widths observed in pre-yield range during
reinforcing bars in tension, and tb is effective cover. experimentations. In the present study, crack widths are
Balazs [4] presented a method for crack width estimated, in linear and post-yield response ranges, to
estimation under monotonic loading using local bond visually identify different levels of damage in the RC
stress-slip relationship together with the evaluation of frame members. It has been seen that, as the maximum
transfer length and stress distribution between the cracks. crack width is directly proportional to the strain in steel,
The transfer length is necessary for transferring the axial crack widths for post-yield responses can be estimated
force of reinforcing bar to concrete. The crack width is from strain in steel. Sezen and Moehle [11] used the
based on the integration of the steel and concrete strains concept of slip-based crack width model to determine the
between cracks as, increase in deformation of RC member due to bond-
slippage of development lengths in the linear and post-
sw f s yield region. The slippage of development length in the
Wmax = b (2)
Es post-yield region has been found proportional to strain in
steel.
Where fs is stress of reinforcing bar and Es is
modulus of the elasticity reinforcing bars. Thus after
22
3 Validation of Crack-Width formulas in Post-Yield range cannot be used for verifying those estimated by
Response Range reviewed formulas, as the latter is not applicable to
smooth reinforcement.
The increase in the crack width for a proportionate
increase in the tensile strain of the steel is validated using
crack widths observed during quasi-cyclic tests on 3.1 Analytical Estimation of Crack-Widths
flexure dominating RC columns and RC shear walls
Responses of experiments presented in Chen et al.
performed by Chen et al. [12] and Dazio et al. [13],
[12] and Dazio et al. [13] are simulated in IDARC-2D
respectively.
version 7.0. For shear wall specimens of Dazio et al. [13]
experimental dataset, trilinear moment-curvature
relationship has been used to simulate the experimental
response. The concentrated shear hinge has been used to
model shear-deformation characteristics of the shear wall.
The nonlinear shear-deformation properties of the shear
hinges are estimated as per Krolicki et al. [16]. Different
values of hysteretic modeling parameters are tried during
simulation for a reasonable match between experimental
and simulated force-deflection relationship and yield
displacements. Figures 2 compare experimental and
simulated force-deflection relationship for WSH-2,
WSH-3 and WSH-6, respectively. A reasonable match is
observed between experimental and simulated force-
deflection relationship from Figures 2.
a. Chen et al. [12] experimental dataset Table 1 compares the first yield and nominal yield
displacements observed during the experiments with
those estimated from the simulations. From this table, it
is observed that both first yield displacements from
simulated responses are closely related with those
observed during experimental studies. Similarly, a
reasonable match between experimental and simulated
responses has been observed for Chen et al. [12] dataset.
Table 1: Comparison of simulated and measured yield

displacements for Dazio et al. (2009)
At first yield of Nominal yield disp.
reinforcement (mm) (Priestley et al., 2007) (mm)
Simulated Measured Simulated Measured
1 8.06 8.40 12.31 11.00
b. Dazio et al. [13] experimental dataset 2 9.98 7.80 12.68 10.50
Figure 1: Comparison of measured crack width 3 11.24 11.30 17.60 16.50
against maximum drift 4 11.18 11.40 16.61 15.50
5 7.89 7.80 10.57 9.30
Maximum flexural crack widths measured during
6 10.35 9.90 15.74 12.70
experiments conducted by Chen et al. [12] are plotted
against the maximum drift in Figure 1(a), for RC columns
with different axial loads. Values of yield drifts for Figure 3 compares maximum crack widths estimated
using Gergely and Lutz [6] formula against maximum
columns with axial load ratios 0.1, 0.3 and 0.5 are 0.24%,
crack widths measured by Dazio et al. [13] during
0.42% and 0.35%, respectively. A linear relationship
experimental testing of shear walls. The analytical crack
between maximum crack width and maximum drift can
widths are estimated using simulated responses. The
be observed in Figure 1(a) for both linear (pre-yield) and
analytical estimation of crack widths varies almost
post-yield responses. Similarly, a linear relationship
linearly with the observed crack widths, for values less
between maximum crack width and maximum drift is
than 2 mm.
observed in Figure 1(b) for RC shear walls measured by
Dazio et al. [13] For tested shear walls, the first yield in
extreme reinforcement occurs between 0.75 to 1%.
Verderame et al. [14, 15] tested RC columns with smooth
reinforcement under monotonic and quasi-cyclic loading.
It was reported that the crack width increases linearly
with the drift in both linear and non-linear response range.
However, the crack widths observed in the non-linear
23
higher compared to those estimated by Gergely and Lutz

[6] formula, for column with axial load ratio 0.1, but
slightly lower for column with axial load ratio 0.3. For a
column with axial load ratio of 0.5, all three formulas
over-predict the observed crack widths. This is due to
non-calibration of parameters for higher axial load ratios.
However, for axial load ratios in the interest of present
study, all three formulas fairly predict maximum crack
widths in linear and post-yield response phase. Gergely
and Lutz [6] formula is found simpler to use compared to
other formulas.
a. WSH2
Figure 3: Comparison of measured and calculated

crack widths using Gergely and Lutz formula for Dazio
et al. [13] experimental dataset
b. WSH3
Figure 4: Comparison of measured and calculated

crack widths for Chen et al. [12] experimental dataset
a. WSH6
Figure 2: Comparison of experimental and
simulated force-deflection relationship for shear walls, 4 Estimation of Residual Crack Width
Dazio et al. [13] experimental dataset The relationship between peak response parameter
and residual crack widths has been developed using the
Figure 4 compares maximum crack widths estimated relationship between the residual ratio of maximum crack
using Gergely and Lutz [6], Oh and Kang [3] and width and drift as reported by Chen et al. [12]. The
Eurocode-2 [9] formulas against maximum crack widths residual ratio of maximum crack width (Rw) is defined as
measured by Chen et al. [12] for columns with different the ratio of residual width to its maximum crack width.
axial load ratio. It is observed that the analytical Figure 5 shows the relationship between Rw and drift,
estimation of crack widths using Gergely and Lutz [6] for columns with different axial load ratios. It is observed
and Oh and Kang [3] formulas yield same values and are that the residual ratio yielded low values for lower drift
almost identical to the observed crack widths, for ratios, but shows a sudden increase after longitudinal
columns with axial load ratios 0.1 and 0.3. Crack widths reinforcement has yielded. The residual ratio remained
estimated using Eurocode-2 [9] formula are slightly constant at high levels after yielding of longitudinal
24
reinforcement. Rw gradually decreases with increase in Rw = 0.3 mf , for mf < 2

the axial load ratio from 0.1 to 0.5. The reduction crack (5)
Rw = 0.6, for mf 2
closing capability and effect of axial load on Rw is due to
increase in the contribution of bond slippage in total
maximum crack width.
Figure 6: Developed relationship between residual

ratio (Rw) and curvature ductility
Figure 5: Relationship between Residual Ratio
(Rw) and % drift for Chen et al. [12] experimental A relationship between Rw and curvature, columns
dataset with axial load ratios 0.1 and 0.3 and beams is established
using simulated responses. The drift measurements in
The relationship between maximum and residual Figure 5 are converted into curvature ductilities using
crack widths has been studied using local bond stress-slip simulated responses. Figure 6 illustrates relationship
relationship proposed by Oh and Kim [17]. Oh and Kim between residual ratio Rw and curvature ductility. For
[17] conducted several cyclic tests to develop bond-slip columns, the residual ratio increases with increase in
relation under repeated loading to determine the increase curvature ductility and attends constant value of 0.6 for
in residual slip with the increase of load cycles. The curvature ductility more than 2, as shown by the idealized
numbers of constant amplitude load cycles applied before curve.
complete pull-out tests were 0, 10, 100, 1000, 10000 and
100000. Slip and residual slip were measured at 1 st, 10th, 5 Effect of Cyclic Loading on Maximum and
100th, 1000th, 10000th and 100000th cycle. Measured Residual Crack Widths
values of slip at peak of bond stress and residual slip at
the end of 1st cycle are summarized in Table 2. Maximum flexural crack widths observed at the peak
of successive cycles, during quasi-cyclic tests on flexure
Table 2: Measured values of slip at peak of bond stress dominating RC shear walls Dazio et al. [13], are plotted
and residual slip at the end of 1st cycle for Oh and Kim in Figure 7. A linear relationship between maximum
[17] experimental dataset crack widths at the peak of the first and second cycle is
Slip (mm) Residual slip after observed for both linear (pre-yield) and post-yield
1st cycle (mm) responses.
0.45 0.278 0.138
0.60 0.472 0.440
0.75 0.528 0.500
From Table 2, it can be observed that residual bond

slippage at zero force level is almost same as that of
maximum bond slippage in that cycle. Thus, the bond
slippage contributes equally in maximum and residual
crack widths. On the other hand, cracking caused by
strength criterion contributes only in maximum crack
width. Cracking governed by strength criteria increases
with increase in the tensile strain in extreme concrete
fiber and attends constant value once tensile strain in
reinforcement bar exceeds limiting tensile strain of
concrete. Thus, an increase in the residual ratio Rw with
Figure 7: Developed relationship between residual
an increase in drift is due to increase in the contribution
ratio (Rw) and curvature ductility for Dazio et al. [13]
of bond slippage in total maximum crack width.
experimental dataset
25
Oh and Kim [17] proposed the following [4] Balazs, G.L., Cracking analysis based on slip and
relationships to estimate residual slip (srN) after N cycles bond stresses, ACI Material Journal, Vol. 90(4), pp.
from residual slip after 1st cycle, 340-348, 1993.
[5] Oh, B.H. and Kim, S.H., Advanced crack width
srN = sr1 N -0.098 (6) analysis of reinforced concrete beams under
repeated loads, Journal of Structural Engineering,
During strong motion earthquakes, structural ASCE, Vol. 133(4), pp. 411-420, 2007a.
members are usually subjected to at most 5-10 cycles of
load reversals after peak response. Therefore, residual [6] Gergely, P. and Lutz L.A., Maximum crack width in
crack widths in the members at the end of earthquake reinforced concrete flexural members, ACI Special
estimated using Equation 8 are 15 to 20% higher Publication, Vol. 20, 1968.
compared to those at the end of first load reversal. Thus, [7] Frosch, R.J., Another look at cracking and crack
residual crack width at the end of earthquake motion does control in reinforced concrete, ACI Structural
not differ substantially compared to the same at the end Journal, Vol. 96(3), pp. 437-442, 1999.
of first peak load reversal.
[8] ACI-318, Building code requirements for structural
concrete and commentary, ACI committee, 2008.
6 Summary and Conclusions
[9] Eurocode-2, Design of Concrete Structures: {Part
Substantial work has been carried out to determine 1}: General Rules and Rules for Buildings,
the maximum crack width in the RC element. These European Committee for Standardization, 1991.
formulae were calibrated for crack widths measured in
linear response range of the member. In order to study the [10] Allam, S.M., Shoukry, M.S., Rashad G.E. and
applicability of available formulae in post-yield response Hassan, A.S., Crack width evaluation for flexural
range, the available crack width formulae are reviewed RC members, Journal Alexandria Engineering, Vol.
thoroughly and then evaluated in pre and post-yield 51(3), pp. 211-220, 2012.
response ranges using the simulation of observed [11] Sezen, H., and Moehle, J.P., Bond-slip behavior of
experimental responses. reinforced concrete members, Proceedings of Fib
From the study, it has been observed that available Symposium on Concrete Structures in Seismic
formulas fairly predict maximum crack widths in linear Regions, 2003.
and post-yield response phase, when axial load ratio in a
member is less than 0.3. [12] Chen, L., Lu, X., Jiang, H. and Zheng, J.,
The simulated experimental responses are also used Experimental investigation of damage behavior of
to develop a relationship between residual and maximum RC frame members including non-seismically
crack widths and to study the effect of cyclic loading on designed columns, Earthquake Engineering and
the residual crack width. For earthquake loading, the Engineering Vibration, Vol. 8(2), pp. 301-311, 2009.
residual crack width at the end of loading is nearly same [13] Dazio, A., Beyer, K. and Bachmann, H., Quasi-static
as that of residual crack width at the end of first peak load cyclic tests and plastic hinge analysis of RC
reversal, which is estimated from the curvature ductility structural walls, Engineering Structures, Vol. 31(7),
at peak response and corresponding maximum crack pp. 1556-1571, 2009.
width. The proposed relationship between residual and
maximum crack width is useful to trace the peak response [14] Verderame, G.M, Fabbrocino, G. and Manfredi, G.,
experienced by the member from its condition at the end Seismic response of RC columns with smooth
of loading and to predict the residual capacity of the reinforcement Part I: Monotonic tests, Engineering
member and that of the building. Structures, Vol. 30(9), pp. 2277-2288, 2008a.
[15] Verderame, G.M, Fabbrocino, G. and Manfredi, G.,
References Seismic response of RC columns with smooth
reinforcement Part II: Cyclic tests, Engineering
[1] Borosnyoi, A. and Balazs, G.L., Models for flexural Structures, Vol. 30(9), pp. 2277-2288, 2008b.
cracking in concrete: the state of the art, Structural
Concrete, Vol. 6(2), pp. 53-62, 2005. [16] Krolicki, J., Maffei, J. and Calvi, G.M., Shear
strength of reinforced concrete walls subjected to
[2] Bazant, Z.P. and Oh, B.H., Spacing of cracks in cyclic loading, Journal of Earthquake Engineering,
reinforced concrete, Journal of Structural Vol. 15(S1), pp. 30-71, 2011.
Engineering, ASCE, Vol. 109(9), pp. 2066-2085,
1983. [17] Oh, B.H. and Kim, S.H., Realistic models for local
bond stress-slip of reinforced concrete under
[3] Oh, B.H. and Kang, Y.J., New formulas for repeated loading, Journal of Structural Engineering,
maximum crack width and crack spacing in ASCE, Vol. 133(2), pp. 216-224, 2007b.
reinforced concrete flexural members, ACI
Structural Journal, Vol. 84(2), pp. 103-112, 1987.
26
Sustainable Civil Infrastructure: The New and the Ageing

Abhijit Mukherjee
Professor of Civil Engineering, Curtin University, Bentley, Western Australia
Abhijit.mukherjee@curtin.edu.au
Infrastructure such as roads, bridges and buildings have been built at a rapid pace during the last hundred years and they
have been a major contributor in the unprecedented economic prosperity of the world. Such construction took place in
the developed world during the middle of last century and they are facing the challenge of maintenance and renewal. The
emerging economies, on the other hand, are rapidly building their infrastructure now. As a result, consumption of building
materials has grown at a very fast pace and would continue to grow in the foreseeable future. Buildings are one of the largest
consumers of natural resources, and they account for a significant portion of greenhouse gas emissions. Among the materials
of construction, cement concrete has gained the status of the most used manmade material in the world. A world without
concrete, and its dominant precursor, Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC), is hard to imagine. Annually 3.5 billion tonnes of
cement are produced worldwide. The cement industry faces challenges such as depleting raw materials and fuel reserves and
growing environmental concerns. In the recent past several advances have been made to address these concerns. Blending
cement with recycled materials such as fly ash, blast furnace slag and silica fume is paramount among them. OPC production
is still responsible for around 6% of global anthropogenic CO2 emissions. In the current global setting, building construction
and operation results in 50% of all CO2 emissions worldwide. In order to become sustainable, construction industry must
manage its environmental impact (both materials and energy use); social concerns (health and wellbeing) and economic
liabilities (cost of construction) in an optimal fashion. Present building materials use huge quantities of energy and produce
high volumes of CO2. Thus, transformational change in building materials is imperative for ensuring sustainability.
Nature, on other hand, has been building habitats for millions of years in a sustainable way. They have two distinct features: 1)
ability to sense and heal; and 2) build with frugal use of energy. In the recent years, due to the advent of precision equipment,
great progress has been made in understanding the natural materials and compare them with manufactured ones. It gives us
an opportunity of simultaneously studying natural and manufactured materials for construction of habitats. Thus, emulating
natural construction has tremendous potential for transcending construction industry towards sustainability.
This paper proposes two approaches towards sustainable construction: 1) extending the life cycle of the ageing structures
through monitoring and maintenance, and 2) gradual shift towards carbon neutral construction materials. Progress in
distributed sensors and network technology, especially the emergence of Internet of Things open new horizons for structural
monitoring and maintenance. New realisation of the role of microbes in the natural building process has opened up new
opportunities to dramatically cut down the energy use in construction materials. This paper will elaborate our research in
these two areas. Finally, potential confluence of the sensing and microbial technologies in the form of development of self-
healing structures will be described. Future opportunities in both the education and research in civil engineering in realising
the sustainability goal will be indicated.
27
21-23 December 2016
Foster Mega Projects Construction in India through Need Based Contemporary Technology and Research
B. Sivarama Sarma and Biswabikash Rout
Head R&D and Manager R&D, L&T Construction Research and Development Centre
L&T Construction, Chennai, Email: bssarma@lntecc.com
Today,transformation and mega development are the buzz words. The disruptive forces like urbanization, globalisation of
internet technology, life cycle management of resources, financial stability, trade volumes and cross border environment
keep up high dynamism in every sector of society. The disruptive forces do act globally or in regions with in the country and
vary in magnitude and scale. Every policy maker, technologist, financier, arbitrator, business partner, builder, industrialist,
educational and R&D institutions, scientist, students, etc. would like to contribute to the transformation and development by
finding the new paths in daily life.
Do the technology changes rapidlyand follow the trends of disruptive forces? Mostly it is not affirmative. Why?
Urbanisation and population growth in India has triggered many mega infrastructures development projects in construction
sector. Mass rapid systems, air ports, high rise structures, large size power projects, Nuclear reactors, processing plants, water
and sewage treatment plants, dams and water conveyance bodies are few public structures apart from defence establishments.
Applied technology progress growth rate is not the same. The primary critical technical factors impending the progress are
availability of new guidelines, new construction materials, life cycle concepts, green and sustainable technologies and skill
manpower.
Very often the standard references for design, testing and quality assurance are being drawn from the international standards
or from a basket of BIS and international practices, in the execution of mega projects. So, the sudden surprises are many
at the time of execution which cause delay in time for confirmation and reconfirmation by clients, project management
consultants, designers, architects etc. The productivity factors are not uniform across many mega projects. It may be
primarily due to some equipment being deployed, skill level of operators apart from administrative hindrances from time to
time in execution of the project.
This paper examines few cases of mega projects and summarises a few major technical limitations. There is great scope for
applying the scientific knowledge from all premier technical institutions and industry specialists to provide robust applied
technology platform to industry for completion of mega projects. BIS need to be supported by a special standing technical
committee board to look into high value technical issues of mega projects construction and to provide time bound technical
guidance as a national apex body. This board can draw the resources from all the premier institutions to bring the appropriate
technology for the ongoing and future mega projects development.
28
Distress in Concrete Pavements: Causes, Prevention and Remedies

Dr. V. Ramachandra
Head (Tech), UltraTech Cement Ltd.
Concrete pavements also known as Rigid pavements have a relatively long service life, provided these are properly designed,
constructed and maintained. With mega projects like National Highway Development Project (NHDP) and Pradhan Mantri
Gram SadakYojana (PMGSY), the pace of concrete pavement construction has increased in recent years. This is because
concrete pavements are comparable even in initial cost, economic in life cycle cost and are known to perform better with
minimum maintenance. Concrete pavements can serve upto its design service life and even beyond, if timely maintenance and
repair are undertaken. Load transfer mechanism of concrete pavement is through flexure and accordingly they are expected
to perform relatively better than flexible pavements on weak sub-grades. Concrete pavement performance in high rainfall
area is found better than flexible pavement due to high resistance to water penetration. Design of concrete pavements is
fundamentally governed by the flexural strength instead of compressive strength because the wheel load causes the concrete
slab to bend, inducing flexural stresses. This is in addition to flexure induced by temperature stresses. To ensure that the
concrete pavements serve their intended life satisfactorily, proper maintenance schedule need to be followed and timely repair
/ restoration be carried out.
Distress in concrete pavements may be broadly classified as structural, durability and functional related. Structural distress
affects the pavement capacity to carry the trafc. Cracking and jointdeterioration are typical structural distresses. Structural
cracks can be often caused due to excessive loading, long joint spacing, shallow or late sawing of joints, inadequate thickness,
material related problems etc. Use of proper construction techniques and traffic load controls can reduce / avoid such
structural cracks.
Durability distress is caused by the premature deterioration of concrete such as D-crackingand alkali-aggregate reaction
(AAR). They affect the long-term durability of the pavement. Functional distress do not necessarily reduce the load carrying
capacity but affects the riding quality,safety, roughness, loss of surface texture or any other surface related defects of the
pavement.
Repair methods for concrete pavements are either corrective or preventive (or a combination of both). Corrective techniques
are used to repair a given distress and improve the serviceability of thepavement. They include partial / full depth repair of
the damaged segment of the pavement. Preventative techniques are proactive activities that slow or prevent the occurrence of
adistress in order to maintain serviceability. They include joint and crack re-sealing, retrofitting of concrete shoulders/ edge
drains. A combination of corrective and preventive methods include diamond grinding, dowel bar retrofit, cross-stitching
and re-grooving.
To overcome distress in rigid pavements, wide range of repair materials, newer equipment and methods are available today.
This presentation examines the various types of distress, possible causes and outlines the repair material and techniques
available.
29
21-23 December 2016
SHEAR BEHAVIOUR OF STEEL FIBER REINFORCED CONCRETE

Sahith.Gali1, Kolluru V. L. Subramaniam2
Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Hyderabad, Hyderabad, 502285, India
E-mail:1Research Scholar, ce13p1005@iith.ac.in; 2Professor, kvls@iith.ac.in
Shear behavior of reinforced concrete beams with discrete steel fiber reinforcement is evaluated for arch effect at a shear
span to depth ratio equal to 1.8. Full-field surface displacements from the beam during the load response were obtained using
digital image correlation. The formation and propagation of the shear crack which is responsible for the final failure of the
beam is monitored using the displacement information available from the digital image correlation. Failure in beams without
fibers is brittle and is produced by a dominant shear crack in the shear span. The shear cracks exhibit a dilatant response where
there is an increase in crack opening displacement accompanied with shear slip. The dilatant response obtained for both
control and fiber reinforced concrete beamsis identical.At the peak load, the shear crack pattern in fiber reinforced concrete is
identical to the crack pattern in the control beam. The fiber reinforced concrete beams exhibit post peak load carrying capacity
even after the continued opening of the shear crack.The increased resistance to crack opening provided by the fibers resulting
in significant increase post-peak ductility of the beam. The failure mode changes from brittle to ductile with the addition of
fibers. Shear failure in beams without steel fibers is produced by the abrupt failure of the aggregate interlock. The post-peak
shear load carrying ability in reinforced concrete is shown to be related to the crack bridging stresses provided by fibers,
which sustains the aggregate interlock for longer crack opening.
30
SHEAR BEHAVIOUR OF STEEL FIBER REINFORCED

CONCRETE
Sahith.Gali1, Kolluru V. L. Subramaniam2
1,2
Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Hyderabad, Hyderabad, 502285, India
Shear behavior of reinforced concrete beams with discrete steel fiber reinforcement is evaluated for arch effect at a shear
span to depth ratio equal to 1.8. Full-field surface displacements from the beam during the load response were obtained
using digital image correlation. The formation and propagation of the shear crack which is responsible for the final failure
of the beam is monitored using the displacement information available from the digital image correlation. Failure in
beams without fibers is brittle and is produced by a dominant shear crack in the shear span. The shear cracks exhibit a
dilatant response where there is an increase in crack opening displacement accompanied with shear slip. The dilatant
response obtained for both control and fiber reinforced concrete beams is identical. At the peak load, the shear crack
pattern in fiber reinforced concrete is identical to the crack pattern in the control beam. The fiber reinforced concrete
beams exhibit post peak load carrying capacity even after the continued opening of the shear crack. The increased
resistance to crack opening provided by the fibers resulting in significant increase post-peak ductility of the beam. The
failure mode changes from brittle to ductile with the addition of fibers. Shear failure in beams without steel fibers is
produced by the abrupt failure of the aggregate interlock. The post-peak shear load carrying ability in reinforced concrete
is shown to be related to the crack bridging stresses provided by fibers, which sustains the aggregate interlock for longer
crack opening.
Keywords: Hooked-end steel fibers, Ductility, Crack propagation, Shear-dilatant behaviour, Shear span to effective
depth ratio
1. Introduction extra stirrups, often lead to heavy congestion of steel.

Methods to reduction of steel congestion, which provide
Reinforced concrete structures are designed the required capacity and ductility have often involved
primarily considering the contribution of concrete in the use of fiber reinforcement in concrete.
compression and reinforcing steel in tension. In Many researchers have proposed empirical
conventional strength-based design, the tensile equations for the shear strength of fiber reinforced
contribution of concrete is assumed to be zero after concrete by modifying the existent equations available
cracking. This is based on the observation that concrete for the reinforced concrete beams. In all the codes the
is a brittle material which fail by fracturing immediately shear strength equation for reinforced concrete is given
after cracking. The formation of crack is not influenced as two separate components those are the contribution
by the presence of reinforcing bars; the influence of coming for concrete and stirrup contribution.
embedded steel becomes significant only after the Researchers have modified the concrete contribution
formation of crack. Under shear loading, diagonal term (Vc) to propose the shear strength expression for
tension produces tensile cracking in concrete. Formation fiber reinforced concrete. These proposed equations
of diagonal cracks in reinforced concrete leads to an takes into account major factors responsible for shear
entirely new shear carrying mechanism capable of behavior which includes shear span to depth ratio,
sustaining further load in cracked reinforced concrete percentage of longitudinal reinforcement, and other
member. There is a redistribution of stresses in the factors include volume of fibers, fibers aspect ratio, fiber
reinforced concrete element, where the local stresses geometry, fiber tensile behavior and also concrete
across the crack, the tensile stresses in steel and the matrix properties [2- 7]. All the proposed equations
stresses in concrete between the cracks combine to majorly are empirical relations estimated from the
produce a complex distribution of stresses, which satisfy experiments on steel fiber reinforced concrete beams
conditions of equilibrium with externally applied stress. and few on other types of fibers. The major effect of
However, unlike flexure, the stress transfer across the fiber parameters is in improving stress transfer across
rough crack contribute significantly to the overall shear the crack due to the bridging action which in turn effects
capacity of reinforced concrete [1]. Often in shear the post cracking behavior of concrete beam. ACI 318
critical members, the requirement of shear (2008) [8] allows the usage of steel fibers as minimum
reinforcement leads to close spacing of stirrups. This shear reinforcement.
problem is compounded while considering the ductile Addition of fibers increases the post cracking stress
detailing requirements to meet the concerns of seismic transfer ability in concrete, which primarily contributes
design, which requires provision of extra stirrup. The
_______________________________________________
1
Research Scholar, ce13p1005@iith.ac.in
2
Professor, kvls@iith.ac.in
31
Sahith Gali and Kolluru V. L. Subramaniam
to improving the ductility. At low volume fractions, 200 GPa and an ultimate strain equal to 0.16. One half
while the improvements in strength are minimal there is of the beam was reinforced with 8 mm closed shear
substantial residual stress transfer ability even at large stirrups at a spacing of 150 mm. The stirrups were
crack openings. At higher volume fractions, there is also provided in one half of the beam to reinforce it against
an increase in the strength in addition to enhanced stress shear failure and to ensure that shear failure occurred
transfer across the crack. In design of reinforced only on one side of the beam. The part of the beam
concrete structures, strength-based design is without shear reinforcement allowed for a closer
conventionally adopted, which ignores the contribution examination of the shear crack patterns and to evaluate
of tensile stress carried by concrete after cracking. To the mechanisms contributing to shear resistance.
assess the true potential of fibers the post cracking stress Closely placed stirrups with a spacing equal to 100 mm
transfer across crack has to be accounted for. The post were also provided at the supports of beam to avoid
cracking stress transfer is particularly important for possible anchorage failure. Specimens were
shear where shear transfer by aggregate interlock instrumented with strain gages. Strain gages were
provides significantly to shear capacity of RC elements. attached on the flexural reinforcement at two locations,
Shear displacements along rough cracks also result in mid span location and 150 mm from the support (shown
dilatancy [9-12]. The crack bridging provided by fibers in Fig. 1).
can potentially provide for increased mobilization of
All the beams were tested in a three-point loading
aggregate interlock, thereby providing shear load
configuration with a shear span-to-depth ratio equal to
capacity. An understanding of the influence of fibers on
1.80. The testing was performed in displacement control
the post-cracking shear stress transfer across rough
using a servo-controlled test machine. The net deflection
cracks surface and its influence on the shear capacity of
of the center of the beam measured using an LVDT
reinforced concrete beams needs to be understood to
attached to a reference beam fixed to inserts placed in
develop design provisions which consider the influence
the concrete beam at the mid-height location directly
of fibers on shear capacity.
over the supports. The loading arrangement used in this
Motivation for the study comes from the need to
study confirmed to the requirements of ASTM 1609-
understand the role of discrete steel fiber reinforcement
2006 [24]. The loads were applied using hardened steel
in contributing to the shear behavior of reinforced
rollers, which ensured perfect line loading at precisely
concrete beams. The overall objective of this study is to
marked locations of the beam. Each roller was attached
investigate the influence of steel fibers on the shear
to the actuator through a swivel head which allowed for
response of reinforced concrete. In particular, it is
reducing the influence of torsion in the loading
proposed to investigate the influence of fibers on shear
arrangement.
behavior of beams with potential arch action. Beams
with shear span to depth ratio of 1.8 was considered in
the present studyThe influence of the steel fibers on the
shear transfer across rough cracks in concrete and its
influence on the shear behavior of reinforced concrete is
investigated. An approach which combines
experimental and digital image analysis is presented to
develop an understanding of shear response of
reinforced concrete with steel fibers.
2. Experimental Program
Reinforced concrete beams of dimensions 125 mm
width, 250 mm depth and 1500 mm length were used in
the test program. Both control and steel fiber reinforced
concrete (SFRC) beams with two different fiber volume Figure 1: Details of the test beam (Units:mm)
fraction equal to 0.5% and 0.75% were cast for testing.
DramixRM 3D hooked end, glued non-balling steel fibers The surface displacements, strains and
with an aspect ratio 80 (length 60 mm and diameter development of cracks during the entire load response
0.75 mm) manufactured by Bekaert industries were were determined using a digital image analysis
used in this study. The fibers have a modulus of procedure called digital image correlation. Digital
elasticity of 210 GPa and tensile strength equal to image correlation (DIC) is a full-field optical technique
1225 MPa. which provides spatially continuous measurement of
All beams were reinforced with two reinforcing displacements across the surface of the specimen. DIC
bars of 16 mm diameter placed with a clear cover of relies on correlation of the random pattern of speckles
20 mm as shown in Figure 1. The reinforcing bars between images of the deformed and reference
confirmed to the requirements of IS 1786 (2008) [23] (undeformed) configurations of the specimen within
and had a prescribed yield stress defined at 0.2% offset small neighborhoods called subsets [14-15]. A sprayed-
strain equal to 500 MPa, Elastic modulus equal to on speckle pattern was created on the surface of the
32
beam without the shear stirrups. A uniform coat of white literature and can be attributed to difference in test
paint and after the white paint dried, the sprayed-on configuration and specimen geometry. In the present
speckle was created by spraying a black mist. study, unsymmertric shear reinforcement is used, while
During a test, digital images of the specimen were most previous studies have used symmetric arrangement
captured for use in digital image correlation using a high of shear reinforcement. Load was applied to the beam as
resolution camera (5 mega pixel), which was controlled a precise line load with provisions to eliminate torsion.
by a computer. Uniform light intensity was ensured In most of previous studies, load application was as a
across the surface of the beam using normal white light. distributed pressure load using pads and steel plates of
The camera was fitted with a 50 mm lens and was placed finite width. The observed behavior suggests that the
at a distance of 1 m from the specimen surface. mechanism which contributes to load capacity in control
Calibration for the pixel size was performed using a beams is unable to provide continued resistance after the
graduated rule placed in front of the specimen. From this peak load. In FRC beams, the gradual decrease in the
measurement, the physical calibration was established. load carrying capacity and the subsequent leveling
Typical calibration was in the range of 12-14 pixels per suggests that an alternate mechanism, which involves
mm. A reference image was captured in the undeformed the contribution of fibers is developed.
state prior to the initiation of loading program. Images
of the specimen were captured at regular intervals
during the test. A photograph of the test setup is shown
in Fig 2.
(a)
Figure 2: Test setup
3. Experimental Results
The load-deflection responses of control and
hooked end steel fiber reinforced concrete (SFRC) (b)
beams are shown in Fig 3. Failure in control was sudden,
immediately after attaining the peak load and could not Figure 3: Load-Deflection Response of (a) Control
be controlled even in displacement control. The load and (b) SFRC beams
response of the FRC beams is nominally similar to the
A schematic representation of the crack pattern in
load response obtained from the control specimens up to
the side of the beam without shear stirrups for both
peak load. The observed load response indicates that the
control and FRC beams are shown in Fig 4. The crack
internal mechanism of resistance is essentially identical
patterns shown in the figure were identified visually and
in both FRC and control beams up to peak load. In FRC
marked on the surface of the beam. These crack patterns
beams, following the peak there is a continuous decrease
were marked on the back surface, which did not have the
in the load carrying capacity following which, the load
speckle pattern. The numbers in the figure indicate the
carrying capacity essentially levels to a constant value
applied load. With the application of load, initially,
with increasing deflection. A small increase in the peak
flexural crack was formed in the constant moment
load is observed in beams with discrete fibers. The
region. With increase in load flexural cracks grow and
marginal increase in peak load with addition of fibers is
newer flexural cracks are formed along the span. In
contrary to most of previous experimental results from
33
control beams, around the load of around 95 kN, a shear joining their centers is perpendicular to the crack
crack forms at the mid-height of the beam. With direction as shown in the Fig 5. The exact location of the
increasing load, this shear crack continues to propagate boxes was decided considering the load points close to
towards the load points in both the directions. When the failure, where the shear crack was fully established. The
crack reaches the rebar level crack propagates along the location of the two boxes were kept fixed in all images
rebar towards the support point. Ultimate failure is by for analysis. The average values of displacements were
splitting along rebar. While a flexure-shear crack is also obtained from within the area of each box from the two
formed, it is arrested in the compression region. In locations; the average horizontal and vertical
SFRC beams, a shear crack was also initiated at a displacements were obtained from the values of
comparable load of 103 kN. In SFRC beam, the crack displacements for all the pixels within each box. Using
pattern appears to be similar up to peak load. Unlike in the horizontal and vertical displacements from the two
control beams, sudden splitting of the beam along the locations across the dominant shear crack, the
flexural reinforcement is suppressed. There is noticeable components of relative displacements in the directions
decrease in the flexural crack spacing in SFRC beams which are perpendicular and parallel to the crack were
compared to control beams. calculated. The component of relative displacement
which is parallel to the crack direction gives the slip
across the crack and the component which is
perpendicular to the crack direction gives the crack
opening displacement across the crack.
(a)
(a)
(b)
Figure 4: Crack pattern in (a) Control and (b) SFRC
beams
During the loading process, digital images were

taken at regular intervals of load. These images were
processed using the VIC 2D software getting the full-
field surface displacements. Typical contours of
displacement in the X-direction at two distinct points in (b)
the load response of a control beam are shown in Fig 5.
Figure 5: Contour plot of displacement in x-direction at
The formation of cracks are identified by a break in the
contours. The use of DIC allows for accurate loads (a) 95 kN and (b) 132 kN (control-2) showing
identification of cracks, which may not be able to be boxes A and B
identified visually. The crack patterns identified using
The crack slip as a function of crack opening across
DIC were nominally similar to those obtained from
the dominant shear crack obtained from both control and
visual examination. The use of DIC allows for tracing
FRC beams is shown in Fig. 6. With the application of
the response across a crack after the dominant crack is
load, after the onset of shear crack, slip and opening of
identified. The opening and shear displacements across
crack increases linearly. It was observed that the crack
the dominant shear crack can be studied from a load
opening slip response is identical in both control and
point before the initiation of the crack. To understand
FRC beams up to peak load. This suggests that the
the shear crack opening behavior in the beams two
relationship between slip and crack opening is of the
boxes A and B of about 80X80 pixels were considered
same origin. The increase in crack opening with
at locations on either side of the crack such that the line
increasing slip is indicative of shear dilatancy behavior
34
of rough crack. The shear transfer across the crack is the crack plane. S represents the shear demand on the
attributed to aggregate interlock. Considering identical inclined crack plane resulting from the requirement of
angles of the dominant shear crack in both control and equilibrium of forces in a direction parallel to the crack.
SFRC beams, the slip-opening relationship is likely The shear resistance generated across the crack face
governed by geometric relationship, which is influenced would depend upon the level of compression (C) and the
by aggregate size and crack angle. After peak load, the may take as *C where is the constant of
relationship between crack slip and opening obtained proportionality, which depends on the roughness of the
from SFRC beams is essentially similar to the crack surface and the contact area of the rough crack.
relationship before the peak. The sudden failure in
control beams at a crack opening of 0.92 mm suggests
that the aggregate interlock mechanism in the control
beams breaks down leading to abrupt failure of the beam
Control
along the major shear crack. In FRC beam, crack
opening slip relationship follows the same trend after
peak as the observed trend before the peak. The
continued increase in slip for increasing opening is
therefore contributed by fibers. The presence of fibers
across the crack would contribute to additional normal
forces across the crack with increasing crack opening.
This would contribute to the observed residual load (a)
carrying capacity after the peak load.
(b)
Figure 7: (a) crack pattern of control beam; (b) Free
body diagram of the part of the control beam in shear
Figure 6: Crack opening-slip response of control and span
SFRC beams
By taking components of forces along the crack plane
as shown in the Figure 7,
4. Analysis of Shear failure of beams
TN = TS= T/!2 --(1)
The free body diagram of a part of beam in shear
span for which one end is the crack plane is shown in PN= Ps= P/!2 --(2)
Figure 7. Considering the diagonal crack at the end from
experimental tests is essentially at 450 to the horizontal DN=Ds = D/!2 --(3)
(thick line shown in Fig 7a), the crack plane is idealized
as a straight line inclined at 45 degrees as shown in the Taking moment about top right most point of the beam
free-body diagram. The applied forces and the internal and assuming z is small, the moment contribution from
forces of resistance from concrete and reinforcement are C is insignificant,
as shown in the Fig 7b. The coordinate system for T*d=P*(1.8)d - (D*d) --(4)
evaluating forces is taken in directions which are aligned
parallel and perpendicular to the crack plane. The By considering the force equilibrium along Y-axis,
internal forces of resistance include, the resultant normal
Fy=PN - TN + C - DN=0
compressive force on the crack plane (C) from concrete
acting at a distance z from the top fiber of the beam, C=TN - PN + DN --(5)
shear resistance across the crack coming from the
aggregate interlock and other factors (S), the tensile By considering the force equilibrium along X-axis,
force in the reinforcement (T), and the dowel force from Fx=PS + TS S - Ds =0
the reinforcement (D). The resultant compressive force
(C) is the vectorial sum of the normal forces acting on S=TS+PS-Ds --(6)
35
Considering Equation (5), the compressive force (C)

across the shear crack is directly dependent on the force
in the reinforcement at the location of the shear crack. SFRC
From Equation (6), for increasing applied force
(increasing PS), the shear demand across the crack plane
required to maintain equilibrium increases. The
increasing value of C with increasing P would also
provide larger shear resistance across the crack. From
the strain guages installed close to the support, the force
in the steel bar at peak load was measured to be 119 kN.
Considering the force in the steel reinforcement (T), the
(a)
applied load, P at this point is calculated as 132 kN using
equation (4) neglecting the dowel action (D). This value
compares favorably with the actual peak load obtained
experimentally (134 kN).
The requirement of moment equilibrium, produces
a rotation of the concrete block, reducing the area of
contact (producing a further upward movement of z),
which in turn reduces the shear transfer capacity. After
attainment of the peak load, as the shear resistance
coming from the compression generated by rebar across
the crack on the concrete surface decreases with
increasing deflection and is not sufficient after this point
to sustain the shear demand. The failure is therefore
produced because of loss of aggregate interlock. (b)
In fiber reinforced concrete beams, due to the
presence of fibers, there will be an additional average Figure 8: (a) Crack pattern of beam with 0.5% fibers,
normal resistant force across the crack associated with (b) Free body diagram of the part of the SFRC beam in
opening of the crack. The additional the crack closing shear span
stresses are identified with CF in Fig 8.The fiber force
(CF) is shown acting at a distance y from the top of the
beam (the Fig 8).
Taking moment about point A shown in the figure, 5. Summary and Conclusions
M = T*d - P*(1.8d)+ CF*(!2"y) + (D*d) =0 --(7) From the experimental results, in control beams
Considering force equilibrium along Y axis, when the shear crack reaches the rebar level it goes
along the rebar till the support point and finally fails by
Fy= PN - TN + C - CF -DN =0 splitting along this crack as the resistance coming from
the aggregate interlock is lost with increased crack
C= TN-PN +CF+ DN --(8)
width. Addition of fibers do not influence shear cracking
Considering force equilibrium along X axis,
load or direction. Shear slip to crack opening
Fx=PS + TS Ds - S=0 relationship of a rough shear crack up to peak is not
altered by the fibers. Fibers are effective after the
S=TS+PS- Ds --(9) formation of crack and help sustain the shear transfer
ability across the rough crack. This helps sustain shear
The resultant compressive force (C) on the crack
load carrying capacity of the beam. Sudden splitting
face now contains an additional contribution of the fiber
along the shear crack is suppressed due to the presence
force and is higher than the corresponding value in
of fibers bridging the crack leading to a continuous
control beam. After peak, the value of C depends on the
resistance to load for a larger deflection of the beams.
crack closing stresses available as CF. Even at the higher
With the addition of steel fibers failure mode changed
displacement which results in larger crack opening, the
from brittle to ductile failure.
fibers provide crack bridging stresses, which ensures
Analysis of shear response of reinforced concrete
contact compressive stress across the compression along
beam shows that control specimens failed when
the crack plane. This allows the shear carrying capacity
compression generated by rebar is insufficient to sustain
across the crack face and the beam continues to carry
aggregate interlock after the rebar yields. In fiber
load. From this it can be established that fibers do help
reinforced beams, the additional compression is
in transfer of shear across the shear crack with the
mobilized across the crack by the fibers helps sustain the
additional compression coming across the crack with
shear transfer across the crack hence the load carrying
presence of fibers.
capacity is sustained for a larger displacement.
36
improved digital correlation method. Image

6. References and vision computing, 1(3), 133-139, 1983.
[15] Sutton, M. A., McNeill, S. R., Jang, J., &
[1] Collins, M. P., Bentz, E. C., Sherwood, E. G.,
Babai, M., Effects of subpixel image
& WIGHT, J. K., Where is Shear restoration on digital correlation error
Reinforcement Required? Review of Research estimates. Optical Engineering, 27(10), 1988.
Results and Design Procedures. ACI structural
journal, 106(4), pp. 556-559, 2009.
[2] Sharma, A. K., Shear strength of steel fiber
reinforced concrete beams. In ACI Journal
Proceedings (Vol. 83, No. 4), 1986.
[3] Narayanan, R., & Darwish, I. Y. S., Use of steel
fibers as shear reinforcement. ACI Structural
Journal, 84(3), 1987.
[4] Ashour, S. A., Hasanain, G. S., & Wafa, F. F.,
Shear behavior of high-strength fiber
reinforced concrete beams. ACI Structural
Journal, 89(2), 1992.
[5] Imam, M., Vandewalle, L., Mortelmans, F., &
Van Gemert, D., Shear domain of fibre-
reinforced high-strength concrete
beams. Engineering structures, 19(9), pp.
738-747, 1997.
[6] Kwak, Y. K., Eberhard, M. O., Kim, W. S., &
Kim, J., Shear strength of steel fiber-
reinforced concrete beams without
stirrups. ACI Structural Journal, 99(4), 2002.
[7] Li, V. C., Ward, R., & Hmaza, A. M., Steel and
synthetic fibers as shear reinforcement. ACI
Materials Journal, 89(5), 1992.
[8] ACI 318-08, Building code requirements for
structural concrete (ACI 318-08) and
commentary, American Concrete Institute,
Farmington Hills, MI, 2008.
[9] Walraven, J. C., Aggregate interlock: a
theoretical and experimental
analysis (Doctoral dissertation, TU Delft,
Delft University of Technology), 1980.
[10] Walraven, J. C., & Reinhardt, H. W., Theory
and experiments on the mechanical behaviour
of cracks in plain and reinforced concrete
subjected to shear loading. HERON, 26 (1A),
1981.
[11] Walraven, J. C., Fundamental analysis of
aggregate interlock. Journal of the Structural
Division, ASCE, 107(11), 2245-2270, 1981.
[12] Subramaniam, K.V., Popovics, J., and Shah
S.P., Testing Concrete in torsion: Instability
analysis and Experiments, Journal of
Engineering Mechanics, American Society of
Civil Engineers (ASCE), 124 (11), pp. 1258-
1268, (1998).
[13] ASTM, C. 1609/C 1609M-06., Standard Test
Method for Flexural Performance of Fiber
Reinforced Concrete (Using Beam with Third-
Point Loading), ASTM International, USA,
2006.
[14] Sutton, M. A., Wolters, W. J., Peters, W. H.,
Ranson, W. F., & McNeill, S. R.,
Determination of displacements using an
37
Contributory
Papers
ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF
CONCRETE STRUCTURES
ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF TABLE TOP FOUNDATION FOR TURBINE

GENERATORS
Siddhartha Bhattacharya1, P.E., P.Eng, M.ASCE
Bechtel India Pvt. Ltd., 244-245 Udyog Vihar, Phase IV, Gurgaon 122015, Haryana, India
The paper illustrates through a practical example, the step by step procedure adopted in designing a table
top foundation supported on piles for a steam turbine generator with operating speed of 60 Hz. Finite
element model of the table top foundation is generated in ANSYS. Analysis results are used to perform the
static design checks. Dynamic analysis is performed to check for resonance and allowable amplitude limits
of the foundation as specified by machine vendor.
Keywords: steam turbine generator foundation, finite element, static analysis, dynamic analysis
1 General Introduction The STG pedestal foundation is a massive concrete

frame structure consisting of a 30.5m x 12.0m in plan and
Steam Turbine-Generators (STG) and 2.4 m thick operating deck (also known as table top)
Combustion Turbine-Generator (CTG) are used in supported by eight columns, all of which are supported by
almost all modern petrochemical, LNG plants and a 32.4m x 14.4m in plan and 2.3m thick base mat on piles.
power plant facilities. Reinforced concrete table The top elevation of the tabletop is 11.85m above the top
top foundations are required to support these high of the base mat. Columns are located at 150mm within the
speed rotating heavy machineries and are one of edges of the tabletop to facilitate rebar placement. There
the most critical and challenging structures on any are three openings in the tabletop for the connections of
industrial project. Because of the complexity in the various pipes and equipment to the underside of the steam
analysis and design of this type of a machine turbine-generator. A general view of the STG foundation
foundation, several modern analysis techniques is shown in figure 2.1. Pile arrangement is shown in figure
are adopted to predict its exact behavior under 2.2. Number of piles are calculated based on a manual
sustained vibrating loads and to extract the results estimate of the number of piles required to resist the
to perform the reinforced concrete design. Static vertical and lateral loads under operating and seismic
and dynamic analysis is carried on with two conditions. Labels are used to identify the different
different stiffness values for piles and material structural elements. The elements in the longitudinal
elasticity for concrete. The basic intent is to ensure direction are referred to as girders and the transverse
that resonance does not take place under any elements are identified as beams. In the same way, vertical
circumstances and the amplitudes of vibration elements are referred to as columns. Tables 2-1 shows the
remain within allowable limits as specified by the dimension details of the structural components.
vendor. The paper explains in detail, through a
practical example problem, the step by step
methods involved in the analysis and design of a
table top foundation for a steam turbine generator
operating at a speed of 60Hz.
2 Foundation Geometry
The STG pedestal supports a steam turbine

machine which consists of one low pressure
turbine, one HP/LP (HP-High Pressure; LP- Low
pressure) turbine and one generator. All of the
equipment is located at the operating deck. The
layout of the operating deck is determined by the
footprint of the machines. The condenser, located
beneath the low pressure turbine is supported
directly on the condenser piers that are sitting on
the pedestal base mat.
Figure 2.1: Geometric details of STG foundation
1
Senior Engineer, sbhattac@bechtel.com
38
Siddhartha Bhattacharya
Figure 2.2: Pile layout plan
Table 2-1: Geometric properties of the foundation

Figure 3.1: ANSYS model of the table top foundation
3 Finite Element Model
Based on the initial sizing, as specified above, a 3-D Figure 3.2: Meshed model of the table top foundation
solid finite element model is created to assess the behavior
of the STG foundation. 10-noded tetrahedral elements
(SOLID92) is created in ANSYS for generating the mesh
for the entire model. SOLID92 element has a quadratic
displacement behavior and is well suited to model
irregular meshes. The foundation piles are modeled as
springs at each pile locations with two horizontal and one
vertical stiffness using spring-damper elements
(COMBIN14). The solid model is presented in figure 3.1
and meshed model is presented in figure 3.2. For dynamic
analysis, machine mass is modeled at each sole plate
location by adjusting the mass density of the embed
volumes at each sole plate location using the formula Figure 3.3: Meshed model showing bearings
$%&
!" = !# + (1)
'&
where i is the density assigned to the contact volume, c

is the density of reinforced concrete and W mi is the
machine mass acting on the contact volume Vi. This
approach is used for purposes of both dynamic and static
analyses. Other machine loads are applied by dividing the
loads by total number of nodes within the corresponding
designated volume. The six bearing locations are modeled
as nodes at the shaft level of the machine and is connected
to the center of sole plates with very stiff axial beam
elements. The sole plates are modeled in a way that the
center of the plate is a master node and all other nodes on Figure 3.4: Meshed model showing bearings and rigid
the plate are slave. This is done to simulate the rigid links
behavior of the plates.
39
4 Loads & Load Combinations c) 1.2DL+LLEL

d) 0.9DLEL
Loads and load combinations are adopted as per the e) 1.4DL+1.4VL
specifications from vendor, standard industry practice and f) 1.2DL+1.6LL+1.2VL1.6TL+1.6TN+1.6UNL
relevant ASCE and ACI codal provisions. In general the g) 1.2DL+LL+1.2VL+TNEL+UNL
following loads are adopted in analyzing and designing h) DL+VLNSL+TN
the STG foundation:- i) DL+VL+TN
a) Dead load (DL) j) DL+VL+TNBR
b) Live load (LL) k) DL+VL+TNLB
c) Thermal load (TL) l) DL+JP
d) Vacuum load (VL) m) DL+CF
e) Normal torque load (TN) The most important thing to note in these combinations is
f) Emergency torque load (TE) that the unbalanced load and bowed rotor accidental loads
g) Jacking post load (JP) need to be considered in both vertical and horizontal
h) Bowed rotor accidental load (BR) directions one at a time. For seismic load both horizontal,
i) Loss of bucket load (LB) vertical and orthogonal loading directions need to be
j) Unbalanced load (UNL) considered simultaneously with full contribution from one
k) Condenser flooding load (CF) direction along with 30% contribution from orthogonal
l) Wind load (WL) directions.
m) Seismic load (EL)
n) Non-sliding load (NSL)
These loads are applied as uniformly distributed nodal
loads in the loading volumes at sole plate locations. Such
loading volumes are shown in figure 4.1
Figure 4.1: Volumes for load points and sole plate ID

Figure 4.2: Unbalanced loads at bearing locations
The load combinations adopted for checking
the capacity of pile foundations are as follows:- 5 Static Serviceability Check
a) DL+LL
b) DL+LL0.7EL Misalignment Tolerance Matrix (MTM) deflection
c) 0.6DL0.7LL criteria check is the most importance static acceptance
d) DL+LL+TN+UNL criteria for a STG foundation. This check is performed to
ensure that the turbine generator foundation is rigid
e) DL+LL+TN+0.7EL+UNL
enough to assure correct bearing alignment during its
f) DLNSL+TN operating condition. The checks are performed as per
g) DL+TL vendor provided guidelines in order to ensure that the
h) DL+TNBR foundation meets the criteria for proper functioning of the
i) DL+JP machine. The MTM defines the percentage of available
j) DL+CF misalignment that is consumed at a given bearing due to a
displacement at another bearing. It can be described as an
The load combinations adopted for static check and Influence Coefficient Approach. The deflections that
reinforced concrete design of the foundation are as may result from various loadings on the foundation after
follows:- initial alignment is calculated. These deflections are then
multiplied by the influence co-efficient as provided by the
a) 1.4DL vendor to calculate the response at a particular bearing
b) 1.2DL+1.6LL location due to deflection at other bearing locations. In
40
figure 3.3 if R3is the initial response at bearing location 2 fallen within this 20% range then in that case there would
and y1, y2, y3, y4, y5 and y6 be the deflections at bearing have been two options that could be adopted to resolve the
locations with influence co-efficient C1, C2, C3, C4, C5 and resonance issue. The first option is mass tuning of the
C6 then resultant response (R3) at bearing location 2 will foundation wherein the foundation can be either over
be tuned or under tuned to avoid resonance. In case mass
tuning of foundation is not possible then the other option
R3 = R3+C1y1+C2y2+C3y3+C4y4+C5y5 (2)
is to go for harmonic analysis in which the amplitudes are
determined in the frequency range of 20% of the
Apart from this, other serviceability checks performed on
operating frequency of the machine and compared with
the STG foundation are:-
allowable amplitudes as specified by the vendor and those
(a) Relative radial displacement between adjacent stipulated in the industry standards for human comfort
bearings level. Modified Reiher-Meister figure (barely perceptible,
(b) Differential settlement at the foundation base mat. noticeable and troublesome) is generally used to establish
(c) Top surface rotation of specific piers the limits with respect to personnel sensitivity.
(d) Differential displacement of any three adjacent piers
(e) Crack width of the deck elements
(f) Precise location of all embeds on the deck
6 Dynamic Analysis
Dynamic analysis of the turbine generator foundations

is performed in two steps:-
a) Modal analysis Modal analysis is performed to

determine the governing modes of the foundation where
more than 95% of the mass participation takes place. Also
it is used to determine whether any resonance is taking
place during operating condition of the machine i.e.
whether the fundamental frequencies of vibration of the Figure 6.2: Reiher-Meister Chart (Richart, Hall, and
foundation in X, Y and Z directions are coinciding with Woods 1970)
the operating frequency of the machine. Also it gives a
clear picture of the mass participation in other modes b) Harmonic analysis This is a forced vibration
through which machine passes during start up and shut analysis in which the amplitudes and peak velocity of
down phase. As an industry practice the fundamental vibration of the machine is calculated at different sole
frequency of the machine foundation is kept outside the plate locations and determined over a definite
range of 20% of the operating frequency of the machine. frequency range to assess the severity of vibration of
the machine foundation. Vendor specified limits are
adopted for checking the severity. For this foundation
the limiting peak velocity is adopted as 1.55mm/sec
and limiting peak amplitude is adopted to 0.004mm.
Figure 6.1: Plot showing the frequencies at which

maximum mass participation occurs and also indicates
that no mass participation occurs within 20% of
maximum operating frequency (60 Hz)
The modal analysis results in figure 6.1 shows that the

fundamental frequencies of the foundation are outside
20% of the operating frequency of the machine hence the
frequency analysis shows that there is no probability of
Figure 6.3: Turbomachinery bearing vibration limits
occurrence of resonance under operating condition. In
(Ref. 3)
case the natural frequency of the foundation would have
41
Foundation is analyzed for unbalanced loads of the sole plate locations are found to be much below the
machine at the bearing locations. These loads either act in allowable displacement amplitude limits and hence the
phase or out of phase with each other and effects are foundation is considered to be safe in terms of strength
estimated for each of the conditions. The displacement and serviceability.
amplitudes at the sole plate locations, as obtained from
analysis are plotted with reference to the vendor supplied 7 Reinforced Concrete Design
allowable limits in the figure 6.4 to 6.7. Reinforced concrete design of the components of the
table top foundation is carried on as per the stipulated
guidelines of ACI codes and ASCE task committee report
on design of turbine generator foundations. Element
stresses of the entire cross section of the members are
taken at the support and span locations. These stresses are
integrated over the cross section to calculate the axial
loads, bending moments, shear forces and torsion. All the
structural components are designed as column members
subjected to all the four types of design forces. In most of
the cases the sectional sizes as provided are much more
than that required from design, however, these sections
Figure 6.4: Vibrations in X-direction (In-Phase) need to be provided to satisfy the mass criteria for the
dynamic behavior of the foundation. A minimum steel of
0.5% of the cross-sectional area is provided as per the
codal provisions. The maximum rebar spacing along any
edge of concrete is limited to 250mm. The sections are
designed in two stages. In the first stage it is checked for
axial load and biaxial moment using load-moment
strength interaction diagrams given in ACI SP-17
corresponding to grade of steel and concrete with
reinforcement being equally distributed on all sides. A
typical load-moment chart being used for the present
Figure 6.5: Vibrations in X-direction (Out-of-Phase) design is shown in figure 7.1.
Figure 6.6: Vibrations in Z-direction (In-Phase)
Figure 7.1: Load-moment diagram, ACI Sp-17 (Ref. 4)
If the axial load on the members is more than 10% of the

compression capacity of unreinforced concrete member of
equivalent section i.e. if Pn > 0.1fcAg then Bresler
Reciprocal Load Method is used to determine the section
capacity using equation (3)
,
Figure 6.7: Vibrations in Z-direction (Out-of-Phase) () * - - - (3)
1 3
./0 ./2 ./
The graphs basically represents the results of
sweeping frequency analysis for in-phase and out-of- Where,
phase loadings. The displacement amplitude at each of the Pn = Design axial load on the member.
42
Pox = Axial capacity of the member corresponding to in place foundations for these massive structures are time
moment about x-axis, Mnx. consuming and labor intensive. Also application of
Poy = Axial capacity of the member corresponding to precast will help to ensure a better quality control in terms
moment about y-axis, Mny. of construction for such an important structure. Since
Po = Axial capacity of the member with zero moment. these foundations are subjected to continuous dynamic
If Pn < 0.1fcAg then PCA Load Contour Method needs to loads, post-tensioning may be a good option that can be
be used as per equation (4) adopted in case of precast table top foundations.
8/9:;<>? 8/9:;<>?
4 7
560 4 8/9@ 7 562 8/9@
4 7 +A B * C<D (4) References
5/0 5/2
[1] ACI 351.3R-04, Foundation for Dynamic Equipment.

Where,
[2] Building Code Requirements for Structural Concrete:
Mnx, Mny = Design axial load on the member about x&y
axis. ACI 318-05.
Mox = Moment capacity of the member about x-axis [3] Arya, S., ONeill, M., and Pincus, G., Design of
corresponding to load Po. Structures and Foundations for Vibrating Machines, Gulf
Moy = Moment capacity of the member about y-axis Publishing Co., Houston, Texas, 1979.
corresponding to load Po. [4] ACI 340R-97, ACI Design Handbook, Design of
= Value ranges from 0.55 to 0.7. Structural Reinforced Concrete Elements in Accordance
with the Strength Design Methods ACI 318-95,
The second stage of design involves the checking of Publication SP-17(97).
the section for shear and torsional capacities. Generally [5] Design of Large Steam Turbine-Generator
such huge sections are not critical in terms of torsion. In Foundations, Task Committee on Turbine Foundations,
some cases design of torsional reinforcement to resist Published by the American Society of Civil Engineers,
local accident loads like short circuit and lost bucket can New York, 1987.
be challenging. Another important check that is
performed on this structure is the ductility check where it
is assured that the moment capacity of the reinforced
concrete section is not less than 20% more than the
cracking moment of the section. Reinforcement detailing
is done as per the relevant provisions of ACI 318.
8 Conclusion
Analysis and design of the table top foundation is

carried out to satisfy the strength and serviceability checks
and is found to be satisfactory. This analysis and design
procedure is adopted to do an in-depth simulation and
checking of the exact behavior of the foundation under
operating condition of the machine. This paper is mainly
limited to the conventional analysis and design
procedures under operating machine loads. Seismic
design and detailing of these table top foundations is also
an interesting area to deal with. IS 13920 specifies that
ductile detailing needs to be done for all the reinforced
concrete structures which calls in for ductile design and
detailing for these massive structures but an important
thing to note here is that these structures are mostly
designed as uncracked and as such ductile detailing need
not be considered as this will unnecessarily increase the
project cost. An important opportunity area that needs to
be explored in the design of this kind of foundation is the
simulation of the condition when seismic base excitation
is applied under operating condition of the machine. An
important area which needs substantial research for these
kinds of foundations is the implementation of pre-cast
technology with special emphasis to the connection
design between various elements which can sustain long
term fatigue loading. This will be of tremendous impact
in terms of total installation cost (TIC) of a project as cast
43
STEINING THICKNESS OF WELL FOUNDATION FOR

JACK DOWN METHOD OF SINKING
Amar Pal Singh1, Renu Singhal2, Umer Farooq3
1, 2, 3
L&T Constructions, Faridabad, Haryana, 121003, India
The existing practice in India is to decide the thickness of well foundation based on the formula given by
Indian Roads Congress Code (IRC:78-2014) which is based on the assumption that steining should be rigid
and thickness of steining should be sufficient for self-sinking of well to reduce sinking efforts and to avoid
excessive loading during sinking. However the formula given by the code results in pretty high thickness
which increases the cost of project especially in the case of large wells. Indian Railway code on design &
construction of well & pile foundation mentions that the steining thickness should be sufficient to enable
sinking without excessive kentledge and provide adequate strength against forces acting on the steining
both during sinking and service. However no formula for well steining is provided in Indian Railway code.
In this paper it is shown that considerable reduction in thickness of well can be achieved when the thickness
of well is calculated using the first principle methodology followed by the authors like Terzaghi &
W.C.Teng compared to the thickness calculated by the formula given by IRC:78-2014.
Keywords: well foundation, jack down, sinking.

2.0 Well steining and Sinking:
1.0 Introduction:
The well steining is the main body of the well. After
Well foundation is the most commonly adopted
determining the maximum moments and loads, the
foundation for major bridges in India. It has been used for
design of well steining through which the forces acting
monuments also. Taj Mahal [1] at Agra is one such
on the bridge are transmitted to the base of well requires
example. In principle the construction of a well
to be considered. The moments will go on reducing due
foundation for bridges is similar to the conventional wells
to the passive resistance offered by scour level. The
whose main purpose was to obtain groundwater centuries
section of well steining just below the well cap has least
ago. In plan the shape of a well foundation is similar to
direct load but is subjected to a considerable moment and
caisson. When the circular well becomes uneconomical
therefore, this section is critical for tensile and shear
to support the pier of substructure, the well foundation
stresses. At a level below the maximum scour level
can take other shapes also like double circular, double-D,
where the horizontal force gets neutralized by passive
rectangular, octagonal etc.
pressure of the earth, i.e., where the shear becomes zero,
Compared to the group of piles, Well foundation are rigid
the moments are the maximum and the direct loads are
in engineering behaviour and are able to resist large
also considerable. When the well is circular and
forces of floating trees or bolders that may roll on the
practically watertight, it is subjected to hoop
river bed. Due to large cross sectional area of well
compression during rising floods. This hoop compressive
foundation, the bearing capacity of soil for that area is
stress varies depending on the flood level. Hoop
much higher. Well foundation being hollow at the centre
compression in the steining is uniform up to the
has large section modulus with minimum cross section
maximum scour level. If wells are not circular, the
of area which imparts stability to well foundation.
stresses in the steining should be calculated taking the
moments caused by the pressure due to differential head
in such cases.
1
Chief Engineering Manager, amarps@lntecc.com The steps involved in the Steining are:-
2
Engineering Manager, renu@lntecc.com
3
Sr. Design Engineer, umer@lntecc.com (corresponding 1. Inner and outer formwork.
author)
2. Rebar fixing.
3. Concreting and curing.
4. Sinking.
44
Amar Pal Singh, et al.
2.1 Inner and outer formwork: surface. The sinking operation would be started after 16
Inner and outer formwork is made of 4mm MS hrs of concreting for steining.
Steel plates and rolled steel sections fabricated for
a lift of 2.5m. Sinking of wells shall be carried out by dredge hole
3.0 mm thick foam sheet adhesive tape at the method by using the following steps:
location of joints are used to seal the joints.
Form releasing agent shall be applied on the inner 2.6 Sinking operation:
face of the panels coil anchors/ nuts, which are to The sinking operation involves lowering of the
be embedded in concrete for erection of lift are well by dredging in the dredge hole.
fixed at appropriate locations. Plate grab shall be used in case of soft strata like
The inner form panels are erected for the sandy silt, soft clay, dense sand, etc.
subsequent lifts, the form work is supported on the In case of hard clay, stiff clay strata heavy-duty
coil nut arrangement with the bottom lift concrete. chisel shall be used, followed by dredging using
The rebar are fixed in position followed by fixing Tyne grab.
of outer formwork. Over the inner formwork, rigid Levels and alignment of well shall be checked
horizontal supports shall be provide to keep the regularly interval of 1hr of sinking to observe the
shutters profile and it shall be used for platform tilt and shift of the well at closer intervals if the
after placing the landing mats visual observation demands.
Final checking of formworks shall be carried by Sinking operation shall be preferably carry out
jointly with Engineers rep. round the clock under skilled supervision.
Dredged materials shall be disposed off to
locations designated by the Engineer.
2.2 Rebar fixing: The above cycle of well steining and sinking shall
Re bar are cut and bent at the central rebar yard as be repeated up to the last lift of the well until well
per the approved bar bending schedules and reaches to the founding level.
transported from the yard by truck/ trailer.
Re bars are fixed as per drawing and schedule.
Adequate cement concrete cover blocks shall be 2.7 Precautions during sinking:
provided along the periphery of the formwork to When the wells have sunk close to each other and
maintain the cover of rebar. clear distance between them is not greater than the
diameter of wells, sinking shall be taken up on all
wells and they shall be sunk alternately.
2.3 Concreting and curing: Before seasonal floods all wells on which sinking
Placement of concrete shall be done as described is in progress shall be to sufficient depths below
for the well curb. the designed scour level.
Shear key shall be provided at each construction Very deep sump shall not be made below the well
joints. curb. The depth of sump shall not exceed 3.0m
The concrete surface shall be cleaned thoroughly below the level of cutting edge unless otherwise
and surface preparation is made to receive the specifically permitted by Engineer.
succeeding layer of concrete. Dewatering is avoided if sand blows are expected.
Before casting the last lift of steining it shall be
checked and verified for appropriate steel for false
steining, grooves for precast beams to support 3.0 Discussion on Steining thickness
false work for well cap. According to the clause 708.2.3.1 of IRC:78-2014 [2] the
steining thickness will be given by the formula:
! = "#$#%&
2.4 De - shuttering:
The inner and outer form panels are removed after 12 According to the code, the minimum thickness of
hours of the concrete finished time. steining should be 500 mm. The formula is code is based
on the assumption that steining should be rigid and
2.5 Steining Sinking: thickness of steining should be sufficient for self-sinking
Following the de shuttering of steining lift, gauge
of well to reduce sinking efforts and to avoid excessive
marking is carried out at both axes in line with well curb
loading during sinking.
marking and reference height is marked on the wall
45
However Terzaghi,[3] in his book Soil Mechanics in Ka = Active earth pressure coefficient.
Engineering Practice on Page No. 468 has mentioned C = Half of unconfined compressive strength.
following regarding well sinking: =Angle of shearing resistance of soil.
While excavation is being carried on within a caisson of = Submerged weight of soil below scour line.
the drop-shaft type, the soil next to the caisson is Z = Depth of foundation level below bed level.
supported laterally by the walls of the shaft. Sections are
added to the shaft above the ground surface, and as According to Guidelines on Well Foundation for bridges
excavation proceeds, the caisson slides down. The over Indian Railways [6] the skin friction of soil varies at
downward movement is resisted by skin friction. To different level and is dependent upon type of soil and
overcome the skin friction, lightweight drop shafts, such mainly depend on the parameters like cohesion and angle
as those of steel, must be loaded with dead weights. On of internal friction.
the other hand, heavy caissons, such as those of concrete, This can be calculated by using following formula:
may descend under their own weight.
Terzaghi further mentions Concrete caissons are F = Skin friction in t/m2
generally designed so that their weight exceeds the skin Ka = Active pressure coefficient
friction at every stage of construction. Hence, the design = Angle of shearing resistance of soil (degrees)
requires evaluation of the skin friction. C = Half of unconfined compressive strength.
Z = Depth of foundation below Scour level (m)
Wayne. C. Teng [4] mentions in his book Foundation = Density of soil in t/m3.
design on page no. 295 that caissons are so designed as
to have sufficient weight in each lift to overcome the skin
3.2 Jack down Method
friction. Otherwise additional ballast is necessary to sink
the caisson. Therefore a reasonable evaluation of skin Jack-down method as precise and innovative method of
friction is essential. If it is desired to proportion a circular controlled well sinking to prevent the tilt, shift or rotation
of well at any stage of sinking. The principle of this
caisson so that no ballast is necessary for sinking, the
method is to push down the structure into the ground by
weight of concrete should be at least equal to skin friction.
applying pressure to counter the resistance of ground due
Therefore: to skin friction around the periphery of caisson and below
the cutting edge.
1/4#'(D) * d) +H,- = f#'#D#H
Jack-down method is more effective in controlling the
tilts and shifts in sinking of caissons and has been tried
Where, f is skin friction,.,-# is weight of concrete, D
on important projects especially with higher depths of
is external diameter of caisson, d is internal diameter of
foundations and large size of caisson in all types of strata.
caisson and H is the depth of penetration.
4.0 Case Studies:

3.1 SKIN FRICTION:
Skin friction is the shearing resistance between soil and 4.1 Case Study 1: Signature Bridge
the exterior surface of caisson encountered during the The signature bridge project [7] across river yamuna at
process of well sinking. The downward movement of wazirabad in delhi is one of the engineering feats in the
world. The signature bridge flaunts the innovative design
well is resisted by skin friction of soil. IRS - Well and Pile
of cable stayed bridge with eccentric bow shaped steel
foundation Code [5] mention the following formula for
pylon, flanking approach structures on both sides of the
calculating the value of skin friction. bridge. Before the construction of well foundation
detailed soil survey was conducted at every pier location
as per standard procedure. Based on the study of depth of
liquefaction potential and soil survey it was proposed to
Where, adopt 8.0 m dia well with steining thickness of 0.8 m for
F = Skin friction in N/m2 (kg/m2) a dept of 35- 39 m well foundations. Jackdown method
46
supplemented with air jetting/waterjetting was used for a depth of 30 m is assumed for the purpose of
the sinking of well. calculations. According to the clause 708.2.3.1 of
IRC:78-2014 [2] the steining thickness will be given
4.2 Case Study 2: The New Nizamuddin Bridge bythe formula:
Detailed engineering of the project The new Nizamuddin
! = "#$#%&
Bridge [8] on national highway-24 over River yamuna in
Delhi was carried out by M/s Nippon Koei Co., Ltd in
Based on this formula the calculations for of the
association with Katahira Engineering International,
well having diameter of 10m and depth of 30 m are
Japan. The Project was executed by M/s Obayashi
performed here in the Table 1
Corporation of Japan with M/s Engineering Construction
Company (ECC) of M/s Larson & Toubro Group as their
sub-contractors. The bridge is 551.20 m long with 13 depth of Constant k Thickness
dia of
spans of 42.4 m (average) each c/c of bearings with short well in for cement of well in m
well in
m (l) concrete (h)
link approaches of 359.8 m on Delhi side and 419.2 m on m (d)
Noida side. The width of the bridge is 22.6 m (end to end) 11 30 0.03 1.81
consisting of 4 lane carriageway of 15 m with 3 m wide
cycle track on either side. Airjet method/waterjet in
Table 1: Steining thickness based on IRC:78-2014
combination with jack-down method was used for this
project. Nizamudding bndge which was started in Feb.
The geotechnical test results of a 30 m bored pile are
1996 and was scheduled to be completed by March 1998,
shown here for the purpose of calculations. The values
was completed in Feb. 1998 ltself. Thus time and cost
are assumed in the table for the purpose of simplifying
overruns which are generally expenenced in most of the
calculations.
construction projects were avoided. On Nizamuddin
Bndge, RCC steining of 125 cm thickness has been
provided while as per codal requirements, minimum Dry
thickness works out to 175 cm. Therefore, there was also Moist
densi Bulk c
Depth( ure
substantial saving in concrete in well steining by adoptmg ty densi (kg/c (degr
m) Conte
Jack down method. (gm/c ty m2) ees)
nt, %
c)
3.45 1.52 27.0% 1.93 1.20 7.9

4.3 Case Study 3: Pre-tensioned Sutlej Bridge in 5.55 1.62 22.0% 1.98 0.60 21.5
Punjab 8.55 1.62 22.9% 1.99 0.00 35.1
The pre-tensioned bridge [9] across river Sutlej connects
11.5 1.71 20.8% 2.07 0.00 31.4
Nakodar and Jagraon. Piers were founded on 6m dia well 14.55 1.72 19.0% 2.05 1.50 4.1
foundations and abutments were founded on wells having 23 1.76 19.5% 2.10 1.90 4.7
diameter of 7m. 30 1.76 19.5% 2.10 0.00 33.8
Soil investigation was carried out to deduce the values of
c & in order to confirm the bearing capacity of soil. In Table 2: Geotechnical Test results.
all 22 numbers of piers were supported on 32 m deep
and 6 m dia well foundations consisting of 2.1 m deep Based on the geotechnical test results, following
kerb, 1.5 m deep well cap. The steining thickness of 1.05 calculations are performed as shown in Table 3.
m is tapered to 0.75 m at scour depth of around 18 m,
below the top of the well cap.
5.0 Calculations:
For the sake of simplifications some assumptions have
been taken . A cement concrete well with dia of 11 m and
47
Weight
Bulk Submer of
Skin Average Force due to Cummul
densit c ged Concret
Depth Friction, skin Skin ative skin
y (kg/cm2 (degr Ka Density e
(m) F friction Friction, F1 friction
(gm/c ) ees) (KN/m3 /4(D2-
(kN/m2) (kN/m2) D H1 (kN) (kN)
c) ) d2)H
(KN)
3.45 1.93 1.20 7.9 0.76 9.12 1.04 0.52 62 62 1342
5.55 1.98 0.60 21.5 0.46 9.57 5.66 3.35 243 305 817
8.55 1.99 0.00 35.1 0.27 9.71 9.70 7.68 796 1101 1167
11.5 2.07 0.00 31.4 0.31 10.44 14.47 12.08 1232 2333 1148
14.55 2.05 1.50 4.1 0.87 10.26 5.07 9.77 1030 3362 1187
23 2.10 1.90 4.7 0.85 10.81 9.93 7.50 2191 5553 3287
30 2.10 0.00 33.8 0.29 10.81 38.37 21.72 11596 14958 6011
= 14958 14958
External Diameter Internal Dia Density of

Thickness(m)
(m) (m) concrete (kN/m3)
11 9.40 25 0.800
Table 3: weight of concrete equal to the skin friction between soil and concrete.
When specialized methods of well sinking like air jet

method, water jet method or jack down method of sinking With this paper, now it is clear that the steining thickness
are employed in the construction of well foundation, equation provided at Clause 708.2.3.1 of IRC 78-2014
thickness of well should be further allowed to reduce [2] gives the thickness which increases cost of the
taking consideration of design stresses and moments project. Hence the equation should be considered as a
acting on the well. This paper presents the methodology thumb rule but not to be followed in the case of large
& calculations using basic principle to compute the wells and when specialized method like jack down
thickness of well foundation during construction and method of sinking is employed in the construction of well
service conditions. The case studies of the bridges in foundation.
which the jack down method was employed are also Clause 708.2.3.3 (a) of IRC:78-2014 also states that in
presented in this paper where considerable reduction in the case of very soft clay strata, steining thickness of the
thickness of well was achieved. Discussion on their well should be reduced in order to prevent the penetration
design requirements is also carried out. of well under its own weight. Well curb is made of RCC
As IRC-78 code recognizes jack down as the specialized with steel cutting edge. Since the curb is slightly
method of sinking & allows the adjustment of thickness projected from the steining so as to reduce the skin
in the calculated value given by formula h = k d l. friction during sinking of well and make the sinking
Enormous amount of reduction in steining thickness will smooth. The nominal relief of 5 10 % may be allowed
be achieved when jack down method of well sinking is to take while calculating the Skin friction considering the
employed. projection of well curb.
IRC:78-2000 [10] has given the sketch for reduction of
steining thickness at page No. 81. Above the Level of
scour, the reduction in steining thickness on outer surface
6.0 Conclusion: of the well is allowed as per the same code. After the well
By using the formula #! = "#$#%& , steining thickness is sunk to Scour Level, The soil above scour level will
comes out to be 1.81 m as shown in the calculations above stay loose and in disturbed condition and will take a
and by using the approach laid down by Terzaghi and considerable time to consolidate. Since the construction
W.C.Teng, the steining thickness for a typical soil comes period is small and above scour level there will not be
out to be 0.8 m. Hence a huge amount of concrete and any soil friction to overcome the weight of a massive well
reinforcement quantity can be saved by using the same foundation. Hence 100% relief may be taken to account
approach. outside the reduced diameter of well foundation. Since
48
the clause 1.3.2 of well and pile foundation code [5] states
that skin friction shall be taken only for the soil below the
level of scour. However In seismic areas the relief taken
due to skin friction may be ignored.
With this paper it is clear that the steining thickness
equation provided in IRC 78-2014 [2] gives the thickness
which increases cost of the project. Hence the equation
should be considered as a thumb rule but not to be
followed especially in the case of large wells and when
specialized method like jack down method of sinking is
employed in the construction of well foundation. While
employing the jack down in construction methodology of
well foundation along with Air jetting/Water Jetting,
thickness of well need not to be calculated using the
formula of IRS: 78 instead basic principle should be
followed & design should be checked with 3D Finite
Element Analysis.
7.0 References:
[1] A. V. Narsimha Rao & C. Venkatramaiah,
Geotechnical Engineering page-470, Universities
press.
[2] IRC:78-2014 Standard Specifications And Code Of
Practice For Road Bridges.
[3] Karl Terzaghi, et al, Soil Mechanics in Engineering
Practice.
[4] W.C.Teng, Foundation Design, Published by PHI
Ltd Eastern Economy Edition, pp:295
[5] Indian Railway Standard- Manual on the Design and
Construction of Well and Pile Foundations (1985),
issued by Research Designs and Standards
Organization (RDSO).
[6] Guidelines on Well Foundation for Bridges over
Indian Railways, Draft Report Dec 2005, issued by
Research Designs and Standards Organization
(RDSO).
[7] Jose Kurian et al, Design And Construction Aspects
Of Approach Structure To Signature Bridge at
Wazirabad New Delhi. The Bridge And Structural
Engineer, Volue 43, Numer 3 September 2013.
[8] Kapila, K.K. / Rastogi, S.P. Special Method Of Well
Sinking Adopted At New Nizamuddin Bridge On
National Highway-24 In New Delhi
[9] V.N. Heggade et al. Design And Construction Of
Pre-Tensioned Sutlej Bridge In Punjab
[10] IRC:78-2000 Standard Specifications And Code Of
Practice For Road Bridges.
49
Effect of Infill Wall Stiffness on Seismic Analysis of High Rise Building

Resting on Sloping Ground
Kolasani Rajasekhar1 and Maganti Janardhana2

1
Formerly P.G. Student, JNTUH College of Engineering Hyderabad, Hyderabad, India,
2
Professor, JNTUH College of Engineering Hyderabad, Hyderabad, India.
Buildings constructed on hill slopes are highly unsymmetrical in nature. The buildings situated on hill slopes are
generally irregular, torsionally coupled and hence susceptible to serve damage when affected by earthquake ground
motion. In this paper, a 21-storeyed RC framed building resting on sloping ground is studied. Seismic response of the
high rise building is carried out using linear static analysis and linear Dynamic analysis (Response Spectrum Analysis).
This paper also compared the behavior of RC framed building resting on plain ground and resting on sloping ground
including the effect of infill wall stiffness.
Key Words: RC Building, Sloping Ground, Infill Stiffness
1. Introduction
The Indian subcontinent has a history of earthquakes.
North and northeastern parts of India have large scales
of hilly region, which are categorized under seismic
zone III, IV and V. In this region the construction of
multi storied RC framed buildings on hill slopes is
inevitable. Dynamic characteristics of buildings on
sloping ground are significantly different from the
buildings resting on flat terrain, as these are irregular
and unsymmetrical in vertical directions.
2. Description of Building
A commercial cum residential building of G+21 RC
building having the base dimension of plan
23.62 m 25.15 m with constant floor height of 4.0 m
including the of a stilt floor is considered for the
analysis.
X
Figure 2: Elevation
The building has 21 storeys symmetrical in plan with 5

bays in X direction (along the slope) and 8 bays in
y
Y directions, and elevation as shown in Figure 1 and 2
respectively. The superstructure is modelled using the
commercially available software SAP 2000 (v14.0.0)
X as a space frame.
Figure 1: Typical Floor Plan
__________________________________
1
Email: kolasanirajasekhar@gmail.com
2
Email: jmaganti@yahoo.com
50
Kolasani Rajasekhar and Maganti Janardhana
2.1 Input Data
The parameters and loads considered for the analysis

are mentioned below.
2.1.1 Seismic Parameters:

Seismic Zone: III = slope of infill wall diagonal to the horizontal,
Type of soil: Medium lastic Modul
Em= Elastic Modulus off masonry wall= 2720.0 N/mm2,
Ef = Elastic Modulus of masonry of frame material,
Importance factor: 1
t = Thickness of the infill wall,
Response reduction factor: 3 h = Height of the infill wall,
Damping ratio: 5% L = Length of the infill wall,
Type of structure: OMRF Ic = Moment of Inertia of the column of the frame,
Ib = Moment of Inertia of the beam of the frame, and
2.1.2 Seismic Parameters: w = Width of the Equivalent Strut.
Unit Weight of Concrete: 25.0 kN/m3
Live Load (Residential): 2.0 kN/m2
Live Load (Cellar): 5.0 kN/m2
Live Load (Roof): 1.5 kN/m2
Stair Case Load Live: 7.734 kN
Stair Case Load Dead: 30.937 kN
Wall load (230 mm thick): 16.0 kN/m
Wall load (115 mm thick): 8.0 kN/m
Plinth Beam Size: 400 500 mm

Roof Beam Size: 400 650 mm
400 750 mm
Column Size: 450 1500 mm
1500 450 mm
500 1500 mm
1500 500 mm
Slab Thickness: 100 mm & 150 mm
Thickness of Wall: 230 mm & 115 mm
2.1.3 Material Properties:

Z
Grade of Concrete: M35
Grade of Steel: Fe500
X
2.1.4 Infill Walls Figure 3: Equivalent diagonal strut in X-Direction
Table 1: Equivalent strut parameters in X-Direction
The infill walls are modelled as equivalent struts and
shown in the Figure 3 and the strut parameters are
calculated using Eq. (1) and shown in Tables 1 and 2. Strut Wall Thickness (m) Equivalent Width (m)
The equivalent width (w) of the infill wall proposed by

1 0.115 2.1
a scientist Hendry is given by:
2 0.115 2.5
3 0.23 2.0
4 0.23 2.1
(1) 5 0.23 2.3
6 0.23 2.3
51
Table 2: Equivalent strut parameters in Y-Direction
Strut Wall Thickness (m) Equivalent Width (m)
7 0.115 2.0
8 0.115 2.4
9 0.23 1.7
10 0.23 2.0
3. Results and Discussion

During vibration, reinforced concrete (RC) frame
buildings having columns of different heights within
one storey, the shorter columns have suffered relatively
higher damage when compared to taller columns. A
short column is r e l a t i v e l y stiffer when compared
with that of a tall column. Hence, it attracts
relatively higher earthquake force. Structures may be
irregular due to non-uniform distribution of mass,
stiffness, strength or due to their structural form.
Buildings resting on sloping ground are also irregular. Figure 5: Storey shear distribution for seismic load in
A building on Plane and sloping ground by the Y-direction with storey height for building on plane
considering infill wall stiffness in both X and Y and sloping ground.
direction was analyzed for linear static and dynamic Inter storey drift is observed to be relatively less if the
behavior using SAP2000 (v14.0.0).
infill wall stiffness is considered as shown in the
3.1 Results of Linear Static Analysis Figures 6 and 7.
It is observed from the Figures 4 and 5 that the
base shear is relatively higher for a building if the infill
wall stiffness is considered.
Figure 4: Storey shear distribution for seismic load in Figure 6: Inter storey drift for seismic load in the
the X-direction with storey height for building on plane X-direction with storey height for building on plane
and sloping ground. and sloping ground.
52
Figure 7: Inter storey drift for Load in the Y-direction

for building on plane and sloping ground. Figure 9: Storey twisting moment in Y-direction with
storey height for building on plane and sloping ground.
When the stiffness of infill walls in the X-direction is
considered it is observed that there is a higher 3.2 Response Spectrum Analysis Results
magnitude of twisting in the Y-direction as shown in
the Figure 8. Similar behavior is observed when the It is observed from the Figure 10 that there is
infill stiffness in the Y-direction is considered as decrease of the time period with the increase of mode
shown in the Figure 9. number.
Figure 10: Modal Time Period for building on plane

and sloping ground.
Figure 8: Storey twisting moment in X-direction for
building on plane and sloping ground.
53
There is increase in the storey shears in the Y-direction Inter storey drift is observed to be relatively less if the
when seismic load was considered in the X-direction infill wall stiffness is considered as shown in the
when the effect of infill wall stiffness in the X- Figures 13 and 14 as is observed for linear static
direction is considered as shown in the Figure 11. analysis case (Vide: Figures 6 and 7).
Similar behavior is observed in the X-direction when
seismic load was considered in the Y-direction when
the effect of infill wall stiffness in the Y-direction is
considered as shown in the Figure 12.
Figure 13: Inter storey drift for seismic load in the X-

direction for building on plane and sloping ground.
Figure 11: Storey shear distribution for seismic load
in the X-direction with storey height for building on
plane and sloping ground.
Figure 14: Inter storey drift for seismic load in the Y-

Figure 12: Storey shear distribution for seismic load direction for building on plane and sloping ground.
in the Y-direction with storey height for building on
plane and sloping ground.
54
When the stiffness of infill walls in the X-direction is 4. Conclusions

considered it is observed that there is a higher
Based on the seismic analysis of G+21 storey building
magnitude of twisting in the Y-direction as shown in
resting on sloping ground, the following conclusions
the Figure 15. Similar behavior is observed when the
are drawn.
infill stiffness in the Y-direction is considered as
shown in the Figure 16. This behavior is observed for
a) The development of torsional moments in building
linear static analysis (Vide: Figures 8 and 9) also.
resting on sloping ground is higher than that in the
building resting on plane ground. Hence, buildings
resting plane ground are found to be less
vulnerable to seismic ground motion than the
building resting on sloping ground.
b) In the building resting on a sloping ground, it is
observed that extreme left columns at ground
level, which are short, are the worst affected.
Hence, special attention should be paid to these
columns in design and detailing.
c) From the observation of the results, it is observed
that with the decrease in the time period there will
be increase in the base shear of the building along
the sloping ground.
d) It can be concluded that drift of a storey is a not
only a function of storey height but also depends
on the weight of that storey. It can also be
concluded that introduction of infill wall stiffness
can reduce the storey drifts.
e) Storey shear, storey drift and storey displacements
of the building are relatively lesser if Response
Spectrum Method is adopted for seismic analysis
Figure 15: Storey twisting moment in X-direction with instead of Equivalent Static Method.
storey height for building on plane and sloping ground. f) Time period is getting reduced with the increase in
number of modes. The time period of building
with mass irregularity is comparatively lesser than
that of regular building as stiffness of the building
considered is higher than that of a regular building.
5. References
[1] IS 1893(Part 1): 2002 Criteria for earthquake
resistant design of structures, Part1 General
Provisions and building, Bureau of Indian
Standards.
[2] Paulay, T. and Priestley, M. (1992) Seismic
Design of Reinforced Concrete and Masonry
Buildings, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New
York.
[3] SAP 2000. Integrated Software for structural
analysis and Design, Computers and
Structures Inc., Berkeley, CA, USA.
Figure 16: Storey twisting moment in Y-direction for

building on plane ground and sloping ground.
55
Cyclic Testing of Exterior Beam - Column Joint with Welded and

Threaded Headed Reinforcement
Vaibhav R. Pawar1, Dr. Y.D.Patil2, Dr. H.S.Patil3, Dr. P.D.Dhake4

1
S.V. National Institute of TechnologyApplied Mechanics Department, Surat, (Gujarat) India.
vaibhavpawar20078@gmail.com
2
S.V. National Institute of TechnologyApplied Mechanics Department, Surat,(Gujarat) India.
chipatil@Yahoo.com
3
S.V. National Institute of TechnologyApplied Mechanics Department, Surat,(Gujarat) India.
patilhs57@gmail.com
4
K. K.Wagh Institute of Engineering Education & Research, Nashik, (Maharashtra) India.
pddhake2@rediffmail.com
Abstract
In Reinforced concrete structures, beam column joint is the most critical region in seismic prone areas. In
structural concrete, the provisions for anchorage of straight bars and hooks occasionally present detailing
problems due to the long development lengths and large bend diameters that are required, particularly when
large diameter reinforcing bars are used. In many cases, the requirements for straight bar anchorage and lap
splices cannot be provided within the available dimensions of elements. Hooked bars can be used to shorten
anchorage length, but in many cases, the bend of the hook will not fit within the dimensions of a member or the
hooks create congestion and make an element difficult to construct. Similarly, mechanical anchorage devices
can be used to shorten lap splice lengths, but they frequently require special construction operations and careful
attention to tolerances. Experimental work was conducted on exterior beam-column joint specimens with T-type
mechanical anchorage. Welded and threaded headed reinforcement bars were used as T-type anchorage with
short development length. The specimens were constructed and tested to assess the anchorage strength of
headed bars under cyclic loading. The experimental results demonstrated that the specimen with T-type
mechanical anchorage exhibited significant improvement in seismic performance load-displacement capacity,
stiffness degradation, and also reduced congestion of reinforcement in joint core.
Keywords: Anchorage Bar, Beam Column Joint, Bearing, Bond, Shear Stress.
Introduction:
Many reinforced concrete (RC) buildings, such as

non-ductile RC frames, designed during the 1950s
through 1970s existing today in many parts of the
world do not satisfy the current seismic design
requirements. These buildings generally do not
possess adequate ductility due to poor detailing of
reinforcement. Observations made on the failures of
the existing structures due to earthquakes reveal
that strengthening or retrofitting is necessary due to
(i) Poor detailing of joint reinforcement, (ii)
Deficient materials and inadequate anchorage
length of beam reinforcement, (iii) Improper
confinement of joint region by transverse Fig.1 Beam column Joint fails due to shear failure
reinforcements, (iv) Changes in the current design in Kocaeli Earthquake
detailing requirement and (v) changes of loads due
to frequency of earthquakes and alterations of The failure of beam-column joints is the major
earthquake zones. Shown in fig. 1. contributor for the collapse of buildings due to
earthquake excitation. It needs for engineering
approach to adopt efficient and economical
methods to improve the joint performance. The
56
Vaibhav R. Pawar, et al.
need for study of earthquake effects on structures Dc = Diagonal compression strut at angle to
was realized when earthquakes occurred through horizontal axis of joint
the 1960s and 1970s causing irreparable damage Cc = Concrete compression force
and human loss. The design of joints was not given Tc= Force in steel transmitted through bond to
importance in the framed structures designed for strut, over depth c of the flexural compression
gravity loads or gravity and routine live loads only. zone in the column
This causes severe problem in the event of an Vcol= Shear force in column
earthquake. Several studies led to the development Ajh= Horizontal joint reinforcement
of ASCE-ACI 352 Committee. Recommendations fyt= Yield strength of joint reinforcement
for the design of reinforced concrete beam-column Ahjcore= Horizontal c/s area of the joint
joints (connections) in the year 1976. But there is a
lot that has still not been understood about beam- Headed bar:
column joint and research needs to highlight these
issues.
Headed bars, as shown in Fig. 3, provide an
alternative to hooked bars and assist in alleviating
Shear mechanism of exterior bema steel congestion. Previous research on headed bars
column joint: may be divided into two categories: performance of
headed bars in realistic structural systems, and
For the design purposes, the horizontal component investigation of the mechanics of the headed bars
of the joint shear stress can be calculated from the under idealized conditions. Previous structural
combined effect of: (i) Diagonal strut mechanism, system studies include a number of beam-column
to consider the contribution of concrete in the joint; joint investigations, where headed bars were used
and (ii). Truss mechanism, to consider the for longitudinal reinforcement, and slab-column
contribution of the joint shear reinforcement. Figure joint investigations, where headed bars were used
2 shows the forces in the beam bars, the joint for shear reinforcement. The reliability and
mechanism and the force components in the joint applicability of the headed bars were validated in
for calculating the joint shear strength. these studies and, consequently, guidelines on the
use of headed bars were introduced in ACI 352R-
028 and ACI 421.1R-08. These guidelines provide
guidance on general application of bars but do not
provide direct estimates for the anchorage strength
of headed bars.
Fig. 2 Shear mechanism of exterior beam column

joint
As shown in Figure 2, the equilibrium of forces

acting above the horizontal plane passing through
the centroidal axis of the exterior beam-column Fig. 3 Different headed bars and hooks bars
joint is as follows.
a) In terms of external forces: Vjh= Tb-Vc An exterior beam-column joint is an ideal
b) In terms of internal forces: Vjh = Vch + Vsh application for headed bars due to the high level of
reinforcement congestion that occurs. In this
Horizontal component of joint shear force, application, the variation of bond strength along the
Vjh= Vch+Vsh bar and the anchorage strength are dependent not
Where, Vch is the horizontal component of only on the materials but also on the geometry of
diagonal compression strut the reinforcing bar and the state of stress in the
Vch=Dc cos =Cc+Tc-Vcol beam-column connection. In this paper, idealized
Vsh=Horizontal joint shear force resisted by exterior beam-column joint tests were conducted to
horizontal reinforcement by truss mechanism. evaluate the concrete contribution to the anchorage
Vsh= Ajhyt strength of headed bars. Failure modes regarding
headed bar anchorage in an exterior beam-column
Where, joint can be classified as shown in Fig. 4. All
57
failure modes are induced as a result of the tensile use of crossed inclined bars in the joint region was
force on the anchored headed bar. Side-face one of the most effective ways to improve the
blowout failure occurs when inadequate side cover seismic resistance of exterior beam-column joints.
is provided. This can be alleviated when proper side Wallance et al (1998) suggestion of use of headed
cover is provided.8 Concrete breakout may occur reinforcement had eased specimen fabrication,
when an effective beam depth is greater than 1.5 concrete placement and the behaviour was as good
times an embedment length.14This case is rare due as than similarly constructed specimens with
to the typical relative depths used for beams and standard 90 hooks for beam-column corner joint.
columns as well as the higher strength and stiffness Chutarat &Aboutaha (2003) reported that the use of
provided by most columns. A pullout mode of straight-headed bars in the exterior beam-column
failure can occur if the net head area is less than 4 joint for cyclic response were very effective in
times the bar cross-sectional area. The pullout relocating potential plastic regions. Murty et al
capacity of headed bars can be calculated using (2003) reported that the ACI standard hooks for
Section D.5.3 of ACI 318-08.15 When proper anchorage of the longitudinal beam bar with
embedment and head geometry is used, a joint hairclip type transverse joint reinforcement were
shear failure mode governs the response of the more effective and this combination of anchorage
exterior beam-column joint. In this paper, the with joint reinforcement is easy to construct and
anchorage strength of headed bars under a joint can be used in moderate ductility demand
shear failure mode is investigated through situations. Uma & Sudhir (2006) in their review of
experiments and a new model to predict the codes of practices considered ACI318, NZS 3101:
strength is proposed. Part-1 and Eurocode-8 EN1998-1 regarding the
design and detailing aspects of interior and exterior
beam-column joint. Lee & Yu (2009) proposed
extension of ACI design methods to cover the use
of mechanical anchorage for eccentric beam-
column joints. They reported that cyclic behaviour
of exterior beam-column joints can be significantly
improved by attaching double mechanical device
on each beam bar within the joint. Bindhu et al
(2008) in their experimental investigations
validated with analytical studies carried out by
finite element model indicate that additional
inclined reinforcement bar improves the seismic
performance of the exterior reinforced concrete
beam-column joints. The use of headed bars has
become increasingly popular for relatively large
reinforced concrete (RC) structures that are
exposed to extreme loads such as strong
earthquakes or blasts, often providing an adequate
solution to steel congestion (Chun et al 2007; Kang
et al 2009, 2010). Sagbas et al (2011) in their FEA
Computational analysis compared with
experimental test results seismically and non-
seismically designed joint detailed for the effect of
shear deformations. Misir & Kahraman (2013)
Fig.4 Failure modes joint due to headed bar proposed a seismic strengthening technique for
non-seismically detailed beam-column joints of
Literature Review: existing reinforced concrete buildings using pre-
fabricated SIFCON composite blocks.
Park & Paulay (1975) recommend the detailing of
joints for the earthquake resistance structures using Testing Program:
bent-up bars, stub-beam with bent-up bars and
mechanical anchorage for serving as anchorage as The specimens are divided into two groups, each
well as effective ties for confinement in the joint group comprising two specimens, with different
core of the exterior beam-column joints. Paulay anchorages. The specimen with T-type headed bar
(1989) suggests that, as in the case of linear followed as per ACI-352 (2002). The specimen
element, joint shear reinforcement is necessary to with conventional 90 bent hook followed as per
sustain a diagonal compression field rather than to ACI-318 (2011) and the specimen with full
provide confinement to compressed concrete in anchorage followed as per Exterior beam-column
joint core. Tsonos et al (1993) suggested that the joint study 1187,IS-456 (2000) is designated as
58
detail. To relieve steel congestion within the joint compressive force was applied to a bearing plate
while promoting proper bearing, use of a circular across the full length of the column. The tension
head with (Abrg/Ab) of approximately 4 is common. force and compression force was applied through
Prior experimental research 4,7,8 has shown that automatic double acting jack to the anchored
this head size is appropriate to ensure anchorage headed and hooked bars. The specimens were
both in the elastic and inelastic deformation ranges, designed in accordance with ACI 352R-02except
and a minimum ratio of (Abrg/Ab) = 4 is specified by for the provisions regarding transverse
ACI 318-08.The head size standard of (Abrg /Ab = reinforcement in the joint and the embedment
4) is relatively easy to maintain in practice. The length of a headed bar. Main test variables include
size of (Abrg/Ab) = 9 was originally recommended embedment length and bar diameter. Size of head
by the previous 1998 version of ASTM A970,9 specimen is (Abrg/Ab=2.5) The clear side cover of
which is often impractical; for this reason, the 2.5db for a beam bar in an exterior joint is a
specification that requires (Abrg/Ab) of at least 9 no common case, providing that the diameters of
longer exists in ASTM A970-04. column bars and hoops are equal to 1db and 0.5db,
respectively. Side-face blowout failure is precluded
with the clear side cover of 2.5db. For comparison,
two specimens with hooked bars were tested for
each headed bar diameter examined. The
embedment lengths for the hooked bar specimens
were chosen to be equal to the longest and shortest
embedment lengths of headed bars for each
diameter.
Fig.5 Different head size
Material Properties:
Headed deformed bars with a bar diameter of 12

mm were used in this study. Three types of head
geometries used for pullout tests. For reversed
cyclic tests of the beam column joint, small circular
heads were chosen based on the pullout test results.
All headed bars and heads were made of steel with
a specified yield stress fy of 415MPa. The specified
concrete strength was 30 MPa. Headed and hooked
bars used for seismic tests had similar actual yield
strengths of 1.2fy and 1.15fy, respectively, where fyi
s the specified yield strength of 400 MPa. Different
concrete mixes were used for pullout and seismic
tests. For each test, two and three concrete
cylinders were tested and averaged, respectively.
Stress-strain relations were obtained for all 100 x
200 mm concrete cylinders and steel coupons with
a length of 450 mm .
Experimental set up:
An experimental program was developed to

investigate anchorage behavior of headed bars.
Details of the specimens are presented in Fig.
The specimens were tested with the column in a
vertical position, as shown in Fig.6 the force couple
was monotonically increased until failure. The
59
Specimen J2
25
20
15
10
Load kN
5
0
-40 -20 -5 0 20 40
-10
-15
-20
-25
Displacemnt mm
Specimen S1
20
10
Load kN
0
-40 -20 0 20 40
-10
-20
Displacement mm
Specimen J1
20 Specimen S2
15 30
10
20
5
Load kN
Load kN
0 10
-40 -20 -5 0 20 40 0
-10 -35 -15 5 25
-10
-15
-20
-20
Displacement mm Dispalcement mm
Fig.6 Specimen details and hysteresis loop of
exterior beam column joint
60
Result and Discussion : 4. IS 456. (2000). Plain reinforced concrete-

code of practice, Bureau of Indian
The seismic tests were conducted to investigate the Standards, New Delhi, India.
applicability of headed bars with threaded and 5. IS 1893-Part1. (2002). Part I: Criteria for
welded. The test data were assessed to examine the earthquake resistant design of structures -
effect of the head size, shape and head attaching General provisions and buildings, Bureau
techniques on the anchorage behaviour under cyclic of Indian Standards, New Delhi, India.
loads. The result from 1/3 scale seismic testing of a 6. IS 13920. (1993). Ductile detailing of
joint with headed bars were evaluated by reinforced concrete structures subjected to
compression with a companion specimen with seismic forces-code of practice, Bureau of
hooked bars and by using the acceptance criteria of Indian Standards, New Delhi, India.
ACI 374.1-05. Based on the test result, the 7. Khose, V.N., Y. Singh, and D.H. Lang.
following conclusions were reached. (2012). A Comparative Study of Selected
1) No brittle concrete brakeout occurred for Seismic Design Codes for RC Frame
any headed bars in pullout, provided that Buildings. To appear in Earthquake
the head size (Abrg/Ab) was at least 2.5 and Spectra vol. 28,pp.1-4
embedment depth was 11db. 8. Kumar, R., and Y. Singh. (2010). Stiffness
2) The loading condition (monotonic Vs. of Reinforced Concrete Frame Members
repeated), head shape (circular Vs. for Seismic Analysis. ACI Structural
Square), and head-attaching techniques Journal vol. 107, pp607-615.
(threading Vs. Welding) did not influences 9. NZS 1170.5. (2004). Structural design
the anchorage behaviour substantially actions Part 5: Earthquake actions-New
during testing. Zealand, Standards New Zealand.
3) The headed bar with large heads 10. NZS 3101: Part 1. (1995). Concrete
(Abrg/Ab=4.2) exhibited higher anchorage Structures Standard, Part 1 - The Design
strengths than the heads bar with small of Concrete Structures, Standards New
heads (Abrg/Ab=2.6 to 2.9) Zealand, Wellington.
4) The satisfactory seismic performance , 11. Kuang J. S. and Wong H. F., (2006)
such as suppressed joint shear deformation Effects of beam bar anchorage on beam
, indicate that reduced joint confinement column joint behaviour. Proceedings of
does not influence adversely on the headed Institution of Civil Engineers, Structures
bar anchorage in the interstory joints, and Buildings, vol.159, No. 2, pp115124.
likely due to the different bearing stress 12. Kuang J. S. and Ho Y. B.,(2007)
transfer path provided by the external truss Enhancing ductility of non-seismically
formed above the joint. This implies a designed reinforced concrete shear
possibility that the amount of transverses walls.vol. 27, pp 270-278
reinforcement in the exterior interstory 13. Proceedings of Institution of Civil
joint may be reduced when headed bars Engineers, Structures and Buildings,
are utilized (versus hooked bars). vol.2007, 160, No. 3, pp139149.
14. Kuang J. S. and Atanda A. I. (2005)
Enhancing ductility of non-seismically
References: designed reinforced concrete frame
buildings. Proceedings of Institution of
1. EN1992. (2004). Eurocode 2: Design of Civil Engineers, Structures and Buildings,
Concrete Structures, European Committee vol.158, No. 4, pp253265.
for Standardization (CEN), Brussels, 15. Atanda A. I. and KUANG J. S. Inherent
Belgium. ductility of non-seismically designed and
2. EN1998-1. (2004). Eurocode 8: Design for detailed reinforced concrete shear wall-
Structures for Earthquake Resistance, Part frame buildings. Transactions of the Hong
1: General Rules, Seismic Actions and Kong Institution of Engineers, 2005, 12,
Rules for Buildings, European Committee No. 3, 15.
for Standardization (CEN), Brussels, 16. Joint ACIASCE Committee 352. (2002)
Belgium. Recommendations for Design of Beam
3. Haldar, Putul, and Yogendra Singh. Column Joints in Monolithic Reinforced
(2009). Seismic performance and Concrete Structures (ACI 352R-02).
vulnerability of Indian code designed RC American Concrete Institute, Farmington,
frame buildings. ISET Journal of Michigan.vol.32, pp 80-96
Earthquake Technology vol.46, pp29-45.
61
IMPROVEMENT IN LOAD CARRYING CAPACITY OF RC SHEAR WALL

WITH OPENING USING CONCEALED STEEL TUBE BRACING
S. N. Mahadik1, S. R. Bhagat2
1,2
Department of Civil Engineering, DBATU, Lonere(India)
Abstract: Shear walls are provided in multistoried structure to resist lateral loads due to wind and
earthquake.Openings are provided in shear walls for the purpose of functional requirement and building
services. Strength of shear walls decreases due to provision of such openings because of reduction in concrete
area and discontinuity in reinforcement which results in stress concentration, formation of crack around
openings ultimately leading to failure. Different modes of failures of shear wall subjected to lateral load have
been extensively studied and accordingly different arrangements of reinforcement are proposed by researchers.
The various modes of failures can be controlled by codal provisions in IS 13920: 1993. In spite of adhering to
these codal provisions while designing shear wall there are few evidences of failure reported in literature. It is
not feasible to construct a shear wall which will resist every possible load but it may be possible to provide
some practical solution so as to improve its behaviour to withstand major earthquake.In the present paper an
attempt has been made to improve seismic resistance of shear wall with opening using concealed diagonal
steel tube braces and peripheral concealed beam (stiffeners) around opening in shear wall. Analysis of shear
wall with opening and provision of concealed diagonal steel tube braces and peripheral concealed beam
around opening was carried out using ETABS. It was found from the analysis that the seismic capacity of RC
shear wall can be improved by using concealed diagonal steel tube braces and peripheral concealed beam
around opening. Increase in load carrying capacity of the shear wall model analysed was found to be 13.80%.
Finally it was observed that the improvement in load carrying capacity depends on size, strength and
properties of bracing, and stiffener material used for shear wall.
Keywords: Shear wall, seismic resistance, opening, steel tube braces.
1 Introduction of improving the seismic behaviour of RC shear wall

designed and detailed as per present code of practice, it
Many buildings worldwide collapsed during strong
is proposed to study the behaviour of such walls
earthquakes in recent past. Even buildings with
subjected to lateral load. In this paper shear wall with
reinforced concrete (RC) shear walls have recorded
opening, and concealed diagonal steel tube braces and
several failure modes during such earthquakes. Most of
stiffeners around opening has been studied. These
the failures are not yet understood and many researchers
concealed braces are formed by joining corners of wall
suggest that there are deficiencies in the current design
with corner openings by steel square tube. Stiffeners are
codal provisions of shear wall [14]. Causes of failure
formed with steel square tube along periphery of
may be different but this yields in loss of life and
opening. Attempt has been made to study improvement
properties which ultimately affects the society. It is not
in behaviour of RC shear wall with opening and
feasible and economical to construct a structure which
concealed diagonal braces and stiffeners by conducting
can resist every possible earthquake force but it is
theoretical analysis using FEM software ETABS.
possible to construct a structure which can withstand an
earthquake without any danger at early stage of loading
2 Behaviour of shear wall
due to local failure. In shear wall local failure takes
place around openings and at corners. It can be avoided Shear walls are the lateral load resisting members
by strengthening those portions. Many researchers in multistoried structure. Therefore, a systematic study
studied behaviour of reinforced concrete wall with and of various parameters affecting shear wall is very
without openings. Observations of failure mode, important to know the performance under lateral loads.
mechanism and effect of staggered opening recorded Investigations on structural behaviour such as
after strong earthquake shows that, shear walls with deformation characteristics, stress distribution and
staggered openings are more seismic resistant than shear dynamic characteristics are presented and discussed
wall with regular openings. Also it was concluded that using software StaadPro and concluded that, deflection,
failure mechanism of shear wall with opening depends distribution of stress varies with location and number of
upon several factors along with opening layout [11]. openings in a shear wall [12]. Axial force and bending
The main objective of the paper is to study the effect of moment varies with the height of shear wall. Deflection
concealed diagonal steel tube braces and peripheral of shear wall increases when openings are introduced.
concealed beam (stiffeners) around opening in Similar response was experienced in study carried out
improving load carrying capacity of shear wall. In view on 6 - story framed shear wall buildings with the help of
1
Ph.D Student, sanjivanmahadik@gmail.com
2
Associate Professor, srbhagat@dbatu.ac.in 62
S. N. Mahadik and S. R. Bhagat
FEM software ETABS under earthquake load[6]. From walls with openings were significantly affected by the
this study it was concluded that stiffness as well as difference of the number and layout of openings [10].
seismic response was affected by size and location of Composite shear walls with encased profiles, a new
openings and it was observed that a reduction in drift solution for buildings constructed in seismic area was
with increase in thickness around openings in shear studied with boundary elements of wall are encased in
wall. Thus it is clear that, behaviour of shear wall is steel profiles [13]. Behaviour of this new type of
greatly affected by location and size of openings. composite wall was tested with quasi-static reversed
Several researchers had tried to improve the behaviour cyclic loads performed on1:3 scaled composite steel
of plain RC shear wall using different type of concrete wall specimens for strain analysis of in
reinforcement and encased profiles consisting of structural steel and reinforcement and failure mode.
different concealed steel sections. Experimental and Ductile failure was observed when wall was subjected
analytical study on light weight shear wall using to lateral load. It was observed that, load carrying
ANSYS were conducted [15]. Conclusions were drawn capacity of shear wall increased by using incased
based on this study that the diagonal web reinforcement profiles. In the compression zone, the localbuckling of
was effective in transferring shear force to the the steel profile and vertical reinforcements occurred
foundation and the shear forces carried by the after the concrete crushed.
compressive struts were evidently reduced due to the
existing of diagonal web reinforcement. Another Study of behaviour of shear wall with openings
experimental study on diagonally stiffened steel plate subjected to lateral load was conducted using FE
shear wall with central perforation was conducted [1]. It analysis and experiments to study the effect of different
was concluded that the shear strength of diagonally reinforcement patterns around openings [8]. It was
stiffened perforated steel plate shear wall was achieved found that, the diagonal reinforcement gives more
close to un-stiffened wall with solid panel. Also strength than vertical and horizontal arrangements. A
improvement in ductility ratio and seismic resistance different orientation of reinforcement around opening
was observed. shows completely different modes of failure. Ductility is
Seismic performance of RC shear walls with highly affected by reinforcement around openings and
concealed bracing was studied and concluded that the shear capacity contributed by diagonal reinforcement
load carrying capacity of shear wall can be significantly was 40% where as it was 20% with vertical and
improved by adding concealed bracing within the wall horizontal arrangements. Behaviour of shear wall
panel [4]. Theoretical study and experimental tests on completely reinforced with glass FRP bars subjected to
composite steel-concrete shear walls with steel encased lateral cyclic loading was investigated and it was
profiles shows good improvement in strength, stiffness observed that, there is a significant strength degradation
and energy dissipation capacity [7]. Performance of and reasonable stability of stiffness during reverse
shear walls, with concrete filled column (CFT) and cyclic loading [9]. Expected failure mechanism started
composite shear wall with concrete filled tube and with flexural crack followed by shear crack then failure
concealed steel truss were studied with experimental with flexure compression with major flexure cracks
performance and numerical modeling using FEM associated with rupture in GFRP bars was observed.
software ABACUS [2]. Improvement in seismic Negligible residual strain up to 78% ultimate load, less
resistant was observed. Load-carrying capacity and crack width, drift within limit of reinforced concrete
ductility of composite shear wall with CFT columns and shear wall and increase in ductility was observed.
concealed steel trusses is found significantly greater
than traditional reinforced concrete shear walls. 3 Finite Element Model
The experimental study on the seismic behavior of In this paper FE analysis of three shear wall
a mid-rise shear wall with steel frame, and four mid-rise models of size 1000 x1000 x 100 mm, was carried out
shear wall with concealed truss made of different to study the behaviour of RC shear wall. One wall is a
materials was investigated [3]. It was observed that an plain wall and another one wall with central opening of
apparent improvement of the bearing capacity, post size 400 x 400 mm, and third model was of same size as
period stiffness, ductility, and energy dissipation of second but provided a concealed diagonal braces along
mid-rise shear wall with concealed steel frame and truss with stiffeners. All models were analysed for lateral
compared to the ordinary mid-rise shear wall. load with 50 kN increment. Purpose of this study was to
Influence of web reinforcement on the hysteretic observe the behaviour of shear wall with concealed steel
response of structural walls using different profiles of tube braces and peripheral stiffeners. The size of braces
reinforcement was studied [5]. It was found that, was taken as 40 mm x 40 mm with 4 mm thickness. The
diagonal reinforcement in web found effective in dimensions of model used for analysis is mentioned in
limiting shear distortion, increasing energy dissipation Table1. Figure1 represents geometry of wall with braces
and reducing likelihood of shear wall failure. Static and stiffeners. Concrete of grade M20 and Steel grade
loading test of RC shear walls with openings carried out Fe 415 with poisons ratio 0.20 for concrete was used. At
to investigate the influence of different number and top and bottom a RC beam of size 300 x 200 mm having
layout of the openings and observed that the shear extensions of 200mm beyond wall face was provided
strength, failure mode and deformability of RC shear to avoid local failure.
63
Table 1: Geometry of model

Sr.no. Member Size mm
1 Beam 300x200mm
2 Peripheral beam 40x40x4mm thick
3 Braces 40x40x4mm thick
4 Plain Wall 1000 x1000x100
Wall with opening
5 1000 x 1000 x100
400 x 400 mm
(a)Stress distribution of plain wall
(b) Stress distribution of wall with opening
Figure1: Wall Geometry with braces & stiffeners
(b) Stress distribution of wall with opening and

diagonal braces and stiffeners
Figure 2: Stress distribution for (a) Plain wall, (b)Wall
with opening, and (c) Wall with opening and concealed
braces with stiffeners
64
4 Analysis Table4: Loads at critical stress 1.8 kN/mm2

Analysis of shear wall insingle story2-DFEM % increase
model with ETABS was carried out. Size of wall for Max. load in load
model was 1000 x 1000 x 100mm. All models are at critical carrying
restrained at base for direction and rotation. The size of Sr. No. Wall Type
stress capacity due
mesh used was 100 mm each in horizontal and vertical (kN) to
direction. Stress distribution for a plain wall, wall with braces(kN)
opening and wall with opening & braces with stiffeners
Wall with
at a particular load is shown in Figure 2. Area output of 1 53.90
opening
stress at each node was picked up from the results. From
Wall with 13.80
the output observed shear stress distribution in wall
cross section, maximum shear stress for each increment
2 opening 61.34
of load was obtained and same are plotted against the and braces
loads. Maximum shear stress against load for the three
cases under study is shown in Table 2. Graphical 5 Results and Discussion
representation of maximum stresses against loads for Shear wall models are stressed within elastic limit
wall with opening and wall with opening and concealed therefore the plot of load versus stress is a straight line.
braces with stiffeners is shown in Figure 3. From these Maximum load carrying capacity of the walls is
plots, the load carrying capacity of the walls at critical obtained from the equations of graphs of respective
stress (maximum permissible shear stress in M20 walls at critical stress which is 1.8N/mm2 for M20
concrete =1.8 kN/mm2) was obtained. Table 3 shows concrete grade. It is seen from the plot that, load
decrease in load carrying capacity of wall due to carrying capacity of plain shear wall reduces due to
opening. Table 4 shows the maximum loads at critical providing opening in it but shear capacity can be
stress and increase in load carrying capacity of wall improved by making a provision of concealed steel
with concealed braces with stiffeners against wall with braces and peripheral stiffeners around opening.
opening. Figure 4 shows graphical representation of
stresses in plain wall, wall with opening and wall with In this analysis it was found that, load carrying
opening and concealed braces with peripheral stiffeners capacity of shear wall with opening was found increased
against load. by the provision of diagonal braces and peripheral
stiffeners around opening. Thus load carrying capacity
Table2: Variation of shear stress against load of the wall with opening can be improved by adding
diagonal concealed braces and peripheral stiffeners
Max. Max. stress for around opening. Diagonal braces and peripheral
Max.
stress for wall with stiffeners are useful to improve seismic resistance of
stress
Sr. Load wall opening and reinforced concrete shear walls with opening. The
for
No. (kN) with braces improvement in behaviour of shear wall may vary with
plain
opening &stiffeners quality and strength of stiffener, and bracing materials.
wall
(N/mm2) (N/mm2) It may also vary with geometry of wall and opening.
1 50 0.72 1.67 1.47 Critical section carrying maximum stresses can be
2 100 1.43 3.34 2.93 identified by observation of stress distribution. Shear
3 150 2.15 5.00 4.38 stress in wall cross-section increases due to provision of
4 200 2.86 6.67 5.84 opening and can be reduced with use of concealed steel
tube brace and peripheral beam with stiffeners. It is also
observed that critical stress shifts when concealed
braces are introduced in shear wall with and without
opening. Stress concentration was observed along
Table 3: Loads at critical stress 1.8 kN/mm2 opening and at corners of opening and wall. Stiffeners
are also provided along edges of the wall to maintain
% decrease continuity in analysis. Though they look ideal they may
Max. load
in load help in reducing lateral deflection and improving
at critical
Sr. No. Wall Type carrying strength of wall to resist seismic load. It is proposed to
stress
capacity due test a same shear wall model experimentally with
(kN)
to opening different sections of braces including circular tube. Due
1 Plain wall 125.52 to limitation of cost of test set up and validation purpose
Wall with 57.06 size of wall model is limited to 1 m x 1m.
2 53.9
opening
65
Figure 3: Graphical representation of maximum shear stress against lateral load for wall with opening and with opening
and braces
Figure 4: Graphical representation of maximum shear stress against lateral load for plain wall, wall with opening and
with opening and brace.
66
6 Conclusions [8] Lin C. Y. and Kuo C. L., Behaviour of shear wall

with opening, Nineth world conference, 2-9, 1988.
Study on improvement in behaviour of RC shear
[9] Mohamed Nayera, Farghaly Ahmed Sabry,
wall with opening and concealed diagonal braces and
Benmokrane Brahim, Neale Kenneth W.,
stiffeners by conducting theoretical analysis using FEM
Evaluation of a Shear Wall Reinforced with Glass
software ETABS was carried out. Based on the study
FRP Bars Subjected to Lateral Cyclic Loading,
following conclusions can be drawn from the finite
IPFIS 2-4, 2012.
element analysis conducted on three walls:
Load carrying capacity of wall reduced due to [10] Masato Sakurai, Hiroshi Kuramoto, Tomoya
provision of opening in wall. Matsui and Tomofusa Akita, Seismic performance
The load carrying capacity reduced by 57% for an of RC shear walls with multi-openings, The 14th
opening of 16% area of wall. It may further world conference on earthquake engineering,
increase or decrease with opening area percentage. Beijing, China 1-8, (2008).
Load carrying capacity of shear wall with opening [11] Mosoarca Marius, Failure analysis of RC shear
improved by 13.80% for the case under study by walls with staggered openings under seismic loads,
providing diagonal braces and concealed Engineering failure analysis, 41 48-64, 2014.
peripheral beam around opening. [12] Potty N. S., Thanoon W. A., Hamzah H. H.,
The improvement in load carrying capacity by the Hamadelnil A. M. M., Practical Modelling Aspects
provision of diagonal braces and concealed for Analysis of Shear Walls Using Finite Element
peripheral beam around opening may vary with Method, ICCBT 2008 - C - (08) pp89-98, 2008.
size and quality of bracing and stiffener materials. [13] Stoian V., Dan D., Fabian A., Composite Shear
It may also vary with size and location of opening. Walls with Encased Profiles, New Solution for
A critical section in wall cross section has been Buildings Placed in Seismic Area, Civil
clearly observed from stress distribution diagrams. Engineering & Architecture, Vol. 54 No.1,6-12
2011.
REFERENCES [14] Wallace John and Moehle Jack, Behaviour and
[1] Alavi Erfan and Nateghi Fariborz, Experimental design of structural walls lessons from recent
study on diagonally stiffened steel plate shear walls laboratory tests & earthquakes, Proceedings of
with central perforation, Journal of construction international symposium on engineering lesion
steel research, 89 9-20, 2013. learned from the 2011 Great East Japan
[2] Cao W. L., Jianwei Zhang, Hongying Dong and Min Earthquake, 1132-1144, 2012.
Wang, Research on seismic performance of shear [15] Werasak Raongjant, Meng Jing, Analysis Modeling
walls with concrete filled steel tube columns and of Seismic Behaviour of Lightweight Concrete
concealed steel trusses, Earthquake engineering Shear Walls, IMECS, Hong Kong, 1-6, 2009.
and engineering vibration, 10 535-546, 2011. [16] IS 13920: 1993
[3] CAO Wanlin Jianwei Zhang, Jingna Zhang, Min
Wang, Experimental study on seismic behavior of
mid-rise RC shear wall with concealed truss, Front.
Archit. Civ. Eng. 3 370377, 2009.
[4] Cao W. L., Xue S. D. and and Zhang J. W., Seismic
Performance of RC Shear Walls with Concealed
Bracing, Advances in Structural Engineering, Vol.
6 1-13, 2003.
[5] Chadchart Sittipunt and Sharon L. Wood, Influence
of Web Reinforcement on the Cyclic Response of
Structural Walls, ACI Structural Journal, V. 92,
No. 6, 745-756, 1995.
[6] Chowdhury Sharmin Reza, Rahmn M.A., Islam M.J.
and Das A.K., Effects of openings in shear wall on
seismic response of structures, International
Journal of Computer Applications, Volume 59 10-
13, 2012.
[7] Dan D., Fabian A., Stoian V., Theoretical and
experimental study on composite steelconcrete
shear walls with vertical steel encased profiles,
Journal of Constructional Steel Research, 67 800-
813, 2011.
67
EFFECT OF CONSTRUCTION JOINTS ON STRENGTH PERFORMANCE

OF CONCRETE
A. A. Mathew1, Dr. M. Nazeer2
1
Department of Civil Engineering, TKM College of Engineering, Kollam
2
Department of Civil Engineering, TKM College of Engineering, Kollam
For many structures, it is impractical to place concrete in a continuous operation and hence construction joints
(CJs) become necessary. Structures with construction joints behave differently as compared to monolithic
structures. The main objective of the work was to study the effect of construction joints on split tensile strength
and flexural strength of concrete. Concrete of grades M20, M40 and M60 were designed. Effect of different
configuration of construction joints on split tensile strength was studied. Variables investigated in flexural study
were position and configuration of joints. Percentage reduction in split tensile strength reduced from 73.68% to
13.16% for M20, 62.95% to 17.67% for M40 and 64.19% to 18.5% for M60 mix as the construction joint angle
increased from 0 to 90 from load direction. In flexural strength test, minimum strength was shown by
specimens with joint at both one third points for all mixes.
Keywords: construction joints, split tensile strength, flexural strength
1 Introduction subjected to in-plane shear forces, it was observed that for

members with a properly prepared and moist-cured joint
Joints in buildings can be broadly classified into three- offer the same initial stiffness as that of a member cast
contraction joint, isolation or expansion joint and monolithically [3]. It is also reported that presence of
construction joint (CJ). Out of these, expansion joints and construction joint reduces the splitting tensile strength of a
contraction joints are stress relieving ones while the monolithic specimen by approximately 55% [4]. The
construction joint is not. For many structures, it is literature [5] concluded that presence of a vertical
impractical to place concrete in a continuous operation. The construction joint at mid span reduces the overall flexural
amount of concrete that can be placed at one time is strength by approximately 55% when compared to a
governed by batching and mixing capacity, crew size, and monolithic section. An analysis of the effect of presence of
the amount of time available. Construction joints are placed horizontal construction joints (HCJs) on the behaviour of
at points of ending and beginning of construction for RC beams using nonlinear three-dimensional finite element
provision of a smooth transition between pours. These joints software ANSYS [6] was revealed that the presence of
are formed between successive building element parts one, two and three HCJ in RC beams under flexure gave a
during construction work, in which one part is allowed to decrease in the value of the cracking load such that
harden before the next is placed. A construction joint may cracking load (Pcr) was 97%, 85% and 80% of beam
be defined as Joint installed at location where construction without any joint (reference beam). The respective ultimate
stops for any reason and when the location of stoppage does load capacity (Pu) was 96%, 89% and 84% compared to
not coincide with the planned location of an expansion joint reference beam.
or contraction joint [1]. Construction joint introduces
vertical or horizontal slip plane which may reduce strength
of beams, columns, walls, shear walls etc. 3 Research Significance
Based on the literature reviewed in the previous

2 Literature Review session, it can be concluded that presence of construction
joint reduces the split tensile strength, modulus of rupture,
In an investigation on the effect of location of cracking load and ultimate load carrying capacity of
construction joints on the performance of reinforced reinforced beams. It also increases the ultimate deflection
concrete (RC) structural elements, it was concluded that the of beams. No literature was found which discusses the
best location of the construction joint is at the point of effect of different configuration of construction joints on
minimum shear [2]. It was also concluded that the use of splitting tensile strength of concrete and also modulus of
inclined construction joints results in a noticeable reduction rupture of concrete.
in strength of beams relative to the strength of beam
without construction joint, reduction in ultimate load
capacity is in the range of 8% - 20%. Based on the test
results of unreinforced concrete construction joints
1
Student, annaswathy92@gmail.com
2
Associate Professor, nazeertkm@gmail.com
68
A. A. Mathew and M. Nazeer
4 Experimental Programme
4.1 Materials and Mix
Ordinary Portland cement (OPC) (53 Grade)

confirming to IS: 12269-1987 [7] having specific gravity of
3.14 and fineness of 6% was used for the experimental
work. Manufactured sand having fineness modulus 2.654
and specific gravity 2.59 was used as fine aggregate.
Coarse aggregate with maximum size 20 mm and specific
gravity 2.77 was used. Super plasticizer used was
Ceraplast-300. Three grades of concrete were designed:
M20, M40 and M60. Mix design was done as per IS:
10262-2009 [8] for M20 and M40. ACI 211 method for
design of high strength concrete was modified by Aitcin
[9]. This modified method was used for designing M60
concrete. Mix details are shown in Table 1. For M20 grade
concrete, superplasticizer was not added. For M40 and
M60 grade concrete, superplasticizer added was 0.6 % and
1 % by mass of cementitious material. Figure 1: Preparation of cylindrical mould
Table 1: Mix details
Mix Cement Water Fine Coarse
content cement aggregate aggregate
(kg/m3) ratio (kg/m3) (kg/m3)
M20 300.00 0.520 746.64 1260.63
M40 312.00 0.448 786.32 1256.90
M60 391.89 0.370 860.59 1049.24
4.2 Test Specimens
Cubes of size 100 100 100 mm were prepared for

testing compressive strength. Cylinders of diameter 150
mm and height 300 mm were cast for testing split tensile
strength and modulus of elasticity. Moulds 100 100
500 mm were used for casting prism specimens for flexural
tensile strength test.
4.3 Mould Preparation
Cylindrical moulds for preparing specimen for split

tensile strength study and prism moulds for preparing
specimen for flexural strength study were cleaned inside Figure 2: Preparation of prism moulds
and the inside faces of the moulds were smeared with
suitable mould release compound. Galvanized iron (GI)
sheets were placed in the exact centre of the cylinder 4.4 Specimen Preparation
moulds to form construction joints. Wooden planks
(supports) were placed behind this plate so that they are Mixing was done in a laboratory type pan mixer.
kept straight up in the middle and stable during pouring of While preparation of concrete, aggregates and cement were
concrete. In case of prism specimens, construction joints mixed in the revolving pan. After proper mixing, mixture
are to be placed at midspan and third points. Also joints are of water and superplasticizer was added. The mixing was
to be placed at different angles with respect to vertical. In continued until a uniform mix was obtained. On first day of
case of prism moulds, GI sheets were placed at casting, concrete was placed into the moulds (on one side
corresponding location in each mould. Different of GI sheet) which were properly oiled. After placing of
inclinations of the joint were provided by these sheets concrete in moulds, proper compaction was given using the
supported by wooden planks. Preparation of moulds is table vibrator. At the end of the day, GI sheets were
shown in Fig. 1 and Fig. 2. removed from the moulds without disturbing the specimen.
69
The exposed surface of the specimen was scratched using

chisel for making the surface rough enough to receive fresh
concrete poured on the second day. After roughening the
joint surface in a random fashion with a chisel, the inside of
the moulds were cleaned again, with the first day casting
intact. On the second day, the other portion of the mould
was properly oiled. Concrete was then placed into the
remaining portion of the mould. After placing of concrete
in moulds, proper compaction was given using the table
vibrator. Specimens were demoulded after 24 hours of
casting and were kept in the curing tank for curing till the
age of test. The specimen preparation and surface
preparation of specimens are illustrated in Fig. 3 to Fig. 5.
Figure 5: Surface preparation of prism specimen at the end

of first day
5 Test Results
5.1 Compressive Strength
Figure 3: First day casting of cylindrical specimens Compressive strengths of the cubes were tested at 3, 7
and 28 days of casting as per IS: 516-1959 [10]. Average of
three specimens was reported for 3 and 7 day compressive
strength. For 28 day compressive strength, cubes from each
batch were cast and tested. That is, a total of 12 specimens
were tested from each mix to determine 28th day
compressive strength. Hence those results whose variation
from average exceeds +15% were discarded and average of
remaining were calculated and reported. Compressive
strength variation for different mixes is shown in Fig. 6.
Figure 6: Compressive strength variation for different

mixes
5.2 Split Tensile Strength

Figure 4: Surface preparation of cylindrical specimen at
the end of first day Test was carried out on concrete cylinders of size
150 mm 300 mm as per IS: 5816-1999 specification [11].
In split tensile strength test, concrete cylinder was placed
70
on the compression testing machine with the joint making Percentage reduction in split tensile strength was
different angles with the vertical load. The load was computed from the difference between split tensile strength
applied until failure occurred due to a splitting in the plane of monolithic specimen and specimen with joint and
containing either a joint or the vertical diameter. Failure dividing this difference by split tensile strength of
load and the type of failure were noted for each specimen. monolithic specimen. Percentage reduction in split tensile
The split tensile strength was determined after 28 day water strength for different specimens is shown in Fig. 8. The
curing. Split tensile strength for monolithic specimens of percentage reduction in split tensile strength is highest for
concrete grades M20, M40 and M60 was found to be 00 angle for all mixes. Comparing M20, M40 and M60
2.69 N/mm2, 3.44 N/mm2 and 3.82 N/mm2 respectively. mixes, M20 mix showed highest reduction (73.68%) for
Split tensile strength variation with CJ angle is shown in 00angle. Lowest percentage reduction for 00 angle was
Fig. 7. shown by M40 mix. Percentage reduction of split tensile
strength reduced from 73.68% to 13.16% for M20, 62.95%
to 17.67% for M40 and 64.19% to 18.5% for M60 mix as
the CJ angle increased from 00 to 900. For monolithic
specimens, crack along load direction occurred. For smaller
joint angles, crack along joint occurred and then the
specimen failed. Failure plane had projections of coarse
aggregates (or roughness) in case of monolithic specimens.
While in case of specimens having joints and those failed
through joint, the failure plane was smooth. Failure surface
of specimen with joint failure is shown in Fig. 9.
Figure 7: Split tensile strength variation with CJ angle
From the above figure, it can be concluded that

maximum value for split tensile strength occurred for 90 0
joint and minimum value for 00 joint for all mixes. The
fracture plane for split tensile strength test is along the
vertical diameter. So for 00 joint, the fracture plane as well
as the weakest plane (plane containing joint) coincides and
hence strength of such specimen will be the least. As the
joint angle increases from 00 to 900, angle between fracture Figure 8: Percentage reduction in split tensile strength with
plane and joint plane also increases and hence more CJ angle
strength was shown by those specimens. An attempt has
been made to correlate the variation between split tensile
strength and CJ angle from the above figure. Table 2 shows
the relation between split tensile strength and CJ angle.
Table 2: Relationship between split tensile strength and CJ

angle
Mix Equation R2 value
M20 fst= 0.013 + 1.074 0.807
M40 fst = 0.014 + 1.355 0.938
M60 fst = 0.019 + 1.575 0.885
Another attempt has been made to correlate split

tensile strength with CJ angle and concrete grade. The
following relation was obtained:
Figure 9: Failure surface of specimen with joint failure
-3
fst=(0.19810 fck+0.004) +(0.015fck+0.513) (1)
where fst represents split tensile strength, represents CJ For M20 grade, joint failure occurred till angle 300 and
angle and fck represents compressive strength. for higher inclinations, split along load direction occurred.
71
For M40 grade, joint failure occurred till angle 450 and for Beam specimens of size 100 100 500 mm were
higher inclinations, split along load direction occurred. A subjected to two-point loading as per IS: 516-1959 [10]
peculiar failure pattern was observed for M60 grade specification and the breaking load was noted. The bed of
specimen with 300 CJ angle. Crack along joint and load the testing machine was provided with two steel rollers,
direction occurred simultaneously (may be termed as a 38 mm in diameter on which the specimen was supported
transition in failure). But this transition was not observed in and the distance between them was 400 mm. The load was
other grades of concrete. A possible reason for this applied equally between the two loading rollers mounted at
phenomenon (Fig. 10) is that M60 grade contains higher the third points of the supporting span that is spaced at
amount of cement (391.89 kg/m3) and hence faster 133 mm. The flexural strength was determined for all
hydration occurs. Hence the bond between the first pour specimens after 28 days water curing. The variables chosen
and next day pour will be weak compared to other grades in the study were position of joint and inclination of the
with lesser cement content. joint with the vertical. Three positions of joints were
studied:
mid span, one third point and both one third points. For
choosing inclination, at first, natural slope was obtained for
different mixes. Then angles were selected in between
natural slope and 00. The natural slope obtained and angles
chosen for different mixes are presented in Table 4.
Of all specimens in flexural strength study, monolithic

specimens showed the highest strength (i.e. 5.8 N/mm2 for
M20, 6.3 N/mm2 for M40 and 6.8 N/mm2 for M60). In
flexural strength test, minimum strength was shown by
specimens with joint at both one third points and specimens
with joint at one third point for all mixes. This is because
of the fact that shear force comes into play beyond middle
Figure 10: Transition failure in M60 grade specimen with one third span. Only slight increase in strength was
CJ angle 300 obtained as the angle of inclination from vertical increased.
Specimens with horizontal joint at mid depth showed
5.3 Modulus of Elasticity strength closer to monolithic specimens. For all grades of
concrete, joint failure occurred in case of non monolithic
Modulus of elasticity was determined by subjecting specimens (except specimens with horizontal joint at mid
cylinder specimen having 150 mm diameter and 300 mm depth).
height to uniaxial compression as per IS: 516-1959 [10]
specification. Modulus of elasticity was only tested in
Table 4: Natural slopes for different mixes
monolithic specimens after 28 days of curing. Modulus of
elasticity values for various mixes is given in Table 3.
Mix Natural 1st angle 2nd angle
slope
Table 3: Modulus of elasticity values for different mixes
M20 280 100 200
Mix Modulus of Ec/fck
elasticity, Ec M40 530 200 400
(GPa)
M60 390 100 250
M20 48.632 7557
M40 51.737 7274
M60 68.333 8021
From the above test results, it can be seen that Ec/fck

value obtained for all mixes is greater than 7000 which is
much higher than the value specified by IS: 456-2000 [12].
Hence IS code specifies a much conservative value than the
actual test results. Figure 11: Failure through joint in a prism specimen
5.4 Flexural Strength
72
For all grades of concrete, joint failure occurred in

case of non monolithic specimens except
specimens with horizontal joint.
Table 5: Percentage reduction in flexural strength for
various specimens
Acknowledgements
Type and % % %
location of joint reduction reduction reduction We would like to express our hearty thanks to all
in in in teaching and non teaching staff of TKM College of
strength strength strength Engineering, Kollam for their help and support
throughout. Special thanks to our friends and family
M20 M40 M60 members.
Monolithic 0.00 0.00 0.00 References
Midpoint-Vertical 44.83 49.21 44.12 [1] IS 3414:1968, Code of Practice for Design and
Installation of Joints in Buildings, Bureau of Indian
Midpoint-1st angle 40.17 38.09 33.82 Standards, New Delhi.
[2] Abass, Z. W., Effect of Construction Joints on
Midpoint-2nd angle 37.93 36.51 32.35 Performance of Reinforced Concrete Beams,
Al-Khwarizmi Engineering Journal, Vol. 8, pp. 48- 64,
Midpoint-Natural 33.27 38.09 32.35 2012.
slope [3] Djazmati, B. and Pincheira, J. A., Shear Stiffness
and Strength of Horizontal Construction Joints, ACI
Third point-one side 58.62 53.97 54.41 Structural Journal, Vol. 101, pp. 484-493, 2004.
[4] Gerges, N. N., Issa, C. A. and Fawaz, S., Effect of
Third point-both 65.52 60.32 63.23 Construction Joints on Splitting Tensile Strength of
sides Concrete, Case Studies in Construction Materials, Vol.
3, pp. 83-91, 2015.
Horizontal-mid 13.79 3.17 8.82 [5] Issa, C. A., Gerges, N. N. and Fawaz, S., The
depth Effect of Concrete Vertical Construction Joints on the
Modulus of Rupture, Case Studies in Construction
Materials, Vol. 1, pp. 25-32, 2014.
[6] Majeed, Q. A., Ghaleb, L. A. and Ghaleb, M. G.,
Effect of the Number of Horizontal Construction Joints
in Reinforced Concrete Beams, Engineering and
6 Conclusions
Technical Journal, Vol. 28, pp. 1-19, 2010.
[7] IS 12269:1987, Specification for 53 Grade
Experimental investigations are carried out to study the
Ordinary Portland Cement, Bureau of Indian
effect of construction joints on strength performance of
Standards, New Delhi, 2000.
concrete. Compressive strength and modulus of elasticity
[8] IS 10262:2009, Recommended Guidelines for
of each mix was examined. Split tensile strength and
Concrete Mix Design, Bureau of Indian Standards,
flexural tensile strength of monolithic specimens and
New Delhi, 2000.
specimens with joints were also examined. The major
[9] Aitcin P. C., High Performance Concrete, E and
conclusions drawn from this research are presented below:
FN Spon, New York, 1998.
[10] IS 516:1959, Methods of Test for Strength of
From split tensile strength test results, it can be Concrete, Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi.
concluded that percentage reduction in split tensile [11] IS 5816:1999, Splitting Tensile Strength of
strength due to presence of CJ for all mixes was
Concrete-Method of Test, Bureau of Indian Standards,
highest for 00 joint; among which M20 grade
New Delhi.
concrete showed the largest reduction (73.68%).
[12] IS 456:2000, Plain and Reinforced Concrete
Code of Practice, Bureau of Indian Standards, New
For 900 joint, percentage reduction in split tensile Delhi, 2000.
strength is in the range of 13% to 18.5%.
From flexure test conducted on plain cement

concrete (PCC) beams, it can be concluded that
specimens with joint at both third points showed
highest reduction in flexure strength.
73
Effect of Pile Layout and Pile Cap Thickness on Load Distribution in Piles
Meenu Sharma
Bechtel India Pvt. Ltd., 244-245 Udyog Vihar, Phase IV, Gurgaon 122015, Haryana, India
The paper illustrates through practical examples, the effect of pile layout and pile cap thickness on the load
distribution among different piles in a pile group. Study has been done considering square and rectangular
pile cap configurations with different pile cap thickness being considered for each pile arrangement pattern.
Each of these models are analyzed under axial load and biaxial moments to find out the variation in pile
reactions. The baseline for comparison is considered to be the behavior of a rigid pile cap. The paper also
demonstrates the effect of a pile, being directly placed under a load point, on the distribution of loads
among the other piles of the group.
Keywords: pile, pile cap, finite element, static analysis
1 General Introduction of the pile and pile cap arrangements adopted for this
study.
Pile foundations are most preferred foundation
systems adopted in major projects where loads are very
high and soil condition is poor. Conventional manual
methods of finding out the pile reactions are illustrated in
many text books and literatures. However it is important
to know the limitations of these manual methods and also
the effect of the pile layout and pile cap thickness on load
distribution in different piles. The paper demonstrates the
variation in pile reactions from the conventional rigid mat
analysis results through example case studies. Often in
many cases it is observed that the practicing engineers
tend to provide a pile just below a column even in a
foundation system comprising of more than one pile. The Figure 2.1: Geometric details of square pile and pile
paper demonstrates the effects of load distribution in pile cap arrangement with central pile
group due to presence of a pile directly below the load
bearing column. The effect of pile cap thickness and the
ratio of pile spacing to cap thickness on load distribution
of loads in piles is also studied in this paper. This study is
done for square as well as rectangular geometry of the pile
cap subjected to the following load conditions:-
a) Axial load
b) Biaxial Moment
c) Axial load and biaxial moment
2 Geometry & FEM Model

Figure 2.2: Geometric details of rectangular pile and pile
Two types of pile and pile cap configurations are
cap arrangement with central pile
adopted for conducting the study. The square pile cap is
of size 19mX19m and the size of the rectangular pile cap Piles are considered to be H-shaped steel piles and spaced
is 13mX19m. Mat is modeled using plate elements and the at 3.0m center to center. Study is conducted on the pile
piles are modeled as translational springs with stiffness in cap thickness of magnitudes 0.3m, 0.5m, 1.0m, 1.5m,
three orthogonal directions X, Y & Z. The intermediate 2.0m, 2.5m, 3.0m and 3.5m. Piles stiffness in horizontal
distance between adjacent piles are kept as 6 times the pile directions are Kx = 3503 kN/m & Kz = 5954 kN/m and in
diameter in order to avoid the group efficiency effects. In vertical direction is Ky = 105100 kN/m. For simplicity in
all models load is applied at the center of the pile cap in analysis and design in most of the cases the rotational
order to assess the behavior of the pile cap and estimate stiffness is avoided. From practical engineering
the variation in pile reactions with variation in pile cap judgement this is fine as while estimating the lateral
thickness. Figure 2.1 and 2.2 shows the basic geometry stiffness geotechnical group already considers the
rotational factor.
1
Senior Engineer, msharma@bechtel.com
74
Meenu Sharma
3 Loads and Load Combinations Table 4-1: Reactions on piles for rigid square pile cap
with central pile
Vertical load of 10,000kN and biaxial moment of
5000kNm is considered for this study and is applied at the
center of the mat for all the configurations of the pile and
pile cap. Load combinations consider three conditions i.e.
vertical load, biaxial moment and a combinations of
vertical load & biaxial moments.
4 Analysis Considering Rigid Pile Cap
With the above loading conditions, initially a

conventional analysis is done manually to assess the load
distribution among piles in each of the configurations
using the formula
#$ & .(') & .(-)
!" = *,' + *,- + (1)
% ) (') ) (-)
Where,
Fi = Reaction in the ith pile.
Po = Total vertical load on pile group.
n = Total number of piles in the group.
Mx = Moment about x- axis.
Mz = Moment about z-axis.
rxi = Distance of ith pile from x-axis
rzi = Distance of ith pile from z-axis
The basic assumption for using this formula is that the pile
cap is rigid in nature i.e. the deflected shape of the pile cap
under loaded condition is always a straight line. Figure 4.1
shows the nodes and node numbers corresponding to piles
for each of the configurations:- Table 4-2: Reactions on piles for rigid square pile cap
without central pile
Figure 4.1: Nodes and node numbers in different pile cap

configurations
Table 4-1 to 4-4 illustrates the reactions at each pile

location for rigid square and rectangular pile
configurations respectively. This data is used later for
comparing the variations in pile reactions with variation
in stiffness (thickness) of the pile cap under different
loading conditions.
75
Table 4-3: Reactions on piles for rigid rectangular pile

cap with central pile
Figure 5.1.1: Pile reactions under vertical load for square

pile cap with central pile
Table 4-4: Reactions on piles for rigid rectangular pile

cap without central pile
Figure 5.1.2: Pile reactions under biaxial moments for

square pile cap with central pile
Considering these data to be the baseline values for the

classical analysis of pile and pile cap arrangements, the
subsequent sections will illustrate the variation in
behavior of the pile and pile cap arrangements based on
the adopted mathematical models.
5 Analysis of Pile and Pile Cap Models Figure 5.1.3: Pile reactions under vertical load and
biaxial moments for square pile cap with central pile
5.1 Square Pile Cap with Central Pile
5.2 Square Pile Cap without Central Pile
Behavior of the pile and square pile cap arrangement
is studied with respect to the distribution of loads in Pile and square pile cap arrangement is studied with
different piles for each of the pile cap thickness conditions respect to the distribution of loads in different piles for
when a central pile is present right below the point of each of the pile cap thickness conditions when a central
application of the load. The results of the study is plotted pile is absent below the point of application of the load.
in graphs in figures 5.1.1 to 5.1.3. Graphs are plotted for The results of the study is plotted in graphs in figures 5.2.1
each of the three loading conditions for piles next to to 5.2.3. Graphs are plotted for each of the three loading
central row. conditions.
76
Meenu Sharma
Figure 5.2.1: Pile reactions under vertical load for square Figure 5.3.1: Pile reactions under vertical load for
pile cap without central pile rectangular pile cap with central pile
Figure 5.2.2: Pile reactions under biaxial moments for Figure 5.3.2: Pile reactions under biaxial moments for
square pile cap without central pile rectangular pile cap with central pile
Figure 5.2.3: Pile reactions under vertical load and Figure 5.3.3: Pile reactions under vertical load and
biaxial moments for square pile cap without central pile biaxial moments for rectangular pile cap with central pile
5.3 Rectangular Pile Cap with Central Pile 5.4 Rectangular Pile Cap without Central Pile
Pile and rectangular pile cap arrangement is studied Pile and rectangular pile cap arrangement is studied
with respect to the distribution of loads in different piles with respect to the distribution of loads in different piles
for each of the pile cap thickness conditions when a central for each of the pile cap thickness conditions when a central
pile is present below the point of application of the load. pile is absent below the point of application of the load.
The results of the study is plotted in graphs in figures 5.3.1 The results of the study is plotted in graphs in figures 5.4.1
to 5.3.2. Graphs are plotted for each of the three loading to 5.4.3. Graphs are plotted for each of the three loading
conditions. conditions.
77
shows that the pile reactions deviate largely from the

conventional rigid analysis results. The piles closest to the
point of load application attract higher amount of
compressive load than the piles farther away from the
center. For an extremely flexible pile cap the farthest piles
even undergo tension and there exists a probability of a
point of contra-flexure being prevalent in the pile cap
which needs to be properly addressed during reinforced
concrete design and reinforcement detailing of the pile
cap. Also if we compare the nature of the load distribution
in piles, having a central pile directly under load and that
without a central pile, it is quite evident that if a pile is
placed directly under the load point especially in a flexible
Figure 5.4.1: Pile reactions under vertical load for
mat then it attracts most of the loads and adjacent piles are
rectangular pile cap without central pile
under stressed. This is very important to note as
overlooking this effect often increases the project cost.
The pile cap when subjected to both vertical load and
bending moments show a stable result in terms of
variation in pile reactions independent of whether it is a
square or a rectangular pile. However when the moments
become more predominant than the vertical loads the piles
closest to the load point experiences remarkably high
reactions whereas the piles, farther away from load points,
experiences negligible reactions. Also presence or
absence of central pile and plan geometry of the mat
appreciably impacts the stress concentration in and around
the point of load application in a flexible pile cap. Also as
the thickness increases, the difference in pile reactions
start decreasing which indicates that the mat starts
behaving like a rigid mat.
Figure 5.4.2: Pile reactions under biaxial moments for
7 Conclusion
rectangular pile cap without central pile
The point of interest for the practicing engineers is to
look out for a thumb rule where a quick estimation of the
probable thickness of pile cap is possible to assess whether
a particular pile cap is rigid or flexible. Industry standards
like ACI 351.3R-04 provides thumb rules for rigid
foundation. It states that a foundation is considered to be
rigid if its thickness is the greatest among 1/5 of its shorter
dimension, 1/10 of its longer dimension, 0.6m and 1/30 of
the span plus 0.6ft. However no such thumb rule is
provided by the codes especially for the mat supported on
piles. Also application of the above thumb rule lead to a
huge thickness for large pile supported mat foundations
which is very uneconomic. This paper basically aimed to
Figure 5.4.3: Pile reactions under axial load and biaxial provide a method to evolve a thumb rule for estimating the
moments for rectangular pile cap without central pile thickness required for a pile supported mat so that it can
be considered to be behaving as a rigid mat. The basic
6 Discussion on analysis results
exercise performed and the nature of the graph for pile
Above graphs show the analysis results for pile reactions shows that if the thickness of the mat is kept
reactions under different loading conditions on square and around 1.2 to1.3 times the spacing between the piles then
rectangular piles with different pile cap thickness and pile the mat will demonstrate a close to perfect rigid mat
arrangements. For a rigid pile cap, reactions at all the piles behavior. This paper is just a preliminary attempt made to
are uniform or vary linearly. However a finite element propose a thumb rule and there is an ample opportunity
analysis, considering the stiffness of the mat and piles, for future research on this topic and to come up with a
78
Meenu Sharma
more refines formulae considering the effect of relative

location for the building columns on these pile caps.
References:
[1] Foundation Analysis and Design by Joseph E. Bowles.
[2] Pile Design and Construction Practice by M.J.
Tomlinson
[3] Building Code Requirements for Structural Concrete:
ACI 318-05
[4] Design, Manufacture and Installation of Concrete
Piles: ACI 543R-00
[5] ACI 351.3R-04, Foundation for Dynamic Equipment.
79
Reaction Response of Horizontally Curved and Skewed

Concrete Box-Girder Bridges
Tanmay Gupta1, Manoj Kumar2
1,2
Department of Civil Engineering, Birla Institute of Technology & Science Pilani (BITS-PILANI), Pilani
333031, Rajasthan, India
Concrete box-girders are widely used in horizontally curved bridges due to their high torsional rigidity.
Certain geographical situation demands skew supports in addition to the curved layout of the bridge and
results in complex skew-curve geometry of the deck. Present study focuses on predicting the support
reaction response for each unique skew curve combination of four-cell box-girder bridges via 3D finite
element analysis. Central curvature angle for the bridges considered in this paper has been varied from
48 curving left to 48 curving right, at an interval of 12 while the skew angle is swept from 0 to 50 at
an interval of 10 to generate feasible combinations possible for skew-curve case. For these unique
simply supported multi-cell concrete box girder bridges, support reactions for dead load as well as for
Class-A & Class-70R vehicular live load cases are monitored via large parametric study. Results indicate
that uplifting of supports become more prominent in high skew-curve cases at acute corners, while obtuse
corner reactions reach as high as 104% of total force transmitting to abutment. Reaction ratio monitored
can also be used for deriving skew correction factors for skew curved bridges.
Keywords: Concrete Box-Girder Bridges, Horizontally curved, Skew abutments, 3D FEM modelling, support
reaction, skew correction factor
1 Introduction implemented using linear line elements placed along the

center line of the bridge span, still remains the most
Rapid urbanization and massive growth in
common technique for bridge analysis in India.
infrastructure has created a necessity for complex
Sophisticated and complicated 2D grillage or full fledge
transportation system for highway bridges which often
3D finite element analysis for bridges are generally not
leads to unconventional, non-collinear bridge
preferred, for bridges having simple geometric
configurations. Presence of skew supports and
alignment since the spine modelling technique is
horizontal curvature together is one such problem which
accurate enough, however, it is unable to capture live
significantly changes the structural response of bridges.
load distribution effects especially when geometry of
In such situations concrete/prestressed concrete
the girder becomes horizontally curved and skewed at
box girder sections are often used, to compensate for
supports.
high torsional moment and bending moment demands
In order to capture complicated structural response
arriving from the virtue of geometry. Designing such
of aforementioned bridges via simplistic spine model is
girders to support a skew-curved bridge is a complex
thus not possible, consequently need for skew-curve
problem since the support reactions, shear, and moment
correction factors arrive, that can attenuate the response
demands even due to gravity loads vary significantly
value of spine model to actual response of the bridge [2].
across the girders of the bridge deck [1]. For
Present study focuses on capturing the worst support
significantly curved bridges (having central curvature
reaction response generated for various combinations of
angle 12o or more) with sharp skew support edges,
curvature and skewness present in the bridge. As per
generally there exist substantial amount of torsional
Indian loading conditions, a case study for 12.5m wide
deformations and potential for uplift at bearings.
box-girder bridge is carried out considering unique
Nowadays design engineers have a wide variety of
combinations of central curvature angle (varied from
approximate and sophisticated analysis and design
48 curving left to 48 curving right, at an interval of
methods at their disposal for the analysis of bridge
12) and the skew angle (swept from 0 to 50 at an
forces. Thus, it becomes very important that the
interval of 10). The 3D finite element models of the
appropriate method is selected for the problem involved
bridges are generated and analyzed using CsiBridge, to
considering time and accuracy needed for the project.
study the effect of skewness in conjunction with
One-dimensional spine bridge modelling technique,
curvature on the reactions at obtuse corner. Obtuse
1
PhD Scholar, tanmay.gupta@pilani.bits-pilani.ac.in
2
Associate Professor, manojkr@pilani.bits-pilani.ac.in
80
Tanmay Gupta and Manoj Kumar
corner reactions have been plotted in the form of non- position of load on the span. However, adjacent areas of
dimensional parameter normalized by total support the force transfer strip in skew bridges, transfer the load
reactions at that abutment. Results not only give a only to this obtuse angle joining strip as cantilever
simplistic way to rectify the obtuse corner reactions rather than transferring the load to the supports directly.
obtained from spine model but also provides a deep Thus even for dead load case skew bridges comes under
insight for designers towards girder design for such considerable torsional moments and unequal reaction
complicated geometry bridges. forces at bearings. As the skew angle increases obtuse
corner tend to come further near, thus generating more
2 Skew-Curve Bridge Force Transfer Mechanism twisting in the section. Moreover, due to the presence of
curvature in addition to skew, situations get more
Structural responses of skew bridges as well as complicated as curve effect creates additional moments
curved bridges are found to differ significantly in in bridge and more uneven support reaction distribution.
comparison with straight/orthogonal counterpart of
similar dimensions. By the virtue of geometry, force
path in such bridges do not remain as simple as in case
of orthogonal bridges, thus they attract high design
forces and moments, which should be aptly considered
in bridge modelling.
In case of bridges having only curved geometry,
load is generally transferred along the shortest curved
distance between the supports, while for only skewed
bridges force tend to take shortcut route via one obtuse
corner to other. For combination of skew and curved
geometry however, force path become tedious in nature,
but in general it remains heavily towards obtuse corner.
Thus risk of uplifting at acute corners increases
manifold in such cases, especially in case of eccentric
vehicular loading, which generate high reactions at
obtuse side.
Figure 1: Schematic Diagram of skew-curved bridge
Figure 1 shows the top slab geometry and force
showing shortest path for force transfer
transfer mechanism in a general skew-curved bridge. In
the present study, curvature towards right hand side is
considered as negative central curvature angle while, 3 Numerical Investigation
bridges curving towards left hand side are considered as
positive central curvature angles. Sense of skew angle is
used such that obtuse corner is created towards the outer 3.1 Case study description
periphery of curved geometry in the near abutment To investigate the cumulative effect of skew and
(towards approaching traffic) for bridges having curvature in concrete box girder bridges, 54 unique
negative central angle (as shown in Figure 1), while, for skew-curve combinations are chosen in present case
positive central angle case skew is taken in similar study. As such box geometries attract high torsional
manner, but in this case obtuse corner remains inward moments thus cross-section for bridge section is chosen
for near abutment. as box-girder, which has exceptional torsional rigidity.
In general, due to change in force transfer In order to simplify the numerical investigation multi-
mechanism in skew bridges through the strip of area span bridges are avoided, rather all parametric
connecting the obtuse angled comers, bridge deck variations in geometry are applied for simply supported
primarily bends along the line joining the obtuse angled end conditions. Parameters taken for bridge cross-
comers. The magnitude of bending moment is section and material properties used are as follows:
considered to be dependent mainly upon skew angle,
ratio of the skew span & the width of the deck and the
12.50
0.20
1.02 0.30
1.10
0.20
Figure 2: Box-Girder Bridge Cross-section used in present study
81
Length 25m
Width 12.5m
Number of cells 4
Depth 1.22m
Top Slab thickness 0.2m
Bottom Slab thickness 0.2m
Web thickness 0.3m
Web spacing (c/c) 2.5m
Overhang 1.1m
Concrete Grade M35
Density 25kN/m3
Poissons ratio 0.2
Elastic modulus 2.958107 kN/m2
For considering realistic modelling of support

bearing, it is assumed to be partially fixed at joint,
having a bearing stiffness of 87.5 106 kN/m. The same
base cross-section is used for all parametric variations
of bridge which are modelled for following conditions:
Table 1: Parametric Variations

Skew Angle Central curvature Figure 3: 3D Finite element model of a typical skew-
angle curved bridge (curving towards right) showing all
o
0 to 50 o -48o to 48o discrete elements along the span length.
At an Interval of 10o At an Interval of 12o
3.3 Live load placement
The recommendations of Indian Road Congress (IRC)
The reactions at the obtuse corner of the box- may be used to place the vehicular live load in
girders considered in present study have been expressed transverse directions. However, it is not possible to
as non-dimensional parameter (in %) normalized by place the vehicular load in longitudinal direction to
total support reaction at that abutment, are reported in develop maximum moment since the rolling load
terms of obtuse corner reaction percentage for Gravity concept can be used only for normal bridges. To
(dead) load case and for live loads specified by IRC [3]. mitigate this problem, in the present study, vehicle load
is considered to run through-out the span at an average
3.2 Finite Element Modelling speed of 1m/s, for which the results of vertical support
reactions are captured at an interval of one second. Thus
For better prediction of results for such complicated at every 0.1m interval output are gathered and finally all
geometries full 3D modelling of bridge superstructure such outputs are compared for finding out the worst
was implemented using well known finite element condition in all cases.
analysis and design software CSiBridge. For simplicity Since, the carriage way width of box-girders
first order linear elastic analysis is performed for all considered in this study is 12.5m which lies in between
unique combinations for three different load cases 9.6m to 13.1m, as per IRC-6 requirements, this bridge
namely Dead load case, Class-A vehicle moving on geometry is to be analyzed as three-lane bridge. Thus
three lanes and combination of Class-A loading on first two live load combinations are implemented in this
lane and Class-70R vehicle moving on separate third study which are:
lane. Discretization of the bridge is done using a 4- 1. CASE 1 : CLASS A - 3 LANES
noded 3D shell element having six degrees of freedom 2. CASE 2 : CLASS A - 1 LANE + CLASS 70R
(3 translations + 3 rotational) at each node. Proper (W wheeled or tracked)-1 LANE
connectivity of top and bottom flange elements with the (These load cases are depicted in Figure 4 below)
webs ensures the displacement compatibility. Element To generate worst support reaction at obtuse corner
size and aspect ratio of the elements have been decided on near abutment, heavier loads were kept as near as
via considering mesh sensitivity analysis for simplified possible to the obtuse corner following the IRC
box girder. Based on which a preferred sub-mesh area recommendations. The results for IRC Class-70R
of 0.25m2 was chosen in order to limit the time involved tracked vehicle is not presented here because based on
in analysis. Figure 3 depicts a typical Finite Element preliminary results generated from this load case, were
Model for 30o skew and -36o curved generated in found to produce less severe support reactions at obtuse
CSiBridge. corner.
82
4 Results and Conclusions
4.1 Structural Response under Dead Load case

The Results compiled in present study specifically
focus on comparison of proportion (in %) of reaction
carried by obtuse corner support bearing with respect to
total abutment reaction for each unique combination of
central curvature angle and skew angle considered.
Dead load case results for each unique skew-curve
combination are presented below in figure 5 (negative
curvature angle represent curving right while positive
for curving left):
From Figure 5 it is evident that the obtuse
corner reaction for the non-curved case reaches
40% at about 50 skew angle which just about
doubled from non-skew non-curve bridge case.
Figure 4: Live load placement (Transverse location) The curve effect greatly influences reaction
response, which can be observed via uplift at
For present study, it can be expected that corners occurring around +40 central angle
approximately 20% of the support reaction (total 5 case when bridge is not skewed. It implies high
supports) will go to each support in the non-curved, central curvature itself is sufficient for uplifting
non-skewed case under gravity loading, because even towards the obtuse side.
overhang length of bridge is chosen such as to produce For bridges curving right (+ve central angle)
equal distribution of weight amongst the girder, but with high central angle and high skew, the
same is not true for live load cases as vehicle is kept at coupled skew-curve effect is dominant which
minimum clearance from obtuse angle side, thus is evident from the fact that the curve for 40
generating more reaction towards obtuse side even for skew crosses the curves next to it (50o skew
non-skewed, non-curved cases. curve). Thus it can be concluded that at higher
skew angle (greater than 40o) obtuse corner
tend to attract reaction at slower rate as
compared with skew range of 0o to 40o.
Figure 5: Obtuse corner Reaction percentage under dead load case for each unique skew-curve combination chosen
83
Figure 6: Obtuse corner Reaction percentage under live load case 1 for each unique skew-curve combination
chosen
Figure 7: Obtuse corner Reaction percentage under live load case 2 for each unique skew-curve combination
chosen
84
4.2 Structural Response under Live Load cases As the nature of the curves presented in results
portion of the study is having the same nature as
The results for obtuse corner support reaction for
absolute reaction curves for obtuse corner and is similar
live load case 1 (Class A vehicle running on three lanes)
to the nature of the skew correction factor curves. Since,
and case 2 (Class70R on one first lane and Class A on
there are no direct guidelines available on skewed bent
third lane) are presented in figure 6 and 7 respectively.
or abutment reactions, sometimes the skew correction
As all the results are compiled for near abutment
factors are also applied to reactions to calculate bearing
(Abutment towards the incoming traffic flow) thus by
forces.
changing the curvature direction from right to left,
Thus SCF from the present study can be
obtuse corner experiences significantly low support
derived for obtuse corner as (Obtuse corner reaction
reactions, reason being, for right curved bridge obtuse
percentage/100) * no. of supports. Figure 8 shows a
corner remain on outer periphery while for left curved it
comparison of skew correction factors thus obtained for
falls towards inside periphery of curve. Furthermore,
non-curved case under dead load from these three
some significant observation from figure 6 and 7 are as
approaches:
follows:
It can be evidently seen for non-curved cases
that, as the live load is eccentric, obtuse corner
reaction percentage distribution in skew 0o to
50o, again doubles but this time from 30% to
near more than 60% in both live load cases.
Case-1 shows a steeper rate of increase then
case 2 indicating that for higher skews as the
vehicle weight gets more distributed it tend to
attract more reaction at obtuse side, while for
lower skews heavy vehicle (Class 70R in
present case) running near to obtuse corner will
dominate the support reaction.
As the live load is always modelled to run near
Figure 8: SCF comparison amongst LRFD,
obtuse corner, no uplift occurs near obtuse side
CALTRANS and present study under dead load
with the change in curvature from right to left
Results show un-conservative values of SCF
for both the cases.
for lower skew range calculated via LRFD and
Combined effect of skew and curve for case-1
CALTRANS equations. While there are no guidelines
generates obtuse corner reaction as high as
available for SCF calculations in case of IRC loading
104% of the abutment reaction, similarly in
for either skew or skew-curve cases, thus present study
case 2 this values goes up-to 87%. These
results can play a pivotal role in bridge design using
values signify that going beyond these limits of
spine models also. Similarly, for dead load cases SCF
skew and curvature for single span bridges will
for combined effect of skew-curve are rare to find.
surely create much more challenges for
In conclusion present study not only provide
constructions.
obtuse corner reaction response for all unique skew-
curve combinations feasible, but also presents simple
4.3 Skew Correction Factors SCF value charts for ease of designers.
Skew correction factors (SCF) can be applied
to the support reactions for the corresponding non- References
skewed bridges to account for the effect of skew in
[1] Nutt, Redfield, Valentine, David Evans and
skewed bridges for simplistic spine modelling of the
Associates, 2008. Development of Design
bridge [2]. As these spine models cannot capture any
Specifications and Commentary for Horizontally
non-uniform transverse distribution of loading response
Curved Concrete Box-Girder Bridges. NCHRP
across the superstructure section. Consequently, for
Report 620, Transportation Research Board.
superstructure shear design, the use of skew correction
Washington, DC.
factors for obtuse girder regions is required. To quantify
Skew correction factors AASHTO LRFD [4] [2] Zhang, Q., 2008. Development of skew correction
specifications give an empirical equation for cast-in- factors for live load shear and reaction distribution
place concrete multi-cell Box as 1+(.25+(12L/70d))tan in highway bridge design. ProQuest.
where L is bridge span in ft., d is depth of cross-section
[3] IRC 6:2000, Standard Specifications and Code of
in inch and is skew angle. Further, as amendment to
Practice for Road Bridges Section: II Loads and
this equation in 2014 CALTRANS provided a much
Stresses. Indian Road Congress, New Delhi.
simpler estimation of skew correction factor as 1 +
(/50). As these equations are limited to only skew [4] AASHTO 2012, AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design
geometry, these cant predict the behavior of SCF for Specifications. 6th Edition with Interims, American
skew curve cases. Association of State Highway and Transportation
Officials, Washington, D.C.
85
PERFORMANCE ESTIMATION OF SOLID AND PUNCHED SHEAR WALL

BUILDINGS WITH TWO MODELLING TECHNIQUES
Juturu Swetha1, Onkar G. Kumbhar2, Ratnesh Kumar3
1,2,3
Department of Applied Mechanics, Visvesvaraya National Institute of Technology, South Ambazari Road, Nagpur-
440010, M.H., India.
Shear walls are generally provided in multistoried buildings to resist in-plane lateral loads by increasing strength
and stiffness to control the lateral deformations. Various modelling techniques are available to model shear wall
in computer models viz. nonlinear layered shell elements, wide column, fiber elements or truss elements. The
accuracy of results and time required for the analysis depends on the modelling technique adopted. In the present
paper parametric study of two modelling techniques of shear wall, i.e. wide column approach and nonlinear
layered shell element has been discussed for solid and punched shear walls. Response spectrum analysis and
nonlinear static pushover analysis have been performed. In linear range, the modal analysis results, shear force
and moment in the shear wall from aforementioned approaches are comparable. From nonlinear analysis it has
been observed that the wide column approach is unable to capture progressive nonlinearity in the shear wall
and overestimates the stiffness of the structure.
Keywords: Shear wall, nonlinear layered shell element model, wide column model, nonlinear static pushover
analysis.
1 General wall and helps in connecting the non-coplanar shear walls

Shear walls are generally provided from the at nodes along the vertical edges. The nonlinearity in the
foundation in multi-storey buildings to resist lateral loads. wide column can be provided as lumped plasticity over the
Due to cantilever behaviour of the shear wall the lateral hinge length as nonlinear flexural hinges at possible
drift near bottom storeys are reduced. The inclusion of yielding locations (i.e., at maximum bending moment
shear wall in frame building makes it efficient by location). In present research the nonlinear hinge
increasing strength and stiffness as well as by reducing the properties of the wide column have been calculated from
lateral drift. In buildings having height more than 23 the moment-curvature curve of the wide column which is
meters, shear walls can be curtailed at different storey obtained from section designer in SAP2000. In nonlinear
levels (IBC 2009). Shear walls may fail in flexure, shear layered shell element modelling, nonlinear stress-strain
or both, depending on aspect ratio. Flexural failure occurs curves for layers of concrete and steel in the shear wall
in high aspect ratio shear wall. When shear wall fails in along with the direction of nonlinearity has been defined.
the flexur, crushing of concrete compression zone and However, the nonlinear layered shell element modelling is
yielding of steel at tension zone takes place. In computationally more time consuming.
mathematical modelling, shear walls can be modelled as
nonlinear layered shell elements, wide column, fiber 2 Modelling and Analysis
elements or truss elements. However in present paper An eight-story symmetrical building has been
variation of the parametric results of two modelling considered with storey height 3 m each. The plan of
techniques viz. wide column approach and nonlinear considered building is shown in Fig. 1. The shear wall
layered shell element is compared. Wide column frame provided is 1.7% of the plan area in the longitudinal
analogy method was first developed by Clough et al. direction and 2% of the plan area in the transverse
(1964) and later it was improvised by Kwan (1993). The direction. The building is assumed to be situated in zone
shear wall is treated as a structural column with the V having PGA 0.36g, on medium soil as per Indian
centroidal axis of shear wall coinciding with the column. Standard conditions. The grade of concrete and steel
The rigid beams are provided in the wide column to considered are M30 and Fe 415.
connect the frame members of the building with the shear
1
Post Graduate student, juturuswetha1993@gmail.com
2
Research Scholar, onkar.kumbhar97@gmail.com
3
Assistant Professor, ratnesh.eq@gmail.com
86
Juturu Swetha, et al.
The building has been modelled in SAP2000 V 17.3 2.2 Wide Column Modelling
with frame elements and solid shear wall as a wide The designed section of shear wall has been modelled
column. The model has been analysed to get forces as well as wide column using section designer. The nonlinearity
as moments in shear walls and designed as per Indian of wide column has been provided as uniaxial flexural
Standard codes. The shear walls have been manually hinges considering the in-plane behaviour of shear walls.
designed without openings as per IS 13920:1993 and with The nonlinear flexural hinges have been provided at the
1 m square openings in each floor as per Madheker and ends of the wide column. The hinge properties have been
Jain (1993) for the obtained axial, shear forces and calculated by converting moment-curvature curve
moment. The percentages of openings provided in obtained from section designer to moment-rotation curve.
punched shear wall are 7% and 8% in the longitudinal and The formulae for conversion of curvature to rotation are
transverse directions, respectively. Four mathematical given in EC8 part-3 (equation 1, 2 and 3).
models with same building plan as well as geometry have
%& + ' & ( )*, -"
!" = #" $ + 0.0013 + #" $ $$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$516
been created using SAP2000. In one model solid shear
wall has been modelled using wide column and in the 3 8$/-24
second model, using nonlinear layered shell element.
Another two models have been developed for punched The first term, second term and the third term in the above
shear wall using the same two aforementioned approaches. expression represents flexural contribution, shear
In all the models, the nonlinearity of frame elements (i.e. deformation and anchorage slip of bars.
0.?$%<
beams, and columns) has been provided as lumped hinges
based on FEMA 356. !7 = !" + 9#7 : #" ;$$%< $>1 : @$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$5A6
%&
%< = 0.08$%& + 0.0AA$-" $)* $$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$536
Where, %& is the shear length constant (1/2 of the total

length of element), '& is 1 if shear cracking is expected to
precede the flexural yielding at the end section, otherwise
0, ( = length of internal lever arm, )*, = mean diameter
of longitudinal bars, %< = plastic hinge length, -24 =
characteristic strength of concrete, -" = yield strength of
steel
Figure 1: Plan of considered building (All dimension are
in meters)
Figure 3: Idealised Moment-Rotation curve
The points on idealised moment-rotation curve are

(a) (b) given in Table 1, 2 have been inputted in SAP2000 as
Figure 2: Frame A-A of (a) Solid shear wall building (b) hinge properties (Meslem and Lang, 2015). The results
Punched shear wall building obtained from response spectrum analysis for solid shear
wall building from two approaches are comparable.
2.1 Solid Nonlinear Layered Shell Element Modelling Table 1: Hinge properties of wide column
The designed solid shear walls have been modelled as Point Moment / SF Rotation / SF
nonlinear layered shell elements. The nonlinear stress- A 0 0
strain curves of layers of concrete and steel have been B 1 0
provided and direction of nonlinearity has been C B7 CB" !< C!"
mentioned. The designed thickness of wall, size and D 0.A$B7 CB" !< C!"
spacing of reinforcement bars have been mentioned in E 0.A$B 7 CB" 1.?$! < C!"
SAP2000. The nonlinearity of the layered shell element
shear walls have been provided using distributed plasticity
approach.
87
Table 2: Acceptance criteria on moment-rotation curve Further nonlinear static analysis has been performed
IO 10D$!< C!" on two solid shear wall models in longitudinal and
LS E0D$!< C!" transverse directions. The capacity curves in longitudinal
CP F0D$!< C!" and transverse direction are shown in Fig. 4
18000 18000
shell element model
16000 16000
wide column model
14000 14000
Base Shear (kN)
Base Shear (kN)

B hinge
12000 12000
IO hinge
10000 10000
LS hinge
8000 8000
C hinge
6000 6000
B hinge in WC
4000 4000
IO hinge in WC
2000 2000
LS hinge in WC
0 0
CP hinge in WC
-0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6
Displacement (m) C hinge in WC
Displacement (m)
(a) (b)
Figure 4: Capacity curve of solid shear wall models in (a)Longitudinal direction (b)Transverse direction
Table 3: Capacity curve parameters of solid shear wall

models in longitudinal direction
Model SE WC
Yield Force (kN) 14000 14400 Figure 5: Longitudinal shear wall
Yield Displacement (mm) 28 22
150000 Curve
Effective Stiffness, Ke (kN/m) 513333 640000 B hinge
100000
Moment
(kN-m)
Target displacement (mm) 48 42 50000 IO hinge

0 LS hinge
Ultimate Displacement (mm) 225 258 CP hinge
-50000 0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02
Ductility Capacity 8.04 11.73 C hinge
Plastic rotation (radians)
Over strength ratio 2.19 2.35 Figure 6: Moment-rotation curve given for longitudinal
Note: SE-Shell Element, WC-Wide Column wide column
Table 4: Hinge formation in longitudinal wide column and its corresponding nonlinear layered shell stresses (Fig. 5)
Stress at 1 Stress at 2 Stress at 3 Stress at 4 Stress at 5
C S C S C S C S C S
B 0 188.8 0 149.2 0 13.25 -10.23 -84.36 -14.69 -121.9
IO 0 421.2 -0.23 386.2 0 128.2 -14.6 -134.1 -21.96 -212.3
LP 0 415 0 415 -0.6 484.9 -11.02 -221.5 -38.09 -436.3
CP 0 427.4 0 418.3 0 437.4 -10.06 -19.8 -41.79 -449.3
C 0 433.2 0 424.1 0 426 -10.43 15.26 -42.48 -447.1
Note: Negative is compression and tension is positive, considering concrete has no tensile strength, C Concrete, S - Steel
Various parameters have been derived and compared column. The yield force and stiffness of wide column
by idealizing the capacity curve of solid shear wall models. model are 3% and 25% greater than that of shell element
The derived capacity curve parameters of solid shell model. Ductility of wide column model in the longitudinal
element model and wide column model in longitudinal and direction is 46% more than shell element model. The
transverse direction are given in Tables 3 and 5 ultimate base shear of solid shear wall models is nearly
respectively.It can be observed that the initial stiffness of same. The progressive nonlinearity in the longitudinal
two modelling approaches is same. The capacity curve of wide column and the corresponding (at same
solid shell element model deviates when nonlinearity has displacement) shell stresses in concrete and steel at
started in the shear wall. In wide column model, the supports shown in Fig. 5 are compared in Table 4. The
stiffness of building is constant till B hinge has formed in progression of nonlinearity in the transverse wide column
longitudinal wide column. The stiffness in wide column and its corresponding (at same roof displacement) shell
abruptly reduces after nonlinearity has started in the wide stress in concrete and steel at supports shown in Fig. 7 are
88
given in Table 6. It is observed that the initial stiffness of 2.4 Equivalent Wide Column Modelling
nonlinear layered shell element model and wide column To simulate the opening in wide column the wide
model in the transverse direction is same. The stiffness column has been divided into 3 parts. Top, bottom parts are
gradually decreases in shell element model due to the solid section of shear wall and the height of mid part
progression of nonlinearity in the shear wall. In the wide has kept equal to the height of the opening. The designed
column, the stiffness suddenly reduces after B hinge has sections have been provided as wide column using section
formed in transverse wide column. In the transverse designer. The hinge properties have been calculated
direction yield force in wide column model is 3% less than separately at solid and punched sections as explained for
that of solid shell element model, whereas, stiffness is 22% wide column modelling. The moment of inertia and shear
higher for wide column model. Ductility of wide column area at the opening section have been modified according
model in the transverse direction is 23% more than solid to the size of the opening in the shear wall. The property
shell element model. The ultimate base shear of shell modifiers have been entered in SAP2000. Neuenhofer
element model is more than wide column model. (2006) proposed some method to estimate lateral stiffness
of shear walls with openings and similar approach has been
Table 5: Capacity curve parameters of solid shear wall used to calculate modification factors to modify moment
models in transverse direction of inertia and shear area of shear wall section used in
Model SE WC software model (equation 4 and 5).
N<7O2PQR$SQ2TUVO
Yield Force (kN) 14900 14400 BGHIJK$G-$LJIMKL'$HG)L-LIM = $$$$$
NSVWUR$SQ2TUVO
X<7O2PQR$SQ2TUVO
Yield Displacement (mm) 19 16
= $$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$5Y6
Effective Stiffness, Ke (kN/m) 790000 960000 XSVWUR$SQ2TUVO
Target displacement (mm) 36 34
\MI'$G-$]^J_[I)$Ì_KLGJ$
Ultimate Displacement (mm) 265 370 Z[I'M$'MI'$HG)L-LIM = $$$$$$$$5?6
\MI'$G-$`GaL)$Ì_KLGJ
Ductility Capacity 13.95 17.13
The yield force and stiffness of equivalent wide
Over strength ratio 2.06 2.39
column model 7% and 24% more than punched shell
element model respectively. Ductility of punched shell
element model is 12% more than wide column model.
Figure 7: Transverse shear wall Table 7: Capacity curve parameters of punched shear wall
150000 with 1 m square openings in longitudinal direction
100000 Curve Model SE 1m opening WC 1m opening
B hinge Yield Force 13800 kN 14700 kN
Moment
(kN-m)
50000 IO hinge
0 Yield Displacement 30 mm 26 mm
LS hinge
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 CP hinge Effective Stiffness, Ke 453333 kN/m 560000 kN/m
Plastic rotation (radians) C hinge Target displacement 54 mm 47 mm
Figure 8: Moment-rotation curve given for transverse Ultimate Displacement 228 mm 174 mm
wide column Ductility Capacity 7.6 6.69
Over strength ratio 2.29 2.35
2.3 Punched Nonlinear Layered Shell Element The nonlinear hinge formation in the longitudinal
Modelling equivalent wide column and corresponding punched shell
The building with 1 m square openings in the shear stresses of concrete and steel for Fig. 10 are given in Table
wall has been manually designed for shear at two sections 8. The yield force of punched shear wall models in the
in a shear wall (i.e., at solid and punched sections). The transverse direction from the two approaches is nearly
reinforcement obtained near the opening was greater than same. The stiffness of equivalent wide column model is 6%
at the solid section. The shear walls have been modelled as more than punched shell element model. Ductility of
nonlinear layered shell elements similar to the solid shell punched shell element model is 27% more than punched
element modelling. shell element model in the transverse direction.
Table 6: Hinge formation in transverse wide column and its corresponding nonlinear layered shell stresses (no opening)
Stress at 1 Stress at 2 Stress at 3 Stress at 4 Stress at 5 Stress at 6
C S C S C S C S C S C S
B 0 143.2 0 114.2 0 32.05 -3.79 -28.28 -8.74 -72.3 -11.93 -99
IO 0 415 0 417 -0.41 382.1 0 43.28 -16.16 -140.5 -22.49 -218.7
LS 0 420.7 0 415.5 0 415 -0.31 489.9 -11.9 -234 -38.65 -439.3
CP 0 441.2 0 439.3 0 416.7 -0.27 460.3 -11.64 -142.5 -41.7 -429.2
C 0 443.6 0 442.3 0 420.6 -0.12 449.2 -11.59 -97.7 -42.27 -431.7
89
Note: Negative is compression and tension is positive, considering concrete has no tensile strength, C Concrete, S Steel
18000 18000 SE 1m opening
16000 16000 WC 1m opening
Base Shear (kN)

Base Shear (kN)
14000 14000 B hinge

12000 12000 IO hinge
10000 10000 LS hinge
8000 8000 C hinge
6000 B hinge in WC
6000
4000 IO hinge in WC
4000 LS hinge in WC
2000 2000
CP hinge in WC
0 0 C hinge in WC
-0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 D hinge in WC
Displacement (m) Displacement (m) E hinge in WC
(b)
(a)
Figure 9: Capacity curve of punched shear wall models in (a)Longitudinal direction (b)Transverse direction
in beams connected to transverse punched shear wall

for pushover analysis in the transverse direction. From
inelastic stresses, it is observed that steel has started
yielding just before the IO hinge formation in the
Figure 10: Longitudinal punched shear wall
transverse equivalent wide column.
150000
curve Table 9: Capacity curve parameters of punched shear
100000 B hinge
Moment
(kN-m)
50000
wall models with 1 m square openings in transverse
IO hinge
0 LS hinge direction
-50000 0 0.005 0.01 0.015 CP hinge SE 1 m WC 1 m
Model
Plastic rotation (radians) C hinge opening opening
Figure 11: Moment-rotation curve given for longitudinal Yield Force (kN) 14200 14150
equivalent wide column Yield Displacement (mm) 22 20
Effective Stiffness, Ke (kN/m) 660000 700000
The ultimate base shear of punched shell element model is
more than equivalent wide column model. The nonlinear Target displacement (mm) 37 42
hinge formation in the transverse equivalent wide column Ultimate Displacement (mm) 274 183
and corresponding punched shell stresses of concrete and Ductility Capacity 12.45 9.15
steel for Fig. 12 are given in Table 10.
It was observed that first IO, LS, C hinges are formed Over strength ratio 2.13 2.44
in longitudinal beams connected to the longitudinal shear
wall for pushover analysis in the longitudinal direction and
Table 8: Hinge formation in longitudinal equivalent wide column and its corresponding layered punched shell stresses
Stress at 1 Stress at corners of opening A Stress at 3 Stress at corners of opening B Stress at 5
C S C S C S C S C S
0 0 134 89 -1.8 -6.3 -14 -52
B -0.34 299 0 29 -17.2 -155
0 0 123 97 -3.5 -4.6 -26 -36
0 0 304 157 0 -6.6 7 -52
IO 0 429 0 23.5 -22.2 -215
0 0 158 171 0 -4.5 -7 -34
-0.36 0 417 135 0 0 110 18
415
LS 0 426 0 -38.3 -470
-0.06 0 399 416 0 0 374 336
-0.23 0 449 149 0 0 157 72

CP 0 440 0 415 -42.1 -452
0 0 419 414.7 0 0 415 393
-0.23 0 449 150 -0.2 0 159 104
C 0 441 0 415 -42.6 -453
0 0 421 415.5 0 0 415 422
90
Table 10: Hinge formation in transverse equivalent wide column and its corresponding layered punched shell stresses
Stress at 1 Stress at 2 Stress at corners of opening D Stress at 4 Stress at 5
C S C S C S C S C S
0 0 49 12
B -0.4 303 0 20 -2.8 -22 -16 -139
0 0 41 25
0 0 151 80
IO 0 427 0 26 0 7.7 -22 -213
0 0 137 93
0 0 155 143
LS 0 434 0 414.8 0 415 -39.2 -468
0 0 415 415
0 0 157 142
CP 0 444 0 424 0 415 -42.3 -448
0 0 415 415
0 0 158 142
C 0 447 0 431 0 415 -42.7 -442
0 0 415 415
Note: Negative is compression and tension is positive, considering concrete has no tensile strength, C Concrete, S Steel
concentration has been observed around the shear wall

opening in layered shell element model which plays an
imporetant role in nonlinear deformation. Overall, the
layered shell element model is more effective in predicting
Figure 12: Transverse punched shear wall
the nonlinear response of the shear wall building than wide
150000 curve column model, however, it is computationally more time
100000 B hinge consuming.
Moment
(kN-m)
IO hinge 4. References
50000
LS hinge [1] Clough, R. W., King, I. P., and Wilson, E. L.,
0 CP hinge "Structural analysis of multistory buildings." J.
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 C hinge
Plastic rotation (radians) Struct. Div., ASCE, 90(3), 19-34, 1964.
Figure 13: Moment-rotation curve given for transverse [2] EN 1998-8-3, Design of Structures for earthquake
equivalent wide column resistance Part 3, Eurocode 8, London (Britain),
2005.
3 Conclusions [3] FEMA 356 (2000), Pre-standard and commentary
The linear analysis results (i.e. modal analysis results, for the seismic rehabilitation of buildings, Federal
shear force and moments) of layered shell element model Emergency Management Agency, Washington, DC,
and their respective wide column models are comparable. 2000.
The initial stiffness of the layered shell element model and [4] IBC 2009, International Building Code,
wide column model is alike in both directions which International Code Council Inc. USA.
indicates that observed behaviour of shear wall building [5] Kwan, A.K.H., Improved wide-column-frame
from two approaches is same within the linear range. From analogy for shear/core wall analysis, Journal of
nonlinear analysis it is observed that the yield force by Structural. Engineering, Vol. 119(2), 420-437, 1993.
wide column model is 3% higher than layered shell [6] Medhekar, M. S. and Jain, S. K., Seismic behaviour,
element, whereas, the bilinearized stiffness of wide design and detailing of RC shear walls, Part II:
column models 25% higher than that of layered shell Design and detailing, Indian Concrete Journal, 67,
element model. Similarly, incase of puched shear wall the 451-451, 1993.
yield force and stiffness of equivalent wide column [7] Neuenhofer, A., Lateral stiffness of shear walls with
models are 7% and 24% higher than punched layer shell openings, Journal of Structural. Engineering, Vol.
element model. As in wide column model bilinear lumped 132 (11), 1846-1851, 2006.
plasticity has been assigned hence this modelling [8] Meslem and Lang, Nonlinear Analysis and
approach is unable to capture progressive nonlinearity in Performance Based Design of Multistorey Buildings,
the shear wall and overestimates the capacity of the Indo-Norwegian Training Programme course
building. In case of punched shear wall the stress material, New Delhi, December 3 - 5, 2015.
91
EFFECT OF MODELING ASSUMPTIONS ON SEISMIC

PERFORMANCE OF RC BUILDING
Onkar G. Kumbhar1, Ratnesh Kumar2
1, 2
Department of Applied Mechanics, Visvesvaraya National Institute of Technology, Nagpur-440010,
M.H., India
Present paper highlights the effect of some modeling assumptions on the seismic performance of
reinforced concrete (RC) structure. Nonlinear seismic behavior of RC buildings for different modeling
assumptions viz. support condition, non-rigid beam-column joint and lintel integrated with the columns
have been studied. Seismic performance has been checked by using nonlinear static analysis procedure
(NSP). It has been observed that change in modelling assumption significantly affects the nonlinear
performance of the building. From the study it has been concluded that the modeling assumptions should
match the realistic condition and should not be same irrespective of actual circumstances. Due to lack of
specific structural modelling guidelines the designers do not give due importance to appropriate
modelling assumptions which can lead to unsafe design of buildings.
Keywords: RC frame building; modeling assumptions; support condition; beam-column joint; lintel; nonlinear
static analysis.
1 Introduction dimension and vertical dimension equal to the beam

depth, except that a wider joint. ASCE/SEI 41-06 (2007)
The deficiency in building crops up at different
also gives recommendation identical to FEMA 356
stage of planning, design and construction, and these
(2000). However, in update of ASCE/SEI 41 concrete
deficiencies impart drastic reduction in seismic behavior
provisions Elwood et al. (2007) concluded that
of structure. As per Singh and Kumar (2008) these
FEMA356 overestimates the stiffness of reinforced
deficiencies can be classified in three categories viz.
concrete moment frames by recommending that beam-
configurational deficiencies, design and detailing
column joints to be represented as a stiff or rigid zone.
deficiency and constructional deficiencies. Modeling
Effective joint stiffness can be modelled by assigining
deficiencies are also a part of design and detailing
different rigid zone factors in a centre line model based
deficiency. Objective of present study is to examine the
on ratio of nominal moment capacity of beam and
seismic performance of buildings having different types
columns. To improve the accuracy of the linear frame
of modelling deficiencies using linear and nonlinear
modeling approach Birely et al. (2012) proposed
analysis procedure. Some modeling assumptions like
factor on the basis of optimal offset length ratios
joint rigidity, support condition and lintel beams
calibrated using the available experimental data.
integrated in the column has been discussed. Along with
Inappropriate boundary condition of column
some general modeling assumptions few extreme cases
foundation can affect the building performance. Lamp et
of modelling assumptions (like foundation will allow
al. (1991) concluded that incorporating foundation
100% rotation, no damage will observe in lintel beam
stiffness in design of bridges leads to an improved
etc.) are considered to observe the variation in seismic
solution of the overall seismic load level. FEMA 356
performance of structure.
(2000), recommends some mathematical model for
In monolithic RC constructions beam column joints
considering the effect of soil stiffness for foundation.
are relatively rigid, however the effect of joint rigidity is
However IS 1893(2) 2002 suggests that soil-structure
generally ignored in the conventional structural
interaction may be neglected in the seismic analysis for
analysis. Khan and Badre (1999) carried out finite
structures supported on rock or rock-like material. Fixed
element analysis of RC beam column connection and
end condition of column foundation is the prevaling
clearly indicated that results of the conventional frame
modeling assumption in the contemporary design
analysis method do not reflect actual behavior of a RC
industry in India. In present study different fixity
frame structure. EC8 provide modeling guideline to
condition for foundation have been delt.
incorporate the contribution of joint to the deformability
The lintel beams (i.e. is a small beam) are provided
of building. FEMA 356 (2000) also recommends that
to bridge the door and window opening over masonry
the beam column joint in monolithic construction shall
wall, however, the same practice is still being continued
be represented as stiff or rigid zone having a horizontal
with RC frame structures in which lintel spans between
dimension equal to the column cross-sectional
columns. If the Cross sectional size of lintel is small it
1
Research Scholar, VNIT Nagpur, onkar.kumbhar97@gmail.com
2
Assitant Professor, VNIT Nagpur, ratnesh.eq@gmail.com
92
Onkar G. Kumbhar and Ratnesh Kumar
does not significantly affects the behavior of building. been increased approximately by 23% after application
However, it is observed that many times designer of joint rigidity factor. Ultimate displacement of models
provides large lintle sizes but neglects in modelling. with joint rigidity is reduced approximately by 32%
Due to lintel integrated into the column the behavior of than no offset frame model. However the joint rigidity
structure under lateral loading changes. Such integrated factor () changed from 0.6 to 1, not much change has
lintel beam provides additional restrain to the column been observed in initial stiffness, yield base shear and
results in change in performance of building. Murty et yield displacement of the structure. This indicates that
al. (2012), performed linear dynamic analysis of buildings designed excluding joint rigidity behave
building with three different lintel sizes (100 mm, 200 similar irrespective of degree of joint rigidity.
8000
mm and 300 mm) and was observed that, the shear
BASE SHEAR (kN)

demand imposed on columns increases with increase in 7000
size of lintel. The short column effect will be 6000

predominantly seen due to lintel level beam. In present
5000
study effect of three lintel cross section on seismic
performance of the building have been studied. 4000 =0
= 0.6
2 Modeling, and Analysis 3000 = 0.8
=1
To carryout a comparative study of proposed 2000 IO
modeling deficiencies a G+5 storey building with LS
1000
regular plan is selected, which is very similar to the plan CP
D
of office and public building, having rooms on the both 0
-1 -0.5 0 0.5 1
side of passage way (Fig. 1). The plan is simple and ROOF DISPLACEMENT (m)
symmetric in both longitudinal as well as transverse Figure 2: Comparison of Capacity curves of structures
direction. Structural modeling, analysis and design have designed excluding joint rigidity factor () and analyzed
been performed using SAP 2000. for =0, =1, =0.8 and =0.6 in longitudinal
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 direction.
A
5.0 10000
B
BASE SHEAR (kN)

2.6 9000
C 8000
5.0
7000
D
4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 6000
Figure 1: Plan of a six story building (Model S) 5000
= 0.0
4000 = 0.6
The detailed mathematical model has been prepared to = 0.8
3000
represent the distribution of structural stiffness and = 1.0
IO
loading in plan as well as in elevation. The details of the 2000
LS
model can be found in the paper of Kumbhar et al. 1000 CP
D
(2015). 0
-0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
2.1 Effect of Monolithic Rigid Joints ROOF DISPLACEMENT (m)
Many researchers suggested different methods for Figure 3: Comparison of Capacity curves of structures
modeling of RC beam column joint, in the present study designed excluding joint rigidity factor () and analyzed
joint has been modeled as End length offset by for =0, =1, =0.8 and =0.6 in transverse direction.
modifying centerline model having different rigidity Now to understand the alteration in nonlinear
factor. In present work joint rigidity factor (i.e. ) has performance of buildings designed for 0.6, 0.8 and 1
been considered viz. =0, =1, =0.8 and =0.6 to joint rigidity value, nonlinear pushover analysis has
analyze the performance of building which is designed been performed. Capacity curve obtained from NSP are
as non-rigid joint (i.e. =0) frame. As per modal shown in Fig. 4 and Fig. 5. After design few members
analysis results 15% reduction in fundamental time were failed because of additional demand of shear and
period has been observed as joint becomes rigid and no flexure, due to which few sections has been altered.
much change has been observed in model mass Failure in different elements of building when same
participation ratio. Details of modal analysis are not considered model is designed for different joint rigidity
given due to page restrictions. implies that no offset frame sections are unable to fulfill
The capacity curves of the building models the additional demand imposed by joint rigidity.
designed as general practice no joint rigidity model and
analyzed by considering aforementioned joint rigidity
factors are as shown in Fig. 2 and Fig. 3. Comparison of
capacity curve results shows that initial stiffness of
structure along longitudinal and transverse direction has
93
7000
rigid joint frame shows increment in over strength ratio
BASE SHEAR (kN)

6000 as rigidity of joint increases. On the other hand
reduction in over strength ratio can be seen in structure
5000 designed for modified joint rigidity. But overall
4000
performance of structure improves if they are designed
= 0.0 as rigid joint frame.
3000 = 0.6
= 0.8 2.2 Effect of support condition
= 1.0
2000
IO Moment frames consist of a grid of vertical (i.e.
LS
1000
CP
column) and horizontal (i.e. beam) members. They
D resist lateral load through axial force, bending moment
0
-0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 and shear force generated in the structural elements (i.e.
ROOF DISPLACEMENT (m) beams and columns). Member forces distribution
Figure 4: Comparison of Capacity curves of structures depends upon the relative stiffness and support
designed and analyzed for various joint rigidity factor condition of element. In general practice, while analysis
() (i.e. =0, =1, =0.8 and =0.6) in longitudinal and design of structure it is common to assume support
direction. condition as fixed. Which means soil-foundation system
8000
restricts translation and rotation in all three directions
BASE SHEAR (kN)
7000 i.e. X, Y and Z. However, it is not true for all practical

6000 cases. In reality soil below the foundation acts as spring.
To properly model the structural behavior, accurate soil
5000
spring property based on soil flexibility, amplification
4000 = 0.0 and soil-structure interaction has to be determined. To
= 1.0 roughly indicate the effect of modeling assumption
3000 = 0.8
= 0.6
regarding fixity of foundation, analysis of few cases
2000 IO including the two extreme cases i.e. fixed (restrained in
LS all six degrees of freedom) and pinned (only
1000 CP
D translational degrees of freedoms restrained) condition
0
-1 -0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
of foundation could provide some insight in structural
ROOF DISPLACEMENT (m) behavior under severe ground shaking. To verify the
Figure 5: Comparison of Capacity curves of structures performance of building designed for different end
designed and analyzed for various joint rigidity factor condition, four different support conditions as indicated
() (i.e. =0, =1, =0.8 and =0.6) in transverse in Table 3 have been considered. To assess the seismic
direction. performance of building due to change in support
All results computed from capacity curves are condition, initially the building is designed for fixed
given in table 1 and 2. From results it is observed that support condition and the capacity curve have been
target displacement of building designed as well as developed based on nonlinear hinge properties assigned
analyzed for same joint rigidity factor shows as per design, and named as Model 4. This model
approximately 70 to 90% improvement in ductility indicates the prevailing designers assumption of
along transverse direction and approximately 2 to 20% boundary condition in field.
improvement in ductility along longitudinal direction
compare to no offset frame. Building designed as non-
Table 1: Comparison of capacity curve results for different joint rigidity factors in longitudinal direction
Models designed as non-rigid joint and Models designed and performance
performance analyzed for different joint rigidity. analyzed for same joint rigidity.
Joint rigidity =0.0 =0.6 =0.8 =1.0 =0.6 =0.8 =1.0
Ductility 3.201 3.333 3.000 2.727 3.611 3.656 3.333
Yield Force (kN) 5900 6300 6350 6400 6100 5900 5700
Yield Displacement (m) 0.25 0.18 0.20 0.22 0.18 0.18 0.20
Target Displacement (m) 0.213 0.132 0.127 0.123 0.220 0.227 0.235
Over Strength Ratio 2.14 2.280 2.298 2.316 2.20 2.135 2.063
Table 2: Comparison of capacity curve results for different joint rigidity factors in transverse direction
Models designed as non-rigid joint and performance Models designed and performance
analyzed for different joint rigidity. analyzed for same joint rigidity.
Joint rigidity =0.0 =0.6 =0.8 =1.0 =0.6 =0.8 =1.0
Ductility 3.647 3.833 3.067 3.067 4.670 6.417 7.070
Yield Force (kN) 6300 7205 7350 7350 6550 6500 6400
Yield Displacement (m) 0.17 0.12 0.15 0.15 0.12 0.12 0.13
Target Displacement (m) 0.259 0.168 0.163 0.155 0.172 0.177 0.187
Over Strength Ratio 1.380 2.608 2.660 2.660 2.334 2.353 2.316
94
8000
In reality, the support condition could be different than
7000
Base Shear (kN)

assumed; therefore, three separate support conditions
were assigned (i.e. all support pinned, exterior support 6000
pinned and interior fixed and exterior support fixed and
5000
interior pinned) to the Model 4. Without changing the
pre-assigned hinge properties of frame members, and 4000 Model 1
Model 2
using NSP capacity curves have been developed. 3000 Model 3
Model 4
Table.3 Support conditions considered in the study 2000 IO
Building Model LS
Support Conditions 1000
Nomenclatures CP
D
Model 1 All support as PIN support 0
-1 -0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Peripheral support as PIN support
Model 2 Roof Displacement (m)
and inner support as FIX support
Figure 7: Comparison of Capacity curves of various support
Peripheral support as FIX support condition in transverse direction
Model 3
and inner support as PIN support General sequence of hinge formation in considered
Model 4 All support as FIX support Model is first IO and C level hinge formed in plinth
Capacity curve obtained from nonlinear analysis of beam. Further it has been observed that in longitudinal
aforementioned building models are shown in Fig. 6 and and transverse direction the hinges formed in lower four
7. Other results obtained from capacity curves are given story only. In case of Model 2, the structure yields at 8%
in Table 4. The capacity curve results shows very small less displacement and 14% less base force along
longitudinal direction, similarly same structure yields at
change in initial stiffness of structure with change in
support condition along both longitudinal and transverse 6% less displacement and 12% less base force along
direction. In comparison to Model 4 the bi-linearized transverse direction than Model 4. Change in support
capacity curve of Model 1 shows that the yield point condition shows 14% and 12% reduction in over
occurs at 20% less displacement and 39% less base strength ratio along longitudinal and transverse direction
respectively. In this case no hinge has been formed in
force along longitudinal direction. similarly same
structure yields at 6% less displacement and 70% less upper two stories during pushover analysis along
base force along transverse direction. In this case the longitudinal direction and hinges are formed throughout
over strength ratio is reduced by 60% along longitudinal structure in pushover analysis along transverse
and 30% along transverse direction. direction. In case of structure with peripheral support as
7000 fix support and inner support as pin support (Model 3)
yields at 4% less displacement and 5% less base force
6000 along longitudinal direction, similarly same structure
Base Shear (kN)
yields at 6% less displacement and 3% less base force

5000
along transverse direction than structure with all support
4000
as fix. Change in support condition shows 14% and 12%
Model 1 reduction in over strength ratio along longitudinal and
3000 Model 2 transverse direction respectively. In this case first hinge
Model 3
(IO) as well as collapse level hinge (C) has been formed
Model 4
2000
IO
in peripheral short column below plinth level (i.e. with
LS restrained support condition) along longitudinal
1000
CP direction pushover.But along transverse direction first
D
0
hinge has been formed in short span internal plinth level
-1 -0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 beam however collapse hinge has been formed in short
Roof Displacement (m) span beam but in middle story level. Pattern of hinge
Figure 6: Comparison of Capacity curves of various formation shows that load distribution mechanism is
support condition in longitudinal direction greatly affected by end restrain of structure and which
alters seismic performance of structure.
Table 4: Comparison of capacity curve results for different support condition

Pushover along longitudinal direction Pushover along Transverse direction
Curve I II III IV I II III IV
Ductility 1.8 3.217 3.333 3.160 5.067 3.063 4.625 3.706
Yield Force (kN) 3600 5100 5650 5950 5250 6650 7300 7550
Yield Displacement (m) 0.2 0.23 0.24 0.25 0.15 0.16 0.16 0.17
Target Displacement (m) 0.853 0.840 0.827 0.814 0.836 0.661 0.650 0.671
Over Strength Ratio 1.303 1.846 2.045 2.153 1.900 2.407 2.642 2.733
95
2.3 Effect of Lintel Beam 9000
8000
The function of a lintel is to carry the weight or load
Base Force (kN)

of the masonry wall constructed above it. It transmits 7000
that load to the supporting walls/columns on its either
6000
side. But lintel integrated into the column change the Model 1
performance of the same structure under lateral loading. 5000 Model 2
Such integrated lintel beam provides additional restrain Model 3
4000 Model 4
to the column results in change in behavior of building. Model 5
Generally such lintel beams are not considered at 3000 Model 6
analysis and design stage of building. To study the effect Model S
2000 IO
of lintel beam on seismic behavior of structure three
LS
different size of lintel beams (100mm, 200mm, 300mm) 1000
CP
are modeled in building which is not designed for lintel 0
D
bands, by means of two different case viz. i) No hinges -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1
will form in lintel beam of size 100 mm (i.e. Model 1), Roof Displacement (m)
200 mm (i.e. Model 2), 300 mm (i.e. Model 3) ii) Figure 8: Capacity curves of structure for lintel beam
Minimum steel is available in lintel beam and hinges integrated inside column along Longitudinal direction
will form in lintel beam of size 100 mm (i.e. Model 4), 14000
200 mm (i.e. Model 5), 300 mm (i.e. Model 6). The

capacity curve results are shown in Fig. 8 and 9.
Base force (kN)

12000
It has been observed that 100 mm lintel size is not

affecting the initial stiffness of building when nonlinear 10000
hinges are not modeled in lintel as well as when Model 1

Model2
modeled by considering minimum steel in lintel beams 8000
Model 3
(along both direction). In case of 200 mm size lintel Model 4
when nonlinear hinges are not modeled in lintel shows 6000 Model 5
initial stiffness value 20% more than no lintel model Model 6
along longitudinal direction and 10% more along 4000 Model S
IO
transverse direction. As nonlinear hinges are modeled
LS
considering minimum steel in lintel beam shows no 2000
CP
change in initial stiffness both along longitudinal D
direction. In case of 300 mm size lintel when nonlinear 0
-0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
hinges are modeled in lintel shows initial stiffness value Roof Displacement (m)
approximately twice than no lintel model along Figure 9: Capacity curves of structure for lintel beam
longitudinal and 55 % more along transverse direction. integrated inside column along Transverse direction
Results obtained from capacity curves are given in
Table 5. Structure is modeled considering lintel (without In every model with lintel first hinge and collapse level
nonlinear hinges) shows reduction in ductility of hinge has been formed in lintel beam but at different
structure by 1%, 35%, 50% along longitudinal direction level of base force. Building model with 100 mm size
and 1.5%, 6%, 20% as size of lintel increases. But as lintel beam (without hinges) shows 5% higher ultimate
nonlinear hinges are modeled in lintel beam assuming base force and approximately equal displacement
minimum steel in lintel, show 3% to 9% improvement compared to no lintel model.
in ductility of structure along both longitudinal as well
as transverse direction.
Table 5: Comparison of capacity curve results for different support condition

Pushover along longitudinal direction
Curve S I II III VI V VI V
Ductility 3.33 3.312 2.176 1.679 3.461 3.573 3.430 5.935
Yield Force (kN) 5760 6200 7250 7400 5760 6100 6000 6200
Pushover along longitudinal direction
Ductility 3.25 3.205 3.066 2.556 3.555 3.458 3.35 4.619
Yield Force (kN) 5831 6400 7300 9900 6300 6200 6400 6800
96
From the present study it can be concluded that, for the

Building model incorporated with lintel (with hinges)
considered building model, the contribution of various
shows ultimate displacement and base force identical to
modeling irregularities at the design and the analysis
no lintel model both along longitudinal and transverse
stage results in seismically deficit structure, and may
direction. Building with lintel (without lumped
lead to excessive damage or complete failure during the
plasticity) of size 200 mm shows 37% and 40% more
anticipated seismic event.
ultimate base force but 39% and 10% less ultimate
displacement along longitudinal and transverse direction 3 Reference
than no lintel model. Building along with lintel (without
[1] ASCE 41 (2007), Seismic Rehabilitation of Existing
hinges) of size 300 mm shows 34% and 78% more
Buildings (ASCE), American society of Civil
ultimate base force but 66% and 27% less ultimate
Engineers, Reston, VA.
displacement along longitudinal and transverse direction
than no lintel model. However, nonlinear hinges are [2] Birely, A. C., Lowes, L. N., and Lehman, D. E.,
modeled in lintel shows 4% and 3% more ultimate base (2012), Linear Analysis of Concrete Considering
force but same ultimate displacement along longitudinal Joint Flexibility. ACI Structural Journal, V.
and transverse direction than no lintel model. 109(3), pp. 381-391.
[3] Elwood, K. J., Matamoros, A. B., Wallace, J. W.,
4 Conclusion
Lehman, D. E., Heintz, J. A., Mitchell, A. D.,
In the present paper, effect of some modeling More, M. A., Valley, M. T.; Lowes, L. N.,
assumptions viz. non-rigid joints, support conditions Comartin, C. D., and Moehle, J. P., (2007), Update
and lintel integrated with column on seismic of ASCE/SEI 41 Concrete Provisions, Earthquake
performance of the structure have been studied. To Spectra, V. 23(3), pp. 493-523.
assess the influence of joint rigidity on seismic [4] FEMA 356, (2000), Pre-standard and commentary
performance of the monolithic RC structure, a for the seismic rehabilitation of buildings, Federal
comparative study of performance has been done by Emergency Management Agency, Washington, DC.
considerering different values of joint rigidity (i.e. =0,
[5] Khan, M.A., and Badre, E., (1999), Study of semi-
=1, =0.8 and =0.6) at analysis and design stage of
rigid properties of reinforced concrete beam
structure. If a structure designed as a fully rigid joint
column joint. J. Civil Eng. Inst. of Eng., 27(1), 50-
frame (i.e. =1) the ductility capacity of the structure
69.
increases by 90% in comparison to structure with full
flexible hoint (i.e. =0). In contrary the over strength [6] Kumbhar, O. G., Ratnesh Kumar, and Shrabony
ratio reduced by 2-6%. Condition of foundation fixity Adhikary. (2015), "Effect of staircase on seismic
depends on the soil type and foundation dimension. soil performance of RC frame building." Earthquakes
below the foundation has specific stiffness and allows a and Structures V 9(2), 375-390.
certain degree of translation and rotations. To assess the [7] Lam, I.P., Martin, G.R. and Imbsen, R., (1991),
effect of support condition on behavior of structure, the Modeling Bridge Foundations for Seismic Design
building is designed for all support fixed condition. and Retrofitting, Transportation Research Record
Further, the same building has been assessed for all No. 1290, Transportation Research Board -
support fixed, all support pinned and combination of National Research Council, Washington, D.C., pp.
fix-pin support conditions. If for a structure all fix 113-126.
support condition changes to all pin support conditions, [8] Laura, N.L., and Arash, A., (2003), Modeling
structure yields at 6% less displacement and 70% lesser Reinforced Concrete Beam Column Joint Subjected
base force. In addition to this, the over strength ratio to Cyclic Loading, J. Struct. Eng., 129 (12), 1686-
also decreases by 30-60%. In case of a combination of 1697.
fixed-pin support condition, structure with peripheral
supports fixed and internal supports hinged yields at [9] Murty, C.V.R., Goel, R.K., Goyal, A., Jain, S.K.,
Sinha, R., Rai, D.C., Arlekar, J.N. and Metzger, R.
10% higher base force than the structure with peripheral
(2002), Reinforced concrete structures, Earthq.
support as hinged and inner support as fixed.
Spectra, 18(S1), 149-185.
Consideration of large size lintel integrated with
columns can significantly alter the performance of [10] Shiuly, A., Effect of Embedment of Foundation in
building. Therefore, to study the influence of ignoring Seismic Analysis of RC Building, International
lintel beams in mathematical modeling of structure on Journal of Latest Trends in Engineering and
seismic performance, three different sizes of lintels are Technology, 2013, 3(2).
considered (viz. 100 mm, 200 mm and 300 mm). The [11] Singh, Y. and Kumar, R. (2008), Performance of
overall performance of the building designed without Structures During Past Earthquakes: Lessons for
considering lintel and other by considering 100 mm size Construction Industry, International Conference
lintel is similar. However, when the size of lintel beam on Construction Managing Earthquake Risk, India
increased to 200mm and 300 mm ductility capacity of Habitat Centre New Delhi, India, 367-377.
structure reduces up to 35% and 50%, respectively.
97
Robust Optimal Design of Buried Reinforced Concrete Pipe in Trenchless

Construction under Bounded Type Uncertainty Considering Seismic Load
S Mukherjee1, PK Shaw2, G Datta3, S Bhattacharjya4, # and S Ghosh5
1, 2, 3,4,5
Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Engineering Science and Technology,
Shibpur, Howrah- 711103, India.
The adoptability of micro tunneling of underground pipeline is getting importance day-by-day because of
minimum disturbance requirement to the busy city life. In the present paper, a Robust Design
Optimization (RDO) approach under uncertainty of such buried concrete pipeline is presented
incorporating seismic effect. Often sufficient reliable data is unavailable for such problems to treat the
involved parameters probabilistically. Hence, these parameters have been treated as Uncertain but
Bounded type. The limit state functions considered are the bending moment, torsional moment, crack
control, shear, minimum and maximum steel requirements as per ASCE and BS guideline. The results
depicts that the RDO yields solutions which are insensitive to the variation of input uncertainty. The
parametric study shows that by accommodating a small increment in the optimal cost of the pipe a more
robust and reliable design solution can be achieved by the RDO approach in comparison to the
deterministic design.
Keywords: Robust Design Optimization, Uncertain But Bounded parameters, Buried reinforced concrete
pipeline, Trenchless Construction, Seismic load
1 Introduction expectation of the objective function, disregarding the

variance of the objective function. As a result of which,
The adoptability of micro tunneling or trenchless
the variance of the output design may be at quite high
construction of underground pipeline is getting
levels, causing undesirable deviations from the expected
importance day by day because of minimum disturbance
performance. Moreover, when the uncertainty
requirement to the busy city life. However, Indian
information about the input parameters is insufficient to
design code for such an important practice has yet not
model them probabilistically, the RBDO cannot be
come up. The most designers apply British Standard [1],
applied. Because, in such cases, the probability density
ASCE guidelines [2] for design of such pipe. In the
function is not available or cannot be constructed
present work, an optimal design is presented for buried
reliably. One such type of uncertainty is Uncertain but
reinforced concrete pipeline following [1] and [2].
Bounded (UBB) type, which is considered in the
Effect of seismic load has also been considered
present paper. In this case, the lower and upper bounds
following IITK-GSDMA guideline [3]. The constraint
of the uncertain parameters are only available. With
functions are the bending moment, torsional moment,
such limited information about the uncertainty, the
crack control, shear, minimum and maximum steel
reliability index cannot be calculated and hence the
requirements as per [1] and [2]. The design variables are
RBDO cannot be executed. Thus, an alternate option
reinforcement area of inner and outer cage.
was in search, which is efficiently met by a
The presence of uncertainty in the trenchless comparatively newer approach called Robust Design
construction and design method is quite natural. Thus, Optimization (RDO). The RDO [5] becomes an
an attempt has been made to optimize the weight of the attractive alternative to the RBDO approach in UBB
pipe cross section incorporating uncertainty. The most type uncertainty cases. The RDO is fundamentally
conventional approach of optimization under concerned with minimizing the effect of uncertainty on
uncertainty is the Reliability based Design Optimization the output response (i.e. dispersion of the output
(RBDO), where specific target reliability is sought for response). The definition of the RDO may be described
the critical limit states [4]. The RBDO brings specified as, A product or process is said to be robust when it is
target reliability of a design; but it focuses only on the insensitive to the effects of sources of variability, even
1
Undergraduate student, shanbittu04@gmail.com
2
Undergraduate student, prakashshaw27@gmail.com
3
Research Scholar, gaurav.rs2015@civil.iiests.ac.in
4
Assistant Professor, soumya@civil.iiests.ac.in
5
Professor, ghoshsaibal@hotmail.com
98
S Mukherjee, et al.
though sources themselves have not been eliminated

uiI = uil uiu = [ui - Dui ui + Dui ]
[6]. Moreover, for life cycle cost analysis, the deviation (1)
of the structural performance should be designed to a = [ui ui ] + [ -Dui Dui ] = u + u
minimum to avoid maintenance and repair cost. As the
RDO minimizes both the nominal value and the In above, ui is the nominal value of u I and
dispersion (or deviation) of output response i
Dui denotes the maximum variation of u I from its
simultaneously, the design solutions by the RDO will i
nominal value, termed as dispersion. If a practical
have much lesser value of dispersion than by the
conventional RBDO approach. Even, with the estimation of a nominal value is available, it can be
probabilistic cases, the RDO yields more robust solution directly assigned to ui ; otherwise, it is usually
(lesser the variance of the output, more robust the
solution is) in comparison to the RBDO [7]. However, it
considered as, ( )
ui = uil + uiu 2 .The standard
deviation of the probabilistic variable is equivalent to
has been observed that literature on RDO of buried dispersion in case of UBB type uncertainty. The
reinforced concrete pipe is not yet available. It has been objective function is f(u) . The deviation of the objective
further observed that sufficient reliable data is often
function ( Df ) from its nominal value, f is a measure
unavailable for such problems to treat involved
parameters probabilistically. Hence, the parameters are of robustness of objective function. The f and the
considered to be of UBB type in this study. The RDO robustness of objective function Df can be obtained by
essentially becomes two criteria optimization problem. the First order Taylor Series expansion of f(u) about u
The nominal value of the objective function and the as [8]:
associated dispersion are simultaneously optimized. The
robustness in constraint function is imposed by adding N
suitable penalty term. A Penalty factor is further f = f (u ) Df = f ui Dui (2)
multiplied to the penalty term to enhance constraint i =1
feasibility. Once, the RDO problem is formulated the In the above, Df can be visualized as gradient index,
solution is done by Sequential Quadratic Programming
(SQP) in MATLAB. The constraint function is which is a function of the gradients of the performance
approximated by a Moving Least Squares Method function with respect to uncertain parameters. Using
(MLSM) based metamodelling technique. weighted sum approach Eqn. (2) can be modified as
[8]:
The development of the RDO approach with
UBB parameters is presented in section 2, followed by ( ) (
Minimize: 1 - a f f * + a D f D f * ) ( 0a 1 )
numerical study in section 3. Section 4 summarizes the
conclusions. (3)
* *
where, f and D f are the optimal solutions at two
2 Development of the RDO approach with UBB
parameters ideal situations obtained for =0 and 1.0, respectively.
The robustness of the constraint is the feasibility of the
The most common approach to deal with uncertainty is
constraint needs to be guaranteed for the considered
to model the structural geometric and material
uncertainty ranges of the DVs and DPs. The nominal
parameters, loads etc. as random variables. Under these
circumstances, the information about uncertainties can value ( g j ) and the maximum dispersion ( Dg j ) of the
be modeled in the probabilistic format by using the pdf jth constraint ( g j ) with respect to its nominal value can
and the joint pdf. But, in many cases, for example in
be obtained through the first-order Taylor series
preliminary design phases, even though some
experimental data are available, it is not enough to
expansion about u as [8]:
construct the pdf reliably. Unfortunately, the N
g j = g j (u) Dg j = g j ui Dui (4)
probabilistic theory attains its limitation when
i =1
insufficient reliable data are only available to describe
the real life systems with the aid of pdf. The available A penalty factor, kj is multiplied to Dg j to further
data can be used, particularly in combination with the enhance the feasibility of the associated constraint. The
engineering experience, to set some tolerances or jth constraint function is thus expressed as [8]:
bounds on the uncertain parameters. In the present study,
owing to the essence of the problem, the involved g j (u) = g j + k j Dg j 0
(5)
uncertain parameters are modeled as UBB type.
Finally, the RDO problem under UBB type uncertainty
Let us consider a system with N numbers of UBB can be poised by combining Eqs. (3) and (5) as:
parameters. The lower and upper bounds of the ith UBB
parameter, u I are denoted by u l and u u , respectively.
i i i f Df
minimize: (1 - a ) +a 0 a 1
*
With the help of interval mathematics u I can be f Df *
i
expressed as [6]: subjected to: g j + k j Dg j 0 j = 1, 2,......, J
99
(6)
The RDO is solved by Sequential Quadratic (13)

Programming (SQP) routine available in MATLAB.
3 Numerical Study (14)
In this section, the RDO of a buried pipeline (Fig. 1) is
presented. The Deterministic Design Optimization
(15)
(DDO) is formulated firstly following [1], and secondly
by [2]. The design is done under Dead load, earth load,
Ms , Ns, As, tb and s1 are the total moment, total thrust,
water load and seismic load. The seismic load has been
provided area of steel, clear cover and Spacing of
estimated following [3]. The earth load is estimated by
circumferential reinforcement, respectively. n = 2, when
Marstons approach [1]. The depth of the pipe from
tension reinforcement is made of multiple layer, and Ct
ground is considered more than seven meter and hence
= 1.00 for Smooth Wire Plain Bars.
Live Load is neglected. The Design Variables (DVs) for
optimization are the reinforcement area requirements in Thus, the Deterministic Design Optimization (DDO)
the inner and outer cage. The thickness of the pipe is problem is posed as:
taken as 125 mm. The maximum reinforcement area
requirement at the inner or outer cage is considered to Find x1, x2
be the objective function. The constraint functions are: So as to minimize:
i) limiting combined stress ratio for moment and axial f (u) = r s ( x1 + x2 )
thrust [1,2], and ii) crack control [2]. As per ASCE
standard flexural steel area (As) of the pipe is given by subjected to:
the following equation: g1 ( u ) : ( As ) -x 0 (16)
inner cage 1
g 2 ( u ) : ( As ) - x2 0
outer cage
g3 ( u ) : Fcr - 1.0 0
(7)
xl x1, x2 xu
Where, g = 0.85bfc/ /
and fc is the design compressive
strength of concrete, f f is a combined flexure and In above, x1, x2 are the areas of reinforcements in the
inner and outer cage, respectively. rs is the density of
thrust coefficient which is equal to 0.95, d is the
effective depth of pipe, h is the overall depth of pipe, Nu steel, xl and xu are the minimum and maximum areas
is the thrust, Mu is the moment, fy is the yield strength of of reinforcement, respectively. The Design Parameters
steel, b is the diameter of the pipe. (DPs) are shown in Table 1. The DPs are considered as
The area of steel as per British standard is UBB type. The nominal values and the associated
dispersion of the DPs are also indicated in Table 1.
(8)
Where, Pu is the factored Thrust,
(9)
) (10)
The crack control factor Fcr as per ASCE standard is:
Fcr= (Bl/5250fdAs)*[{(Ms+Ns(d--h/2))/ij}-
(0.083Ctbh2fc)] (11)
Figure 1: The buried concrete pipe section

where, B1 is the Crack control coefficient given by:
(12)
Table 1: Details of the uncertain DPs
DPs Nominal Dispersion
100
S Mukherjee, et al.
values (%) that the Moving Least Squares Method (MLSM) based
Height of earth above 7.5 m 20% RSM, a local approximating technique, will be more
the top of pipe (H), elegant for such problems [9]. Thus, in the present study,
Unit weight of soil (w), 18 kN/m3 20% the MLSM based RSM strategy has been adopted. The
constraint functions are approximated by the MLSM
Design characteristic 50 MPa 10% based RSM in terms of the DVs and DPs. The Design of
strength of concrete Experiment has been performed by the Redundant
(fck), Design scheme with axial points extending up to
Design yield strength 480 MPa 10% u 6Du. Once the RSM approximation is obtained and
of steel (fy), validated by goodness of fit tests, the gradient
Co-efficient of 1900 N/m2 20% evaluation becomes extremely simplified to cast the
cohesion (c) RDO problem following Eqn. (6). Then, the resulting
Saturated top soil co- 0.15 10% RDO problem is solved by the SQP routine available in
efficient (Ku) MATLAB.
Seismic time history 0.3g 20% The RDO is executed first by the limit state
load (TL) functions of the British Standard [1], referred here by
Adhesion factor, 1.0 10% RDO_BS. As a second module, the RDO is executed
r
Density of steel, s
77 kN/m3 5% with ASCE standard, which will be referred as
RDO_ASCE. The RDO_BS results are shown in Figs. 3
The soil-structure interaction is modeled by and 4 for different D and kj values. Similarly, the
equivalent springs in axial, lateral and vertical directions, RDO_ASCE results are presented in Figs. 5 and 6. Figs.
the stiffness (k) of which is estimated following [3]. The The value of is considered to be 0.5 for developing
soil is considered as saturated clay. It may be noted here these figures. Figs.3 and 5 depict the variation of the
that the k values depends on the UBB type DVs , c, w, optimal reinforcement area in the cage per meter length
H and deterministic Nc (=5.14) , Nq (=1) and Diameter of pipe. It may be observed from these Figs. that the
of the pipe (D). However, for the sake of simplicity, the steel requirement is more for higher values of the
nominal values of k are estimated substituting nominal penalty factor. The steel requirement by the RDO_BS is
values of the associated DPs. Then, an ad hoc dispersion observed to be more than that of RDO_ASCE. Thus, the
level of 20% due to uncertainty is imposed on k. Thus, k RDO_BS approach yields more conservative design that
is also considered as UBB type. The detail calculation by the RDO_ASCE approach. Figs. 4 and 6 represent
of k will be shown during the presentation. The seismic the Dispersion (%) of the optimal reinforcement weight
effect is estimated by a time-history analysis with El- requirement. Lesser the dispersion, more robust will be
Centro NS earthquake history in STAAD.Pro software. the design. It may be observed from Figs. 4 and 6 that
The spring-model with time-load is shown in Fig. 2. even in presence of the uncertainty level as in Table 1,
as high as 20%, the optimal weight has a dispersion of
maximum 3.4%. This indicates that the RDO design is
really insensitive to the input parameter variation due to
uncertainty. The increment of the optimal weight of
steel by the RDO in comparison to the conventional
DDO is on an average 5% to 11%. Thus, by sacrificing
a marginal amount of cost, one can have robust and
reliable design solutions by the RDO approach. The
computational cost to implement the proposed RDO
approach is also nominal.
It is generally observed that there is a trade-off
between the objective values of a design and its
robustness. If one desires more robustness, the design
Figure 2: The STAAD Model representing pipe-soil will be further away from its ideal optimal value. The
interactions along with Forces situation can be studied further in terms of Pareto-front
It may be noted here that the constraint [10]. The Pareto-front is one where any improvement in
functions of Eqn. (16) are implicit with the involved one objective can only occur through worsening of at
DVs and DPs. Hence, the Response Surface Method least one other objective. If one chooses a design that is
(RSM) is applied here to judiciously evaluate the not Pareto-optimal, one essentially forfeits
constraints and the gradients. Conventionally, Least improvements that would otherwise entail no
Squares Method (LSM) based RSM is applied for compromise. Thus, one of the important tasks in the
dealing optimization problems including implicit RDO is to obtain the Pareto-front. The Pareto-fronts as
constraint functions. However, the accuracy with the obtained by RDO_BS and RDO_ASCE approaches by
LSM based RSM, which is based on global varying the values of are presented in Figs. 7 and 8,
approximation, is often challenged [9]. The authors feel respectively. The diameter of the pipe is considered to
101
be 1500 mm for developing these figures. kj is

considered to be 3.0.
2400
kj=1
Optimal area of steel (mm2)
kj=3
2100
1800
Figure 6: Variation of the Dispersion of the optimal

1500 weight of reinforcement for varying diameter and
800 1200 1600 2000 2400
penalty factors by the RDO_ASCE approach
Outside dimeter of Pipe (mm)
Figure 3: Variation of the optimal area of reinforcement

for different penalty factors and diameter of pipe by the
RDO_BS approach 3.2
Dispersion of the optimal weight of reinforcement (%)

3.0
2.8
2.6
2.4
1700 1800 1900 2000 2100 2200
2
Optimal area of reinforcement (mm )
Figure 4: Variation of the Dispersion of the optimal
weight of reinforcement for varying diameter and
penalty factors by the RDO_BS approach Figure 7: The Pareto-front by the RDO_BS approach
2500
Optimal area of steel (mm2)
kj=1 3.4
kj=3
Dispersion of the optimal weight of reinforcement (%)
2000 3.2
3.0
1500
2.8
2.6
1000
800 1200 1600 2000 2400 2800
Outside dimeter of Pipe (mm) 2.4

1400 1600 1800
Figure 5: Variation of the optimal area of 2
Optimal area of reinforcement (mm )
reinforcement for different penalty factors and diameter
of pipe by the RDO_ASCE approach
Figure 8: The Pareto front by the RDO_ASCE
approach
102
S Mukherjee, et al.
So far, the RDO deals with the inner and outer cage of parameters due to uncertainty. By accommodating a
circumferential reinforcement. The requirement of the small increment in the optimal weight (or the optimal
longitudinal reinforcement is largely dictated by the cost) of the pipe a more robust and reliable design
Jacking force during micro-tunneling operation and the solution can be achieved by the RDO approach in
effect of seismic force. The jacking force has been comparison to the deterministic design. The proposed
estimated by the approach laid in [11]. The involved RDO approach is computationally viable, as well.
parameters are assumed as UBB type with uniform
probability density function. Then, the Jacking force F j Acknowledgement
is estimated by a direct Monte Carlo Simulation (MCS).
The result is validated with filed data during a practical The authors acknowledge M/s Simplex Infrastructure
micro-tunneling project. The comparison is presented in Limited and M/s Atoz for supplying the field data
Fig. 9. It can be observed that the experimental results during micro-tunneling operation.
are quite closer to the theoretically predicted values of
the jacking force.
References
[1] BS 5911: Part 120:1989, Precast concrete pipes, fittings

and ancillary products, England.
[2] ASCE 27-00, Standard practice for direct design of
precast concrete pipe for jacking in trenchless
construction, ASCE, Virginia.
[3] IITK-GSDMA, Guidelines for seismic design of buried
pipeline, IIT Kanpur, NICEE, 2007.
[4] Hu, D., Yang, J., Fei, C., Wang, R., and Choy, Y.
Reliability-Based Design Optimization Method of
Turbine Disk with Transformed Deterministic
Constraints, Journal of Aerospace Engineering,
04016070-1, 2016.
Figure 9: Comparison between the experimental and [5] Beyer, H., and Sendhoff, B., Robust optimization - A
theoretically predicted jacking force comprehensive survey, Computer Methods in Applied
Mechanics and Engineering, Vol. 196, pp. 3190-3218,
It has been observed that on an average 1.2% steel is 2007.
sufficient to cater the jacking force, when the jacking pit [6] Fowlkes, W. Y. and Creveling, C. M., Engineering
and receiving pits are located at a distance of 150 m. Methods for Robust Product Design Using Taguchi
The seismic effect is calculated according to [3]. Methods in Technology and Product Development.,
However, the maximum strain in concrete pipe is Addison Wesley, 1995.
observed to be exceeded invariably under the [7] Venanzi, I., Materazzi, A. L., and Ierimonti, L., Robust
considered time-history seismic load in the present and reliable optimization of wind-excited cable-stayed
study. Hence, an inside steel casing of 16 mm thickness masts, J Wind Eng Indus Aero, Vol. 147, p 368-79,
is calculated to be essential in this regard to cater the 2015.
seismic effect. The detailed calculations will be shown [8] Lee, K., and Park, G, Robust optimization considering
during presentation. tolerances of design variable. Computers & Structures,
Vol. 79 No. 1, pp. 77-86, 2001.
[9] Chakraborty, S. and Bhattacharjya, S., Efficient Robust
5 Conclusions Optimization of Structures Subjected to Earthquake
Load and Characterized by Uncertain Bounded System
A novel RDO approach of buried concrete jacking pipe Parameters, Structural Seismic Design Optimization
is presented in a MLSM based RSM framework. The and Earthquake Engineering: Formulations and
constraints are the limiting stress and crack control Applications., 2012.
criteria under earth, water and dead load as per British [10] Rohner, R. and Hoch, A., Calculation of jacking force
standard and ASCE standard. The seismic effect is also by new ATV A-161, Tunnelling and Underground
considered by IITK-GSWMA guideline. The jacking Space Technology, Vol. 25 No. 6, pp. 731-735, 2010.
force has been estimated and validated with the field [11]Deb, K., Multi-Objective Optimization Using
results. The theoretical prediction of the jacking force is Evolutionary Algorithms: An Introduction, KanGAL
with close conformity with the field test data. Since, Report Number 2011003., Department of Mechanical
uncertainty information about the parameters are often Engineering Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur,
limited in such cases, the parameters are modeled as 2011.
UBB type. The parametric study shows that the British
standard yields more conservative results than the
ASCE standard. The results depict that the RDO yields
solutions which are insensitive to the variation of input
103
ULTIMATE STRENGTH PREDICTION OF CONCRETE FILLED

STEEL TUBULAR COLUMNS
LemyaMusthafa 1, Sunitha Rani C.M.2, Smitha.K.K 3
1,2
Department of Civil Engineering, KMEA Engineering College, Kerala, 683561, India
3
Department of Civil Engineering, Sree Narayana Gurukulam College of Engineering, Kerala, 682311, India
The increased demand of high strength applications in civil engineering field led to the development of
Concrete Filled Steel Tubular (CFST) structures. A CSFT column presents a structural integration of
steel-concrete in a way that provides the advantages of both steel and concrete. The outer steel tube
provides resistance to bending while the concrete core adds on to the compressive strength thus
presenting a high strength column when compared to the conventional reinforced concrete column. Steel
tubes also offer confinement to inner concrete core, and in turn concrete core reduces the probability of
buckling of steel tubes. This paper presents a study on the nonlinear behaviour of concrete filled steel
tubular columns subjected to direct axial loading using commercial finite element software ANSYS. The
project aims to evaluate the behaviour of circular and square CFST columns, and to conduct parametric
studies on CFST column by varying the dimension of square and circular CFST to get rectangular and
elliptical CFST.
Keywords: CFST; ANSYS; axial load; non-linear analysis; confinement
1 Introduction greater modulus of elasticity than the concrete, is

situated farthest from the centroid, where it makes the
Due to rapid advancement of concrete technology,
greatest contribution to the moment of inertia. The
high-performance concrete, which has high strength, has
concrete forms an ideal core to withstand the
gradually become a central element in structural
compressive loading in typical applications, and it
systems. However, a higher strength concrete is
delays and often prevents local buckling of the steel.
generally more brittle and for this reason, there has been
It provides not only an increase in the load carrying
hesitation in the use of high-performance concrete with
capacity but also economy and rapid construction, and
strength more than a certain limit. To ensure minimum
thus additional cost saving. Their use in multistory
ductility, transverse reinforcement for confining the
buildings has increased in recent years owing to the
concrete has to be provided, the demand for which
benefit of increased load carrying capacity for a reduced
increases as the concrete strength improves. Moreover,
cross section.
closely spaced transverse reinforcement would lead to
The CFST columns do not require formwork and
steel congestion inside the mould, thus posing
additional steel reinforcement, and the steel tube
difficulties in concrete casting. Therefore, it has been
protects its surface from impact and abrasion. The local
advocated to adopt the concrete-filled steel tube system
buckling of the steel wall, due to the relatively small
to provide confinement to concrete columns without
wall thickness, is delayed because the inward buckling
causing steel congestion inside the mould.
is resisted by concrete.
Concrete-Filled Steel Tubes (CFST) are
The relevance of this topic is due to the
composite members consisting of a steel tube infilled
enhancement in structural properties of CFST due to the
with concrete, possessing the favorable attributes of
interaction between steel tube & concrete core. They
both concrete and steel. The continuous confinement
combine the advantages of ductility of steel & stiffness
provided to the concrete core by the steel tube enhances
of concrete. There are several advantages which justify
the core strength and ductility. The concrete core
the use of CFST. Some of these advantages include :
restrains inward buckling of the steel tube, while the
Greater energy dissipation and fire resistance
steel tube serves as tensile reinforcement for the
Drying shrinkage & creep of concrete in CFST
confined concrete.
is much smaller
The steel lies at the outer perimeter where it
Higher strength-to-weight ratio
performs most effectively in tension and resisting
Higher rigidity than conventional reinforced
bending moment. Also, the stiffness of the CFST is
concrete column
greatly enhanced because the steel, which has a much
1
Student, lemyandlemya@gmail.com
2
Associate Professor, srn.ce@kmeacollege.ac.in
3
Associate Professor, smithasreevas@gmail.com
104
Lemya Musthafa. et al.
High ductility and toughness for resisting codes do not account for the concrete confinement
reversal load effects and significant strain hardening of stainless
Higher load carrying capacity due to the steels in compression. Eurocode 4 [3] considers the
composite action between steel and concrete effects of concrete confinement in the calculation of the
Saving in material and construction time ultimate axial strength of circular concrete-filled steel
Concrete casting is done by tremie tube /pump- columns. However, it still provides conservative design
up method which result in reduction in strengths since the significant strain hardening of
manpower & cleaner construction sites stainless steel has not been taken into account in
Eurocode 4 [24].
An accurate formula for predicting the axial
2 Previous Research
capacity of circular CFST columns with normal- and
The studies on CFST columns had started since high-strength steel and concrete was proposed by [13].
1980s, due to its wide applications, many researchers The scale effect on the strength of the filled concrete
have conducted experiments to study different and enhancement of strength of CFST columns due to
parameters of CFST columns. Most of the researches the composite action between steel tube and concrete
were focusing stub columns. core are taken into account in the proposed formula.
The circular steel tubes offer much more post-yield Local buckling of steel tubes was effectively
axial ductility than the square or rectangular tube delayed by the stiffeners, thus increasing the
sections. For small dimensional CFST columns, smaller serviceability benefits compared to those of unstiffened
D/t ratios provide a significant increase in yield load ones [8]. The load-carrying capacity of the composite
and more favourable post-yield behaviour [7]. The columns was increased when stiffeners were provided,
difference between the ultimate strength of circular and along with slight enhancement in ductility [12].
rectangular CFST columns, can be estimated as a linear U-links modified the flexural behaviour of the
function of the tube yield strength. A stressstrain model composite member, not only because they contribute to
for a square steel tube was also formulated based on the the compressive strength of concrete by confining it, but
experimental results [10]. Axial capacity of CFST also because they delay, and even prevent, the local
columns are significantly affected with the cross-section buckling of the steel in compression by supporting it
of the column [20]. laterally along with the concrete core [18].
The increase in column slenderness decreases the
load carrying capacity of composite column [11]. The
3 Finite Element Analysis
area of steel should be at least 13% of the total area of
composite section with cross section to thickness ratio The finite element model of the Concrete filled Steel
(B/t ) 30 to enhance the load carrying capacity and Tube (CFST) was developed using the finite element
ductility of CFST [21]. software ANSYS 14. ANSYS is a commercial FEM
Concrete compressive strength is the important package having the capabilities ranging from a simple,
factor affecting the descending region of the stress- linear, static analysis to a complex, nonlinear, transient
strain curves for CFST. The lateral displacement in the dynamic analysis. To allow the necessary information
rectangular CFSTs is more susceptible to the steel tube for validation, the experimental data was collected from
thickness than the longitudinal displacement. The the experiment conducted by Huang in 2002.[8]
Failure of CFSTs is initiated by local buckling in the
middle third of height, in which the stresses are Table 1: Details of experimental data
concentrated [17]. The deformation decreases by B or B/t
t L fy fc
increase in the grade of concrete [12, 15, 19, 22]. But S.no D
(mm)
or
(mm) (MPa) (MPa)
(mm) D/t
for higher grades of concrete deformation almost reads
constant [23]. S 200 200 5 40 600 3 265.8 27.15
The effect of yield stress of steel tube in CFST C 200 200 5 40 600 3 265.8 27.15
columns on improving the concrete ductility is more A circular and a square CFST with same depth,
significant than its effect on increasing the axial load length, tube thickness, D/t and L/D ratios were selected
carrying capacity of the column. The results indicated for the validation. The simulation results show good
that the most reasonable steel grade for the purpose of agreement with the validation models.
ductility seems to be Grade 52, and use of steel tube
with high yield stress is not necessary [16]. Table 2: Comparison of analytical data with
Ying Wang (2010) added the bonding element to experimental data
simulate the bond-slip behavior between steel and S.no
P(EXP) P(ANL) P%
concrete, such as the COMBIN39 element, TARGE170 (kN) (kN) variation
element and CONTAC173 element [14], in the non- S 200 2312 2294 0.78%
linear analysis of CFST. C 200 2013 2001 0.6%
The design method given in ACI-318 codes [1] is
highly conservative for estimating the ultimate axial 4 Non-Linear Analysis of CFST Columns Under
strengths of circular CFST short columns because the Axial Load
105
4.1 Design Considerations

4.1.1 Steel
The outer profile of the steel tube should not be too
small in order to allow proper concrete placement. On
the other hand, the wall thickness of the steel tube
should exceed a certain value to ensure the stability.
According to the DBJ/T 1351 specification [2], a
Chinese local specification for CFST structures, the
outer profile of the steel tube should be not less than
100 mm, and the wall thickness of the steel tube for hot-
finished and cold-formed sections should not be less
than 4 mm and 3 mm, respectively.
In the DBJ/T 1351 specification [2],
For concrete-filled steel tubular columns:
circular sections, (1a) Figure 1: Uniaxial stressstrain curves for confined and
unconfined concrete [9]
rectangular sections, (1b)
The confinement coefficients, k1 and k2 are
where, fy is the yield strength of steel, D or B is the constants and can be obtained from experimental data.
outer dimension and t is the wall thickness of the tube. Meanwhile, the constants k1 and k2 were set as 4.1 and
If the D/t ratio exceeds the limitations, additional 20.5 based on the studies of Richart [4], where fl
longitudinal stiffeners shall be designed and provided. represents the lateral confining pressure around the
concrete core, calculated from the following empirical
4.1.2 Concrete
Eqs. 4a and 4b for CFST columns with unstiffened
The normal weight concrete and the high-strength
square sections [9]:
concrete can be used as the filled concrete in CFST
structures. Since the excess water cannot be expelled
from the sealed tube, the water to cement ratio of the
concrete should be strictly controlled. A water to
cement ratio exceeding 0.4 is inappropriate for normal
weight concrete. It is recommended that the strength of
The confining pressure around the concrete core
the steel and the concrete should be suitably matched to
can also be determined from the following empirical
improve the structural performance. It is appropriate to
Eqs. (5a) and(5b) for CFST columns with unstiffened
use the combinations of higher strength steel with
circular sections:
higher strength concrete, and lower strength steel with
lower strength concrete.
4.2 Material Modelling

The contact between steel tube and concrete causes
composite action between steel and concrete in a CFST To define the full equivalent uniaxial stressstrain
column. The radial lateral confining pressure exerted by curve for confined concrete as shown in Fig. 1, three
the steel tube on the concrete induces confinement in parts of the curve have to be identified. The first part is
concrete. Thus, to effectively replicate the inherent the initially assumed elastic range to the proportional
advantages of CFST, it is necessary that the composite limit stress. The proportional limit stress is taken
action between steel and concrete be very carefully (0.5fcc) [9]. The initial Youngs modulus of confined
modelled. concrete (Ecc) is reasonably calculated using the
empirical Eq. (6). The Poissons ratio (cc) of confined
4.2.1 Concrete Modelling concrete is taken as 0.2.[9]
The uniaxial behaviour of the steel tube is
simulated by an elastic-perfectly plastic model. The Ecc = 4700(fcc) MPa (6)
equivalent uniaxial stressstrain curves for both The second part of the curve is the nonlinear
unconfined and confined concrete are shown in Fig. 1, portion starting from the proportional limit stress
where fc is the unconfined concrete cylinder 0.5(fcc) to the maximum confined concrete strength
compressive strength. The corresponding unconfined (fcc). The compressive strength (f) In the nonlinear
strain (c) is taken as 0.003. The confined concrete portion can be determined from Eq. (7), suggested by
compressive strength (fcc) and the corresponding Saenz [5],
confined strain (cc) can be determined from Eqs. (2)
and (3) respectively [8],
106
5 Parametric studies on CFST
5.1 Modelling in ANSYS

Modelling of CFST columns are done using
ANSYS 14. Steel tube and concrete core are modelled
using SHELL 281 and SOLID 186 respectively.
Medium sized mesh is used. Bottom of CFST is hinged
by restraining Ux, Uy and Uz. Owing to symmetry of
Stress and strain ratio, R and R are taken equal to the specimen and boundary conditions, only quarter of
4, as suggested by Elwi and Murray [6]. RE is the the structure with symmetric boundary conditions on the
modular ratio. symmetric planes is modelled and analyzed.
The last part of the curve, the descending line is The interface contact between steel tube and
assumed to be terminated at the point where concrete core is modelled by TARGE170 and
fc = k3 f cc (10) CONTA174, where a surface to surface contact is given,
with friction factor 0.25. It is preferred to use more
c = 11.cc (11) stiffer material as the target and the other one as contact
The values for f1 and k3 have to be provided to surface [25]. Even though steel is stiffer than concrete,
completely define the uniaxial stressstrain relation. since the thickness of steel tube is very less compared to
These two parameters are apparently dependent on the concrete, concrete is taken as the stiffer material.
confining pressure, which varies during loading and Interface contact between CFST and rigid loading plate
depends on the B/t or D/t, cross-sectional shape, and is modelled by TARGE170 and CONTA175, where a
stiffening means. node to surface contact is given. Here rigid loading plate
The material degradation parameter, k3 can be is taken as target and top surface of CFST as contact.
calculated, from the following empirical equations (12a) Rigid plate with pilot node is given, so that, load is
and (12 b) for square, (13 a) and (13 b) for circular [9]: applied on the pilot node to get an even distribution of
the load on the structure.
5.2 Geometric details

For the present study the model used for validation
is slightly modified by only changing one of the
dimensions. Square section is converted into rectangle
by incrementing only one side by 100mm ie. Square 200
200 is converted to Rectangle 200 300 upto
Rectangle 200 700. For convenience they are denoted
as S 200, R 300 .. R 700, where the first letter is the
starting letter of square or rectangle and number is the
dimension that is varying. Similarly circular section is
It can be observed that both the lateral confining converted into ellipse by incrementing only one axis by
pressure f1 and the material degradation parameter k3 100mm ie. Circle 200 is converted to Ellipse with
will be higher for circular section when compared to minor axis and major axis from Ellipse 200-300 upto
square section. For columns with circular or square Ellipse 200-700. And they are denoted as C 200, E 300
section both f1 and k3 decrease with increasing D/t or B/t .. E 700.
ratio. When the D/t or B/t ratio is small, fl and k3 tend to
be large due to the lateral confinement from the steel Table 3: Details of geometry and property of CFST
tube. When the D/t or B/t ratio is large, f1 and k3 tend to models
be small due to the lack of lateral support from the tube. B/t
Dimensions t L fy fc
Because the concrete in the CFT columns is usually S.no
(mm) (mm)
or
(mm) (MPa) (MPa)
D/t
subjected to tri-axial compressive stresses, the failure of
S 200 200 200 5 40 600 3 265.8 27.15
concrete is dominated by the compressive failure
R 300 200 300 5 60 600 2 265.8 27.15
surface, expanding with increasing hydrostatic pressure.
R 400 200 400 5 80 600 1.5 265.8 27.15
Hence, a linear Drucker Prager yield criterion is used R 500 200 500 5 100 600 1.2 265.8 27.15
to model the yield surface of concrete [16]. R 600 200 600 5 120 600 1 265.8 27.15
4.2.2 Steel Modelling R 700 200 700 5 140 600 0.9 265.8 27.15
The steel is assumed to be an elastic-perfectly C 200 200 5 40 600 3 265.8 27.15
plastic material but, the CFST column reaches its E 300 200 300 5 60 600 2 265.8 27.15
E 400 200 400 5 80 600 1.5 265.8 27.15
ultimate load with in the elastic limit of the steel. Thus
E 500 200 500 5 100 600 1.2 265.8 27.15
linear material property is provided for steel tube with
E 600 200 600 5 120 600 1 265.8 27.15
elastic modulus 2 105 MPa and poissons ratio 0.3. E 700 200 700 5 140 600 0.9 265.8 27.15
107
5.3 Parametric Study In this study, the sharp corners of rectangular cross-
section is eliminated by converting it into elliptical
The distribution of the contact pressure between
cross-section. Thus there will be considerable change in
circular steel tube and core concrete is much more
the strain softening property of the CFST columns.
uniform than that between square steel tube and
As shown in table 4, the rate of increase in area of
concrete, resulting in much higher confinement and
cross-section is same for both rectangular and elliptical
more efficient interaction between steel tube and core
section when compared with square and circular section
concrete in circular CFST columns, as well as ultimate
respectively, the rate of increase in the load carrying
load capacity and ultimate displacement. The local
capacity is different. Percentage increase in area of
buckling is more likely to occur in CFST columns with
cross-section is 50, 100, 150, 200, 250 for both the
square cross-sections, as shown in fig.3, which gives the
sections, but percentage increase in ultimate load is 11,
analysis results for S 200 and C 200. However, for the
26, 34, 47, 58 for rectangular and 25, 40, 48, 63, 75 for
reasons of being easier in beam-to-column connection
elliptical section. For a same rate of increase in cross-
design and high cross sectional bending stiffness the
sectional area of rectangular and elliptical sections, the
square CFST is still increasingly used in construction.
elliptical section posses a higher rate of increase in
ultimate strength.
This higher rate of increase in ultimate strength for
elliptical cross-section is due to the peculiarity of
elliptical section which has no sharp corners. Fig.6.
shows the comparison of load verses strain percentage
of circle and square, similarly for ellipse and
rectangular.
Figure 3: Load Strain % graph of square and circular

CFST of same D/t ratio
Comparing circular and square CFST of same D/t

and L/D ratio, square CFST shows higher ultimate
strength, due to increased area of cross-section. But
after the ultimate strength square CFST shows sudden
degradation of strength after the peak load, (as shown in
fig.3) this is due to the strain softening property of
square section. But circular CFST closely approaches an Figure 6: Comparison of load Strain %
elastic-perfectly plastic behaviour, ie. it shows strain
hardening nature and have gradual degradation of 5 Conclusion
strength. This is because the circular CFST columns
have uniform confining pressure in all the radial A nonlinear FEM based model has been developed
direction, thus concrete core and steel tube contact using ANSYS for the numerical simulation of CFST
entirely to each other and no local buckling of tubes specimens. The attempt to reduce demerits of
take place, while in the square CFST column the steel rectangular CFST by converting it into elliptical section
tube confining pressure is high at the corners. shows reasonable results. The main findings of the
study are summarised as follows:
Table. 4. Results of the CFST Models By converting rectangular section to elliptical
Area of % increase % section, the demerits of sharp corners are eliminated.
P(ULT) % at
S.no. c/s in area of
(kN)
increase
P(ULT) A comparatively uniform confining pressure is
(mm2) c/s in P
exerted in the radial direction in the case of elliptical
S 200 40,000 2295 0.42
R 300 60,000 50 % 2547 11 % 0.44 section.
R 400 80,000 100 % 2888 26 % 0.50 There is considerable increase in the load
R 500 1,00,000 150 % 3076 34 % 0.53 carrying capacity of elliptical section when compared
R 600 1,20,000 200 % 3377 47 % 0.61 to rectangular section.
R 700 1,40,000 250 % 3635 58 % 0.65
C 200 31,416 2001 1.90
E 300 47,124 50 % 2496 25 % 0.90 References
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109
EQUATION TO EVALUATE PERIOD OF VIBRATION IN SEISMIC

ANALYSIS
Prakash Sangamnerkar1, Dr. S. K. Dubey2

1
Research Scholar, Maulana Azad Natonal Institute of Technology, Bhopal (M.P.), India, 462051
2
Professor, Maulana Azad Natonal Institute of Technology, Bhopal (M.P.), India, 462051
Abstarct
In the present study effects of various parameters like number of bays, stiffness of the structure along with the
height of the structure were examined. Fundamental natural period of vibration T of the building is an
important parameter for evaluation of seismic base shear. Empirical equations given in the Indian seismic
code for the calculation of the fundamental period of a framed structure, primarily as a function of height, and
do not consider the effect of number of bays and stiffness of the structure. Building periods predicted by these
expressions are widely used in practice although it has been observed that there is scope for further
improvement in these equations since the height alone is inadequate to explain period variability. The aim of
this study is to propose new period equation which incorporates number of bays, plan area, stiffness along
with the height of the structure.
Key Words: Number of Bays, Dynamic Analysis, Period of Vibration, Stiffness,
11 Introduction Ta = 0.09 H /d for all other buildings (3)
Estimation of seismic base shear requires the Where H is height of the building, in m, and d is base
fundamental natural period of vibration Ta of the building. dimension of the building at plinth level, in m, along the
However for the building configuration adopted and the direction of lateral force considered.
construction material chosen, it is not always possible to The period of vibration of a building depends on the
exactly determine from theoretical considerations, that is, stiffness and mass along its height. Therefore, any
through detailed dynamic analysis. Hence, empirical structural or nonstructural element with rigidity/mass or
formulae obtained through experimentally observed both has an effect on the fundamental period of the
behavior of buildings are utilized [1-3]. The stiffness building. Behavior of any structure under dynamic forces
contribution of many nonstructural elements, such as in- depends upon the dynamic characteristics of structures,
fill masonry panels [4, 5] also considered to derive period which are controlled by both their mass and stiffness
formula in different countries. For this reason, the properties; in addition, the performance of structures also
empirical expression for Ta may be specific to each depends on the number of bays in either direction along
country. The approximate fundamental natural period of with the plan area of the building. The fundamental period
vibration (Ta) in second of a moment resisting frames of buildings can be determined by an exact eigenvalue
building without brick infill panels may be estimated by analysis, or by a rational method called Rayleigh's
empirical expression given in Indian seismic code IS1893 method, with the use of computer solutions. The
(Part-1)-2002 [6] fundamental period determined by these methods is
usually longer than the period obtained by code equations.
Ta = 0.075H0.75 for R.C. frame building (1) Recent Indian seismic design code IS1893 (Part-1)-2002
Ta = 0.085H0.75 for steel frame building (2)
1
Research Scholar email: nerkar17@rediffmail.com,
2 Professor email: dubeysk2000@yahoo.com
110
Prakash Sangamnerkar and S. K. Dubey
allows the estimation of Ta by any of the following basic expressions which, in addition to the number of
methods floors, take into consideration each of the following:
Any rational method of analysis ( referring to The number of bays parallel to the considered
dynamic analysis), or direction;
The ratio between the number of bays in the
Using the empirical expressions prescribed in the longitudinal and transversal directions;
code IS1893 (Part-1)-2002. The product between the number of bays in the
The fundamental period can be evaluated using longitudinal and transversal directions.
simplified expressions, Eq. 1 to 3 found in codes, which Period formulas proposed by different authors are as
are based on earthquake recordings in existing buildings, tabulated in Table 1.
laboratory tests, numerical or analytical computations.
These technical codes provide expressions which depend Table 1: Period Formula proposed by various Authors
on basic parameters such as building height or number of
stories. Building periods predicted by these expressions Author Period Values
are widely used in practice although it has been pointed Gallipoli etal.[10] 0.016N
out by Amanat and Hoque [7] and Verderame, Iervolino Navarro and Oliveita [11] 0.045N
and Manfredi [8] that there is scope for further Oliveira [12] 0.042N
improvement in these equations since the height alone is Daunald et al. [13] 0.015N
inadequate to explain period variability. It is also known Stake et al. [14] 0.015H
that the period of a reinforced concrete (RC) frame Sanchez et al. [15] 0.049N
structure differs depending on whether the longitudinal or Espinoza [16] 0.06N
transverse direction of the structure is considered. Kobayashi et al. [17] 0.05N
The aim of this study is to propose new period Lagomarsino [18] 0.051N
equation which incorporates the effect of number of bays, Midorikava [19] 0.049N
stiffness of the structure and plan area of the building
along with the height of building. Where H is the height of the building, in m, and N is
number of stories.
2 Literature study 3. Parameters for Analysis
Fundamental natural period is used to obtain the Various RC frame buildings were analyzed using
designed base shear; hence accurate estimation of period computerized solution with the following assumption
value is very important for the safety of the structure at mentioned in Tables 2-4 and general arrangement of
the design stage as well as its performance after it is beams and columns are depicted in Fig.1.
constructed.
Since the predicted fundamental period is used to Dynamic analysis were performed by using commercially
obtain the expected seismic load affecting the structure, a available software STAAD v8i [21] on various building
precise estimation of it is important for the safety of the configurations as mentioned in Tables 2-4 and typical
applied procedure in the design steps and consequently in framing plan depicted in Fig.1. Total 132 period values
the future performance of the structure after it is were derived out of the dynamic analysis.
constructed. The fundamental period of vibration required
for the simplified design of RC structures has been
calculated for many years using a simplified formula
relating the period to the height of the building.
Gerardo M. et al. [8] pointed out that height alone seems
inadequate to explain period variability and the results of
this study suggest that global parameter (e.g., plan area)
should be added in simplified relationships for rapid
period evaluation. Therefore, an expression which
includes also the plan area is considered in the following
equation.
Ta = H S (4) Figure 1: Typical Plan with 6x6 grid
where S is the product of the two principal plan
Table 2: Building configuration
dimensions of the building Lx and Ly.
Hadzima M. et al [9] seven different equations proposed Type of Multistory rigid jointed
in their study in order to determine more accurate structure plane frames
expressions for the elastic period they considered seven
111
No of stories GF to G+11, G+24. to be increasing as the column sizes are reducing. Hence
by reducing the column sizes, period of vibration is
Floor height 3.6m increased.
No of Grids 2x6, 3x6,4 x6, 5x6, Table 4: Structural details
3X3,4X4,5X5, 6x6
Size of columns 1.0x1.0m,0.75x0.75m, .6x0.6m,
0.5x0.5m., 0.4x0.4m, 0.3x0.3m.
Table 3: Materials Thickness of slab 150mm
Material used Concrete Grade M25 and Steel Walls-
Fe415
(a) External 200 mm
Type of soil Type -II, Medium soil as per IS-1893
(b) Internal 100 mm
Ec 5000fck N/ mm2
Imposed load [20] 4.00kN/ m2
Fcr 0.7fc k N/ mm 2
Floor finish 1.00kN/ m2
Water proofing 2.500kN/ m2

4. Proposed Equations
Specific wt. of 25.00 kN/ m3
Table 5 shows the value of fundamental period of RCC
vibration with three different column sizes and three
different numbers of bays, which produces 60 different On the basis of analysis performed on 60
period values. It can be observed that the rectangular square/rectangular shaped buildings, it is observed that,
shaped buildings observed to be having greater period of evaluation of period of vibration of buildings, depends
vibration as compared to square shaped buildings and upon the base dimensions, number of grids and stiffness
period of vibration of rectangular building having 19.39 % of the structure, and the contribution of the same should
higher as compared to square shaped building, for the also be incorporated in the formula prescribed to evaluate
same building as in Table 5. Period of vibration observed the fundamental time period of the building in seismic
analysis.
Table 5: Fundamental Period of Vibration (sec) for Grid length 4 m, 5m, and 6m Grid Length
Column Size (mm)

Number
of Bays 1000x1000 750x750 600x600 500x500
Grid Length (m) Grid Length (m) Grid Length (m) Grid Length (m)
2X6 4.00 5.00 6.00 4.00 5.00 6.00 4.00 5.00 6.00 4.00 5.00 6.00
3x6 4.46 5.10 5.92 4.78 5.40 6.23 5.33 5.93 6.75 6.04 6.65 7.48
4x6 4.09 4.82 5.71 4.31 5.05 5.96 4.75 5.49 6.42 5.38 6.15 7.11
5x6 3.91 4.69 5.60 4.07 4.87 5.82 4.45 5.28 6.26 5.04 5.91 6.93
6x6 3.80 4.61 5.54 3.93 4.77 5.75 4.28 5.15 6.16 4.84 5.77 6.83
Aim of this paper is to develop a period formula which

Considering results obtained in Table 5, further 72 quickly evaluate the fundamental natural period of
analyses were performed with different building vibration by taking consideration of various parameters
/structural configurations, results are tabulated in Tables 6 like number of bays, plan area and stiffness of the
and 7. structure along with the height of the structure.
112
Table 6: Period of Vibration in sec for 5 Bays -0.55

A (5)
Ta = 0.05.(N b .N l )
-0.061
. c H 1.049
Plan Area 30x30m Ab
No of Columns = 36
Where Nb and Nl are number of bays in longitudinal and
Number of Bays 5 in both directions transvers direction respectively, Ac is total cross sectional
S. Height Column Size (mm) area of columns, in sqm, Ab is total plan area of the
No. building, in sqm, and H is the height of the building, in
m. This equation form will be referred to as a 3-variable
500x500 400x400 300x300
power model. The four regression parameters are
1 5.6 0.31 0.40 0.60 obtained by minimizing the sum of the squares of the
2 9.2 0.54 0.68 1.01 distances between the actual data points and the
3 12.8 0.78 0.97 1.43 regression curve. For each regression, the standard
deviation of the residuals () and r-squared (R2) values
4 16.4 1.02 1.26 1.85 are found. These values depicted in Table 8 indicate how
5 20 1.29 1.59 2.35 well the regression equation fits the sample Rayleigh
6 23.6 1.55 1.84 2.71 data. In this study, a value of R2=0.945 indicates that
94.5% of the variation in the dependent variable is
7 27.2 1.74 2.14 3.14 explained by the regression model.
8 30.8 1.99 2.43 3.57
9 34.4 2.23 2.73 4.01
10 38 2.48 3.03 4.44
11 41.6 2.73 3.33 4.88
12 45.2 2.98 3.64 5.32
Nonlinear multiple regression analysis were performed
on total 132 period values obtained through dynamic
analysis by using commercially available software SPSS
v16 and Eq. 5 was derived.
Table 7: Period of Vibration in sec for 4 Bays
Plan Area 24x24m
No of Columns = 25
Number of Bays 4 in both directions
S. Height Column Size (mm) Figure 2: Comparison of period values (3 bays)
No.
500x500 400x400 300x300
1 5.6 0.30 0.39 0.58
2 9.2 0.53 0.66 0.97
3 12.8 0.76 0.94 1.38
4 16.4 0.99 1.22 1.79
5 20 1.26 1.54 2.26
6 23.6 1.43 1.79 2.61
7 27.2 1.70 2.07 3.03
8 30.8 1.94 2.36 3.45
9 34.4 2.18 2.65 3.87
10 38 2.42 2.94 4.29
11 41.6 2.66 3.24 4.72
12 45.2 2.91 3.54 5.15 Figure 3: Comparison of period values (4 bays)
113
Table 8: Results of Regression Analysis for Eq.5
ANOVA REFERENCES
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Evaluation of building dynamic properties
Regression 19522.44701 4
through in situ experimental techniques and 1D
Residual 452.2884999 616 modeling: The example of Catania, Itly, Physics
19974.73551 620 and Chemistry of the Earth, Elsevier, 63 (2013) pp
Uncorrected Total 136 - 146.
Corrected Total 8282.463489 619 (2) Jiazeng Sha, Weixing Shi and Jin Wang,
Regional study on structural dynamic property of
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a. R squared = 1 - (Residual Sum of Squares) / Structural Dynamics, John wiley & Sons Ltd., 42
(2013), pp 1013 1029.
(Corrected Sum of Squares) = .945 (3) C.S. Oliveria and M. Navarro. Fundamental
period of vibration of RC buildings in Portugal in-
situ experimental and numerical techniques, Bull
Earthquake Engineering, Springer, 8 (2010), pp
609 642.
(4) Matjaz Dolsek and Peter Fajfar., The effect of
masonry infill on the seismic response of a four-
storey reinforced frame a deterministic
assessment, Engineering Structures, Elsevier, 30
(2008), pp 1991 2001.
(5) Hossein Mostafaei and Toshimi Kabeyasawa,
Effect of infill masonry wall on the seismic
response of reinforced concrete buildings
subjected to the 2003 Beam earthquake strong
motion: A case study of Beam telephone
centre,Bull Earthquake Research Institute, Uni
Tokyo, 79 (2004), pp 133-156.
(6) _____Indian standard Criteria For Earthquake
resistant design of structures-Part-1, General
Figure 4: Comparison of period values (5 bays) Provisions and Buildings , IS 1893(Part 1):2002,
5. CONCLUSION Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi.
(7) Khan Mahmud Amanat and Ekramul Hoqueb, A
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building configurations were considered and calculated building frames having infill, Engineering
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were compared by performing dynamic analysis. It is (8) Garerdo M. Verderame, Iunio Iervolino and
observed from the Figs. 2-4, that the values of time Gaetano Manfredi, Elastic period of existing RC-
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bays in either direction and stiffness of the structure 15th World Conference on earthquake engineering,
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for evaluation of time period of vibration in seismic (10) Gallipoli, M.R., Mucciarelli, M., and Vona, M.
analysis. (2009), Empirical estimate of fundamental
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(11) Navarro, M., and Oliveira, C.S. (2004), of seismic effects on buildings structures using
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Tamura, Y. (2003), Damping evaluation using (20) _____Indian standard code of practice for
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Enomoto, T., and Vidal, F. (2002), Evaluation
115
NUMERICAL STUDY ON FLEXURAL CAPACITY OF

BIAXIAL HOLLOW SLAB
Sagadevan R1, Nageswara Rao B2
1, 2
Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Madras, Chennai 600036, India
Biaxial hollow slab is a type of slab, in which concrete from the middle of the slab (floor) has been
eliminated by means of voids. This type of slab system is mainly used as reinforced concrete flat slab. Its
main advantage is reduction in self-weight (about 30-50%). However, the presence of voids reduces the
area of slab concrete, which leads to reduction in the flexural stiffness and shear resistance. In this study,
simulations were carried out by using finite element software DIANA (Displacement Analyzer) to
investigate the flexural capacity of the biaxial hollow slab. Parametric studies was carried out to compare
the effect of different types of voids on the behaviour of the slab.
Keywords: Biaxial hollow slab, flexural capacity, voided slab
1 Introduction with regards to both positive and negative bending. The

cross section of the bubble deck slab and its stress
Biaxial hollow slab is reinforced concrete slabs
variation at a section are shown in Figure 2.
with top and bottom reinforcing mesh and hollow
plastic bubbles as voids as shown in Figure 1. From the
slab, concrete is eliminated by voids (bubbles made of
recycled plastic materials), leads to a reduction in self-
weight about 30 50 % compares to conventional flat
slab. It reduces requirement of reinforcement and
concrete in other structural parts of construction and
gives economy and efficient floor system in
construction. It is an eco-friendly system, because of the
use of recycled plastic and reduction in material Figure 2: Cross section of void slab and stress diagram
consumption.
For the design of flat slab, flexural capacity [1] and

shear resistance [2] are to be considered. These
parameters are mainly influenced by voids (size and
shape of the plastic bubble). In this article to investigate
the flexural capacity of the voided slab, numerical
simulations have been carried out by using finite
element software DIANA [3]. A parametric study was
carried out to understand the behaviour of the biaxial
hollow slab with different types of voids such us sphere,
cuboid, donut, and ellipsoid. These voids are selected
based on experimental work carried out by various
authors [411].
Figure 1: Components of bubble deck
2 Simulation of Biaxial Hollow Slab

Bubbles can be placed by various methods, but Adopting a three dimensional model with four-
using the reinforcement meshes reduces material noded isoparametric solid pyramid elements numerical
consumption and gives an optimal geometrical simulation was carried out to simulate the structural
proportion between concrete, reinforcement, and voids. behaviour of the biaxial hollow slab. Finite element
The voids are positioned in the middle of the cross model of simply supported biaxial hollow slab with plan
section, where concrete has limited effect and thus dimension of size 5 m 5 m subjected to uniformly
maintaining solid sections in top and bottom where high distributed load (UDL) is modelled and analysed with
stresses can exist. Hence, the slab is fully functional smeared crack model [12].
1
Research Scholar, sagadevan.ceg@gmail.com
2
Professor, bnrao@iitm.ac.in
116
Sagadevan R and Nageswara Rao B
Finite element model is analysed with smeared

crack model and it has been frequently used in finite
element simulation of fracture and crack propagation
problems. This crack model simulates the mechanical
effects of concrete in terms of stiffness or strength
reduction [13]. In this model, cracking is specified as a
combination of tension cut-off, tension softening and
shear retention. The material properties used for the
simulation of behaviour of slab specimen is summarized
in the following Table 1.
Figure 4: Non-Linear Tension Softening (Hordijk et al.)
Table 1: Material properties
Parameter Value 2.1.3 Shear Retention Factor
Tensile strength of concrete (ft) 2.5 N/mm2 The shear stiffness of concrete reduces due to the
Compressive strength of concrete 50.8 N/mm2 cracking. The reduced shear stiffness is quantified as
(fck) shear retention [17]. The shear retention factor is
Fracture energy (Gf) 0.09 N-mm/mm2 less than one, but greater than zero. The cracked shear
Shear Retention Factor () 0.18 stiffness is then given by the general relation,
Cohesion (c) 14.66 N/mm2
Friction angle () 30
Yield strength of reinforcement 415 N/mm2 (1)
(fy)
From the earlier work done by the researchers in
2.1 Parameters of Smeared Crack Model the field of non-linear finite element analysis of RC
structures, it was understood that the shear retention
2.1.1 Tension cut-off factor is very important for simulating the experiments.
Tensile and compressive strength of concrete are Therefore, this value was varied from 0 to 0.99 to
the parameters needed to define the tension cut-off in reproduce the load vs. deflection curve obtained from
two dimensional principal stress spaces. In this model the results.
linear tensile stress cut off was used and it is shown in 2.1.4 Mohr-Coulomb Plasticity Model
Figure 3. The non-linear properties required for defining the
compressive regime of concrete are cohesion (c) and
friction angle (). Cohesion (c) can be found by
knowing the compressive strength (fck) and friction
angle () with help of following relationship.
(2)
2.2 Finite Element Model of Slab in DIANA

The finite element model of the slab is created in
DIANA software by adopting a three dimensional
Figure 3: Linear tension cut-off model with four-noded isoparametric solid pyramid
elements. The model of slab with boundary conditions
is shown in Figure 5. Meshing of reinforcements were
2.1.2 Tension Softening done by using an element called reinforcements
In order to define the softening branch of the tensile embedded in concrete with assumption of full bonding
stress-strain relation of concrete by fracture mechanics, between concrete and reinforcement. The slab (sphere
three important parameters need to be defined [14] [15]: shape void) model after meshing is shown in Figure 6.
1. The tensile strength of concrete at which a fracture Non-linear analysis was performed by adopting the
zone initiates material properties given in Table 1.
2. The area under the stress-strain curve The slab is modelled and analysed with various
3. The shape of the descending branch types of void shapes, such as, sphere, cuboid, donut, and
Among these parameters, the first two can be ellipsoid. The size of voids were arrived such that it
considered as material constants, while the shape of the eliminates 30 % of the concrete.
descending branch varies. Tension softening curve
proposed by Hordijk et al [16] was used in this analysis
and it is shown in Figure 4.
117
Figure 5: Slab model with boundary conditions
3 Results and Discussions

The finite element analysis results were divided
into strength and serviceability criteria. For strength and
serviceability criteria, the load carrying capacity and Figure 6: Slab (sphere void) model after meshing
deflection were considered, respectively. The deflection
contour is shown in Figure 7. Figure 9 shows the load (i.e., load corresponding to
The plot of load vs. mid span deflection for various the allowable deflection le/250, (18.4 mm) [18] with
types of void shapes is shown in Figure 8. The respect to the different void shapes, this plot clearly
behaviour of two-way hollow slab with various voids shows that sphere shape void has more load carrying
can be observed from the plot. From the plot, it is capacity then other types of shapes.
observed that the cuboid shape of void takes less load Figure 10 shows the deflection (i.e., deflection
compared to other shape of voids. corresponding to load of 32 kN/m2 capacity of solid
slab) with respect to the different void shapes and it is
observed that the cuboid shows maximum deflection
than other shape of voided slabs for same loading.
Figure 7: Deflection Contour
118
Sagadevan R and Nageswara Rao B
Figure 8: Load vs. Mid-span Deflection

Mid-span Deflection (mm)
Load at 18.4 mm Mid-span
(kN/m2)
Deflection (k
Figure 10: Mid-span deflection corresponding to load

Figure 9: Load corresponding to deflection of 18.4 mm of 32 kN/m2
4 Conclusion References
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Engineering Materials, 452, 773776, 2011. Plain and Reinforced Concrete. Bureau of Indian
Standards, New Delhi.
[12] Borst, R. D., Smeared Cracking, Plasticity, Creep,
and Thermal Loading A Unified Approach,
Computer Methods in Applied Mechanics and
Engineering, Vol. 62, No. 1, pp. 89-110, 1987.
120
121
Issues on Design Shear Strength of RC Deep Beams
J Leon Raj1, G Appa Rao2
1&2
Structural Engineering Division, Civil Engineering Department, Indian Institute of
Technology Madras, Chennai, 600036, India
In this paper, a simple analytical expression is proposed for limiting the design shear strength of RC
deep beams, by considering following facts. The maximum shear strength equation of ACI code is
!
same for both concentrated and uniformly distributed loading cases. The effect of needs to be
"
accounted for properly. Secondly, the effect of size, tension reinforcement, and limitations on
compressive strength of concrete, results in either overestimation or high underestimation of shear
strength of beams with a/d ratio ranging between 1.0 and 2.0. The proposed equation is validated with
the test data of 413 deep beams segregated from literature and design provisions of various codes. The
proposed model overestimates only, a meager fraction, 5% of the collected data, whereas the ACI
318-14 code equation overestimates 18.4% of collected data.
Keywords: Deep beams, Shear strength limit, shear span-to-depth ratio, size-effect
1
Research Scholar, leonraj.civil@gmail.com
2
Professor, garao@iitm.ac.in
122
J Leon Raj and G Appa Rao
#
1 INTRODUCTION in 2002, ACI code modified the ratio as % 4.0 [3,4].
$
Deep beams are characterized by small shear As per the Indian standard [5], a beam shall be
&
span-to-depth ratio, whose ratio, as per ACI 318, is deemed to be a deep beam, when % 2.0. Though
'
restricted to 2.0, exhibiting significant shear capacity &
deep beams are described by different, ratios,
at failure with complex failure mechanisms. In view '
of ample shear capacity, deep beams are primarily generally, they are recognized by small span-to-depth
recommended as transfer girders. These members ratio.
transfer loads from loading face to supports in the Figure 2 illustrates the geometric and loading
transverse direction as shown in Figure 1. The deep discontinuity of beams. In the same figure, B and
horizontal members predominantly fail in shear. Pile D regions are also explained, where B-region obeys
caps, corbel, brackets, foundation walls and offshore classical Bernoulli's theory, and D-region is the
structures are few examples of RC deep beams. disturbed region. According to ACI 318, D region is
the shear span. Either strut-and-tie model or
analytical approach is preferred to design the D-
region.
Figure 1. Examples of deep beams in bridges

Issues on designing deep beams are different
from that of normal or slender beams. Firstly, Kani Figure 2. ACI code definition for deep and slender
[1] reported that shear strength seems to increase beams
with breadth of the beam, and decrease with depth of
beam. Secondly, the variation of ultimate shear 3 RESEARCH SIGNIFICANCE
strength, Vu/bd vs. compressive strength does not
The expression for estimating the maximum
reveal any improvement of shear strength using high
shear strength is found unconservative for deep
compressive strength of concrete proportionately.
beams with a/d ratio ranging between 1.0 and 2.0.
Thirdly, the ACI maximum shear strength equation is
The maximum shear strength equation is modified by
common for both concentrated and uniformly
! considering the effect of size, shear span-to-depth
distributed loading, thus, the effect of is not ratio and limitations on shear resistance of high-
"
properly reflected for different cases of loading. strength concrete. The proposed model has been
Consequently, for deep beams with a/d ratio greater validated with 413 test data points collected from the
than 1.0, the shear strength is overestimated. literature.
Accounting for all the above-mentioned factors
influencing the shear strength in the maximum shear 4 EXISTING EQUATIONS FOR MAXIMUM
strength equation is the main objective of this paper. DESIGN SHEAR STRENGTH
4.1 ACI 318(1995)
2 REVIEW OF DEFINITION OF DEEP
BEAMS As per ACI 318-95, clause 11.8.4 [2], ()*+,-/1367
in Eq. (1) is the limit on shear strength of deep beams.
Beams are classified according to the shear span-
J)
()*+,-/1367 = 0.809: ; < >?">@AB>CDEFGHI> % 2.0
to-depth ratio. Different codes specify different (1)
values of clear span-to-depth ratios for classifying the "
beams as deep beams. According to ACI 318-95 [2] a
#
beam is defined as a deep beam when % 5.0. Later,
$
123
4.2 ACI 318(2008) 318-14 equation is retained. In addition, to account

for influence of shear span-to-depth ratio and
The expressions for the maximum shear strength
percentage tension reinforcement, the generic
by ACI 318 codes released before 1999 are re-
equation is formulated as bellow.
examined with the test data. The support crushing is
considered as the limiting criteria. ACI 318-08 clause :<qb/ rsba
?" b- (
()nop = I>
! bP
11.7.3 [3], restricts that shear force should not (6)
>W \
exceed the Eq. (2). "
b
()*+,-/13K1 = 0.LMN: ; < >?" (SI units) (2) where>W \ % 2.0
[
In order to find the coefficients, namely, a1, a2,
tu b
4.3 ACI 318 (2011, 2014) a3 and a4, W> \ is plotted with>W \ ratio, :<; , b and
Z[^_v [
ACI 318-11 clause11.7.3 [6] and ACI 318-14 [4] d. From the literature [934] and [35], geometry
Clause 9.9.2.1 proposed same Eq. (3) for maximum details and strength results of 413 tests were
design shear strength of deep beams. To make the collected. In the collected data, the beam breadth
actual equation conservative, O the reduction factor ranges from 50 mm to 900 mm, and the depth ranges
is multiplied with the previous code design equation. from 100 mm and 2000 mm. Also, the data collection
Maximum design shear strength depends on the was focused on a/d ratio ranging from 0.50 to 2.0.
cylinder compressive strength of concrete and the The cylinder compressive strength of concrete used
cross-sectional area of beam. To arrest the cracking in the beams is varied between 10 MPa and 100 MPa.
b 3/.K
within service loads and to safeguard the deep beam tu b
The best-fit curve of W> \ vs. W \ is W \ ,
Z[^_v
against diagonal compression failure, the limit is [ [
imposed. and the trend is exponentially decaying. First, it is
()*+,-/13/P = O0.LMN: ; < >?" ; O = 0. 85 (3) challenging to account for the shear span-to-depth
b bP
ratio in the proposed equation. Thus, W \ is
4.4 BS8110 [
replaced by a more consistent term Wwxy/K Wz {
As per British code BS8110 [7], the shear
b R
strength and its limit on deep beams is given by \\ , where A and B are the empirical constants.
[
K.T6 /KK*XY PKK /]P ^_` /]- [ tu
Q)RS1//K = W \W \ W \ 2W \
(4) Next, to consider the size-effect,> is plotted with
UV Z[ [ a7 b Z[^_v
depth, and the best-fit curve is identified as>" 3K.a7.
Q)RS1//K % JcGGcd>e: f0.LN:<g
Similarly, other coefficients such as a1 and a2 are
5>hi! obtained by trial and error method. By substituting all
PKK /KK*XY
the constants in Eq. ((6), following equation is
where W \ % j.0,:<g % 40>klm, and % M.0.
[ Z[ developed.
/]-
4.5 BD 2013 :<q/]- rs ?" -]P (
()nop = I>
! -]a
(7)
>Wwxy/K Wj.25 { \\
Similar to BS8110 code, the shear strength of
BD 2013[8] for deep beams is given below: "
b
where>W \ % 2.0
K.T6 /KK*XY PKK /]P ^_` /]- [ [
Q)RS1//K = W \W \ W \ 2W \
(5)
UV Z[ [ a7 b
6 INFLUENCE OF PARAMETERS
Q)RS1//K % JcGGcd>e: f0.LN:<g Figure 3 shows the ratio of measured shear
8>hi!
strength-to-predicted strength vs. influencing
Note that, except the shear strength limit, the parameters. Usually, the maximum shear strength
equations by BD 2013 and BS8110 are the same. equations limit the design strength. In the case of
unconservative prediction, the strength factors need
5 MODIFIED MAXIMUM SHEAR to be increased or influencing parameters shall be
STRENGTH EQUATION incorporated.
To maintain simplicity in the proposed equation
for maximum shear strength, the generic form of ACI
124
Figure 3. Effect of influencing parameters

Irrespective of the mode of failure or size of the either ACI code or the proposed model is strictly not
beam, the limiting shear strength should fall within applicable.
the experimentally measured shear strength.
6.2 Effect of compressive strength of concrete
However, ACI code overestimates 18.4% of the
collected data as shown in Figure 3. Especially, Most of the data predicted range between 50 %
when the depth of the beam is greater than 1000 mm and 110% of the experimentally measured shear
and a/d ratio ranges between 1.0 and 2.0, the strength. Either for high strength or normal strength
maximum shear strength equation of ACI code seems deep beams, the proposed model predicts uniformly
to be overestimated. Similar to Kanis investigations for the collected data points. The normal strength
[1], the trend of shear strength of 413 beams concrete beams scatter more when compared to the
increases with the width of the beams. data on high strength concrete beams.
6.1 Effect of a/d ratio 6.3 Effect of depth
In the proposed model, well-established fact is As the depth of the beam increases, the shear
that as the shear span-to-depth ratio decreases, the strength decreases. It is a well-established
shear strength increases. The proposed maximum phenomenon, known as the size-effect. Either small
shear strength equation for deep beams with the or large size beams, the proposed model predicts the
highest and the lowest limits of a/d ratios are 0.50 shear strength uniformly. Since the power coefficient
and 2.0, respectively. Even though the ACI 318-14 of d is reduced by 0.75, the proposed model
maximum shear strength equation is economic, the underestimates all the large size beams.
safety of beams shall be important. The proposed
equation effectively accounted for the influence of 7 COMPARISON OF PROPOSED MODEL
shear span-to-depth ratio, and it predicts uniformly. WITH EXISTING MODELS
Importantly, proposed model underestimates all the
beams with a/d ratio 1.0 and 2.0. The proposed equation is relatively safe when
compared to the maximum shear strength equation of
b
In practice, maintaining % 2.0, for girders is ACI 318-08 and ACI 318-14 codes. The proposed
[
difficult. Thus, transfer girders of bridges, residential equation has the least coefficient of variation of 0.25
and commercial buildings, the shear span-to-depth and fits well with the experimental data, whereas for
b
ratio ranges between 0.5 % % M.0. If the a/d ratio is
ACI318-14 and BS8110 equations, COVs are 0.34
[ and 0.35, respectively.
greater 2.0, then maximum shear strength equation of
125
In Figure 4 and 5, the test results are plotted strength concrete beams is more conservative than
versus predicted values by the maximum shear normal strength concrete beams.
strength by ACI 318-08 and BS8110. Since a number
of beams are overestimated by the ACI 318-08 code
equation as shown in Figure 4, the strength factor is
introduced in the ACI 318-14 code. Moreover, the
British code overestimates 30% of the collected data,
and the ACI 318-08 code overestimates 44 % of data.
Figure 6. Strength ratio vs. compressive strength

[35]
9 CONCLUSION
From the analysis, following conclusions have
TEST PRE been drawn.
Figure 4. Vn vs. Vn (ACI 318-08)
As compared to a prediction of ACI 318-08 code 1. The proposed equation is more conservative than
with ACI 318-14 and BS8110, mean of strength those models by codes of practice, such as
ratios are 11 % and 32% higher. Prediction of ACI ACI318-14, ACI 318-08, BD 2013 and BS 8110.
318-08 deviates from the 45-degree line when the 2. By incorporating the effect of size, tension
reinforcement and limitations of high strength
depth of the beam is greater than 1200 mm.
concrete, the proposed model shows good
agreement with the test results.
3. The proposed equation has least coefficient of
variation is 0.25.
10 REFERENCES
[1] Kani, G.N.J., How safe are our large
reinforced concrete beams?, ACI Journal
Procedings, Vol. 64 (6), pp.128-141, 1967.
[2] ACI committee 318-95, (1995), Building code
requirement of reinforced concrete, American
concrete Institute, Farmington Hill, Michigan.
[3] ACI committee 318-08, (2008), Building
Code Requirements for Structural Concrete,
American concrete Institute, Farmington Hill,
Michigan.
Figure 5. VnTEST vs. VnPRE [4] ACI committee 318-14, (2014), Building
Code Requirements for Structural Concrete,
8 CASE STUDY American concrete Institute, Farmington Hill,
Test results of Ref. [35] are used as a case study. Michigan.
All the twelve beams are provided without web [5] IS 456:2000, Indian Standard Plain and
reinforcement. The depth of the beam and the Reinforced Concrete Code of Practice,
compressive strength of concrete are the variables. In Fourth Revision, Bureau of Indian Standards,
Figure 6, strength ratio vs. compressive strength plot New Delhi, 2000.
shows that the proposed model is valid even for the
high strength concrete beams. The prediction for high
126
[6] ACI Committee 318-11, (2011), Building Structural Journal, Vol. 91(5), pp. 585-593,
Code Requirements for Structural Concrete, 1994.
American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hill,
[19] Tan, K.H., Kong, F.K., Teng S., and Guan
Michigan.
L.W., High-Strength Concrete Deep Beams
[7] British Standards Institution (BSI) BS 8110-1: with Effective Span and Shear Span
structural use of concrete part 1: code of Variations, ACI Structural Journal, Vol.
practice for design and construction. London, 92(4), pp.1-11, 1995.
the UK: BSI 1997.
[20] Foster, S. J. and Gilbert, R. I, Experimental
[8] Hong Kong Buildings Department (BD). Code Studies on High-Strength Concrete Deep
of practice for structural use of concrete 2013. Beams, ACI Structural Journal, Vol. 95(4),
HK. BD; 2013 Jul. 1998, pp. 382-390.
[9] Clark, A.P., Diagonal tension in reinforced [21] Tan, K. H. and Lu, H. Y., Shear Behavior of
concrete beams, ACI Journal Proceedings, Large Reinforced Concrete Deep Beams and
Vol. 48(10), pp. 145-156, 1951. Code Comparisons, ACI Structural Journal,
Vol. 96(5), pp.836-846, 1999.
[10] Moody, K.G., Viest, I.M., Elstner, R.C., and
Hognestad, E., Shear Strength of Reinforced [22] Yang, K.-H., Chung, H.-S., Lee, E.-T., Eun,
Concrete Beams Part 1 -Tests of Simple H.-C., Shear characteristics of high-strength
Beams, ACI Journal Proceedings, Vol. concrete deep beams without shear
51(12), pp. 317-332, 1954. reinforcements, Engineering Structures, Vol.
25(10), pp. 1343-1352, 2003.
[11] Morrow, J., and Viest, I.M., Shear Strength
of Reinforced Concrete Frame Members [23] Tanimura, Y., Sato, T., Evaluation of shear
without Web Reinforcement, ACI Journal strength of deep beams with stirrups,
Proceedings, Vol. 53(3), pp. 833-869, 1957. Quarterly Report of RTRI, V. 46(1), pp. 53-
58, 2005.
[12] Leonhardt, F., and Walther, R., The Stuttgart
Shear Tests 1961, A translation of the articles [24] Salamy M. R., Kobayashi H. and Unjoh S.:
that appeared in Beton und Stahlbetonbau, Experimental and analytical study on RC deep
VOL. 56(12), 1961 and Vol.57 (2,3,6,7 and 8, beams, Asian Journal of Civil Engineering
1962, Cement and Concrete Association (AJCE), Vol. 6(5), pp.409-422, 2005.
Library Translation No. 111, Wexham
[25] Zhang, N., Tan, K.-H., Size effect in RC
Springs, United Kingdom, 134 pp, 1964.
deep beams: Experimental investigation and
[13] Mathey, R.G., Watstein, D., Shear Strength STM verification, Engineering Structures,
of Beams without Web Reinforcement Vol. 29(12), pp. 3241-3254, 2007.
Containing Deformed Bars of Different Yield
[26] Garay, J.D., Lubell, A.S., Behavior of
Strengths, ACI Journal Proceedings, Vol.
concrete deep beams with high strength
60(2), pp. 183-208,1963.
reinforcement, 2008 Structures Congress -
[14] Kani, M.W., Huggins, M.W. and Wittkopp, Crossing Borders, Vancouver, Canada, 10 pp.
R.R. Kani on Shear in Reinforced Concrete, 2008.
University of Toronto Press, Toronto, Canada,
[27] Zhang, N., Tan, K.-H., Leong, C.-L., Single-
1979, 225pp.
span deep beams subjected to unsymmetrical
[15] Lee, D., An experimental investigation in the loads, ASCE Journal of Structural
effects of detailing on the shear behaviour of Engineering, Vol. 135(3), pp. 239-252, 2009.
deep beams, Master Thesis, Department of
[28] Brea, S.F. and Roy, N.C., Evaluation of
Civil Engineering, University of Toronto,
Load Transfer and Strut Strength of Deep
1982, 138 pp.
Beams with Short Longitudinal Bar
[16] Smith, K.N., and Vantsiotis, A.S., Shear Anchorages, ACI Structural Journal, Vol.
Strength of Deep Beams, ACI Journal 106(5), pp.678-689, 2009.
Proceedings, Vol. 79(3), pp. 201-213. 1982.
[29] Birrcher, D., Tuchscherer, R., Huizinga, M.,
[17] Rogowsky, D.M., and MacGregor, J.G., Bayrak, O., Wood, S., Jirsa, J., Strength and
Tests of Reinforced Concrete Deep Beams, serviceability design of reinforced concrete
ACI Journal Proceedings, Vol. 83(4), pp. 614- deep beams, Report No. FHWA/TX-09/0-
623, 1986. 5253-1, Center for Transportation Research,
The University of Texas at Austin, 2009.
[18] Walraven, J., Lehwalter, N., Size Effects in
Short Beams Loaded in Shear, ACI
127
[30] Sahoo, D.K., Sagi, M.S.V., Singh, B.,

Bhargava, B., Effect of detailing of web
reinforcement on the behaviour of bottle-
shaped struts, Journal of Advanced Concrete
Technology, Vol. 8(3), pp. 303-314, Oct.
2010.
[31] Senturk, A.E., Higgins, C., Evaluation of
Reinforced Concrete Deck Girder Bridge Bent
Caps with 1950s Vintage Details: Laboratory
Tests, ACI Structural Journal, Vol. 107(5,
Sep. 2010, pp. 534-543.
[32] Zhang, N., Tan, K. H., Effects of Support
Settlement on Continuous Deep Beams and
STM Modelling, Engineering Structures,
Vol.32 (2), pp. 361-372, 2010.
[33] Mihaylov, B.I., Bentz, E.C., Collins, M.P.,
Behavior of Large Deep Beam Subjected to
Monotonic and Reversed Cyclic Shear, ACI
Structural Journal, Vol. 107(6), pp. 726-734,
2010.
[34] Lu, W.Y., Lin, I.J., Yu, H.W. Shear Strength
of Reinforced Concrete Deep Beams, ACI
Structural Journal, Vol. 110(4), pp. 671-680,
2013.
[35] El-Sayed, A.K., Shuraim, A.B., Size effect on
shear resistance of high strength concrete deep
beams, Materials and Structures, Vol. 49(5),
pp. 1871-1882, 2015.
128
129
Shear Strength of RC Squat Shear Walls A Review

V. Sivaguru1, G. Appa Rao2
1,2
Reinforced concrete squat walls are key structural elements for lateral load resistance in many tall building
nowadays. The empirical equations for ultimate lateral resistance, which is the peak shear strength of the
wall, are available in the codes and literature. The utility of ten such equations are evaluated using
experimental data of 145 squat shear walls and substantial scatter in shear strength predictions was found.
From the equations studied, the MCBC-04 equation gives the mean and median closer to 1.0 but with
slightly higher coefficient of variation (COV) than Sanchez et al. (2010) equation for ratio of predicted-to-
experimental peak shear strength. Still improved empirical equations are to be developed, which include
all variables that affect the shear wall behaviour with small COV.
Keywords: Reinforced Concrete (RC), Squat Shear Wall, Shear Strength, Predictive equation
1 Introduction substantially in functional forms and do not account for

all the variables that affect the behaviour of shear wall.
Increased knowledge of seismic hazards has
The utility of ten such equations are considered for
necessitated the formulation of structures to withstand
analysis with database of 145 walls available in the
seismic actions. One of the most preferred options in
literature with aspect ratio 2.0 or less.
recent years is the use of reinforced concrete walls. When
these walls are situated in the advantageous position in
the building, they are very efficient in resisting lateral 2 Database
loads originating from wind and earthquakes. The
A significant number of tests on squat RC shear
horizontal shear force resulting from the lateral load is
walls with different parametric studies were carried out
effectively taken by these elements and hence they have
across the globe from 1950 to present day. The data for
been called shear walls. In RC shear wall construction,
145 squat shear walls used in this study were taken from
the walls are solid and are reinforced in longitudinal and
Yoshizaki et al. (1973), Barda et al. (1977), cardenas et
transverse directions. Concrete can be normal, self-
al. (1980), Maier et al. (1985), Lefas et al. (1990),
compacting or made with some lightweight materials
Kabeasawa et al. (1993), Mo et al. (1993), Gupta et al.
depending on requirements.
(1998), Pedro et al. (2002), Dabbagh et al. (2005),
The behaviour of structural walls strongly depends
Massone et al. (2009), Luna et al. (2015). All the
on the aspect ratio (hw/lw) i.e ratio of height-to-length of
specimens taken are squat walls with aspect ratio 2 or less.
the wall. Experimental results on the shear walls have
indicated that for large aspect ratio, wall behaviour is
controlled by flexure whereas for low aspect ratios, it is 3 Predictive equations for calculating shear strength
controlled by shear. There is no defined limit but it is of RC squat walls
usually accepted that the walls with aspect ratio greater
Most of the empirical shear strength equations found
than 2 is controlled by flexure and hence slender walls
in the codes and literature consider the addition of
and aspect ratio with less than 2 is controlled by shear
contribution of concrete, Vc and steel reinforcement, Vs.
and hence squat walls. The failure modes of squat shear
Generally, Vc has been derived by adjusting the trends
walls are: inclined web cracking, sliding along wall base
from the experimental results, whereas Vs is based on
and crushing of web concrete, whereas for slender walls,
truss analogy. The predictive equations for calculating
the development of horizontal crack on low hinging
the shear strength of RC squat walls considered in this
region, yielding of vertical reinforcement. Typically,
study are presented in Table 1. About ten such equations
most of the buildings prefer squat shear walls as it has
are considered containing six code equations and four
more shear strength than slender walls. Hence it is
equations from literature. The code equations are taken
necessary to study the shear strength of RC Squat shear
from ACI 318-14 (Chapters 11 and 18), American society
walls.
of Civil Engineers (ASCE/SEI 43-05), Mexico City
Building codes, Standards and guidelines, and the
Building Code (MCBC 04), European Code (EC8) and
literature provide number of empirical equations for
Japanese code (AIJ-99). The equations from literature are
estimating the ultimate shear strength of reinforced
obtained from Barda et al. (1977), Wood et al. (1990),
concrete walls. As they are empirical, they vary
Hernandez et al. (1980), Sanchez et al. (2010).
1
Research Scholar, sivaguru3050@gmail.com
2
130
V. Sivaguru and G. Appa Rao
Table 1 Predictive equation for Shear Strength of RC walls
Eq. Code/
Peak Shear Strength expression Units
No. Literature
Vn = Vc + Vs ! 0.83"#$% &'
Vc1 = 0.27("#$% &' + ) ,

Concrete Contribution, Vc (Lower of):
* -
/14
B
14 )9:.%;<=>? )@):.A , )E
ACI 318 14
Vc2 = 50.06("#$% + ) J &'
1 (Ch 11 Walls) C4 D N/mm2
F, C4
)H) )
G, I
Steel Contribution, Vs:

KL) =MN )-
O
Vs =
Vn = P$Q RS$ )("#$% + ) TU #V )

ACI 318 14
(Ch. 18
2 N/mm2
Special
structural walls)
ASCE/SEI 43- Vn = vn d tw
where,
vn = 8.3)"#$% W 3.X"#$% Y 4 W 0.6[ + ) + ) TO\ #V ! )))20"#$%
Z *,
3 05 psi
14 /14 U4
If H/L 1.5, Vc = 0.27)"#$ ]^

Concrete Contribution, Vc:
_v < 0.015, Vc = 0.3]'R0.2 + 20TQ `"#$a

If H/L => 1.5,
MCBC 04
N/mm2
_v >0.015, Vc = 0.bc]'"#$a
4
Vs = TZ #VZ ]^
i 0.b0j Vc = 0 ; If k 0.b0, Vc = 0.b6"#$% ]^

* *de
If de
g? g?
Uf > Uf >
?.h ?.h
EC8
5 N/mm2
Vs = lTZ #VZ Y W 0.3[ + ) TZ #VQ Yb.3 W ) [o ]'
m m
nf nf
pqr s)R%H)tÙfu=>?
k0
A
Vc =
w tan x = <R À + b W
=>?
where, v = 0.7 W )
Z Z
A::: 1 1
AIJ 99
6 N/mm2
R%@)$zU I {`|D =MD
))))))))))))))))))y =
u=>?
Vs = TZ #VZ ]}
Vn = Y8"#$% W 2.6"#$% +) + ) TQ #V [ ]~ '

Z4 *,
Barda et al.
14 /14 U4
7 (1977) psi
PQ= #V
c"#$% P~ ) ! ) ) ) ! b0"#$% P~
Wood et al.
X
8 (1990) psi
131

Vc = : <b + ; ) ! 5;

n n
m A
V0 = 0.6 W 0.0) Y [ "#$% ) ;
Hernandez et. n1
9 al. (1980) V0 k 0.bcc)"#$% ; N/mm2
If M/Vl < 0.25, Vs = TQ #VZ ]^

If 0.25 < M/Vl < 1.25, Vs = lTZ #VZ Ynf[ W 0.26[ + ) TQ #VZ Yb.26 W nf[ ]^
m m
If M/Vl > 1.25, Vs = TZ #VZ tL
Vn = Vc + Vs = YQ + [ "#$% + ) Z TQ #VZ
:.:/
K
Sanchez et. al. where,
10 = 0.42 0.08M/VL N/mm2
(2010)
v = 0.75 + 0.05 v fyv
h = 1 0.16 h fyh
Table 2 Statistics of ratio of Predicted to Experimental

4 Comparison with Experimental results Shear Strength
The predictive shear strength equations available in
the codes and literature show substantial scatter with the
shear strength found experimentally. The distribution of
ratio of predicted shear strength-to-measured peak shear Standard
Mean Median COV
strength is given in Fig. 1. The values in horizontal axis Deviation
in Fig. 1 indicates corresponding serial number in Table
1.
Vn1/Vexp 0.75 0.71 0.26 0.35
Vn2/Vexp 0.95 0.91 0.38 0.40
Vn3/Vexp 0.92 0.91 0.32 0.35
Vn4/Vexp 0.98 0.94 0.39 0.40
Vn5/Vexp 0.37 0.27 0.40 1.08
Vn6/Vexp 1.30 1.18 0.61 0.47
Vn7/Vexp 1.40 1.28 0.61 0.43
Vn8/Vexp 0.74 0.71 0.28 0.38
Fig. 1. Ratio of Predicted-to Experimental Shear Vn9/Vexp 1.21 1.16 0.41 0.34
strength Vn10/Vexp 0.88 0.86 0.23 0.26
A statistical presentation of the ratios of the
predicted-to-experimental peak shear strength for 145 The standard deviation and coefficient of variation
walls is presented in Table 2. If the mean and median in are also reported to provide the information on the
the table is greater than 1.0, it indicates that the dispersion in the ratio of predicted-to-experimental
corresponding strength equation overestimates the shear strength. The variation of ratio of predicted-to
measured peak shear strength. experimental shear strength of shear walls with respect
to walls aspect ratio is shown in Fig. 2.
132
Fig 2 The Variation of Predicted to the Experimental shear strength to Aspect Ratio.
133
5 Summary and Conclusion h Thickness of the wall

Several predictive equations are available in the lw Length of the wall
literature and various codes for shear strength estimation
Nu Axial load applied on the wall
TU
of squat shear walls. These equations vary in their
functional forms and do not account for all the variables A)TQ + BTZ (A and B varies with aspect ratio)
TU
that affect the shear wall behavior. Ten such equations
Ratio of area of transverse reinforcement to gross
are considered for this study and compared with 145
tests on squat shear walls. concrete area perpendicular to that reinforcement.
S$ 0.25 for hw/lw ! 1.5
The following conclusions have been drawn:
a. The MCBC-04, ASCE/SEI 43-05 and ACI 0.17 for hw/lw k 2.0. (Linear interpolate)
318-14 (Ch. -18) equations give mean and
median slightly less than 1.0 for the ratio of Modification factor as per Table 19.2.4.2, ACI
predicted-to -experimental shear strength. The 318-14
best prediction is by MCBC-04 equation in
terms of both mean and median.
b. Sanchez et al. (2010), Hernandaz et al. (1980), 6 References
and ASCE/SEI 43-05 equations showed the
lowest coefficient of variation (0.26, 0.34 and [1] ACI 318 (2014). Building Code Requirements for
0.35 respectively). Sanchez et al. (2010) Structural Concrete, American concrete Institute,
equation is better in terms of COV sense. Rarmington Hill, Michigan.
c. AIJ-99, Barda et al. (1977) and Hernandaz et al. [2] Pauley, T., and Priestley M.J.N., Seismic design of
(1980) equations shows mean and median reinforced concrete and masonry building, A Wiley
greater than 1.0, and it indicates that the Interscience Publication, 1992.
corresponding shear strength equation over
estimates the actual shear strength of the wall. [3] American Society of Civil Engineers,Seismic
d. The European code (EC8) equation gives much Design crieteria for Structures, systems and
uneconomical section of the wall as the mean Components in Nuclear Facilities (ASCE/SEI 43-
and median is very much lower than 1.0. The 05), 2005.
EC8 equation says that the contribution of [4] Eurocode 8, Design of Stuctures in Seismic
concrete towards shear strength is zero if there Regions, Institution of Civil Engineers; 1988.
is no axial stress acting on the wall.
e. ACI 318-14 (Ch.-11) and Wood et al. (1990) [5] AIJ (Architectural Institute of Japan), Structural
equations give almost same mean, median, Design Guidelines for Reinforced concrete
standard deviation and COV. Buildings, 1999.
The equations considered in this study do not [6] Barda, F., hanson, J. M., and Corley, W. G., Shera
account for either presence of boundary elements or strength of Low-Rise walls with Boundary
effect of out-of-plane and eccentric loading. Improved Elements, SP-53, American Concret Institute, pp.
equations are needed to account for all such variables 149-202.
that affect the behaviour of squat shear walls.
[7] Wood, S. L., Shear strength of Low-Rise
Notations Reinforced Concrete walls, ACI Structural
P$Q
Journal, Vol. 87, Jan-Feb. 1990, pp. 99-107.
Gross area of concrete section in the direction of
[8] Hernandez, O., Zermeno, M. E., Strength and
shear force considered Behavior of Structural Walls with shear failure,
Av Area of shear reinforcement with spacing s Seven world conference on Earthquake Engg., Vol.
4, 1980, pp. 121.
d Distance from extreme compression fibre to
[9] Alfredo Sanchez Alejandre, A., Alcocer, S. M.,
centroid of tension reinforcement Shear Strength of squat reinforced concrete walls
Fvw Force attributed to the vertical web reinforcement subjected to earthquake loading Trends and
models, Engineering Structures 32 (2010), pp.
Fvbe Force attributed to the boundary element 2466-2476.
reinforcement [10] Luna, B. N., Jonathan, P. R., and Andrew S.
#$% Compressive strength of concrete W., Seismic Behavior of Loe-Aspect Ratio
Reinforced Concrete Shear Walls, ACI Structural
fyt Yield strength of transverse reinforcement Journal, Vol.- 112, No. 5, Sep Oct 2015, pp. 593
603.
134
[11] Leonardo M. M., Strength prediction of squat use of High Strength Concrete, Kyoto, Japan, pp. 1-
structural walls via calibration of shear-flexure 26.
interaction model, Engineering Structurals 32
[17] Lefas, L. D., Kotsovos, M. D., and Ambraseys, N.
(2010), pp. 922-932.
N., Behaviour of reinforced concrete structural
[12] Maier, J., and Thurliamman, B., Bruchversuche an walls: Strength, deformation charecteristics and
Satahlbeton-scheiben (Fracture Test on reinforced failure mechanism, ACI Structual Journal, Vol.
concrete plates), Institut fur Baustatil und 87, pp. 23-31.
konstruktion ETH, Zurich (1985), pp 130.
[18] Cardenes, A. E., Russell, H. G., and Corley, W. G.,
[13] Mo, S. T., Dynamic tests on reinforced concrete Strength of low-rise structural walls, reinforced
shear walls, National science council project Rep. concrete structures subjected to wind and
No. NSC81-0410-E006-521, July 1993. earthquakeforces, Publication SP-63, American
Concrete Institute, Detroit, pp. 221-241.
[14] Oesterle, R. G., Aristizabal, O., and Corley, W. G.,
Web crushing of reinforced concrete structural [19] Dabbage, H., Strength and ductility of high-
walls, ACI Structural Journal, Vol 81, pp. 231 - strength concrete shear walls under reverse cyclic
241. loading, Ph.D. Thesis, The University of New
South Wales, Sydney, Australia.
[15] Gupta, A., and Rangan, B. V., High-strength
Concrete (HSC) structural walls, ACI Structural [20] Pedro A. H., Christian A. L., and Rodrigo M. J.,
Journal, Vol. 95(2), pp. 194-205. "Seismic Behavior of Squat Reinforced Concrete
Shear Walls", Earthquake Spectra, Vol-18, No. 2,
[16] Kabeasawa. T., Kuramoto, H., and Matsumoto, K.,
May 2002, pp 287308.
Tests and analyses of high strength shear walls,
Proc., 1st Meeting of the Multilateral projects on the
135
CREEP AND SHRINKAGE MODELS FOR CONCRETE:

COMPARATIVE STUDY
M. N. Shariff1 and Devdas Menon2

1,2
Prediction of creep and shrinkage strains in concrete structures is an on-going research area. While several models are
available to estimate the time-dependent strains, it has been observed that there is disparity in the results obtained from
different models. This paper aims to compare the models proposed in international codes such as ACI 209-R82, CEB-
FIP MC10 and Eurocode EC2. Additionally, other popular models such as GL2000, the state-of-the art B3 model, and
the recent addition, B4 model have also been compared. Parametric sensitivity analysis is also carried out on the models
to establish the influence of each input parameter on the response using Sobols method.
Keywords: creep, shrinkage, comparative study, material properties, parametric sensitivity analysis
1 Introduction Long-term strains in concrete depend on several

parameters such as cement content, water-cement ratio,
Concrete is a widely used construction material.
aggregate content, air entrainment, relative humidity,
Owing to its inherent heterogeneity, concrete shows
temperature, size/thickness of member, and age of
complex behaviour including time-dependent effects
concrete at which the strains are measured. In addition
due to creep and shrinkage. It is well understood and
to the aforementioned parameters, creep also depends
accepted fact that long-term effects of creep and
on the stress ratio and age of concrete at loading.
shrinkage can be detrimental to the structure in most
Although creep and shrinkage occur together, it is
cases. While serviceability is a major concern, recent
predicted separately for mathematical convenience [5].
collapse of the Koror-Babeldaob bridge in Palau (1996)
Inclusion of all these parameters makes the prediction
due to excessive creep deformations has exposed the
model highly complex and requires complicated
possibility of compromise on the structural integrity [1].
mechanics formulations which would render the model
Long-span bridges, tall buildings and nuclear
impractical to use. Researchers have developed
containment structures are most sensitive to creep and
prediction models based on statistical analysis
shrinkage effects. Proper consideration of these effects
performed on large amount of experimental data
at a design stage is essential, as they could have serious
conducted on a wide variety of specimens across the
implications in the structural design and construction
globe. This database can be accessed from the RILEM
sequence phase.
repository. Since the prediction models are developed
Several researchers in the past have proposed
based on regression analysis of large amount of
prediction models for the time-dependent strains; some
experimental data they are semi-empirical in nature and
recommendations have been accepted by international
have limitations on their applicability. Models like ACI
codes [2-4]. The present paper aims to compare the
209, CEB-FIP MC10, EC2 and GL2000 [6] are
models in terms of range of applicability, input
developed mainly for the design office and hence they
parameters and the overall response. Additionally,
are quite simplified requiring only basic parameters as
parametric sensitivity analysis is carried out on each
input. B3 and B4 models are more exhaustive as they
model, to understand the influence of input parameters
are based on several theories and require greater number
on the response. The sensitivity study is carried out
of input parameters, which may not be available at the
using Sobols method. This study would help in
design stage [7-9].
identifying the influential input parameters in each
model. Further, this would also help in designing
experiments to carry out research on long term
deformations in concrete structures. 2.1 ACI-209.2R-08 Model
The American Concrete Institute developed a guide
for modelling and calculating shrinkage and creep in
hardened concrete. The model presented is applicable to
2 Mathematical Models to Predict Creep and hardened concrete which is moist cured for at least one
Shrinkage day and stressed after the curing period. The model is
capable of handling both moist and steam curing
1
Doctoral Research Scholar, najeebshariff@gmail.com
2
Professor, dmenon@iitm.ac.in
136
M. N. Shariff and Devdas Menon
conditions. It is valid for concretes having a mean gain with age, relationship with modulus of elasticity
compressive strengths ranging from 20MPa to 70MPa at and strength and equations for prediction creep and
28 days. This model was developed solely based on shrinkage. This model is capable of handling any type
Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC). of admixture, the casting temperature and curing
method. It is applicable to normal-strength concretes
2.1.1 Range of applicability of parameters in ACI- having mean compressive strengths less than 82MPa.
209.2R-08 Model
Cement content (c) 279-446kg/m3 2.4.1 Range of applicability of parameters in GL 2000
Type of cement Types I and III Type of cement Types I, II and III
Duration of curing Moist curing: 1 day and Water-cement ratio 0.4 to 0.6
steam curing: 1-3 days Relative humidity 20% to 100%
Relative humidity at curing - 95% Type of stress and distribution across the section
Ambient relative humidity 40% to 100% Axial compression
Minimum thickness 150mm
Age of loading (moist curing) 7 days 2.5 B3 Model
Age of loading (steam curing) 1-3 days In 2001, Baant and Baweja developed the B3
Stress to strength ratio 0.5 model which is based on the statistical analysis of creep
Type of stress and distribution across the section and shrinkage data available in the RILEM databank.
Axial compression This model is an improvement on the earlier proposed
BP Model and BP-KX Model and it is simpler in terms
2.2 CEB-FIP Model Code 2010 of input required, without compromising on the
The European Committee for Concrete and accuracy and is more rational. It is theoretically
International Federation for Structural Concrete have supported by the solidification theory, theory of micro-
jointly introduced a revision to the model code for prestress relaxation in the nano-structure, activation
concrete structures in 2010. This code recommends a energy concepts, moisture diffusion theory and damage
revised procedure for computing the creep and models for micro-cracking of concrete. B3 model is
shrinkage strains as against its earlier revision in 1990. applicable to OPC concretes having mean compressive
The model is suitable for moist curing conditions. It is strengths ranging from 17MPa to 70MPa at 28 days.
valid for ordinary concrete having mean compressive Shrinkage is dependent on the size of the specimen; this
strengths ranging from 15MPa to 130MPa at 28 days. model includes a factor to consider the size effect.
Additionally, it is capable of handling steam curing,
2.2.1 Range of applicability of parameters in CEB-FIP moist curing and curing in water conditions. The model
recommends its use when the importance of the
Model Code 2010
structure is high.
Type of cement Types I, II and III
Duration of curing Moist curing: 14 days 2.5.1 Range of applicability of parameters in B3 Model
Curing temperature Moist curing: 5C to 30 C
Water-cement ratio 0.35 to 0.85
Concrete temperature 5C to 30 C
Aggregate-cement ratio 2.5 to 13.5
Ambient relative humidity 40% to 100%
Type of cement Types I, II and III
Age of loading (moist curing) 1 day
Cement content 160kg/m3 to 720kg/m3
Stress to strength ratio 0.4
Stress to strength ratio 0.45
Type of stress and distribution across the section
Type of stress and distribution across the section
Axial compression; it is also applicable for concretes in
Axial compression
tension.
2.6 B4 Model
2.3 Eurocode 2 Model The RILEM Technical Committee TC-242-MDC
The European Code also proposes a procedure to proposed a multi-decade creep and shrinkage model for
estimate the creep and shrinkage strains which is very concrete, B4, in 2015. This model is an improved
similar to the CEB-FIP MC10 recommendation. The version of the earlier proposed B3 model. It allows for
range of applicability of the parameters is also same as enhanced multi-decade response prediction,
CEB-FIP MC10 and hence it is not discussed in this distinguishes between the drying and autogenous
section. shrinkage, and introduces new equations to capture the
effects of various admixtures and aggregate types. This
2.4 GL 2000 model is based on multi-decade deflection data of 69
Gardner and Lockman proposed a procedure, suited large-span prestress bridges around the world and also
in the design office, to predict creep and shrinkage has several high strength concrete data which includes
strains of concrete. This model is relatively simple and different types of admixtures and aggregate. It is
uses basic input such as concrete strength at 28 days, applicable to concretes having mean compressive
age of concrete at loading, element size and the relative strengths ranging from 17MPa to 70MPa at 28 days.
humidity. The model includes expressions for strength
137
2.6.1 Range of applicability of parameters in B4 Model Since at least one of the indices does not repeat itself,
Water-cement ratio 0.22 to 0.87 the corresponding integral will vanish due to equation
Aggregate-cement ratio 1.0 to 13.2 (2), which leads to,
Type of cement Types I, II and III f0 = f ( x)dx (4)
Temperature of concrete (-) 25C to (+) 75C Wk
Curing temperature 20C to 30C All the elements in equation (1) can be calculated using
Volume to Surface ratio 12 to 120 multi-dimensional integrals,
Cement content 160kg/m3 to 720kg/m3 1 1
Stress to strength ratio 0.45 f i ( xi ) = - f 0 + ... f ( x)dx-i (5)

Type of stress and distribution across the section 0 0
1 1
Axial compression
fij ( xi , x j ) = - f 0 - fi ( x j ) - f j ( x j ) + ... f ( x) dx- (ij ) (6)
0 0
3 Comparison of Input Parameters for Different where dx-i, dx-(ij) denotes the integration over all
Models variables except xi, and xi, xj respectively. Similar
formulae can be obtained for higher-order terms.
A comparison of the input parameters for all
models is presented in Table 1. It can be seen that CEB-
Total variance of f(x) is defined as:
FIP MC10, EC2 and GL2000 models require only basic
input which is usually available at the design stage. D = f 2 ( x) - f 0 2 (7)
ACI-209 model requires some more parameters such as Wk
slump in concrete, percentage of fine aggregates and Partial variance for each term in equation (1) can be
percentage of air content. B3 model is more rational as computed as:
1 1
it based on sound mechanics theories and accounts for
Di1,...,is = ... f i1,...,
2
is ( xi1 ,..., xis ) dxi1 ,...dxis (8)
the water-cement ratio, water content in cement, and
0 0
aggregate-cement ratio. B3 model also accounts for the
where 1 i1 < < is k and s = 1, ,k. By squaring
shape effect. The B4 model is more sophisticated than
and integrating (1) over k, and by (3), the following
B3 model and accounts for the different types of
equation is obtained:
admixtures and its dosage. k
D = Di + Dij + ... + D1,2,..., k (9)
i =1 1 i < j k
4 Parametric Sensitivity Analysis
The sensitivity indices S(i1,,is) are defined as:
Parametric sensitivity analysis is performed on all D
the selected models to understand the influence of input Si1,..,is = i1,..,is , for 1 i1 < ... < is k (10)
D
parameters on the response. This study is important as it
where Si is called the first-order sensitivity index for
not only allows identifying key parameters, but also
parameter xi, which measures the main effects of xi on
helps in planning experimental research.
the output, i.e. the partial contribution of xi to the
The global sensitivity analysis technique is
variance of f(x). Similarly, Sij, for i j, is called the
adopted, where all parameters are varied simultaneously
second-order sensitivity index, which measures the
over the entire parameter space to compute the output
effects of interactions between xi and xj, and so on.
[10]. In order to carry out this study, Sobols method of
Sobols method can be easily implemented using Monte
global sensitivity analysis is implemented in MATLAB.
Carlo based integration. Discrete equations have been
This algorithm uses Monte Carlo integration method to
proposed to compute the total effect easily [reference].
perform the pattern search to vary the parameters.
1 N
Sobols method is based on variance decomposition. f 0 = f ( x)dx f ( xk ) (11)
The function f(x) is decomposed into summands of N k =1
increasing dimensionality: 1 N 2
k
f ( x1 ,..., xk ) = f 0 + fi ( xi ) + fij ( xi , x j ) + ... + f1,2,..., k ( xi ,..., xk )
D = f 2 ( x)dx - f 0 2
N k =1
f ( xk ) - f 0 2 (12)
i =1 1 i j k
1 1 N
[ f ( xk ) - f ( xik ', x-ik )]
2
(1) Ditot = [ f ( x) - f ( xi ', xi )]2 dxdx '-1
2 2 N k =1
Equation (1) is valid, when f0 is constant, and the
integrals of every summand over any of its own (13)
variables are zero, i.e. where N is the sampling size for Monte Carlo
1 discretization, and x-i = (x1, , xi-1, xi+1,xk) is the
f
0
i1,...,is ( xi1 ,..., xis )dxik = 0, if 1 k s (2) parameter combination complementary to xi.
Input parameters such as grade of concrete (fck),
Because of equations (1) and (2), the summands in relative humidity (RH), final time (tend), size of
equation (1) are orthogonal, i.e. if (i1,is) (j1,jl) specimen (B,D), and applied load (P) are considered.
then, Additionally, percentage of fines (psi), cement content
(c), aggregate to cement ratio (ac) and slump (s), which
fi1,...,is f j1,..., jl dx = 0 (3)
are included in the ACI model, are also considered.
Wk
138
Although most input parameters are varied, some Parametric sensitivity analysis reveals that relative
parameters are kept constant in all models: humidity is the most significant parameter, whereas size
Cement type :I of specimen and magnitude of load influence the creep
Duration of curing : 28 days strains significantly in the prediction models considered
Age of loading : 28 days in this paper.
Curing method : Moist cured
Water-cement ratio : 0.5
References
Temperature at curing : 20 C
Temperature after curing : 20 C [1] RILEM draft recommendation: TC-242-MDC,
In order to maintain uniformity, the input Model B4 for creep, drying shrinkage and
parameters are varied with same bounds in all prediction autogenous shrinkage of normal and high-strength
models, despite their proposed ranges. This is to ensure concretes with multi-decade applicability. Mater.
that the results are biased to the selected ranges. The Struct., 48:753770, 2015
inter-dependency of parameters used in this study is [2] American Concrete Institute (ACI), Prediction of
ignored. The variations are as follows: creep, shrinkage and temperature effects in
concrete structures. (ACI-209R-82), ACI
Grade of concrete : 10MPa to 90MPa Committee 209, Detroit, 1982.
Relative humidity : 10% to 100% [3] CEB-FIP. CEB-FIP model code 2010: First
Strain measurement day : 30 days to 50 years Complete Draft, Volume 1, Thomas Telford,
Size of specimen : 100 mm to 1m London, 2010.
Percentage of fine aggregate : 10% to 30% [4] EN 1992-1-1 Eurocode 2: Design of concrete
Cement content : 200kg/m3 to 500kg/m3 structures Part 1-1: General rules and rules for
Percentage of air content : 1% to 5% buildings, Central Secretariat: rue de Stassart 36, B-
Slump : 10mm to 100mm 1050 Brussels, 1992.
Magnitude of load : 0.1kN to 1000kN [5] Pillai, S.U., and Menon, D. Reinforced Concrete
Design, Third Edition, Tata McGraw Hill, New
Results of the parametric sensitivity analysis are Delhi, 2009.
presented in Figures 1 and 2. The normalized sensitivity [6] Gardner, N. J., and Lockman, M. J., Design
indices for different parameters with regard to shrinkage provisions for drying shrinkage and creep and
in all prediction models are shown in Figure 1. It can be normal-strength concrete. ACI Mater. J., 98(2),
seen that relative humidity is the most influential 159167, 2001.
parameter in all prediction models. Similarly, [7] RILEM TC-107-GCS. Creep and shrinkage
normalized sensitivity indices for all parameters with prediction models for analysis and design of
regard to creep are shown in Figure 2. It can be seen concrete structuresModel B3. Mater. Struct., 28,
that there is disparity between the prediction models 357365, 1995(a).
with regard to the influential parameters. Although [8] RILEM TC-107-GCS. Errata: Creep and shrinkage
grade of concrete and relative humidity are significant, prediction models for analysis and design of
it can be seen that size of specimen and magnitude of concrete structuresModel B3. Mater. Struct., 29,
sustained load influence the creep strains in all 126., 1995(b).
prediction models. [9] Goel et.al., Comparative Study of Various Creep
and Shrinkage Prediction Models for Concrete. J.
Mater. Civ. Eng. 2007.19:249-260, 2007
5 Conclusions
[10] Chan et.al., Sensitivity analysis of model output:
A comparative study is carried out on ACI-209, variance-based methods make the difference.
CEB-FIP MC10, EC2, GL2000, B3 and B4 models. All Proceedings of 1997 Winter Simulation
the input parameters are compared and the Conference, 1997.
applicability/limitation of each model is presented. The [11] Zheng, Y. and Rundell, A., Comparative Study of
ACI-209 model is applicable to Type I and Type III Parameter Sensitivity Analysis of the TCR-
cements, which can be either moist cured or steam activated ERK-map Signalling Pathway,
cured. The standard conditions of the model are Proceedings of Systems Biology, Vol. 153, No. 4,
presented and any deviation from it will be considered p. 201-211.
using correction factors recommended by the model.
The EC2 and CEB-FIP MC10 models are almost similar
with minor variation in the shrinkage expressions. They
are applicable to Types I, II and III cements. GL2000
model is developed for design office application and
uses very basic data as input to predict the response. B3
and B4 models are more robust and have been
developed based on rational theories and validated
against an exhaustive database available with RILEM.
139
Figure 1: Normalized Senstivities Indices for different Shrinkage Models
Figure 2: Normalized Senstivities Indices for different Creep Models
140
Table 1: Creep and shrinkage parameters for different models

S. Parameter ACI- CEB-FIP EC2 GL2000 B3 B4
No. 209. MC10
1 Concrete strength at 28 days Y Y Y Y Y Y
2 Modulus of elasticity at the time of Y N N Y Y Y
loading
3 Type of cement Y Y Y Y Y Y
4 Type of curing Y N N N Y Y
5 Relative humidity Y Y Y Y Y Y
6 Age of concrete at loading Y Y Y Y Y Y
7 Age of concrete at curing Y Y Y Y Y Y
8 Volume-surface ratio Y N N Y Y Y
9 Cement content Y N N N Y Y
10 Slump Y N N N N N
11 Percentage fine aggregates by weight Y N N N N N
12 Percentage air content by volume Y N N N N N
13 Concrete density Y N N N N N
14 Shape of cross-section N N N N Y Y
15 Water-content N N N N Y Y
16 Water-cement ratio N N N N Y Y
17 Aggregate-cement ratio N N N N Y Y
18 Cross-sectional area N Y Y N N N
19 Parameter of the cross-section in N Y Y N N N
contact with atmosphere
20 Type of admixture and content N N N N N Y
N.B.: Y applicable; N not applicable
141
Detailing of stirrup reinforcement along the span and across the width of
reinforced concrete beams
D. S R. Murty1, G. PapaRao2
1
Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, Andhra University College of Engg., Visakhapatnam, India.
2
Professor, Department of Civil Engg., Gayatri Vidya Parishad College of Engg., Visakhapatnam, India.
The extensive study of flexural behaviour of R.C beams has clarified mechanisms to such an extent that its
verified outcome is already incorporated in many codes. Progress in the understanding of the behaviour of
beams also subjected to shear has not been quite as spectacular. Notwithstanding many decades of
experimental and theoretical research, shear failure is not yet fully understood. No rational theory exists for
shear strengths, but continuing research is refining proportioning and detailing of structural concrete
members for shear. Though design codes specify the maximum permissible spacing limits of stirrups legs
span wise, they are silent on the beneficial refining of stirrup spacing along the span, resulting in marginal
strength increase and significant reduction in deformations. Codes are also silent on the location of stirrup
legs width wise in wide beams. The current research focuses on detailing stirrup reinforcement along the
span as well as width of an R.C beam. The requirement and refinement of stirrup spacing in beams is
interpreted by truss model.
Keywords: wide beams, shear resistance, stirrups along width and span, crack width, deflection
Research Significance
Truss models are very useful for detailing. They questionable because of the reduced confinement
represent the distribution of internal forces in the provided by the cracked concrete. Continuation of
member of failure. Once this distribution is known, stirrup leg would seem to be only feasible alternative
structural systems (truss models) comprised of concrete for stirrup anchorage in the flexural tension region.
and steel can be furnished to satisfy equilibrium Adequate stirrup spacing is also critical span wise as
between applied loads and supports. Truss models are well as width wise; large spacing in the longitudinal
very useful for detailing of stirrup reinforcement for direction of the beam creates a concentration of
shear as per Anderson and Ramirez (1989). The diagonal compression stresses at the truss joints. This
concept of truss models in R.C members was first practice results in overloading of the nodal zones or the
introduced at the turn of the nineteenth century by diagonal struts themselves, leading to premature failure
Ritter (1899) and Morsch (1922). This pioneering work due to concrete crushing. It is evident that longitudinal
was later refined by several renowned researchers. stirrup spacing has to be under control. The spacing of
Rausch (1953), Kupfer(1964), and leonhardt (1965). stirrup legs in the transverse direction (width of beam)
Lampert and Thurliman (1971) and several others have can also be a critical factor in wide beams, when the
provided a foundation for truss models by means of the legs are concentrated around the outer longitudinal
theory of plasticity. The truss model approach was bars. A wide beam must have a width to height ratio
extended to overall structures in the form of strut-and- exceeding two, while slabs will typically have much
tie systems by Schlaich et al (1987). The truss model of larger ratios as per Sherwood et al (2006). Anderson
R.C beam under bending and shear illustrates the and Ramirez (1989) tested 16x16 beam specimens
function of vertical stirrups. The stirrups form the referring them as wide beams. The diagonal truss
vertical tension ties of a truss and the bottom flexural members are equilibrated at the truss joint, formed by
reinforcement constitutes the bottom tension chord of the stirrup and the longitudinal reinforcement. The
the truss. The concrete in the diagonal constitutes a vertical force component is equilibrated by the stirrup
diagonal. Under the assumption that forces can be reinforcement. In wide beams with several longitudinal
equilibrated at the joints, stirrups must be capable of bars in a layer, the lack of well-distributed stirrup legs
developing the required force over the entire height. across the web of the member could lead to a
Hooks are preferred for stirrup anchorage. Anchorage concentration of diagonal compression stresses at the
of stirrup hooks in the flexural tension zone is joint of the stirrup leg outside longitudinal bar. This
situation could result in premature failure due to
1
Professor, dsrmurty14@gmail.com concrete crushing in these nodal zones
2
Professor, gprao_74@yahoo.co.in
142
D. S R. Murty and G. PapaRao
and inefficient use of interior longitudinal reinforcement. To correct this situation interior stirrup
legs can be placed using multi legged stirrups to furnish along longitudinal bars from dowel action. Thus it is
the necessary vertical equilibrium resultants, thus reasonable to assume that the magnitude of concrete
creating additional interior truss joints. Detailing of contribution to shear resistance would be sensitive to
stirrup spacing along the span is dealt with first. To the web reinforcement arrangement. From ACI-318
eliminate shear failure, before the attainment of full shear provisions, a wide beam, has a width to overall
moment capacity, web reinforcement is provided in the height ratio of at least two. Without specific
form of small sized bars, vertical stirrups, various experimental validation presented, Leonhardt and
national codes specify placement limits for web Walther(1964) suggested a shear reinforcement spacing
reinforcement as vertical stirrups placed perpendicular limit in the width direction, of effective depth for low
to the axis of the member. Although maximum shear stresses, but noted the spacing limit should
permissible spacing limit is specified in the codes, they decrease as a function of the shear stress. For members
are silent regarding the influence of placement of with high shear stresses, a transverse spacing of
stirrups at a lesser spacing than their maximum 200mm was proposed. Eurocode-2 (2004) suggests
permitted limits. For example, shear occurring in a beam spacing limits of 0.75d or 600mm in the width
of 410mm effective depth as per IS 456-2000, design direction. ACI318-08, CSA23.3-04, AASHTO LFRD
allows placement of 12mm dia stirrups at 300mm (less (2004) and IS 456-2000 do not provide spacing limits
than 0.75d) or 10mm dia at 200mm intervals, or 8mm across the width of sections. Vaguely engineers
dia at 130mm centre to centre. In all cases, tensile force provide stirrup legs more than two in wide beams
in the stirrups in beam length/one mm remains same or without any guidance from anywhere. Anderson and
nearly the same. In the absence of code guidance and Ramirez (1989) tested two series of beams. The second
work done on this aspect, a designer will fail to series contained four 16x16 inch (400x400mm) wide
comprehend which of these stirrup spacing is the most beams; the width/depth ratio was one. The number of
desirable; in all these alternative options, the amount of vertical legs were four and three in two beams and two
web reinforcement per unit length of beam remains the in the balance two beams. The adopted stirrups leg
same. The present study undertaken fills the gap and spacing related to the beams tested by them was
shows the forward method to follow. Although the use '
of stirrups of smaller diameter at smaller spacing 200mm, subjected to shear stresses exceeding 6 f c
involves marginally higher labour, time and cost of steel
cage fabrication, the disadvantage is more than offset by where is the cylinder compressive strength in Psi.
the resulting benefits. Stirrups intended to resist shear The maximum transverse leg spacing 200mm used by
force directly in a beam, contribute additional shear them was same as the value suggested by Leonhardt
resistance in no less way from the presence of concrete, and walther (1964) for beams under high shear stresses.
even in cracked state. Concrete in the compression Decrease in stirrup spacing resulted in nearly 20%
owing to confining effects of the stirrups that prevent increase in ultimate strength. Increase of vertical
diagonal crack propagation, provides the beam extra stirrup legs did not result in higher ductility in these
shear capacity. Another source of additional shear beams. Lubell et al (2009) tested two series of wide
strength mobilisation is the support given to the flexural beams to provide guidelines for maximum transverse
reinforcement by the stirrups; and also the prevention of spacing of shear reinforcement to ensure adequate
longitudinal splitting by the stirrups; this strength safety of wide members. Beams were 1170mm wide
enhancement is likely to be proportional to the decrease and 593mm deep in one series with width/depth ratio
in stirrup spacing. about 2. In the second series, beams were 700mm wide
and 335mm deep. The shear stresses in these beams at
Shear reinforcement legs for one way shear ultimate were 1.4 and 1.9 MPa less than those specified
must be appropriately spaced along the member length as high values of shear stress. In the first series, stirrup
as well as across the member width. While spacing leg spacing varied from 235 to 625mm; these spacing
limits of stirrups are provided in design codes for the values were more than 200mm and 50% of effective
longitudinal direction, little guidance is available for depth, in the beams having nearly high shear values.
spacing of them across the width; studies on this aspect Without specific test validation Lubell et al (2009)
also are scarce. A few studies available to date on the recommended stirrup spacing of d/2 and 300mm under
influence of stirrups across the width, are briefly '
mentioned here. Well detailed web reinforcement will

high shear stresses exceeding 5 f c
where is the
provide confinement to the compression block, control cylinder compressive strength in Psi.
crack widths (and thereby enhance aggregate interlock
on the crack surfaces), and control splitting action
143
Test Programme
The test programme comprised two series of beams, concrete in beams were compacted with a needle
first one related to stirrup spacing along beam span vibrator and the controlled specimens were compacted
designated as A series with shear critical beams in the standard way. After 24 hours of casting, the
PC21 and PC22, and the second one related to stirrup specimens were demoulded and cured till testing,
spacing across the beam width, designated as B which happened after 28 days of casting. The beams
series with beams PC1, PC2 and PC3. The were tested in bending in load frame with a
configuration of test specimens of both series is concentrated load at mid span. The test setup is shown
illustrated in Fig.1 and the properties are detailed in in Fig. 2. Instrumentation included a hydraulic jack of
Table 1. Table 2 contains the properties of steel 1000kN capacity and a proving ring of 1000kN
reinforcement used in the beams tested. The beams capacity for the load application and load measurement
PC21 and PC22 were identical in all respects including respectively.
flexural reinforcing, except they differed in size of
stirrups and their spacing, but the two legged stirrup
force was held constant per 1 mm length of beam; this
was possible by using smaller diameter stirrups at
smaller spacing. The objective of this part of
investigation was to determine the benefits accruing to
the beam by using closer stirrup spacing, but holding
the amount stirrup force per mm length of beam
constant. The wide beams PC1, PC2 and PC3 were
identical in all respects including flexural
reinforcement. The aspect ratio, width/depth of all the
wide three beams was 3.64. PC1 did not have any web Fig. 2 : Load test set-up
reinforcement. PC2 contained 12mm 2 legged stirrups
at 120mm c/c. PC3 had 8mm 4 legged stirrups at Table 2. Properties of steel reinforcement
115mm c/c. Beam with four legged stirrups (closer
spacing of stirrup legs across the width) had about 8%
less stirrup steel in comparison with 2 legged stirrups.
The objective of this part of study was to examine the
beneficial effects of closer spacing of stirrup legs
across the member width.
Beam moulds for both series for casting were made of

brick masonary; they were plastered and then oiled
before pouring concrete. Each beam and the control
specimens were poured in one batch of mix. The
Fig. 1 Configurations of test specimens
144
Table 1. Properties of test specimens
Table 3. Principal test results
A dial guage is positioned at the centre of the span for towards top face; the crack widths widened. Shear
measurement of transverse deflection. A hand held failure occurred suddenly at moment 180kNm.
microscope, capable of measuring a minimum value of
0.05mm was used to note the crack width. Loading was Series-II: Beam PC1 without web reinforcement
done in a series of increment. The transverse load, developed first crack as flexural crack at the bottom of
deflection and maximum crack width were measured side face at 286.25kNm. As the loading progressed
and noted. Cracks were noted on the test specimen. several other flexural cracks developed and already
About 20 load stages were needed to bring a beam to formed ones widened. Two inclined cracks from both
ultimate load stage. The principal test results of both supports from tension zone rapidly extended to the top
the series are noted in Table 4. Tested specimens were of the beam. One diagonal crack was wider than the
photographed to preserve the crack pattern and mode other. As failure approached, the two diagonal cracks
of failure. The tested specimens are shown in Fig.4. were bridged by a horizontal crack parallel and close to
the top face. The failure occurred suddenly at moment
Presentation of Test Results 320.6kNm which was about 11% higher than the initial
crack moment. The shear stress at initial cracking and
Series-I: In beam PC 21, the initial crack originated, ultimate were respectively 1.291N/mm2 and
was flexural at the bottom of side face at 76.62kN 1.446N/mm2. For the beam PC2, with two legged
which was 36% of ultimate moment. With load stirrups, initial flexural crack formed at the bottom of
increases, several diagonal cracks formed in the shear vertical face at 206.1kN. As loading progressed, further
spans on either side of load, on the side faces. Further several cracks appeared and already formed ones
increases in load, extended the diagonal cracks to the extended in length to the top face and widened in
top face. Shear failure occurred at 171.2kNm with width. Failure resulted in bending at 385.86kNm
slight shear compression distress on the top face. The moment. In beam PC3, with 4 legs in each stirrup,
initial flexural crack in beam PC22 appeared at bottom initial flexural crack appeared at 148.45kNm at 36% of
of side face at 86.12kNm which was 38% of ultimate its ultimate moment. As the load increased, more
moment. As the load increased additional diagonal number of cracks formed, cracks widened and
cracks formed and already formed ones extended increased in length. The beam failed in bending, with
major flexural cracks widening and crushing of
145
compression zone. Beam PC3 with 4 legged stirrups transverse deflections & crack width in PC22. PC22
failed at 7% higher load then the companion beam PC2 and PC21 had defections 7.55mm and 8.30mm
with 2 legged stirrups. For all the beams, the measured respectively. Similarly PC22 and PC21 had crack
transverse mid-span deflections were graphed versus widths 0.3mm, 0.59mm respectively.
the applied load and shown in Fig. 3 and Fig.4. Fig.5 Beams PC1, PC2 and PC3 were identical in all respects
and Fig.6 illustrate the moment-crack width including flexural reinforcing except stirrup
relationships for the tested specimens. The photographs orientation. PC1 did not have web reinforcement.
of the tested beams with crack patterns after failure are Influence of providing more stirrup legs across the
presented in Fig.7 & Fig.8. beam width can be studied by comparing the
Discussion of Test Results performance of beam PC2 and PC3. Beam PC3 with
In a larger study in series-A, only two specimens four stirrup legs recorded 7% higher ultimate strength
would be investigated by the authors, but the trend on then the companion beam PC2 with two stirrup legs.
the influence of closer spacing of the stirrup legs along The beneficial effects in the beam with lesser stirrup
the span, keeping the force of stirrup legs per mm legs are reflected in deformations also. Beam PC3with
length of the beam unaltered could be established. four legs recorded lesser deflections and crack width
Beams PC21 and PC22, identical in all respects but than the beam PC2 with two legs. At service load PC3
differed only in stirrup leg spacing. Beam, PC22 with had crack width, 0.2mm while PC2 had 0.3mm PC3
lesser stirrup spacing resulted in higher cracking recorded deflections of 5.87mm while PC2 recorded
strength, ultimate strength and lesser deformations than 6.11mm. It is established that more number of stirrup
the companion beam PC21 with larger stirrup spacing. legs across the width are needed. In this investigation,
PC22 developed initial crack at 12% higher moment the minimum leg spacing adopted was 314mm and the
than PC21. At service load closer stirrup spacing in effective depth was 242mm which was closer to the
PC22 than in PC21 facilitated occurrence of smaller values recommended by earlier investigators.
Fig. 3 Load-deflection curves of PC21 & PC22 Fig. 4 Moment-crack width curve of PC21 &PC22
1000
PC22 900 400
800
Moment, kNm
PC1
700 PC 1
300
Load, kN
600
PC2
500 PC 2
200
400 PC3 PC 3
300
100
200
100
0 0
0 4 8 12 16 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Deflection, mm Crack width, mm
Fig. 5 Load-deflection curves of PC1,PC2 & PC3 Fig. 6 Moment-crack width curve of PC1, PC2 & PC3
PC21 PC22
Fig. 7 Photographs of the tested specimens PC21 & PC22(series-A)
146
PC1 PC2 PC3
Fig. 8 Photographs of the tested specimens PC1, PC2 & PC3(series-B)
Conclusions 9. This limited study confirms the generally held view

Useful ideas gleaned from the study, undertaken are that use of multiple legs in stirrups in width in place of
summed up in the conclusions listed below. conventional two legs is highly a desirable practice.
1. Closer stirrup spacing resulted in marginally References
enhanced shear carrying capacity of beams at ultimate. 1. Ramirez, J.A., and Breen, J.E., Exrerimental
Beam PC22 with smaller stirrup spacing recorded 5% Verification of Design Procedures for Shear and
higher ultimate load than the companion beam PC21 Torsion in Reinforced and Prestressed
which had stirrup spacing larger than that of PC22. Concrete,Research Report No. 248-3,Center for
2. As the stirrup spacing decreased, cracking strength Transportation Research , University of Texas, Austin,
of beams increased. Cracking moments of PC21 and Nov.1983,322 pp.
PC22 were 36% and 38% of their ultimate moment 2. Leonhardt, F, and R Walther. The Stuttgart Shear
capacities respectively. In the post cracking stage, the Tests 1961. London, UK: Cement and Concrete
integrity of cracked concrete was more effective as the Association, 1964.
stirrup spacing decreased. 3. Eurocode 2 Design of Concrete Structures - Part 1-
3. Deformations of the beam usefully improved at 1: General Rules and Rules for Buildings (EN1992-1-
serviceability level as stirrup spacing decreased. The 1). Brussels, Belgium: European Committeefor
deterioration of cracked concrete was more restrained Standardization, 2004.
with the presence of closer stirrup spacing. At service 4. American Concrete Institute (ACI) Committee 318.
load level transverse deflections were 8.33mm and Building Code Requirments for Structural Concrete
7.55mm and crack widths were 0.59mm and 0.3mm (ACI 318-08) and Commentary.Faminton Hills, MI,
for beams PC21 and PC22 respectively, showing USA: American Concrete Institute, 2008.
decreased deformations as stirrup spacing decreased.
5. Canadian Standards Association(CSA) Design of
4. In proportioning RC beams for shear, use of small-
Concrete Structures (CAN/CSA A23.3-04).
sized bars as stirrups at closer spacing is recommended
Mississauga, ON, Canada: Canadian Standards
in an empirical way, based on the findings of the
Association, 2004.
current study. Such guidance is not available in any
current national code. 6. American Association of State Highway
5. Despite the slightly higher labour involved in steel Transportation Officials( AASHTO) AASHTO LRFD
cage fabrication, lower stirrup spacing imparts to the Bridge Design Specifications and
beams the beneficial effects of marginally improved CommentaryWashington DC, USA: AASHTO, 2004.
ultimate strength and useful deformational behaviour. 7. Indian standard code of practice for plain and
6. Beam PC1 without shear reinforcement and with reinforced concrete for general building construction,
shear span/depth ratio of 3.33 failed in shear. The IS 456: 2000. Bureau of Indian Standards,New Delhi.
ultimate moment was 11% in excess of cracking 8. Anderson, N. S, and J. A Ramiirez "Detailing of
moment. Stirrup Reinforcement" ACIStructural Journal, 1989:
7. Beams with 4 legged vertical stirrups, developed 7% 507-515.
higher ultimate strength than the companion beam with 9. Lubell, A. S, E. Bentz, and M. P Collins. "Shear
two legged stirrups. Reinforcement Spacing in Wide Members." ACI
8. Occurrence of lesser deformations at service load is Structural Journal, 2009: 205-214.
demonstrated by the behaviour of PC2 and PC3. At 10. Edward G.Sherwood, Adam S Lubell, Evan
service load, PC3 had a crack width of 0.2mm, while c.Bentz and Micheal P. Collins one way shear stresses
PC2 had 0.3mm. of thick slabs and wide beams ACI Structural Journal,
V. 103, No.6, NOV-DEC 2006, pp794-802.
147
PYLON SHAPE ANALYSIS OF CABLE STAYED BRIDGES

Sharath R1, Dr. R.K.Ingle2
1
Senior Design Engineer, L&T Construction, Chennai-600089, India
2
Professor, VNIT Nagpur, Nagpur-440010, India
Behavior of cable-stayed bridge is of great importance as the influence of moving loads, seismic and
wind forces, on the cable-stayed bridge mainly depends on its characteristic behavior. The structure is
of nonlinear nature and highly indeterminate. The analysis demands various elements of cable-stayed
bridge to be modeled properly so as to represent the actual behavior of structures as close as possible.
In the present work various aspects of Cable-Stayed Bridge is modeled using SAP-2000 Software. The
work is started with the basic model of two spanned symmetrical Cable-Stayed bridge. Analysis was
done by taking six different pylon shapes for dead load and live load conditions as per IRC-6 2010.
Then the pylon shape which is having better responses is suggested. After this, parametric study was
conducted. The basic factors which affect the design of cable stayed bridges are shape and stiffness of
towers, areas of cables. In this study, it is intended to study the effect of shape of pylons, cable areas
with different cable layouts on the response of cable stayed bridges. Further modal analysis is carried
out to determine the fundamental natural frequencies of bridges with different pylon shapes. The study
is then extended for Unsymmetrical Cable Stayed Bridges also and appropriate pylon shape is
suggested.
Keywords: Pylon, Deck, Cable, Moment, Shear
1 Modeling of Cable-Stayed Bridges 2. Analysis of Symmetrical Cable Stayed

Bridges
The deck of the cable stayed bridge is
modeled as concrete box girders which is
idealized as beam elements, connected Following data was considered, for the
laterally by rigid links at the points where mathematical modeling of symmetrical Cable-
cables needs to be attached. Cables are Stayed Bridges. Figure 2 shows various
idealized using cable elements and the elements of cable stayed bridge. Side spans:
tower/pylon, top and bottom cross members 50m, Height below deck: 10m, Height above
are concrete sections modeled using beam deck: 30m, Pylon cross section = 1m x1m,
elements. The connection between deck slab Deck having concrete box girder of
and bottom cross beams is also provided by a dimension: width: 9m, depth: 2m, thickness of
rigid link, to have a compatibility between flange and web=0.5 m(cross section as shown
deck slab and bottom cross beam. In the in Figure 3), Grade of concrete: M 45, Top
present study, the nonlinear static analysis of cross beam of pylon: 1m x 1.5m (c/s), Bottom
Cable-Stayed Bridges has been performed cross beam of pylon: 1m x 2m (c/s), Cable
using SAP2000 for the analysis of dead properties: Modulus of elasticity 210 GPa,
loads.Various pylon shapes considered for the Cable areas 1 & cable 2: 40000 mm2, Cable
analysis are shown in Figure 1. areas 3 & cable 4: 30000 mm2, Cable areas 5
& cable 6: 20000 mm2, Pylon material:
Concrete, Deck material: Concrete.
Figure 2 Symmetrical Cable-Stayed Bridge considered for

Figure 1 Different Pylon Shapes considered for the
the analysis
analysis
148
Sharath R and R.K.Ingle
3000
2500
Cable Force ( kN )
2000
Plane 1
1500
Plane 2
1000
Plane 3
Figure 3: Cross section of deck considered for analysis 500
0
0 2 4 6 8
Shape of Pylon
Figure 6 Variation of cable forces in different planes
2.2 Maximum deck deflection comparisions
As shown in Figure 7, it can be seen that the

maximum and minimum girder deflections are
occuring in Inverted Y Shape and H
Figure 4: Various elements of cable stayed bridge
modeled in SAP Shape pylon respectively.
The deck is having two lanes of 3.5 meters 0 Pylon Shapes
7
wide, the lanes were defined in SAP. After the -0.002
Lane definitions, IRC Class 70 R and IRC -0.004
Deflections ( m )
Class A loading is defined. Class 70 R -0.006
-0.008
loading was applied to lane 1, whereas Class -0.0105 -0.0104 -0.0101
-0.01 -0.0113
A was applied to both the lanes 1 and 2. After -0.0117
-0.012
this the analysis is performed for load -0.0125
-0.014
combinations of DL + 70R Lane 1 and DL Figure 7 Deflection variation in different pylon shapes
+ 2 Class A. After the analysis is performed,
the maximum responses out of these two load
cases were taken and the results are mentioned 2.3 Comparisons of Deck Forces
here along with their interpretation.
In the following section, various
2.1 Comparison of axial forces in the cables responses of the deck obtained during the
analysis are listed, and the change in the
behaviour of the deck with change in
The cable forces are compared by taking 3
pylon shape is observed. It can be seen
cable planes as shown in the Figure 5. The
from Figure 8 that axial force in deck is
variation of cable forces with reference to
more in the case of Modified A Shape
cable planes is as shown in Figure 6. From the
and lesser in the case of Perfect A
graph, it can be concluded that the Axial
Shape.
forces in the cables are less in the case of
Inverted Y Shape and more in the case of
Perfect A Shape.
Figure 8 Axial Force variation in the deck
From the Figure 9 below it can be seen that

Figure 5 Cable planes considered for reference
Moment M-3 in deck is more in the case of
Modified A Shape and lesser in the case of
Perfect A Shape.
149
40000
Perfect A
Shape
2.5 Parametric Studies of Symmetrical
30000
Diamond
Shape Cable Stayed Bridges
Moment ( kN.m )
H Shape
20000
Modified
10000
A Shape From the above conclusions, now H Shape is
A Shape
-60 -40 -20

0
0 20 40 60
taken for the following parametric studies.
-10000 Inverted
Y Shape i. Variation in Cable areas
-20000
ii. Variation in Boundary conditions
-30000
-40000
2.5.1 Variation in Cable areas
-50000
Distance ( m ) In this section it is intended to study the effect
Figure 9 Variation of moment M-3 along the deck of use of uniform cable diameter and various
diameter cables on the behavior of cable-
2.4 Pylon Forces Comparison stayed bridge. The various cable planes used
for reference is shown in Figure 12 below.
In this section the maximum pylon responses
were taken and then plotted in Figures 10 and
11. This helps us to determine the pylon
shapes by comparing maximum and minimum
responses. From Figure 10, it can be seen that
axial force in the pylon is more in the case of
Inverted Y Shape and lesser in the case of
Modified A Shape.
35
30
25 Perfect A
20
Shape Figure 12 Cable planes considered for reference
Distance ( m )
Diamond
15 Shape
10 H Shape
5
Modified A
Comparison is done between constant cable
-15000 -10000 -5000
0 Shape
area and varying cable areas. Constant cable
-5 0 A Shape
2
-10
Inverted Y area used is 30000 mm for all three cable
-15 Shape
Axial Force ( kN ) planes, whereas Variable cable sections used
Figure 10 Axial force variation along the pylon 2
in Plane 1 is of area 40000 mm , Plane 2 is of
35
30 Perfect A
area 30000 mm2 , and Plane 3 is having area
Shape
mm2 .
25 Diamond
20
Shape
H Shape
of 20000
Distance ( m )
15 Modified A
Shape
10 A Shape 2.5.1.1 H Shape Pylon
5 Inverted Y
Shape
0
-3000 -2000 -1000
-5
0 1000 2000 3000
Now the Variation of other responses are also
-10 plotted from Figures 13 to 15, to study the
-15
Moment ( kN.m ) effect of variation in cable areas.
Figure 11 Variation of moment M-3 along the pylon
30000
From the Figure 11 above, it can be seen that
20000
Moment M-3 in the pylon is more in the case
Moment ( kN.m )
of Inverted Y Shape and lesser in the case of 10000
H Shape. -60
0
-40 -20
0
0 20 40 60
-10000
Constant
From the above observations it can be -20000 Area
concluded that -30000

Variable
i. Considering girder deflection, Deck -40000
Area
Moments, pylon moments and pylon Distance ( m )
torsion criterion, its best to choose H Figure 13 Moment variation in the deck with change in
cable areas
Shape.
ii. Considering cable force, deck
moments, pylon moments, and deck
torsion criterion, its best to choose
Inverted Y Shape.
150
4000
3000 Table 1 Comparison of results for various deck pylon

connections when both girder ends are hinged
Axial Force ( kN )
2000
Constant Sr. Element Responses
1000 Area
Variable Area no.
0
-60 -40 -20 0 20 40 60 1 Cable Axial (kN) 2071
-1000 2 Longitudinal Axial (kN) 2759
-2000 Deck element Shear (kN) -5035
Moment (kN-m) -35595
-3000
Distance ( m ) 3 Pylon Axial (kN) -13062
Moment (kN-m) -445
Figure 14 Axial force variation in deck with with change
Shear (kN) 278
in cable areas
35
Constant
30
Area
25
Case 2: One end of longitudinal girder is
Variable
Distance ( m )
Area 20 hinged and other roller

15
10
5
The values of different responses are tabulated
0 in the Table 2 below for one roller and one
-14000 -12000 -10000 -8000 -6000 -4000 -2000 -5 0
hinge condition.
-10
Axial Force ( kN )
-15
Figure 15 Axial force variation in the pylon with change
in cable areas
From the Figure 14 above it can be seen that

the axial compressive stress in the deck has Figure 17 one end of longitudinal girder is hinged and
been reduced and the axial tensile stress has another roller
been increased with the usage of variable
cable areas in different planes, which is Table 2 Comparison of results for various deck pylon
connections when one end is roller and another hinge
advantageous as the nonlinear behavior of
deck will be reduced. Also since there is Sr. Element Responses
no.
increase in the cable forces, which ensures
effective utilisation of cable strength, it is 1 Cable Axial (kN) 2042
advantageous to use different cable areas in 2 Longitudinal Axial (kN) 7968
Deck element
different cable planes. Similar kind of Shear (kN) 5047
behaviour is observed in inverted Y Shape Moment (kN-m) 35717
also. 3 Pylon Axial (kN) 13033
Moment (kN-m) 439
2.5.2 Effect Due to Various Boundary Shear (kN) 276
Conditions
In this section, different deck end support
conditions as shown in Figures below are used Case 3: Rollers at both ends of longitudinal
and comparisons are made for H Shape and girder
inverted Y Shape The results are presented The values of different responses are tabulated
below along with their observations. in the Table 3 below for two rollers condition.
2.5.2.1 H Shape
Case 1: Both ends of longitudinal girder

are hinged Figure 18 Both the ends of longitudinal girder are rollers
Table 3 Comparison of results for various deck pylon

connections when both the ends are rollers
Sr. Element Responses
no.
1 Cable Axial (kN) 2042

Figure 16 Both ends of longitudinal girder are hinged 2 Longitudinal Axial (kN) 7918
Deck element
Shear (kN) 5047
The Table 1 below shows the values of Moment (kN-m) 35600
different responses for both ends hinged 3 Pylon Axial (kN) 13037
condition.
Moment(kN-m) 451
Shear (kN) 274
151
The conclusions from the above parametric fundamental frequency indicating flexible
study of changing the support conditions are, behavior.
the cable tension was more in case 1. i.e. both
hinge condition and the cable tension
decreased as the support condition was
changed to roller. This is not desirable as the
more cable force ensures effective utilization
of the cable strength. Also in both hinged
condition, the deck was in tension, which is
desirable as the nonlinear behavior of the deck
Figure 20 Unsymmetrical Cable-Stayed bridges taken for
will be reduced. Hence from the above modeling
observations, it can be concluded that case 1
(i.e. both hinged condition) is most desirable
support condition for both H shape and CONCLUSIONS:
Inverted Y Shapes
In this study, the symmetrical cable stayed
2.6 Fundamental Natural Frequency bridge, is analyzed for six different shapes of
pylons on SAP 2000 software for dead and
In this section the fundamental natural moving live loads. It can be concluded from
frequency of Symmetrical cable-Stayed Bridge the above study that H Shape is the best
is obtained by conducting the modal analysis possible pylon shapes for symmetrical cable
and is presented in the Figure 19 below. stayed bridges. The bridges with this shape
2.5 showed flexible characteristic having lesser
Natural Frequency ( Hz )
2 fundamental frequency which is advantageous.

1.5
Also it has been found from the analysis that
1
having varying cable areas in different planes
0.5
is advantageous as it reduces the nonlinear
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 behavior of the deck, also increasing the cable
Pylon Shapes tensile force ensuring efficient utilization of
Figure 19 Variation of Natural Frequency of cable stayed cable strength. In the boundary conditions, it
bridge with pylon shapes
was concluded that having both hinged
From the above study, it can be seen that the condition is the more suitable one, as it
fundamental Frequency is lesser in the case of reduces compression in deck thereby reducing
cable stayed bridge with pylon H Shape, nonlinear behavior of the deck. In the
which shows that cable stayed bridge with H Unsymmetrical cable stayed bridges, it can be
Shape pylon is more flexible in nature, concluded that H Shape and Inverted Y
whereas the fundamental frequency is more in Shape are more suitable.
the case of cable stayed bridge with pylon
inverted Y Shape and A Shape, which shows References
that they are rigid in nature.
[1] Agrawal, T. P.(1997)Cable-Stayed
3 Unsymmetrical Cable Stayed Bridges Bridges-Parametric Study. J.Bridge
Eng., ASCE, 2(2), 61-67.
In the Case of un-symmetrical cable stayed [2] Au, F.T.K., Cheng, Y.S., Cheung,
bridges, all the material and sectional data Y.K., and Zheng, D.Y. (2000) On
taken for the analysis were same as the determination of natural
Symmetrical Study, except one of the span i.e. frequencies and mode shapes of cable
left span was taken one third of the total span stayed bridges. Applied
i.e. 25 m and right span was taken as two Mathematical Modeling., 25(12),
thirds of the total span, i.e. 75 m (refer Figure 10991115.
20), and the analysis was done to determine [3] Chang, C. C., Chang, T. Y. P., and
the best possible pylon shapes in the case of Zhang Q.W. (2001). Ambient
un-symmetrical cable stayed bridges. vibration of long-span cable-stayed
The study which is conducted for symmetrical bridges., J.Bridge Eng., ASCE,
cable stayed bridges is also repeated for 25(6), 46-53.
unsymmetrical cable stayed bridges and it was [4] Praveen Reddy, Jamshid Ghaboussi,
found that H Shape and Perfect A Shape and Neil M. Hawkins. (1999).
are most suitable for unsymmetrical kind of Simulation of construction of cable-
cable stayed bridges. Bridges with these stayed bridges., J.Bridge Eng.,
shapes of pylons also showed lesser ASCE, 63-68.
152
[5] Hung-Shan Shu, and Yang-Cheng of Cable-Stayed bridges., J.Bridge

Wang. (2001). Stability analysis of Eng., ASCE, 22(4), 242-248.
box girder cable-stayed bridges., [11] Gimsing, H.J. (1997). Cable
J.Bridge Eng., J.Bridge Eng., ASCE, Supported Bridges: Concept and
63-68. Design, John Wiley & Sons, New
York, USA.
[6] IRC, Standard specifications and [12] Pao-Hsii Wang, Tzu-Yang Tang, and
code of practice for road bridges, Hou-Nong Zheng. (2003). Analysis
IRC: 6 Section II- loads and stresses of cable-stayed bridges during
(2010), Indian Road Congress, New construction by cantilever methods.
Delhi. Comp and Struct., 82(5), 329-346.
[7] Janjic, D., Pircher, M., and Pircher, [13] Ramteke R.R, (2002), Analysis and
H. (2003). Optimisation of cable Design of Cable Stayed Bridge
tensioning in cable-stayed bridges., M.Tech Thesis, V.N.I.T, Nagpur.
J.Bridge Eng., ASCE, 8(2), 131-137. [14] Shilpa, S. K. (2006),Mathematical
[8] John C. Wilson, and Keith Holmes. Modeling Of Cable Stayed Bridge
(2007). Seismic vulnerability and M.Tech Thesis, V.N.I.T, Nagpur.
mitigation during construction of [15] Troitsky, M.S. (1988). Cable Stayed
Cable-Stayed Bridges., J.Bridge Bridge: An Approach to Modern
Eng., ASCE, 12(1), 364-372. Bridge Design,BSP Professional
[9] Wei-Xin Ren. (1999). Ultimate Books, Oxford, England.
behaviour of long-span Cable-Stayed [16] Walther, P., and Scalzi John, B.
bridges., J.Bridge Eng., ASCE, 30- (1976). Construction and Design of
37. Cable Stayed Bridge, A Wiley
[10] Yang-Cheng Wang. (1999). Number Interscience Publication, New York,
of cable effects on buckling analysis USA.
153
EVALUATION OF MINIMUM FLEXURAL REINFORCEMENT IN

DESIGN OF REINFORCED CONCRETE BEAMS
Nagesh H.E1, G Appa Rao2
1,2
Reinforced concrete (RC) beams are generally designed with different percentage of flexural tension
reinforcement depending on the capacity requirements. The amount of reinforcement provided affects the
crack propagation and failure mechanism in RC beams. This paper presents discussion on the minimum
tension reinforcement requirement in code provisions for RC beams. Models based on fracture mechanics
to evaluate minimum flexural reinforcement are also reviewed. Experimental study has been undertaken to
understand the effect of size on the behaviour of lightly reinforced concrete beams. This paper outlines how
the present code provisions can be improved by applying fracture mechanics principles for the design of
reinforced concrete beams. Fracture mechanics approach for design of reinforced concrete structures
considers the energy requirements for crack growth and size effect. It also enables rational procedure to
evaluate the optimum amount of steel reinforcement, which ensures safe designs by taking the effect of size
and other influencing parameters.
Keywords: fracture mechanics, minimum reinforcement, lightly reinforced
1 Introduction shows the transition from brittle to ductile with increase

in tension reinforcement.
Concrete beams are reinforced with steel in tension
zone to bear tensile stresses. The amount of
reinforcement provided governs the behaviour and
failure mechanism in RC beams. The failure may be of
steel yielding followed by concrete crushing in case of
under-reinforced and crushing of concrete in over-
reinforced beams. While designing of RC beams,
minimum ductility must be ensured to perform
satisfactorily. This can be achieved by providing
adequate amount of tensile reinforcement. If the beam is
provided with insufficient quantity of steel than required,
the failure tends to change to brittle. Minimum
reinforcement in RC beams should avoid brittle failure
and must ensure adequate warning before failure.
2 Behaviour of Lightly Reinforced Concrete Beams

For an RC beam to exhibit stable response the beam Figure 1: Behavior of lightly reinforced concrete beam
must be provided with adequate amount of tension
reinforcement. Suppose if the beam is provided with less 3 Code Provisions
area of steel than required then it leads to brittle failure.
This leads to instability in the overall response. Before The provisions in the present codes of practice are
concrete cracking, the load deflection response of plain mainly based on serviceability and strength aspects.
concrete beam and an RC beam is same as shown in Fig. Many codes of practice specify empirical formulae,
1. If the ultimate strength developed with the provided without theoretical background, for estimating minimum
then the later determines the hyper strength(! < !"#$ ).

reinforcement is less than the flexural cracking strength, reinforcement. Such code provisions mostly incorporate
compressive strength of concrete and yield strength of
This creates instantaneous crack growth and in turn steel reinforcement as parameters. They neglect the
causes brittle failure when tested under load control. nonlinear behavior of concrete in tension, toughness of
is required for ductile behaviour(! > !"#$ ). Fig. 1 also

Hence certain amount of minimum tension reinforcement concrete, bond strength, which provides conservative
design. Moreover, mechanical behavior of RC beams not
only depends on material properties but also on the size
1
Ph.D. Scholar, nageshhe@gmail.com
2
154
Nagesh H.E and G Appa Rao
as well. The condition for evaluation of minimum beams in flexure. The beams are provided with 0.25%
reinforcement is that, the beam should not fail tension reinforcement. The material properties are given
immediately up on concrete cracking. To achieve this in Table 1. Three geometrically similar specimens were
condition, the ultimate capacity (Mu) of an RC beam cast with depth ranging from 150 mm, to 600 mm. The
should be greater than its cracking moment (Mcr). span of the beams is six times the depth. The width of the
beam was maintained constant 150 mm. Specimen
M u M cr (1) designations and dimensions are given in Table 2. All
three specimens were cast with same concrete mix.
Evaluation of flexural cracking strength of concrete Potable water was used for mixing of concrete. All
beams in flexure is vital because many code provisions specimens were cured for 28 days before testing. Mix
provide tension reinforcement relatively more than what design for concrete includes 400 kg/m3 of 53 grade
is required for cracking strength. Code provisions use ordinary Portland cement (OPC) with water-cement ratio
modulus of rupture to evaluate the cracking stress in of 0.39. Fine aggregate with a content 736 kg/m3 and
beams. But full scale specimens have lower cracking coarse aggregate 10 mm graded with 1100 kg/m3. The
flexural strength than that of modulus of rupture [1]. The fracture energy (Gf) was obtained according to the test
code provisions for providing minimum tension procedure given in the RILEM standard.
reinforcement in RC beams are given in Table 3. The
equation for evaluating minimum and maximum tension Linearly variable differential transformer (LVDTs)
reinforcement, commentary or remarks for codes are also were placed to record midspan deflections and crack
given in Table 3. mouth opening displacements (CMOD).
4 Need for Fracture Mechanics based Design Table 1: Material properties

Direct tension testing of concrete involves complex Material property Results
procedures. So split cylinder tests are used to get tensile
strength of concrete. The uniaxial tensile strength of Compressive strength of concrete cube 60.7 MPa
concrete is always much less than the flexural cracking Specific gravity of cement 3.14
strength of concrete. Suppose if concrete is considered as Grade of cement 53 OPC
brittle material, soon after the extreme tension fibres
reaches uniaxial tensile strength, it should fail Fracture energy of concrete 97.2 N/m
instantaneously. But concrete is a quasi-brittle material Specific gravity of fine aggregate 2.78
due to its tension softening property. It can transfer stress
across crack faces. This property can be modelled using Specific gravity of coarse aggregate 2.70
non-linear fracture mechanics models (NLFM). Yield strength of reinforcing steel 547 Mpa
Fictitious crack and cohesive crack models able to
Ultimate strength of reinforcing steel 634 Mpa
include this quasi-brittle nature of concrete.
In the conventional design methodology, tests on
cylinder compression, modulus of rupture and split Table 2: Beam dimensions
tensile tests are used to characterize concrete properties.
Beam Depth Span
These properties of concrete alone cannot characterize its
designation (mm) (mm)
complete behavior. Hence, the post cracking behavior of
concrete such as fracture softening has to be well SB 150 900
understood. The formation of fracture process zone MB 300 1800
(FPZ) ahead of crack tip affects the crack initiation and
LB 600 3600
propagation in concrete beams. The application of
fracture mechanics principles is necessary to study the
crack growth and fracture behavior in concrete. Fracture 6 Monotonic Testing
mechanics principles are applied to study the behavior of
lightly reinforced concrete beams because of its All beams were tested under three-point bending and
sensitivity to the fracture of tension reinforcement. The actual set-up is shown in Fig. 2. Testing was carried out
models based on fracture mechanics principles are given using actuator of 1000 kN capacity at Indian Institute of
in Table 4. It can be noticed that, the minimum Technology Madras. The beams were loaded with
reinforcement is found to be function of depth of beam. displacement control up to failure. All beams failed by
fracture of reinforcing steel bars. The load deflection
response are discussed in the results and discussions.
5 Experimental Program
An experimental program was undertaken to study
size effect on the behaviour of lightly reinforced concrete
155
Table 3: Code provisions for minimum and maximum tension reinforcement in beams
Maximum
Minimum Equation
Codes reinforcemen Remarks/ Provisions
reinforcement Number
t
Net tensile
2
'.*+-/011
%&,"#$ = 145 6
To prevent sudden failure
strain in
/3
Moment of reinforced cracked
ACI 318-14 [2] extreme (2)
section > Moment of unreinforced
tensile steel
concrete section
0.005
%& 7.89
=
46 :;
Strength of concrete was not
IS 456-2000 [3] 0.04 bD (3)
considered
the amount of reinforcement is enough

Mr= 1.2 Mcr
AASHTO to develop a factored flexural
for RC structures
LRFD -07 [4] - resistance, Mr, equal to the lesser of at (4)
Mr= 1.33Mcr
least 1.2 times the cracking moment,
for prestressed concrete
To avoid brittle failure
%&
7.?@ :AB" 14 6
=
EUROCODE- Considers mean tensile strength (fctm)
0.04 Ac (5)
:;
2 [5] of concrete as governing parameter
%&
7.? D:AE
=C F 45 G K L77
Canada code
:; <
6 L77 M :;
[6]
Grade of concrete as well as grade of
(CSA A23.3- (6)
%H
For T- sections steel are accounted.
04)
= 7.77I (4 J 45 )6&
:AE M N7
D:AE
@:;
New Zealand
%& = 45 6
I:;
[7] Both grade of concrete and grade of
< 7.7?9
(7)
(NZS 3101-06) steel are considered
%&
P * :B
Tensile strength of concrete and yield
= 7.?? O Q 45 6
Australia code
6 :;
(AS 3600-01) - strength of steel are considered as (8)
[8] governing parameters.
0.24 = 100 As/bw h for
British Based on the grade of steel only,
fy=250 N/mm2
Standards [9] 0.04 bD concrete strength not been taken in to (9)
0.13 = 100 As/bw h for
BS 8110 (1997) account.
fy=460 N/mm2
Table 4: Models based on fracture mechanics principles to evaluate minimum reinforcement in beams
Equation
Authors Equation Remarks
:; TP %&B
Number
RS =
UVW %
Bosco et al. [10] Used brittleness number (10)
UVW
!"#$ = (7.N M 7.77?X:A )
:; TP
Based on Bridged Crack
Bosco et al. [11] (11)
Model (LEFM)
N.YNXIUVW '.Z*
!"#$ =
]&
:; '.[[** \N.L J ?.@ ^
Baluch et al.
P
Model based on LEFM (12)
[12]
de*
_W :B P
!"#$ = à7.778N M 7.7NI8 J 7.7Yc
Used Fictitious crack model
_& _A bA
Gerstle et al.
Unstable crack propagation (13)
[13]
Increases with depth
156
N :BE P
!"#$ = 7.N8X79 fN M Eg
I.@P:B :; (P J ]& )
Hawkins Hjorselet Based on cohesive crack
7.89 M
_A bd
(14)
[14] model
?.XP jd
h N M (7.89 M )
id
!"#$ =
@(N J ]& eP) :;
Used cohesive crack model
J kl(Peid )dem J X.@N]& eid n

:BE
Ruiz et al [15] Effective slip model (15)
!"#$
'.q
G
'.pq CN M N.9 \N77^F > rsv46(6 J 7.9tu) :; w
:Ao
!"#$ = 7.79 < !xyz
:; G '.q
Shehata et al.
(16)
\ ^
N77
[16]
I777 J P :Ad.dm
!"#$ = O Q C '.+q F
Equation based on limiting
N77P :;
Appa Rao et al.
crack width CODcr (17)
[17]
RS,~ = 7.?@LH j'.q

Increases with depth
{|'.q' UVW
'.}
%&,"#$ = 7.?@L 4G'.Z+
{;
Derived equation of lower
Carpinteri [18] (18)
limit for ductile response
from numerical simulations
Figure 3: Horizontal strain (%) showing strain localization
7.1 Load - Deflection Response
The load versus mid-span deflection response of the

small, medium and beams are shown in Fig. 4. Linearly
variable differential transformer (LVDT) was used to
get mid span deflection. In the initial stage up to
concrete cracking, the deflection was observed to be
small with high stiffness. At peak loading, the crack
starts to propagate from cover towards tension
reinforcement. Once the crack begins to propagate, the
reduction in stiffness can be noticed with increase in
deflections. As the crack crosses the tension steel
reinforcement, steel being in elastic state arrests crack
growth thus demanding an extra force for crack
propagation across reinforcement. This causes steel
pull-out and slip simultaneously. Hence the peak and
Figure 2: Monotonic test set-up. near post peak P- response controlled by steel ratio,
bond-slip properties and the cover. All the three beams
failed due to rupture of tension reinforcement. Fig. 3
157
show ductile response with excessive deformations behaviour is expected because the volume of concrete in
before final failure for all beams. In case of large beam tension is relatively more, and the probability of
LB the spalling of concrete cover at ultimate loading increases in the volume of voids and imperfections is
caused excessive deflection of beams this behaviour is also more. Fig. 5 shows that flexural cracking strength
reflected in the Fig. 4. This behaviour can also be is inversely proportional to size.
noticed in the Fig. 3 also.
Figure 5: Flexural cracking strength
Figure 4: Load versus deflection 7.4 Comparison of equations
7.2 Strain Localization The comparison of equations existing in code

provisions and equations proposed by researchers for
All beams tested predominantly failed due to single evaluating minimum tension reinforcement in RC
crack originating from the centre of beam. As the tensile beams is shown in Fig. 6. It is observed that, the codes
stress in the concrete exceeds the tensile strength of provision equation are independent of beam depth.
concrete the gradual reduction in the tension stress Whereas few models proposed by Hawkins et al.,
(tension softening) takes place. Due to single crack Baluch et al and Shehata et al clearly shows the size
formation the strain gets localized causing increased dependent variation in the minimum reinforcement. But
crack widths until rupture of tensile reinforcement. The from the present experimental studies and the literature
horizontal strain in percentage measured using digital suggests the lightly RC beams responses are size
image correlation (DIC) for large beam is shown in the dependent.
Fig. 3.
8 Conclusions
7.3 Size effect on flexural cracking strength
It can be concluded that the code provisions for
It has been observed that, as the depth of the beam minimum tension reinforcement is based on material
increases the flexural cracking strength decreases. This properties such as concrete compressive strength, yield
ACI 318-14 [2]

1.00%
IS 456-2000 [3]
0.90%
EUROCODE-2
0.80% [5]
CSA A23.3-04 [6]
0.70%
NZS 3101-06 [7]
0.60%
min
0.50% AS3600-2009 [8]
0.40% BS8110-1997 [9]
0.30% Shehata et al [16]
0.20% Appa Rao et al

[17]
0.10% Gerstle et al [13]
0.00% Hawkins and
0 200 400 600 800 1000
Hjorselet [14]
Depth (mm)
Figure 6: Comparison of equations
158
strength of steel and cracking stress. However, it has incorporated properly. The behaviour of concrete in
been observed from the present experimental studies tension, crack initiation, and crack propagation and
that flexural cracking strength is size dependent. fracture process zone, size dependent response are well
Flexural cracking strength is inversely proportional to understood in fracture mechanics of concrete studies.
depth of beam. Many researchers also proposed Hence fracture mechanics based design enables rational
equations which recommends that minimum approach ensuring safe design with optimum amount of
reinforcement should be size dependent. The response reinforcement.
of the beams changes with size hence it should be
Appendix [9] BS 8110-97, Structural use of concrete Part 1: Code
of practice for design and construction, 1997.
As, min (min) Minimum area of steel
As Area of steel [10] Bosco, C., Carpinteri, A., and Debernardi, P.G.
b Breadth of beam Minimum reinforcement in highstrength concrete,
d or h Effective depth of beam Journal of Structural Engineering, ASCE, 116(2),
d Clear cover 427437, 1990.
D Overall depth of beam
[11] Bosco, C., and Carpinteri, A. Fracture mechanics
Ec Modulus of elasticity of concrete
evaluation on minimum reinforcement in concrete,
Es Modulus of elasticity of steel
Application of Fracture Mechanics to Reinforced
fck Characteristic cube compressive
Concrete, Ed. by A. Carpinteri, Elsevier App Head
strength of concrete
Science, Italy, 347-377, 1992.
fc Cylinder compressive strength of
concrete [12] Baluch, M., Azad, A., and Ashmawi, W. Fracture
ft Tensile strength of concrete mechanics application to reinforced concrete
fr Modulus of rupture members in flexure, In A. Carpinteri (ed),
fy Yield strength of steel Applications of Fracture Mechanics to Reinforced
KIc Critical stress intensity factor in Concrete, Elsevier Applied Science, London, 413-
mode I 436, 1992.
MCR Moment of crack propagation
My Moment at steel yielding [13] Gerstle, W.H., Partha, P.D., Prasad, N.N.V.,
Np Brittleness Number Rahulkumar, P., Xie, M, Crack Growth in Flexural
FPZ Fracture Process Zone Members A Fracture Mechanics Approach, ACI
FCM Fictitious Crack Model Structural Journal, 89(6), 617-625, 1992.
LEFM Linear Elastic Fracture Mechanics [14] Hawkins N, Hjorsetet K, Minimum reinforcement
NLFM Non-Linear Fracture Mechanics requirement for concrete flexural members. In:
Carpinteri A(eds) Applications of fracture
References mechanics to reinforced concrete. Elsevier,
London, pp 37412, 1992.
[1] Shioya, T. Iguro, M., Nojiri, Y., Akiyama, H., and
[15] Ruiz, G, Elices, M and Planas, J Size effect and
Okada, T., Shear Strength of Large Reinforced
bond-slip dependence of lightly reinforced concrete
Concrete Beams, Fracture Mechanics: Application
beams, Minimum reinforcement in concrete
to Concrete, SP118, American Concrete Institute,
members Edr Alberto Carpinteri, ESIS Publication
Detroit, pp-309. 1989. 24, 1997.
[2] ACI-318-14, Building code requirements for [16] Shehata, I,A,E,M., Shehata, L,C,D,. and Gracia, S,
structural concrete and commentary, 2014. L, G. Minimum steel ratios in reinforced concrete
[3] IS 456:2000, Plain and Reinforced concrete - codes beams made of concrete with different strengths
of practice, 2000. Theoretical approach, materials and structures,
[4] AASHTO, AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design vol.36, pp3-11, Jan-Feb 2003.
Specifications, American Association of State [17] Rao, G.A., Aravind, J., and Eligehausen, R.
Highway and Transportation Officials, 2007. Evaluation of minimum flexural reinforcement in
[5] Eurocode 2: 1992, Design of concrete structures - RC beams using fictitious crack approach, JoSE,
Part 1: General rules and rules for buildings, 2002. 34(4), 277-283, 2007.
[6] CAN/CSA-A23.3-04, Design of concrete [18] Carpinteri, A., Corrado, M., and Ventura, G.
structures, 2004. Failure mode scaling transitions in RC beams in
flexure: tensile, shearing, and crushing, FraMCoS-
[7] NZS 3101: part 1: 2006, Concrete structures 8, Spain, 2013.
standard, 2006.
[8] AS3600, Concrete structures, 2009.
159
VARIOUS ASPECTS OF DETAILING OF REINFORCEMENT IN TWO

PILE CAP CONCRETE
Murty Sree Rama Chandra Devalraju1, Dinakar Pedapenki2
1
Department of Civil Engineering, College of Engineering, Andhra University, Visakhapatnam 530003,
India.
2
Department of Civil Engineering, G.I.A.C.R Engineering College, Rayagada 765002 India.
Of the many types of pile caps, two pile cap (TPC) born by two piles is extensively used.
Notwithstanding being a very extensively used structural member, there is no generally accepted
procedure for design of pile caps. Of the very few available methods of design, sectional force method,
endorsed by IS 456:2000, and IRC 21:2000, is generally in use in India. In this method, design for
flexure, two way shear and bearing is done by standard methods. The aforementioned codes provide
specifications for identification of one way shear on pile caps; but little experimental research is reported
to date, on the validity of the specifications contained in the codes. The research presented in this paper
fills the void. The seven TPCs tested to failure, have shown that the specifications of the code are valid.
Concurrence of specifications of the codes since their inception and test results has been established for
the first time by the current tests.
Keywords: pile cap, shear, service load, ultimate load, validity
Research Significance1 beams spanning between piles with the depth selected to
Most frequently used deep foundation for various kinds avoid shear fractures and the amount of longitudinal
of large structures is piles. The inevitable structural reinforcement selected to provide sufficient flexural
element, incorporated between the column in the super capacity by the engineering beam theory. Design is made
structure and a group of piles, for transfer of loads from for two way shear and bearing, by the standard code
the former to the latter is pile cap. The piles are tied at methods. In the current research work, sectional force
their tops or capped by a spread footing or cap that method is made use of. Depending on the geometry of
distributes the column loads to all the piles in the pile pile cap and orientation of column and piles IS456:2000
group. Pile caps are labelled as single pile cap, two pile specifies in Cl 34.2.4.1 and Cl 34.2.4.2 whether shear
cap, three pile cap, four pile cap or multiple pile cap. In force occurs on pile cap due to pile reactions. A critical
spite of being very important structural member and most section is assumed as a vertical section through pile cap,
extensively used item in large constructions such as located from the face of column at distance equal to
bridges, industries, oil drilling plat forms, high rise effective depth of pile cap. The entire reaction from any
structures, there is no generally accepted procedure for pile of diameter Dp whose centre is located Dp/2 or more
proportioning pile caps. Many empirical detailing rules or outside the critical section shall be assumed as producing
rules of thumb are followed in practice, but these shear on the section (on pile cap); the reaction from any
approaches vary significantly with considerable disparity. pile whose centre is Dp/2 or more inside the critical
There has been no consensus on which method provides section shall be assumed as producing no shear on the
the best approach for a working designer. There are some section (on pile cap). This IS code provision guides the
design approaches followed by codes and designers which designers whether to design a pile cap for shear or not.
include 1. Truss analogy, 2. ACI method (Traditional Little or no test data are available in literature to date, on
sectional design method) 3. AASHTO LFRD STANDARD the verification of code provisions on the occurrence of
4. Strut and Tie method. Traditional sectional force one way shear on pile caps. The principal objective of the
approach and Strut- and- Tie model approach constitute research reported herein is to experimentally establish the
principal design approaches, used today. Sectional force validity of provision of IS456:2000 code, on the
design, attends to bending and one way shear separately, occurrence of one way shear on TPCs. Proper
while catering also to two way shear and bearing; this substantiation is needed by the tests to evolve one way
method is extensively used in India, supported by code IS shear design, in the sectional design method of TPCs.
456:2000. Strut-and-Tie model does not separate bending
Experimental Research
(Tie tensile force) and one way shear (automatically
resisted by developed arch action). In sectional force Seven numbers of TPCs were proportioned for one way
method, the pile caps have traditionally been designed as shear; the column working load for the design of all TPCs
was 150kN and tested to investigate provisions of IS
456:2000 relative to occurrence of one way shear. For the
1
Professor, dsrmurty14@gmail.com TPCs that failed in shear, identical companion TPCs were
2 Associate Professor, p_dinakar2004@yahoo.com designed for shear to precipitate bending failure. In TPC,
160
M.S.R.C. Devalraju and Dinakar Pedapenk
PC3, the column and the piles were oriented relative to outer face of pile (440 mm) is more than the effective
pile cap in such a way that as per code provisions, no depth of TPC (230 mm); hence shear force occurs on the
shear occurs on pile cap. The effective depth of TPC was TPC leading to shear failure, which has to be proved by
181 mm and the distance between face of the column and the test. Similarly in TPC, PC6 the distance between the
outer face of pile was 180 mm which was less than 181 column face and outer face of pile (530 mm) was more
mm; as per the code no shear force occurs on the TPC. than the effective depth (229 mm) of the TPC; hence
Test has to verify the specification of the code (mode of shear force, occurs on TPC leading to shear failure. Again
failure, shear failure or bending failure). TPC, PC4 was test has to establish mode of failure. TPCs PC4, PC5 and
oriented such that the effective depth was 180 mm and the PC6 failed in shear. TPCs PC7, PC8 and PC9 were
distance between the face of the column and inner face of identical and companion TPCs to PC4, PC5 and PC6
pile was 180 mm which was equal to effective depth of TPCs respectively; the former three TPCs were designed
pile cap; as per code total pile reaction appears as shear for shear to eliminate shear failure and to obtain flexural
on TPC and shear failure is predicted. Test has to failure. The details of test specimens are summarised in
establish the mode of failure (shear or bending failure). In Table 1 and shown in Figure 1 through Figure 7. The steel
TPCs PC5, the distance between the face of column and details as manufactured are shown in Table 2 and 3.
Table 1. Properties of two pile cap (TPC) test specimens

Specimen Pile Cap Span Shear Longitudinal Transverse Cube
Split
label Length Width Depth Effective between span / reinforcement reinforcement compressive
tensile
depth two effective strength at
strength at
piles depth 28 days
28 days
(mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (a/d) (MPa)
(MPa)
Not needed
PC 3 610 250 210 181 360 0.58 4 - 8 mm dia as per code IS 38.6 2.8
456:2000
PC 4 910 250 210 180 660 1.42 7 - 10 mm dia Not provided 38.6 2.8
2L 10mm stps
PC 7 910 250 210 180 660 1.42 6 - 10 mm dia 39.2 2.9
@ 120mm c/c
2L 8mm stps
PC 8 1130 250 260 230 880 1.59 6 - 10 mm dia 39.2 2.9
@ 100mm c/c
2L 8mm stps
PC 9 1310 280 260 229 1060 1.99 6 - 12 mm dia 39.2 2.9
@ 110mm c/c
Note: PC4 and PC7, PC5 and PC8, and PC6 and PC9 respectively were identical pile caps, with nearly same amount of flexural reinforcement was
provided. As yield stresses differed, tensile force was made equal adjusting steel areas.
Table 2. Properties of steel reinforcement of PC3, Table 3. Properties of steel reinforcement of TPCs
PC4, PC5 and PC6 PC7, PC8 and PC9
Nominal Area Yield Ultimate Percentage Nominal Area Yield Ultimate Percentage
diameter stress tensile elongation diameter stress tensile elongation
(mm) (mm2) (MPa) stress (mm) (mm2) (MPa) stress
(MPa) (MPa)
12 113.10 423.1 572.9 18 12 113.10 551.2 637.3 17
10 78.50 445 572.1 19 10 78.50 515 602.9 18
8 50.29 436.8 575.8 20 8 50.29 529.4 627.5 20
Plan of two pile cap PC3

All dimensions in mm Section A-A
Figure 1. Two pile cap PC3
161

Section A-A
All dimensions in mm
All dimensions are in mm Section A-A




Figure 6 Two pile cap of PC6
162

Materials Properties of Test Specimens: cap surfaces, and the tested specimens were photographed
In the concrete, made for production of test specimens, and shown in Plates 1 and 2. The details of seven test pile
the cement used was 43 grade ordinary portland cement, caps are shown in Figs. 1 through 7 and Table 1. The
and the fine aggregate was river sand conforming to zone- properties of steel reinforcement used in the pile caps are
II as per IS 383:1970. The Coarse aggregate was locally tabulated in Tables 2 and 3.
available crushed granite stone sieved to 20mm maximum
size and satisfied the requirement of IS 383:1970. The
mix proportion of concrete by weight of cement, sand and
coarse aggregate was respectively 1: 1.76: 3.79 with
water cement ratio, 0.56 by weight. The concrete
compressive strengths were 38.6 MPa for the first four
TPCs and 39.2 MPa for the latter three two pile caps.
Fabrication and Testing of Test Specimens:
The pile cap moulds for casting were made of brick
masonry on the laboratory floor, plastered smooth and
oiled before concrete was poured. The concrete in the pile
cap was compacted with a needle vibrator and the control
specimens, cubes and cylinders were compacted in a Figure. 8: Details of test setup
standard way. Curing of specimens started after 24 hours
of casting. The pile caps were shifted from the moulds to Presentation of Test Results
curing tanks after 5 days of casting, on wooden planks; In TPC, PC3 the initial flexural crack occurred at column
these five days curing was done with wet gunny bags in load, 127.20kN. As the load increased two flexural cracks
the laboratory. Curing was done till starting of testing at extended to the top face. No shear cracks appeared. As the
28 days; testing of pile caps was carried out in a test load ultimate load neared, the TPC failed in bending at column
frame shown in Fig.8.The pile caps were tested on span load 283.5kN, the bending failure was correctly predicted
equal to spacing of piles which varied depending up on by the code. Post ultimate load, ductility was exhibited by
the type of pile cap; the spans varied from 360 mm to pile cap as shown in Figure 9. In TPC, PC4, the first
1060mm. Columns were simulated using 150 mm flexural crack occurred under the load at a column load of
diameter and 30 mm thick steel cylindrical plate on the 135.15kN. With further load increase diagonal cracks
pile cap, over which hydraulic jack was located for load formed joining the supports and concentrated load; with
application. Piles were simulated using 150 mm concrete further load increase, the diagonal cracks widened and
cubes. A hydraulic jack of 1000 kN and a proving ring of sudden shear failure occurred at column load, 309.7kN;
500 kN capacity were utilised for load application and the shear failure was predicted as per the specifications of
load measurement respectively. The applied force was the code. The abrupt shear failure can be observed in
controlled through manual operation. Instrumentation for Figure 9. TPC, PC5 developed two initial flexural cracks
the test specimens was designed to obtain the at column load 158kN at the bottom side face under the
measurement of transverse load and to capture the load- column load. As the load increased the flexural cracks
deflection response and crack development. Strength and extended to top face and additional diagonal cracks
serviceability data were collected for each test. A dial formed. At ultimate the diagonal cracks widened joining
gauge was employed for recording deflection under the the two supports and the column load on the top face and
column load. A hand-held microscope, capable of shear failure occurred at an ultimate load 377.20kN. From
measuring a minimum value of 0.05mm, was used to note the load deflection curve in Figure 11, sudden shear
crack width. Each specimen was loaded in 12-15 load failure can be noticed. TPC, PC6 developed initial two
increments to failure. At each load stage, magnitude of flexural cracks at column load 173.80kN at the bottom of
the load on the test specimen, central transverse deflection side face under the column load. Increase in column load
of the pile cap under the column load and maximum crack caused appearance of several diagonal cracks. As the
width were recorded. The cracks were marked on the pile failure neared, the pile cap collapsed in shear at column
163
Table 4. Principal test results of two pile caps

At Initial crack At service load At ultimate load
Specimen label
Type of failure
Moment Shear Moment Shear Moment Shear

Column load
Column load
Column load
Crack-width
Shear stress
Shear stress
Shear stress
rack-width
at force /
Deflection
at force/
Deflection
at force /
Deflection
(MPa)
(MPa)
(MPa)
(mm)
(mm)
(mm)
(mm)
(mm)
column Pile column Pile column Pile

(kN)
(kN)
(kN)
face load face load face load
(kNm) (kN) (kNm) (kN) (kNm) (kN)

PC 3 127.20 6.68 63.60 1.41 1.61 189.00 9.92 94.50 2.09 2.71 0.3 283.50 14.88 141.75 3.13 5.55 2.5 Flexure
PC4 135.15 17.23 67.58 1.50 2.05 206.47 26.33 103.24 2.29 3.40 0.6 309.70 39.49 154.85 3.44 7.25 3.6 Shear
PC 5 158.00 28.84 79.00 1.37 2.70 251.47 45.90 125.74 2.19 5.05 1.2 377.20 68.84 188.60 3.28 9.80 5.0 Shear
PC 6 173.80 39.54 86.90 1.36 3.64 280.50 63.81 140.25 2.19 6.60 1.3 420.75 95.72 210.38 3.28 11.60 4.5 Shear
PC 7 181.70 23.17 90.85 2.02 2.55 228.20 29.10 114.10 2.54 3.80 0.2 342.30 43.64 171.15 3.80 8.15 1.8 Flexure
PC 8 246.40 44.97 123.20 2.14 4.10 291.20 53.14 145.60 2.53 5.10 0.3 436.80 79.72 218.40 3.80 10.55 1.9 Flexure
PC 9 292.60 66.57 146.30 2.28 5.75 325.5 74.05 162.75 2.54 6.60 0.2 488.25 111.08 244.13 3.81 12.00 1.8 Flexure
load of 420.75kN. The TPCs PC7, PC8 and PC9 were bottom of the side face, at 181.70 kN, column load. As
respectively identical to the TPCs PC4, PC5 and PC6 that the load increased the flexural cracks extended to the top
failed in shear as per IS 456: 2000. The TPCs PC7, PC8 face. Finally the failure occurred in flexure at an ultimate
and PC9 were proportioned for shear to transform shear load, 342.30 kN. Load-deflection curve of PC7 in Fig 10
failure in to the desired flexural failure. Pile cap PC7 shows the ductility characteristic of flexural failure. Pile
developed initial flexural crack under the load at the cap PC 8 was identical to pile cap PC5 which failed in
shear when designed as per IS 456:2000. Pile cap PC8
164
was designed for shear to allow, flexural failure to occur.

The initial flexural crack occurred under the concentrated
load at column load, 246.40kN. Subsequent increases in
column load forced the flexural cracks to extend to the
top face with their widening. The flexural failure occurred
at column load of 436.80kN. Fig 11shows the ductility
experienced by the TPC, PC8. To see the change of shear
failure of the pile cap PC6, a companion pile cap identical
in all the respects to PC6, PC9 was fabricated with web
reinforcement. The initial flexural crack originated at the
bottom of the side face, under the column load at
292.60kN. As the loading progressed additional cracks
formed and already formed cracks extended to the top
face, widening in width. As the collapse neared,
compression distress was formed in the top face at
ultimate column load of 488.25 kN. Flexural failure
occurred. Fig 12 shows the ductility experienced by the
pile cap, PC9. No uplift of support was noticed in tests.
Discussion of Test Results

TPC, PC3 with shear span/ effective depth ratio (a/d),
0.58 develops very high shear resistance by arch action. It
is well known that at a/d equal to 1 shear resistance boosts
to 8 to 10 times the normal bending shear resistance. PC3
with a/d=0.58 develops much more shear resistance than a
member with a/d equal to 1. PC3 though has high ultimate
shear stress, 3.13 MPa, it is nullified by high arch action.
Failure occurred in bending as predicted by the code. PC4 Plate 2. Photos of PC6, PC7, PC8 and PC 9
with a/d equal to 1.42 develops far less arch action and
Conclusions
consequent shear resistance. Its high ultimate shear stress
3.44MPa is not nullified completely due to less arch Useful ideas gleaned from the experimental investigation
action and shear failure has occurred as per code. TPCs, undertaken are summed up in the conclusions listed
PC5 and PC6 have high a/d ratios 1.59 and 1.99 below.
respectively with less arch action and less development of 1. The long awaited substantiation of specifications
shear resistance. The ultimate shear stress for both was at incorporated in IS456:2000, relative to the
3.28MPa; consequently both have failed in shear as per occurrence of one way shear on TPCs has been
code. The three companion and identical TPCs PC7, PC8 established by the current tests on seven TPCs
and PC9 to PC4, PC5 and PC6 respectively were
2. Four TPCs designed in accordance with Cl 34.2.4.1
designed for shear to make them fail in bending.
and Cl 34.2.4.2 of IS 456:2000, failed as prescribed
by the code; TPC, PC3 failed in bending and TPCs
PC4, PC5 and PC6 in shear. A designer of TPCs can
follow the specifications of IS 456:2000 to determine
the mode of failure; if shear failure is predicted by
the code, the TPC can be designed for shear
reinforcement to force the failure in the desired
flexure, as is done in the case of TPCs PC7, PC8 and
PC9 in current investigation.
REFERENCES:
1. IS 456:2000, Indian Standard Code of Practice for
Plain and Reinforced Concrete, Bureau of Indian
2. IRC: 21-2000, Standard Specifications and Code of
Practice for Road bridges section: III Cement
concrete (Plain and Reinforced) The Indian Road
Congress, 2000.
3. IS 383:1970 (reaffirmed 1997), Specifications for
coarse and fine aggregates from natural sources for
Plate 1. Photos of PC3, PC4 and PC 5
concrete, Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi.
165
COMPARATIVE STUDY OF FLAT SLAB-COLUMN CONNECTION

TECHNIQUES FOR SEISMIC LOADING
AASTHA MAHAJAN1, RATNESH KUMAR2, ONKAR KUMBHAR3
1,2,3
Applied Mechanics Department, Visvesvaraya National Institute of Technology, Nagpur, India
In the present paper, comparative study of flat slab column connection techniques for lateral loading has
been made for a symmetrical plan of a ten storey building. The modelling has been done for a flat plate
directly resting on columns. Since there are issues in modelling of flat slab, out of which, one of the most
important issue taken in this paper is effect of torsion transfer in the slab column connections. The study
has been done using three different torsional stiffness of slab-column connection and their performance
assessment has been done for a moderate seismic zone. From linear analysis, change in fundamental
period of vibration has been studied. Further, the performance of these building models has been assessed
using nonlinear static analysis. The present study finds the results of Unified Equivalent Frame Model
(UEFM) to be the most reliable because of the inclusion of the effect of both gravity as well as lateral
loads in the calculation of torsional stiffness of the slab-column connections.
Keywords: flat slab, torsion, pushover analysis, lateral load, gravity load
1 Introduction l1 is defined as the center to center span length in the

Flat slab buildings are widely used form of RCC direction under consideration (Fig. 1).
structures due to their efficiency in terms of easier
formwork, increased storey height and better
architectural appearance. Many times designers
consider only gravity loads for designing flat slab
buildings. Flat slab structures designed without
considering seismic load may not have enough lateral
strength and ductility to resist earthquake ground
motions. In beams local hinge failure is possible, but in
the case when beams are not there, hinges will be
formed directly in slab and in columns which might
subsequently lead to a global structural failure quickly
and catastrophically. Since the column connection is
only over part of slab, hence, the rotation of slab along
a transverse section at the column support will vary and
will be equal to the column rotation only in immediate
vicinity of the column, resulting in torsion. Therefore
the study of behaviour of flat slab for seismic forces
and the effect of torsion in slab-column connections
needs to be understood.
For modelling the flat slab, Allen and Darvall [1],
provided tables of effective width coefficients for Figure 1: Equivalent beam width model
different combinations of plate aspect ratios (l1/l2) and
column width-to-slab span ratios (c1/l1 or c2/l1). Hwang
and Moehle [2], provide equations for effective width To take the effect of transfer of torsion, the flat slab has
that indicate that the relationship between exterior and been modelled using the model proposed by Benavent-
interior bays is about one-half. The following equations Climent [3], for wide beams, according to which the
can be used in lieu of tables from Allen and Darvall wide beam can be divided into three fictitious parts,
[1]: and are interconnected to the columns with the help of
l1 torsional springs (as shown in Fig. 2). ACI 318 [4]
For interior bays: b = 2c1 + (1) provides the following equations for calculating the
3 torsional stiffness which was derived under the basis of
l flat slab subjected to the gravity loads:
For exterior bays: b = c1 + 1 (2)
6
where, b is defined as the effective slab width, c1 is
defined as the column dimension parallel to span, and
166
Aastha Mahajan, et al.
9 ECS C 18CEC (1 + lC )
K = (3) K t ,l c = . (11)
c
l2 (1 - 2 )3 l2a 2 (2a + 3lC )
l2
0.63x x3 y
3 C = (1 - )( ). (12)
0.63x x y y 3
C = (1 - )( ) (4)
y 3
c2
where, is (1 - )
where, c2 is defined as width of column, x is defined as l2
the shorter overall dimension of rectangular part of
cross-section, y=longer overall dimension of Therefore, this study is limited to the analytical
rectangular part of cross-section, Ecs= Modulus of investigation of the seismic behaviour of the RC Flat
elasticity of slab concrete. slab buildings and the effect of modelling techniques of
To take the effect of lateral loads in the performance of flat slab has been studied by performing linear and
flat slab, Park et al. [5] had proposed a different nonlinear static pushover analysis on the buildings
equation for the calculation of torsional stiffness i.e. using SAP 2000. The cracking effect is not considered
modified effective beam model. The equations for in this study. To avoid the effect of other geometrical
torsional stiffness as derived by Park et.al are Eqs. (5, deficiencies on structural behaviour, a regular and
6). symmetrical building plan has been selected (Fig. 3).
Four different building models have been developed
6 ECS C
K = . (5) with a same basic plan.
c
l2 (1 - 2 )3 2. Specification of building
l2 Selected regular ten storey building with symmetric
plan (Fig. 3) is very much similar to the plan of an
0.63x x3 y office, hotel, school or a public building. The plan is
C = (1 - )( ). (6) symmetric in both longitudinal as well as transverse
y 3 directions with constant story height of 3 m above
The equation for flexural stiffness of the slab is as plinth level.
given in Eq. (7).
4 Ec I S
KS = . . (7)
l1
To take the effect of both lateral as well as gravity

loads, Shin et al. [6, 7] proposed a different model
called Unified equivalent frame method to take the
effect of both lateral and gravity loads in the
calculation of torsional stiffness at slab column
connections as given in Eqs. (11. 12).A new parameter
called load ratio factor (c) has been introduced in this
model which is the relative ratio of the torsional
moment due to lateral loads (Tl) to the torsional
moment due to gravity loads (Tg) as given in Eq. (8)
T1
lC = . (8)
Tg
For determining the load ratio factor, torsional
moments due to lateral and gravity load can be found
out using the Eqs. (9, 10).
Figure 3: Equivalent frame model with torsional
Ktg springs used in the slab-column connections
Tg = M S ( ). (9)
K tg + K ci Seismic force has been calculated as per Indian
Standard IS 1893-Part I [8] considering minimum base
K tg shear correction. Building is situated on medium soil in
T1 = M ub ( ). (10) seismic zone III and designed to meet requirements of
K tl + K si IS 456 [9]. Effect of cracking stiffness is ignored.
167
Concrete with nominal characteristic compressive defined by SAP 2000) have been used and in beams the
strength of 25 MPa and steel with 415 MPa yield hinges are generated using the moment curvature
strength has been used in design. obtained from the section designer, the yield moment
and yield rotation are given as input in the hinge
3. Modelling and Analysis properties where the curvature is converted into
To check the changes in performance of flat slab with rotation using the Eqs. (13,14) from Eurocode 8- Part 3
different modelling approaches such as effective beam (CEN 2005) [13]:
width model which is modelled without considering
torsional stiffness, and the remaining three models ACI ( LV + aV z ) 1.5H 0.13f y db f y
equivalent frame model [2], modified effective beam q y = fy + 0.00135{1 + }+
model [3] and unified effective beam model [4] are
3 LV 0.5 f c
modelled using the Benavent-Climent model [1] with . (13)
the equations for torsional stiffness differing from each
other. Nomenclatures of all the building models and 0.5Lp
their brief description have been presented in Table 1.
qu = q y + (qu - q y ) Lp (1 - ). (14)
Lv
The sectional properties of equivalent beams used for
modelling flat slabs are taken as 600x125 mm for Nonlinear Static Procedure (NSP) has been used study
central beams, 500x125mm for exterior beams and the nonlinear behaviour of the buildings and to
1300x125mm for interior beams. Sectional properties estimate the seismic performance. Lateral load
for corner columns are 300x450 mm and for the other deformation pattern based on storey mass as per FEMA
columns 600x600 mm. 356 for obtaining capacity curve has been used.
Structural modelling, analysis and design have been Table 1: Details of different models of flat slab
performed in SAP 2000 (V-14.2.4) [10]. Effective buildings
beams and columns have been modelled using 3D
frame elements. The foundation has been considered as Model Description
rigid and all the six degrees of freedom at the base of ACI- Flat slab modelled as ACI
the ground storey columns have been restrained. The EFM based Equivalent Frame Model
in-plane rigidity of the slab has been modelled using MEFM Flat slab modelled as Modified
diaphragm constraint. Response spectrum analysis is Equivalent Frame Model
performed on the building to compute seismic force. UEFM Flat slab modelled as Unified
Lumped plastic hinge model [FEMA 356/ASCE 41-06] Equivalent Frame Model
[11, 12] has been used to simulate the nonlinear
behaviour of members. In the flat slab models, the
columns have been assigned the coupled axial moment
(P-M2-M3) auto hinges (which are inbuilt in SAP 2000)
and the cracking effect in the stiffness of all the 3.1 Modal Analysis Results
members has been ignored. To recognize the difference in modelling approaches
on the modal parameters of flat slab structure, modal
analysis has been performed on all four building
models. The natural time period of ACI-EFM is 8.88%
less than UEFM and that of MEFM is 2.96% more in
first two modes. And in the third mode the natural time
period of ACI-EFM is 6.3% less than UEFM and that
of MEFM is 2.27% more than UEFM. Thus the time
period for ACI-EFM is the least making it the stiffest
structure since more stiffness leads to reduction in
natural time period of the building. It is observed that
MEFM is the most flexible structure having the
maximum natural time period. In terms of the models
with torsional stiffness we can conclude that, the
stiffness of ACI-EFM is the most, followed by UEFM
and MEFM. First three natural periods of all the four
models is presented in Table 2.
3.2 Nonlinear analysis results

The different pushover curves in terms of base shear
and roof displacement in longitudinal for different
models are compared as shown in the following Fig. 3.
Figure 3: Plan of the building to be analysed and
designed
168
All curves are approximated by means of bi- collapse margin ratio have also been calculated and
linearization as stated in FEMA 356 to calculate the shown in Table 4. Performance is assessed at three
yield force, yield displacement and stiffness. The levels of drift 1 %, 2% and 4% as stated in FEMA 356
displacement corresponding to the ultimate base shear of the total building height since the target
is calculated as ultimate displacement. Ductility, and displacements found conventionally were misguiding.
Table 2: Modal Information of Different Models of Flat Slab Building
Models Vibration mode 1 Vibration mode 2 Vibration mode 3

Displacem Time Modal Displace Time Modal Displace Time Modal
ent period mass ment period mass ment period mass
direction (sec) participatin direction (sec) particip direction (sec) participati
g ratio (%) ating ng ratio
ratio (%)
(%)
ACI-EFM Ty 2.46 75 Tx 2.44 75 T 2.07 22.6
MEFM Ty 2.78 73.5 Tx 2.76 73.3 T 2.25 22.1
UEFM Ty 2.7 74 Tx 2.67 74 T 2.2 22.3
7000
6000
MEFM
5000 UEFM
EBWM
Base Force (kN)
4000 ACI-EFM
LS
3000
IO
CP
2000
1 % Drift
1000 2 % Drift
4% Drift
0
-0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8
Base Displacement (m)
Figure 3: Pushover analysis curves of different models of flat slab in X direction
Table 3: Hinge pattern for different models of flat slab buildings

EBWM ACI-EFM MEFM UEFM
1% 2% 4% 1% 2% 4% 1% 2% 4% 1% 2% 4%
DRIFT DRIFT DRIFT DRIFT DRIFT DRIFT DRIFT DRIFT DRIFT DRIFT DRIFT DRIFT
I 60 114 288 70 330 288 50 173 481 56 217 497
O
L - - 0 - - 0 - - 57 - - -
S
C - - 2 - - 2 - - - - - -
P
169
Table 4: Pushover Analysis Results of Different Models of Flat Slab Buildings
Model ACI-EFM MEFM UEFM

Yield force (KN) 3300 3200 3100
Yield displacement (mm) 400 640 580
Ultimate displacement (mm) 1480 1680 1200
Ductility 3.7 2.62 2.1

(CR) Collapse ratio at LS level:
DBE 30 24 23.6
MCE 15 12 11.8
The hinge formation pattern has been given in Table 3. slab-column connections. It is also found that the
From the above Table 3 and Table 4 following ductility of UEFM is the least. Ductility of ACI-EFM
observations were made. The yield strength of UEFM is 1.76 times more and that of MEFM 1.25 times more
is least and that of ACI-EFM is most which is than UEFM. The yield force for ACI-EFM is 1.06
correlated with the base force of the respective models. times more than UEFM. The yield displacement of
The yield strength (with respect to yield base force) of ACI-EFM 0.68 times less and for MEFM 1.1 times
ACI-EFM is 1.06 times more than UEFM, and the more than UEFM. The CR at DBE level and MCE
yield strength of MEFM is 1.03 times that of UEFM. level for ACI-EFM is 1.27 times more and for MEFM
The base force carried at 1 % drift of the total height, it is 1.02 times more than UEFM. The IO level hinges
EBWM is carrying 0.75 times UEFM, MEFM is are firstly formed in MEFM, UEFM and ACI-EFM
carrying 0.93 times UEFM and ACI-EFM is carrying which means that at IO level MEFM is giving the
1.2 times base force. At 2 % drift of the total height, worst performance and ACI-EFM is giving the best
ACI EFM is carrying 1.1 times, EBWM is carrying performance. There is no formation of CP level hinges
0.7 times and MEFM is carrying the same base force as for UEFM therefore, the CR has been found at LS level
that of UEFM. hinge.
The maximum initial stiffness is for ACI-EFM Inter-storey drift is found at 2 % drift of the total height
followed by UEFM and MEFM. The difference in as shown in Fig.4. The peak inter-storey drift % for
stiffness of the various models of flat slab is directly Push X load case for EBWM is 0.98 times UEFM, for
proportional to the respective torsional stiffness of the ACI-EFM it is 1.07 times UEFM and for MEFM it is
0.98 times UEFM.
35
30
25
UEFM
Storey Height
20
MEFM
15
ACI-EFM
10
EBWM
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5
% Interstorey Drift
Figure 4: Inter-storey drift (%) for different models of flat slab at 2% drift of the total height of the building
170
4 Conclusion [8] SAP2000 Tutorial Manual, SAP2000

It has been observed that many times in the seismic Integrated Finite Elements Analysis and
design practice the designers ignore the effect of Design of Structures tutorial Manual,
torsion on slab-column connections during the Computers and Structures, Inc., Berkeley,
modelling of flat slab. In reality the torsion will get California, USA.
transferred because the width of the column supporting [9] FEMA 356 (2000), Pre-standard and
the flat slab will be relatively very small, therefore the commentary for the seismic rehabilitation of
rotation of the column will be equal to the rotation of buildings, Federal Emergency Management
slab only in the immediate vicinity of column and will Agency, Washington, DC.
vary with the distance therefore it will result in torsion. [10] ASCE 41 (2007), Seismic Rehabilitation of
To take care of this, the present study deals with the Existing Buildings (ASCE), American society
effect of transfer of torsion in the slab-column of Civil Engineers, Reston, VA.EN 1998-3
connection by providing torsional spring of different (2005), Design of structures for earthquake
proposed stiffness. From the modal analysis it has been resistance Part 3, Eurocode 8, London,
observed that the MEFM is the most flexible structure Britain.
having the maximum natural time period. It is observed [11] Elwood, K. J., Matamoros, A. B., Wallace, J.
that the stiffness of ACI-EFM is the highest, followed W., Lehman, D. E., Heintz, J. A., Mitchell, A.
by UEFM and MEFM. Evaluation of Inter-storey drift D., ... & Moehle, J. P. (2007). Update to
also shows that the value of torsional stiffness ASCE/SEI 41 concrete
influences the stiffness of flat slab. The peak inter- provisions. Earthquake Spectra, 23(3), 493-
storey drift is the least for ACI-EFM and maximum for 523.
MEFM. The formation of hinges is firstly in MEFM [12] Ou, X. Y., He, Z., & Ou, J. P. (2014).
and lastly in ACI-EFM. Collapse ratio values are also Parametric study on collapse margin ratio of
most conservative for ACI-EFM. The present study structure. Journal of Central South
finds the results of UEFM most reliable, because of the University, 21, 2477-2486.
inclusion of the effect of both gravity and lateral loads
in the calculation of torsional stiffness of the slab-
column connections.
References
[1] Benavent-Climent, A. (2007). Seismic

behaviour of RC wide beam-column
connections under dynamic loading. Journal
of earthquake engineering, 11(4), 493-511.
[2] ACI 318 (2008), Building Code Requirements
for Structural Concrete, American Concrete
Institute, Michigan, United States.
[3] Park, Y. M., Han, S. W., & Kee, S. H. (2009).
A modified equivalent frame method for
lateral load analysis. Magazine of Concrete
Research, 61(5), 359.
[4] Shin, M., Choi, S. H., Lee, D. H., Oh, J. Y.,
Kim, K. S., & Lee, J. Y. (2014a). Unified
equivalent frame method for flat plate slab
structures under combined gravity and lateral
loadsPart 2: verification.
[5] Shin, M., Kim, K., Choi, S. H., Ju, H., Lee, D.
H., & Lee, J. Y. (2014b). Unified equivalent
frame method for flat plate slab structures
under combined gravity and lateral loadsPart
1: derivation.
[6] IS 1893 (Part 1) (2002), Criteria for
Earthquake Resistant Design of Structures:
Part 1 General Provision and Buildings (fifth
revision), BIS, New Delhi, India.
[7] IS 456 (2000), Plain and Reinforced
Concrete-Code of Practice, Indian Standard,
New Delhi, India.
171
COMPARATIVE STUDY OF 1D AND 2D SIMULATION MODELS OF

HOLLOW RC BRIDGE COLUMNS UNDER REVERSED CYCLIC
LOADS
Vijay Kumar Polimeru1, Abhideep Sahu2, Arghadeep Laskar3
1, 2, 3
Department of Civil Engineering, IIT Bombay, Mumbai 400076, India.
Reinforced concrete (RC) bridge columns can be subjected to large dynamic loads during earthquakes. In
order to design these structures a thorough understanding on their nonlinear behavior is essential. 1D and
2D numerical simulation models are generally used for the analysis of these structures under axial loads
and uni-axial bending. The iterative process used in the numerical simulation is cost sensitive and time
consuming because of the complex constitute relationships of the materials. In this study two hollow RC
bridge columns tested under reversed cyclic loads at the National Centre for Research on Earthquake
Engineering (NCREE) Taiwan have been analyzed using both 1D and 2D numerical simulation models.
Analysis results from both simulation models such as primary backbone curves, hysteretic loops
including pinching effects and the strength degradation in the post peak region have been compared and
verified with the experimental data.
Keywords: RC bridge column; Reversed cyclic load; Nonlinear analysis; Hysteretic loops
1 Introduction (CSMM) [10]. However, validity of these analytical

models in predicting the shear behavior of RC structures
Reinforced concrete (RC) bridge columns can be
is not certain. Out of all the micro models cyclic
subjected to large dynamic loads during earthquakes. In
softened membrane model (which is based on smeared
order to design these structures a thorough
crack concept and satisfies Naviers principles of
understanding on their nonlinear behavior is essential.
mechanics) is able to predict the shear behavior of RC
Macro models and micro models are the two types of
structures with reasonable accuracy [11]. The 1D and
analytical models commonly used for the analysis of
2D simulation models can be improved by
these structures. Macro models analyze the bridge
implementing the damage parameters [12, 13] in the
column by treating it as a cantilever and are essentially
constitutive relationships of concrete and steel. In the
one dimensional (1D) models. Whereas micro models
past, cyclic and dynamic response of RC shear walls has
analyze the bridge columns by treating it as a
been predicted using CSMM based 2D plane-stress
combination of plane stress elements and beam column
elements [14]. 1D models using non-linear beam-
elements. Hence these models are two dimensional (2D)
column elements have been used to predict the seismic
models. Examples of 1D simulation models are
behavior of hollow rectangular RC bridge columns [15]
equivalent beam model (EBM) [1], multiple vertical line
and cyclic behavior of GFRP strengthened hollow
element model (MVLEM) [1] and modified multiple
rectangular RC bridge columns [16]. Recently a
vertical line element model [2]. These models are very
combination of non-linear beam column elements and
good in predicting the macro level properties such as
CSMM based 2D plane stress elements have been used
load deformation relationships but are not useful for
to predict the cyclic response of post-tensioned hollow
micro level analysis or for doing a complete stress
rectangular bridge columns tested at SUNY Buffalo [17].
analysis. On the other hand, researchers have developed
However, no literature on comparative study of 1D and
various rational analytical micro models for more than
2D models for bridge columns are reported till date. In
three decades to study the nonlinear behavior of RC
this study two rectangular hollow RC bridge columns,
structures by predicting both the macro level load
PI1 and PI2, tested under reversed cyclic loads at the
deformation parameters and micro level stress strain
National Centre for Research on Earthquake
properties. These models include equilibrium plasticity
Engineering (NCREE) Taiwan [18] have been analyzed
truss model [3], Mohr compatibility truss model
using both 1D and 2D numerical simulation models.
(MCTM) [4], compression field theory (CFT) [5],
Plane stress elements developed using cyclic softened
modified compression field theory (MCFT) [6], rotating
membrane model (CSMM) have been used for the 2D
angle softened truss model (RA-STM) [7], fixed angle
analysis. The results obtained from the 1D and 2D
softened truss model (FA-STM) [8], softened membrane
models have been compared with the experimental
model (SMM) [9], and cyclic softened membrane model
results. The efficiency of 1D and 2D models in
1
Research scholar, vijaykumarpolimeru@iitb.ac.in
2
Dual degree student, abhideep.sahu@gmail.com
3
Assistant Professor, laskar@civil.iitb.ac.in
172
Vijay Kumar Polimeru, et al.
predicting the load deformation relationships has been this study the damage properties for steel consisting of
studied by comparing the results. The effectiveness of thee pinching factor during reloading for strain (Px )
implementing the damage parameters into the ( )
and stress Py , damage due to ductility (D1 ) and
constitutive laws has been demonstrated by comparing
the analytical results obtained from the present study energy (D2 ) , power used to determine the degraded
with the analytical results obtained from previous unloading stiffness based on ductility (b ) have been
simulations of the bridge columns available in literature. calibrated with respect to aspect ratio. Detailed
explanation of these parameters is given in [13]. The
2 Methodology calibrated values are tabulated in Tables 1 and 2. The
constitutive relationships are shown in Fig. 1. Confined
Nonlinear finite element models in 1D and 2D have concrete (concrete within the stirrups) properties have
been developed and analyzed using OpenSees finite been calculated using a model developed by Mander et
element software. The uniaxial material model of al. [20]. The material and geometric properties, of the
concrete developed by Chang and Mander [12] has been specimens are listed in Table 3 along with their
used along with a uniaxial trilinear hysteretic steel reinforcement details. The aspect ratio (height to width
material model [13] for longitudinal reinforcement. ratio) of the specimens PI1 and PI2 are 2.7 and 2.0
Chang and Manders concrete model [11] is a respectively. The bridge columns have been modelled as
generalized constitutive model which defines the a cantilever fixed at the bottom in the 1D model. 11
damage properties of concrete. In this study the damage nonlinear beam-column elements are used for the
parameters for concrete consisting of the shape analysis. In each element, the entire cross section of the
parameters in Tsais equation [19] defined for bridge columns has been divided into 8 fibers of
compression (rc ) and tension (rt ) , non-dimensional unconfined concrete, 4 fibers of confined concrete and
critical strain on compression envelope (x )
- ve
cr and 64 fibers of steel. In the 2D model, two of the bridge
column walls have been modelled with ten RC plane
tension envelope ( )
+ ve
xcr have been calibrated with stress elements and each of the other two walls have
respect to aspect ratio. Detailed explanation of these been modelled with five nonlinear beam-column
parameters is given in [12]. On the other hand, the elements consisting of 4 fibers of unconfined concrete,
hysteretic steel model is a generalized trilinear model 2 fibers of confined concrete and 32 fibers of steel. Both
which also defines the damage properties of steel. In the columns have been subjected to an static axial load
Table. 1: Properties of confined and unconfined concrete with respect to aspect ratio
Aspect Ratio
Concrete type
(L d ) rc x cr- rt x cr+
Confined >2 7 1.035 6 10000
Unconfined >2 7 1.035 6 10000
Confined 2 7 1.035 3 1.5
Unconfined 2 7 1.035 3 1.5
Table. 2: Damage properties of steel with respect to aspect ratio

Aspect Ratio
Px Py D1 D2 b
(L d )
>2 0.6 1.0 0.011 0.2 0.5
2 0.3 0.1 0.040 0.8 0.3
Table. 3: Geometry and material properties of bridge columns

Longitudinal Reinforcement Transverse Reinforcement
Specimen N L
No.
f c' (N mm2 ) (kN ) (mm) Dia. fy f su Dia. fy f su
(mm) (N mm 2
) (N mm 2
) (mm) (N mm 2
) (N mm2 )
PI1 34 4000 4500 22 460.0 647.0 10 510.0 120

PI2 32 3600 3500 22 418.2 626.5 10 420.0 200
173
(s )
(e2+ve,s2+ve) (e3+ve,s3+ve)
Stress
(e1+ve,s1+ve)
Strain (e )
(e1-ve,s1-ve)
(e2-ve,s2-ve)
(e3-ve,s3-ve)
(a.) Constitutive relationship of concrete [12] (b.) Constitutive relationship of concrete [13]
Figure 1: Constitutive relationships of steel and concrete
1500 mm 1500 mm
Cross section of
Quadrilateral
Elements
Confined
concrete 900 mm
900 mm
Bending Bending
1500 mm
1500 mm Direction
900 mm
direction
900 mm
Unconfined
concrete
Cross section of
Beam Column
Elements
N N N
3 3 3
Confined concrete P P P
Unconfined concrete 3 3 3
Longitudinal steel bars

Rigid
Beam
N
P
Nonlinear
Beam Column
Elements
Quadrilateral
RC Plane
stress Element
A A
(a.) Cross section and elevation of 1D model (b.) Cross section and elevation of 2D model
Figure 2: Cross section and elevation of 1D and 2D models
(N) and reversed cyclic load (P). The cross section and 12% and 11% lower than the experimental peak loads
elevation of 1D and 2D models are shown in Fig. 2. respectively. For specimen PI2, the predicted peak loads
Multi point constraint has been applied at the nodes from 1D and 2D analyses are 1% lower and 5% higher
common to plane stress and nonlinear beam column than the test result respectively. The run times for both
elements. Modified Newton-Raphson method with 1D and 2D models were similar. Even though the
Krylov subspace acceleration has been used for the absolute peaks are better predicted using 1D analysis,
analysis. the slopes of loading and unloading curves and the
pinching effects (pinched shape near origin) in the pre
and post peak regions of all cycles are better predicted
3 Results and discussion:
using 2D model. It can thus be concluded that with
Hysteretic loops obtained from 1D and 2D models some minor improvements in the prediction of the peak
have been compared with the experimental results for
both flexure dominant column PI1 and shear dominant
column PI2. Comparing the results obtained from 1D
and 2D simulation models developed in this study, it can
be observed from Figs. 3 and 4 that the peak loads
predicted from 1D and 2D analysis for specimen PI1 are
174
loads, CSMM based plane stress elements can be Menegotto and Pinto model [23] modified by Filippou
effectively used to predict the seismic performance of et. al. through addition of isotropic strain hardening
shear critical components of RC structures in place of effects for steel [24]. It can be observed from Figs. 5
the nonlinear beam column element. The results and 6 that the present 1D model were able to better
obtained from the present study have also been predict the peak loads, post peak strength degradation
compared with the analytical results available in the and pinching behavior of columns PI1 and PI2
literature on these bridge columns which were obtained compared to the 1D analysis results obtained by
using a 1D model developed by Mullapudi et al. [21]. Mullapudi [21]. The better predictions obtained from
The constitutive relationships used were based on Kent the present study is due to the implementation of
and Park model [22] of concrete modified by adding damage properties in the constitutive relationships of
constitutive relationship of concrete in tension and concrete and steel.
Figure 3: Comparison of 1D and 2D analysis results of column PI1 with experimental results
Figure 4: Comparison of 1D and 2D analysis results of column PI2 with experimental results
175
(a) Without Damage Properties (b) With Damage Properties

Figure 5: Comparison of 1D analysis results of PI1 with experimental and Ref. [21]
(a) Without Damage Properties (b) With Damage Properties

Figure 6: Comparison of 1D analysis results of PI2 with experimental and Ref. [21]
literature from models without damage parameters.
However, the quantification of the damage properties
4 Conclusions:
with change of aspect ratio of the bridge column that
The analytical results showed that the 1D model has been implemented in the current simulation models
predicted the overall cyclic behavior more accurately needs to be verified with additional simulations of tested
compared to the 2D model developed in the present specimens.
study. Hence 1D model with damage parameters is
effective for predicting the macro level behavior of the
References
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However certain characteristic of the column behavior [1] Vulcano, A., Bertero, V. V. and Colotti, V.,
such as the slopes of loading and unloading curves and Analytical modeling of R/C structural walls. In
the pinching effects in the pre-and post peak regions of Proceedings of the 9th World Conference on
all cycles are better predicted by the 2D model. For Earthquake Engineering, Vol. 6, pp. 41-46, 1988.
solid columns, the results obtained from 1D and 2D [2] Orakcal, K., Wallace, J. W. and Conte, J. P.,
analysis match for columns with higher aspect ratio Flexural modeling of reinforced concrete walls-
(width to height greater than 0.2). At lower values of model attributes. Structural Journal of the
aspect ratio, the predictions from 2D analysis are higher American Concrete Institute, Vol. 101(5), pp.
than 1D analysis results. The implementation of the 688-698, 2004.
damage parameters in the constitutive relationships has [3] Nielsen, M. P., Om forskydningsarmering af
improved the prediction of the shear behavior of the
jernbetonbjlker. (On shear reinforcement in
bridge columns compared to results available in
reinforced concrete beams), Bygningsstatiske
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Meddeleser, Cophenhagan, Denmark, Vol. 38(2), [14] Mo, Y. L., Zhong, J., & Hsu, T. T. C. Seismic
pp. 33-58, 1967. simulation of RC wall-type structures.
[4] Collins, M. P., Towards a rational theory for RC Engineering structures, 30(11), pp. 3167-3175,
members in shear. Journal of the Structural 2008.
Division, ASCE, Vol. 104(4), pp. 649-666, 1978. [15] Zhao, Y., Jiang, H. Y., Gu, J., & Wang, R. Q.
[5] Mitchell, D., and Collins, M. P., Diagonal Seismic Performance of Reinforced Concrete
compression field theory-a rational model for Rectangular Hollow Bridge Piers. Advanced
structural concrete in pure torsion. Journal Materials Research Vol. 859, pp. 95-99. Trans
Proceedings of the American Concrete Institute, Tech Publications, 2014.
Vol. 71(8), pp. 396-408, 1974. [16] Jia, J., Han, Q., Xu, Z., & Zhang, D. Cyclic Load
[6] Vecchio, F. J. and Collins, M. P., The modified Responses of GFRP-Strengthened Hollow
compression-field theory for reinforced concrete Rectangular Bridge Piers. Advances in Materials
elements subjected to shear. Journal Proceedings Science and Engineering, 2014.
of the American Concrete Institute, Vol. 83(2), [17] Laskar, A., Mo, Y. L., & Hsu, T. T. C. Simulation
pp. 219-231, 1986. of post-tensioned bridge columns under reversed-
[7] Hsu, T. T. C., Softened truss model theory for cyclic loads. Materials and Structures, 1-20,
shear and torsion. Structural Journal of the 2016.
American Concrete Institute, Vol. 85(6), pp. 624- [18] Yeh, Y. K., Mo, Y. L. and Yang, C. Y., Full-scale
635, 1988. tests on rectangular hollow bridge
[8] Pang, X. B. D. and Hsu, T. T. C., Fixed angle piers. Materials and Structures, Vol. 35(2), pp.
softened truss model for reinforced concrete. 117-125, 2002.
Structural Journal of the American Concrete [19] Tsai, W. T., Uniaxial compressional stress-strain
Institute, Vol. 93(2), pp. 196-208, 1996. relation of concrete. Journal of Structural
[9] Zhu, R. R. H., Softened membrane model of Engineering, Vol. 114(9), pp. 2133-2136, 1988.
cracked reinforced concrete considering the [20] Mander, J. B., Priestley, M. J. and Park, R.,
Poisson effect. Ph. D. Dissertation, Department Theoretical stress-strain model for confined
of Civil and Environmental Engineering, concrete. Journal of structural engineering,
University of Houston, Houston, TX, 2000. ASCE, Vol. 114(8), pp. 1804-1826, 1988.
[10] Mansour, M., Behaviour of reinforced concrete [21] Mullapudi, T. R. S., Seismic analysis of
membrane elements under cyclic shear: reinforced concrete structures subjected to
experiments to theory. Ph. D. Dissertation, combined axial, flexure, shear and torsional
Department of Civil and Environmental loads. Ph. D. Dissertation, Department of Civil
Engineering, University of Houston, Houston, and Environmental Engineering, University of
TX, 2001. Houston, Houston, TX, 2010.
[11] So, M. G., Total strain based bond/slip and [22] Kent, D. C. and Park, R., Flexural members with
shear/friction membrane model for finite element confined concrete. Journal of the Structural
analysis of reinforced concrete. Ph. D. Division, 1971.
Dissertation, Department of Mechanical, [23] Menegotto, M. and Pinto, P. E., Method of
Aerospace and Structural Engineering, Analysis for Cyclically Loaded RC Frames
Washington University, Saint Louis, Missouri, Including Changes in Geometry and Non-elastic
2008. Behaviour of Elements Under Combined Normal
[12] Chang, G. A. and Mander, J. B., Seismic energy Force and Bending. In IABSE Congress Reports
based fatigue damage analysis of bridge of the Working Commission, Vol. 13(1), 1973.
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Buffalo, NY: National Center for Earthquake Effects of bond deterioration on hysteretic
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177
COMPARATIVE STUDY OF DIFFERENT FOUNDATION AND

SIDE WALL SYSTEMS FOR LARGE STORAGE TANKS
T.Pavan Kumar1, G.Papa Rao2, P.Veerabhadra Rao3

1,2,3
Gayatri Vidya Parishad College of Engg.(A) ,Visakhapatnam-530048, Andhra Pradesh, India.
R.C.C tanks are widely used to store large quantities of water and ground resting tanks without top slab are being
used worldwide in sewage treatment plants (STPs). The type of foundation system & side wall system for tanks
depends on the type of soil and height of the tank. The authors tried two types of foundation systems & three types
of side wall systems keeping the capacity of tank being constant. Comparisons were made to evaluate the best
structural system in terms of load dispersion and economy. To understand the behavior of large storage tanks, an
open tank of size 30mx15mx5.5m (0.5m free board) is considered. Analysis is carried out in STAAD-Pro and
designs were done by manually and the comparisons made between each system and the most economic
combination of side wall and foundation system was arrived.
Keywords: Water Tanks, STAAD-Pro, Foundation Systems.
1 Introduction
R.C.C tanks are widely used to store large quantities b/a = 0.5-3.0, where b = width of the wall and
of water and ground resting tanks without top slab are a = height of the wall, for ratios b/a > 3.0, the IS-
being used worldwide in sewage treatment plants 3370 (PART- 4) code is silent and the authors tried
(STPs). The type of foundation system & side wall for b/a > 3.0. In the present study a rectangular tank
system for tanks depends on the type of soil and is considered of size 30mx15mx5.5m of capacity
height of the tank. The authors tried two types of 2250kL and the b/a ratio in present study is 5.45. The
foundation systems & three types of side wall main aim of this study is to understand the behaviour
systems keeping the capacity of tank being constant. of large storage tanks for which three side wall
Comparisons were made to evaluate the best systems and two foundation systems are considered.
structural system in terms of load dispersion and The study is carried for equal capacity of tanks with
economy. To understand the behavior of large different side wall systems such as free cantilever,
storage tanks, an open tank of size 30mx15mx5.5m framed type system and twin wall system to resist
(0.5m free board) is considered. Analysis is carried water pressures and two foundation systems such as
out in STAAD-Pro and designs were done by solid raft foundation system and cellular raft
manually and the comparisons made between each foundation system to resist uplift of the tank due to
system and the most economic combination of side the water table effect. The tanks are analyzed and
wall and foundation system was arrived. designed for hydrostatic and hydrodynamic
pressures. Analysis has been carried out using
2 Modeling and methodology
STAAD-Pro software and designs were done by
As per Indian Standard IS-3370 (PART- 4), the manually and the tanks are assumed to be fixed at the
moment coefficients for tanks with walls fixed and as bottom and free and the top and the comparisons
well as hinged at bottom are given for the values upto were made between each system. The best side wall
system and foundation system are selected based on
1
P.G.Student, pavan0971@gmail.com load dispersion and also the economy is taken into
2
Professor of Civil Engg, gprao_74@gvpce.ac.in consideration and the most economic combination of
3
Professor of Civil Engg, pvr2889@gmail.com side wall and foundation system was arrived.
2.1 Preliminary data for the problem taken
178
T. Pavan Kumar, et al.
The dimensions of the tank considered in analysis are Table 1 : Free cantilever type system
of size 30mx15mx5.5m, and the materials used are Size of tank 30mx15mx5.5m
M30 grade concrete and Fe415 grade steel. Type of
soil is hard rocky and the tanks are considered to be Wall thickness 0.3m
in seismic zone-II. The capacity of the tank in all
cases is taken to be 2250m3. The types of side wall Table 2 : Framed type system
systems considered are shown in Figure 1, Figure 2 Size of the tank 30mx15mx5.5m
and Figure 3 and the type of foundation systems
considered are shown in Figure 4 and Figure 5. Wall thickness 0.3m
Distance between columns 3m

Size of beams 0.3x0.45m
Size of internal columns 0.45mx0.45m
Size of external columns 0.45mx0.6m
Figure 1: Free Cantilever Type System

Table 3 : Twin wall system
Size of the tank 30mx15mx5.5m
Distance between
3m
transfer walls
Wall thickness 0.3m
Width of transfer wall 1m
Figure 2: Framed Type System
2.3 Modeling of foundation systems
Table 4 : Solid raft foundation system

Size of foundation 30mx15m
Water table effect from

2m
Figure 3: Twin Wall System N.G.L
Slab projections of the tank
2m
base slab
Thickness of base slab 0.5m
Table 5 : Cellular raft foundation system
Figure 4: Solid raft foundation system Size of foundation 30mx15m

Centre to centre distance
3m
between deep beams
Thickness of top and base
0.25m
slabs
Size of deep beams 0.3x2.5m
Figure 5: Cellular raft foundation system 2.4 Tank conditions
2.2 Modeling of side wall systems
179
Tank condition-I : On ground resting tank with no Self weight of all the structural members such as
soil pressure from outside & no water table effect on walls, base slabs, beams and columns are considered
bottom surface of the tank as shown in Figure 6. in analysis. Unit weight of R.C.C is considered to be
r = 25kN/m3
2.5.2 Uplift pressure

Uplift pressure of the tank is a major criteria when
the water table is present above the base slab of the
tank. As per IS:3370-(PART-1), the factor of safety
against the uplift pressure of the tank is 1.2. The
depth of water table considered in the analysis is 2m
Figure 6: Tank condition-I from the ground level.
Tank condition-II : On ground resting tank with soil 2.5.3 Soil pressure
pressure outside and no water table effect on bottom
Soil pressure acts on the side walls of the tanks in
surface of the tank as shown in Figure 7.
both tank conditions-II and III, soil pressure acts on
side walls varying linearly from minimum at top and
maximum at the bottom.
Soil pressure acting on the wall =
= (coefficient of earth pressure)x(g)x(height of wall)
= kaxgxH
2.5.4 Wind pressure

Figure 7: Tank condition-II Wind pressure acts on the side walls of the tanks in
tank condition-I, wind pressure acts on the tank side
Tank condition-III : On ground resting tank with walls varying linearly from maximum at top and
soil pressure outside and considering Water table minimum at the bottom.
effect on bottom surface of the tank as shown in
Figure 8. 2.5.5 Hydrostatic pressure
Hydrostatic pressure is the pressure exerted by water
at rest condition, Hydrostatic pressure acts on side
walls varying linearly from minimum at top and
maximum at the bottom. Unit weight of water is
taken to be gw = 9.8kN/m3
Hydrostatic pressure on the tank side wall =
= (unit weight of water)x(height of wall) = (gw)x(H)
Figure 8: Tank condition-III
2.5.6 Hydrodynamic pressure
2.5 Loadings considered for the analysis
Hydrodynamic pressure is the pressure exerted by
1. Self weight water on tank side walls when the water is in motion.
2. Uplift pressure Hydrodynamic pressure depends on seismic zone and
3. Soil pressure size of tank. Hydrodynamic pressure varies linearly
4. Wind pressure from minimum at top and maximum at the bottom,
5. Hydrostatic pressure
the hydrodynamic pressure is expressed in terms of
6. Hydrodynamic pressure
the hydrostatic pressure. Hydrodynamic pressure is
2.5.1 Self weight calculated as per GSDMA guidelines for tank size of
30mx15mx5.5m in zone-II.
180
Hydrodynamic" Hydrostatic
! #"= 11.5% ! # 3 2.8
pressure" "pressure"
1.89
2
3 Presentation of analysis results Free Cantilever
0.9 Framed Type
1
MY(kNm/m) = Bending moment about local Y-axis Twin Wall System
MX(kNm/m) = Bending moment about local X-axis 0

Deflection at top in (mm)
SX(N/mm2) = Axial stress along X-axis
SY(N/mm2) = Axial stress along Y-axis Figure 12: Deflection in different systems
Moment (kNm/m) 3.1 Design and detailing of side wall systems

200
Bending Moment values
152
150
100 82.8
Cantilever type
45
50 23.1 Frame type
Water side
0
MY MX
Figure 9: Bending moments in cantilever and framed

type tanks
Axial Stress (N/mm2)

0.5
Axial stress values
0.4 0.32 0.32

0.3 0.24 Figure 13: Free cantilever type system
0.2
0.2 Cantilever type
0.1 Frame type
0
SX SY
Figure 10: Shear stresses in cantilever and framed

type tanks
Stress resultants in Twin Wall System

5.96
6
4 Twin Wall System

Figure 14: Twin wall system
2
0.7 0.675
0.169
0
MY MX SX SY
Figure 11: Stress resultants in twin wall system
Figure 15: Wall panels in framed type system
181
4 Results and discussions

When compared with framed type tank, the bending
moment in free cantilever type tank is 83.57% higher
and 92.8% lesser in twin wall system. The axial
stress in free cantilever type tank is 16.67% lesser
and 181.25% higher in twin wall system when
Figure 16: C/S of beams concealed in walls in compared to framed type tank and the deflection in
framed type tank system free cantilever type tank is 48.15% higher and
52.38% lesser in twin wall system. The cost
estimation of the foundation and side wall systems
are carried out the rates per quantities as shown in
Figure 21 below.
Figure 17: C/S of beams connecting walls at top of

framed type tank
Figure 21: Material costs per quantity

Figure 18: Columns in framed type system
3.2 Design and detailing of foundation systems Cost comparison of tank side wall system in
crore rupees
0.6 0.54
0.4 0.35 0.33
0.2
0
Free cantilever Framed type Twin wall system
Figure 19: Solid raft foundation system

Figure 22: Cost comparison of tank side wall system
Cost comparison in crore rupees

1.4 1.25
1.2
1 0.85
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
solid raft cellular raft
Figure 20: Cellular raft foundation system Figure 23: Cost comparison of foundation systems
182
Table 6 : Cost comparison of different side wall and foundation systems in water tanks
Type of tank Type of tank
S.No Total cost in crore Rupees(Rs.)
side wall system foundation system
1 Free cantilever Solid Raft Rs.1,59,03,310 @ 1.60 crores
2 Free cantilever Cellular Raft Rs.1,18,91,760 @ 1.19crores
3 Frame Type Solid Raft Rs.1,56,63,260 @ 1.57crores
4 Frame Type Cellular Raft Rs.1,16,51,710 @ 1.17crores
5 Twin Wall System Solid Raft Rs.1,77,57,270 @ 1.78 crores
6 Twin Wall System Cellular Raft Rs.1,37,45,720 @ 1.38crores
1.8 1.78
1.6 1.57
1.6
1.38
1.4
1.19 1.17
1.2
1
solid raft
0.8
cellular raft
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
Figure 24: Total cost comparison of side wall systems with solid and cellular raft in crore rupees
Conclusions
The following conclusions were drawn from the 6. Framed type side wall system with cellular raft
analysis. foundation is the most economical system for large
storage tanks.
1. Framed type side wall system is cheaper than Free
References
cantilever type system by 5.71% and Twin wall
system by 38.88%
[1] IS 3370-2 (2009): Code of Practice Concrete
2. Hydrodynamic pressure is about 11.5% of structures for the storage of liquids, Part 2:
hydrostatic pressure in seismic zone-II. Reinforced concrete of structures the storage of
liquids.
3. Twin wall side wall system is costlier than free
cantilever & framed system due to increased concrete
[2] IITK-GSDMA Guidelines for Seismic Design of
volume and shuttering area.
Liquid Storage Tanks Provisions with commentary
4. Framed type tank with cellular raft is cheaper than and explanatory examples.
free cantilever type tank with cellular raft by 1.71%
and Twin wall system with cellular raft by 15.22% [3] IS 1893:1984 (Part I), Criteria for Earthquake
Resistant Design of Structures, Bureau of Indian
5. Cellular raft foundation system is cheaper than Standards, New Delhi, 1984.
solid raft foundation system by 32%
183
INFLUENCE OF SHEAR CORE CURTAILMENT ON THE

STRUCTURAL RESPONSE OF CORE WALL STRUCTURES
Nishant Rathi1, Muthukumar G2, Manoj Kumar G3
1
Civil Engineering Department, BITS Pilani-Pilani, 333 031, India
2
Assistant Professor, Civil Engineering Department, BITS Pilani-Pilani, 333 031, India
3
Associate Professor, Civil Engineering Department, BITS Pilani-Pilani, 333 031, India
Shear walls and shear cores are the major lateral load resisting elements in multi-storeyed framed structures because of
their proven track record in mitigating the damage under severe earthquake ground motions including the recent ones.
The contrasting deflected profiles of shear core and frame actually help in reducing the drift of the structure. The
reduction is primarily attributed to the level of horizontal interaction between cores and frames. The present study aims
to simulate the horizontal interaction between core wall and frames using the dimensionless parameter ( aH ) capable of
characterizing the individual behaviours of the components of the dual system using the finite element analysis with
different levels of curtailment of shear core. The triangular loading has been considered and the computations have been
made considering the site located in zone 4 with medium soil characteristics. To this end, in order to identify the
optimum level of curtailment, an analytical study has been done on some shear core buildings with different levels of
curtailment of shear core. The structural performance of the buildings with different levels of curtailment has been
assessed for different parameters namely storey drift, deflection, bending moment and shear forces using finite element
modelling and analysis.
Keywords: frame, shear core, curtailment, shear core,
1 Background and Introduction components, characterized by an increase in the

parameter aH (Table 1). On the other hand, the shear
cores are conventionally provided throughout the height
Tall buildings are inevitable in urban areas because of of the building. Nevertheless, on the basis of their
paucity of land. Taller buildings are more susceptible to incompatible behaviors, it was observed that there is a
damage due to wind forces and seismic forces. Not so need to curtail the shear wall to minimize the force
often that the buildings are subjected to heavy demand on the frame [1,2]. To this end, in order to
earthquake. Nevertheless, the amount of damage that identify the optimum level of curtailment, an analytical
the severe earthquake can cause is immeasurable. Hence, study has been done on some shear core buildings with
it is essential to protect the building from such severe different levels of curtailment of shear core.
damages. Shear walls and shear cores are the major
lateral load resisting elements in multi-storeyed framed
structures because of their proven track record in 2 Characteristics of Shear core-Frame System
mitigating the damage under severe earthquake ground
motions including the recent ones. The contrasting The shear core-frame building, when loaded laterally,
deflected profiles of shear core and frame actually helps deflects in a flexural configuration at the lower part of
in reducing the drift of the structure. The reduction is the structure and shear configuration at the upper part of
primarily attributed to the level of horizontal interaction the structure. The level of point of transition from the
between cores and frames. The present study aims to flexural configuration to the shear configuration
simulate the horizontal interaction between core wall depends on the shear stiffness of the frame and flexural
and frames using the dimensionless parameter ( aH ) stiffness of shear core. The non-dimensional parameter
capable of characterizing the individual behaviors of the characterizing the behavior of the frame and shear core
components of the dual system using the finite element is given by
analysis. The triangular loading has been considered and 1/ 2
the computations have been made considering the site GA
located in zone 4 with medium soil characteristics. aH = H (1)
EI
In the above equation, H = the height of the structure, EI
There are ten different horizontal interactions = the total flexural rigidity of the set of shear cores, and
considered with the increasing size of the frame GA = the total shear rigidity of the set of the frames.
1
Higher Degree Student, h2014057@pilani.bits-pilani.ac.in
2
Assistant Professor, muthug@pilani.bits-pilani.ac.in
3
184
Nishant Rathi, et al.
The shear rigidity of a single uniform frame "i" is given

by the expression Table 1: Different horizontal interactions considered
S.No. aH Beam Column Shear core
size (mm) size (mm) thickness
12 E (mm)
(GA)i = (2) 1 0.5 200300 450450 600

2 0.75 200375 500500 565
1 1
h + 3 1 225425 525525 500
Ic Ib

h

l i
4
5
1.5
2
230500
250570
750750
800800
400
350
6 3 275700 900900 325
7 4 300820 10001000 300
In the above equation, E = the modulus of elasticity of 8 6 300950 12001200 250
the material of columns and beams; h = the storey 9 8 400975 13001300 175
height; I c = the sum of the inertias of the columns in 10 10 4251050 14001400 150
a storey of frame i. I b = the sum of the inertias of

In the present study, a 30-storeyed shear core framed
the beams at a particular level. building with aspect ratio of 2.63 with shear core
located in the centre of the plan, as shown respective
plan (Fig. 1) and elevation (Fig. 2). The plan dimensions
The lateral loading on the core-frame structures results are kept at 40 m x 40 m and the storey height is kept at
in the lateral deflection of the structure and 3.5 m. The structural performance of the buildings with
subsequently the horizontal interaction forces occur different levels of curtailment has been assessed for
between the shear core and the frames. The different parameters namely storey drift, deflection,
approximate continuum approach of modeling and bending moment and shear forces using finite element
analysis of shear core-frame structure is based on the modelling and analysis. The shell element has been used
uniform properties of frame and shear core throughout to model the shear core and membrane element has been
the height of the structure [3]. The irregularities in the used to model the rigid slab. For all the structural
vertical plane in terms of abrupt change in the stiffness components such as beam, column, shear core and slab,
of frame and core-wall cannot be dealt with the the grade of concrete is kept at M25.
continuum approach and the use of transfer matrix
method [4] may be sought. However, the present study
employs the continuum approach for the assessing the
behavior of the core-frame structure and is widely used
for the preliminary analysis and design of tall buildings.
2.1 Shear core-frame for different levels of

curtailment - Problem Statement and Methodology
The shear core can be curtailed in a core wall system

depending on the horizontal interaction between the two
systems of the structure, i.e. core wall and the frame.
The transition zone between the flexural configuration Figure 1: 3-D core- Figure 2: Plan of shear
and shear configuration needs to be identified. The wall frame structure core-framed building
height at which the transition zone occurs depends on
the relative stiffness of frame and shear wall. If the
shear wall is quite dominant, the transition zone shifts
upwards.
In order to identify the optimum height of shear core in

terms of its beneficial effect of reducing the internal
force demand on the frame, the shear core-frame has
been analyzed for the different levels of curtailment of
core wall for different systems characterized by the non-
dimensional parameter ( aH ) as defined in the earlier
sections.
185
in resisting the deformability of the structure. The

variation of the k1, k2, k3, and k4 for the different
values of aH along the height of the structure (z/H) is
presented in the form of graph in the literature [5]. For
the convenience, the variation of the K1 through K4 is
plotted here corresponding to different levels of z/H,
where z represents the elevation at which the structural
response parameter is desired to be estimated.
Case (i) Case (ii) Case (iii)
(a) Variation of k1
Case (iv) Case (v) Case (vi)
Figure 3: Sectional view of curtailed

model
2.1.1 Response parameters of core-wall frame structure (b) Variation of k2
The following four structural response parameters

are normally considered for the response analysis and
are presented in Table 2.
Table 2: Structural parameters considered for the
present study
S. Response Expression for
No. parameter triangular load pattern
1 Displacement of 11wH 4
shear wall y( z) = k1
120 EI
(c) Variation of k3
2 Storey drift of dy wH 3
shear wall ( z) = k2
dz 8 EI
3 Bending moment wH 2
of shear wall M b ( z) = k3
3
4 Shear force of wH
shear wall M b ( z) = k4
2
In the above expression, the values of K1,k2,k3,

and k4 represent the distribution of the corresponding of
the stiffening effect of frame on the response of the (d) Variation of k4
shear wall or shear core. The maximum values of k1, k2,
k3, and k4 are unity. For example, if the value of aH Figure 4: Variation of response factors
is close to zero (due to high value of EI and low value (K) for different values of z/H and aH
of GA), then the value of k1 tends to be unity,
characterizing the negligible effect of the frame action
186
Nishant Rathi, et al.
3 Response Analysis of shear core-frame for core wall. Hence, the curtailment does not necessarily
different levels of curtailment result in the reduction in the load carrying capacity of
the wall.
The response analysis of the shear core-frame has been

compared for different values of aH and different
levels of curtailment. The current section highlights the
various responses in terms of relative deflection, relative
base shear, relative base moment and relative shear
(top).
Figure 7: Variation of relative base moment for

different levels of curtailment (for different aH )
The variation of relative base moment for different

levels of curtailment and for different values of aH is
Figure 5: Variation of relative deflection (top) for shown in Fig. 7. For lower values of aH , the relative
different levels of curtailment (for different aH ) base moment, defined as the ratio of moment of the
shear core at the base of the structure to the maximum
moment of the structure, is contributed more by the
The relative deflection, defined as the ratio of deflection shear core than the frame. As the value of aH is
at the top of the structure to the max deflection of the increased, the relative base moment is contributed more
wall (with no frame included) has been shown in Fig. 5. by the frame rather than by the shear wall, signifying
For lower values of aH , it has been observed that the the predominant frame action. Moreover, for all values
deflection pattern follows more of the flexural wall, of aH , the curtailment of shear core does not seem to
whereas for higher values of aH , it follows more of a affect the structural response of shear core-frame
shear behaviour signifying the predominant frame structure. Hence, with respect to relative base moment,
action. it can be concluded that the curtailment of the shear core
is neither sensitive nor detrimental to the structural
response.
Figure 6: Variation of relative base shear for Figure 8: Variation of relative shear (top) for
different levels of curtailment (for different aH ) different levels of curtailment (for different aH )
The relative base shear, defined as the ratio of total The variation of relative shear (top) for different
shear carried by the shear wall to the shear applied, has levels of curtailment and for different values of aH is
been shown in Fig. 6 for different values of aH and for shown in Fig. 8. The relative shear at the top of the
different levels of curtailment. The shear carried by the structure is defined as the ratio of the shear at the top of
core wall gets affected as the value of aH increases, the structure to the shear applied at the top of the
signifying the greater contribution by the frame. On the structure. When the shear core is provided till the top of
other hand, it has been observed that shear carried by the structure, the relative shear has been on the negative
the core wall has not been affected by the curtailment of side and hence creating the additional force demand on
187
the frame of the structure especially for the higher [3] Heidebrecht, A.C., Stafford Smith, B. "
values of aH . Approximate analysis of tall wall-frame
The curtailment of shear core has resulted in the structures." ASCE Journal of the Structural
change in the relative shear from negative to positive Division, Vol. 99 (ST2) pp. 199-221, 1973.
and subsequently the position of point of contra-shear
[4] Wang, Q., Wang, L., and Liu, Q. " Effect of shear
changes depending on the values of aH . It has been
wall height on earthquake response." Engineering
observed from the graph that for higher values of aH ,
Structures Vol. 23, pp. 376-384, 2001.
the point of contra-shear occurs more towards the
bottom of the structure and hence the curtailment of [5] Stafford Smith, B., and Alex Coull. "Tall building
shear core has more pronounced effect on the structural structures: Analysis and design." University of
performance by avoiding the large negative shear at the Texas Press, 1991.
top region. The optimum level of curtailment has been [6] IS 4326 Earthquake resistant design and
found to in the range between 80% and 90% of the
height of the structure. It is also to be noted that shear construction of buildings. Bureau of Indian
walls of height about 85 percent of the total height of Standards, New Delhi, India, 1993.
building are considered advantageous [6].
4 Conclusions
On the basis of the above results, the following

conclusions have been drawn on the structural
performance of shear core-frame.
The level of horizontal interaction strongly

influences the structural behavior of the dual
system (frame and shear core) as much as the
intensity of loading.
For lower values of aH , the behavior of the
structure is dominated by the flexural action
due to the influencing presence of shear core.
The shear core carries most of the base shear
and base moment for lower values of aH and
the frame carries the forces for higher values of
aH .
The curtailment of the shear core at the top
region has not been found detrimental with
respect to base shear and base moment.
The curtailment of the top region has actually
been beneficial with respect to the reduction in
the negative shear at the top of the structure,
which in turn reduces the force demand on the
frame.
5 References
[1] Atik, M., Badawi, M.M., Shahrour, I., and Sadek,
M. "Optimum Level of Shear Wall Curtailment in
Wall-Frame Buildings: The Continuum Model
Revisited." ASCE Journal of Structural
Engineering Vol. 140(1), 4 pp. 2014.
[2] Nollet, M.J., and Smith, B.S. "Behaviour of
curtailed wall-frame structures." ASCE Journal of
Structural Engineering, Vol. 119(10), pp. 2835-
2854, 1993.
188
ASSESSMENT OF STRUT-AND-TIE METHODS TO ESTIMATE

ULTIMATE STRENGTH OF RC CORBELS
Adrija D1, Indu Geevar2, Devdas Menon3, A Meher Prasad4
1, 2, 3,4
Reinforced concrete (RC) corbels are short cantilevers projecting from column faces, characterized by
relatively small shear span to depth (a/d) ratios. Conventional sectional design and analysis procedures
are not valid in these regions due to the nonlinear distribution of strains within the cross-section. The
strut-and-tie method (STM) has been widely accepted and used as a rational approach for the design of
such regions. Here, the region is idealized as a truss consisting of compressive struts (concrete) and
tension ties (reinforcing steel) capable of transmitting the loads to the supports. Usually, the truss model
chosen is determinate due to which only equilibrium equations are sufficient to solve for the strut and tie
forces. The softened strut and tie method (SST) is an iterative method derived from an indeterminate
strut-and-tie model, used to predict the diagonal compressive strength for members failing in diagonal
compression. It considers equilibrium, compatibility and constitutive laws of cracked reinforced concrete.
This paper attempts to predict the ultimate strength of corbels failing in diagonal compression from the
experimental database available in literature based on STM and SST. It is seen that the equilibrium based
STM with proposed parameters could fairly accurately predict the ultimate strength with about 30%
conservatism. SST could predict the diagonal compressive strength with more accuracy with about 13%
conservatism. Even though SST is more accurate in predicting diagonal compressive strength, it is
computationally easier to use the equilibrium based STM with the proposed parameters.
Keywords: strut-and-tie, softened strut-and-tie, corbel, disturbed
1 Introduction with the applied loads and in which stress levels are
within the material yield surface constitutes a lower
As early as 1899, Ritter proposed a simple truss
bound solution. Therefore, the capacity obtained from a
model which visualised the internal forces within a
strut-and-tie model is always less than the actual
cracked RC beam. This model was later improved upon
capacity.
by Morsch (1902), and is presently used for shear
Softened strut and tie method (SST) is derived from
design of RC beams. Generalising these truss models,
STM which considers equilibrium, compatibility and
Schlaich (1987) developed the Strut-and-tie method
constitutive laws of cracked reinforced concrete to
(STM) to primarily design D (discontinuity or
predict the diagonal compressive strength for members
disturbed) regions, where the strain distribution is
failing in diagonal compression such as corbels, deep
nonlinear. According to St. Venant's principle, also
beams and beam-column joints. However, the method is
supported by an elastic stress analysis, the localized
iterative, making it more tedious to implement.
effect of a concentrated load or geometric discontinuity
This paper compares the equilibrium based STM
will attenuate about one member depth away from the
(with the proposed parameters) and SST for strength
discontinuity. Therefore, 'D' regions are assumed to
prediction of corbels using the results from experiments
extend one member depth from the loading point or
geometric discontinuity. The remaining portions of the conducted by Mattock et al.(1976), Wen-Yao Lu and
member are referred to as B regions (B stands for Ing-Jaung Lin (2009), and Stephen J. Foster, Rex E.
beam or Bernoulli), where traditional flexural theory Powell and Hani S. Selim (1996). An attempt has been
can be used, as the strain distribution is linear. made to predict the failure mode of the specimens based
Corbels are short cantilevers projecting from on the governing failure criteria.
column faces, characterized by relatively small shear 2 Strut-and-tie method
span to depth (a/d) ratios (less than 2), used extensively
to support precast beams and gantry girders. These are Strut and tie method idealizes the region as a
primarily subject to concentrated loads in the vertical hypothetical truss consisting of concrete struts and steel
and horizontal directions. The entire region of the ties, joined together at regions referred to as nodes.
member can be considered as D region. Semi- Figure.1 shows a typical strut and tie model for a double
empirical method based on shear friction (ACI 318-14. corbel with symmetric loads.
2014) is conventionally used to design and detail Determinate truss models are usually preferred so
corbels. However, this method is not versatile. Strut- that equilibrium conditions are sufficient to solve for the
and-tie method is based on the actual force flow in the strut and tie forces. There is no unique solution for a
member and can be used to design these members. It is given system, as there can be many number of truss
based on plasticity theory which states that any configurations possible for an RC member. It is
statically admissible stress field that is in equilibrium important to choose the right strut and tie model for
190
Adrija D, et al.
accurate strength prediction. Otherwise, the model can acting on all the three faces, CCT nodes have one tie
result in very high amounts of reinforcement and may anchored and CTT node has more than one tie anchored.
also result in poor serviceability performance. Limiting stress at struts and nodes are specified by
codes based on the strut and node type respectively.
For the present study, three equilibrium based strut
V a V and tie models (determinate truss model) for corbels
Tie
D C have been considered. These models are capable of
predicting all possible failure modes in the member. The
codal recommendations from ACI 318-14 has been
followed as given in section 2.
z d 2 ACI 318-14 Recommendations
hc The design using strut-and-tie method using ACI code is

Bottle shaped Idealised
A B prismatic strut based on
strut wc fFns Fus . (1)
fFnn Fun . (2)
V V
fFnt Fut . (3)
where Fns, Fnn and Fnt represent the nominal strength of
Figure 1. Typical STM for RC double corbel strut, face of node, and tie respectively (Table 1 and
Equation 4). Fus, Fun and Fut are the factored force on the
strut, face of the node and tie respectively. is the
strength reduction factor which is take as 0.75.
Table 1. Nodal and strut stress limits
Schlaich (1987) recommends that the struts and ties
should be oriented following the elastic stress Strength of struts Strength of nodes
trajectories. This can be obtained from a linear elastic
Fns = fceAcs Fnn = fceAnz
analysis or the known crack patterns of the member.
The strut and tie models developed based on elastic fce= 0.85sfc fce= 0.85nfc
trajectories are referred to as elastic STM. The lever
arm (z) of such a model is obtained from an elastic Acs = Cross sectional area of the Ans = Area of the face
analysis. Strut-and-tie models may also be developed strut. of the nodal zone
based on plasticity theory (fib Bulletin 61, 2011) which s = 1.0 (prismatic struts) fc= cylinder
is based on the truss configuration likely to occur at = 0.75 (bottle shaped with compressive strength
ultimate limit state. Here, the lever arm (z) is more than crack control reinforcement as of concrete
that obtained from elastic STM and hence it will result per Eq.5) n=1.0 (CCC node)
in reduced amounts of reinforcement. However it has to = 0.6 (bottle shaped without = 0.8 (CCT node)
crack control reinforcement as = 0.6 (CTT node)
be taken care that the strut and tie models thus
per Eq 5)
developed do not deviate substantially from the elastic
trajectories. Schlaich recommends the deviation of the
developed strut and tie model to be limited to a Fnt = f y Ast . (4)
maximum value of 15 degrees. where fy and Ast are yield strength and area of tie
Struts can be classified as prismatic bottle reinforcement respectively. Crack control reinforcement
shaped, or fan shaped, based on the shape of the as per ACI 318-14 should satisfy the following criteria.
stress trajectories in the strut. Prismatic struts have A
uniform cross-sections (Strut AB in Figure 1). Bottle bssi sin ai > 0.003 . (5)
i
shaped struts take the shape of a bottle, which produces
where Asi is the total area of surface reinforcement at
tension in the orthogonal direction. Crack control
spacing si in the ith layer of reinforcement crossing a
reinforcement is required to take care of the tension. For
strut at an angle i to the axis of the strut
analysis and design purposes, bottle shaped struts are For comparison with experimental specimens in
idealized as prismatic. the present study, the strength reduction factor, is not
Nodes are the intersection areas of strut and tie in a considered.
STM which is similar to joints in trusses. These are
highly stressed regions of a structural member and 3. Equilibrium based STM for corbels
hence it is necessary to check the stresses at the face of For members with shear span to depth ratios less
the node. Based on the number of ties anchored, nodes than 2, a simple truss model with direct transfer of load
are generally classified as CCC, CCT, and CTT. As the to supports is the dominant force transfer mechanism
names suggest, CCC nodes have compressive forces
191
(Birrcher, 2009). Therefore a single panel truss model as by Birrcher et al. (2009), an enhancement in area at top
shown in Figure.1 is considered for the study. Therefore face of nodes C and D is proposed to consider the
the forces in struts and ties can be evaluated as, spread of forces. If this enhancement is considered, the
V failure at these nodes do not govern for the considered
FAB = (compression) . (6) experimental specimens.
tan q
The area of the diagonal strut (Acs) is given by,
V
FCD = (tension) . (7) Acs = ws b (11)
tan q
The failure load is determined based on the
V minimum of tie strength, node strength and strut
FAD = FBC = (compression) . (8)
sin q strength. Three different models are considered for
where is inclination of diagonal struts (AD & BC) strength prediction. First two models are directly based
with the horizontal. on the ACI code, with different height of compression
It is important to estimate the exact position of all zone, hc. The third model considers the splitting failure
nodes as it significantly influences the prediction of of the strut by considering a localized strut-and-tie
failure load. The nodes C and D can be positioned based model (based on Eurocode 2) of the diagonal strut.
on the tie reinforcement layout and location of external
3.1 Model 1
load, V. The width of the horizontal tie, wt, is taken as
two times the effective cover to the main flexural In this model, the nodes A & B are fixed based on
reinforcement. The parameters which define the nodes elastic analysis assuming linear strain and stress
A and B are the width of bottom faces of nodes (wc) and distribution. Therefore, the height of the compression
the height of the compression zone (hc) which cannot be zone (with uniform stress), hc,e is given by,
determined directly from the geometry. In the present
study, wc, is calculated based on Example 3.2 in SP 208, kd
hc , e = 2 . (12)
assuming that the bottom faces of the nodes A & B 3
reaches its limiting stress.
where kd = 2rm + ( rm ) - rm d .
2
(13)
V
wc = . (9)
0.85 f c ' b Here, kd is the depth of neutral axis from the extreme
where fc is the concrete cylinder compressive strength, compression fibre, is the tie reinforcement ratio (=
and b is the width of the corbel. The compression zone Ast/bd) and m is the modular ratio (=Es/Ec where Es and
width hc is a variable which may be chosen Ec are the moduli of elasticity of steel and concrete
appropriately. The width of the diagonal struts (AD and respectively). Es is taken as 200000 MPa and Ec is
BC), ws is calculated using the geometry of nodes A and determined as 5000 f ck where fck = 1.25fc.
B as shown in Figure 2. Once the node positions are The inclination of the diagonal strut, is dependent
fixed, the diagonal strut inclination, can be evaluated on the external load V as wc increases with increase in
as, load (Eq.1). Thus an iterative procedure using
h
d- c spreadsheet was mobilized to determine and the strut
q = tan -1 2 . (10) and tie forces. The diagonal strut (AB & BC) and strut
wc
a+ AB are assumed to be bottle shaped (s = 075 or 0.6
2
where d is the effective depth of corbel at the column depending on the amount of web reinforcement) and
face and a is the shear span (measured from column prismatic (s = 1) respectively. This method was found
face). to give very conservative results (Table 2) with
VTEST/VSTM,1 as high as 2.5 with coefficient of variation
of 0.32.
3.2 Model 2
hccos ws = hccos+wcsin
In this model, the height of the compression zone,
hc, is considered as a variable to find the truss
wcsin configuration which gives the maximum capacity. hc
can be evaluated as the maximum width required to
avoid the crushing failure of struts as well as nodes (A
hc & B).

B w - wc sin q FAB
wc hc = max s ,lim , . (14)
cos q 0.85 f c ' b
V
FBC
Figure 2. Nodal zone at Node B in Fig 1 where ws ,lim = . (15)
0.85bs f c ' b
The failure at nodes C and D is not considered in This is achieved using an iterative procedure in
the study as none of the experimental specimens failed MATLAB. The diagonal strut is assumed to be bottle
in this region. From the experimental studies conducted shaped (s = 0.6 or 0.75). It is important to note that, for
192
Adrija D, et al.
over-reinforced corbels ties do not reach their capacity. The diagonal crushing failure load is estimated
Figure.3 shows the solution algorithm followed. based on Model 2, but assuming prismatic struts (s =
1.0) for AD and BC (Figure.1). The splitting resistance
Assume V of the strut has been assumed to be provided by the web
reinforcement. The strut is assumed to reach its splitting
strength when the resisting web reinforcement reaches
Calculate wc (Eq 9) its yield strength. This is estimated based on a localized
strut-and-tie model as shown in Figure.4 (EN 1992-1-1).
Assume hc,1 = hc,e Cc
C Cc

Calculate force in diagonal
strut, FAD = FBC (Eq.8)
T h/4
Determine the width of diagonal hc1 + hc 2
V + V strut required, ws,lim (Eq.15) T
1
v h
Calculate hc,2 (Eq.14) B 2
Cc 1
Cc
No Figure 4. Local strut and tie model for strut BC
hc,1 = hc,2
to estimate splitting tension (EN 1992-1-1)
Yes
From the strut geometry, the tensile force on the tie, T
Fns < Fus can be determined as:
Yes Fnn < Fun C
Fnt < Fut T= c. (16)
2
For the corbel given in Figure.1, force, Cc can be
No evaluated as:
End V
Cc = . (17)
2Sin q
Figure 3. Solution algorithm for Model 2 Substituting this in Eq.16, the strength of the corbel
against splitting failure, VT can be calculated as
The ultimate load is estimated as the load at which VT = 4T sin q . (18)
either the tie reinforcement yields (under-reinforced) or
The maximum tensile force T orthogonal to the diagonal
the height of the compression zone (based on Eq.14)
strut is a function of areas of horizontal and vertical web
reaches its maximum limit possible (over-reinforced).
reinforcements (Ash and Asv). Therefore T is estimated as
This method was found to give conservative results
T = f yv Asv cos q + f yh Ash sin q . (19)
(Table 2) with an average value of VTEST/VSTM,2 as 1.31
with coefficient of variation of 0.17. where fyv and fyh are the yield strengths of vertical and
horizontal web reinforcements respectively. To estimate
3.2 Model 3 , height of the compression zone of the model has been
The failure of corbels, with a/d ratios less than 2, is fixed as per Model 1.
observed to be governed by two failure modes, diagonal The ultimate load is taken as the minimum of that
tension failure (splitting failure) and diagonal obtained from diagonal compression failure load and
compression failure. Diagonal splitting failure is splitting failure load. This method was found to give
characterized by wide cracks usually due to the yielding conservative results (Table 2) with an average value of
of web reinforcement. Models 1 and 2 cannot VTEST/VSTM,3 as 1.31 with coefficient of variation of 0.33.
specifically distinguish between crushing and splitting It is important to note that only few specimens gave
failures of diagonal strut. The reduction in compressive unconservative results. The mode of failure (S
strength due to orthogonal tension is indirectly splitting, C crushing) is also predicted based on the
considered in the above models by having a reduced governing failure mode obtained.
limiting stress for the strut through the factor s. 4 Softened strut-and-tie model (SST)
Therefore, Model 3 is considered to predict the
strengths based on these two failure modes separately. It Softened strut and tie model (SST).considers
has also been attempted to predict the failure mode of constitutive laws of cracked reinforced concrete to
the specimen. determine the diagonal compressive strength of the
193
concrete strut (Hwang, 2000). It is a localized STM Model 2 and Model 3 with the proposed parameters
which also considers two additional mechanisms of load could predict the failure load with about 31 percent
transfer namely vertical and horizontal mechanisms, conservatism. Model 3 could also predict the mode of
apart from the direct strut mechanism considered in the failure.
conventional STM. Applied load is assumed to be The SST is most accurate in predicting diagonal
shared among the three mechanisms depending on the strength with an average conservatism of 13%.
shear span to depth ratio of the member using However, this method is heavily iterative and hence
expressions proposed by Schafer (1996). Here, an complex to implement.
additional compatibility equation is used to solve the From the comparative study, it is recommended to use
system for the forces. Since this method uses the extra Model 2 for the design of corbels. However, Model 3
compatibility condition, it is found to give more can be used if mode of failure needs to be predicted.
accurate diagonal compressive strength value than the These models are easier to be implemented than SST,
conventional STM which uses the equilibrium and can be adopted in design practise. Even though
conditions alone. Figure.5 shows the different load Model 1 is the simplest, it is not advisable to use this
transfer mechanisms for an RC corbel subject to vertical due to its high conservatism.
load acting at a distance a from the column face.
References
a a
[1] ACI 318-14. 2014 Building Code Requirements for
Structural Concrete and Commentary, American
Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, MI.
[2] Birrcher, D. B.; Tuchscherer, R. G.; Huizinga, M.
R.; Bayrak, O.; Wood, S. L.; and Jirsa, J. O.,
Strength and Serviceability Design of Reinforced
a) Direct strut model b) Horizontal tie truss model Concrete Deep Beams, Report No. 0-5253-1,
a a Center for Transportation Research, the University
V
of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, Apr. 2009.
[3] EN 1992-1-1: Eurocode 2: Design of concrete
structures Part 1-1: General rules and rules for
buildings, European committee for standardization,
Brussels, Belgium; 2004.
[4] Examples for the design of structural concrete with
c) Vertical tie truss model d) Combined SST model Strut-and-Tie Models, ACI SP 208, Karl-Heinz
Figure 5. Load transfer mechanisms for RC corbel Reineck , Farmington Hills, Mich.: American
Concrete Institute; 2002.
An iterative procedure using MATLAB was [5] Fattuhi, N. I., and Hughes, B. P., Ductility of
mobilized, based on the flowchart given by Hwang et al. Reinforced Concrete Corbels Containing Either
(2000) to determine the component forces of the Steel Fibers or Stirrups, ACI Structural Journal,V.
indeterminate truss obtained. The results thus obtained 86, No. 6, pp. 644-651, 1989.
were compared against the specimens in Table 2. [6] Hwang, S. J.; Lu, W. Y.; and Lee, H. J., Shear
For the specimens considered in Table 2, SST was Strength Prediction for Reinforced Concrete
found to give results with an average value of VTEST/VSST Corbels, ACI Structural Journal, V. 97, No. 4, pp.
as 1.13 with coefficient of variation of 0.12. However, 543-552, 2000.
this method is heavily iterative and hence more difficult [7] Lu, W. Y. and Lin, I. J. Behavior of reinforced
to implement than the equilibrium based strut and tie concrete corbels, Structural Engineering and
models. Another main limitation of this model is that it Mechanics, Vol. 33, No. 3, pp. 357-371, 2009.
gives only the diagonal compressive strength of the [8] Mattock, A. H.; Chen, K. C.; and Soongswang, K.,
member. It does not predict the other failure modes of Behavior of Reinforced Concrete Corbels, PCI
the member which can be covered under the simple Journal, V. 21, No. 2 ,pp. 52-77, 1976.
equilibrium based strut and tie models. It is also [9] Schfer, K., Strut-and-Tie Models for the Design
observed that the number of over-predicted specimens is of Structural Concrete, Notes from Workshop,
higher in SST, as compared with the equilibrium Department of Civil Engineering, National Cheng
approaches. Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan, 140 pp. 1996.
[10] Schlaich, J., Kurt Schfer, and Mattias Jennewein.
5 Conclusions Toward a Consistant Design of Structural
From the comparative study the following conclusions Concrete. PCI Journal. V. 32, No. 3, 1987, pp. 74-
are drawn: 150, 1987.
Model 1 which considers the determinate strut-and-tie [11] Stephen J. Foster, Rex E. Powell, and Hani S.
model based on elasticity theory is overly conservative Selim. Performance of High Strength Concrete
and is not recommended unless the member is very Corbels, ACI Structural Journal, Vol. 93, No. 3, pp.
lightly reinforced and no redistribution is possible. 555-563, 1996.
194
Adrija D, et al.
Table 2. Validation of specimens from literature
STM
SST Experi
f'c fy Ast * VTEST Model 1 Model 2 Model 3 mental
Author Specimen a/d sv sh**
MPa MPa mm2 kN V VTEST VTEST VTEST Failure
TEST
Mode^ Mode
VSTM ,1 VSTM ,2 VSTM ,3 VSST
E1 0.22 28 434 209 0 0.00314 245 4.13 1.43 1.56 S 1.14 -
H1 0.23 27 448 250 0 0.00419 298 4.63 1.44 1.43 S 1.23 -
C1 0.45 28 345 284 0 0.00349 196 2.07 1.32 1.18 S 0.99 -
D1 0.45 27 346 182 0 0.00175 125 2.64 1.18 1.28 S 0.83 -
E2 0.45 31 414 230 0 0.00314 205 3.93 1.44 1.47 S 1.19 -
F2 0.45 26 431 232 0 0.00314 162 3.57 1.17 1.15 S 1.16 -
H2 0.45 27 431 328 0 0.00524 222 2.51 1.23 1.06 C 1.23 -
A2 0.67 25 321 400 0 0.00000 158 2.5 1.17 1.03 C 1.21 -
B2 0.67 24 321 400 0 0.00349 173 2.89 1.32 1.17 S 1.18 -
Mattock -
C2 0.68 26 347 416 0 0.00349 178 2.76 1.27 1.21 S 1.15
et al.
C2A 0.68 26 341 377 0 0.00349 180 2.91 1.34 1.26 S 1.21 -
D2 0.68 26 329 291 0 0.00349 151 2.65 1.39 1.27 C 1.08 -
E3 0.68 29 431 328 0 0.00524 216 2.51 1.43 1.33 C 1.48 -
H3 0.68 27 436 488 0 0.00733 211 2.29 1.4 0.99 C 1.32 -
H3A 0.68 27 442 489 0 0.00733 176 1.87 1.14 0.87 C 1.08 -
H3B 0.68 26 434 487 0 0.00733 205 2.24 1.33 0.97 C 1.30 -
B3A 1.01 29 359 639 0 0.00698 187 1.93 1.21 1.05 C 1.17 -
D3 1.01 26 334 452 0 0.00436 146 2.55 0.94 1.17 C 1.15 -
C3 1.02 30 345 664 0 0.00698 167 1.64 1.08 0.93 C 1.0 -
L12220 1.22 25 517 760 0 0.00704 250 2.06 1.13 0.97 C 1.21 C
L12222 1.22 25 517 760 0.00384 0.00704 280 2.3 1.26 1.08 C 1.05 C
Wen-Yao M12233 1.22 43 517 1140 0.00575 0.00704 436 1.17 1.1 C 0.97 C
2.0
Lu and Ing-
Jaung Lin H12230 1.22 62 517 1140 0 0.00704 478 1.63 1.18 1.45 S 1.21 C
H12233 1.22 62 517 1140 0.00575 0.00704 647 2.2 1.6 1.54 C 1.31 C
H12236 1.22 62 517 1140 0.01151 0.00704 642 2.18 1.59 1.52 C 1.17 C
PG1 0.60 45 415 1885 0 0.00302 674 2.33 1.67 3.06 S 1.07 C
PA1 0.60 53 450 1885 0 0.00000 500 1.51 1.24 0.91 S 0.81 S
PA2 0.60 53 450 1885 0 0.01047 800 1.61 1.81 1.04 S 1.05 S
Stephen J. PC1 0.30 53 420 679 0 0.00000 650 3.57 1.1 1.3 S 1.19 S
Foster, Rex PC2 0.30 53 420 679 0 0.01047 1040 1.64 1.53 C 1.10 C
3.22
E. Powell,
SB2 0.34 56 430 1257 0 0.00306 1200 3.63 1.97 2.4 S 1.14 S
and Hani S.
Selim SC2-1 0.50 62 430 1885 0 0.00452 980 1.66 1.23 2.28 S 1.26 C
SC2-2 0.50 62 430 1885 0 0.00000 700 1.86 0.88 1.2 S 1.02 S
SC2-3 0.50 62 430 679 0 0.00452 580 1.47 1.21 1.32 S 1.04 S
SC2-4 0.50 62 430 679 0 0.00000 490 1.97 1.07 0.98 C 1.06 S
Avg 2.50 1.31 1.31 1.13
COV 0.32 0.17 0.33 0.12
* Ratio of vertical web reinforcement to effective area (Asv / bsv) where sv is the spacing of vertical web reinforcement
** Ratio of horizontal web reinforcement to effective area (Ash / bsh) where sh is the spacing of horizontal web
reinforcement
^
Mode of failure (S Splitting, C Crushing)
Coefficient of variation
195
LOCATION OF BALANCE POINTS ON DESIGN AND ACTUAL P-M

INTERACTION CURVE FOR RC SECTIONS
Piyush Mehta1, Sumit Kumar2, Vikash Kumar3, Sunil Bandawala4, Kaustubh Dasgupta5
1,2,3,4,5
Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati, Guwahati 781039, India
The axial force-bending moment (P-M) interaction curve is a graphical representation of sectional capacity
of a uniaxial eccentrically loaded Reinforced Concrete (RC) member. On the P-M curve, balance point
represents simultaneous achievement of limit states of both concrete and reinforcing steel. Although
locations of balance points are commonly used for demarcating under-reinforced and over-reinforced
regimes of behavior of RC columns, these are not studied from the point of view of actual behavior. In the
present study, first P-M curves are generated as per the actual stress-strain curves of concrete (considering
the confinement action) and reinforcing steel for different sizes of column section. The balance points are
located on the actual P-M curves based on the definition of limit states of concrete and reinforcement. The
locations of balance points on the actual P-M curves are reviewed to determine whether the design balance
points give an upper bound or lower bound of the under-reinforced range of behavior.
Keywords: P-M interaction, balance point, RC column, under-reinforced behavior
1 Introduction the P-M curves, and the location are reviewed for sets of
curves corresponding to different section sizes. The actual
The axial force-bending moment (P-M) interaction
balance point locations represent the expected range of
curve is based on the estimation of combined capacity of under-reinforced behavior during actual conditions.
an RC section. Each point on the curve corresponds to a
particular set of axial capacity and flexural capacity values.
The points also represent primarily four failure modes of 2 Material Properties
an RC section, namely (a) tensile cracking of concrete, (b) The constitutive characteristics of concrete and
compression failure of concrete, (c) tensile yielding of steel reinforcement, under actual conditions, are discussed in the
reinforcement and (d) tensile rupture of steel following sections.
reinforcement. Based on the different failure modes, the
identified balance point demarcates (a) under-reinforced 2.1 Concrete
and (b) over-reinforced behavior regions along the entire
P-M curve. The presence of axial compression in an RC section
mobilizes the confinement effect in the core concrete and
P-M interaction curve can be drawn for the design
enhances its compressive strength. In the present study, the
level material properties prescribed by the respective code
analytical stress-strain curves proposed for unconfined and
provisions, as well as for the actual material properties
confined concrete, considering different cross-sectional
obtained from the experimental tests. One of the major
shapes and levels of confinement reinforcement, have been
issues in the P-M interaction curve with actual material
used (Ref. [4]). The stress and strain parameters of
properties is the confinement effect of concrete under axial
confined concrete are established by considering
compression. Previous studies have not focused on the
equivalent uniform confinement pressure applied by the
comparison of P-M interaction curves with design and
confining reinforcement. The proposed curve consists of a
actual material properties (Ref. [1, 2]). The Indian Standard
parabolic ascending portion and a linear descending
for the design of RC structures, IS:456-2000 (Ref. [3]),
portion. The obtained curves for unconfined and confined
also does not prescribe any confinement effect of concrete
concrete, for M20 grade, are shown in Figure 1.
and failure strain for steel reinforcement.
In the current study, P-M interaction curve is first
developed using the design stress-strain curves of concrete 2.2 Reinforcement
and reinforcement as per IS:456-2000. Then, using actual
stress-strain curves of concrete and reinforcement, the P-M For the Fe415 grade of reinforcement considered in
curve is redrawn. The balance points are located on both the present study, the design stress-strain curve is
1
Student, p.mehta@iitg.ac.in
2
Student, sumit2013@iitg.ac.in
3
Student, vikashkumar@iitg.ac.in
4
Student, s.bandawala@iitg.ac.in
5
Assistant Professor, kd@iitg.ac.in
196
Piyush Mehta, et al.
considered in two parts, namely (a) a linear ascending part The d/D ratio is assumed to be constant and taken as
(till a strength of 0.87fy, where, fy is the yield strength of 0.05, 0.10, 0.15 and 0.20 for all the cases (where, D is the
steel) overall depth of the section). Although d is obtained from
structural design, the values are assumed according to
section dimensions. For d/D = 0.05 and 0.10, d is taken as
28 mm and for d/D = 0.15 and 0.20, d is taken as 20 mm.
For d/D = 0.05, 0.10, 0.15 and 0.20, the depth D is
obtained as 1280 mm, 640 mm, 400 mm and 300 mm
respectively. With the assumed width of the section b, the
number of steel bars n is determined as per the minimum
spacing along the width and depth of the section. Two
cases of reinforcement distribution are considered, namely
(a) bars distributed equally on two sides and (b) bars
distributed equally on all the four sides.
4 Methodology for P-M Curve

For obtaining the strains and stresses across the
section, the section is divided into rectangular strips of
Figure 1: Stress-strain curves of concrete under design thickness t as 10 mm and length to be the same as the width
level and confinement effects of the section (Figure 3). For obtaining the P-M interaction
curve, the neutral axis location is varied, with respect to the
section, so that the obtained stresses are summed up to
and (b) a constant horizontal line till the final strain of 14%. determine the P and M values. Thus, the depth of neutral
Although IS:456-2000 does not prescribe any final strain axis (xu) is varied from 10D to 10 mm.
value for the reinforcement, limit of 14% has been
considered based on the experiments carried out with
Fe415 grade of steel (Ref. [5]). The actual stress-strain 4.1 Design P-M curve
curve is based on curve-fitting of the tensile test results of For each xu, the strain distribution is obtained for the
Fe415 steel specimens with various cross-sectional sizes maximum compressive strain as 0.0035 for the design level
(Ref. [5]). The tri-linear curve characterizes a linear elastic response. The distance of rotation point of strain from the
part and a strain hardening part beyond yield point along top edge the section is determined by,
u_str = ( )
*,.,,-/0,.,,'1
with an intermediate ascending linear part (Figure 2).
,.,,-/
. (2)
The strips distance for the ith strip from the top of the
section was calculated by (Figure 3),
2*31 = {*3 4 516 + 678} . (3)

The clear distance between the steel layers will be
equal to,
9" =
:0';< 0'&> 0&?
@0A
. (4)
The distance of the jth steel layer from the top edge of
the section is calculated by,
B*C1 " = D#$ + !% + E F + G*9 + !1 ) *C 4 51HI .

&
Figure. 2 Design level and actual stress-strain curves for
'
reinforcement (5)
3 Fixing the section variables The strain at the middle point of the strips for a given
xu was calculated using the formula,
For drawing both the design level and the actual P-M
N.NN8 ) S 3T"2R U (
OP 0O*Q1
M
curves, nominal cover (Nc) is considered as the minimum
K OP 0R
value of 40 mm (Ref. [3]). Diameter of the tie (dt) is taken
e = N.NNVW ) S 3T"N X 2R Y ( .
OP 0O*Q1
as 10 mm for all the cases. The distance (d) between the
L OP
KN.NNVW ) G2 + 2*31HS 3T"2 Y N
edge of the section and nearest center line of longitudinal (6)
J R R
reinforcement (with diameter d) is expressed as,
! = " #$ + !% + .
&
'
(1)
197
j " = "e ) "B*C1.

These above mentioned strain equations will remain :
'
(16)
same for steel layers by replacing x(i) with y(j). The stress
corresponding to the strain calculated from Eq. (6) was
obtained from the stress-strain curve developed earlier by where mc is the moment in a strip of unconfined concrete,
using the following formula, where suc is the stress in and ms is the moment in steel layer.
unconfined concrete. The individual forces and moments in the strips are
3\6]^_àb6]"cbad]eS 3T"N X f X N.NN8

summed to obtain the force Pc (i.e., the total force in
ZR$ = [ N.gW ) ThiS 3T"N.NN8 Y f Y N.NNVW .

unconfined concrete), Ps (i.e., the total force in steel
NS 3T"f U N.NNVW"`^"f X N
(7) layers), the moments Mc (i.e., the total moment in
unconfined concrete), and Ms (i.e., the total moment in
steel) capacity of the section.
Design stress value for steel is obtained as,
3\6]^_àb6]"cbad]eS"""N X f X N.NNVk
Pc = c. (17)
Zj = [ N.klTm S"""N.NNVk Y f Y N.5g Ps = s. (18)

NS 3T"f U N.5g
. (8)
Mc = mc. (19)
The force developed in the strips is calculated as, Ms = ms. (20)
c = suc *Ac . (9)
o6S""""""""""""""""""""""""""3T"N X 2*31 X *#$ + !% + !1

4.2 Actual P-M curve
n$ = [ o6S""""""""""""3T"G( 4 *#$ + !% + !1H X 2*31 X ( .

For each xu, the strain distribution is obtained for the
86*#$ + !% + !1"`^"86*#$ + !% 1"S `6p]^q3e]

maximum compressive strain as 0.0264 for the actual
behavior of concrete. The distance of rotation point of
strain from the top edge the section is determined by,
u= ()
(10)
*,.,'t0.,.,,'1
,.,'t
where, c is the force in strip of unconfined concrete, Ac is . (21)
the area of strip of unconfined concrete.
The force developed in a steel layer (s) is given by The strain at the middle point of the strips (Figure 4)
for a given xu is calculated as,
N.NN8 ) S 3T"2R U (
OP 0O*Q1
M
s = ss*As . (11)
K OP 0R
e = N.N8g ) S 3T"N X 2R Y ( .
OP 0O*Q1
Two cases of longitudinal reinforcement arrangements
L OP
KN.N8g ) G2 + 2*31HS 3T"2 Y N
are considered, namely (i) steel equally distributed on four (22)
J
sides and (ii) steel equally distributed on two sides.For
reinforcement equally distributed on four sides, R R
No. of steel layers, r = + "5 .

s
t
(12)
The stress corresponding to the strain calculated from
Eq. (22) is obtained from the stress-strain curve The stress
where, n is the total number of longitudinal steel bars.
in confined concrete (sco) is,
3\6]^_àb6]"cbad]eS"""3T"N" Y "f" Y "N.N8g

Area in each steel layer can be calculated using the
Z$ " =
NS"""3T"f U N.N8g""`^"f X N"
conditional equation given below,
.
E + 5F Eu ) F S 3T"C = 5"`^"r
s &v
nj = [ t t
8 Eu ) F S wxy"z||"x~y"|zy
&v
. (13) (23)
t
Actual stress value (ss) in steel is obtained as,
3\6]^_àb6]"cbad]eS"""3T"N Y f Y N.5 .
Zj =
NS"""f U N.5
For reinforcement equally distributed on two sides, the (24)
number of steel layers is 2. Then,
nj = DE F Eu ) FI .
s &v The force developed in the strips was calculated using
' t
(14)
cc = sco * Acc. (25)
N"S""""""""3T"N X 2*31 X *#$ + !% + !1

where n is the total number of longitudinal steel bars.
M
o6 4 86*#$ + !% + !1
The corresponding moments are obtained from the
n$$ =
L `^""o6 4 86*#$ + !% 1S x~y""
equations, . (26)
$ " = "h ) " "2*31.

: JNS 3T"( 4 *#$ + !% + !1 X 2*31 X (
'
(15)
198
where, cc is the force in a strip of confined concrete and Acc column section, the deviation between the balance points
is the area of the strip. increases with higher percentages of reinforcement. For
d'/D as 0.2, the locus of the balance points, across the
The force developed in a steel layer is given by different values of p/fck, tends to be a straight line with
positive slope (Figure 5b). Similar points do not lie on a
s = ss*As. (27) straight line for lower values of d'/D (Figure 5a). For the
design level material properties, all the balance points tend
The moment in a strip of confined concrete (mcc) is to lie on straight lines.
given by,
$$ = "hh ) 4 2*31 .
:
'
(28)
The individual forces and moments in the strips are

summed to obtain Pcc (i.e., the total force in confined
concrete) and Mcc (i.e., the total moment in confined
concrete) as,
Pcc = cc. (29) Figure 3: Design level sectional parameters: (a) cross-
section with reinforcement details, (b) typical strip for
Mcc = mcc. (30) concrete and (c) reinforcement layers
P = (Pc + Pcc + Ps). (31)
M = (Mc + Mcc + Ms). (32)
In order to compare with the design charts of SP:16,

the axial force and moment values are converted into non-
dimensional parameters.
Figure 4: Sectional parameters for actual behavior:: (a)
cross-section with reinforcement details, (b) typical strip
for confined concrete and (c) typical strip for unconfined
5 Results concrete
5.1 Steel equally distributed on four sides
The percentage of steel (p) in the chosen column Table 1 Balance point values with actual material stress-
section is determined using, strain curves
F ) 5NN .
j%
:
p =E (33) d'/D
D b
n p/fck
Pa
Ma/fckbD2
(mm) (mm) /fckbD
1280 300 4 0.032 0.201 0.108
For comparing the balance point values, Pa and Ma are 1280 400 12 0.072 0.252 0.171
the axial force and bending moment considering the actual 0.05 1280 500 24 0.115 0.316 0.247
stress-strain curves of steel and confined concrete 1280 650 36 0.133 0.334 0.282
respectively. Pd and Md are the axial force and bending 1280 800 48 0.144 0.352 0.304
moment obtained considering the design stress-strain 640 280 4 0.069 0.166 0.169
curves of steel and concrete. With increasing percentage of 640 380 8 0.101 0.254 0.193
0.1 640 440 12 0.131 0.234 0.246
longitudinal reinforcement, the normalized bending 640 540 20 0.178 0.261 0.318
moment values for balance point locations show increasing 640 640 28 0.210 0.276 0.368
trend for both actual and design material stress-strain 400 200 4 0.078 0.101 0.158
curves (Tables 1 and 2). However, the normalized axial 400 250 8 0.126 0.048 0.193
capacity values (Pa /fckbD) obtained with actual stress strain 0.15 400 300 12 0.157 0.155 0.244
curves do not show monotonic trends for d'/D values of 0.1, 400 350 16 0.179 0.109 0.270
400 400 20 0.196 0.171 0.297
0.15 and 0.2 (Table 1). For d'/D as 0.2, the balance point
300 220 4 0.095 0.091 0.159
occurs with net axial tensile force on the section. However, 300 180 4 0.116 0.060 0.186
for design level response, the Pd /fckbD values reduce with 0.2 300 250 8 0.167 -0.05 0.208
increasing p/fck values. 300 280 12 0.224 0.101 0.279
300 300 16 0.279 -0.01 0.334
For lower percentages of steel and d'/D ratios, the
balance points obtained using design and actual material
5.2 Steel equally distributed on two sides
properties tend to lie close to each other (Figures 5a and
5b). However, due to increase in Ma/fckbD2 values as For reinforcement distributed equally on both sides,
compared to Md/fckbD2 for the same axial force level on the the same trends are observed regarding the locations of the
199
balance points (Figures 6a and 6b) as for reinforcement Table 3 Balance point values with actual material stress-
distributed equally on four sides (Tables 3 and 4). strain curves
However, the available range for under-reinforced
behavior with actual material properties, reduces with d'/D
D b
n p/fck
Pa
Ma/fckbD2
increasing d/D values. For low values of d/D, the range (mm) (mm) /fckbD
1280 400 8 0.048 0.301 0.164
for under-reinforced behavior also increases with 1280 600 14 0.056 0.332 0.188
percentage of steel. For reinforcement distributed equally 0.05
1280 800 22 0.066 0.347 0.215
on all four sides, reverse trend is observed with the 1280 1000 30 0.072 0.356 0.230
mentioned range increasing with d/D values (Figure 5b). 1280 1200 40 0.080 0.362 0.251
640 300 4 0.064 0.238 0.173
640 350 6 0.082 0.254 0.213
0.1
640 400 8 0.096 0.266 0.244
Table 2 Balance points with design material stress-strain 640 500 12 0.115 0.282 0.287
curves 640 600 18 0.144 0.294 0.349
400 320 4 0.049 0.205 0.123
D b Pd 400 340 6 0.069 0.204 0.161
d'/D n p/fck Md/fckbD2 0.15
(mm) (mm) /fckbD 400 360 8 0.087 0.207 0.194
1280 300 4 0.032 0.160 0.103 400 380 10 0.103 0.210 0.224
1280 400 12 0.072 0.143 0.137 400 400 14 0.137 0.212 0.286
0.05 1280 500 24 0.115 0.136 0.186 300 240 4 0.087 0.137 0.165
1280 650 36 0.133 0.134 0.206 300 220 4 0.095 0.128 0.154
1280 800 48 0.144 0.132 0.218 0.2
300 260 6 0.120 0.140 0.206
640 280 4 0.069 0.152 0.148 300 280 8 0.149 0.143 0.251
640 380 8 0.101 0.126 0.158 300 300 10 0.174 0.145 0.290
0.1 640 440 12 0.131 0.110 0.187
640 540 20 0.178 0.104 0.233
640 640 28 0.210 0.092 0.264
400 200 4 0.078 0.143 0.145 Table 4 Balance points with design material stress-strain
400 250 8 0.126 0.102 0.164 curves
0.15 400 300 12 0.157 0.079 0.188
400 350 16 0.179 0.074 0.206 D b Pd
d'/D n p/fck Md/fckbD2
400 400 20 0.196 0.067 0.219 (mm) (mm) /fckbD
300 220 4 0.095 0.121 0.144 1280 300 4 0.032 0.159 0.129
300 180 4 0.116 0.116 0.165 1280 400 12 0.072 0.159 0.141
0.2 300 250 8 0.167 0.040 0.175 0.05 1280 500 24 0.115 0.159 0.158
300 280 12 0.224 -0.009 0.211 1280 650 36 0.133 0.159 0.167
300 300 16 0.279 -0.045 0.246 1280 800 48 0.144 0.158 0.180
640 280 4 0.069 0.153 0.141
The balanced axial compression values are almost the 640 380 8 0.101 0.151 0.167
same using both design stress-strain curve and actual 0.1 640 440 12 0.131 0.150 0.187
640 540 20 0.178 0.150 0.214
stress-strain curve for low d/D values and large d/D 640 640 28 0.210 0.148 0.255
values for steel equally on four sides and steel equally on 400 320 4 0.049 0.146 0.109
two sides respectively. For steel distributed equally on all 400 340 6 0.069 0.144 0.134
0.15
the four sides, the locus of balance points for the actual 400 360 8 0.087 0.142 0.156
behavior does not follow a straight line with low d/D 400 380 10 0.103 0.140 0.175
values (Figure 5a). However, for steel distributed equally 400 400 14 0.137 0.137 0.217
300 240 4 0.087 0.122 0.136
on two sides, the locus becomes a straight line for the entire
300 220 4 0.095 0.121 0.144
range of d/D values (Figures 6a and 6b). This is due to the 0.2
300 260 6 0.120 0.115 0.170
contribution of the intermediate bars along the lateral edges 300 280 8 0.149 0.109 0.199
for the first case. For grades of reinforcement Fe415 300 300 10 0.174 0.103 0.224
onwards, a definite yield point is never observed during
laboratory testing of reinforcement specimens. In absence
6 Conclusion
of definite yield point and any horizontal portion of stress-
strain curve, the balance point is obtained by considering
the achievement of limiting strain in concrete and The following salient conclusions are drawn from the
beginning of second linear part in the stress-strain curve of present study:
steel. Thus, for low values of d/D in case of steel equally
on four sides, the locations of balance points do not lie (a) The range of under-reinforced behavior of an RC
strictly on a linear locus (Figure 5a). However, the trend section from the actual P-M interaction curve may be
changes with higher values of d/D. The exact locations of significantly more than that estimated using design
balance points are expected to undergo some change for level material properties. Thus, the design level
other stress-strain curves of concrete and reinforcement; response provides a conservative estimate for
however, the overall trend would remain the same. reinforcement calculations during design of RC
columns.
200
(b) The difference between the moment capacities obtained

from P-M interaction curves using design level and
actual material stress-strain curves increases for steel
distributed equally on two sides as compared to steel
equally on all four sides.
(c) For RC sections with steel distributed equally on all

four sides, the locations of balance points give very
small range of axial compression for under-reinforced
behavior as compared to steel distributed equally on
two sides.
(b)
Figure. 6: Normalized P-M interaction curves for steel
distributed equally on two sides with (a) d/D = 0.05 and
(b) d/D = 0.20
7 Acknowledgement
The authors are grateful to the Department of Civil

(a) Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati, for
providing the resources and facilities to carry out the work.
References
[1] Payala, N. and Dasgupta, K. Axial Force-Bending
Moment Interaction of Earthquake-Resistant
Reinforced Concrete Flanged Structural Walls. In
International Conference on Advances in Civil
Engineering (ACE - 2011), Vijayawada, Paper No.
396, 2011
[2] Majeed, A. Z., Goswami, R. and Murty, C. V. R.
Mechanics-driven Hand Calculation Approach for
Obtaining Design P-M Interaction Curves of RC
(b) Sections. Indian Concrete Journal, 89(9), pp. 59-68,
2015
Figure. 5: Normalized P-M interaction curves for steel
distributed equally on four sides with (a) d/D = 0.05 and [3] BIS. Plain and Reinforced Concrete - Code of Practice
(b) d/D = 0.20 IS 456:2000, Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi,
2000
[4] Saatcioglu, M. and Razvi, S. R. Strength and Ductility
of Confined Concrete. Journal of Structural
Engineering, ASCE, 118(6), pp. 1590-1607, 1992.
[5] Dasgupta, P., Effect of Confinement on Strength and
Ductility of Large RC Hollow Sections. Master of
Technology Thesis, Dept. of Civil Engg., Indian
Institute of Technology Kanpur, India, 2000.
[6] BIS. Design Aids For Reinforced Concrete to IS: 456-
1978 SP 16:1980, Bureau of Indian Standards, New
Delhi, 1980
(a)
201
PRECAST LARGE CONCRETE PANEL (PLCP) BUILDING SYSTEM FOR

TALL BUILDINGS - STRUCTURAL DESIGN CHALLENGES
Amit Barde1, Rahul Chandrashekar2, Chaitali Rathod3
1,2 & 3
Larsen & Toubro Limited, Buildings & Factories, Residential Buildings, EDRC, Mumbai 400093, India
Through the last decade, India has seen unprecedented developmental changes with rising standard of
living amongst the masses leading to significant housing shortage. The recently announced Housing for
All by 2022 campaign by the Indian Government also puts additional pressure on the Construction
Industry to deliver projects in record time frames. Traditionally, residential houses in major cities of India
have been multi-storied high-rise apartments suitable for modular construction. Precast construction
methodology fits perfectly as an alternative for traditional construction with shorter construction duration
and reduction in labor, while exceeding quality standards of conventional construction practices in India.
Larsen & Toubro Construction has recently adopted Precast Large Concrete Panel (PLCP) System for
mass housing projects and has seen industry inclination towards adoption of PLCP system. This paper
identifies current design considerations for structural design and detailing of large panel precast buildings
based on the experience of recent projects and available IS Standards. It also looks at the state-of-the-art
industry practices in the American precast concrete industry in similar situations and related codal
requirements of ACI 318 and PCI Design Handbook that, if adopted, could help to achieve economical
solutions using the PLCP System in India. Key areas such as minimum reinforcement in precast panels,
application of shear friction theory for connection dowels, fire resistance rating requirements, diaphragm
design and structural integrity provisions are looked at with respect to residential building design with a
notion of potential adoption of the global design philosophy of PLCP Systems for PLCP System design
practice in India.
Keywords: Precast Large Concrete Panel System (PLCP), Structural Design, Tall Residential Buildings,
Prefabricated Buildings
1 Background suitable for modular construction. Precast construction

methodology fits perfectly as an alternative for
With a population of over one billion and an
traditional construction with shorter construction
ever increasing standard of living, provision of mass
duration and reduction in labor, while exceeding quality
housing at affordable rates in the shortest possible time
standards of conventional construction practices in India.
frame has been a burning issue that India has faced over
Larsen & Toubro Construction recently finished six
the last couple of years. Moreover, the recent shortage
high-rise total precast residential buildings (1.3 million
of skilled labor in the Indian construction industry
square feet) in Mumbai using the Precast Large
leading to slower rate of construction has compounded
Concrete Panel (PLCP) system [2]. The complete
this problem. The recently announced Housing for All
building superstructure was constructed using
by 2022 campaign by the Indian Government also puts
prefabricated precast concrete components such was
additional pressure on the Construction Industry to
walls, slabs, columns, beams and stairs. Another large
deliver projects in record time frames. To cater to this size (6.6 million square feet) residential project is under
growing demand and supply gap, Indian construction construction in Bengaluru that consists of 12/14 storey
industry is undergoing a drastic change of breaking tall buildings. More projects using the same technology
away from conventional construction practices in search are in the pipeline with repeat orders indicating the
of innovative and efficient ways for constructing acceptance of the technology in the residential buildings
residential buildings [1]. Mechanization has been sector. The overall design philosophy for the PLCP
identified as a key formula to be successful in this
system adopted by L&T is based on the Emulative
pursuit. Traditionally, residential houses in major cities
Design approach where the performance of the
of India have been multi-storied high-rise apartments
1
Head Precast Design, amit.barde@Lntecc.com
2
Engineer, rc@Lntecc.com
3
Engineer, rathod-chaitali@Lntecc.com
202
Amit Barde, et al.
completed building will be equivalent to a similar The design philosophy and details developed for
building constructed using cast-in-place methodology in the connections of PLCP system adopted by L&T are
terms of ultimate and in-service gravity and lateral also based on the principles of Emulative Design. This
loading. Relevant IS codes are available for the design approach for Precast Structures is not new in the Indian
considerations of the PLCP system as explained in the construction industry. IS 11447 1985 - Code of
subsequent section which allow safe and durable design Practice for Construction with Large Panel
of buildings constructed using the PLCP system. Prefabricates provides requirements for precast
However, the improvements in design considerations structural design that are primarily based on the
and criteria based on industry experience are not evident Emulative Design approach. The recently added, IS
as the industry is in its inception stage in India. On the 15916-2010- Code of Practice for Building Design and
other hand, the Precast Concrete system has been a Erection using Prefabricated Concrete provides
widely adopted system in America and has developed additional requirements for structural integrity as well
on continual research and development basis over the as overall planning and design requirements for Precast
last fifty years. In general, with any newly introduced Structures. Under these codal requirements based on
system in the construction industry, it has been a Emulative Design, the overall precast concrete structure
common practice to refer to International codes for can then be designed using mainstream RCC codes such
references. In several cases, with the approval of the as IS 456-2000 and IS 13920-1993 as required per
building officials, the International codal provisions are loading considerations required by IS 875 and IS 1893-
also adopted directly in instances where the IS codes do 2002 using current analysis and design practice in the
not specifically address such provisions and/or in cases industry.
where such design considerations do not affect the Although, relevant IS codes are available for the
parameters that are specific to the Indian geo-climatic PLCP System design, it should be noted that unlike
considerations. Such comparisons were published for International Codes, the precast structure design
the Lateral Load Resistance System in PLCP System [3] consideration for concrete buildings are not included in
and guidelines for Fire Resistance Rating for RCC the primary RCC design codes mainly IS 456. Also, in
Shear Wall System [4] earlier. In line with the design many cases, the provisions of IS 11447 are also not
approach, this paper briefly introduces the design updated per the global practice in the Precast Concrete
approach and relevant IS codes that are referred for the industry. The newly published, ICI Handbook on
design of PLCP System in India. In addition, it also Precast Concrete for Buildings [8] provides guidelines
looks at key American Precast Industry design for design of Precast Concrete structures and a handy
guidelines based on ACI 318 [5] and PCI Design reference for design practice. However, the provisions
Handbook 7th Edition [6] that could be easily adopted are not considered as mandatory requirements.
for PLCP System in India to achieve economical design. Typically, the construction industry follows the
Along with the codal references, these considerations relevant IS standards without any deviations even if the
are also explained for their suitability for Precast code edition is not recently updated. International codal
projects in India. provisions are only adopted in cases where the IS codes
are silent or do not provide specific guidelines for the
design criteria in question. While this is a sound
2 Design Philosophy for PLCP System of L&T based
engineering practice for design criteria that are related
on current IS Codes
to the geo-climatic conditions of the local region where
direct adoption of International codes may not be
suitable, in several cases, potential opportunities to
In general, globally, two primary design
develop economical solutions based on studies and
philosophies are followed for structures constructed
practice of the international industries are often missed.
using Precast Concrete Emulative Design and Jointed
As noted above, reference [3] and reference [4] describe
Design. Emulative Design targets performance and
similar approaches for ACI considerations on Lateral
overall behavior of Precast Concrete structures in
Load Resisting System considerations for Precast
response to the gravity and lateral loads similar to the
Structures and Fire Resisting Rating considerations for
behavior of the same structure if constructed using cast-
Load Bearing Wall Systems respectively. This paper
in-place concrete. Several leading industries across the
further identifies a few more design considerations of
globe provide codal guidelines for this approach. ACI
ACI 318 [5] for Precast Concrete buildings that could,
provides guidelines for Emulative Design approach in
potentially, be adopted for the Indian precast industry
ACI 550.1 Guide to Emulating Cast-in-Place
for economical design solutions. It also highlights how
Detailing for Seismic Design of Precast Concrete
the mainstream concrete building design codes
Structures [7]. On the other hand, the Jointed Design
acknowledge precast construction and have adopted it
approach is used for systems that are primarily built
as an accepted construction methodology.
using welded or bolted connections, which are used to
connect large precast elements together. PCI Design
Handbook 7th Edition [6] provide a comprehensive
reference for design using jointed system approach.
203
3 Key Design Considerations in American Codes for developed along such planes in the form of resistance
potential adoption in PLCP System design to the tendency to slip. The tension reinforcement
provided across this potential crack plane then keeps the
plane together to provide the calculated roughness. The
3.1 Shear Friction Concept for Connection Dowel reinforcement provided must be developed on each side
Design of the potential crack plane to achieve the calculated
capacity. Even though IS 456:2000 does not give
There are situations where shear force has to be specific guidance related to shear friction concepts, ACI
transferred across a defined plane of weakness, nearly 318 [5] Section 11.6.4 referred in Fig. 1 notes
parallel to the shear force and along which slip could provisions to adopt the Shear Friction theory for RCC
occur. Examples are planes of existing or potential structures and calculate the dowel steel to be provided
cracks, interface between dissimilar materials, interfaces across the crack plane.
between different elements such as precast walls, and
interface between concrete placed at different times. In ACI 318 [5] does not permit use of fy greater
such cases, possible failure involves sliding along the than 420MPa for design purposes. However, based
plane of weakness rather than diagonal tension. In rigorous test program specific to Precast Construction,
precast construction, such situations are fairly common. PCI [6] has amended the shear friction theory to use
In PLCP construction, such situations are primarily modified factors wherever applicable. It is imperative
encountered in the Shear Wall-to-Wall connections of to mention that PCI [6] permits the usage for a higher e
horizontal joint. Shear Friction theory provides detailed factor for monolithic as well as intentionally roughened
approach to calculate the shear capacity of the dowels concrete. This higher value increases the shear capacity
provided across such potential crack planes. The dowel of the shear plane by upto three times than what you
capacity is calculated based on the shear resistance would get by the standard values mentioned in ACI
318 [5].
Figure 1: Shear Friction Concept ACI 318

Figure 2: Shear Friction Concept PCI Design
Handbook
Figure 3: Shear Friction Theory PCI Design Handbook

204
Amit Barde, et al.
For intentionally roughened precast shear walls, 3.3 Minimum Steel Provision
the usage of these higher friction factors would
drastically reduce the area of dowel steel required for A minimum area of reinforcement is required
transfer of lateral forces between the vertically stacked to control cracking, due to temperature, shrinkage and
panels of a given wall in a lateral load resisting system creep. If the area of the temperature reinforcement is not
thereby achieving economical connections. Figs. 2,3 sufficient, cracks can spread through the RCC elements
note the PCI [6] Shear Friction theory provisions and may cause serviceability problems. Hence, it is
showing the permitted higher values of e. It is worth necessary to provide temperature and shrinkage
mentioning that both ACI 318 [5] and PCI [6] specify reinforcement to resist the developed shrinkage and
the strength reduction factor () of 0.75 that is generally temperature stresses. However, in RCC elements,
used for on tension loads adding an extra factor of considerable amount of shrinkage develops in the initial
safety. few hours. Thus, in precast concrete elements, the
stresses due to shrinkage develop at a reduced rate due
3.2 Nominal Covers for Durability Requirements to unrestrained boundaries. ACI 318 [5] code provides
separate provisions on shrinkage reinforcement for
Precast systems provide superior quality precast and cast-in-place structures. In precast one way
control based on the mechanised productions in the slabs less than 3.7m wide there is no need to provide
factory environment. International building codes transverse reinforcement to withstand temperature and
acknowledge these advantages and allow reduced shrinkage stresses in shorter direction. Similarly, in
minimum clear covers for various members compared Precast Walls, the minimum reinforcement for
to cast-in-situ construction. ACI 318 [5], for example, temperature and shrinkage in both directions is reduced
provides specific minimum cover requirements for to 0.1% compared to 0.12% for CIP walls. Fig. 5 shows
precast construction in Section 7.7.3. Fig. 2 notes a few the relevant sections from ACI 318 [5] Chapter 16 for
requirements where the code clearly outlines the Precast Concrete. In addition, for prestressed slabs, even
requirements specifically for Precast Concrete. It should the temperature and shrinkage steel provisions along the
be noted that these requirements are lesser than the prestressing strands is waived as the pre-compression
minimum cover requirements for CIP concrete under forces mitigate any cracks due to shrinkage.
similar exposure conditions in most cases. For example,
for a typical case of wall panels not exposed to weather
or earth, rebars No. 11 (35 mm diameter) or less in
Precast Concrete need minimum cover of 16 mm
whereas the same rebar in conventional concrete needs a
cover of 19 mm. For heavy elements exposed to weather
or ground, the cover for precast elements is 38 mm for
bars No. 6 through 11 (19 mm through 35 mm
diameter) whereas the same for CIP construction is 50
mm. Thus, overall element thicknesses could be better
optimized allowing precast construction to take
advantage of its better quality control in controlled
environment. Such adoptions are necessary in IS codes
as well to realize full potential of precast technology.
Figure 5: Minimum Steel Provisions for

Precast Concrete ACI 318
3.4 Light Weight Concrete
Lightweight concrete has been used for many

years in International Markets even as structural
concrete. The primary reason to use lightweight
concrete in a structure is to reduce the self-weight of the
structure, resulting in reduced dead load on the
Figure 4: Minimum Clear Cover structure. In addition, for precast concrete, use of
Precast Concrete ACI 318
205
structural light weight concrete is advantageous to

reduce the load on plants and machinery, transportation
system and tower crane. In India, for tall residential
buildings using precast concrete, use of light weight
concrete will be most crucial to reduce the demand on
tower cranes capacity. In conventional construction for
high-rise buildings, typically 2.5 to 3 ton capacity tower
cranes are used to handle material. Whereas, in precast
construction, a typical residential buildings precast
elements weigh from 4 to 6 tons, thereby requiring
extremely expensive heavy tower cranes. Typically,
structural light weight concrete provides about 20%
weight reduction helping to lower the demand on
various parameters noted above. Although, light weight
structural concrete is not popular in India yet due to lack
of driving demand, the budding Precast Industry in
India could change the scenario. Thus, inclusion of Figure 7: Incorporation of in
design parameters to account of use of light weight various relevant sections of code ACI
concrete in mainstream IS codes would be prudent. In 318
light of the above, it would be noteworthy to mention
that ACI 318 [5] recognizes the advance of lightweight 3.5 Structural Integrity
concrete and allows its use in structural concrete in In precast construction, provisions to prevent
RCC design. Section 8.6 of General Analysis and progressive collapse is of key consideration. Even if the
Design Considerations, Fig. 6, notes adoption of light- overall emulative detailing provides additional
weight concrete with a modification factor . The use redundancy compared to the jointed design approach,
of light-weight concrete typically impacts tensile the structure should have appropriate additional ties to
strength of concrete and in-turn reduction in related tie all elements together to prevent collapse of large
concrete properties such as shear strength, friction section of a structure due to over loading at a small
properties, splitting resistance, bond between concrete isolated areas. IS 15916 provides progressive collapse
and reinforcement and increase in development length guidelines for precast construction in terms of tension
compared to same compressive strength normal-weight ties Internal (transverse and longitudinal), Peripheral,
concrete. As noted in Fig. 7, the modification factor Horizontal and Vertical to effectively tie elements. It
is then included in such relevant properties and related should be noted that these are not in addition to the
equations throughout the building code. It should be reinforcement needed by design. In addition, all
noted that the code allows two methods to calculate the requirements for ties specified in the code are provided
modification factor an empirical approach based on at the characteristic capacities of reinforcement used.
types of light-weight concrete based on past data, or a Provisions of IS 15916 are mainly based on the
laboratory splitting tensile strength based approach for a provisions of BS 8110 [9] that are referred in Section
given mix design. 3.12. Although, most provisions are provided verbatim,
it is worth the mention that only Internal Ties - Clause b
has been provided in IS 15916 with an additional factor
of 1.5 (where the same in BS8110 is noted with a factor
of 1.0). A quick review of the provisions for residential
buildings reveals that this clause b will generally govern
the design of Internal Ties. Thus, the IS 15916
provisions for internal ties requires 50% more design
load consideration compared to the BS 8110 provisions
for the same. The increased factor for only one aspect
does not appear justified and should be updated in
future code revision. Similar to BS 8110 [8], ACI 318
[5] Section 16.5.2 provides the progressive collapse
(structural integrity) provisions for PLCP system in
buildings three or more levels tall. Although the
provisions are more or less similar to the IS and BS
codes, one of the distinct difference of ACI provisions is
that the required provisions are in fixed quantifiable
force independent of the structure layout in terms of
number of levels. Table 1 summarizes these
Figure 6: Adoption of Light-Weight Concrete
Figure 6: Adoption of Light-Weight Concrete requirements as noted in IS 15916, BS 8110 [9] and
ACI 318
ACI 318 ACI [5] for a handy reference
206
Amit Barde, et al.
Table 1: Summary of Progressive Collapse provisions by various building codes
Ties IS 15916: 2010 BS8110-1997 ACI 318-08

Cl. 8.2.3.1 Cl. 3.12.3.5 Section 16.5.2.4
Ft= Minimum of a and b Ft= Minimum of a and b Ties around the perimeter of
Peripheral
a) 60kN a) 60kN shall provide a nominal
Ties
b) (20+4N) kN b) (20+4N) kN strength in tension not less than
N=number of stories N=number of stories 71 kN.
Cl. 8.2.3.2 cl. 3.12.3.4.2 Section 16.5.2.1
Internal Greater of a and b, Greater of a and b, Ties shall provide a nominal
Ties a) (gk+qk)*(lr*Ft)/(7.5*5) a) (gk+qk)*(lr*Ft)/(7.5*5) strength of 22 kN per meter of
b)1.5Ft b)1.0Ft width or length
Cl. 8.2.3.4 Cl. 3.12.3.7 Section 16.5.2.5
Vertical The reinforcement provided is required only to resist Ties shall provide a nominal
Ties tensile force equal to maximum design ultimate load tensile strength not less than
(dead and live) received from any one storey 44kN per horizontal m of wall
Cl. 8.2.3.3 Cl. 3.12.3.6 Section 16.5.2.1
Greater of:
Horizontal
a) 2 Ft kN or ls x Ft x 2.5 kN; whichever less for a Same as Internal
Ties
column or each meter length of wall (Longitudinal/Transverse Ties)
3% of total ultimate vertical load in the column or wall
Note: BS8110-1997 is referred to show similarities between this code and IS 15916. BS 8110 is now replaced with
Eurocode 2 EN 1991. EN 1991 Part 1, Section 9.10 provides guidelines for progressive collapse ties that are similar
to provisions of BS 8110 with slight modifications and more details.
4 Conclusion References
Precast technology has been gaining steam in India [1] Senou K., Precast Technology- Its challenges &
over last six-seven years. Its unique attributes such as Influence on construction Environment &
rapid construction under controlled factory conditions Management, National Conference on Project
with exceptional quality control makes it a perfect fit for Management in Construction Sector INSTRUCT
the affordable and mass housing demand that India Bangalore, March 2013.
faces for the next few years. L&T Construction has [2] Barde A., Senou k., Somaraju K., Bommi S.,
adopted Precast Large Concrete Panel (PLCP) approach Nations First High-rise Total Precast Concrete
for Precast Construction of Residential buildings that Residential Building State of the Art of Precast
uses Load Bearing Shear Wall System at its backbone. Technology in India, 60th Anniversary PCI Annual
Emulative Detailing design philosophy is adopted for Convention, National Harbor, MD, USA,
the PLCP system and primarily IS 456, IS 13920, IS September 2014
11447 and IS 15916 are followed for design [3] Barde A., Design Approach for Lateral Load
considerations. While this is suitable for the structural Resisting System of Tall Precast Buildings in India
design, several international codes provide additional with an International Perspective, Precast Concrete
precast technology specific guidelines that are based on Technology REDECON 2014, November 2014
past experience and/or extensive research data. The [4] Barde A., Load Bearing RCC Shear Wall System
primary objective of this paper is to identify such for Tall Residential Buildings in India A Global
guidelines that are independent of the geo-climatic Perspective on Minimum Wall Thickness
conditions and could be adopted in future revisions of Requirements, Tall Structures, REDECON 2016,
mainstream IS codes so that precast technology and November 2016
relevant design considerations are addressed such that [5] ACI 318-2008 - Building Code Requirements for
the well-established design considerations could be Structural Concrete, ACI
utilized in India to provide economical solutions using [6] PCI Design Handbook 7th Edition -
precast technology. Key considerations reviewed are Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, USA
mainly from ACI 318 and PCI Design Handbook related [7] ACI 550.1 Guide to Emulating Cast-in-Place
to shear friction theory for dowel design, minimum Detailing for Seismic Design of Precast Concrete
covers for factory controlled production, minimum steel Structure, ACI
provisions for precast elements, light-weight concrete [8] ICI TC/02-01, Handbook on Precast Concrete for
considerations, structural integrity provisions and their Buildings, ICI
advantages if adopted. [9] BS-8110-1:1997 Structural Use of Concrete-Part
1, British Standard
207
Forensic Investigation of Collapse of Building Structure: A Case Study

Ambadas Waghmare1, Daniel Koothoor2, Dhruv Shah3, Kinal Bid4, Rahul Ghadwal5,
Raghav Agarwal6, Snehal Sonawane7, Viraj Sanghvi8, Abhay Bambole9
1-8
Department of Civil Engineering, V.J.T.I. Matunga, Mumbai-400019, India
9
Department of Structural Engineering, V.J.T.I. Matunga, Mumbai-400019, India
Building collapse though a common phenomenon all over the world is more rampant and devastating in the
developing countries. This paper exemplifies the collapse of building structure located at Pune. The collapse of
this five-storied RCC Framed Structure occurred on 31st October, 2014. The various reasons which could have
led to the failure of the structure include: faulty construction practices, foundation failure, unauthorized increase
in number of storeys, use of unqualified contractors and poor workmanship, poor project supervision, use of
low quality building materials. However on detailed assessment of reports it has been observed that pivotal
reason which triggered the collapse was the formation of hinge in most of the sub structure or neck columns.
Column with a hinge in its central location is the most dreadful situation for any structure. This formation of
hinge which led to the failure of the columns was due to poor workmanship at the construction joints .The
reinforcement and concrete joints were constructed at the same levels in most of the columns which coupled
with poor workmanship and lack of supervision led to the formation of weak joints. In order to curb or eradicate
such incidences of building collapse due to faulty construction practices, this case study makes us aware of
certain practices which should be looked upon vigilantly like the employment of qualified engineers at each
stage of construction, careful supervision during concreting at joints and lapping of bars especially below the
plinth level and good quality construction at the foundation level.
Keywords: Collapse, Faulty Construction, Hinge, Neck
1. Introduction projects are constructed that do not meet any of these basic
requirements.
Fadamiro in 2002 defined building as an enclosure for The recurring incidences of building collapse, some of
spaces designed for specific use, meant to control local which claimed innocent lives is a consequence of this.
climate, distribute services and evacuate waste. Unauthorized construction has been a sphere in Pune,
Buildings can be defined as structural entities capable of where according to the revenue officers, a staggering 2500
securing self by transmitting weights to the ground [1]. constructions have come up. This is the 3rd such incident
However, these same buildings have been posing treats of building collapse in Pune in last four years and the Pune
and dangers to people either during or after collapse. case has proved to be the final straw. This paper
Building collapse is an extreme case of building failure, it summarizes the findings of an investigation into the cause
means the superstructure crashes down totally or partially of structural failure and collapse of Pitaram Complex,
(Arilsere, 2002). Building failure occurs when there is a Pune in which the residents had a narrow escape in the wee
defect in one or more elements of the building caused by hours of Friday, 31st October 2014. The subject building
the inability of material making up the components of such is a residential plus commercial RC framed structure of 5-
building elements to perform its original function storeys. The buildings fall was not caused by an
effectively, which may finally lead to building collapse. earthquake or a terrorist attack, but rather by poor
Building is expected to meet certain basic requirements construction and a lack of oversight. The building
such as buildability, design performance, cost consisted of 20 apartments out of which only 8 were
effectiveness, quality, safety and timely completion. occupied. Nowadays, some building owners shun
Generally, buildings are elegant and functional but many professionals in order to maximize their profit. Secondly,
gluttonous contractors with eyes on profits patronize
1-8
Student, dhruv.shah95@gmail.com
9
Professor, anbambole@vjti.org.in
208
Ambadas Waghmare, et al.
substandard materials. These shortcut measures have 4.1 Settlement of Structure

contributed immensely to the occurrence of failed
buildings in the country. The conjecture factor for failure of any structure is
2. Overview of Structural Design Failures settlement of footing. As per geotechnical investigation
and site survey levels no significant differential
Two key concepts appear dominant in this review, settlement was observed. Also an open well located
building failure and building collapse. Each of the adjacent to the structure had no traces of soil caving
concepts is viewed differently but the former significantly inwards into the well after the collapse. Therefore this
leads to the latter in the opinions of built professionals. possibility of structural failure due to settlement of
Failure is an unacceptable difference between expected footing is not accountable.
and observed performance. A Failure occurs when a
building component can no longer be relied upon to fulfill
its principal functions [2]. Roddis [3] distinguishes
between defect and failure. Limited deflection in a floor
that causes a certain amount of crack/distortion in
partitions could reasonably be seen as a defect but not a
failure, whereas excessive deflection resulting in serious
damage to partitions, ceilings and floor finishing could be
classified as failure [3]. Failures in buildings are of two
types: cosmetic failure and structural failure. The former
occurs when something has been added to or subtracted
from the building, thus affecting the structures outlook.
The latter, on the other hand affects the outlook and
structural stability of building [5], [4]. Structural failure Figure 1: No Significant Settlement in the Grids
dates much longer than other types of building failures. In
broad terms, structural failure in building comes in various 4.2 Failure of beam-column junction
forms and degrees of severity, the worst of which
according to Oloyede, Omoogun and Akinjare [9] is a As acting load becomes larger, the compressive stress
collapse. Further, deterioration or decay occurs especially generates at inside of bent portion of beam bars with the
of vigour or usefulness of a building can be described as a deterioration of bond performance in straight portion.
failure of some sort but a total loss of bearing strength Joint shear is considered to be transferred by both of
resulting in a sudden breakdown, physical depletion compressive force in concrete strut formed between bent
and/or falling apart is a collapse. portion and beam compressive zone and tensile force
generating in joint transverse reinforcement after concrete
3. Effects of the Building Collapse cracking [11]. This failure occurs by giving some
warnings well in advance of the collapse. But in this case
Each collapse carries along with it tremendous effect the cracks developed significantly in the last couple of
that cannot be easily forgotten by any of its victims. The days, dismissing the possibility of beam-column junction
consequences were usually in the form of economic and failure to be the major reason for the collapse.
social implications which included:
(a) Loss of human life - This is an irreparable loss to both 4.3 Excessive loading
the victims relative and the society at large
(b)Loss of Material - Here most of its structural As the structure was designed to withstand the
components and materials were damaged beyond reuse occupancy for 20 apartments, it could easily bear the load
(c) Loss of Capital Investments - The capital investments of the 8 occupied apartments. Therefore, the suspect of
of the developers and the residents were not recoverable failure of structure due to excessive loading is eliminated.
(d) Physical Damage and Psychological Trauma - The
survival of the collapse had some injuries sleepless night 4.4 Poor workmanship and supervision
and mental pain to the body
The poor construction methods and lack of intricate
knowledge of workmanship lead to the formation of non-
4. Factors for Building Collapse
monolithic construction joints and overlapping of steel
The suspected reasons for the collapse of the building bars at the same level as that of construction joints
structure before investigation of the site were as follows: resulting in structural deficiencies. Due to employment of
unprofessional engineers at our site who did not possess
appropriate skills to assess the quality of construction and
209
adhere to the specifications enlisted in the codes lead to a The aim of the study of structural members should begin
weak substructure. Therefore proper maintenance and by knowing the failures which could occur in it rather
monitoring should have been started from the very time than knowing the design procedures. The major reasons
excavation was dug in order to prevent such collapses. which have led to the formation of hinges in the columns
could be studied from these considerations:
4.5 Tilting of the structure
5. Factors influencing failure of neck columns
Tilting or uneven settlement occurs when the soil beneath
a structure expands, contracts or shifts away. This 5.1 Longitudinal Reinforcement
becomes a big problem when the foundation settles
unevenly, more the uneven settlement more is the tilting. Longitudinal reinforcement is provided to achieve the
There was no such tilting observed before the collapse. following functions:
Thus this possibility in the collapse of the structure is
also not accountable. (a) To assist concrete in resisting compression so as to
reduce the overall size of the column.
(b) To resist any tension that might develop due to bending
caused by transverse load, eccentric load or the moments.
(c) To prevent or delay sudden brittle collapse.
(d) To impart necessary ductility to the column.
The minimum longitudinal steel required is stipulated to
prevent the failure of columns by buckling. The bars shall
not be less than 20 mm with maximum spacing of 300 mm
as per the Clause 26.5.3.1
5.2 Development Length
Development length is the embedded length of

reinforcement required to develop the design strength of
the reinforcement at a critical section. Critical sections
Figure 2: Typical case of Tilted Structure for development of reinforcement in flexural members
are at points of maximum stress and at points within the
From the preliminary investigations it is observed that span where adjacent reinforcement terminates or is bent.
the above factors discussed did not have significant As per clause 26.2.1 the development is given by the
impact in influencing the collapse of the structure. formula [6]:
$%
Therefore the foundation of the structure was excavated !" = # &
'()*
for determining the primary reason in triggering the
where,
collapse and they have been discussed below:
$#### = nominal diameter of the bar
+, ##= stress in bar at the section considered at design load
4.6 Substructure Analysis
-." #= design bond strength for bonds in tension
Foundation is one of the major structural members of
It has been found that the development length provided
any building and any problem arising from it will surely
at site did not meet the specifications which proved to be
affect the whole building [10]. Initially, in the early stages
a reason in not forming proper bonds for the transfer of
of its service life the structure seemed stable and it could
stresses leading to the formation of a weak zone.
bear the dead load of the entire structure because of the
confining pressure provided by the soil. But the intensity
5.3 Lap Length
of the confining pressure gradually reduced over the years
as the occupancy kept on increasing over two years
Lap length in case of columns is same as the
initiating the buckling in columns. Due to this reduced
development length and it should be provided staggered as
support from the surrounding soil and gradual increase of
far as possible with maximum 50% lapping at one location
load, the load carrying capacity of the columns also
[7]. Due to the negligence of the site officials the workers
decreased. This eventually led to the formation of partial
did not take the effort of providing staggered lapping and
hinge (i.e. location of minimum moment capacity) which
rather laid the lappings in all the columns at the same
was the pivotal reason for the collapse of the structure.
locations thereby concentrating the weak zones.
Columns with hinge at center is the most dreadful situation
for any structure.
210
as compared to the other locations to provide extra

confinement. Also the bends provided in the hooks
should be adequately provided. Thin concrete cover over
the 90o hook in a stirrup may lead to spalling of cover
concrete as the 90o hook has a tendency to straighten out
under overloads. To avoid this type of failure, it is
suggested that the cover be at least twice the diameter of
the stirrup bar. Where this is impracticable, the hook
should be provided with a 135o or 180o bend.
Figure 3: Comparison of actual site construction with the

IS Specifications
5.4 Transverse Reinforcement Figure 5: Bends in hooks
One of the most important factors to be considered to

avoid the failure of structural members is by providing
transverse reinforcement [8]. Transverse reinforcement
provide the effective lateral support by fulfilling these four
functions:
(a) to prevent buckling of longitudinal reinforcing bars.
(b) to resist diagonal tension due to transverse shear.
(c) to confine the concrete core to provide sufficient
deformability (ductility) and prevent longitudinal splitting
of concrete.
(d) to clamp together lap splices after splitting cracks form
parallel to the splices.
The stirrups provided should be able to resist a tension
equal to the full tensile force in the lapped bars and should
be provided in the outer one-third of the lap length at both
Figure 6: Hooks not bent adequately leading ot its
sides with at least three stirrups on either side. The
opening
detailing of transverse reinforcement should be provided
in accordance with clause 4.4.1 of SP 34.
Therefore due to increase in the sustained load and
provision of transverse reinforcement with inappropriate
spacing and bends in the hooks led to the formation weak
zones of hinges at mid heights.
6. Types of column Failure
The types of failure observed at site due to formation

of hinge at the mid height of columns are as follows:
1. Buckling of bars As the applied load is

increased on a member, such a column will
Figure 4: Detailing of Transverse Reinforcement ultimately become large enough to cause
member to become unstable and is said to be
Two important things which should be taken under buckled,
consideration while providing transverse reinforcement
are its spacing and the hooks in the stirrups. The spacing
at the location of transverse reinforcement should be less
211
Figure 7: Buckling of Longitudinal Bars Figure 9: Longitudinal Splitting of Concrete
2. Transverse shear failure - A strain produced by 7. Details from as-built drawings

pressure in the structure of a substance, when its
layers are laterally shifted in relation to each After investigation was carried out by excavating a few
other leads to transverse shear failure. The column locations (C47, C33, C34, C28, C9) it was
movement caused by shearing stresses in a soil confirmed that the failure was not due to settlement as it
mass is of sufficient magnitude to destroy or was well within the permissible limits and the formation
seriously endanger the structure. of the hinges which were clearly explained in the
previous topics can be confirmed.
Figure 8: Diagonal Tension due to Transverse Shear
3. Longitudinal splitting of column Splitting

failure in RCC columns under action of loads is
the formation of vertical cracks along the
column height.
Figure 10: Plan of RCC Plinth Beams and Column
212
8. Research methodology reinforcement may lead to severe damages in a structure.

Qualified professionals were not employed at every stage
The investigative visit to collapse site had been made of the project which led to weak substructure. Also not
on 3rd, 4th & 5th November 2014 to carry out preliminary having trained the workers to execute the site practices by
inspection as well as collect samples for testing. Relevant complying with the specifications of the code has affected
and necessary data collected were assessed in order to the life period of the structure to a great extent.
achieve the aim of this research, which is to investigate the The hinges formed at the mid heights in most of the
causes and effect of this building collapse in Pune and substructure columns serve as the zone of zero moment.
suggest various ways of avoiding such incidences. Also This is caused due to the gradual decrease in the
the design architectural and structural drawings of the stiffness of the columns under sustained loads as it could
building along with the DBR reports, geotechnical not resist the tensile forces developed at weak transverse
investigation reports were assessed to check the design reinforcement zones.
considerations taken into account.
11. References
9. Remedial Measures
[1] Building Failure/Collapses and their Reputational
If all the things are done accordingly, the chances of Effect on building Industry in Nigeria, International
collapse occurring are very minimal. Based on the findings Journal of Science and Research (2015).
of this study, the following is recommended: [2] Roddis, M.K. (1993) Structural Failure and
* All stakeholders in the construction industry should Engineering Ethics, American Society of Civil
adhere strictly to the provisions of the building code. Engineering (Structural Div.) 119(5)1539-1555.
* Provide staggered pattern of steel reinforcement at [3] Cowan, H.J. (1998), The Causes of Structural
different levels in order to avoid the concentration of weak Failure, Architectural Science Review 32(3); 65-66.
zones. [4] Wartick. S.L ( 1992 ) , The Relationship between
* Extreme care should be taken in the pouring of concrete Intense Media Exposure and Change in Corporate
especially below the plinth level. ReputationBusiness and Society,31,33-42.
* Employing qualified engineers from the start of the [5] Oloyede, S.A., Omoogun, C.B. and Akinjare, O.A.
project rather than employing quacks and saving money. (2010), Tackling causes Building Collapse in Nigeria
* Soil test and Structural Analysis needs to be made [6]IS 456:2000 Plain And Reinforced Concrete Code of
mandatory and to be submitted along with the building Practice.
plans to Town Planning Authority by all developer. [7] SP-34 Handbook on Concrete Reinforcement and
* Building professionals should also ensure proper and Detailing.
efficient supervision of workmen as well as efficient [8] Dr V.L.Shah & Dr.S.R.Karve Limit State Theory and
checking of materials before incorporation into building Design of Reinforced Concrete
works. [9] Frequent Building Collapse in Nigeria, Journal of
Various means of motivation of workmen like giving Sustainable Development 3(3): 127-132
incentives, good sick pay, better salary, etc. should be in [10] An Examination of the Causes and Effects of
place by the management of any building work as this will Building in Nigeria, Journal of Design and Built
increase the will of the workmen, thereby enhancing Environment (2011).
excellent quality of workmanship. [11] Anchorage Failure and Shear Failure of RC Exterior
Beam-Column Joint, Y. Goto, K. Nishimura, H.
10. Conclusion Yamazaki, 15 WCEE, Lisboa 2012
The study reveals that the negligence in supervision

and not taking efforts in providing adequate detailing of
213
BIAXIAL EFFECTS IN UNREINFORCED MASONRY (URM) LOAD

BEARING WALLS
Jacob Alex Kollerathu1, Arun Menon2
12
Under seismic loading, a structure may be subject to simultaneous in-plane and out-of-plane actions.
Existing simplified methods like the storey-shear mechanism to determine the shear capacity of masonry
structures neglect the out-of-plane effects leading to a non-conservative seismic assessment. In this paper,
an analytical model is developed to evaluate the in-plane shear capacities of unreinforced masonry
(URM) walls, in the presence of additional out-of-plane displacement. Results from this paper
demonstrate that the additional out-of displacements alter both the in-plane shear capacity and failure
mechanism of the wall. The sensitivity of the interaction to the axial load on the wall is also studied. The
proposed model is validated with non-linear finite element analysis. The developed model can be used to
determine the reduced shear capacity of URM walls if the mid-height out-of-plane displacement is
known. The biaxial interaction of URM walls are also studied dynamically. The model is extended to the
framework of the storey-shear-mechanism to study the effect of out-of-plane displacements at the global
level
Keywords: Unreinforced masonry walls, out-of-plane displacements, in-plane shear capacity, interaction
1 Introduction biaxial effects are studied without considering the

Post earthquake studies have identified out-of-plane effects of out-of-plane (OOP) displacements on in-plane
collapse of unreinforced masonry (URM) walls as one shear capacity in the following manner:
of the predominant modes of failure. The random nature Generating biaxial interaction curves for load
of the ground shaking and the possible eccentricity bearing URM walls to evaluate their shear
between centers of mass and stiffness may lead to capacity for increasing out-of-plane
additional out-of-plane effects in masonry walls, and displacements.
combined in-plane and out-of-plane (biaxial) actions in Validating the proposed analytical model by
a wall that can affect its in-plane shear capacity. While non-linear finite element analysis, under both
the seismic demand on the wall can be obtained by static and dynamic effects.
considering global load combinations, a method that Proposed analytical model is utilized for
describes the out-of-plane effects on the in-plane shear determining the in-plane global capacity of a
capacity of a member under seismic response does not multi-storied URM structure, in the presence of
exist. During an earthquake the response of the wall additional out-of-plane displacements.
depends on the presence of RC tie beams and type of
diaphragm action (rigid/flexible). Depending on the 2 Review of research on biaxial interactions
magnitude of loading and the aforementioned factors, 2.1 Experimental Studies
the wall may be subject to in-plane and out-of-plane Shapiro et al.(1994) [1] experimentally studied the in-
loading. The negligible OOP resistance of URM walls plane and out-of-plane interaction of infill walls in
prevents the exploitation of the global capacity of concrete frames and a compete loss of out-of out-of-
masonry walls associated with their in-plane capacity plane capacity was observed in the presence of in-plane
leading to non-conservative seismic assessment. shear forces. Flanagan and Bennet (1999) [2] performed
several bidirectional tests on structural clay tile inll
URM walls are significantly used as load-bearing panels in steel frames. Significant out-of-plane stability
walls and their behaviour under combined in-plane and under combined loading was noticed due to arching
out-of-plane loading is important to understand the mechanism. Al Chaar (2002) [3] experimentally studied
seismic assessment of masonry structures completely. how large out-of-plane forces lead to a drop in the in-
Past experimental and numerical studies ([1]-[7]) plane capacity URM infill walls. In this test, the in-
indicate that there is interaction between the in-plane plane capacity of the infill walls weas determined at
and out-of-plane forces. While the force-based varying percentages of its out-of-plane capacity.
interaction models are useful, possibly up to peak force Recent experimental work by [4]Najafgholipour et al.
capacity, they become limited at ultimate conditions. (2013) developed a circular interaction surface between
The current research addresses this gap area in the way the in-plane and out-of-plane capacities of masonry
1
Doctoral Student, jacobalexcivil@gmail.com
2
Assistant Professor, arunmenon@iitm.ac.in
214
Jacob Alex Kollerathu and Arun Menon
walls using both force-based experimental and of load bearing walls. The effect of out-of-plane
theoretical studies. displacement demand on the in-plane shear capacity of a
wall should be explored under both static and dynamic
2.2 Analytical and theoretical studies analysis to understand the interaction at out-of-plane
Hashemi and Mosalam [5] (2007) and Kadysiewski and displacements on the in-plane capacity of URM walls.
Mosalam [6] (2009) used a simple element hysteretic In the ensuing section, the effect of the out-of-plane
model to investigate the interaction of in-plane and out- displacement on the in-plane shear capacity is
of-plane action of an infill URM wall. This study determined under static loading conditions. An
considered an infill wall with two degrees-of-freedom unreinforced masonry wall pinned at the top and
(DOF): one assigned to the in-plane displacement of the bottom, when subjected to out-of-plane displacements,
top plane of the wall and one for out-of-plane undergoes vertical bending and cracks horizontally
displacement at its mid-height. across its thickness when its tensile strength is
Non-linear FE analyses by Bakshi et al. [7] (2014) exceeded. The effective thickness is used to estimate the
have described the biaxial behaviour of URM walls and in-plane shear capacity in the presence of out-of-plane
developed relations between the in-plane and out-of- displacements that is expressed as a scaled pure in-plane
plane shear forces of the wall. Masonry walls were shear capacity in equation (1):
modelled in a more rigorous manner (micro-modelling) D
compared to the macro-element modelling approach. It V = V 1 - (1)
is also concluded from the results that the presence of c D
out-of-plane forces resulted in the reduction of the in- u1
plane deformation capacity.
Results from [8] Agnihotri et al. (2013) modelled Where, the pure in-plane shear capacity Vc, is estimated
unreinforced masonry walls with 3D deformable shell as the shear capacity as per [9]. u1corresponds to out-
elements to study the effect of in-plane deformations on of-plane displacement at loss of in-plane shear strength;
OOP damage. Numerical results showed that the effect is the out-of-plane displacement demand on the wall
of in-plane deformations resulted in a drop in the out-of- estimated as per [10]. Figure 1 shows the drop of shear
plane capacity of the wall by nearly a third of its un- capacity as per equation 1 of anunreinforced masonry
cracked capacity. wall (2000x2000x250 mm) with a compressive strength
of 10 MPa wall when subject to an axial stress of 0.1
MPa and increasing mid-height out-of-plane
2.3 Gap areas displacement.
The storey-shear-mechanism ignores the interactions of
the out-of-plane actions on the in-plane shear capacity.
Results from all the aforementioned works demonstrate
that there is considerable interaction of the in-plane and
out-of-plane effects, which may result in a non-
conservative seismic assessment if one were to use the
storey-shear mechanism. However, published literature
has limited the study of biaxial behaviour of load
bearing masonry walls in terms of its force capacities
with no reference on the effects of out-of-plane
displacements on in-plane behaviour. Only Agnihotri et
al (2013) has studied the biaxial behaviour of masonry
walls in terms of its displacement. However, the authors
have studied the effects of the in-plane displacement on
the OOP capacity and damage. A drawback of looking
at the effects of out-of-plane forces is that the biaxial Figure 1: Drop in in-plane capacity due to out-of-plane
interaction cannot be studied close to ultimate deformations, as per formula (Eq. 1)
conditions.
3.2 Behaviour of URM walls under in-plane, out-of-

plane and axial loads
When subject to in-plane shear forces, out-of-plane mid-
height displacements and axial forces, aURM wall may
fail due to loss of in-plane strength, second order effects
or due to flexural crushing at extreme fibre about the
3 Biaxial Effects in Masonry Walls thickness. The different out-of-plane displacements at
3.1 Effect of out-of-plane displacement on in-plane which the wall may fail in any of the above-mentioned
shear strength scenarios have to be determined. The value of u in Eq.
None of the published literature has studied the effects 1 is limited to the minimum of the out-of-plane
of out-of-plane displacements on the in-plane behaviour
215
displacements at which the one of the failure modelled using the simplified micro-model or the meso-
mechanisms occur. model approach. The brick units were modelled using
(
D = min D , D , D
u1 u2 u3
(2) ) eight-noded iso-parametric quadrilateral curved shell
elements (CQ48S). The unit has been modelled to
Due to out-of-plane displacements, the wall is
behave as an elastic element with a constant thickness.
subject a strain gradient along its thickness. When the
The unit-mortar interface has been modelled as a non-
tensile strength is lost, the wall cracks across its linear interface using the combined cracking-shearing-
thickness leading to a loss in its in-plane strength. The crushing model (Loureno, 1996) [13]. The crack in the
out-of-plane displacement at which the in-plane shear
unit is modelled in a manner that the wall has a strong
capacity drops to zero (u1) is determined as the
unit-weak joint behaviour. The number of material
displacement at which the in-plane strength is lost due properties required in both the approaches is different;
to decreasing cross-section of the wall (see Fig.2). The however material properties such as E, G, compressive
out-of-plane displacement at which the wall fails due to
strength and tensile strength are kept the same in both
loss in out-of-plane capacity (u2)is, for load bearing
the models. The rest of the material properties have
masonry walls (pinned at top and bottom) close to 0.5t been derived from closed-form solutions and tables
and for parapet walls (free at the top) close to prescribed in Loureno (1996). The walls are free to
0.67t[11].The out-of-plane displacement at which the
rotate in the out-of-plane direction at their base and at
wall fails due to flexural crushing (u3), is the
the top of the wall they are restrained against rotations
displacement at which the edge compressive stress along the vertical direction and translations in the out-
about the thickness exceeds the strength of the masonry of-plane direction. The non-linear finite element model
in flexural compression, in the presence of out-of-plane
is pre-validated against experimental work (Gandhi and
bending and axial stress (see Fig. 2).
Menon, 2014) [14] for in-plane behaviour.
Reduced area due to out-of-plane
actions available for shear resistance fc
Transverse section
Plan Table1: Material properties for NLFEM modelling as
l per Lourenco (1996)
Du3: Out-of-plane
Direction of displacement Young's modulus (MPa) 5500
in-plane load corresponding to wall Brick
failure by out-of-plane Poisson's ratio 0.15
fc flexural crushing
Shear stiffness (N/mm3) 86
Cohesion (MPa) 0.2
Longitudinal section
Fracture energy in shear 0.02
Du1: Out-of-plane displacement (N/mm)
corresponding to formation of Internal friction angle 32
shear mechanism Brick-mortar
Figure 2: Definitions of u1 and u3 interface 3
Normal stiffness (N/mm ) 38
The sensitivity of the interaction on the axial load is Tensile strength (MPa) 0.15
studied and from Fig. 3, one can establish that in walls Fracture energy in tension 0.012
under simultaneous in-plane and out-of-plane (N/mm)
Compressive strength (MPa) 10
displacements and subject to very low axial loads Normal stiffness (N/mm3) 357
(0.01f'm), wall failure is due to loss in out-of-plane Vertical cracks in
capacity, whereas for higher loads it is due to flexural bricks
crushing. Tensile strength (MPa) 1.0
The effects of out-of-plane displacement are
examined under different conditions: varying pier aspect
ratios and low to high axial loads. In the ensuing
section, the height and thickness of the piers studied are
kept constant at 2.0 m and 0.25 m, while the length of
the pier is varied to account for varying piers in a wall
with openings. Walls have been designated on the basis
of their aspect ratios (height to length ratios) as: A (0.5),
B (1.0), C (1.5) and D (2.0). For validating the proposed
model in Eq. 1, the analysis procedure is carried out in
two steps. In the first step, the wall is analysed under an
Figure 3: Sensitivity of failure on axial load axial load and the out-of-plane displacement represented
(Z: ratio of axial load to compressive strength) as a uniformly distributed displacement at mid-height.
In the second step, incremental in-plane displacement is
3.3 Validation of proposed model applied at the top of the wall. Fig. 4 (A-D) shows a
The model proposed in equation (1) has been validated comparison of the model with non-linear finite element
using a non-linear finite element tool, TNO-Diana 9.5.5 analysis results. From Fig. 4, one can conclude that the
[12](DIANA.9.5 documentation, 2014).The wall is proposed model compares well with NLFEM results in
capturing the drop in shear capacity in the presence of
216
an out-of-plane displacement. In addition, as the mode To study this phenomenon, one has to evaluate the out-
provides a lower bound of the shear capacities, it leads of-plane seismic demand on walls considering the
to a conservative seismic assessment. dynamic filtering effect of the building and diaphragms
and the dynamic response of the walls [15]. The
behaviour of walls A and C subject to axial stresses of
0.2 MPa and 1 MPa when subject to in-plane base
excitations and out-of-plane floor accelerations is
studied. The biaxial response of the wall to dynamic
loading is studied by incremental dynamic analysis
(IDA). An ensemble of 10 natural strong motion
records from published literature [16] was used here.
Figure 5shows the in-plane shear capacity vs. in-plane
Wall A displacement of walls A and C from IDA subject to
biaxial accelerations and in the presence of an additional
out-of-plane displacement. One observes that the shear
capacity of all the walls from IDA is a lower bound
when compared to static analysis. The disparity in the
capacities can be attributed to decoupling of the in-plane
and out-of-plane displacements in the non-linear static
analysis while in the dynamic analysis the effects are
considered simultaneously, which is a more realistic
representation of the behaviour during an earthquake.
In Table 2, the peak shear capacities from Fig. 5 are
Wall B compared with shear capacities obtained with the
analytical model. One observes that the shear capacity
from IDA is a lower-bound when compared to shear
capacities from the model developed. However, the
shear capacity obtained from the proposed analytical
model is intermediate between the capacities obtained
from NLSA and IDA. It is also observed that the effect
of biaxial loads in terms of reducing the shear capacity
is slightly more significant in a slender wall (wall A)
while compared to a squat wall. This is an observation
Wall C consistent from previous published work (Penna et al.,
2016) [17] which conclude that effect of out-of-plane
actions are more in slender walls than squat walls.
Table 2: Comparison of drop in shear capacity from

NLSA, IDA and developed model
Wall Pure in- Drop in-plane shear capacity

Wall D
plane (%)
shear Non- IDA Analytical
capacity linear model
Figure 4: Validation of equation 1 with NLFEM (kN) static
analysis analysis
4. Interaction under Dynamic Response A 24 75 61 72
In section 3, the interaction of the out-of-plane (Z=0.02)
displacements on the in-plane behaviour is examined A 110 52 42 51
under static loading. However, in an earthquake a (Z=0.1)
structure may be subject to accelerations in both the in-
C 159 78 63 72
plane and out-of-plane accelerations. During
(Z=0.02)
earthquakes, large floor horizontal accelerations have
been recorded in buildings that are responsible for C 490 54 45 51
inertial forces causing out-of-plane damage of walls (Z=0.1)
leading to structural damage and even building collapse.
217
Figure 7A In-plane shear capacity of structure A under

pure in-plane displacement and considering biaxial
effects
Figure 5: Comparison of force-displacement biaxial

effects (static vs. dynamic)
5. Application of Analytical Model to Determine the

Biaxial Effects at Global Level
The proposed analytical model is used to determine the
effect of the out-of-plane displacements at the global
level by introducing it within the scope of an existing
method such as storey-shear mechanism (SSM). As Figure 7B: In-plane shear capacity of structure B under
mentioned the storey-shear mechanism (SSM) only pure in-plane displacement and considering biaxial
determines the global in-plane shear capacity of piers effects
and ignores the out-of-plane effects which may lead to
an overestimate of the shear capacity. Even when a Table 3A: Comparison with NLFEM analysis for
structure is subject to pure in-plane displacement, structure A
depending on the structure's inherent eccentricity due to Structure Capacity in X direction (kN)
plan and vertical irregularities it will be subjected to an Capacity Global NLFEM
additional OOP displacement. The effects of the out-of- neglecting capacity (Numerical
plane displacements determined are examined on two interaction considering model)
three-storied structures (plan in Fig. 6). Structure A is interaction
regular in plan and has an eccentricity of 0.8m in the X A 388 347 368
direction and 0.67m in the Y direction between the
B 476 425 452
centres of mass and stiffness. Structure B has an
eccentricity of 2.02m and 0.8m. The assumed material
Table 3B: Comparison with NLFEM analysis for
properties of models A and B are mentioned in Table 6.
structure B
A comparison of the global capacity neglecting and
considering biaxial interactions are determined in both
Structure Capacity in Y direction (kN)
directions and are reported in Fig. 7A and 7B and Table
Global Global NLFEM
3A and 3B.
capacity capacity (Numerical
neglecting considering model)
interaction interaction
A 388 347 368

B
B 476 425 452
A
One observes that the SSM provides an upper-

Figure 6: Ground floor plans of A) Regular structure bound of the shear capacities when compared to results
and B) Irregular structure from NLFEM analysis. However, the shear capacity
218
obtained while considering the out-of-plane effects is a Research Center, University of California, Berkeley,
lower bound of the capacities from non-linear PEER, Report 7100,2007.
analysis.The underlying assumption is that NLFEM [6] Kadysiewski, S. and Mosalam, K. M.,
results are closer to the reality. In this context the fact Modelling of unreinforced masonry infill walls
that the proposed analytical model to describe the considering in-plane and out-of-plane interaction,
biaxial effects gives a lower bound when compared to Pacific Earthquake Engineering Research Center
NLFEM results leads to conservative seismic University of California, PEER, Report 8102, 2009.
assessment. This goes to show that the model could be a [7] Bakshi, A., Soleimanzadeh, A., and Yekranhia
useful and simple to use tool that to describe the biaxial M.). Interaction of in-plane- out-plane masonry walls,
effects at both elemental and global level. Proceedings of the 9th International Masonry
Conference, Paper-ID 1599, Guimaraes, Portugal, 2014.
6. Conclusions [8] Agnihotri, P., Singhal, V. and Rai, D.C.,
An analytical model to evaluate the effect of out-of- Effect of in-plane damage on out-of-plane strength of
plane mid-height displacement on the in-plane shear unreinforced masonry walls, Engineering Structures,
capacity of URM walls is proposed. The model is Vol. 57, pp. 111, 2013.
founded on the assumption that when a URM wall is [9] G. Magenes and G. M. Calvi, In-Plane Seismic
subject to OOP displacements cracks along the Response of Brick Masonry Walls, Earthquake
thickness leading to a drop of shear capacity. Engineering and Structural Dynamics, vol. 26, no.
Non-linear finite element analyses under static and February, pp. 10911112. 1997.
dynamic confirm the theoretical basis of the model. A [10] Priestley, M. J. N.,Seismic behaviour of
preliminary application of the model to determine the unreinforced masonry walls, New Zealand National
effects of out-of-plane displacements at the global level Society for Earthquake Engineering, Vol. 18, No. 2, pp.
highlights significant repercussions on the global 6575,1985.
behaviour especially in the post-peak region. [11] Doherty, K., Griffith, M. C., Lam, N. and J.
The force-displacement pushover curves obtained Wilson, J., Displacement-based seismic analysis for out-
from the proposed method provide a lower bound of-plane bending of unreinforced masonry walls,
solution compared to non-linear finite element analysis. Earthquake Engineering and Structural Dynamics, Vol.
In the absence of experimental results for the 31, No. 4, pp. 833850,2002.
phenomenon addressed in the paper, the fact that the [12] Diana Users Manual, TNO DIANA BV, Delft,
shear capacity considering the biaxial interaction is a The Netherlands,2014.
lower bound compared to NLFEM results points to a [13] Loureno, P.B., A user/programmer guide for
conservative seismic assessment. the micro-modelling of masonry structures, Research
As a closing comment the authors would like to Report, Delft University of Technology, Delft,Report
state that the effects of elemental out-of-plane No. 03.21.1.31.35, 1996.
displacements have to be considered in unreinforced [14] Gandhi, R. and Menon, A., Seismic
masonry structures especially in the ones where Performance of Bed-Joint Reinforced Solid Brick
features) to prevent the effect of out-of-plane Masonry Walls, Proceedings of the 9th International
displacements are ineffective. Masonry Conference, Guimaraes, Portugal, 2014.
[15] Magenes, G., Masonry building design in
References seismic areas: Recent experiences and prospects from a
[1] Shaprio, D., Uzarski, J., Webster, M., Angel, European stand-point, Keynote lecture 9, Proc. 1st
R., Abrams, D., Estimating out-of- plane strength of European Conference on Earthquake Engineering and
cracked masonry infills, University of Illinois at Seismology, Geneva, Switzerland, 2006.
Urbana-Champaign, Civil Engineering Studies, [16] Menon, A. and Magenes, G., Definition of
Structural Research Series No. 588, 1994. Seismic Input for Out-of-Plane Response of Masonry
[2] Flagnan, R. D. and Bennet, R. M., Walls: I. Parametric Study, Journal of Earthquake
Bidirectional behaviour of structural clay tile infilled Engineering, Vol. 15, No. 2, pp. 165194, 2011.
frames, Journal of Structural Engineering, Vol. 125, [17] Penna A., Magenes G., Tomasetti U. and
No. 3, pp. 236244, 1999. Graziotti, F Out-of-plane shaking table tests on URM
[3] Al-Chaar, G., Evaluating strength and stiffness cavity walls, Proceeding of 16th International Brick
of unreinforced masonry infill structures, US Army and Block Masonry Conference, Modena, pp.1939-
Corps of Engineers, ERDC/CERL TR-02-1, 2002. 1947, 2016.
[4] Najafgholipour, M. A., Maheri, M. R. and
Loureno, P. B.,Capacity interaction in brick masonry
under simultaneous in-plane and out-of-plane
loadsConstruction Building Materials, Vol. 38, pp. 619
626,2013.
[5] Hashemi A, Mosalam KM., Seismic evaluation
of reinforced concrete buildings including effects of
masonry infill walls, Pacific Earthquake Engineering
219
STRESS IN UNBONDED TENDONS FOR POST-TENSIONED

CONCRETE MEMBERS ASSESSMENT OF PREDICTION
EQUATIONS AND EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION
R. Manisekar1, K. Saravana Kumar2
1,2
ACTEL Division, CSIR-Structural Engineering Research Centre, Chennai, 600113, India
Post-tensioning is being widely used in bridges, namely highway bridges, railway bridges, segmental box
girder bridges, METRO bridges, and sea links. Generally, the ultimate flexural behaviour of concrete
members with unbonded tendons is evaluated by the stress in unbonded tendons at ultimate state.
Researchers have developed the equations using various analytical concepts namely, moment-curvature
relationship, empirical methods, strain reduction coefficient method, equivalent plastic hinge length
method, and Finite Element Method. The paper intends to present the performance of the prediction
equations and suitable analytical concept for calculating the stress in tendons. Performance of prediction
equations for calculating the stress at ultimate in unbonded tendons f ps has been evaluated using
experiment data published in the literature. In the next stage, an experimental investigation on the flexural
behaviour of post-tensioned concrete beam is done by authors, and the results have been used for
evaluation. Also, the FEM analysis using ANSYS package is also performed, and compared with test
results. It is concluded that the prediction equations developed using equivalent plastic hinge length
concept have performed well.
Keywords: post-tensioning, unbonded tendons, stress-increase,
1 Prediction equations used for evaluation Pannell (1969)

The flexural behaviour of concrete members with qu
unbonded tendons is evaluated by the stress in f ps = f 'c MPa (4)
rp
unbonded tendons at ultimate state. The common
approach for evaluating the stress in unbonded tendons
qe + l A ps f pe yr p e cu E ps d ps
at ultimate state, f ps is as follows: qu = q = l=
1 + 2l e bd p f ' c Lf c
y = 10 L p = Lo = 10c
f ps = f pe + Df ps (1)
where, De cps is change in strain in the concrete at the
f ps = ultimate stress in unbonded tendons
level of the prestressing steel, L p is length of the plastic
f pe = effective prestress
zone occur at ultimate, Dl is concrete elongation at the
Df ps = stress increase in tendon beyond the
level of the prestressing steel that measured within the
effective prestress, up to ultimate behaviour.
length of the plastic zone, c is depth of the neutral axis
Thirteen equations are taken for evaluation, which are at ultimate, and e cu is strain in the concrete top fiber at
given below: ultimate.
ACI Equation (2002)

f c
f ps = f pe + 10000 + forL / d 35 psi (2)
100 r p
Tam and Pannel (1976)

fc q + l qs l
f ps = f pe + 10000 + forL / d 35 psi (3) f c e -
300 r p 1+ l a + l
f ps =
a MPa (5)
rp
1
Senior Scientist, mani@serc.res.in
2
Scientist, saravana@serc.res.in
220
R. Manisekar and K. Saravana Kumar
where, A ps f pe
(6) in which for one point loading.
qe = Wu =
1 .5
bd p f ' c L

As f y d ps
(6a)
qs =
bd p f ' c 3 .0 for third point or uniform
Wu =
l = yre u Es d / Lf cu L

d ps
L p = Lo = 10.5c
where a =0.85 b1 (based on cylinder compressive loading.

L1 = length of loaded span or sum of lengths of loaded
strength) or a =0.68 b1 (based on cube compressive
spans, influenced by the same tendon
strength), b1 is the stress block reduction factor defined
L 2 = length of tendon between end anchorages.
in the ACI Building code.
Harajli and Kanj (1991)

Du and Tao (1985)
Aps f pe + As f y
f ps = f pe + g 0 f pu 1.0 - 3.0 Psi (11)
bd p f c
f ps = f pe + (786 - 1920qo ) MPa (7)
f ps f py
where g = n0 0.12 + 2.5

qo 0.3 ; 0.55 f py f pe 0.65 f py ; where, f py is the yield 0
n S /dp
stress of the prestressing steel.
Chakrabarti (1995)
Harajli (1990)
f pe + 10,000 + A
f ps = psi (12)
f ps = f pe

+ 10,000 +
f 'c
0.4 + 8

f py Psi (8) (1 - B )
100 r p S dp
where
f ps f pe + 60,000 psi f c d p 60,000 psi (12a)
A= (1 + r s / 0.025 ) 20,000
100 r s d s fy
rf c (12b)
Harajli & Hijazi (1991) B= 0.25
100 r p f pe
c
f ps = f pe + g s f pu 1 - b 0 f py Psi (9) r = 1.0 for S / d 33
d p
r = 0.8 for S / d > 33
where However, when r s =0 and S / d > 33 , the f ps shall be
n 2
g s = 0 0.1 + for single point load; reduced as follows:
n S /dp
f pe + 10,000 + A
f ps = f pe + - f pe .0.65 (12c)
n 1- B
gs = 0 0.25 + 1.2 for uniformly distributed load
n S /dp
With following limits:
n f ps = f pe + 60,000 where S / d 33 f ps = f pe + 40,000
gs = 0 0.4 + 1.1 for third point load; b 0 =1.8 for
n S / d
p
where S / d > 33
single point load; b 0 =1.75 for uniform and third point Expressions of the parameters used in this equation are
loads as follows:
Reinforcing index w pp = r p f ps + r s f y ;
f c f c
Naaman and Alkhairi (1991) Partial prestressing ratio PPR = A ps f ps
d ps L Psi (10) A ps f ps + As f y
f ps = f pe + Df ps = f pe + W u E ps e cu - 1 1
c L2 Ratio of prestressing steel r p = Aps ;
f ps 0.94 f py bd p
Ratio of reinforcing steel r s = As

bd s
221
Li-Hyung Lee et al. (1999) equation Chakrabarti (1995) is correlated with dataset,
shown in Figure 4. However, the equation is proposed
on the basis of only test results and does not have any
1 ( As - As ) f y d s f c 1 1 analytical ground.
f ps = 10,000 + 0.8 f se + + 80 +
15 A ps d p r p f L / d p
Tam and Pannell (1976)
Psi (13) 700
in the limit of f se + 10,000 f ps f py 600
fps (predicted)-MPa
500 Pannell (1969)
400
Au, F.T.K and Du, J.S (2004) Du and Tao (1985)
300
Chakrabarti (1995)
f ps = f pe +
(
0.0279 E ps d p - c pe ) f Mpa (14)
200
100 Harajli and Kanj (1991)

py
le 0
Cooke et al. (1981)
-100 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
A ps f pe + As f y -100
where c pe = f py
0.85 b1 f ' c b fps (exp)-MPa
Figure 1: Prediction of Df ps by Tam and Pannel

Pannell (1969)
Harajli (2006)
rsds f y 800
f pe + K o E ps e cu d p - Tam and Pannell (1976)
0 .85 b 1 f ' c (15) 700
f ps =
K o E ps e cu r p d p
fps (predicted)-MPa
600 Pannell (1969)
1+
0.85 b 1 f ' c 500
Du and Tao (1985)
400
Where 20 .7 np Chakrabarti (1995)

K o = f ps + 10 .5 300
f La 200 Harajli and Kanj (1991)
100
Cooke et al. (1981)
0
Zhi and Xi (2010) 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800
fps (exp)-MPa
f ps,u = f pe + Df ps,u 0.8 f pu (16) Figure 2: Prediction of Df ps by Pannel

em L
Df ps,u = kE ps Rs . 1 Du and Tao (1985)
c L2
800
600
2 Discussion
fps (predicted)-MPa
Pannell (1969)
400
Du and Tao (1985)
2.1 Evaluation of equations using test results 200
published in the literature Chakrabarti (1995)
0
Prediction equations of Tam and Pannell (1976); Pannell -400 -200 0 200 400 600 800 Harajli and Kanj (1991)
(1969); Du and Tao (1985); Chakrabarti (1995); Harajli -200
Cooke et al. (1981)
and Kanj (1991); Harajli (1991); Harajli and Hijazi -400
(1991); ACI 318-83; Naaman and Alkhairi (1991); Li- fps (exp)-MPa
Hyung Lee et al (1999).; Au and Du (2004); Harajli Figure 3: Prediction of Df ps by Du and Tao
(2006); and Qi He and Liu (2010) were taken for
Chakrabarti (1995)
evaluation. Test results of Tam and Pannell (1976);
1600
Pannell (1969); Du and Tao (1985); Chakrabarti (1995); Tam and Pannell (1976)
Harajli and Kanj (1991);and Cooke et al (1981) were
fps (predicted)-MPa
1200 Pannell (1969)

used for evaluation.
Du and Tao (1985)
The performance of Equation of Tam and Pannell 800
(1976) is shown in Figure 1, in which the data of Du Chakrabarti (1995)
and Tao and Chakrabarti are scattered, and it has a 400 Harajli and Kanj (1991)
negative value. Figure 2 shows the evaluation of Cooke et al. (1981)

Pannells (1969) equation, which is well correlated with 0
0 400 800 1200 1600
dataset However, it does not contain the parameters
fps (exp)-MPa
associated with nonprestressing steel. The equation of
Du and Tao (1985) is away from four data, shown in Figure 4: Prediction of Df ps by Chakrabarti
Figure 3. It has a negative value since the combined
reinforcement index, qo , is not within or equal to 0.30, The equation of Harajli and Kanj (1991) predicts
which is a limit of the equation (ie qo 0.30 ). The negative values (Figure 5). It is due to the term
222
A ps f pe + As f y is not within or equal to 0.23 for these plastic hinge formation and its length of extension in the
bd p f ' c flexural region are predicted accurately.
specimens, which is a limit of the equation: A second stage of evaluation on the prediction equations,
A ps f pe + As f y an experimental investigation was done by the authors
need not be taken more than 0.23. The
bd p f ' c and the test results are used for evaluating.
equations of Harajli (1990), and Harajli and Hijazi Harajli and Kanj (1991)
(1991) shown in Fig.6 and Fig.7 respectively. Both the 800
quations predict in a similar way, but little improvement Tam and pannell (1976)
in the Harajlis (1990) equation. Harajli and Hijazis 600
fps (predicted)-MPa
Pannell (1969)
equation shows a negative value since the c value of the 400
equation for the particular specimen becomes high. In 200

Du and Tao (1985)
Figure 8, equation of Naaman and Alkhari (1991) Chakrabarti (1995)

predicts very high Df ps values. Prediction of ACI -400 -200
0
0 200 400 600 800 Harajli and Kanj (1991)
-200
equation (2002) (Figure 9), does not show negative
Cooke et al. (1981)
values, but the graph is scattered. Moreover, the -400
equation is limited for Span to depth ratio. Equation of fps (exp)-MPa
Li-Hyung Lee et al. (1999), is shown in Figure 10. Here,
all the data are closer to the correlation line except Figure 5: Prediction of Df ps by Harajli and Kanj
showing some negative values, associated with Harajli (1990)
Chakrabartis data. The negative values are predicted for
800
the specimens, which do not contain non prestressing Tam and Pannell (1976)
steel. Although the prediction has negative values, it
fps (predicted)-MPa
600 Pannell (1969)
contains loading type and span to depth ratio in the
plastic hinge length, Lo . The equation of Au and Du Du and Tao (1985)
400
(2004) is shown in Figure 11, in which two data sets are Chakrabarti (1995)
away from correlation line. Figure.12 shows the 200 Harajli and Kanj (1991)
prediction of Harajli (2006), which perform well with
Cooke et al. (1981)
all the data except some data. Also, it is comparatively 0
better than others. Figure 13 shows the performance of 0 200 400 600 800
equation of Qi-He and Liu (2010), which is nearer to the fps (exp)-MPa
correlation line, and exhibit some scattering in the data Figure 6: Prediction of Df ps by Harajli (1990)
of Cook et al (1981) and Harajli and Kanj (1991).
Harajli and Hijazi (1991)
From the evaluation it is observed that the 800
prediction of Df ps by equation of Harajli (2006) and Tam and Pannell (1976)
600
fps (predicted)-MPa
Pannell (1969)
equation Li-Hyung Lee et al. (1999), found satisfactory. 400
Others have shown unsatisfactory performance. It seems Du and Tao (1985)
200
that the unsatisfactory performance of equations may be Chakrabarti (1995)
0
due to the inefficiency of the equations in predicting the -400 -200 0 200 400 600 800 Harajli and Kanj (1991)
plastic hinge formation. Manisekar and Senthil (2006) -200
Cooke et al. (1981)
and Harajli (2006) have suggested that the plastic hinge -400
formation is directly related to the stress increase in fps (exp)-MPa
unbonded tendons, Df ps . Conventionally, the equivalent Figure 7: Prediction of Df ps by Harajli and Hijazi
plastic hinge length is expressed as 1.5d . Authors have Naaman and Alkhairi (1991)
used different values and expressions for equivalent 2000
plastic hinge length. Harajli (2006) and Li-Hyung Lee et
fps (predicted)-MPa
1500
20 .7 Pannell (1969)
al.(1999) have used L p = + 105 .c and Du and Tao (1985)

f 1000
Chakrabarti (1995)
1 1
Lo = + L respectively, where f , c, and 500 Harajli and Kanj (1991)
f L/ dp
0
Cooke et al. (1981)
L d p are loading type, neutral axis depth and span to 0 500 1000 1500 2000
fps (exp)-MPa
depth ratio respectively. Therefore, it is possible to
Figure 8: Prediction of Df ps by Naaman and Alkhairi
believe that the Df ps could be predicted accurately, if the
223
ACI 318-02 Qi-He and Liu (2010)

700 1000
Tam and Pannell (1976) 900 Tam and Pannell (1976)
600
800
Pannell (1969)
fps (predicted)-MPa
500 Du and Tao (1985)
fps (predicted)-MPa
700
400 Du and Tao (1985) 600

Chakrabarti (1995)
500
300 Chakrabarti (1995) Harajli and Kanj (1991)
400
200 300
Harajli and Kanj (1991) Pannell (1969)
200
100
Cooke et al. (1981) 100 Cooke et al (1981)
0 0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 0 200 400 600 800 1000
fps (exp)-MPa fps (exp)-MPa
Figure 9: Prediction of Df ps by ACI 318-02 Figure 13: Prediction of Df ps by Qi-He and Liu
Lee et al. (1999)
1000
800
3 Experimental Investigation
fps (predicted)-MPa
Pannell (1969)
600
Experimental investigation on the flexural behavior of
400 Du and Tao (1985)
post-tensioned concrete rectangular beam of section 150
200 Chakrabarti (1995) mm x 270 mm subjected to two-point load was
0
-400 -200 0 200 400 600 800 1000 Harajli and Kanj (1991) performed. The rectangular beam specimen consists of 2
-200
Cooke et al. (1981)
nos of 12.7 mm 7-ply strand internal post-tensioning
-400 tendons with eccentricity of 75 mm, was used (Figure
fps (exp)-MPa 14). M45 concrete and straight tendon profile was
provided. The specimen failed with concrete crushing in
Figure 10: Prediction of Df ps by Li-Hyung Lee et al.
the extreme compressive fiber at the load of 124.05 kN
with the maximum deflection of 58 mm, shown in
Au and Du (2004) Figure 15. The stress at ultimate in unbounded tendons,
700
f ps was 1490 MPa and the stress-increase in unbonded
600
tendons Df ps was 335 MPa.
fps (predicted)-MPa
500 Pannell (1969)
400 Du and Tao (1985)
300 Chakrabarti (1995)

200
Harajli and Kanj (1991)
100
Cooke et al. (1981)
0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
fps (exp)-MPa
Figure 11: Prediction of Df ps by Au and Du

Harajli (2006)
1000
900 Tam and Pannell (1976) Figure 14: Test set up of the specimen
800
Du and Tao (1985)
700
fps (predicted)-Mpa

500
300
Pannell (1969)
200
100 Cooke et al (1981)

0
0 200 400 600 800 1000
fps (exp)-Mpa
Figure 12: Prediction of Df ps by Harajli (2006)
Figure 15: Failure of post-tensioned concrete beam
224
The comparison of FE analysis using ANSYS package Evaluation of Equations using Data of
Manisekar and Saravana kumar (2016)
with test results of authors are shown in Figure 16 and 600
Figure 17. Naaman and Alkhairi (1991)
Harajli (2006)
500
ACI 318 (2002)
Pannel (1969)
fps (predicted)-Mpa
140 400 Tam and Pannel (1976)
Du and Tao (1985)
120
300 Au and Du (2004)
200 Harajli (1990)
Load-kN
80 Harajli & Hijazi (1991)

Experimental
Li-Hyung Lee (1999)
60 100
Analytical Qi He and Liu (2010)
0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600
20
fps (exp)-Mpa
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Deflection-mm Figure 18: Evaluation of equations using test results of
Authors
Figure 16: Load-Deflection curve
5 Conclusions
140
1. Prediction equations developed by the
120
researchers have been evaluated using
100
published test data, and the authors
80
experimental data. It is concluded that the
Load - kN
60
equations developed based on the equivalent
Analytical
40
plastic hinge length concept have well
20 Experimental correlated with the test data rather than that of
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
other concepts.
fps-MPa
2. This conclusion is establishing the fact that the
equivalent plastic hinge length is directly
Figure 17: Load- Df ps relation related to the stress-increase in unbonded
tendons, Df ps , of a post-tensioned concrete
4 Evaluation of equations using the test results of member.
authors (Manisekar and Saravana Kumar)
In Figure 18, the prediction equations are compared Acknowledgments

with the test results of authors by perfect correlation line.
In the evaluation, the equation of Harajli (2006) is well This paper is being published with the kind
correlated with the perfect correlation line. Equations of permission of the Director, CSIR-Structural Engineering
Li-Hyung Lee et al (1999), Harajli and Kanj (1991), and Research Centre, Chennai.
Naaman and Alkhairi (1991) are nearer to the perfect
correlation line. It is to mention that the equations of References
Harajli (2006), Li-Hyung Lee et al (1999), and Harajli
and Kanj (1991) have been developed based on the [1] ACI Committee 318,. Building Code Requirements
plastic hinge length concept. for Reinforced Concrete ,2002
Comparison of Df ps (exp) and Df ps (predicted) was [2] Au, F.T.K. and Du, J.S., Prediction of ultimate
used for evaluation, since the post-tensioned concrete stress in unbonded prestressed tendons, Magazine
members undergo deformation when stress-increase in of Concrete Research, Vol. 56 (1), pp. 1-11,2004.
tendons occur. In view of the evaluation of the
prediction equations with published test data and the [3] Chakrabarti, P.R., Ultimate stress for unbonded
authors experimental data, it could be concluded that
post-tensioning tendons in partially prestressed
the equations developed based on the equivalent plastic
hinge length concept have well correlated with the test beams, ACI Structural Journal, Vol.92(6), pp. 689-
data. It is due to the reason that the equivalent plastic 697,1995.
hinge length is directly related to the stress-increase in [4] Cooke, N., Park, R. and Yong, P., Flexural strength
unbonded tendons, Df ps . of prestressed concrete members with unbonded
tendons, PCI Journal, Vol. 26 (6), pp. 52-80, 1981.
225
[5] Du, G. and Tao, X. Ultimate stress of unbonded b = width of the section
tendons in partially prestressed concrete beams, c = depth from concrete extreme compressive fiber to
PCI Journal, Vol. 30 (6), pp.72-91,1985. neutral axis
c y = depth from concrete extreme compressive fiber to
[6] Harajli, M.H., Effect of span-depth ratio on the neutral axis calculated using f py
ultimate steel stress in unbonded prestressed dp = depth from concrete extreme fiber to centroid of
concrete members, ACI Structural Journal, Vol. the prestressing steel
87(3), pp. 305-312, 1990. d s = depth from concrete extreme compressive fiber to
centroid of the non prestressed tensile steel
[7] Harajli, M.H. and Hijazi, S.A., Evaluation of the d s = depth from concrete extreme compressive fiber to
ultimate steel stress in partially prestressed concrete centroid of the nonprestressed compressive steel
members, PCI Journal, Vol. 36(1), pp. 62-82, 1991. E ps = modulus of elasticity of the prestressing steel
f pe = effective stress in the prestressing steel
[8] Harajli, M.H. and Kanj, M.Y., Ultimate flexural
strength of concrete members prestressed with f ps = ultimate stress in the prestressing steel
unbonded tendons, ACI Structural Journal, Vol. f pu = ultimate strength of the prestressing steel
88(6), pp. 663-673,1991. f py = yield strength of the prestressing steel
f c = concrete compressive strength
[9] Harajli, M.H., On the stress in unbonded tendons at = concrete compressive strength taken from cube
f cu
ultimate: Critical assessment and proposed changes,
test
ACI Structural Journal, Vol. 103(6), pp. 803-812,
f y = yield strength of nonprestressed tensile steel
2006.
f y = yield strength of nonprestressed compressive steel
[10] Lee, L.H., Moon, J.H. and Lim, J.H., Proposed h = height of the section
methodology for computing of unbonded tendon h f = thickness of the flange

stress at flexural failure, ACI Structural Journal, L = span length between end anchorages
Vol. 96 (6), pp. 1040-1048, 1999. Le = span length between end anchorages divided by
the number of plastic hinges
[11] Manisekar, R. and Senthil, R., Stress at ultimate in L p = width of the plastic zone
unbonded post-tensioning tendons for simply L0 = Equivalent plastic hinge length
supported beams-A state-of-the-art review, b1 = ACI concrete compression block reduction factor
Advances in Structural Engineering, Vol.9(3), pp. r p = prestressing steel ratio
321-335, 2006.
r s = reinforcing steel ratio
e cu = strain in the concrete at the compressive fiber at
[12] Naaman, A.E. and Alkhairi, F.M., Stress at ultimate
ultimate
in unbonded post-tensioning tendons: Part 2
proposed methodology, ACI Structural Journal, Vol.
88(5), pp. 683-692, 1991.
[13] Pannell, F.N., The ultimate moment of resistance of

unbonded prestressed concrete beams, Magazine of
Concrete Research, Vol. 21(66), pp. 43-54, 1969.
[14] Tam, A. and Pannell, F.N., The ultimate moment of

resistance of unbonded partially prestressed
reinforced concrete beams, Magazine of Concrete
Research, Vol. 28( 97), pp. 203-208, 1976.
Notations
A ps = area of prestressing steel
As = area of nonprestressed tensile steel
As
= area of nonprestressed compressive steel
226
NONLINEAR ANALYSIS OF REINFORCED CONCRETE SLABS

SUBJECTED TO FIRE
Avinash N M G1, Nageswara Rao B2
1, 2
Reinforced concrete has inherent fire resistance although its properties deteriorate with higher
temperatures. Slabs are integral part of a structural system which provide compartmentation barrier for
preventing fire spread in a building. In this study, Reinforced concrete slabs were modelled using Finite
Element Analysis tool DIANA to measure the thermal gradients across the sections and deflections
induced in the slab due to applied thermal loads. The effect of various parameters on the thermal
behaviour of the slabs were also studied.
Keywords: Reinforced concrete slab, Fire, Flow-Stress Analysis.
1 Introduction end condition with a span of 3000mm and a load of 27

In recent years study and behaviour of structures KN (including self-weight) is applied at mid span of the
under fire and elevated temperatures have gained a lot slab. In longitudinal direction 6 12mm dia bars are
of impetus. Experimental work has been mostly provided and in transverse direction 13 10mm dia bars
restricted to small scale testing of beam and column are provided. A cover of 40mm is provided for the
members in a structural system as large scale testing of reinforcement.
whole structures under fire scenarios are tedious to
perform. Slabs used as floor system in buildings are ISO 834 standard fire curve is used as the
large elements and their behaviour under elevated temperature load. The standard fire curve is a time vs
temperatures are being studied extensively for many temperature curve as shown in Figure 1. Temperature
years [1]. The main function of slabs and walls in load is applied as an external potential on the bottom
structures under fire is providing compartmentation for surface of the slab. An ambient temperature of 20! is
preventing further spread of fire to other parts of a considered.
building. When reinforced concrete slabs are subjected
to elevated temperatures the mechanical and physical
properties of concrete and steel reinforcements degrade
with increase in temperatures. Spalling occurs in slabs
due to high pore pressure in concrete at higher
temperatures resulting in reinforcement being directly
exposed to fire. Thus the design strength of slabs greatly
reduces when exposed to fire.
In this paper a numerical model has been developed

for reinforced concrete slabs subjected to elevated
temperatures and validated using experimental results. A
finite element analysis package DIANA [2] has been
used to perform the analysis. A staggered flow-stress
analysis is used where the temperatures obtained from
heat flow analysis are used as input in the nonlinear
structural analysis.
Figure 1: ISO 834 fire curve
2 Numerical modelling of reinforced concrete slab

Based on a published literature Experimental and The material properties of concrete and steel at
Numerical Study on Performance of Concrete Slabs ambient temperature is shown in Table 1. The reduction
Subjected to Severe Fire [3] a one way reinforced in strength and modulus of elasticity of concrete and
concrete slab of size 3300x1200x200mm is modelled in steel with temperature are obtained from Eurocode 2 [4].
DIANA. The slab is modelled having simply supported
1
Research Scholar, nmgavinash@gmail.com
2
228
Avinash N M G and Nageswara Rao B
Table 1: Material properties

Parameter Value
Tensile strength of concrete (ft) 4.1 N/mm2
Compressive strength of concrete 42 N/mm2
(fck)
Yield strength of reinforcement 415 N/mm2
(fy)
The slab is modelled using 3D brick element and

1D reinforcement bar elements are used for
reinforcement. A boundary layer is used at the bottom
surface of slab to apply the external thermal potential.
Total strain energy based smeared crack approach is
used for the nonlinear analysis. For concrete in
compression Thorenfeldt model as shown in Figure 2 is
Figure 4: Slab model
used while for tensile behaviour of concrete Moelands-
Reinhardt tension softening curve shown in Figure 3 is
used. Steel is modelled using Von Mises yield theory. 3 Results and Discussions
The slab model is shown in Figure 4.
Transient heat flow analysis is performed with the
applied ISO 834 fire load and the temperature
distribution across the section of the slab is obtained.
The obtained temperatures are used in the nonlinear
structural analysis of the slab to determine the deflection
of the slab at increasing time steps. The temperature
distribution in the slab is shown in Figure 5 and the
deflection profile is shown in Figure 6 respectively. The
obtained temperatures and deflections are compared
with the literature. The results obtained from the
numerical model were in agreement with the
experimental results.
Figure 2: Thorenfeldt model
Figure 5: Temperature distribution in slab model

Figure 3: Moelands-Reinhardt tension softening curve
229
Figure 6: Slab deflection contour
Further the model was used to study the effect of Figure 8: Variation of deflection with concrete cover
concrete cover to reinforcement on the thermal
behaviour of reinforced concrete slab. The concrete
cover was varied from 30mm to 50mm to determine the
deflection in the slab. The variation of concrete cover
and the respective temperature distribution at the heated 4 Conclusion
surface of the slab is shown in Figure 7. The variation of The numerical model developed was able to predict
concrete cover and the mid span deflection in the slab is the temperature distribution and deflection
shown in Figure 8. measurements made in the literature. The concrete cover
to reinforcement plays an important role in thermal
behaviour of reinforced concrete slabs as increase in
cover results in reduced deflections.
References
[1] Buchanan HA. Structural design for fire safety.
John Wiley Sons, England 2001.
[2] DIANA. Users Manual, Release 9.3, (a)
Material Library, (b) FX + (for pre- and post-
processors for DIANA), (c) Element Library, TNO
DIANA BV, The Netherlands, 2008.
[3] Faris Ali, Ali Nadjai, and Abid Abu-Tair
Experimental and Numerical Study on
Performance of Concrete, Fire Safety Science
Proceedings Of The Ninth International Symposium,
pp. 1255-1266
[4] Eurocode 2. Design of Concrete Structures, part 1-
2: general rules-structural fire design 2004.
Figure 8: Variation of temperature with concrete cover
230
EFFECT OF CORROSION ON SEISMIC PERFORMANCE OF 2D

RCC FRAMES
T Nagender1, Y M Parulekar and G R Reddy
Reactor Safety Division, Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, Mumbai 400085, India
In this paper, analytical simulation of effect of corrosion on seismic response of 2D RCC frames is
discussed. Reduction in bond stress with slip relationship with percent increase of corrosion level is first
obtained by analytically simulating the bond test on cylinder. These bond models are then used for
detailed analysis of 2D frames. Analytical simulation of the 2D frame is carried out using two different
models viz. macro-model and micro-model. In case of macro-model, beam and column elements were
used with proper moment curvature relationships and push over analysis was performed. In the later case,
2D plane stress element was used and detailed step by step nonlinear FE analysis was performed till the
failure of the frame. It was observed that the backbone curve obtained from both the models is in good
agreement. Moreover the effect of corrosion on lateral load capacity and ultimate displacement (factor of
ductility) of the frames was studied in details by modelling the bond reduction and reinforcement cross-
sectional area reduction with increase in percentage corrosion.
Keywords: corrosion, bond-reduction, ultimate displacement, ductility
1 Introduction have limited ductility. Moreover, the occurrence of

One of the major causes of deterioration of corrosion in these structural elements reduces its service
reinforced concrete structures is the reinforcement life due to reduction in strength and ductility. The
corrosion. Corrosion of reinforcement in RCC structures present paper deals with determination of the effect of
is caused due to carbonation phenomenon or chlorides these deteriorations on the global behavior of reinforced
penetration, which generally induce uniform and concrete structural elements especially RCC frames in
localized attacks. Old RCC structures located near sea their service and ultimate states. Considerable research
are mainly deteriorated by chloride ion ingress and has been carried out earlier in the field of reinforced
hence effect of corrosion on these structures due to concrete structural elements such as beams, columns
chloride ion should be studied. and slabs subjected to corrosion (Ref. [8, 9, 12]) and not
Experimental work carried out by many much work has been carried out on RCC frames.
researchers (Ref. [5, 12, 13, 14]) reported that corrosion Moreover, use of advanced computational techniques
product expansion exerts stresses within the concrete, and reliable modeling of the complex effects of
induces cracking at the concrete surface along the corrosion is essential.
reinforcement. This leads to a bond strength reduction Hence in the present work it is aimed to obtain
as well as to a steel cross-section reduction. In order to effect of corrosion on the strength and ultimate
effectively model these structures subjected to corrosion, displacement (factor of ductility) of 2D RCC frames by
it is necessary to consider steel cross-section area analytical simulation. The major factors such as steel
reduction, changes in the ductility of steel bars, bond cross-section area reduction and bond degradation are
deterioration considering its dependence on the considered to model the corrosion effect. The bond
corrosion level of reinforcing bars and changes in the stress with slip relationship with percent increase of
mechanical properties of concrete due to micro-cracking corrosion level is first obtained by analytically
induced by the expansion of corrosion products. simulating the bond test on cylinder. These bond models
Modeling of such complex phenomenon is a subject of are then used for detailed analysis of 2D frames.
research and there is worldwide growth of interest in Nonlinear Analysis of un-corroded frame is carried out
this subject (Ref. [3, 7]). Corrosion results in reduced using micro-models and validated with macro-models.
ductility as well as the reduction in ultimate load of Lastly relation of reduction in capacity and ultimate
RCC components (Ref. [9]). Hence occurrence of displacement of frame with percent corrosion is given.
dynamic loads such as earthquake will be more
detrimental to such structures deteriorated by corrosion. 2 Analysis of 2D un-corroded RCC frame
Most of the RCC structures that were built in the Nonlinear pushover analysis of the 2D RCC framed
1960s do not meet current seismic design criteria and structure is carried out by developing a 2D plane stress
1
Corresponding Author, Scientific Officer, nagender@barc.gov.in
232
T Nagender, et al.
model (Fig. 7) and a macro model using line elements

(Fig.4). The macro model was used to validate of the
results of pushover analysis obtained using detailed 2D
plane stress model.
2.1 Analytical simulation of 2D RCC frame using

macro model
Analytical simulation was carried out using beam model
by evaluating the moment curvature relationship for
beams and columns considering concrete nonlinear
characteristics using Kent and Park model (Ref. [19])
for confined concrete as shown in Fig. 1 and
considering steel behavior with bilinear hardening. The
Figure 3: Moment vs Curvature relation for beam and
characteristic strength of concrete was 25MPa and of
column
steel was 500MPa. The moment curvature relationships
are evaluated for beams and columns as shown in Fig.3
and their properties were assigned to nonlinear hinges in
the 2D model (Fig. 4).
A nonlinear hinge represents concentrated post-yield
behavior (Fig. 2) in the elements of the frame. Each
plastic hinge is modelled as a discrete point hinge.
Yielding and post-yielding behavior can be modelled
using discrete user-defined hinges. Moment Hinge
represents the nonlinear behavior of moment v/s
curvature for a member. Push over analysis was carried
out on beam model (Fig. 4) and the results were
evaluated as shown in Fig. 5.
Figure 4: Line element model of 2D RCC frame
Figure 1: Kent and Park model (Ref. [19])
Mu
My
fy fu
Figure 2: Moment hinge model

Figure 5: Load vs Displacement relation of 2D RCC
frame generated using line element model
233
2.2 Numerical simulation of 2D RCC frame using FE Thus the crack shear stresses are considered in this
model approach.
Non-linear analysis is carried out on the FE model
generated using the 2D plane stress elements. The
concrete is modeled by considering the constitutive
relation as shown in Fig. 6 for compression and tension.
The concrete material model includes non-linear
behavior in compression including hardening and
softening and fracture of concrete in tension based on
the nonlinear fracture mechanics. The compression
stress-strain curve of the model is simulated with the
confined condition of concrete in compression. The Figure 6: Uni axial compressive and tensile stress-strain
biaxial strength failure criterion, reduction of relation of concrete
compressive strength after cracking, tension stiffening
effect and reduction of the shear stiffness after cracking 2.2.2 Reinforcement constitutive relation
is also considered in the model. The reduction of Reinforcement is modelled as discrete element. The
compressive strength after cracking shown by factor is reinforcement stress strain relationship is defined by the
considered as 0.7. The steel is modeled as reinforcement bilinear law in which elastic-plastic behavior is assumed.
bars with a bilinear elastic-plastic model with a yielding The slope of the plastic line is the hardening modulus
strength of 500 MPa. and is set to zero to represent perfect plasticity. The load
displacement characteristics of 2D RCC frames
2.2.1 Concrete material constitutive model evaluated using two different approaches are shown in
The constitutive model is formulated on the basis of Fig. 8. Results showed that the micro model simulation
nonlinear behavior of concrete. Concrete model is a is in good agreement with that of macro model
damaged-based model in which a smeared crack simulation.
approach is used to model both cracks. This model
comprises non-linear compressive behavior that is
capable of modelling both hardening and softening. The
pre-peak relation is based on the Eq. 1 of quadratic
parabola (Ref. [15]) given below. Thus when < o then
!
= fc
2 - 2
0 0 (1)
where is the compressive strain in concrete, is the

compressive stress for the corresponding compression
strain of and o is the compressive strain
corresponding to peak compressive stress f!c, The value
of o used in the analysis is 0.002. The post peak Figure 7: FE model of 2D RCC frame
compressive behavior is linear descending.
After cracking, the constitutive relation is used in
combination with the crack band to model crack
propagation based on a crack-opening law and fracture
energy. In the analysis smeared fixed crack approach
based on nonlinear fracture mechanics is used. This
approach assumes that cracks experience minimal
rotation and has fixed direction. Cracks are formed
when the principal tensile stress exceeds the tensile
strength of the concrete. In the fixed crack model (Ref.
[16, 17]), once the crack forms, the crack direction is
defined by the direction of principal stress. The
direction remains the same upon continued loading.
Also, the shear modulus is reduced to represent the Figure 8: Comparison of Load vs Displacement relation
reduction in shear stiffness due to the crack opening. between Beam model and FE model
234
T Nagender, et al.
3 Analysis of corroded 2D RCC frame bond resistance and decrease the slip of the bar. The
3.1 Effect of corrosion on reinforcement in concrete relation between bond strength and slip depend on
structures number of parameters like cover to bar diameter ratio,
Corrosion of reinforcing bars may affect not only reinforcing bars position, confinement level, concrete
the reinforcing steel itself, but also the surrounding quality, cover cracking, corrosion level, etc. Hence, it is
concrete and the mutual interaction between the two difficult to simulate exact bond behavior and more
materials thus reduces the bond strength. Steel cross- research is needed in this field.
section reduction is the main consequence of corrosion
and it results in reduction of resistance and bearing 3.2 Evaluation of effect of corrosion on bond-slip
capacity of the structural element. From literature (Ref. characteristic of reinforced concrete
[14]) it is found that steel ultimate elongation, and In order to incorporate the effect of corrosion on
consequently its ductility, may be significantly reduced the bond characteristics of the rebar, the bond-slip
even for small area reductions. However these results relation of the un-corroded rebar is to be modified with
must be carefully evaluated because of the difficulty in respect to the corrosion percentage. The bond-slip
obtaining a reliable measure of the effective residual relation is mainly governed by the development of
section of the rebar after its breaking (Ref. [14]). The cracks due to its high influence on the radial stresses
internal pressure generated by the increasing volume of around the rebar. And these radial stresses are needed to
corrosion products induces tensile stresses in the transfer the bond stresses in the concrete. The radial
concrete surrounding the rebar which may exceed the deformations develop cracks in concrete around the
tensile strength of the material. The main effects are rebar. These deformations which cause cover cracks and
cover cracking and possible de-lamination of the outer the crack pattern are mainly described by the geometry
concrete layers, together with the reduction of bond and the material properties. It can be assumed that the
between steel and concrete, which may lead to rebar crack development and the crack pattern are
slippage and loss of anchorage. The loss of steel independent of the source of the radial deformation. The
concrete bond is caused by two main phenomena: the cracking modes do not change usually for applied
reduction of the confinement level of the rebar because corrosion. Since both corrosion and slip cause radial
of the opening of longitudinal cracks in the surrounding deformations, their effect could be related to each other.
concrete and the modification of the interface between Hence the effect of corrosion on the radial deformation
the two materials with increasing corrosion level. The was related and added to the effect of slip on radial
relationship between the ultimate bond strength and the deformation (Ref. [6]).
degree of corrosion for the cantilever bond test (Ref. The bond-slip curves of corroded reinforcement could
[12]) is shown in Fig. 9. be determined from the bond-slip curves of un-corroded
reinforcement by moving the bond-slip curve of the un-
corroded case to the left side (Ref. [6]), as shown in
Fig.10. For the un-corroded specimen CEB-FIP bond
model (good bond) is considered. It is possible to do so
because bond stresses are related to radial stresses
around the reinforcement bar and the radial deformation
due to corrosion can be related to the radial
deformations caused by slip (Ref. [6]). The shift to the
side, sx, is determined by the degree of corrosion of the
curve. It is calculated according to Eq. 2. The factor, f
Figure 9: Relationship between the ultimate bond was used to relate the effect of corrosion on cracking to
strength and different degrees of corrosion [Ref (11)] the effect of slip on cracking. A parameter study is
carried out by Schlune (Ref. [6]) and a mean value of f
From the above figure it can be seen that, as the degree = 8.1 with standard deviation of 1.7 was obtained. This
of corrosion increases from 0 to 4 %, the bond strength effective slip that caused cracking calculated using Eq. 2
increases by 15 %. This can be attributed to an increase takes into account the splitting stresses caused by
in the reactionary confinement of the bar in the concrete, corrosion. When slip is applied for corroded
as the amount of corrosion product increases and reinforcement bond stresses develop. The stresses
develops an expansive mechanical pressure on the increase until they approximately reach the shifted
surrounding concrete. Secondly, in the initial stages of bond-slip curve. Then the bond stresses tend to follow
corrosion, the roughness of the bar is also increased, the shifted bond-slip curve (Fig. 10).
thereby enhancing the friction between the bar and the
surrounding concrete. Both these effects increase the Sx = -f. X. (2)
235
DSx = shift to the side of the bond-slip curve for un- embedded in the concrete cylinder was evaluated as
corroded reinforcement (in mm) shown in the Fig. 13 by subjecting the reinforcing bar to
x = corrosion penetration of the corroded reinforcement pull out. The bond stress got reduced by 60% for 10%
(in mm) corrosion as shown in Fig. 13 which can be compared
f = factor to relate the effect of corrosion on cracking to with test results (Ref. [11]) as shown in Fig.9, where
the effect of slip on cracking bond stress got reduced by 70% for 10% corrosion level.
Figure 13: Bond stress vs slip relation evalutated for

Figure 10: Modification of bond-slip model (Ref. [6]) different levels of percentage of corrosion.
3.3 Numerical simulation of corroded 2D RCC

frames using 2D FE model
The bond-slip characteristics obtained from analysis of
concrete cylinders with embedded bar subjected to
different levels of corrosion percentages as shown in Fig.
13 were incorporated in the 2D RCC frame models and
the numerical simulation was carried out. The load
versus displacement characteristics were evaluated for
different levels of corrosion percentage (5%, 7.5% and
10%) and were compared with the results of un-
corroded frame as shown in the Fig. 14. There is a
Figure 11: Modified bond-slip relation for various reduction in the peak loads and peak lateral
percentages of corrosion displacements of the frame as shown in Fig. 15. Thus
there is a reduction of 16.5%, 22.2% and 35.2% in the
peak load and reduction of 27.85%, 33.5% and 42.8% in
ultimate displacement for various percentages of
corrosion of 5%, 7.5% and 10% respectively. The
reduction in ultimate displacement can be compared
with the results of the tests carried out by Dekoster et al.,
(Ref. [7]) where ultimate displacement got reduced by
35% for 10% corrosion level.
Figure 12: 3D model of concrete cylinder and crack

pattern.
The modified bond-slip characteristics for various

corrosion percentages as shown in Fig.11 are
incorporated in the 3D FE model of concrete cylinders
with embedded reinforcing bar as shown in the Fig. 12
and the numerical simulation is carried out for
evaluating the load versus slip characteristics for
various corrosion percentages. The effect of corrosion Figure 14: Effect of corrosion on the behavior of 2D
on the bond-slip characteristics for the reinforcing bar RCC frames subjected to lateral monotonic loading.
236
T Nagender, et al.
response, Masters thesis in International Masters

Programme Structural Engineering:107, 2006
[7] Dekoster M, Buyle-Bodin F, Maurel O, Delmas Y,
Modelling of the flexural behavior of RC beams
subjected to localized and uniform corrosion,
Engineering Structures 25, 13331341, 2003.
[8] BallimY and Reid J.C, Reinforcement corrosion
and the deflection of RC beamsan experimental
Figure 15: Percentage reduction in peak load and critique of current test methods, Cement and
ultimate displacment for various levels of corrosion. Concrete Composites 25, 625-632, 2003.
[9] Castel A, Francois R and Arliguie G, Mechanical
Conclusions behavior of corroded reinforced concrete beams-
Part 1: Experimental study of corroded beams,
Materials and Structures, Vol. 33, November, pp.
The load-displacement characteristics of the 2D RCC
539-544, 2000.
frames developed using two different models viz.,
macro and micro models were in good agreement. FE [10] Priestley MJN. Displacement based seismic
analysis of concrete cylinder with embedded bar assessment of reinforced concrete buildings.
subjected to various corrosion percentages showed that, Journal of earthquake engineering; 1(1): 157-192,
as the corrosion percentage increased, the bond strength 1997.
got reduced drastically. There is a reduction of about
35.2% in the peak load and reduction of 42.8% in the [11] Abdullah A.Almusallam, Ahmad S. Al-Gahtani,
ultimate displacement of the 2D RCC frame when Abdur Rauf Aziz and Rasheduzaffar, Effect of
subjected to 10% corrosion in comparison with the un- reinforcement corrosion on bond strength,
corroded specimen. Hence while carrying out seismic Construction and Building Materials, Vol. 10, No. 2,
requalification of existing old structures it is desirable to pp. 123-129, 1996
consider the reduction peak load carrying capacity and
[12] Almusallam AA, Al-Gahtani AS, Aziz AR, Dakhil
ultimate displacement (factor of ductility) of the
structures into account with the corrosion of re-bars. FH, Rasheeduzzafar. Effect of reinforcement
corrosion on flexural behavior of concrete slabs.
Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering, ASCE;
References 8:1237, 1996.
[1] Luisa Berto, Renato Vitaliani, Anna Saetta and [13] Cabrera, J. G., 'Deterioration of concrete due to
Paola Simioni, Seismic assessment of existing RC reinforcement steel corrosion', Cement and
structures affected by degradation phenomena, Concrete Research 18 (1), 47-59, 1996.
Structural Safety 31 284297, 2009.
[14] Rodriguez, J., Ortega, L. M., Casal, J. and Diez, J.
[2] Galal, K., and El-Sokkary, H. Analytical M., 'Corrosion of reinforcement and service life of
evaluation of seismic performance of RC frames concrete structures', Durability of Building
rehabilitated using FRP for increased ductility of materials and components 7, 117-126, 1996.
members. Journal of Performance of Constructed
Facilities, ASCE, 22(5), 276-288, 2008. [15] Kollegger, J , Mehlhorn, G., Material model for
the analysis of reinforced concrete surface
[3] Luisa Berto, Paola Simioni and Anna Saetta, structures, Computational Mechanics, Vol.6, Issue
Numerical modelling of bond behavior in RC 5-6, pp 341-357, 1990.
structures affected by reinforcement corrosion,
Engineering Structures 30, 1375-1385, 2008 [16] Cervanka, V., Constitutive Model for Cracked
Reinforced Concrete, Journal ACI, 82(6), 877-882,
[4] Tsonos, A.G., Cyclic load behavior of reinforced 1980.
concrete beam-column sub assemblages of modern
structures, ACI Structural journal; 104(4): 468- [17] Darwin, D., Pecknold, D.A.W., Inelastic Model for
478, 2007 Cyclic Biaxial Loading of Reinforced Concrete,
Civil Engineering Studies, University of Illinois,
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Effect of corrosion on bond in reinforced concrete
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237
EFFECT OF SKEWNESS ON SHEAR LAG EFFECT IN RC BOX GIRDER

BRIDGES
Manoj Kumar1, Nitin Gulhane2, Tanmay Gupta3

Civil Engineering Department, BITS Pilani, Rajasthan, India
This paper deals with 3-D linear elastic finite element analysis of box-girder bridges to study the
influence of skewness on the longitudinal stresses and shear lag effect in simply supported box girder
bridges. In the present study, a 20 m span simply supported box girder bridge with different degrees of
skewness varying from 10o to 60o has been considered to investigate the effect of skew angle on
transverse distribution of longitudinal stresses and coefficient of shear lag (CSL). The shear lag response
of the skew box-girder bridges due to dead load has been compared with the right box-girder bridge and
it has been observed that up to 20o skewness the CSL is not much affected by the skew angle, however,
for the skew angles more than 20o shear lag effect in the box girders decreases with increase in skew
angle and it becomes remarkably low compared to right box girder bridges. Moreover, the study shows
that for the highly skew bridges, the nature of longitudinal stresses alters.
Keywords: Skew box-girder bridge, Finite Element, Shear Lag, Longitudinal stress
1 Introduction In the thin walled box-sections the longitudinal

stresses in top/bottom slabs are found non-uniform and
Construction of box-girder bridges is gaining the stresses in the regions close to the webs are found
popularity in bridge engineering fraternity because of its higher compared other locations in the respective slabs
better stability, serviceability, economy, aesthetic and the phenomenon associated with this non-uniform
appearance and structural efficiency. In concrete longitudinal stress distribution is known as shear-lag
bridges, most of the loads are due to self-weight of effect. Numerous studies have been made in past to
bridge super-structure and in order to reduce it, box understand the shear lag effect in box-girder
sections are constructed with thin webs and flanges and phenomenon in the orthogonal (right) RC box-girder
referred as thin walled sections. bridges and shear lag factors have been proposed to
Sometimes, due to geometric and space constraints, incorporate the shear lag effect designed by simple by
the bridges are supported on skewed supports and these simple bending theory (SBT). The shear lag factors
bridges are referred as sked box-girders. The skew angle derived for orthogonal box-sections cannot be applied to
is defined as the angle between the normal to the incorporate the shear-lag effect in skewed box-girder
centerline of the bridge and the centerline of the bridges.
abutment or pier cap.
According to the simple theory, in a box girder
subjected to transverse load the longitudinal stresses
induced in the flanges are assumed to be uniformly SBT
distributed across the flange width. However, in the thin Actual
walled box-sections, longitudinal stresses are found
non-uniformly distributed due to the shear deformations
of the flanges, consequently, the longitudinal stress near Figure 1: Typical variation of longitudinal stresses
the web-flange junction becomes much larger than that
far from the web. This phenomenon is known as shear The phenomenon of shear lag was first addressed
lag. by Reissner in 1946 [1]. Using the principle of
In order to investigate the effect of skewness on the minimum potential energy, Reissner demonstrated that
longitudinal stresses and shear lag, a 20 m span box due to the shear lag effect, stresses at the web flange
girder bridge with different degrees of skewness varying junction may enhance up to 30% compared to simple
from 10o to 60o and subjected to dead load has been bending theory.
considered in this study.
The simple bending theory is unable to reflect the
shear lag effect. However, to determine the peak
2 Shear Lag
stresses at the junctions of top/bottom slabs and webs,
1
2
Ex-PG Student, nitindgulhane82@gmail.com
3
Research Scholar, tanmay.gupta@pilani.bits-pilani.ac.in
238
Manoj Kumar, et al.
the stresses calculated from simple bending theory may presented a harmonic shear lag analysis using plane
be enhanced by multiplying these stresses by an stress elasticity for stresses in flanges of box-sections.
appropriate factor known as shear lag factor. Simple
bending theory is used to calculate the coefficient of
3 Description of Bridge
shear lag (CSL) in the box girder which is defined as the
ratio of longitudinal bending stress at the junction of A 20 span simply supported box girder has been
top/bottom slab as obtained from finite element analysis taken for the modeling in the Ansys, having top flange
to that as calculated from simple bending theory. The width 11 m, bottom flange width 5.9 m, both top and
coefficient of shear lag (CSL) is calculated as bottom flange thickness is 0.25 m, over all depth 3.0 m,
s and the web thickness is 0.4 m. The end diaphragms of
CSL = thickness 0.3 m have been assumed at both the ends.
s The modulus of elasticity of concrete is taken as 3.61x
Where, 1010 N/m2 and the Poissons ratio is taken as 0.15 in the
s = Actual longitudinal stress obtained by FEM analysis. The details of the cross-section are shown in
= Longitudinal stress calculated by SBT Fig. 2.
`
The shear lag has been studied for many years. 275 550 275
Nevertheless, most of the studies are related to 0 0 0 250
orthogonal and curved box-girder bridges. Reissner [1] All dimensions
was the first researcher to use the variational principle in mm
of energy method to analyze the shear lag effect in box- 275
girders. Luo and Li performed experimental study [2] 400 400 0
on box-girders and used potential variational method to
analyze [3-4] the shear lag effect in box-girder bridges 250
and showed that the variational method proposed by 550
Reissner [1] is reliable for curved box-girders also. 0 Details of Box-Section
Figure 2: Geometrical
Yang et al. [5] developed the stochastic finite segment
method and applied it to the analysis of shear lag effect To this end, a 20 m span box girder bridge with
on box-girder. Lertsima et al. [6] investigated the effect different degrees of skew varying from 0o to 60o at the
of shear lag on stress concentration in the flange of box interval of 10o is analyzed to investigate the effect of
girder bridges by the three-dimensional finite element skew angle on the longitudinal stress and shear lag
method using shell elements Based on the numerical effect in the box-girder bridges subjected to dead loads.
results obtained, they proposed empirical formula to
compute stress concentration factors due to shear lag.
Luo [7] proposed a new method for the calculation of 4 Longitudinal Bending Stresses According To
membrane forces in thin-walled box girder considering Simple Bending Theory
shear lag effect is proposed in this paper. The method is The determination of longitudinal bending stresses
simple in concept and easy to implement and it can be according to simple bending theory needs the properties
used for design purposes. It was concluded in [7] that of section namely position of neutral axis, moment of
the shear lag not only affects the longitudinal membrane inertia and self-weight of girder.
force, but also the transverse membrane forces as well
as the membrane shear force are influenced by shear lag
effect. Chang and Yun [8] performed the analysis of 4.1 Position of Neutral Axis
right concrete box-girder bridges with varying depth. In order to determine moment of inertia, there is a
Chang [9] performed analysis of simply supported right need to find the position of neutral axis which h may be
prestressed concrete girder to investigate the influence determined as
of prestressing on shear lag effect. The above mentioned A1 y1 + A2 y 2 + A3 y3 + A4 y 4
studies pertain to the shear lag effect in orthogonal box- y =
girder bridges. Bakht [10] performed the analysis of A1 + A2 + A3 + A4
skew bridges as right bridges for skew angles up to 20 o. (0.25 5.9) (0.25 2) + 2 (2.5 0.4) (0.25 2 + 0.25 )
Mohseni and Rashid [11] performed the grillage + (11.0 0.25) (3.0 - 0.25 2)
analysis multi-cell skew box-girder bridges to predict y =
the maximum moments in girders (webs) more reliably
[(0.25 5.9) + 2 (2.5 0.4) + (11.0 0.25)]
and proposed modification factors to enhance the = 1.79 m (meadured from extremetop fiber )
accuracy of moment distribution among webs calculated 4.3 Moment of Inertia
using the AASHTO LRFD specifications. Hongtao et al.
[12] studied the effect of shear lag in curved box girder
bridges and concluded that with the decrease of the
i =1
[
I = (I self )A + Ai y i
4
i
2
]
radius of curvature, the shear lag effect of box girder
becomes more serious. Song and Scordelis [13]
239
11.0 0.25 3 0.25

2

I = + (11 0.25) 3 - 1.79 -
12 2
0.4 2.5 3 2.5
2
+ 2 + (0.4 2.5) + 0.25 - 1.79

12 2
5.9 0.25 3 0.25
2
+ + (5.9 0.25) 1.79 -

12 2
I = 8.558 m4
4.3 Self-weight of the bridge
Wself = Total Cross Sectional Area Density of Concrete Figure 3: Coefficient k1 for moment in skew plate
Wself = [(0.25 5.9) + 2 (2.5 0.4) + (11.0 0.25)] 25 103 Table1 1: Longitudinal Stresses at Top & Bottom
Wself = 154.687510 N / m 3 Fibers by Simple Bending Theory (kN/m2)
For 20 m Span right Bridge considered in this j 0o 10o 20o 30o 40o 50o 60o
study, the Bending moment at mid span due to its self- At Mid-span section
weight may be calculated as: sx, top 866 829 787 735 639 549 456
sx, bott 1393 1330 1270 1180 1030 883 733
Mc =
(154.6875 10 ) (20)3 2 At a section located as 8m from support
8 sx, top 832 796 756 706 613 527 438
sx, bott 1330 1270 1210 1130 980 840 700
M c = 7.7343 106 N .m
Therefore the bending stresses at the top fiber of the
girder will be: 5 Finite Element Modeling
7.7343 10 6 In this study, three-dimensional finite element
st = (3 - 1.7916 - 0.25)
8.558 analysis of box-girder bridge has been carried out using
s t = 0.86616 10 6 N / m 2 the Ansys to investigate the effect of skewness on
longitudinal stresses and shear lag in simply supported
and the stress at bottom fiber of the girder will be:
box girder bridges. The box-girders considered in this
7.7343 10 6
st = ( 1.7916 - 0.25) study have been modeled using the 8-noded Shell91
8.558 element having six degrees of freedom per node. In
s t = 0.13932 10 7 N / m 2 order to validate the effectiveness of the analytical
For the determination of longitudinal stresses in model, the finite element results obtained from Ansys
skew bridge, an approximate method developed for were compared with the experimental data and found
skew plates has been used [14]. In this method, the skew satisfactory. The finite element discretization of the
plate under consideration is replaced by an orthogonal bridge is shown in Fig. 4. Along the width the top slab
plate. If the maximum longitudinal moment in the and bottom slab have been divided into eight and four
equivalent orthogonal plate is Mx, max, the longitudinal elements respectively. The longitudinal stresses as well
as the shear lag factor have been plotted at the corner
bending moment in the skew plate M x , max is nodes of the top and bottom slab elements and the
approximated as numbering scheme for these nodes has been shown in
M x , max Fig. 5.
M x , max =
cx
Where, cx = (1+k1) is the correction factor to incorporate
effect of skewness on longitudinal moments. The value
of the coefficient k1 is read from the graph shown in Fig.
3 corresponding to e and angle of skewness j. If a* is
the shortest width of skew plate and b is the simply
supported span, the parameter e is calculated as e =
(b/a*).
The longitudinal stresses at extreme top and bottom
fibers of all the box-girder sections considered in this
study according to simple bending theory including the Figure 4: Finite Element Discretization of 0 o
correction for skewness are shown in Table 1. skew bridge
240
Manoj Kumar, et al.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 6.2 Longitudinal Stresses at section 2 m from Mid-

span
Top Slab Fig. 7 shows the effect of skewness on the
longitudinal stress distribution along the transverse
direction of top and bottom slabs of the 20 m span
simply supported RC box-girder bridge at a section
Bottom Slab
located at distance 8 m from the support or 2 m from the
mid-span due to dead load only. It may be observed
1 2 3 4 5 from the Fig. 7 that at the section located 2m away from
the mid-span, the stresses in the top as well as in bottom
Figure 5: Location of Nodes for plotting Longitudinal slab decreases throughout the breadth of the slabs with
Stress and CSL in top and bottom slabs increase in skew angle. As the skew angle is increased
from 00 to 600 the longitudinal stress at the junctions of
the top and bottom slabs with webs are found to
6 Results and Discussions decrease by approximately 46% and 48% respectively.
Moreover, the plots show that longitudinal stresses
In order to investigate the influence of skewness on
become un-symmetric along transverse direction in top
the longitudinal stresses and shear lag effect a 20 m
as well as in bottom slabs due to skewness. It is
span simply supported box-girder bridge with 300 mm
interesting to note that for highly skewed bridges, the
diaphragms at both the ends, two sections have been
nature of stress in bottom slab changes the sign and it
considered in the present study, one at mid-span and
becomes compressive rather than tensile which is
other at distance 8 m from the support or at distance 2 m
contrary to conventional nature of stresses in bottom
from the mid-span. The longitudinal stresses and the
slab.
coefficient of shear lag have been plotted at these two
sections at top and bottom slab levels. The angle of
skew has been varied from 0o to 60o at the interval of 6.3 Shear Lag at Mid-span section
10o. All the bridges considered in this study are
To examine the influence the effect of skewness on
subjected to dead loads only due to the self-weight of
shear lag effect at mid-span of the simple supported
bridge. The effect of skewness on longitudinal stresses
box-girder bridge, the variation of coefficient of shear
and the coefficient shear lag at mid-span and at an
lag in top and bottom slabs along the transverse
intermediate section located at 2 m from the mid-span is
direction is shown in Fig. 8. It may be observed from
discussed below.
the plots for coefficient for shear lag that up to 30 o
skewness the CSL is not much affected by the skew
6.1 Longitudinal Stresses at Mid-span section angle, however, the CSL at web slab junction
significantly decreases with increase in skew angle
Fig. 6 shows the effect of skewness on the
beyond 30o. Moreover, for the highly skewed bridges
longitudinal stress distribution along the transverse
with skew angle 60o, CSL becomes less than unity
direction (breadth) in top and bottom slabs of the 20 m
which indicates that the shear lag effect disappears and
span simply supported RC box-girder bridges at mid-
the longitudinal stresses throughout the top slab become
span. It may be observed from the Fig. 6 that at mid-
less than those calculated from simple bending theory.
span, the stresses in the top as well as in bottom slab
And the similar trend was observed in bottom slab for
decreases throughout the breadth of the slabs with
skew angle 40o and higher.
increase in skew angle. As the skew angle is varied
from 00 to 600 the longitudinal stress at the junctions of
the top and bottom slab with webs are found to decrease 6.4 Shear lag at section 2 m from Mid-span
by approximately 70% and 83% respectively. Moreover,
The variation of coefficient of shear lag in top and
the non-uniformity of longitudinal stresses in transverse
bottom slabs along the transverse direction at the section
direction in top as well as in bottom slab decreases with
located at 8 m from the left support or say 2 m away
increase in skew angle. In case of top slab, the ratio of
from the mid-span are shown in Fig. 9. It may be
the stress at web slab junction and the stress at mid of
observed from the plots for CSL that at section 2 m
the slab for the right bridge case is found 1.83 and this
away from mid-span the CSL becomes highly un-
ratio decreases to 1.74 for 60o skew bridge. For the
symmetric, wherein the CSL for the left web slab
bottom slab case, the ratio of maximum and minimum
junction always remains more than unity, however, for
stress for right bridge is found 1.56 and this ratio has
the right hand side web-slab junction, CSL always
been observed to decrease to 1.13 for the 60o skew
remains below unity irrespective of skew angle.
bridge. It shows that the longitudinal stresses in bottom
Moreover, it is important to note that at the right web-
slab are more significantly affected by skew angle as
slab junction the shear lag decreases with increase in
compared to top slab.
skew angle and it becomes approximately zero for skew
angle 40o and then increases with increase in skew angle
beyond 40o.
241
1400 0 degree 10 degree 20 degree 2 0 degree 10 degree 20 degree

1200
Coeff. of Shear
1000 1.5
Long. Stress (in kN/m2)
lag (CSL)
800
1
600
400 0.5
200
0 0
1 2Node3Nos.4at bottom
5 6 Slab7 in 8 9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Transverse Direction Node Nos. at bottom Slab in
(a) Longitudinal Stresses in top slab (a) Coefficient of Shear Lag (CSL) in top slab
1800 0 degree 10 degree

0 degree 10 degree 20 degree
(x107) (in N/m2)
1500 1.4
Long. Stress
30 degree 40 degree 50 degree
Coeff. of Shear Lag (CSL)

1200 1.2
900
600 1
300 0.8
0
1 0.6
Node2Nos. at bottom
3 4 in 5
slab
0.4
0.2
0
1Node Nos. at
2 bottom slab
3 in Transverse
4 5
direction
(b) Coefficient of Shear Lag (CSL) in bottom slab

(b) Longitudinal Stresses in bottom slab
Figure 8: Effect of skewness on Coefficient of Shear
Figure 6: Effect of skewness on Longitudinal Stresses
Lag (CSL) at mid-span
at Mid-span section
0 degree 10 degree 1.6 0 degree 10 degree 20 degree

1.4
Coeff. of Shear lag
1000 1.2
Long. Stress ( in
800 1
(CSL)
0.8
kN/m2 )
600 0.6
400 0.4
200 0.2
0 0
-0.2 1 2Node3 Nos.4 at Top
5 Slab
6 in7Transverse
8 9
-200 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Node Nos. at Top Slab in Transverse
(a) Longitudinal Stresses in top slab (a) Coefficient of Shear Lag (CSL) in top slab
1500 0 degree 10 degree

1200 0 degree 10 degree 20 degree
Long. Stress (in
1.2 30 degree 40 degree 50 degree

900 1
Coeff. of Shear Lag
0.8
kN/m2
600 0.6
(CSL)
300 0.4
0.2
0 0
-300 1 2 3 4 5 -0.2 1 2 3 4 5
Node Nos. at bottom Slab in -0.4
-0.6 Node Nos. at bottom Slab in Transverse
Direction
(b) Longitudinal Stresses in bottom slab

(b) Coefficient of Shear Lag (CSL) in bottom slab
Figure 7: Effect of skewness on Longitudinal Stresses
at distance 2 m from mid-span Fig. 9: Effect of skewness on Coefficient of Shear Lag
(CSL) at section 2 m from mid-span
242
Manoj Kumar, et al.
7 Conclusions Engineering, ASCE, Vol. 114, No.10, pp. 2280

2292, 1988.
In this paper the linear elastic finite element analysis of
[9] Chang S. T, Shear Lag Effect in Simply Supported
a 20 m span simply supported single cell box-girder
Prestressed Concrete Box Girder, Journal of Bridge
bridge was carried out to study the effect of skew angle
Engineering, ASCE, Vol. 9, No. 2 pp 178-184,
on the longitudinal stresses and shear lag in top and
2004.
bottom slabs at mid-span section as well as at an
intermediate section located at 2 m from the mid-span. [10] Baindar Bakht, Analysis of Some Skew Bridges As
To this end the skew angle was varied from 0o to 60o at Right Bridge, The Journal Structural Engineering,
an interval of 10o. Based on the study carried out ASCE, Vol.114, NO. 10, pp. 2307-2322, 1988.
following conclusions are drawn:
[11] Mohseni, Iman and Khalim Rashid A.R,
In general, with increase in skew angle, the
Development of Simplified Skew Correction Factor
longitudinal stresses in top and bottom slabs at mid-
Equations for distribution of live load in Highway
span as well as at section located 2 m distance from
Multi-cell Box-Girder Bridge, International
the mid-span decreases, however, at the section 2m
Conference on Transport, Environment and Civil
away from the mid-span, the stresses at right web
Engineering (ICTECE) August 25-26, 2012 Kuala
slab junction decreases more rapidly compared to
Lumpur (Malaysia)
left web-slab junction.
At the mid-span section, the non-uniformity of [12] Yang, Hongtao1, Li Rui and Chen, Zhiqiang, Curve
longitudinal stresses in top and bottom slabs analysis of shear lag effect of box girder bridge, Int.
decreases with increase in skew angle Conf. on Materials, Environmental and Biological
Up to 20o skewness the coefficient of shear lag Engineering (MEBE), pp 795-798, 2015.
(CSL) is not much affected by the skew angle,
[13] Song, Q. and Scordelis, A., Shear-Lag Analysis of
however, the CSL decreases with increase in skew
T-, I-, and Box Beams, J. Struct. Eng., 116:5, pp
angle beyond 20o.
1290-1305, 1990.
[14] Szilard, Rudolph, Theory and Analysis of plates,
8 References
Classical and Numerical Method, John Wiley &
Sons, 2004.
[1] Reissner, E., Analysis of Shear Lag In Box Beams
By the Principle of Minimum Potential Energy,
Quarterly of Applied Mathematics, Vol. IV No.3,
pp. 268278, 1946.
[2] Luo, Q. Z., Tang J and Li Q. S, Experimental
studies on shear lag of box girders, Engineering
Structures, 24, pp.469477, 2002.
[3] Luo, Q. Z. and Li, Q. S, Shear Lag of Thin-Walled
Curved Box Girder Bridges, Journal of
Engineering Mechanics, ASCE, Vol. 126, No.10,
pp. 11111114, 2000.
[4] Luo, Q. Z., Li, Q. S. and Tang, J., Shear Lag in Box
Girder Bridges, Journal of Bridge Engineering,
ASCE, Vol. 7, No. 5, pp. 308-313, 2002.
[5] Yang, L. F., Leung, A. Y. T. and Li, Q. S., The
Stochastic Finite Segment in the Analysis of the
Shear-Lag Effect on Box- Girders, Engineering
Structures, Vol. 23, pp. 1461-1468, 2001.
[6] Lertsima, C., Chaisomphob, T., and Yamaguchi, E.,
Stress Concentration Due to Shear Lag in Simply
Supported Box Girders, Engineering Structures,
Vol. 26, pp. 1093-1101, 2004.
[7] Luo, Q. Z., Tang, J., Li, Q. S., Liu, G. D. and Wu, ,
J.R., Membrane Forces Acting on Thin-Walled Box
Girders Considering Shear Lag Effect, Thin-Walled
Structures, Science Direct, 42, pp. 741757, 2004.
[8] Chang, S. T., and Yun, D., Shear Lag Effect In Box
Girder With Varying Depth, Journal of Structural
243
FLEXURAL BEHAVIOUR OF REINFORCED CONCRETE BEAMS

CONTAINING MARBLE SLURRY
Praveen Kumar1 , Anju Khandelwal2
1
Department of Civil Engineering, Rajasthan Technical University, Kota, 324010, India
2 Jaipur Development Authority, Jaipur, 302001, India
This paper provides results of an experimental study on reinforced concrete beam specimens, containing
marble slurry. Percentage content of the slurry was taken as 10 %, 15% and 20% of the total cementitious
materials. Specimens with four different contents of steel reinforcement (two bars each of 8 mm, 10mm, 12
mm and 16 mm) were investigated. Test results indicate that the for under reinforced beams the moment of
resistance containing marble slurry can be estimated using stress block of IS 456 (available for normal
concrete). Trend of variation in moment of resistances with different percentages of steel, remained similar for
concrete with and without marble slurry up till 15% proportion of slurry. Ductility of the beams remained
unaffected with inclusion of the slurry.
Keywords: moment of resistance, IS456, ductility of beams
1 Introduction
Marble is re-crystallised limestone and its main
Marble slurry is generated as a by-product during constituent is calcium carbonate (CaCO3), Magnesium
cutting of marble. The quantity of marble slurry Carbonate (MgCO3), lime (CaO) and MgO. The
generated in Rajasthan (India) every year is very marble is lime stone by its chemical characteristics.
substantial being in the range of about 5 million Chemical composition varies from quarry to quarry
tonnes. Around 90% of the world's production of and area.
marble comes from India and approximately 85% of The marble slurry or marble powder (term used
the India's production is received from Rajasthan [Ref. by many investigators, like Corinaldesi et al [Refs. 4,
1]. The marble cutting industries many a time dumps 5]), when used as a cement replacement in concrete
the marble slurry in any nearby pit or vacant spaces, may result in changes of its basic characteristics, both
near their unit. This leads to serious environmental and at fresh and hardened states. Several researchers have
dust pollution and occupation of vast area of land investigated effect of inclusion of marble slurry in
especially after the slurry dries up [Ref. 1]. concrete [Refs. 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 and 8]. But, most of the
studies have been limited to the study of compressive
strength of concrete, or role of the powder/slurry as
supplementary powder material in self compacting
concrete or as fine aggregate in concrete matrix.
The concrete is mainly used with steel
reinforcement and reinforced concrete mainly in
flexure. Hence, flexural behavior of reinforced
concrete beams with concrete containing marble slurry
has been investigated in the present study.
2 Experimental Programme
2.1 Materials Used and Characteristics of Materials
Ordinary Portland cement of 43 Grade, local river
sand, conforming to Zone II of IS 383, crushed coarse
aggregates of 20 mm nominal size with grading
Figure: 1 Road side dumping of slurry [1] conforming to the IS 383 have been used [Ref.11].
Marble slurry was collected from industrial area of
________________________________________ Jaipur. It was in wet form, so dried in sun, and finally
sieved with 150 micron sieve, as about 99 % particles
1
Professor, pkagarwal@rtu.ac.in were less than this size. Corinaldesi et al has reported
2
Junior Engineer, anjufun8@gmail.com that 90 % of the particles of marble powder in their
244
Praveen Kumar and Anju Khandelwal
study had particle diameter less than 50 m (d90= 50 2.3 Concrete Mix
m) and 50 % particles had diameter less than 7 m Details of mix proportioning of all concrete
(d50= 7 m) [Refs. 4, 5]. specimens are shown in Table 1. SNF based
Fineness modulus value of the slurry and fine superplasticizer was added in such quantities in the
aggregate were 1.42 and 2.46 respectively. Fine mixes, so as to result in slump value between 25-50
aggregate conformed to the Zone II of IS 383 [Ref.11]. mm (Fig. 3).
Specific gravity values of the slurry, fine aggregate, 20
mm coarse aggregate fraction and 10 mm coarse Table 1: Quantities in Kg/m3 per cubic metre
aggregates were 2.84, 2.726, 2.81 and 2.53
respectively. 20 mm and 10 mm fractions of the % of marble slurry 0% 10% 15% 20%
crushed stone aggregates were mixed in 50 :50
proportion to get desired grading of Is 383, with % cement 380 376.2 355.3 334.4
passing of all in aggregate from 20 mm and 10 mm
sieves as 95 % and 29.5 % respectively. Water marble slurry - 41.8 62.7 83.6
absorption values for fine aggregates, 20 mm and 10
mm aggregates were 2.89 %, 0.78 % and 0.74 % coarse Aggregate 1194 1168 1168 1168
respectively.
The longitudinal reinforcement used was high- fine Aggregate 746 730 730 730
yield strength deformed bars and the stirrups were
made from mild steel bars. The tensile strength of water 160 160 160 160
longitudinal steel reinforcement used was 500 N/mm2.
Concrete with marble slurry was observed to be
2.2 Specimen Details
cohesive as illustrated in Fig. 3. Corinaldesi et al has
Marble slurry was added in concrete with 0%, also reported that due to its quite high fineness, marble
10%, 15%, 20% proportions (replacing cement by powder proved to be very effective in assuring very
weight), and for each percentage of marble slurry, good cohesiveness of mortar and concrete, even in the
three cube and three cylinder specimens were casted. presence of a super-plasticizing admixture [Refs. 4, 5].
Total sixty reinforced concrete beam specimens As is evident from Table 1, the total cementetious
(prisms) were casted, with four different percentages material content in the mixes containing the slurry was
of reinforcement, each containing two longitudinal taken as 1.1 times the cement content (380 kg) in the
bars of 8 mm, 10 mm, 12 mm and 16 mm, respectively control mix i.e. equal to 418 kg/m3 [Ref.10].
with three beams for each proportion of slurry and
three specimens without reinforcement. The specimen
sizes for compression, split tensile and flexural
strengths were 150 mm cube, 100*200 mm cylinder
and 100*100*500 mm prism respectively. All
specimens were tested at 28 days age.
The compression reinforcement comprised of two
bars each of diameter 6mm. Tie bars were 6 mm
stirrups c/c 100 mm along the beams. Fig. 2 shows
reinforcement details. In all the beam specimens, the
clear concrete cover to the main flexural reinforcement
was kept 15 mm.
Figure 3: Slump test of concrete with marble slurry
3 Test Results
Figure: 2 Reinforcement in beam specimens
Testing of specimens was done on a MTS universal
testing machine with rate of loading as 0.1 mm/minute
and 1mm/minute in split tensile test and flexure test
245
respectively. Flexure tests were done with central point well dispersed into the matrix of the marble dust
load arrangement as shown in Fig. 4. added specimens [Ref. 8].
Compressive strength results are shown in Fig. 5. The compressive strength was observed to
It can be seen that with cement reduction of the order decrease on increasing the slurry content after a limit
of about 7%, through replacement by marble slurry (Fig. 5). This is in line with reporting by Demirel [Ref.
8] that where the marble dust has been used as a
substitute for cement, an increase in the added marble
dust material, results in the dilution of C2S and C3S,
which are the main constituents and strength providers
of cement, by the marble dust additive [Ref. 8].
Thus, it may be inferred that marble dust/marble
slurry has a filler effect and as well plays a noticeable
role in the hydration process.
Tensile Strength (N/mm2)

3.5 15%, 3.665
20%, 3.423
10%, 3.217
3 0%, 2.922
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
Figure 4: Flexure test arrangement 0
0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25%
% of marble Slurry
42.00 Figure 6: Split tensile strength with slurry

Compressive Strength N/mm2
10%, 41.48
41.00
40.00 Split tensile test results are presented in Fig. 6. It
0%, 39.64
39.00
is observed from Fig.4 that with cement reduction of
15%, 38.38 the order of about 7%, through replacement by marble
38.00
slurry (15 % case), the increase in split tensile strength
37.00 at an age of 28 days was of the order of 22%. The
20%, 36.47
36.00 increase in split strength with inclusion of marble
0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25% slurry observed in the present study is in line with that
% of Marble Slurry
reported by Shirulea et al [Ref. 3]. The increase in split
tensile strength can also be attributed to the filler
Figure 5: Compressive strength with slurry effect/change in hydration.
Test results obtained in three point flexure test are
(15 % case), the decrease in compressive strength at an presented in Table 2. The values are average results of
age of 28 days was of the order of only 3%. This is in three specimens.
line with the findings of Demril [Ref. 8], who has
reported that the porosity of the concrete decreased Table 2: Peak load in KN
with increasing percentage of marble dust additions. marble reinforcement
As mentioned by Demril, the filler effect of marble slurry
dust on cement hydration is associated with the (%) 8mm 10mm 12mm 16mm
without reinf. (1%) (1.57%) (2.26%) (4.01%)
reduction of the porosity. Dermil further explained that
the differences between the appearances of CH crystals
verify the fact that the marble dust has also played a 0 10.84 39.5
noticeable role during the hydration process. As 37.65 37.93 41.81
2
illustrated in that study, by the SEM micrographs, the 10 11.99 44.6
CH (Ca (OH)2) morphology in specimens with and 33.24 39.59 36.51
7
without marble dust are different from each other. 15 10.82 42.7
Large and euhedral crystals of CH were shown 41.83 44.51 39.35
9
accumulated in the fissures and large pores. This kind 20 11.21 35.9
of large and euhedral CH crystals were only observed 32.59 35.06 30.28
0
in the specimens without any marble dust. On the
other hand, the CH crystals with smaller size were seen
246
4 Analysis and discussion of test results Fig.8, it is observed that for moment of resistance
under reinforced beams, the difference between the
Table 3: Moment of resistance of beam specimens experimental values and those calculated on the basis
marble reinforce of IS 456 is only marginal both for concrete with and
slurry without marble slurry.
ment 8mm 10mm 12mm
(%) 16mm r/p*
without (1%) (1.57%) (2.26%) (4.01%) This follows that for under reinforced beams, the
reinf. moment of resistance containing marble slurry can be
estimated using stress block of IS 456, which had been
0 1.08 3.76 3.79 4.18 3.95 3.86
10 1.20 3.32 3.96 3.65 4.47 3.73
specified for normal concrete.
15 1.08 4.18 4.45 3.94 4.28 4.11 The load displacement curves were recorded in
20 1.12 3.26 3.51 3.03 3.59 3.20 the servo controlled universal testing machine during
*r/p is ratio of maximum increase in moment of resistance with steel testing of the beam specimens. Samples curves are
to that without steel presented in Figs. 9, 10, 11, 12 and Fig.13.
Values of moment of resistance computed from
the experimental test data are presented in Table 3. The Ast= 1.0% ,dia=8mm
maximum increase in M.R. is observed with 15% 5.00
marble slurry. However, the variation in the ratio (r/p) 4.00
Mu in KNm
is marginal between 0-15% slurry inclusions. The 3.00
marble slurry inclusion is not affecting adversely the 2.00 Mu
ratio of increase in M.R. up till 15% slurry content. 1.00 Theoretical
Theoretical value of moment of resistance for the 0.00 Mu
beam specimens were computed following IS 456 0% 10% 15% 20% experimental
guidelines [Ref. 9]. Sample computation of theoretical marble slurry content
value of moment of resistance as per IS 456 guidelines
is shown in Table 4 with 1.57 % reinforcement.
Critical neutral axis depth, xumax was 39.10 mm for
concrete with and without marble slurry. In Table 4:
fck is 28 day compressive strength (Fig. 5), Ast is area Figure 7: Comparison between Muexp.and Muth
of tensile reinforcement, Asc is area of compressive with 1% reinforcement
reinforcement, fsc is the stress in compressive steel
reinforcement, fy is the yield stress of steel, xu is the
actual depth of neutral axis, b is width of the beam and Ast= 1.57% ,dia=8mm
Mlim is limit state moment of resistance [Ref. 9]. 6.00
5.00 Mu
Mu in KNm
Table 4: Sample computation of theoretical M. R. 4.00 experiment

3.00 al
marble slurry 0% 10% 15% 20% 2.00 Mu
(%) 1.00
Theoretical
0.00
fck (N/mm2) 0% 10% 15% 20%
39.64 41.48 38.38 36.47
marble slurry content
Ast (mm2) 157.07 157.07 157.07 157.07
fsc (N/mm2) 431.46 431.46 431.46 431.46
C1= fsc*Asc Figure 8: Comparison between Muexp.and Muth
24386.1 24386.1 24386.1 24386.1
(KN)
with 1.57% reinforcement
0.36 *fck* b 1427.2 1493.2 1381.7 1312.9
C2=0.36 fck b
55803.5 58384.1 54023.7 51335.2
xumax
Compressive
80189.6 82770.2 78409.8 75721.3
force = C1+C2
Tension Force
T=0.87*fy*Ast 68325.5 68325.5 68325.5 68325.5
(KN)
xu (mm) 30.79 29.43 31.80 33.47
Mlimt=1.5*0.36*
fckb*xu (d-.42xu) 4.75 4.79 4.72 4.68
(KN-m)
Fig. 7 and Fig. 8 presents comparison between the

values computed theoretically and from the Figure 9: Load- displacement curve for 10 %
experimental data for two different percentages of steel slurry, 1 % reinforcement
reinforcement (both under-reinforced). From Fig.7 and
247
Figure: 13: Load- displacement curve for 20 %

slurry, 1 % reinforcement
As can be observed from the sample curves presented

here, the load- displacement curve is trilinear upto the
peak load, i. e. its slope gets changed at three points.
The yield point and the ultimate points had been
identified in the curves by the MTS Universal testing
machine, as is illustrated in Figs. 9 and Fig. 11. From
all the load- displacement curves, the displacement
values were noted at yield and at the ultimate point.
Figure 10: Load- displacement curve for 10 % Average value of displacements at yield (b) and at
slurry, 1.57 % reinforcement ultimate (c) for three specimens are shown in Table 4.
Table 4: Ratio of Displacement at Ultimate to

Yield Point (c/b)
marble reinforcement displacement (mm) c/b

slurry (%) (%) at yield (b) at ultimate (c)
0 0 2.09 2.25 1.08
1 1.95 3.75 1.94
1.57 2.95 4.9 1.70
2.26 3.95 5.15 1.31
4.01 1.9 2.8 1.47
10 0 1.65 1.75 1.07
1 2.1 4.15 2.06
1.57 2.145 4.2 2.04
Figure 11: Load- displacement curve for 15 % 2.26 2.85 4.45 1.62
4.01 2.45 3.15 1.27
slurry, 1 % reinforcement 15 0 1.3 1.45 1.12
1 2.55 5.4 2.12
1.57 2.3 3.9 1.70
2.26 2.74 3.9 1.40
4.01 1.925 2.675 1.40
20 0 1.65 1.775 1.08
1 1.4 3.5 2.50
1.57 2.75 3.85 1.40
2.26 3.35 4.1 1.22
4.01 3 3.95 1.36
The ratio of displacement at ultimate to yield point

(c/b) of the beam specimens are presented in last
column of Table 4. Figs. 11 and 12 presents load-
displacement curves obtained experimentally with
same matrix composition of concrete, but with
different percentage of reinforcement. It can be
observed from a comparison of the two curves
Figure: 12: Load- displacement curve for 15 % presented that, with the increase in percentage of
slurry, 1.57 % reinforcement reinforcement, the zone between ultimate and yield
gets shorter, i.e. with 1.57 % reinforcement, the load
increase beyond yield point till the ultimate load, is
lesser than that with 1 % reinforcement. This is seen in
the set of Fig. 9 and Fig. 10 as well representing curves
with 10 % slurry. The values summarized in Table 4
also corroborates it. This trend is similar in all the
beam specimens, whether with slurry and without
slurry.
Further, it is observed from Table 4 that inclusion
of slurry in the beams does not have any significant
effect on the ratio of displacement at ultimate to
yield point. This ratio (c/b), is an indication of
ductility, hence, it may be inferred that marble slurry
addition in small quantity does not affect ductility.
248
5 Conclusions [8] Bahar Demirel, The effect of the using waste

marble dust as fine sand on the mechanical properties
Based on experimental test results, the following of the concrete, International Journal of the Physical
conclusions are drawn: Sciences, Vol. 5(9), pp. 1372-1380, 2010.
1. With small quantity inclusion of marble [9] IS: 456, Code for Plain and Reinforced Concrete,
slurry (upto 15 % by weight of cement), Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi, 2000.
the compressive strength of concrete [10] IS: 10262, Concrete Mix Proportioning-
increases marginally, but it decreases on Guidelines, Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi,
increasing the slurry content thereafter. 2009.
2. Trend of variation of moment of resistance [11] IS: 383, Specifications for Coarse and Fine
of reinforced concrete beams with different Aggregates from Natural Sources for Use in Concrete,
percentages of steel in it, remains similar Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi, 1970.
for concrete with and without inclusion of
marble slurry up till 15% proportion of
slurry.
3. For under- reinforced beams, the moment of
resistance containing marble slurry can be
estimated using stress block of IS 456.
4. Inclusion of marble slurry in reinforced
concrete beams does not have any
significant effect on the ratio of
displacement at ultimate to yield point, i.e.
ductility of the beams remains unaffected
with inclusion of the slurry in reinforced
concrete beams (within the limitations of 20
% proportion of the 'slurry investigated in
this study)
References
[1] Kushwah Singh, R. P., Engineering utilization of

marble slurry as curing aid, International Journal of
Innovative Science, Engineering and Technology, Vol.
1(5), pp. 437- 444. 2014.
[2] Rania A. Hamza, Salah El-Haggar, and Safwan
Khedr, Marble and granite waste: characterization and
utilization in concrete bricks, International Journal of
Bioscience, Biochemistry and Bioinformatics, Vol.
1(4), 2011.
[3] Shirulea, P. A., Rahmanb, Ataur and Rakesh D.
Gupta, Partial replacement of cement with marble dust
powder, International Journal of Advanced
Engineering Research and Studies Vol. I (III) pp.175-
177, 2012.
[4] Corinaldesi, Valeria, Moriconi, Giacomo and
Naik, Tarun R., Characterization of marble powder for
its use in mortar and concrete, NMET/ACI
International Symposium on Sustainable Development
of Cement and Concrete, Toronto, Canada, October 5-
7, 2005.
[5] Corinaldesi, Valeria, Moriconi, Giacomo and
Naik, Tarun R., Characterization of marble powder for
its use in mortar and concrete, Construction and
Building Materials Vol 24 (1), pp. 113-117, 2010.
[6] Alyamac, K.E.and Ince, R., A preliminary concrete
mix design for SCC with marble powders, Const.
Build. Mat., 23(3), pp.1201-1210, 2009.
[7] Gupta, R. C., Mishra, A. Flexure strength and creep
characteristics of tiles containing marble powder,
APRN Journal Vol.4 (2) 2009.
249
BOND PERFORMANCE OF PRETENSIONED CONCRETE SYSTEMS

Prabha Mohandoss1, Sriram K. Kompella2, and Radhakrishna G. Pillai3
Prestressed concrete technology has revolutionized the infrastructure growth in many countries, especially that of the
bridge sector. The bond between prestressed strand and concrete is very important for achieving good structural
performance. However, some of the codal provisions have not given enough consideration to the bond strength of
petensioned concrete system in design. This paper presents the results from a preliminary experimental program on
the bond strength of 7-wire strands embedded in M35 and M55 concretes. A pull-out test method was developed and
the same was used to determine the bond strength. The bond behavior and the mechanisms at the strand-concrete
interface is also discussed. Bond strength of 7 wire strand in M55 concrete is found to be about two times more than
that in M35 concrete.
Key words: Pretensioned concrete, Pull-out test, Bond strength, Bond-slip, Strand concrete interface
1 Introduction bond strength and bond behavior between the strand

and concrete.
In India, for the past five decades, the
applications of prestressed concrete have been
predominant in the field of bridge constructions,
overpasses/flyovers, metro rail projects, commercial
buildings, nuclear containment vessels, pavements,
rail-road sleepers, poles, piles marine structures
liquefied gas and oil storing vessels. Moreover,
bridges and railway sleepers have the most widespread
application of the pretensioned concrete among all the
fields.
In a pretensioned concrete (PTC) system,
prestress is transferred through a bond from the strand
to the surrounding concrete. Hence, the bond between
the prestressed strand and concrete is more important
for its structural performance. If the bond of PTC
member is not good or inadequate, then it can lead to Figure: 1 Shear cracks in bridge girders due
poor structural performance leading to shear failure at to poor bond
the ends and cracks in the member. In India, similar
1.1 Bond mechanisms
type of issues have been observed in a highway bridge
Bond mechanism of PTC system is mainly
girders as shown in Figure: 1. One of the main reasons
contributed by three factors: adhesion, mechanical
for this poor bond performance is the presence of the
interlock, and friction [1]. Adhesion plays a minimal
residue of the colourless, shiny, and dry lubricant on
role in PTC system. Mechanical interlock and friction
the strands. Calcium stearate (CaSt) and sodium
play a significant role in the PTC system [2].
stearate are the most commonly used dry lubricants to
Mechanical interlock occurs due to the spiral twisting
ease the process of cold drawing of wires during the
of the outer wires that form the strand. This helical
strand manufacturing and to meet the site inspectors
shape of the strand results in bearing stress between
demand of corrosion free strands. However, there is no
the strand and concrete. Friction is attributed by
test method to quantify the quality of the bond between
concrete confinement and Hoyer effect. Hoyer effect
the strand and concrete to produce the better quality
is the expansion of strand in the transfer zone after
product. Therefore, this study attempts to study the
releasing the prestress due to Poissons effect. The
1
Ph. D. Scholar, prabhamohandoss@gmail.com
2
B. Tech. Student, sriram.kasyap7997@gmail.com
3
Assistant Professor, pillai@iitm.ac.in
250
Prabha Mohandoss, et al.
bond between the strand and concrete can also be shown in Figure 2, the length of the concrete prism
influenced by many factors such as compressive was 500 mm. The length of bond breaker placed
strength of concrete, type/diameter/surface condition inside the specimen was 50 mm. Therefore, the actual
of the strand, amount of prestress applied etc. [3] embedment length (le) of the strand is 450 mm.
1.2 Bond test methods

Typically, the bond strength between strand and
concrete is determined by using pull-out test. Many
pull-out tests have been developed to determine the
bond strength of strand. The Moustafa pull-out test [4]
was one of the earliest test methods. It was developed
to quantify the bond capacity of strands for lifting
loops. In this test method, strands were pulled out from Figure: 2 Schematic of the pull-out test specimen
the large concrete block using a jack. Another test with taut strand embedded in concrete prism
method is the North American Strand Producers
2.1 Specimen preparation
(NASP) bond test [5], in which the strand is pulled out
from the mortar. The contemporary version of the 2.1.1 Initial stressing
NASP bond test is adopted by American Society for The length of the strand to be used for stressing
Testing and Materials (ASTM A1081 Standard test is decided based on the length of the strand embedded
method for evaluating the bond of seven wire in the specimen, the length of strand inside the
prestressing strand) [6, 7]. However, none of these test hydraulic jack, load cell and the thickness of the
methods represent the actual behavior of PTC (the endplate including the screws. Based on this, six meter
bond behavior between the stressed strand and long, 7-wire strands (12.7 mm dia.) were kept straight
concrete), where the strands are pretensioned to in the prestressing bed. Then, a hydraulic jack was
certain stress level (say, 0.75 fpu). Moreover, these test used to apply a minimum load just to keep the strand
methods use only the unstressed strand, which may straight and to avoid the wobbling effect. Before
lead to wobbling issue during specimen preparation placing the wedges and tensioning the strand, a 5 cm
since the strands are not perfectly straight and stressed long PVC pipe was kept around the strand (as
as in the field structures. bond-breaker) near the pulling end. This was done to
Performing pull-out test for a fully pretensioned avoid the stress concentration in this region during the
strand member is not easy due to the requirement of pull-out test. The wedge and barrel were placed
long specimen length to transfer the applied pretension outside the two end brackets of the prestressing bed -
from the strand to concrete and the machinery to maintain the stress. Also, a stress releasing system
required. Later, ECADA test method was developed with a nut-bolt system was placed at the releasing end
by Marti-Vargas et al. (2006) [8] to determine the bond - to facilitate gradual release of the prestress.
performance between the prestressed strand and
concrete by representing the actual behavior of PTC. 2.1.2 Casting of concrete
This study focuses on the pull-out testing, bond Fresh concrete was prepared using laboratory scale
strength, and bond behavior of taut strands embedded pan mixer and placed inside the specimen moulds,
in concrete. The taut specimen is the specimen with which are placed on the prestressing bed. Concrete
minimal prestress applied to keep the strands straight was hand-compacted using a standard procedure - to
and avoid the wobbling effect. ensure uniformity in the concrete properties. Along
with the pull-out specimens, three companion cube
2 Experimental Program specimens were also cast to determine the compressive
strength of concrete at the time of pull-out testing.
Figure: 2 provides a schematic of the pull-out test After 24 hours, the specimens were demoulded and the
specimen with a taut 7-wire strand embedded in stress in the specimen was released. The strand was cut
concrete prism (500100100 mm in size). High at the both ends of the specimen - leaving 350 mm
strength, low-relaxation seven wire strand of 12.7 mm length of the strand at one end and 150 mm long at the
diameter was used. The modulus of elasticity of the another end of the specimen. This was done to
7-wire strand was 196 MPa. The ultimate tensile facilitate the placement of LVDTs and grip the strand
strength (fpu) of the 7-wire strand was 1770 MPa. Four at pulling end during the pull-out testing. Then
specimns each with M35 and M55 Grade concrete specimens were cured for 28 days to achieve the
with 40 to 50 mm slump were cast and tested. The desired concrete properties, prior to the pull-out test.
average 28-day compressive strength of M35 and M45
concretes were 41 and 58 MPa, respectively. As
251
2.2 Pull-out Test Procedure concrete during testing. An L-shaped plate of a smooth
surface is placed on the surface of concrete at the free
2.2.1 Pull-out test setup end of the specimen to place the LVDT in a position
to get a uniform reading. Load was applied at the rate
Figure: 3 shows the schematic of the pull-out test of 2mm/min. Two LVDTs and the load cell of the
setup. In this, a 40 mm thick top and bottom steel machine were connected to a data acquisition system
plates of the frame are connected using four tension and the time elapsed, load, and displacement data were
members (1.4 m long and 36 mm diameter steel rods). recorded.
The center of the bottom steel plate of the frame has a
16 mm diameter hole to place the strand through and 3 . Results and Discussions
grip it using the hydraulic V-grips of the Universal
Testing Machine. One end of the hanging rod is The bond stress slip behavior (t-s curve) of
gripped inside the upper wedge of the machine. 12.7 mm strand embedded in M35 and M55 Grade
Another end of the hanging rod has hemispherical concretes are shown in Figure: 5 (a) and (b). The bond
shape to lock with the top plate of the frame to provide surface area is calculated as the circumference of the
a swivel arrangement, which allows the free rotation strand (p) multiplied by the actual embedment length
of the frame while testing and avoids any torsion. (le). The bond strength (tb) is calculated as follows,
Pu
b = (1)
ple
where, Pu is the ultimate load (or peak load).
As discussed in Section 1.1, the bond mechanism

in PTC is governed by three factors: (i) adhesion,
(ii) mechanical interlock and (iii) friction. Hence, the
bond-slip curve can be divided into three regions as
follows.
Region 1: Linear region, which is governed by the
adhesion mechanism. Once adhesion is lost, then
the mechanical interlock and friction are
mobilized.
Region 2: Mainly governed by mechanical

interlock, which gives resistance to slip.
Region 3: Mainly governed by friction between

the strand and concrete, after the peak load.
Two types of behavior or bond slip pattern are

observed: (i) Smooth pattern and (ii) Stick-Slip
Figure: 3 Schematic of the Pull-out test setup pattern. The specimens with smooth pattern exhibited
splitting and cracking of concrete, as seen in Figure: 4.
The specimens with stick-slip pattern exhibited
After fixing the pull-out frame on the machine, pulling-out of the strand (without the splitting and
the pull-out specimen is placed in the pull-out frame. cracking of concrete).
The bottom end of the strand is gripped in the MTS
machine and that end is called as the live end where
the load is applied. The top portion of the strand is free
and known as a free end.
2.2.2 Instrumentations
Two LVDTs were used. One LVDT was placed

at the live end and another LVDT was placed at the Figure: 4 Longitudinal cracks along the 7-wire
free end of the strand, as shown in Figure: 3 - to strand in M55 grade in concrete.
measure the slip of the strand with respect to the
252
Prabha Mohandoss, et al.
3.1 Bond strength and slip The measured bond strength,tmax, of Pull-Out
specimens are shown in the Figure: 6. The term tmax is
Figure: 5 (a) and (b) show the t-s curves of taut defined as the maximum bond stress observed in the
strands in M35 and M55 concretes, respectively. As t-s curves, as shown in Figure: 6. For the eight
shown in Figure: 5, two specimens with M35 concrete specimens tested here, the tmax occurred at a slip
and all the specimens with M55 concrete are ranging from 8 to 30 mm. However, in ASTM 1018,
exhibiting the smooth pattern. This happens when the bond strength is calculated as the bond stress
the concrete confinement is good. In such case, the corresponding to 2.5 mm. Hence, the maximum bond
concrete will resist the movement of the strand, stress (tmax) and bond stress at 2.5 mm (t2.5) are
resulting in an increase in the stress developed, which calculated and shown in Table 1. Also the slip
in turn results in longitudinal cracks in concrete. corresponding to tmax is shown in the last column of
Table 1. It can be seen that these values are in the
range of 8 to 30 mm (i.e., greater than the design slip
value of 2.5 mm).
It is observed that average t2.5 is approximately
half the value of tmax. Also, when the grade of
concrete increased from M35 to M55, the tavg
increased from 6 MPa to 11 MPa about two fold
increase.
14
(b) M55-12.7mm-0.1fpu S3
12
Bond stress (MPa)
10 S1
S2
8
4 S4
Figure: 6 Bond strength of PTC specimens as a
2
function of compressive strength of concrete
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Table: 1 Bond stress values of 12.7 strands
Live end slip (mm)
Specimen Grade f'c t2.5 tmax Slip
Figure: 5 Bond behavior in (a) M35 grade No. of (MPa) (MPa) (MPa) at tmax
and (b) M55 grade concretes concrete (MPa)
A1 44.1 4.03 4.74 8.4

Specimens A2 and A3 in Figure 4(a) exhibited
A2 43.8 3.04 6.77 11.9
the stick-slip pattern. It seems that this pattern is more M35
A3 43.7 3.74 6.77 9.10
predominant in the case of low strength concrete (say,
A4 42.9 3.36 5.40 11.2
below M35 concrete). When the concrete strength is
low, the grooves may fail in shear and allow the strand B1 63.1 3.65 10.50 24.0
to slide from one groove to the next one (in the B2 61.8 4.65 9.72 22.0
M55
longitudinal direction) - resulting in the stick-slip B3 60.2 4.30 12.66 31.2
pattern. Also, 25 to 40-degree rotation of strands (as B4 60.2 6.26 11.80 20.7
they are pulled out) were observed at the peak of the
t-s curve.
253
4 Preliminary findings 4. Moustafa, S. (1974) , Pull-out strength of strand

and lifting loops, Technical Bulletin 74-B5,
As the characteristic compressive strength of Concrete Technology Associates, Tacoma, WA,
concrete increases from 35 MPa to 55 MPa, the 34pp
average bond strength increase by about two times. 5. Russell, B. W., and Paulsgrove, G. A.(1999),
A stick-slip t-s behaviour is observed when the Assessing repeatability and reproducibility of the
strand is pulled out of the concrete with relatively moustafa test, the PTI bond test and the NASP
low strength (say, M35). bond test, Final Report 99-04, University of
A smooth t-s behaviour is observed when the bond Oklahoma, Fears Structural Engineering
failure is due to concrete cracking or splitting. Laboratory, Norman, Ok.
5 Notations 6. ASTM A1081/A1081M (2012) Standard test
method for evaluating bond of seven-wire steel
db - Nominal diameter of strand (mm) prestressing strand. ASTM International, West
le - Embedded length of the strand in the Conshohocken
concrete (mm) 7. Deng, Y., and Morcous, G. (2015)., Strand bond
p - Circumference of the strand in the stress slip relationship for prestressed concrete
concrete (mm) members at prestress release.
Ab - Bonded area of the embedded length of http://doi.org/10.1617/s11527-015-0546-1
the strand (mm2) 8. Mart, J. R., and Ferna, M. A. (2006). Test
Pu - Ultimate load (kN) method for determination of the transmission and
fc - Compressive strength of the concrete at anchorage lengths in prestressed reinforcement
the time of testing (MPa) Magazine of concrete research, 2006, 58, (1),
tmax - Measured bond strength of the strand 21-29.
(MPa)
tavg - Average measured bond strength (MPa)
t2.5 - Measured bond stress at 2.5 slip (MPa)
S - Slip of the strand (mm)
6 Acknowledgements
The authors thank Prof. Ravindra Gettu and

Prof. Amlan K. Sengupta for their valuable
suggestions. The authors thank the faculty and staff of
the BTCM division, Department of Civil Engineering,
IIT Madras, Chennai, India. The authors acknowledge
the financial support through the Fund for
Improvement of Science & Technology Infrastructure
(FIST), Department of Science and Technology
(DST), and the Ministry of Human Resouces
Development (MHRD), Govt. of India.
7 References
1. Janney, J.R. (1954), Nature of bond in

pretensioned prestressed concrete ACI J. 5(8),
&17 -736
2. Vzquez-Herrero, C., Martnez-Lage, I., and
Martnez-Abella, F. (2013). Transfer length in
pretensioned prestressed concrete structures
composed of high performance lightweight and
normal-weight concrete. Engineering Structures,
56, 983992.
3. Rose, D. R. and Russell, B. W., (1997),
Investigation of standardized Tests to Measure
the bond performance of prestressing strand, PCI
Journal, 56-80pp.
254
255
DYNAMIC TIME HISTORY RESPONSE OF SHEAR WALL

UNDER EARTHQUAKE GROUND MOTION
G Muthukumar 1 and Manoj Kumar2
1
Assistant Professor, Civil Engineering Department, BITS Pilani-Pilani, 333 031, India
2
Associate Professor, Civil Engineering Department, BITS Pilani-Pilani, 333 031, India
The proper selection of structural configuration plays a crucial role in achieving the desired structural performance.
Shear-wall framed structures are one of the popular structural configurations used in many residential and commercial
complexes. There are different performance levels expected of a building depending on the intended purpose for which
the building is built. As prevention of collapse is the fundamental requirement of any design, it is of utmost importance
to insure the building for safety against collapse. Unless mandated for special reasons, the buildings are not normally
designed to remain elastic throughout the response. Hence, in order to properly proportion and design the shear wall, it
is of paramount importance to understand the behavior of shear wall, in linear as well as in non-linear regimes under
dynamic earthquake ground motion. In this study, a finite element analysis using degenerated shell element is employed
for investigating the response of a rectangular shear wall. The Newmark time integration with constant acceleration has
been adopted. The displacement response of shear wall has been compared with the experimental and analytical results
and it has been found that the present model is able to replicate the results satisfactorily.
Keywords: shear wall, frame, non-linear, shell, earthquake
1 Background and Introduction conditions, especially under dynamic loading conditions.

Hence, in the present study, the shear wall specimen as
mentioned in [1] has been taken and analyzed for the
Tall buildings are inevitable in urban areas because of scaled earthquake of EL Centro 1940 Imperial valley
paucity of land. Taller buildings are more susceptible to earthquake. The geometric and material modeling of
damage due to wind forces and seismic forces. Not so the shear wall is discussed in the next section.
often that the buildings are subjected to heavy
earthquake. Nevertheless, the amount of damage that
the severe earthquake can cause is immeasurable. Hence, 2 Geometrical Modeling of shear wall
it is essential to protect the building from such severe
damages. There are different performance levels of a
building depending on the intended purpose for which The displacement based finite element method has been
considered to be the most popular choice because of its
the building is built. As prevention of collapse is the
simplicity and ease with which the computations can be
fundamental requirement of any design, it is of utmost
importance to insure the building for safety against performed. The use of shell element to model
collapse. Unless mandated for special reasons, the moderately thick structures like shear wall is well
documented in the literature [2]. Nevertheless, the
buildings are not normally designed to remain elastic
general shell theory based on the classical approach has
throughout the response. Thus, inelastic deformations of
the building may be present in the building. been found to be complex in the finite element
Nevertheless, these inelastic deformations should not be formulation. On the other hand, the degenerated shell
element [3,4] derived from the three-dimensional
very large and very sudden, which may otherwise pose
element, has been quite successful in modeling
instability in the building. One way to arrest the drift of
the building is to have proper structural configuration moderately thick structures because of their simplicity
such as shear wall which has shown tremendous and circumvents the use of classical shell theory. The
degenerated shell element (Fig 1) is based on
performance in preventing the damage to the reinforced
assumption that the normal to the mid surface remain
concrete building. Not only is it desirable to arrest the
drift, it is also essential to allow certain inelastic straight but not necessarily normal to the mid surface
deformations so that ductile failure is achieved. In this after deformation. Also, the stresses normal to the mid
surface are considered to be negligible. However, when
study, the non-linear finite element dynamic analysis
the thickness of element reduces, degenerated shell
has been carried out to determine the influence of
openings on the response of shear wall. The non- element has suffered from shear locking and membrane
linearity depends on the severity of the loading locking when subjected to full numerical integration.
1
Assistant Professor, muthug@pilani.bits-pilani.ac.in
2
256
G Muthukumar and Manoj Kumar
The shear locking and membrane locking are the due to degradation in material properties (Material Non-
parasitic shear stresses and membrane stresses present linearity). Since the shear wall is inherently very stiff, it
in the finite element solution. In order to alleviate is expected that even at the large loads, deformation
locking problems, the reduced integration technique has may not be very large and therefore, in this study, only
been suggested and adopted by many authors [5.6]. material non-linearity is considered. The material
However, the use of reduced integration resulted in nonlinearities considered in this study are due to
spurious mechanisms or zero energy modes in some cracking, yielding and crushing of concrete and steel
cases. The reduced integration ignores the high ranked yielding. The modeling of concrete in compression has
terms in interpolated shear strain by numerical been formulated using plasticity theory with Willam-
integration, thus introducing the chance of development Warnke five-parameter failure criterion to define the
of spurious or zero energy modes in the element. The yield/failure surface. The isotropic hardening with
selective integration, wherein different integration associated flow rule has been adopted in defining the
orders are used to integrate the bending, shear and strain-hardening behavior of the concrete. The smeared
membrane terms of stiffness matrix, avoids the locking crack modeling has been adopted in which cracks are
in most of the cases. The assumed strain approach has assumed to be smeared over the element. To represent
been successfully adopted by many researchers [7, 8] as the capacity of the intact concrete between neighboring
an alternative to avoid locking. cracks, the linearly descending branch of tension
stiffening has been adopted in the present investigation.
The modeling of reinforcement has been done assuming
z
steel reinforcement to be smeared in a particular layer.
The bilinear stress-strain curve has been adopted in
h
x defining the steel in tension as well as in compression.
V
3k
u3kn 3.1 Compression Modeling
hk Since the elastic strain-hardening plastic model is more

k u2k
general and more accurate than the earlier elastic-
2k
perfectly plastic models, it is used in the present
investigation. In order to apply the incremental theory
Middle u1k
1k of elastic strain-hardening plasticity, several aspects
Surface
must be specified beforehand [8]. The three main
aspects are:
Figure 1: Geometry of 9-noded degenerated The yield function that defines the initial and
subsequent yield surface during continuous
shell element
loading.
The hardening rules that describe the motion of
In the assumed strain based degenerated shell elements, the subsequent yield surface during continuous
the transverse shear strain and membrane strains are loading.
interpolated from the assumed sampling points obtained
The flow rule that relates the plastic strain
from the compatibility requirement between flexural
increments to stress increments.
and shear strain fields respectively. Thus, assumed strain
approach allows the use of full integration, thus
avoiding the risk of zero energy modes. In this element,
five degrees of freedom are considered at each node, In general, the stress increments ( ds e = ds ) are given
comprising three translations and two rotations of the by the relationship
normal. The formulation of degenerated isoparametric
shell element is completely described in [7]. {d s }= [Dep ] {d e } (1)
The elasto-plastic constitutive matrix with strain-
3 Material Modeling of shear wall hardening behavior is given by the following expression
[D ] = [D] - [D]{a }{a} [ D]

T
H + {a} [D]{a}
ep T
The modeling of material play may a crucial role in
achieving the correct response. The presence of
(2)
nonlinearity may add another dimension of complexity In the above equation, a = flow vector, defined by the
to it. The nonlinearities in the shear wall may be due to stress gradient of the yield function; D = constitutive
the large deformation (Geometrical Non-linearity) or matrix in elastic range; H= Hardening parameter.
257
The above equation represents the incremental elasto- e

plastic stress-strain curve considering the degradation in
c
G13 = 0.25 G 1 - 1 if e 1 < 0.004
the stiffness due to yielding. The second term in eq. (2) 0.004
represents the effect of degradation of material during c
G13 = 0 if e 1 0.004
the plastic loading.
e
c
G23 = 0.25 G 1 - 2
3.2 Tension Modeling 0.004
c
G12 = 0.5 G13
c c
if G23 < G13
c
s 1 D1 D12 0 0 0 e1
s D D2 0 0 0 e
2 12 2
t 12 = 0 0 D3 0 0 g 12 (3) 3.3 Modeling of Steel Reinforcement

t 13 0 0 0 D4 0 g 13
t 23 0 0 0 0 D5 g 23 Reinforcing bars in structural concrete are generally
assumed to be one-dimensional elements without
E1 E2 transverse shear stiffness or flexural rigidity. The
D1 = D2 =
(1 -n 12n 21 ) (1 -n 12n 21 ) reinforcing bar can generally be treated as either
discrete or smeared. The major advantage of discrete
E2n 12 representation of reinforcing bar is existence of one-to-
D12 = D = G D = k *G one correspondence between the real structure and
(1 -n 12n 21 ) 3 12 4 1 13 model. In the smeared reinforcement, the average stress-
strain relationship is calculated for an element area and
incorporated directly as part of the overall concrete
In the above equation, k1 and k2 are shear correction
element stiffness matrix. In the present investigation,
factors in the 1-3 (x-z) plane and 2-3 (y-z) planes
the smeared layered approach is adopted for simplicity.
respectively. For a homogeneous cross-section the shear
The bi-linear stress strain curve with linear elastic and
correction factor is equal to 5/6;
strain hardening region is adopted in this study.
Typically, the hardening strain modulus is assumed to
Crack in one direction:
be 10% of initial elasticity modulus. The direction of
s 1 0 0 0 0 0 e1 steel (horizontal or vertical) can be set up by defining
s 0 E 0 the angle with respect to local x-axis. There can only be
2 0 0 e 2 two states of stress for the reinforcing bar, namely,
t 12 = 0 0 G12
c
0 0 g 12 (4) elastic and linear strain hardening.

t 13 0 0 0 0 g 13
c
G13
t 23 0 0 0 0 G23 g 23 4 Dynamic analysis of shear wall
1
= 0.25 G1 - if e 1 < 0.004
c
G12 In order to perform the non-linear analysis of RC shear
0.004 wall under dynamic loading conditions, the rectangular
c
G12 = 0 if e 1 0.004 shear wall, shown in Fig. 2, has been discretized into
120 finite elements using 9-noded 5-dof assumed strain
5G
c
G13 = G12
c
; G23 = based degenerated shell element with layered approach.
6 The geometry of the shear wall, its elevation [Fig. 2(a)]
Crack in two directions: and longitudinal section [Fig. 2(b)] are the same as
analyzed by Agarwal et al. (1981).
s 1 0 0 0 0 0 e1
s 0 0 0 0 0 e 2
2
t 12 = 0 The material properties of RC shear wall are as
c
0 G12 2 0 0 g 12 (5)
mentioned in Table 2. The reinforcement is provided in
t 13 0 G13 0 g 13
c
0 0 two layers in horizontal direction and a single layer in
t 23 0 0 0 c
0 G23 g 23
vertical direction. The diameter of the reinforcing bar
used as vertical and horizontal reinforcement is 4 mm
diameter. In order to incorporate the effect of steel
reinforcement, the layered approach is adopted in this
study.
258
18" (0.45 m) A response calculation by predicting the response only for

Level 3
the most intense earthquake period in order to simplify
4"
the computation. The displacement response of shear

wall has been compared with the experimental and
18 " (0.45 m)
Horizontal steel
Vertical steel
analytical results and it has been found that the present
Level 2 model is able to replicate the results satisfactorily.
18 " (0.45 m)
Level 1
18 " (0.45 m)
A (b) Section AA
(a) Elevation Figure 3: Input ground acceleration applied at
the base of shear wall
Figure 2: Finite element idealization of rectangular

shear wall Fig. 4 and Fig. 5 show the analytical displacement time
history responses, respectively, of RC shear wall
Table 2: Material properties subjected to scaled EI Centro ground motion as reported
by Agrawal et al. 1981 and the present analytical study.
Concrete The proposed analytical study also matches more with
their analytical study reported by Agrawal et al. (1981)
Elasticity Yield strength in Tensile
Units than the experimental results.
Modulus compression strength
psi 3.8 106 4720 409

MPa 26200 32.54 2.82
Reinforcing Steel
Elasticity Strain hardening Yield
Units
Modulus modulus stress
psi 2.9 107 7.03 104 53,500
Figure 4: Analytical non-linear displacement time
MPa 199947.9 48.5 368.8 history of the shear wall (Agrawal et al. 1981)
The shear wall has been analyzed for simulated scaled

EL Centro earthquake of 1940 using assumed strain
degenerated shell element and the displacement
response history responses have been predicted. The
simulated EL Centro earthquake, shown in Fig. 3, is
applied at the base of the shear wall with maximum
amplitude or 1.05g. For the dynamic analysis, the direct
method of time integration has been adopted using
unconditionally stable implicit Newmark Constant
Acceleration Scheme [10]. The formulation of mass
matrix has been done using the consistent mass matrix
Figure 5: Analytical non-linear displacement time
approach and the 5% Rayleigh damping has been
history of the shear wall (Proposed study)
adopted with stiffness proportionality. The response of
the structure is traced for 1.5 seconds of duration.
Several investigators have also adopted this way of
259
It is observed that the present proposed analytical study The comparison between the linear & non-linear
predicts the displacement time-history response of RC displacement time history is mentioned in Table 4 for
shear wall reasonably well for most of the duration. different time steps (NSTEP). The maximum non-linear
There is not much variation in the profile of the time- displacement response is quite sensitive to the
history as well. The displacement responses at different discretization of time step size (NSTEP). However, the
times are presented in Table 3 for the better comparison. linear displacement time history is not overly dependent
on the chosen time step. That is the advantage of using
implicit method of time integration where the time step
Table 3: Displacement responses at different times size is limited only from the accuracy point of view and
not from the stability point of view.
Time Displacement (mm) Displacement (mm)
(s) Agarwal et al. (1981) (Present study)
0.1 0 0 5 Conclusions
0.2 1 1
0.3 -1 1 On the basis of the above results, the following
0.4 12.5 13.0 conclusions have been drawn on the structural
0.5 5 3 performance of shear core-frame.
0.6 12 14
0.7 11 14 The degenerated shell element has been found
0.8 2 5 to be efficient in predicting the non-linear
displacement response history of the shear
0.9 13 12
wall.
1.0 8 4
There is a significant difference between the
1.1 2 6
maximum displacement response of linear and
1.2 8 11 non-linear analysis.
1.3 0 1 The discretization time step size has been
1.4 4 4 influencing the maximum non-linear
1.5 1 0 displacement response to some extent and
From the above table (Table 3), it has been observed hence needs to be selected keeping the desired
that the present analytical study is in close agreement accuracy in view.
with the analytical study reported by Agrawal et al. However, for the linear displacement time
1981 at most of the time intervals. history, the time step size need not be very
large and hence the computational time and
effort can be saved by adopting the larger time
step sizes.
6 References
[1] Agrawal, A.B., Jaeger, L.G., and Mufti, A.A.
Response of RC shear wall under ground motion.
ASCE Journal of the Structural Division, Vol.
107(2), pp. 395-411, 1981.
[2] Liu, Y., and Teng, S. Nonlinear analysis of

Figure 6: Analytical linear displacement time history of
the shear wall (Proposed study) reinforced concrete slabs using non-layered shell
element. ASCE Journal of Structural Engineering,
Fig. 6 shows the linear displacement response history of
the shear wall subjected to the same scaled EL Centro 134(7), 1092-1100, 2008.
earthquake.
[3] Ahmad, S., Irons, B.M., and Zienkiewicz, O.C.
Table 4: Displacement responses at different times Analysis of thick and thin shell structures by
curved finite elements. International Journal of
Response Type of Time step size (NSTEP)=
Parameter Analysis 100 375 1000 3000 Numerical Methods in Engineering, 2(3), pp. 419-
Positive Linear 8.88 7.81 7.83 7.84 451, 1970.
Displacement
(mm) Nonlinear 12.67 9.58 8.00 13.60 [4] Kant, T., Kumar, S., and Singh, U.P. Shell
Negative Linear 8.56 8.11 8.15 8.16 dynamics with three-dimensional degenerate finite
Displacement Nonlinear 9.95 12.64 16.61 14.1
(mm) elements. Computers & Structures, Vol. 50(1), pp.
135-146, 1994.
260
[5] Paswey, S.F., and Clough, R.W. Improved

numerical integration of thick shell finite
elements. International Journal for Numerical
Methods in Engineering, Vol. 3(4), 575-586, 1971.
[6] Zienkiewicz, O.C., Taylor, R.L., and Too, J.M.

Reduced integration technique in general analysis
of plates and shells. International Journal of
Numerical Methods and Engineering, 3(2), 275-
290, 1971.
[7] Huang, H.C. Static and dynamic analyses of plates

and shells: Theory, software and applications.
Springer-Verlag, New York, USA, 1989.
[8] Bathe, K.J. Finite element procedures. Prentice-

Hall, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey, 2006.
[9] Chen, W.F. Plasticity in reinforced concrete.

McGraw Hill, New York, USA, 1982.
[10] Chopra, A. Dynamics of structures: Theory and
application to earthquake engineering. 3rd Ed.,
Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, N.J, 2006.
261
ANALYSIS AND DESIGN
OF STEEL STRUCTURES
INVESTIGATION ON COLD-FORMED STEEL SINGLE AND BUILT-UP

ANGLES UNDER AXIAL COMPRESSION
G.Beulah Gnana Ananthi1
1
Anna University/Department of Civil Engineering, Division of Structural Engineering, Anna University,
Chennai 600025
ABSTRACT
Cold-formed steel structural members are used increasingly in light-weight construction. Cold-formed steel plain
(unstiffened) angle sections are easy to produce by simply applying one brake press or using minimal rollers to form the
section from structural steel sheets. This paper presents the validation study on test results reported by Vishnuvardhan et
al by using finite element analysis (FEA). A regression analysis has been carried out for the single, double and starred
plain angle sections and three different model equations are proposed. This paper also presents about the experimental
studies conducted on unsymmetrical lipped double angles under axial compression joined either by self drilling screws
or welded connection. Also a parametric study is carried out on four types of unsymmetrical lipped double angles taking
into account of (1) Ixx=2Iyy : (2) Ixx=2.5Iyy ratios through FEA and the results are compared with the ultimate column
strength predicted by Direct Strength Method (DSM).
Keywords: Cold-formed steel, Built-up angles, Numerical Study, Direct Strength method.
1 Introduction experimental study done on four unsymmetrical lipped

double angles under axial compression joined either by
Cold-formed steel structural members are bolted or welded connection. Also a parametric study is
used increasingly in light-weight construction. Cold- carried out on four types of unsymmetrical lipped
formed steel plain (unstiffened) angle sections are easy double angles taking into account of (1) Ixx=2Iyy : (2)
to produce by simply applying one brake press or using Ixx=2.5Iyy ratios using FEA and the same is compared
minimal rollers to form the section from structural steel with the ultimate column strength predicted by Direct
sheets. Although angle members are apparently simple Strength Method (DSM).
structural shapes used in various applications, their
design is quite complicated and hence much more 2 Literature Review
research are needed. Angle sections are perhaps the
most basic and widely used of all rolled structural steel A brief review of literature on the ultimate
sections. Single angles are commonly used in light roof load carrying capacity of angles is presented. Study on
trusses, mainly as web members. This paper presents a cold-formed steel unequal angle compression members
numerical study conducted on cold-formed steel plain by Ben Young and Ehab Ellobody [3] concluded that
(unstiffened) angle columns presented by using finite the current design rules are generally unconservative
element analysis (FEA). The validation study includes for short and intermediate column for the unequal
single, double and starred plain angles under axial angles. Therefore, design rules of cold-formed steel
compression by comparing with the experimental unequal angle columns are proposed. A test program
results (Vishnuvardhan). Both geometric and material on cold-formed steel non-symmetric lipped angle
imperfections are used in the FEA. A regression columns was conducted by Ben Young and Ju Chen [4]
analysis has been carried out for all the three angle and using reliability analysis the current design rules in
section and three different model equations are the North American Specification for cold-formed steel
proposed. The regression coefficient for single, double non-symmetric lipped angle columns is assessed.
and starred angles are 0.95, 0.97 and 0.94 respectively Vishuvardhan.S et.al [9] observed that there was
which are within the acceptable limits. From the reversal of strain from compression to tension for
comparative study it can be well said that the FEA is compound angles beyond 70% of ultimate load. The
able to predict the experimental results very accurately. effect of symmetricity on the mode of buckling of the
The failure mode patterns also obviously show the specimens under different slenderness ratios is also
similar resemblance between the FEA and reported.
experimental study. This paper also presents an
1
Associate Professor, beulahceg@gmail.com
262
G. Beulah Gnana Ananthi
Liu Yi and Sabine Chantel [6] tested 26 steel unequal-

leg angle specimens under eccentric compression and Ball &
Welded End
have suggested that for angles subjected to major Bolted End
Condition
principal axis bending causing the angle short leg in Condition
compression, the presence of moment, in some cases, RP2 RP1 RP2 RP1
resulted in the angle ultimate load higher than its

concentric compressive capacity. Nuno Silvestre, Pedro
Dinis and Camotim [8] shown that the proposed DSM
approach leads to accurate ultimate strength estimates
for short-to-intermediate columns covering a wide
slenderness range. New design procedures are
recommended for strength prediction of cold-formed Figure. 2 Boundary condition for Validation Study
steel angle columns with fixed end boundary
conditions by Y.Shifferawa and B.W.Schafer [10]. 4 Validation:
Beulah et.al [5] reported experimental and numerical
investigation on thin-walled single and starred angle The numerical model is validated by
sections under compression and concluded that the comparing the results obtained from FEA and
design column strengths calculated from the NAS-2007 experimental results presented by experimental results
[7] and BS: 5950 (Part 5) [2] specifications are conducted by Vishuvardhan [9]. Table 1 presents the
generally conservative for cold-formed steel angle material properties used in the validation study. Table
sections. From the literature it is concluded that only a 2 presents the experimental, numerical and theoretical
very few work has been reported on thin-walled steel results of plain single angles. Tables 3 and 4 presents
double angle columns and the results on experimental the ultimate load carrying capacities from the
investigation on box angles is not been reported so far experimental, numerical and theoretical results of plain
by any researcher in any literature study. An double and starred angles respectively. The mean and
experimental investigation is in-complete, unless an standard deviation of the FEA to the experimental
numerical method of predicting the behaviour with in ultimate load carrying capacity are 1.03 and 0.08 for
the acceptable accuracy limit is formulated. the plain single angles, whereas for the plain double
3 Finite Element Modelling and starred angles the mean and standard deviation are
1.06, 0.05 and 1.06, 0.11 respectively. From the above
In this numerical simulation, the specimens comparative study it is found that the prediction by
are considered as simply supported and fixed at both FEA is accurate and the analysis proves to be good
the ends. The boundary condition was applied through within the acceptable accuracy limits. Tables 2, 3 and 4
multi point constraint (MPC) located at the centroid of also shows the modes of failure of plain single , double
the section at the upper end of the column as shown in and starred angles for the ball, welded and bolted end
Figure 1. The boundary conditions are shown in the condition. The specimens are labelled as presented in
Figure 2. All the specimens are axially loaded through Figure 3.
the centroid of the columns. Displacement control
method was used in loading the columns. Both
geometric and material non-linearity was included in PA-40-40-2
the analysis. For the validation study local and b Thickness (mm)
distortional imperfection was taken as 0.25t and 0.35t Leg (mm)
whereas for the experimental study 0.006*w*t and t Leg (mm)
1.0*t was adopted. Plain Angles
b
Figure 3: Specimen Labelling

Figure 1: Plain Columns with Multi Point Constrain (MPC)
263
Table 1: Material Properties of the Steel results predictions are similar to that of FEA results. The
regression curve shown in the above figures shows a better
Sl. Specimen E fy fu % Pinned/
No ID (MPa) (MPa) Elong Fixed agreement of experimental and numerical study.
. PA-b-b-t ation
Table 3: Comparison of Experimental, Numerical and Theoretical
1 PA-35- 15, 182 345 440 16 Ball
Strengths for Plain Double Angles
35-2/ 20, Plain Double Angles
25 Section PExp PFEA PFEA/ PProposed Failure
PA-45- l
Size (kN) (kN) PExp (kN) Mode
45-2
Ball Connection
2 PA-40- 15, 211 415 495 10 Ball PA-35- 15 76.09 81.72 1.07 79.43 L+F
40-2 30 35-2 20 73.87 81.65 1.11 79.36 L+F
3 PA-40- 15, 201 250 350 11 Ball 25 69.42 77.75 1.12 75.57 L+F
40-3.15 30 PA-45- 15 80.28 82.46 1.03 80.15 L+F
45-2 20 75.46 76.53 1.01 74.39 L+F
4 PA-50- 10, 179 205 300 13 Welded 25 70.49 71.86 1.02 69.85 L+F
50-2 15, PA-40- 15 69.14 76.59 1.11 74.45 L+F
20 40-2 30 65.1 72.32 1.11 70.30 L+F
5 PA-60- 20, 210 310 410 10 Bolted PA-40- 15 127.3 134.25 1.05 130.49 L+F
60-2 30 40- L+F
123.5 126.53 1.02
3.15 30 122.99
6 PA-60- 20, 208 250 365 26 Bolted
60-3.15 30 Welded Connection
PA-50- 10 58.5 58.28 1.00 56.65 L
7 PA-70- 20, 208 250 365 26 Bolted 50-2 15 55.00 57.88 1.05 56.26 L
70-3.15 30 20 49.2 51.34 1.04 49.90 L
Bolted Connection
PA-60- 20 64.52 71.5 1.11 69.50 L+F
Table 2: Comparison of Experimental, Numerical and 60-2 30 59.3 63.49 1.07 61.71 L+F
Theoretical Strengths for Plain Single Angle PA-60- 20 127.71 143.73 1.13 139.71 L+F
Plain Single Angles 60-
123.23 137.03 1.11 L+F
3.15 30 133.19
Section PExp PFEA PFEA/ PProposed Failure
l PA-70- 20 128.38 123.24 0.96 119.79 L+F
Size (kN) (kN) PExp (kN) Mode
70-
Ball Connection 101.65 102.23 1.01 L+F
3.15 30 99.37
PA-35-35-2 15 32.03 36.07 1.13 35.10 L
Mean 1.06
20 31.59 35.77 1.13 34.80 L
Standard Deviation 0.05
25 29.37 31.37 1.07 30.52 L
PA-45-45-2 15 40.05 38.75 0.97 37.70 L
20 32.69 35.43 1.08 34.47 L
Table 4 : Comparison of Experimental, Numerical and
25 27.02 28.03 1.04 27.27 L
Theoretical Strengths for Plain Starred Angles
PA-40-40-2 15 48.47 42.53 0.88 41.38 L
Plain Starred Angles
30 46.9 40.91 0.87 39.81 L
PA- 40-40- 15 62.12 57.71 0.93 56.15 L Section PExp PFEA PFEA/ PProposed Failure
3.15 30 59.2 55.71 0.94 54.21 L Size l (kN) (kN) PExp (kN) Mode
Welded Connection Ball Connection
PA-50-50-2 10 26.00 28.28 1.09 27.52 L PA-35- 15 76.32 77.52 1.02 72.64 L+F
15 25.75 27.88 1.08 27.13 L 35-2 20 74.87 75.76 1.01 70.99 L+F
20 24.5 27.34 1.12 26.60 L 25 72.09 72.21 1.00 67.66 L+F
Bolted Connection PA-45- 15 83.39 83.09 1.00 77.86 L+F
PA-60-60-2 20 31.15 30.13 0.97 29.32 L+F 45-2 20 77.87 80.97 1.04 75.87 L+F
30 28.49 29.72 1.04 28.92 L+F 74.81 L+F
25 54.05 79.84 1.48
PA-60-60- 20 68.97 74.07 1.07 72.07 L+F
PA-40- 15 66.74 70.41 1.05 65.97 L+F
3.15 30 52.51 58.76 1.12 57.17 L+F 40-2 30 59.86 62.67 1.05 58.72 L+F
PA-70-70- 20 73.42 77.44 1.05 75.35 L+F
3.15 30 58.29 63.10 1.08 61.40 L+F 30 115.3 115.77 1.00 108.48 L+F
Mean 1.03 Welded Connection
Standard Deviation 0.08 PA-50- 10 57.91 57.94 1.00 54.29 L+F
50-2 15 56.05 56.84 1.01 53.26 L+F
20 55.5 55.88 1.01 52.36 L+F
Bolted Connection
L-Local Buckling; F-Flexural Buckling; T-Torsional PA-60- 20 66.75 70.55 1.06 66.11 L+T
Buckling 60-2 30 61.65 64.42 1.04 60.36 L+T
A regression analysis was carried out and an equation is PA-60- 20 123.7 133.76 1.08 125.33 L+T
proposed for all the 3 types of angle sections: 60-3.15 30 117.53 139.04 1.18 130.28 L+T
For plain single angle-PExp=0.97PFEA with R2 of 0.95. PA- 20 121.65 132.86 1.09 124.49 L+T
For plain double angle-PExp=0.94PFEA with R2 of 0.97. 70-70- 30 117.72 121.92 1.04 114.24 L+T
For plain single angle-PExp=0.93PFEA with R2 of 0.94. 3.15
Mean 1.06
Figures 3 and 4 shows a linear variation and the results are
in safer side. Figures 4, 5 and 6 shows the comparison of
results between PExp and PFEA. Almost all the experimental
264
Plain Single Angles
100
80
PExp (kN)
60
40 y = 0.9737x
R = 0.9469
20
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Figure 7: FEA and Experimental Deformed shapes of
PFEA (kN)
Plain Double and Starred Angles
Figure 4:PFEA versus PExp prediction for single angles
5 Experimental Study
Plain -Double Angles For this study cold-formed steel sheets of 1.2
200
mm thickness is used. No test data pertaining to
150 unsymmetrical double angles are reported in the
literature survey. Hence this study was taken to study
PExp (kN)
100
y = 0.944x
about the unsymmetrical double angles connected with
50 R = 0.972 self-drilling screws at regular intervals as per AISC
E6.2 specification under fixed end conditions. The
0 average Youngs Modulus was 205 MPa and the yield
0 50 100 150 200
stress of 250MPa. The specimens was manufactured by
PFEA (kN) press braking method to make the required cross section
Figure 5:PFEA versus PExp prediction for double angles and thereby processed. Two single specimens are joined
either by self-drilling screws or by intermittent welding
at intervals to form the required built-up section. Figure
Starred Plain Angles 8 shows the details of cross section used in the
200
experimental study. Table 5 shows the comparative
150 study on ultimate loads both from the FEA and
experimental results. Figure 9 shows the failure patterns
PExp (kN)
100 both from the experimental results and numerical

y = 0.934x
R = 0.937 simulation done for the four specimens.
50
0
0 50 100 150 200
PFEA (kN)
Figure 6: PFEA versus PExp prediction for starred angles
Figure 7 shows the deformed shapes both from the test

results and by FE analysis which proves that the FEA is
a better option in predicting the failure patterns for the Figure 8: Built-up Column section used in
cold-formed steel columns. Experimental Study
Table 5: Comparison of Experimental and Numerical

Strengths for unsymmetrical double Angles
Length PFEA PExp
Specimen PFEA/ PExp
(mm) (kN) (kN)
Bolted Condition
84x54x17x1.2 500 58.86 51.05 1.15
84x54x17x1.2 500 54.85 53.95 1.02
(Repeat)
Welded Condition
84x54x17x1.2 500 64.80 58.20 1.11 Figure 9: Failure patterns of experimental and FE
84x54x17x1.2 500 65.34 59.45 1.10 model
(Repeat)
265
6 Parametric Study in predicting the load carrying capacity of the

unsymmetrical angle sections.
Four types of cold-formed steel
unsymmetrical lipped double angle sections are chosen
for this study. This study takes into account of 100
(1) Ixx=2Iyy : (2) Ixx=2.5Iyy ratios using FEA and the
80
same is compared with the ultimate column strength
PFEA (kN)
y = 0.936x - 1.775
predicted by Direct Strength Method (DSM). Totally 60
R = 0.986
sixteen angle sections are compared using FEA and 40
DSM. Table 6 shows the mean values of ultimate load
20
from FEA to DSM of 1.14. From the results the DSM
closely predicts the failure patterns similar to the FEA. 0
0 20 40 60 80 100
The modes of failure is very much by a combination of
L+F except for the column of L=500m which fails by PDSM (kN)
local buckling mode.

Figure 10: Relationship between FEA loads and DSM
Table 6: Comparison of Experimental and Numerical loads
Strengths for unsymmetrical double Angles
Section PFEA PDSM PFEA/ Failure Summary and Conclusions
Specimen
Classification (KN) (KN) PDSM Mode Cold-formed steel plain single, double and
Ixx=2.5Iyy 40x20x10x2 54.33 46.84 1.16 L starred angles available in the literature are numerically
-500
investigated through FEA and reported in this paper.
40x20x10x2 35.94 31.77 1.13 L+F
-1000
This validated model is then used for an experimental
40x20x10x2 19.56 16.62 1.18 L+F and parametric analysis on unsymmetrical double
-1500 angles connected using self drilling screws or welded
40x20x10x2 10.44 9.51 1.10 L+F at regular intervals. Experimental observations proves
-2000 that the pattern of failure mechanism from the FEA is
Ixx=2Iyy 40x22x10x2 56.65 52.23 1.08 L similar to that of the experimental observations. Hence
-500 a detailed parametric study incorporating (1) Ixx=2Iyy :
40x22x10x2 38.35 37.58 1.02 L+F (2) Ixx=2.5Iyy ratios are taken into account by using
-1000 FEA and the same is compared with the ultimate
40x22x10x2 24.3 20.17 1.20 L+F column strength predicted by Direct Strength Method
-1500 (DSM). Ultimate load carrying capacity decreases
40x22x10x2 14.05 11.80 1.19 L+F
uniformly with the increase of slenderness ratio.
-2000
Ixx=2.5Iyy 50x26x10x2 62.26 59.15 1.05 L
A simple design equation is proposed to
-500 predict the ultimate load carrying capacity of the
50x26x10x2 48.92 41.56 1.18 L+F unsymmetrical angle sections. The equation is very
1000 accurate and hence it can be used for any built-up angle
50x26x10x2 32.88 28.62 1.15 L+F sections.
1500
50x26x10x2 19.98 17.22 1.16 L+F
2000
Ixx=2Iyy 50x29x10x2 65.45 61.26 1.07 L
2-500 References
50x29x10x2 51.48 43.07 1.20 L+F
2-1000
[1] ASTM : Standard Test Methods and
50x29x10x2 37.89 34.38 1.10 L+F
2-1500 Definitions for Mechanical Testing of Steel
50x29x10x2 27.73 21.88 1.27 L+F Products, Vol. 370(92),1996.
2-2000 [2] BS : 5950 - Part 5(1987). "Structural Use of
Mean 1.14 Steelwork in Building - Code of Practice for
Design of Cold-formed Sections", British
7 Formulation of Model Standards Institution.
[3] Ben Young. Ehab Ellobody., Design of Cold-
The relationship between the FEA and the Formed Steel Unequal Angle Compression
DSM is presented in Figure 10. The diagram shows Members, Journal of Constructional Steel
the most of the predicted ultimate loads from DSM are Research, Vol.45, pp. 330-338, 2007.
in the safer limit. The effective fit from the regression [4] Ben Young. Ju Chen., Column tests of cold-
analysis shows the coefficient of 0.99. The proposed formed steel non-symmetric lipped angle
equation clearly shows that the model is very effective sections, Journal of Constructional Steel
Research , Vol. 64 , pp. 808815, 2008.
266
[5] Beulah Gnana Ananthi ,G., Vishuvardhan ,S

and Samuel Knight ,G.M., Experimental and
Numerical Investigation on Thin Walled
Single and Starred Angle sections under
Compression, Arabian Journal for Science
and Engineering, Vol. 40 (12), pp. 3417-3427,
2015.
[6] Liu,Yi.Sabine and Chantel., Experimental
Study of Steel Single Unequal-leg Angles
under Eccentric Compression, Journal of
Constructional Steel Research, Vol. 67, pp.
919-928, 2011.
[7] NAS Manual.: Cold-formed Steel Design
Manual, American Iron and Steel Institute,
2007.
[8] Nuno Silvestre Pedro.; Dinis., B. and
Camotim , M ., Developments on the Design
of Cold-Formed Steel Angles, Journal of
Structural Engineering, Vol. 139 (5) , pp.
680-694, 2013.
[9] Vishnuvardhan .S., Behaviour Of Cold-
Formed Steel Single and Compound Angles In
Compression , Ph.D Thesis, 2006.
[10] Y,Shifferawa, N.; and Schafer, B.W., Cold-
Formed Steel Lipped and Plain Angle
Columns with Fixed Ends, Thin Walled
Structures , Vol. 80, pp. 142-152 , 2014.
267
BEHAVIOUR OF COLD-FORMED STEEL BEAM-COLUMN JOINTS

WRAPPED WITH LATEX
N. RajivGandhi1, P. S. Joanna2, Jane Helena H3
1,3
Department of Civil Engineering, College of Engineering, Guindy, Tamil Nadu, India
2
Department of Civil Engineering, Hindustan University Tamil Nadu, India
Abstract
In many cases, the load carrying capacity of steel structure depends on the beam column-joint. To determine
the strength of beam-column joint, four specimens were tested. Different types of cold formed steel section
(back to back channel and hollow) wrapped with latex and without latex were subjected to reverse cyclic
loading. The beam-column joint wrapped with latex were found to bear higher load than that of beam
column joint without latex wrapping. The strength of the beam-column joint was assessed based on the
experimental hysteresis loop and the test results were compared. It was found that beam-column joint
wrapped with latex shows an increase of up to 25% in strength.
Key Words: Steel beam-column joint, latex, wrapping, reverse cyclic loading and channel section.
--------------------------------------------------------------------***-----------------------------------------------------------
1. Introduction
Steel has several advantages over reinforced 3. Long-term durability in internal environments, and
concrete in resisting seismic loads. Steel framed freedom from long term creep and shrinkage.
structures are lighter, more flexible and possess ductility
and hysteretic energy absorption capacities making 1.1 Literature Review
them ideal system for earthquake resistance structures.
By using cold formed steel, the shape of the cross Serrette and Ogunfunmi [1] investigated the
section can be chosen to maximize the strength and performance of 2.44 m x 2.44 m strap braced frame
stiffness under a particular load action giving lighter and through experiment under lateral in-plane loading.
structurally efficient section. Screw connected wall constructed with 50.8 mm x 0.88
Cold formed tubular sections are generally made by mm strap on one face were tested (3 specimens), in
roll forming the section with a single sheet and seam addition to walls with strap braces on one face and
welding along the longitudinal edges. Square hollow gypsum sheathing board on the order (4 specimens). A
section and rectangular hollow section are made by first single test specimen with braces on both sides of the
making a circular tube and then rolling it to the required wall was also included in the study. In all cases, it was
shape. Generally thin steel sheets of thickness available necessary to bolt an 11mm thick steel clip angle to the
in the range of 0.4mm to 7mm are cold formed into chord studs to act as a hold-down device. Cold-formed
desired structural shape. This makes structures with cold steel gusset plates were used to connect the strap braces
formed steel section easy to transport and erect. to the stud-track corner locations. It was shown that wall
Under seismic loading the failures occur at the with bracing on one side alone failed by excessive out-
connections between the beam and column, it resulting of-plane deformation, which is not a favorable scenario
in loss of structural integrity. Fully bolted or riveted in terms of maintaining lateral stability of the braced
connections tend to be large and expensive, and hence frames, nor ductile performance under inelastic shear
fully welded connection or a combination of welding deformations. It was reported that gypsum panels
and bolting are most frequently used. provide a substantial increase in shear capacity
Some of the advantages are listed below: 1. compared with the 50.8mm wide straps; however, the
Dimensional accuracy and capability to be formed to a use of gypsum panels and strap braces together is not
particular shape for specific applications. practical. It was also noted that in the design of crossed
2. Lightness, which is particularly important for braced walls the engineer must be concerned with strap
buildings in poor ground conditions. yield strength in excess of the minimum specified value,
which may result in connection or chord stud failure.
-------------------------------------------------------
1
Research Scholar, rajivgandhi.yadav@gmail.com
2
Professor, joanna@hindustanuniv.ac.in
3
Associate Professor, jane@annauniv.edu
268
N. RajivGandhi, et. al.
Yu et al [2] presented an extensive experimental Nonlinear finite element analysis demonstrated the
investigation on bolted moment connections between effectiveness of the improved connection details which
cold formed steel sections. A total 16 internal and significantly reduce the stress concentration and plastic
external beam-column sub frame with various strain demands at the beam flange groove weld.
connection configurations were tested under lateral
loads. It is found that for those six beam-column sub- Cyclic testing of three full-scale specimens was
frame with large bolt pitches and thick gusset plates in conducted to verify the proposed connection details. All
the connections, flexural failure of connected sections is the specimens successfully developed ductile behavior
always critical. The moment resistance of the with no brittle fracture by forming the plastic hinging of
connections attains at least 85% of the moment the beam away from the beam-column interface. The
capacities of the connected sections. widened flange and no weld access hole details are
An analysis and design method for internal force effective in reducing the potential of brittle fracture.
distribution of the connections is presented. Moreover,
a non-linear finite element model of the beam-column 1.2 Need and Scope of Investigation
sub-frame incorporating the effect of semi-rigid joints is
Ductile steel frames with higher energy absorption
also presented. Moment joint rotation curves of the sub-
capacity are generally more suitable for resistance
frame are found to follow closely the curve obtained
against dynamic loads. Research in the field of cold
from tests. Furthermore, a semi-empirical formula for
formed steel structures subjected to cyclic loadings have
flexibility prediction of the bolted moment connections
received relatively limited attention. Also, methods to
is also proposed after careful calibration against test
increase the strength of cold-formed steel beam-column
data.
joint has not received due attention. Hence there is a
It is demonstrated that the proposed rules are highly
need to improve ductility of the connection. the
effective for predicting the structural performance of
performance of cold formed steel frames wrapped with
cold-formed steel frame with bolted moment
latex subjected to cyclic loading has been studied.
connections. Hence, structural engineers are encouraged
Natural rubber is a polymer of isoprene with the
to design and build cold formed steel structures with
chemical formula (C5H8) n. To put it more simply. It is
bolted moment connections to achieve practical and
made of many thousands of basic C5H8 units (the
efficient construction.
monomer of isoprene) loosely joined to make long,
tangled chains. These chains of molecules can be pulled
Kwon et al [3] presented a series of connection tests
apart and untangled fairly easily, but they spring straight
composed of closed cold-formed steel section to
back together if you release them and that is what makes
investigate the performance of connections constituting
rubber elastic.
a pitched roof portal frame. The flexure strength of the
The primary objective of the present study is to
section was investigated first and the structural behavior
investigate the effectiveness of rubber sheets in
of the connections including the moment rotation
enhancing the behaviour of cold formed steel frames
relation, the yield and the ultimate moment capacity of
under the reversed cyclic loading.
the connections are studied experimentally. The
Four specimens were tested under reversed cyclic
connection test specimens consisted of column base,
loading. Two specimens are back to back channel
eave and apex connection of the portal frame. The main
sections (one is wrapped with latex and another one
factor of the connection tests were the thickness and the
without latex) and another two are hollow sections (one
shape of the mild steel connection element. Finally, the
is wrapped with latex and another one without latex).
portal frame was tested under both constant vertical and
The lateral force-lateral displacement curves of the
increasing horizontal loads to failure. The experimental
portal frame were plotted. Comparisons of energy
results were compared with the numerical analysis
dissipation of the control specimens and specimens with
results. The semi rigid connection concept was
latex were carried out.
considered for the analysis of the portal frame using the
secant stiffness of the connections, which were
1.3 Application
estimated from the moment rotation curve of the
connection tested. 1. Lighting and transmission towers: These towers
are often made from thin tubular or angle sections that
Cheng-Chih Chen et al [4] presented analytical and are cold-formed.
experimental studies on the cyclic behavior of beam-to- 2. Motorway crash barriers: These relatively thin
column moment connections used in steel column-tree steel shapes are primarily designed for strength, but also
moment-resisting frames. The column-tree system is have properties of energy absorption under impact by
joining the column-trees and link beams in the field permitting gross deformation.
while the column-trees are fabricated in the shop by 3. Silos for agricultural use: Silo walls are often
welding stub beams to the column. The proposed ductile stiffened and supported by cold-formed steel shapes.
column-tree connections have two distinctively 4. Culverts Curved profiled claddings are often
improved connection details, which are no weld access used as culverts and storm pipes. Other major non-
hole detail and widened flange of the stub beam. structural applications in building include such diverse
269
uses as dry walls and partitions, garage doors, and

ducting for heating and ventilating systems.
2. Experimental Procedure
Experiments were conducted on four cold formed

steel frames of height 1.20m and 1.50m width with tack
welded connections. The frame consists of square
hollow tubular and channel sections. The angle plate
used for all the specimens is ISA 50X50X6. The fillet
weld is used for connecting cleat angle. Two specimens
were tested with latex and two specimens without latex.
3mm thick rubber latex sheet was used for wrapping the
beam. Hemlock solution was used for pasting the rubber
sheet on the beam-column junction. Then wrapped beam Figure 2.2: Details of beam-column 2
is steam cured at a temperature of 120C with 3.5
kg/cm pressure. The details of beam-column section are
given in Figure 2.1-Figure 2.4
Table 1: Details of beam-column section
Type of Size of
Description Variables
section specimen
Back to Without
BC-1 back 40 x 40 x 3 latex
channel
section
Back to With latex
back 40 x 40 x 3 wrapped at
BC-2 channel joints
section Figure 2.3: Details of beam-column 3
BC-3 Hollow 80 x 80 x 3 Without
section latex
BC-4 Hollow With latex
section 80 x 80 x 3 wrapped at
joints
Figure 2.4: Details of beam-column 4
Load is applied to the test specimen with the help of

a hydraulic actuator of capacity 200 kN with a stroke
length of 100mm and a loading frame with a hydraulic
jack of 50 kN. 200 kN actuator was used to apply
reversed cyclic load on the specimens. Instrumentation
Figure 2.1: Details of beam-column 1 included linear variable displacement transducers
(LVDT) for lateral displacement measurement at the top
of the column and a load cell attached to the actuator
was used for measurement of lateral reversed cyclic
loads. The forward lateral load applied by the actuator
was taken as positive and the backward lateral load
applied by the actuator was taken as negative. The load
cycle levels adopted for the specimens were 0.5, 1,
270
1.5, 2, 2.5, 3, 3.5, 4, 4.5, 5, 5.5, 6kN,

7kN, 8kN, 9kN, 10kN.
3.1 Hysteresis Loops for Various Specimens:
3.1.1 Beam-Column 1
The experimental lateral load deflection curve for

the beam-column joint is shown in the Figure 3.1.1 At a
load of 6 kN, yielding occurs and buckling failure occurs
near the joint.
Figure 3.1.3: Experimental hysteresis loop
3.1.4 Beam-Column 4
the beam-column joint is shown in the Figure 3.1.4 At a
load of 10.1kN, yielding of the frame occurs. No
external failure was noticed near the joint.
3.1.2 Beam-Column 2

the beam-column joint is shown in the Figure 3.1.2 at a
load of 8 kN, yielding occurs and buckling failure occurs
near the joint.

3.2 Strength Capacity Interaction
There is 68% increase in the strength ability (to hold
or do something) for the back to back channel with latex
wrapped than that of the back to back channel without
latex wrapped and there is no visible change in latex.

3.1.3 Beam-Column 3
the beam-column joint is shown in the Figure 3.1.3. At
a load of 9.2kN, yielding of the frame occurs. No
external failure was noticed near the joint.
Figure 3.2.1: Comparison of strength capacity
271
There is 9% increase in the strength ability (to hold

or do something) for the hollow section with latex
wrapped than that of the hollow section without latex
wrapped and there is no visible change in latex.
Figure 3.3.2 (a): Comparison of Energy Dissipation
Figure 3.2.2: Comparison of strength capacity
3.3 Energy Dissipation
The energy dissipated by tested specimen during

reversed cyclic load testing was calculated as the area
enclosed by its hysteresis loop. The energy dissipation
of the channel section with latex wrapping is 16% more
than the plain channel section. This proves that the latex Figure 3.3.2 (b): Comparison of Energy Dissipation
performance of the channel section is expected to be
superior to that of the section without latex wrapping 3.4 Comparison of Ductility
The ductility of the channel section with rubber

latex wrapping is 14% more than the channel section
without wrapping. This proves that the latex
performance of the channel section is superior to that of
the section without latex wrapping.
Figure 3.3.1 (a): Comparison of Energy Dissipation
Figure 3.4.1: Comparison of ductility
The ductility of the hollow section with rubber latex

Figure 3.3.1 (b): Comparison of Energy Dissipation wrapping is 18% more than the hollow section without
wrapping.
The energy dissipation of the hollow section with
latex wrapping is 3% more than the plain hollow section.
This proves that the latex performance of the channel
section is expected to be superior to that of the section
without latex wrapping.
272
REFERENCES
1. Serretts R, Ogunfunmi K. shear resistance of

gypsum-sheathed light gauge steel stud walls.
Journals of structural Engineering ASCE 1996;
122(4):383-9.
2. Yu W.K., K. F Chung, M.F.Wong (2005)

Analysis of Bolted Moment Connections In
Cold-Formed Steel Beam-Column Sub-
Frames Journal of Constructional Steel
Research Vol 61 pp1332-1352.
3. Kwon Y.B, H S Chung, G D Kim (2006)

Experiments of Cold-Formed Steel
Figure 3.4.2: Comparison of ductility Connections and Portal Frames Journal of
Structural Engineering Vol 32 No 4, pp 600-
4. Conclusion 607
In this project, an experimental investigation was 4. Cheng-Chich, Chen Chun-Chou Lin and
carried out to assess the behavior of latex wrapped steel Chieh-hsiang Lin (2006) Ductile Moment
beam-columns. Four experiments were conducted on Connections Used in Steel Column-Tree
cold formed steel columns with and without wrapping. Moment Resisting Frames Journal of
The specimens were subjected to reverse cyclic loading. Constructional Steel Research Vol 62 No. 8
pp.793-801.
The load deflection hysteresis curves of the frame
with rubber latex sheet are compared with the frame
without latex wrapping and the following conclusions
are drawn
Strength capacity of the beam-column joints made
with two channel section back to back and wrapped
with rubber latex sheet is 68 % more than the beam-
column without wrapping.
Strength capacity of the beam-column joints made
with hollow open section and wrapped with rubber
latex sheet is 9 % more than the beam-column
without wrapping.
Thus, there is an average of 25% increase in strength
of the beam-column with latex wrapping.
Energy dissipation of the beam-column joints made
with two channel section back to back and wrapped
with rubber latex sheet is 16 % more than the beam-
Energy dissipation of the beam-column joints made
with hollow section and wrapped with rubber latex
sheet is 3 % more than the beam-column without
wrapping.
Thus there is an average of 8.5% increase in strength
Ductility of the beam-column joints made with two
channel section back to back and wrapped with
rubber latex sheet is 14% more than the beam-
Ductility of the beam-column joints made with
hollow open section and wrapped with rubber latex
sheet is 18 % more than the beam-column without
wrapping.
Thus there is an average of 16 % increase in strength
273
COMPARATIVE STUDY OF FIRE RESISTANT DESIGN OF

STEEL STRUCTURES AS PER IS800:2007, AS4100:1998,
AISC360:2010 AND EN1993-1-2
Dhara Shah1, Janak Shah2

1
Faculty of technology, CEPT University, Ahmedabad, Gujarat 380009, India
2
Faculty of Technology, CEPT University, Ahmedabad, India
Construction of any structure consists of various stages and layers, one of which is fire protection. Fire
leads to temperature rise in structural members which in turn reduces their strength. Current fire
protection strategy integrates a combination of active and passive fire protection measures but very less
focus is given to the fire resistant design approach. This study focuses on comparison of fire resistant
design method for steel structures as per Indian standard (IS800), Australian standard (AS4100), Euro
code (EN1993-1-2) and American standard (AISC360). The study includes design of simply supported
steel beam, laterally supported as well as unsupported, with span varying from 3m to 7m, using
IS800:2007. The fire resistant design of the beam is done for protected and unprotected case, and is
compared as per different standards. It is concluded that AISC code gives conservative value, due to the
consideration of higher safety factor in the code. Further, Indian code gives economical value, but
restricts temperature value by 750 C and in most cases of laterally supported beam, the value of critical
temperature is higher than 750 C and hence we cant use the result of Indian code. Further, Indian code
fails to provide clear representation of fire resistant design for protected steel members.
Keywords: Fire resistant design, steel structures, IS800:2007, AS4100:1998, AISC360:2010, EN1993-1-2
1 Introduction Fire leads to temperature rise in structural members

which in turn reduces their strength. Thus it is necessary
Fire protection is a key element in all structures.
that structural members remain intact during evacuation
Current fire protection strategy integrates a combination
of personnel and even after collapse, it will not trigger
of active and passive fire protection measures. Active
the collapse of structure. Different countries have
fire protection measures consider the use of fire alarms,
already done sufficient work to find the temperature rise
fire extinguishers, sprinklers, smoke detection devices,
in structural member or structure as a whole during fire.
emergency exits, etc., which might be manually or
They also found reduction in strength of a member with
automatically operated, based on the principle of early
increase in steel temperature.
fire detection and reduced risk of large fire. It is
A general approach to fire safety of structure is to
installed mainly for the escape of people from buildings
provide active fire safety measures. Very less focus is
in case of fire and hence will not protect the structure.
given to fire resistant design approach. Mostly designers
Passive fire measures are actually structural fire
provide protection directly to structural members.
protection systems within the structural system of a
Looking to IS800:2007 [2], code provides equations to
structure with the use of certain materials such as spray
calculate the temperature rise for unprotected steel
protection, board protection, intumescent coatings, etc.
members on the basis of standard fire test data.
Passive system also incorporates layout of escape
However, for protected members code has provided
routes, fire brigade access routes along with control of
table for structural steel beam (406mm x 176mm) and
combustible materials of construction [1]. In past, many
steel column (203 mm x 203 mm), with no information
failures have occurred due to fire including:
regarding protection of other sections in beams and
The World Trade Center(WTC), New York, columns. The code has more emphasis on testing of
September 9 2001 members which is not possible all time. On the other
The Mumbai High North Platform, Indian hand Euro code and American code give equations for
Ocean, July 27 2005 temperature rise in the steel on the basis of heat transfer
Interstate 580, Oakland, April 29 2007 theory. Thus it is vital to compare results of Indian
Faculty of architecture building, Netherland, standards with other standards.
May 13 2008
274
Dhara Shah and Janak Shah
This study focuses on comparison of fire resistant 1.20

design method for steel structures as per Indian standard 1.00
Yield Stress Ratio

IS800, Australian standard - AS4100 [3], Eurocode - IS800-2007
0.80
EN1993-1-2 [4] and American standard - AISC360 [5]. EN1993-1-2
The study includes design of simply supported steel 0.60
AISC360-2010
beam, laterally supported as well as unsupported at 0.40
room temperature (20C), with span varying from 3m to AS4100-1998
7m, using IS800-2007. For calculation of temperature 0.20
rise in steel members, ISO 834 [6] standard fire is used. 0.00
The fire resistant design of the beam is done for 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400
protected and unprotected case, and is compared as per Steel Temperature (T) C
different standards listed above.
Figure 1: Variation in yield stress of steel with
temperature
2 Structural steel and its properties
The time for which the structural member will 2. Modulus of elasticity
support the applied loads when subjected to a standard
Like yield stress, modulus of elasticity decreases
fire ISO 834, is known as Period of Structural Adequacy
with increase in temperature [7]. Indian code and
(PSA) of a member. Vital material properties of steel
Australian code provides equations for variation in
structures related to heating and load bearing capacity of
modulus of elasticity of steel at elevated temperature, as
steel structures are the thermal properties of steel as a
recommended by the French Technical Centre for steel
function of temperature and mechanical properties of
construction CTICM. The equation is:
steel at elevated temperature. Thermal properties of
H(,) ,
steel do change with varying temperature including = >. / I ! J , Q #89:;##/? @# < A R
H(-/) -///KLMN OP
thermal elongation, specific heat and thermal >>//
conductivity. These properties are more or less uniform #7//? @ (3)
Y
S(U) VW&NX6Z[[[O
#=# ##when##^00F G# < T < # 1000F G
throughout different standards. Difference lies in the
mechanical properties of the steel across the standards S(%&) U6\].\
which are explained below. (4)
where,
2.1 Yield stress _(E) = Modulus of elasticity of steel at T F G
_(20) = Modulus of elasticity of steel at 20F G (room
Yield stress decreases with increase in temperature temperature)
and is independent of steel grade [7]. Indian code and E = temperature of steel in oG
Australian code provides equations for variation in yield American standard and Eurocode provide reduction
stress of steel at elevated temperature based on the factors for variation in modulus of elasticity of steel at
regression analysis of data from elevated temperature elevated temperature. Figure 2 shows the comparative
tensile tests conducted in Australia and Britain. The chart of modulus of elasticity ratio of steel v/s
equation is: temperature as per selected standards.
!"# ($)
= 1.0###when##0' C# < T < # 215' C# (1) 1.20
!"# (%&)
Modulus of Elasticity Ratio
*+# (,) 3/46,

= ###89:;##->4? @# < A < # 3/4? @#
1.00
*+# (-/) 73/ IS800-2007
0.80
(2) EN1993-1-2
0.60
where,
BD# (E) = yield stress of steel at T F G
AISC360-2010
0.40
BD# (20) = yield stress of steel at 20F G (room
AS4100-1998
0.20
temperature)
E = temperature of steel in oG 0.00
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400
On the other hand, American standard and Eurocode
Steel Temperature (T) C
provide reduction factors for stress-strain relationship of
steel at elevated temperature. Figure 1 shows the Figure 2: Variation in modulus of elasticity of steel
comparative chart of yield stress ratio of steel v/s with temperature
temperature as per selected standards.
From the comparison, it is observed that Eurocode
provides higher values of yield stress at elevated
temperature whereas Australian code and Indian code
provides higher values for modulus of elasticity at
elevated temperature.
275
3 Fire resistant design cd = ratio of the design action on the member under the
3.1 Load combinations design load for fire to the design capacity (Rd) of the
member at room temperature
The most likely loads at the time of a fire are much Rd = Design strength of member at room temperature =
lower than the maximum design loads specified for Ru / m
normal temperature conditions. It is generally assumed Ru = Ultimate strength of member at room temperature
that there is no explosion or other structural damage m = Partial safety factor for strength
associated with the fire. Table 1 lists partial safety
factors for dead load and imposed load as per different The equation for critical steel temperature as per
standards [8] [9], to be considered for fire resistant EN1993-1-2 is given as
X
design of steel members. fgi = ja.1a lnk # b 1r I st2 (6)
Table 1: Partial load safety factors as per different &.WVmo#p[# ].q]]
standards
Partial load factors where,
Standard cr = Critical temperature in steel
0 = degree of utilization
Dead Load Live Load
(DL) (LL) 3.3 Temperature rise in unprotected steel member
IS 800 1 0.35
AS 4100 1 0.4 As per IS800 and AS4100, time (t) to reach critical
EN 1991 1 0.3 temperature (T1) is given by the equations obtained from
ASCE 1.2 0.5 regression analysis of British temperature data for
unprotected steel. The equations are
a) Four sided exposure conditions
&.%X]Ux
u = bs.v I 0.02^j#E` I
3.2 Shape factor (Am/V or Hp/A)
(7)
yz{
It is defined as the ratio of heated perimeter (Hp) to
that of the cross-sectional area of the steel member (A). b) Three sided exposure conditions
&.o]]Ux
It is an important parameter in determining the rise of
u = b5.2 I 0.0221#E` I (8)
temperature of steel section. Higher the value of Hp/A, yz{
higher is rate of heating. The value of Hp depends on
the type of protection (sprayed insulation, intumescent where,
paint or board insulation which boxes the section) and t = time from the start of the test, in min.
whether the member is heated on four sides or three Tl = Limiting steel temperature in 0C ; 5000C <= T <=
sides. Eurocode uses section factor - Am/V instead of 7500C
shape factor where Am is the surface area of the member Ksm = Exposed surface area to mass ratio in 103 mm2/kg
per unit length (m2/m) and V is the volume of the ; 2 x 103 mm2/kg <= Ksm <= 35 x 103 mm2/kg = (Hp/A)
member per unit length (m3/m). The unit of Hp/A x 106 / 7.85 mm2/kg
(Am/V) is m-1. Indian code does not provide For Tl < 5000C, code suggests linear interpolation based
considerable information for shape factor. American on the time at 5000C and an initial temperature of 200C
at t =0. Design temperatures for different fire resistance
standard uses W/D ratio where W is the weight per unit
time for beams and columns are found in the British
length and D is the heat perimeter. When we consider
standard BS5950 Part-8 [10], which were used as the
the whole equation of heat transfer for Euro code and
basis of the regression analysis. In New Zealand
American code, this factor is similar because in Euro
code density and shape factor have been used separately standard, upper temperature limit has been increased to
850 C from its original value owing to the research
while in American standard, both have been combined
performed in recent years [7]. The Indian code and
and given as one factor i.e W/D ratio.
Australian code has not revised the upper temperature
limit and it remains at 750 C. As per EN1993-1-2, the
3.3 Limiting steel temperature / Critical temperature
equation is given as

It is the temperature above which the residual
|f}~ = { #~ #| (9)
strength of member is not useful. Indian code and #
Australian code provides equation for critical
temperature based on the yield stress of steel. Eurocode where,
gives formula based on the degree of utilization factor = correction factor for the shadow effect
which is same as the load factor, given by the Indian = section factor for the unprotected member
code. American code is silent about the value of critical (1/m)
temperature. The equation for critical steel temperature 2
as per IS800 and AS4100 is given as Am = surface area of member per unit length (m /m)
E` = a05 b â0#cd (5) V = volume of member per unit length (m3/m)
where, G} = specific heat of steel (J/kg k)
276
hnet,d = design value of net heat transfer per unit area

2 4 Problem formulation
(W/m )
t = time interval (seconds) For calculation of temperature rise in steel, excel
spreadsheet has been used. The basic data has been
= unit mass of steel, 7850 kg/m3
a taken into consideration are:
Steel Grade : Fe 410
As per AISC 360, the equation is given as DL : 20 kN/m

|E = #(#E b # E )| (10)
z #()
LL : 10 kN/
Type of beam : Simply Supported
where, Member spanning from 3m to 7m have been taken for
|E #= temperature rise in steel (C) calculation. Analysis of all beams for laterally supported
TF= fire temperature (K) and laterally unsupported has been carried out using IS
Ts= steel temperature (K) 800:2007. The sections obtained for different spans as
t = time interval (s) per design are given in Table 2.
W= Steel section weight per unit length (kg/m)
D = heat perimeter (m) Table 2: Steel sections obtained for different spans
= heat transfer coefficient (W/m2 C) Span (m) Section
Cs= specific heat of steel (J/kg C)
3 ISMB 350
3.4 Temperature rise in protected steel member
4 ISMB 400
As per IS800 and AS4100, time to reach critical
temperature shall be determined by a suitable series of 5 ISMB 500
fire test or from result of a single test. Thus these codes
provide the value for critical temperature on the basis of 6 ISMB 550
test with appropriate protection.
As per EN1993-1-2, time to reach critical temperature is 7 ISMB 600
given by equation as For fire resistant design of protected members,

# (##~ 6#~ ) gypsum board has been used. Typical properties of
|~ = #| b # (>/## b >)|~ (11) gypsum board is shown in Table 3.
@ # #(> )

#
Table 3: Properties of Gypsum board
= ( ) (12)
# # Material Gypsum board
where, p
800 kg/m3
= section factor for the fire protected section (1/m)
G = specific heat of protection material form (J/kg k)

cp 1700 J/kg/K
= unit mass of fire protection material (Kg/m3) p 0.2 W/mK
| = time interval (seconds) dp 20 mm
#f~ = ambient gas temperature at time t (C)
f}~ = steel temperature at time t (C) 5 Analysis and results
= thickness of protection material (m) Results obtained from fire resistant design as per
= thermal conductivity of fire protection system
different standards are shown below for unprotected and
protected steel beams with laterally supported and
(W/mK) unsupported, from span 3m to 7m, showing critical
As per AISC360, time to reach critical temperature is values in terms of critical temperature, time to reach
given by equation as critical temperature and design moment.
(, 6#, )
|, = J# @ # Q | (13)
@ #N O #
Table 4: Comparison of critical values for unprotected
-# 3m beam
where,
Laterally
Laterally Supported
Ts =temperature rise in steel (C) Unsupported
G = specific heat of steel (J/kg C) Critic

Design
Critic
Design
= unit mass of fire protection material (Kg/m3)
al Tim al Tim
Standards Mome Mome
Temp e Temp e
= thickness of protection material (m)
nt nt
. .
- = thermal conductivity of fire protection system

Min Min
(C) kNm (C) kNm
. .
(W/mC)
| = time interval (seconds)
277
IS800:20 839.0 29.4 775.4 22.6 27.0 AS4100- 778.9 33.2 625.0 19.2 112.5
27.02 112.58
07 9 6 2 5 2 1998 7 5 2 5 8
AS4100- 838.6 29.3 772.7 22.5 27.5 AISC360 657.3 24.2 544.6 18.5
27.58 130.5 130.5
1998 7 8 2 5 8 -2010 5 8 4 8
AISC360 708.1 23.0 648.0 19.1 32.6 EN1993- 751.7 30.1 18.0
32.63 103.5 640.4 103.5
-2010 6 8 4 5 3 1-2 3 2 2
EN1993- 785.0 29.9 741.7 24.5 25.8
25.88
1-2 1 7 8 4 8
Table 8: Comparison of critical values for unprotected

7m beam
Table 5: Comparison of critical values for unprotected Laterally
4m beam Laterally Supported
Unsupported
Laterally Critic Critic
Laterally Supported Design Design
Unsupported Standard al Tim al Tim
Mome Mome
Critic Critic s Temp e Temp e
Design Design nt nt
al Tim al Tim . .
Standards Mome Mome
Temp e Temp e Min
nt nt (C) Min. kNm (C) kNm
. . .
Min Min IS800:20 774.1 34.6 18.5
(C) kNm (C) kNm 151.3 592.7 151.3
. . 07 5 7 7
IS800:20 780.5 29.3 19.7 48.2 AS4100- 34.5 586.3 18.3 154.3
48.21 677.4 771.5 154.37
07 6 7 4 1 1998 3 8 2 7
AS4100- 777.9 29.2 672.6 19.5 49.2 AISC360 648.3 24.9 18.3 177.6
49.21 177.63 512.5
1998 8 5 7 7 1 -2010 6 4 1 3
AISC360 656.0 21.5 576.2 17.4 EN1993- 744.5 30.2 620.2 17.8 140.8
58 58 140.88
-2010 1 6 9 8 1-2 3 5 5 3 8
EN1993- 705.0 19.7 664.6
46 17.4 46
1-2 2 6 9
Table 9: Comparison of critical values for protected 3m

Table 6: Comparison of critical values for unprotected beam
5m beam Laterally
Laterally Laterally Supported
Laterally Supported Unsupported
Unsupported
Critic Design Critic Design
Critic Critic Standar Tim
Design Design al Time Mome al Mome
al Tim al Tim ds e
Standards Mome Mome Temp. nt Temp. nt
Temp e Temp e
nt nt
. . Min
(C) Min. kNm (C) kNm
Min Min .
(C) kNm (C) kNm
. . AISC36 121.8 96.6
708.16 32.63 646.21 32.63
IS800:20 839.0 29.4 775.4 22.6 27.0 0-2010 2 4
27.02
07 9 6 2 5 2 EN1993 123.7 97.4
718.55 25.88 648.37 25.88
AS4100- 838.6 29.3 772.7 22.5 27.5 -1-2 5 2
27.58
1998 7 8 2 5 8
AISC360 708.1 23.0 648.0 19.1 32.6
32.63
-2010 6 8 4 5 3 Table 10: Comparison of critical values for protected
EN1993- 785.0 29.9 741.7 24.5 25.8 4m beam
25.88
1-2 1 7 8 4 8
Laterally Supported Laterally Unsupported
Critic Critic
Design Design
Standar al al Tim
Table 7: Comparison of critical values for unprotected Time Mome Mome
ds Temp Temp e
nt nt
6m beam . .
Laterally (C) Min. kNm (C) Min. kNm
Laterally Supported
Unsupported
Critic Critic AISC36 110.0
Design Design 652.05 58 576.29 84.85 58
al Tim al Tim 0-2010 7
Standards Mome Mome
Temp e Temp e
nt nt EN1993 140.0 109.1
. . 760.73 46 676.09 46
-1-2 4 6
Min Min
(C) kNm (C) kNm
. .
IS800:20 781.4 33.3 630.6 19.4 110.3
110.33
07 9 7 2 7 3
278
Table 11: Comparison of critical values for protected (T3 > T4 > T5 > T6 > T7)
5m beam where Tn = Critical temperature for n m span,
n = 3 m to 7 m
Laterally Supported Laterally Unsupported
Critical temperature in a member reduces with
Critic Critic reduction in section factor (Hp/A) i.e. steel member
Design Design
Standar al al Tim
ds Temp
Time Mome
Temp e
Mome with low section factor will take more time to reach
nt nt critical temperature.
. .
For fire resistant design of steel structures, AISC
(C) Min. kNm (C) Min. kNm
code gives conservative value, due to the
AISC36 108.4 consideration of higher safety factor in the code.
632.54 90.63 490.38 70.74 90.63
0-2010 1 Indian code offers economical value for fire
EN1993 151.4 113.9 resistant design, but restricts temperature value by
788.84 71.88 686.3 71.88
-1-2 1 8 750 C and in most cases of laterally supported
beam, the value of critical temperature is higher
Table 12: Comparison of critical values for protected than 750 C. Hence we cannot refer the result of
6m beam Indian code.
Laterally
Laterally Supported
Unsupported
7 References
Critic Design Critic Design
Standar Tim [1] A. Gohil, "Fire resistance of steel structures, M.Sc.
al Time Mome al Mome
ds e
Temp. nt Temp. nt Thesis," Brunel University, London, UK, 2015.
Min [2] IS800, "General construction in steel- code of
(C) Min. kNm (C) kNm
.
practice," Bureau of Indian Standard, New Delhi,
AISC36 89.0 2007.
657.35 126.1 130.5 546.07 130.5
0-2010 6
EN1993 181.1 135. [3] AS4100, "Steel structures," STANDARDS
834.88 103.5 731.26 103.5
-1-2 5 5 ASSOCIATION OF AUSTRALIA, Homebush
NSW 2140, Australia, 1998.
Table 13. Comparison of critical values for protected [4] EN1993-1-2, "Eurocode 3: Design of steel
7m beam structures - Part 1-2: General rules -Structural fire
Laterally Supported Laterally Unsupported design," European Comlmittee For Standardization,
Brussels, 2005
Critic Critic
Design Design
Standar al al Tim [5] ANSI/AISC360, "Specification for Structural Steel
Time Mome Mome
ds Temp Temp e
.
nt
.
nt Buildings," American Institute Of Steel
Construction, Chicago, Illinois, US, 2010.
(C) Min. kNm (C) Min. kNm
[6] ISO834-1, "Fire resistant tests - Elements of
AISC36
647.97
129.6
177.63 512.5 18.31
177.6 building consruction part-1, General requirements,"
0-2010 6 3 Indian Standard Organization, London, 1999.
EN1993 143.7 140.8
847.8 193.7 140.88 742.24 [7] K. Lewis, " Fire design of steel members - Fire
-1-2 8 8
engineering research report," University of
Canterbury, Christchurch, New Zealand, 2000.
6 Conclusions [8] EN1991-1-1, "Eurocode 1: Actions on structures -

Part 1-1: General actions -Densities, self-weight,
For unprotected members, Indian standard proposes imposed loads for buildings," European Comlmittee
higher PSA along with critical temperature amongst For Standardization, Brussels, 2002.
all codes. Australian standard provides almost
similar values as Indian standard; the minor [9] NIST Technical Note 1842, "Structural Design for
difference in values is due to the partial load safety Fire: A Survey of Building Codes and Standards,"
factor as per the standards. National Institute of Standards and Technology, US,
For unprotected members, AISC code provides less 2014.
value of PSA. Main reason for this is the higher [10] BS5950-8, "Structural use of steelwork in building-
partial load safety factors in the standard. Part 8 : Code of Practice for fire resistant design,"
For protected members, Euro code gives more PSA British Standards Institution, UK, 2003.
before failure when compared to American code.
With increase in span of the member, load ratio
increases there by reducing the limiting
temperature. Thus it can be explained for T n by:
279
MOMENT ROTATION RESPONSE FOR SEMI-RIGID

CONNECTIONS
Venkatesh Patnana1, A Y Vyavahare2, L M Gupta3
1, 2, 3
Department of Applied Mechanics, VNIT, Nagpur, 440010, India
In this paper, mathematical models available for eight commonly used beam-to-column connections like
single web angle, double web angle, top and seat angle with & without web angles, extended end plate,
flushed end plate and header plate connections are studied from literature. Connection analysis program is
developed to obtain moment rotation response of each type of connection using empirical data available
models in the literature. Bjorhovde's classification system is used for the classification of the connections.
Each type of connection as listed are analyzed, moment-rotation response of each connection is obtained
using available models in literature, and results are compared.
Keywords: Semi- rigid, moment-rotation, beam-to-column connection, classification.
1. General Introduction Moment-rotation models express the relation

between moment and rotation through curve fitting
In general, much importance was given to the constants and standardization parameters. The following
design of structural elements like bending members, are the moment-rotation relationships proposed by
compression members and tension members. There researchers.
should be a proper connection arrangement in the
structure to transfer the loading from one member to
2.1 Frey-Morris, 1975
another. Connection should not fail before the member
failure, & importance shall be given to design of Frey and Morris [1] proposed a polynomial form of
connection as that of connecting members. moment rotation model for single web (SWA), double
Traditionally connection is assumed as either web (DWA), top and seat angle w/o web angle (TS),
pinned or fixed to reduce the complexity in the analysis end plate with (EEC) and w/o column (EEP) stiffeners,
and design. From the past research of experimental, header plate (HP) and T-stub (Ts) connection.
analytical, mechanical, empirical, numerical and f 1 3 5
= C1 (KM) +C2 (KM) +C3 (KM) (1)
informational models, it is evident that the connection in
M - Moment available at the connection,
neither pinned nor fixed. The behavior of connection
falls in between pinned and rigid, known as semi-rigid f - Relative rotation between b/w beam and column,
type. C1, C2 & C3 - Curve fitting constants,
Magnitude and effect of semi-rigidity in the
K - Standardization parameter.
structure will be known by observing the moment
rotation response of connection at the joint.
Experimental observations show that different types of 2.2 Prabha et al., 2015
connections possess stiffness between ideally pinned
In Ref. [2] a polynomial form of moment rotation
and rigid. Semi-rigid connection not only changes the
model for double web angle connection is proposed. By
moment distribution but also make the frame to drift,
considering the air gap between column flange and
accordingly increase the P - D effect in analysis.
beam web as 10 mm and 7 mm. Frey-Morris polynomial
The magnitude of the maximum bending moment model is modified Prabha et al. in [2].
in the beam changes due to semi-rigidity of beam-to- 3 3 4 5
column connection. The behaviour of frame depends f = 75.043(KM)-1.58310 (KM) +9.81610 (KM) (2)
upon the semi-rigid connection characteristics. The
reduced bending moment will result in the reduction in
the size of the member there by reducing the weight of 2.3 Ang-Morris, 1984
structure.
Ramberg-Osgood power model [3] to describe the
2. Mathematical Moment Rotation Models stress-strain modified in Ref. [5], accompanying
1
M. Tech Scholar, jesvenkatesh137@gmail.com
2
Assistant Professor, ayv@apm.vnit.ac.in
3
Professor, lmgupta@apm.vnit.ac.in
280
Venkatesh Patnana, et al.
standardization functions for single web angle, double My, k0 and r are the yielding strength, initial
web angle, top and seat angle, header plate and strap stiffness and the shape parameter respectively.
angle connection.
f KM n -1
KM 2.9 Krishnamurthy et al., 1979
= 1+ (3)
f0 [KM]0 [KM]0 Krishnamurthy et al., [9] conducted numerical
analysis using FEM and developed a simple power
f0 , [KM] 0 and n - are constants that define the shape of model (Eq. 8) for extended end plate connection with
the standardization function, four bolts on tension side.
K - Standardization parameter.
f = CM (8)
, C are curve fitting constants.
2.4 Richard-Abbott, 1975
Four-parameter power model by Richard and 2.10 Kukreti, 1987
Abbott [4] is the commonly used function as in Eq. 4.
Kukreti et al., [10] extended the concept of FEM to
( ki - k p ) f (4)
M = + kp f know the influence of parameters on the flushed end
n 1/ n
(k - k ) f plate connection. Krishnamurthy power model [9] is
1 + i p modified by changing the geometrical parameter.
M0
f = CM (9)
ki , k p , M 0 & n are initial stiffness, plastic stiffness, ,C are curve fitting constants.
reference moment and shape parameter.
2.11 Yee and Melchers, 1986
2.6 Chisala, 1999 Four parameter power models in Ref. [11] obtained
Three-parameter power model given by Chisala in by considering the equilibrium, material relationships,
[6] used to represent the nonlinear moment rotation compatibility, and moment of resistance of a joint and
relation for single web angle, double web angle, top and rotational stiffness. Possible yielding and failures of
seat angle with and w/o web angle connection. connection components for bolted extended end plate
-Ki f eave connection is considered.
M = [M 0 +K pf ][1-e
M0
] (5) -(ki -k p +Cf )f
M = M p 1-exp( ) +k pf (10)
M 0 , K i , K p - Interception constant, initial stiffness and Mp
Mp, ki, kp and C are plastic moment capacity of weaker
strain hardening stiffness respectively.
section, initial stiffness, plastic stiffness and a constant
that controlling the slope of the curve respectively.
2.7 Attiogbe-Morris, 1991
2.12 Lui-Chen, 1986
Attiogbe and Morris [7] derived the functions for
parameters involved in Richard-Abbott model [4] for Lui and Chen, [12] proposed exponential model
Double web angle connection as given in Eq. 6. used to analyze single web angle, top and seat angle,
flushed end plate and extended end plate connection.

f0 This model needs more curve fitting constants to get
f
1-k p f (6) proper shape of response.
M M 0
+k p 0
= 1/n
M 0 f0 n
M0 n
- f
1 kp
1+ ( - )f M = M 0 + C j 1- exp
+k p f (11)
2j
f
0 M 0 j =1
M0, 0, kp and n are the reference moment,

M, M0, Cj, , , n and kp are moment in the connection,
reference rotation, slope of the curve for large value of
initial moment, curve fitting coefficients, absolute value
rotation and sharpness parameter respectively.
of the rotation, scaling factor and number of terms
considered.
2.8 Calado et al., 2000
Calado et al., [8] conducted experiments on top and 2.13 Kishi-Chen, 1986
seat angle connection using neural networks and Proposed exponential model in Ref. [12] is
proposed a power model as given in Eq. 7. modified in by Kish and Chen [13] to accommodate
M M
r -1 linear components to analyze single web angle, top and
f= 1+ (7) seat angle, flushed end plate and extended end plate
k0 M y connection.

281
m
- f n
M = M 0 + C j 1-exp
+ Dk ( f - fk )H( f - fk ) (12)
j=1 2j k=1
Model Stiffness at 0.01 rad (kN-m/rad)
k, Cj, Dk and H[] are the starting rotation of linear Frey-Morris, 1975 316.13 (F-F)
components, curve fitting constants and heavy side Ang-Morris, 1984 333.33 (F-F)
function.
Chisala, 1999 981.6 (F-SR)
Lui-Chen, 1986 1074.33 (F-F)
3. Connection Analysis Program (CAP) IS:800 318.75 (F-F)
In this Connection Analysis Program (CAP),
moment rotation responses available for experimental
and empirical models are incorporated along with curve
fitting constants and shape parameters.
3.1 Main Routines of CAP:

a. Input for the connection analysis program is in CGS
units and the program changes the units of the data
relevant to the moment rotation models. Output is in
MKS units.
b. Output of the program contains moment rotation
Figure 3: Classification of SWA connection
responses, classification of connection according to
IS: 800 [14] and stiffness at 0.01 rad.
c. Visualization can be in the image or .pdf format. 4.2 Double web angle (DWA) connection
d. Seven types of connections and seven moment Geometric parameters of DWA are shown in Fig. 4.
rotation responses are included in the program.
4. Analysis of Connections using CAP

Connection data available from the literature is
collected to analyze the connections using connection
analysis program (CAP). The following connections are
analyzed using appropriate models reported in literature,
and moment-rotation response and classification of
connections are shown in Fig.1 to Fig. 21.
4.1 Single web angle (SWA) connection Figure 4: Geometric parameters of DWA
Geometric parameters of SWA are shown in Fig. 1. Beam and column of 306.6x165.7x11.8x6.7 are
Beam and column of ISMB 300 are connected by angle connected by angle of ISA 65x65x6x180 with gauge of
of 101.6 x 88.9 x 6.35 x 215.9 with gauge of 65 mm 72.7 mm connected by 3 bolts of 16 mm.
connected by 3 bolts of 19.05 mm.
Table 2: Initial stiffness from M- Response for DWA
Stiffness at 0.01 rad

Model
(kN-m/rad)
Frey-Morris, 1975 792.86 (F-F)
Prabha et al.,2015 (10 mm) 4 (F-F)
Prabha et al.,2015 (7 mm) 4.78 (F-F)
Ang-Morris, 1984 825(F-F)
Attiogbe-Morris, 1991 970 (F-F)
Figure 1: Geometric parameters of SWA Chisala, 1999 2016 (F-F)
IS:800 792.86 (F-F)
Table 1: Initial stiffness from M- Response for SWA
282
4.4 Top & seat angle with web angle (TSW)

connection
Geometric parameters of TSW are shown in Fig. 10.
Beam W12x31.8 and column of W12x58 are
connected by a flange angle 152.4x152.4x9.525x152.4
and web angle 101.6x88.9x6.35x139.7.
Figure 6: Classification of DWA Connection
4.3 Top & seat angle (TS) connection

Geometric parameters of TS are shown in Fig. 7.
Beam and column of W12x31.8 are connected by
angle of 152.4x152.4x9.525x152.4 with gauge of 88.9
mm connected by 2 bolts of 36.39 mm. Figure 10: Geometric parameters of TSW
Table 4: Initial stiffness from M- Response for TSW

Chisala, 1999 1494.23 (F-SR)
IS:800 2491 (SR-SR)
Figure 7: Geometric parameters of TS

Table 3: Initial stiffness from M- Response for TS

Frey-Morris, 1975 6116.3 (SR-SR)
Ang-Morris, 1984 3740.3(SR-R) Figure 12: Classification of TSW connection
Chisala, 1999 3659 (SR-SR)
Lui-Chen, 1986 3593 (SR-SR)
IS:800 6116.3 (SR-SR) 4.5 Extended End Plate (EEP) connection
Geometric parameters of EEP are shown in Fig. 13.
Figure 13: Geometric parameters of EEP
Beam and column of W24x55 and W14x48 are

connected by an end plate of 22.225 mm thick. Gauge
Figure 9: Classification of TS Connection of 139.7 mm is maintained with 25.4 mm bolt dia at an
outer distance of 692.15 mm.
283
Table 5: Initial stiffness from M- Response for EEP 4.7 Header Plate (HP) connection
Geometric parameters of HP are shown in Fig. 19.
Frey-Morris, 1975 100000 (R-R)
Lui-Chen, 1986 23110.45 (SR-SR)
Krishnamurthy et
15800 (R-R)
al., 1979
IS:800 44657.5 (SR-R)
Figure 19: Geometric parameters of HP

connected by an end plate of 12.7 mm thick. Gauge of
88.9 mm is maintained with 19.05 mm bolt diameter at
an outer distance of 279.4 mm.
Table 7: Initial stiffness from M- Response for HP

Figure 15: Classification of EEP connection
Frey-Morris, 1975 1800 (SR-SR)
4.6 Flushed End Plate (FEP) connection Ang-Morris, 1984 1750 (SR-SR)
Geometric parameters of FEP are shown in Fig. 16. IS:800 1800 (SR-SR)
connected by an end plate of 12.7 mm thick. Gauge of
88.9 mm is maintained with 19.05 mm bolt diameter, at
an outer distance of 279.4 mm.
Figure 21: Classification of HP Connection
Figure 16: Geometric parameters of FEP

Conclusion
Table 6: Initial stiffness from M- Response for FEP Analysis of all connections is carried out using the CAP
program. Following observations are listed upon
Model Stiffness at 0.01 rad (kN-m/rad) comparison of moment-rotation response.
Lui-Chen, 1986 6855 (SR-R) a. Single web angle connection demonstrates the
Kukreti, 1987 7043.5 (SR-R) flexible connection with very small initial stiffness.
b. Moment-rotation response of double web angle
connection shows large deviation among the models
and fall in flexible type.
c. Moment-rotation response of top and seat angle
connection shows deviation among the models other
than Frey-Morris model, IS:800-2007 model and
Maxwell L Chisala model. Classification shows it
falls in semi-rigid type except Ang-Morris model.
Chen-Lui model demonstrates it as close to the
boundary of flexible connection.
d. Moment-rotation response of top & seat angle with
Figure 18: Classification of FEP Connection web angle connection falls on the boundary of
flexible connection.
284
e. Moment-rotation response of extended end-plate [8] Calado, L., De Matteis, G. and Landolfo, R.,
connection shows large deviation among all models. Experimental response of top and seat angle semi-
Classification demonstrates it as rigid type rigid steel frame connections, Material and
connection, except Chen-Lui model which shows it structures, Vol. 33, pp. 499-510, 2000.
as semi-rigid connection.
[9] Krishnamurthy, N., Huang, H., Jeffrey, P. K. and
f. Moment-rotation response of flush end-plate
Avery, L. K., Analytical M curves for end-plate
connection demonstrates it as semi-rigid connection
connections, J. Struct. Engrg., Vol. 105, pp. 13345,
based on its initial stiffness and based on its capacity
1979.
it falls in to rigid type of connection.
g. Moment-rotation response of header plate [10] Kukreti, A.R., Murray, T. M. and Abolmaali, A.,
connection demonstrates semi-rigid type by all End plate connection moment-rotation relationship,
available models. J. Constr. Steel Res., Vol. 8, pp. 137-57, 1987.
The moment-rotation response of any connection is
[11] Yee, Y.L. and Melchers, R.E., Momentrotation
depends on its geometry and material properties.
Available models to obtain moment-rotation response curves for bolted connections, J. Struct. Engrg.,
show large deviation among all. The observation form ASCE, Vol. 112, pp. 61535, 1986.
the analysis connection highlights the urgent need of [12] Lui, E.M. and Chen, W. F., Analysis and behaviour
experimental research and development of rational of flexibly jointed frames, Engineering Structures,
models to predict the moment-rotation response of Vol. 8, pp. 10715, 1986.
beam-to-column connections so that it can be
confidently included in the analysis of steel structure by [13] Kishi, N. and Chen, W.P., Data base of steel beam
the structural designer. to column connections, Struct. Engrg., School of
Civil Engineering, Purdue University, Lafayette,
1986.
Acknowledgments
[14] IS 800: 2007 Indian Standard General Construction
The authors are thankful to The Director, VNIT, in steel code of practice, BIS New Delhi.
Nagpur, and Head of Applied Mechanics Department
for their constant encouragement and support.
References
[1] Frye, M. J. and Morris, G. A., Analysis of flexibly
connected steel frames, Can. J. Civil Eng., Vol.
2(3), pp. 280-291, 1975.
[2] Prabha, P., Marimuthu, V., Saravanan, M., Palani,
G. S. and Surendran, M, Modified Frey- Morris
polynomial model for double web angle
connections, J. Adv. Struct. Eng, Vol. 7, pp. 295-
306, 2015.
[3] Ramberg, W. and Osgood, W.R., Description of
stress-strain curves by three parameters, Tech.
Report No.902, Nat. Advisory Committee for
aeronautics, Washington, D.C., 1943.
[4] Richard, R.M. and Abbott, B.J., Versatile elastic-
plastic stress-strain formula, J. Engrg. Mech. Div.,
ASCE, Vol. 101(4), pp. 511-515, 1975.
[5] Ang, K. M. and Morris, G. A., Analysis of three-
dimensional frames with flexible beam-column
connections, Can. J. Civil Eng., Vol. 11, pp. 245-
254, 1984.
[6] Chisala, M. L., Modelling M- curves for standard
beam to column connections, Engineering
structures, Vol. 21(11), pp. 1066-1075, 1999.
[7] Attiogbe, E. and Morris, G., Moment-rotation
functions for steel connections, J. Struct. Engrg.,
ASCE, Vol. 117(6), pp. 1703-1718, 1991.
285
STEEL-CONCRETE COMPOSITE CONSTRUCTION IN INDIRA

PARIYABARAN BHAWAN AT NEW DELHI - A CASE STUDY
A. GUHA1
Institute for Steel Development & Growth
This was a project of Ministry of Environment and Forests involving construction of its new office
building at Aligunj, New Delhi. CPWD was entrusted to construct the building. Due to the earlier success
in completion of the Handloom Complex at Delhi, which was designed and constructed using steel-
concrete composite technology, Institute for Steel Development & Growth was once again entrusted with
the design engineering for the above project. The target of the project was to achieve net zero energy
green building by using a steel-based construction among all other necessary requirements. INSDAG had
already established cost-effectiveness of steel intensive option over the conventional RCC construction
for various types of buildings through its numerous study and in-depth knowledge on composite
construction. Realizing the merit of steel-concrete composite construction for this particular case, CPWD
assigned INSDAG in 2011 to carry out design of the Auditorium Block of this project with composite
system.
Keywords: Composite, Parallel flange Section, Shear Stud
1.0 Introduction government office building to accommodate parking

space for 348 cars in the basement.
This was a project of Ministry of Environment INSDAG by then had already established cost-
and Forests for construction of new office building at effectiveness of steel intensive option over the
Aligunj, Jor Bagh Road, New Delhi. CPWD had been conventional RCC construction for a (B+G+20), (G+3)
entrusted to construct the building. The basic target of and (G+6) storied residential / commercial buildings
the project was to make a net zero energy green through its in-house study and in-depth knowledge on
building. The building was targeted to achieve LEED steel-concrete composite construction and one actual
India Platinum Rating and GRIHA 5 star rating which it project at Janpath, namely, Handloom House for
ultimately attained. Ministry of Textiles, a project originally taken up by
The building was planned to be a state-of-the- CPWD. Realizing the merit of steel concrete composite
art landmark building, with emphasis on conservation of construction methodology for this particular case,
natural areas and trees to reduce adverse environmental CPWD had assigned INSDAG in the year 2011 to carry
impact. It had to provide for adequate natural light, out the design of the auditorium block of this particular
shaded landscaped areas to reduce ambient temperature, project with steel concrete composite system. The 3 nos
maximize energy saving system and had to minimize basements would be RCC framed and steel frame would
operation cost by adopting green building concepts. sit on the RCC frame at the ground level.
Conservation and optimization of water requirement The challenge for INSDAG was to match the
including re-use of water by recycling the waste water sizes of columns, beams, fascia with the other RCC
and also to make the building friendly to physically framed blocks without providing any intermediate
challenged person were few of the desired targets. columns and maintaining the minimum clear height
Many energy conservation measures like high requirement for a predetermined floor to floor height.
efficiency solar panels, water cooled chillers, double Due to the inadequate spaces available in the site,
skin air handling units with variable frequency drives, providing grid system and assembling the total floor
geo-thermal heat exchange technology, were adopted to frame at site for erection was also discarded. Also no
optimize the overall design load. wall bracings were allowed. Thus all the peripheral
Water conservation measures were targeted to beams were moment resisting, while all internal beams
be adopted in the building like low discharge water were considered as shear connections. As per the
fixtures and dual flushing cistern, low demand plants in contract agreement with CPWD, INSDAGs scopes for
landscaping, drip irrigation system for green areas, this job included the following:
make up water tank for chiller plant, irrigation, and rain Analysis and Design of the building.
water harvesting system which leads to saving in fresh Preparation of General Arrangement drawings
water requirements, etc. The mechanized car parking Bill of quantities of the structural items.
was provided in this building for the first time in
1
Asst. general Manager, guha_arijit@rediffmail.com
286
A. Guha
2.0 Composite Construction super structure area is 19088 sq. meter and the total
plinth area is 30914 sq. meter. Each block consists of
Steel-concrete composite construction two individual blocks. One individual block at south
combines the compressive strength of concrete with the side accommodates a big auditorium of size 19 m x 24
tensile strength of steel to evolve an effective and m which is G + 6 storeys. Due to the presence of
economic structural system. Over the years this auditorium in the block, no internal columns were
specialized field of construction has become more and allowed by the architect within this block of 19 m x 24
more popular in the western world and has developed m. Floor to floor height restriction (for matching with
into a multifaceted design and construction technique. other blocks) does not allow the architects / designers to
This technology is only recently getting popularized in go for RCC framings similar to other 3 individual
the Indian scenario, but is still limited to commercial blocks. Typical Floor Plan is as shown in Figure 1.
structures like multiplexes, industrial structures and a
few multi-storied constructions. This type of
construction has gained major popularity in the bridge 3425
5325
1900 2100 3900
W
2100 3900
W
2100 3900
W
1425
250
865 1000 1910 1200 1910 1000 865
sector in India, mostly in the eastern region in Kolkata W5 D3 D3 W5

V
1200V
W D3 D3
V V
and in the northern sector in New Delhi in the form of

IGF/ADV.
6000X4000 W5
U.Sec U.Sec
W 3100x4000 3100x4000 DIRECTOR D2
4610x5250 D2
flyovers.
115
W W D1 D1 2500
2100
TOILET
LOBBY
In steel-concrete composite construction, W9

U.Sec
3700x3575
structural steel work is typically used together with WS WS WS WS

FD
5510
W9 U.Sec
RE
3750x3325 WS WS WS WS
concrete; for example, steel beams with concrete floor W9

U.Sec
3700x3575
U.Sec
RE
3750x3325
WS WS WS WS
FD1
slabs. The same applies to buildings, road bridges, U.Sec

WS WS WS WS
2295
3700x3575 FD2
W9 UP
DN
where concrete decks are normally preferred. Steel and W9

FD1
D1 D1
7000
3000
V1
DIRECTOR
concrete have almost the same thermal expansion apart W9

U.Sec
3700x3575
6250x4290
from an ideal combination of strengths. Hence, these
1735
250
FD1
1500 230 1500

W4 W4 W4 G1
essentially different materials are completely DN FD1
3380
2100 3900 2100
compatible and complementary to each other. Members 8250
made of structural steel and concrete can be used as

composite structures so that they act together, with
concrete being subjected to compressive stresses and Figure 1: Typical floor Plan
steel taking the tensile stresses. Composite construction
practice is still in a very nascent stage in India and so its 4.0 Structural Features and Concept
effectiveness and applicability must be propagated for
structures where fast track construction is of utmost The structural features for this building is
importance. Promoting the cost effective composite unique due to the fact that, the Block between Grid A
construction is all the more necessary now in India, and D and Axes 1 and 5, is the Auditorium Block
because of our Government's intention of improving the whose super structure above EL.(+) 0.0 M had to be
infrastructure and housing (both commercial and constructed using steel-concrete composite construction
residential) facilities to attract foreign investment in the so that the entire space in between could be used up
country to compete in the liberalized global economy. without extending the columns at location B-2, B-3, B-
The major draw-backs in the propagation of 4, C-2, C-3 & C-4. The columns would come from the
this technology in India are non-availability of skilled foundation level up to ground level as RCC columns
worker, limitation of rolled sections and misconception above which steel-concrete composite technology
regarding corrosion of steel. The above factors affect would be adopted. The beams were made composite
the market share of composite construction. However, with the top slab playing an effective role as the
all the advantages of steel and concrete may be compression flange of the composite beam with shear
combined in the steel-concrete composite construction. studs ensuring composite action. Slabs were considered
as ordinary RCC slabs with sacrificial profiled deck
3.0 Architectural Features and Concept shuttering for fast track construction.
Architectural plans / elevations for the building 5.0 Design Philosophy

were prepared and furnished by CPWD. Each block has
two separate stair blocks, one lift block and one toilet 3D Computer models were generated for the
block. Floor to floor height has been kept as 3.90m. auditorium block using STAAD-Pro software package
Grid size has been considered as 6.0m x 6.0m. Each and were subsequently analyzed for different
tower (blocks) is connected with glass faade corridor in combination of worst possible loads on the structures.
all direction. The total cost of the project was estimated The ground floor is 5.8 meters high. The other floors are
to be Rs.129.00 Crores. The building is RCC framed typically 3.9 meters high excepting the second floor
structure with 3 basements and two blocks one of (3.5m). The auditoriums are accommodated as per the
Ground + 6 and other of Ground + 7. Total plot area is architectural drawings. The total height of the building
9565.13 Sq. meter, basement area is 11826 sq. meter, is about 29.0 meters above ground excluding the steel
287
structure supporting the solar panels on roof. For 1987 (Part 2 & 3), IS: 1786, IS: 1893-2002, Proposed IS
claddings, loadings had been considered as indicated by 11384 (under preparation), etc.
CPWD.
However, the frames of the building were 5.2 Design Basis
designed with steel-concrete composite option keeping
the other structural elements with RCC or steel as For the analysis and design of the building, the
required achieving an optimum solution. While following design basis has been considered:
designing the auditorium block, the frames were Geotechnical investigation report of the proposed
analyzed considering the columns to be fixed on top of site as furnished by CPWD.
the ground floor level. In other words there would be The columns are considered fixed at ground floor
moment connection between the top of columns coming level RCC column top, which has originated from
up from basement up to ground floor level and the steel lowermost basement slab.
intensive columns starting from round floor level and The connections between columns and beams are
going upwards. rigid (moment bearing connections) along the
The auditorium block is bounded by grid 1 thru periphery, that is along grid A & D and axes 1 & 5.
5 and axes A thru D along with the staircase block
The connections of major beams (19.0m spans)
between grid D & D. This block was designed
running between column A-2 & D-2, A-3 & D-3 and
considering no columns within the entire auditorium
A-4 & D-4; with the columns at either end are shear
area. Thus internal columns on axis 2 to 4, as shown in
connections.
architectural drawing were not considered while
Thicknesses of slabs are 125 mm (minimum) for
analyzing and designing the seven storied auditorium
floor / roof elements with M25 Grade of RCC.
block. Columns at location B-1, C-1, B-5 and C-5 were
considered as gable-end columns which would transfer For the composite option, ISMBs / ISMCs as well
all horizontal loads normal to axis 1 and 5 to long axis as parallel flange sections and built-up sections are
A and D through horizontal gable-end bracing system provided as per design requirement.
which were provided on all floor levels. Similarly, Steel I-sections encased with RCC are considered
columns at location A-2, A-3, A-4, D-2, D-3 and D-4 for composite columns as shown in figure 4.
were considered as gable-end columns which would Shear studs are considered for anchorage in
transfer all horizontal loads normal to axis A and D to composite beams
long axis 1 and 5 through horizontal gable-end bracing
system which were provided on all floor levels The 5.3 Design Loading
horizontal bracing system would have its C.G. line at
approximately 150 mm below the top of steel level for The following were the structural details and
each floor. The entire slab panels were divided by the loadings of all the floors of the building:
help of major secondary beams at 3.0 m centre-to- 1. Elevation levels:- EL(+) 5.8m, 9.3m, 13.2m, 17.1m,
centre, parallel to Axes 1 & 5. These secondary beams 21.0m, 24.9m & 28.8m
have shear connections with the end primary beams 2. Slab thicknesses:- 125 mm for all floors except
along grid A & D as well as Columns along grid A & D. EL(+) 28.8m where it is 150 mm
The slabs were designed as one-way composite slabs of 3. Live load:- 0.40 T/m2 for all floors except EL(+)
span 3.0m. 28.8 m where it is 0.225 T/m2.
Due to circumstances beyond the control of the Other loads on the structure included:
designers, RCC grade was used as M25 and similarly On roof --- Extra load of 0.3 T/m2 for water
steel grade used were E 250 (Fe 410 W B) as per IS proofing and 0.3 T/m2 for service load have been
2062 : 2006. The overall depth of girders for supporting considered.
the slab at all levels were restricted to 825 mm including The wall load considered:----1.5 T/m (As
depth of slab and floor finish, at all working floors and supplied by CPWD)
930 mm at roof floor. Depths of all peripheral beams The wind load considered are as follows:
were kept as 575 mm for placement of internal Wind load as per IS 875 1987 (Part 3) for:
windows. All peripheral column dimensions were also Basic Wind Speed of 47 meters/second
kept same as that of other blocks i.e. 1200 x 750 for A- K1 = 1.07
2, A-3, A-4, D-2, D-3 and D-4 and 750 x 750 for A1, K2 = 1.05 (As per Terrain Category II)
A5, B1, C1, B5, C5, D1 and D5 columns. Fascia and K3 = 1.00
overhangs were also provided with steel sections fully Earthquake load as per IS 1893 2002 for
matching with that of other RCC blocks. Zone IV
Soil data considered: As per geo-technical
5.1 Design Codes report
The individual loads and their combinations 6.0 Typical Sketch of Floors showing Structural
were calculated based on IS Codes / References such as Layout and Connection Details
IS: 456-2000, SP: 16-1978, IS: 800 2007, IS: 875-
288
A. Guha
There are various special features for this

A building. The unique amongst them from structural
engineering point of view is the central beams of 19.0 m
free span in transverse direction. Due to the depth
restriction from the functional point of view, the beam
B
depth had to be restricted within 650 mm for all typical
floors and 750 mm at Roof level. Proper camber has
been provided to the long beams to nullify the effect of
C
deflection due to dead loads. Similarly depths of all
peripheral beams had been restricted within 575 mm.
Since the exterior and interior of this Auditorium Block
had to be similar with other three RCC Blocks, the
D
peripheral column sizes were also kept same as other
blocks despite the fact that this particular block does not
have any internal columns unlike other blocks (6 nos
D"
internal columns were omitted to achieve the absolute
1 2 3 4 5
columns free auditorium).
The entire building including all four blocks
Figure 2: Structural Layout of a Typical Floor and the entrance plaza were covered at top with solar
panels supported on elegant steel trusses. The salient
features of the structures are,
Beams in all directions are composite with slab
using shear studs to ensure composite action.
Columns are all fully steel encased composite
columns
Slabs are RCC construction cast on sacrificial
profiled steel shuttering.
The columns have been cast independent of the floor
slab by keeping dowel bars from columns at slab
location at all levels.
The slabs have been cast simultaneously in all floors
after completion of fixing of sacrificial shuttering at
all levels thus reducing the construction time.
For stability of the structure during construction
period against any lateral load, floor bracings have
been used to transfer loads to peripheral frames of
the buildings in both orthogonal directions
8.0 Structural Components
Figure 3: Typical Connection Detail The total consumption of major structural

elements in the entire project is as given below:
Structural Steel [E 250 (Fe 410 WB) as per IS2062
: 2006) : 645T (Approx.)
Profiled Deck Sheet : 3192 Sq. meter
9.0 Design for Composite Action
The two main components of the structure,

beams and columns had been envisaged keeping
composite action in mind. Though beams and columns
are steel-concrete composite, the slabs have been
designed as RCC component resting on steel beams. As
indicated earlier, due to time constraint requiring faster
Figure 4: Typical Cross Section of Columns construction, sacrificial profiled steel sheet shuttering
has been used for slab to ensure simultaneous
construction of two or more floors together.
7.0 Special Features
9.1 Composite Beams and Shear Studs
289
with appropriate modular ratio depending on

the nature of load (whether short term i.e. live
load, or long term i.e. dead load)
Y C.G. distance of transformed concrete area
from neutral axis.
I Moment of Inertia of the composite section
using appropriate modular ratio.
10.1 Composite Columns
The columns have been designed by following

the steps as described below:
1. Determination of direct axial load capacity
Figure 5: Stress Distribution in Composite Beam 2. Determination of position of neutral axis hn for
both orthogonal axis y-y and z-z for combined
A typical stress distribution for a composite axial and bending moment.
beam is shown above in figure 5. The composite action 3. Determination of plastic moment of resistance
between the steel I-beam and the RCC slab is ensured under axial compression and bi-axial bending
by the provision of shear studs, the design of which has moment for both axes
been done based on provisions laid down in the 4. Performing interaction check to satisfy the
proposed IS: 11384 (under preparation). The shear studs following conditions
Mx My
are provided to resist the longitudinal shear stress that 0.9 , 0.9 and
exists at the interface of the RCC slab and the steel x M px y M py
beam.
The longitudinal shears have been designed Mx My
+ 1.0
and provided to resist the higher of H & V L as indicated x M px y M py
below:
1. For single span beams the total design longitudinal mx and my are moment reduction coefficients.
shear, H, (which is smaller of H1 & H2) resisted by
shear connectors between the point of maximum Though the concrete encased steel columns
bending moment and the end support is given by: adopted in this building as shown in figure 4, gave
H1 = As. fy. / gm (Force in steel beam below cheaper option than pure steel columns, it was found
neutral axis of the combined section) costlier compared to simple RCC columns as well as
concrete filled tubular composite sections. This is due to
H2 = (acc / gc). fck .Ac / gc (Force in RCC above
the fact that the webs of the crossed steel sections do not
neutral axis of the combined section)
contribute to moment resistance of the column and is
Ac = Effective area of concrete
neither more effective than the concrete itself in direct
= beff .xu (for neutral axis within the slab)
compression, as concrete is always strong in
= beff. ds (for neutral axis in steel section)
compression. However, concrete encased steel columns
acc = 0.67 where used in this block, as per clients preference to
gc = 1.50 (for basic and seismic combinations) give a similar finish to the columns, as of the columns
= 1.20 (for accidental combinations) of other RCC blocks of the entire building system.
gm = 1.10
h = 1.0 [for fck 60 MPa] 9.2 Slabs
= 1.0 - (fck - 60)/25 [for 60< fck 110 MPa]
l = 0.8 [for fck 60 MPa] Slabs had been designed as standard RCC slab
= 0.8 - (fck - 60)/500 [for 60<fck110 MPa] of thickness 125mm. Sacrificial shuttering was
2. The external shear V varies along the introduced by the contractor themselves to ensure faster
longitudinal axis x of the beam with bending construction process to keep in tune with other
moment as V=dM/dx. While the composite beam construction going on in the other sectors of the entire
is in the elastic stage, the internal shear stresses, building.
which resist the external shear V at the interface is
given by, 10.0 Fabrication & Erection
V . Aec .Y
VL =
I dl , ll The entire steel fabrication was done under the
VL Longitudinal shear per unit length supervision of CPWD. INSDAG being the structural
V The vertical shear forces due to dead load and solution provider carried out the periodic supervision at
live load. 50% completion stage and 75% completion stage. Total
Ac The transformed compressive area of concrete fabrication was done at the construction site where a
above the neutral axis of the composite section huge area was available for shop fabrication. The major
290
A. Guha
steel was purchased from reputed retailers in and around construction wherein, with introduction of the sacrificial
New Delhi. Most of the welding was done using sound shuttering, simultaneous casting of more than two floors
welding methods as per project specification laid down could be done at a time to reduce the construction time
in CPWD manual. All beams and columns were by eliminating the process of various associated issues
designed as built-up I-girder consisting of flange plated like preparation of shuttering / scaffolding for one floor
and web plates. This resulted in the reduction of overall and then subsequent removal and transport of the same
depth of the composite beam system wherever for casting of the next floor after initial hardening of
necessary. Thus maximum head room could be obtained concrete of the cast floor etc. Figure 7 is the final
for all services. The plated sections were mainly used in photograph of the entire complex wherein the block
the fabrication of the steel cross sections of the constructed in steel-concrete composite is also visible at
composite columns. the left-back portion of the building facing front.
The on-site erection work was carried out by
Tower Cranes. Most of the time two cranes were
operated in tandem. Adequate precautions were taken
for placing the cranes, considering the weight of lifted
parts and length of boom. Measures were taken to see
that the site splices for the composite columns were
executed using the maximum possible accuracy,
achieving the outcome within the tolerance level as
prescribed in the code. The steel erection was done
simultaneously with the casting of concrete to attain
minimum time of construction.
11.0 Caveats
Figure 6: Intermediate Construction Stage
Though the entire project was pursued by
INSDAG to be completed with the maximum utilization
of efficient steel sections without compromising with
economy of structure, major constraints were faced by
CPWD while construction. The contributing factors to
these constraints and hindrances were mainly,
Uniqueness of the structure in terms of Indian
conditions, as it adopted composite construction
which ensured that the design as well as construction
parameters for the structure were unique and new to
all concerned.
Difficulty in field fabrication as well erection,
mainly in welding due to difficult nature of the steel
cross section for the columns.
Difficulty in reinforced cement concreting at the
junction of composite columns and beams at any Figure 7: Indira Pariyabaran Bhawan
floor levels due to concentration of structural steel
and reinforcements, both vertical ones of the Acknowledgement
columns and the incoming horizontal ones of the
floor slabs. [1] Shri Shiladitya Chanda, Manager; Institute for
Steel Development & Growth
12.0 Technical Conclusions
References
The use of composite technology minimized
time of construction utilizing the beneficial strength and [1] IIT, MADRAS, ANNA UNIVERSITY, MADRAS
properties of steel and concrete to the fullest. However, & INSDAG, KOLKATA, Teaching Resource for
it is worth mentioning that, use of high tensile steel and Structural Steel Design, Volume 1, 2 & 3
higher grade concrete would make the structure lighter
and more economical. [2] R. P. JOHNSON & R. J. BUCKBY., Composite
Structures of Steel & Concrete Volume: 1.
13.0 Pictures of Various Stages of Construction
The project was completed in 2012. The stages

of construction have been elaborated as shown in figure
6, which demonstrates the advantage of composite
291
Moment-Rotation Behavior of Stainless Steel Beam-Column Bolted

Connection
V. S. BHAVSAR 1, B. M. DAWARI 2, B. R. INANI 3
1,
Graduate Student, Department of Civil Engineering , College of Engineering Pune, Pune-
411 005, India E-mail: bhavsarvs@gmail.com
2,
Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, College of Engineering Pune, Pune-
411 005, India E-mail: bmd.civil@coep.ac.in
3
Graduate Student, Department of Civil Engineering, College of Engineering Pune, Pune-05,
India
The scope of this paper is to study behavior of beam-column bolted connection for stainless steel
material. For steel structures semi rigid connections are found to be efficient compared to rigid and
pin connections. For design of semi rigid connections moment rotation behavior is need to be known.
The present study considers top and seat angle connection and t-stub connection for stainless steel
beam-column frame. Finite element models in ABAQUS are used to simulate numerical experiments,
also two frames are analyzed using MASTAN2 with semi-rigid and rigid connections.
Keywords: Stainless Steel, Semi rigid joint, Bolted and T-Stub Connections.
1 Introduction In the present study 3D FEM models for Top and

seat angle connection and T-Stub connection are
Each in conventional analysis and design of steel
modeled and verified with Frye Morris[1] Mathematical
frames it is usually assumed that connections joining the
model for carbon steel. Further material of the model is
beams to columns are either fully rigid or ideally pinned.
changed to stainless steel and the models are analyzed to
In rigid joint connection assumption is that full slope
obtain moment-rotation behavior. Parametric study is
continuity exists between beams and columns and full
carried out by changing connection parameters i.e. angle
moment from beams is transferred to columns. Where as
length, angle thickness, gauge distance, beam depth, T-
in an ideally pinned connection beams are assumed to
Stub thickness, T-Stub flange length and bolt diameter.
have simple supports and columns do not carry any
Thus a mathematical model is derived for moment
moment from the beam. A moment frame deforms by
rotation behaviour of stainless steel beam-column
bending the beams and columns depending on the
connection.
geometry of connection. This beam column connection
With application of standardization procedure given
behavior is represented by moment rotation relationship.
by Frye-Morris for stainless steel models
As stainless steel is now being used for frames there is
standardization constant K and curve fitting constants
need to understand connection behavior of stainless steel
C1, C2, C3 are obtained. For top and seat angle
beam column connection.
connection standardization constant is K = d-1.55ta-0.43l a-
The actual response characteristics of a frame and its 0.78
db-1.3 and curve fitting constants are C1 = 1.66E+03,
connections are nonlinear, and current studies of analysis
C2 = 1.49E+14, C3= 3.98E+25. For t-stub connection K
and design methods aim to incorporate such semi-rigid
= d-1.43 t-0.53 lt-0.68 db-1.21 and C1 = 6.59E+02, C2 =
concepts into the models. The polynomial model is one
6.43E+13, C3 = -2.94E+23.
of the most widely known mathematical models for
connections, and it is adopted by many researchers due to
Table 1. Curve fitting and standardization constants.
its simplicity. The procedure of polynomial model was
Connection types Curve fitting Standardization
extensively used in steel beam to column connections for
constants constants
the first time by Frye and Morris. The formulation is Single-web angle C1=1.91x104 K=da-2.4ta-1.81g0.15
expressed as follows, connection C2=1.3x1011
= C1 (KM)1+C2(KM)3+C3(KM)5 C3=2.70x1017
where K is the standardization parameter that double-web angle C1=1.64x103 K=da-2.4ta-1.81g0.15
connection C2=1.03x1014
depends on geometrical properties and connection type.
C3=8.18x1025
C1, C2 and C3 values are the curve fitting constants
Top and seat angle C1=2.24x10-1 K=d-1.287t-1.28 tc-0.415la-
obtained from the experimental data. [1]. with double-web C2=1.86x104 0.694
(g-db/2)1.35
angle connection C3=3.23x108
Top and seat angle C1=1.63x103 K=d-1.5t-0.5 la-0.7db-1.1
without double-web C2=7.25x1014
angle connection C3=3.31x1023
2 Moment Rotation Behaviour
292
V. S. Bhavsar, et al.
End plate connection C1=1.78x104 K=dg-2.4tp-0.4 tf-1.5 Table 2

without column C2=-9.55x1016 Members (beam, Bolts
stiffeners C3=5.54x1029 Property column, angle)
End plate connection C1=2.60x102 K=dg-2.4tp-0.6 Steel Stainless Steel Stainless
with column stiffeners C2=5.37x1011 steel steel
C3=1.31x1022
T-stub connection C1=4.05x102 K=d-1.5t-0.5 lt-0.7 db-1.1 Modulus of 200 210 200 210
C2=4.45x1013 elasticity (GPa)
C3=-2.03x1023 Poisons Ratio 0.3 0.29 0.3 0.29
Header-plate C1=3.87 K=tp-1.16g1.16dp-2.3 tw-0.5
connection C2=2.71x105 Yield stress (MPa) 250 215 800 450
C3=6.06x1011
2. Material Modelling 3. Standardized Moment Rotation Curves
After getting satisfactory results material of the The moment-rotation characteristics for all
model was changed to Stainless steel for these following connections of a given type are similar, a 'standardized'
properties are used. Ramberg-Osgood expression was moment-rotation relationship can be derived as a function
used to get material nonlinearity given in Annex C of EN- of the size parameters for that connection type. The
1993-1-4:2006. Deflections are estimated using the moment rotation characteristics for a particular
modulus of elasticity determined by considering the connection can then be generated by substituting its size
stresses of the member under the load combination for parameters into the standardized relationship. The
relevant serviceability limit state. The stress strain curve standardization procedure as given by Frye-Morris [1]
may be defined as involves the representation of the moment-rotation
curves for all connections of a given type by a single
n function of the form,

= + 0 .0 0 2 ... fo r < f y
E fy = Ci (KM )i -----------[1].
i =1
or where
m = rotational deformation of connection in radians,
fy fy fy C = constant,
= 0.002 + + + u for... f y < < fu
E Ey fu f y K = standardization factor (a dimensionless factor
whose value depends on the size parameters for the
where, particular connection considered), and
= strain on the cross-section M = moment applied to the connection.
= stress on the cross-section The factor K is assumed to have the form
E = modulus of elasticity
fy = yielding strength
fu = ultimate strength = 520 MPa
----------------------[2]
n = ln(20)/ln( 0.2/ 0.01)
where
n for current study is taken as 6 for grade 1.4301 steel
pj = numerical value of jth size parameter,
Ey = tangent modulus of the stress stain curve at the yield
aj = a dimensionless exponent which indicates the
strength defined as
effect of jth size parameter on the moment-rotation
u = ultimate strain, corresponding to the ultimate
relationship, and
strength fu
m = total number of size parameters
m = 1 + 3.5 ( 0.2/ u)
To calculate the exponents aj in Eq. [2] we consider
For simplicity elastic properties are used upto yield stress a set of experimentally obtained moment rotation curves
fy and above model is used only for nonlinear property for connections which are identical except for parameter
i.e. for stress move than fy. pj. A pair of curves is considered and the relationship
For input in ABAQUS Plastic strain is taken as, between moments M1, and M2, at a particular rotation, ,
Plastic Strain = Total strain Elastic strain is assumed to have the form
--------------------------[3]
293
Where pj1 and pj2 are the numerical values of parameter p

for connections 1 and 2 (corresponding to curves 1 and 2)
respectively. M1, and M2, are the moment values at
rotation for curves 1 and 2 respectively. Equation [3]
can then be rewritten and solved for aj.
M1 p j2
a j = log log
M2 p j1 ---------- [4]
Equation [4] is used to calculate aj values corresponding

to several different rotations for each combination of Fig.2 Verification of Top & Seat Angle Model for steel
experimental curves, such as 1 and 2, 1 and 3, 2 and 3,
etc. The mean of the aj values thus obtained is used in Eq.
The connection parameters given for Top and Seat
[2]. When average values have been calculated for all m
angle connection by Frey-Morris are beam depth, T-stub
exponents aj in Eq. [2], they are plotted on a standardized
thickness, T-stub length and bolt diameter. Connection
moment-rotation (KM versus ,) diagram. Finally, a least
parameter of the t-stub connection models. For model
squares curve fitting procedure is used to derive the
beam depth is 300 mm, t-stub thickness is 15 mm, t-stub
standardized moment-rotation relationship in the form of
length is 200 mm and bolt diameter is 20 mm. The models
Eq. [1]. Thus we get the polynomial model for moment-
are analyzed and parametric study is performed. Further
rotation behaviour of beam-column connection as
by using standardization procedure polynomial model is
follows,
obtained.
= C1 (KM)1+C2(KM)3+C3(KM)5.
5 Connection analysis using ABAQUS.

The connection parameters given for Top and Seat angle
connection by Frey-Morris are beam depth, angle
thickness, angle length and bolt diameter. For this model
beam depth is 300 mm, angle thickness is 12 mm, angle
length is 200 mm and bolt diameter is 12 mm. The model
is analyzed and parametric study is performed. Further by
using standardization procedure polynomial model is
obtained. The comparison of moment rotation curve
obtained using proposed mathematical model is shown in
graph of Fig.2
Fig.3 T-stub connection modeled in Abaqus
Fig.1 Top and Seat angle connection modeled in

Abaqus Fig.4 Verification of T-Stub Model for carbon steel
294
6. Frame analysis using MASTAN2 Table 5 - The fixed connection size parameters for
The frames with semi rigid connections are analysed three-storey, two-bay frame
using MASTAN2. The dimensions, loading and
numbering of members of three-storey two-bay frame are
shown in Fig.7. The connection size parameters are as
shown in Table 3 depending on the connection types The
material is grade A36 steel with a modulus of elasticity
of200000 MPa and yield stress of 248.2 MPa. Material
density is 7850 kg/m3. AISC (W) shapes are used as steel !
sections in these examples. The obtained results are
compared with the literature. " "# "! "" $ ## ""%
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Table 3 - The fixed connection size parameters for three-

storey, two-bay frame
Connection Type Connection size parameters (cm)
1 ta = 2.54 g=22.86
2 t = 2.54 tc = 2.54 g = 11.43
3 t = 2.54 db = 2.54
4 t p = 2.54 db = 2.54
5 t p = 2.54 db = 2.54
6 t = 2.223 db = 2.54
Table4 - The fixed connection size parameters for three-

storey, two-bay frame
Member No. Semi-rigid Rigid

connection connection
1,4,7 W12X19 W12X40
2,5,8 W12X40 W12X40
3,6,9 W12X19 W12X40 Fig.6 Connection types and size parameters
10- 13 W12X87 W12X65
14,15 W12X65 W12X53
295
Ten-storey, single-bay frame

Fig.8 shows configuration, dimensions, loading, and
numbering of members. The fixed connection size Table No.7 Maximum end moments
parameters are presented in Table The fixed connection
size parameters for ten-storey, single-bay frame
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296
Conclusions:
Results obtained using proposed mathematical model for
moment-rotation behavior shows good agreement with
polynomial model developed by Frye-Morris for steel
Beam-column Connections. Use of different sizes of
connection parameters has significant effect on moment-
rotation behavior of a connection. Rotational stiffness of
the connection increases from double angle connection to
T-Stub connection. Top and seat angle connection shows
higher stiffness than double angle connection but less
than T-Stub connection. Once the finite element model of
a beam-column connection is calibrated with observed
results, it can be used to mimic number of expensive
experiments.
It is observed from illustrative examples that semi-rigid

connection modelling may create lighter frames
providing that appropriate connection size parameters are
selected. The end moments of a beam with semi-rigid
connections decrease in comparison with those of the
beam with rigid connections.
References:
1. Frye, M. J. and Morris, G. A. (1975) Analysis of

Flexibly Connected Steel Frames. Canadian
Journal of Civil Engineering, 2.3:280291.
2. Kishi, N. and Chen, W. F. (1990) Moment-

rotation relations of semi-rigid connections with
angles. Journal of structural Engineering,
116:18131834
3. Krishnamurty, N. (1979) Modelling and
prediction of steel bolted connection behavior.
Computers and Structures, 11:75-82
4. Azizinamini, A. (1987). Cyclic Characteristics
of Bolted Semi-rigid Steel Beam to Column
Connections. PhD thesis. University of south
Carolina, Columbia
5. Kukreti, A. R., and Abolmaali, A.S. (1999).
Moment-rotation hysteresis behavior of top and
seat angle steel frame connections. Journal of
structural Engineering, 125(8), 810-820.
6. Degertekin S. and Hayalioglu M.(2004) Design
of non-linear semi-rigid steel frames with semi-
rigid column bases. Electronic Journal of
Structural Engineering, 4 (2004)
297
BEHAVIOUR OF COLD FORMED STEEL MODIFIED SECTION

UNDER ECCENTRIC COMPRESSIVE LOAD
Rahima Shabeen S1, Gowtham S2
1,2
Structural Engineering Division, Dept. of Civil Engineering, Anna University, Chennai, 600025, India
Use of cold-formed steel sections leads to innovative designs for specific architectural purposes, civil
and structural works and is an economical design solution. Modified channel section which could
possibly be used in racks or door frames is considered for the study. Two types of sections are taken one
with outward lip and other with inward lip. The sections are analyzed with varying the eccentricity of
loading and number of spacers. It is found that increasing the number of spacers increases the
compressive load carrying capacity. It is also observed that when eccentricity is increased by upto
10mm no change in buckling modes is observed in both types of columns. When eccentricity is beyond
30 mm on negative X-axis, load get concentrated on web portion of the column section, therefore the
section fails by local buckling and the load carrying capacity reduces to a greater extent.
Keywords: Cold formed steel, modified channel section, compressive load, eccentricity
1 Introduction of intermediate length cold formed steel open section

column. The authors observed the interaction between
In steel construction, two main types of structural
the parameters like spacer plate slenderness ratio(), the
steel are in use. They are hot rolled and cold formed
ratio of length and ratio of depth to width of the spacer
steel. The use of hot-rolled steel sections become
plate influence the strength of the columns. Also,
uneconomical for the steel structures subjected to light
ultimate load carrying capacity increases by increasing
and moderate loads and for the structural members of
the depth and the number of spacers. Further, the use of
short span lengths (e.g., joists, purlins, girts, roof trusses,
spacers at proper intervals does help in not only
complete framing of one and two storey residential,
increasing the load carrying capacity but also changing
commercial and industrial structures). The use of cold-
the mode of failure.
formed steel sections leads to innovative designs for
specific architectural purposes, civil and structural
The objective of this paper is (i) To study
works and is an economical design solution. Past
numerically and analytically the behavior of cold
research has highlighted that cold-formed steel members
formed steel modified channel sections under axial
are subjected to various buckling modes including local,
compression load (ii) To study the effects of spacers and
distortional and global modes, and their ultimate
eccentricity on the strength and buckling of the column.
strength behaviour is governed by these buckling modes.
(iii) To compare the load carrying capacity and buckling
Although cold-formed steel members have been
behaviour of modified cold formed steel channel section
researched for a long time, the stability problem is not
with outward lip and inward lip.
fully understood. In a cold formed section, there is
possibility to obtain any shape; the stability and strength
of the shapes are not fully established. Hence there is a 2 Selection of Specimen
need to investigate their buckling behaviour and Modified channel section which could possibly be
ultimate load carrying capacity. used in racks or door frames is considered for the study
(Fig 1). Two types of sections are taken one with
Anbarasu et al. (2013) analyzed the buckling outward lip (Type 1) (Fig1a) and other with inward lip
strength and mode of failure of two different types of (Type II) (Fig1b). Sectional properties and the length of
column sections of intermediate length and observed the selected specimen are obtained from CUFSM
that the column sections can be made strong against software and shown in Table 1. Material properties such
distortion by adding simple spacers. Few researchers as Youngs modulus, density, Poissons ratio are
(Anil Kumar et al (2010) and Anbarasu et al (2013)) did obtained from literature.
experimental, analytical and numerical studies on the
effect of spacers on the behaviour and ultimate capacity
1
Assistant Professor, rahima@annauniv.edu
2
Former Graduate Student, gowtham.mayil@gmail.com
298
Rahima Shabeen S and Gowtham S
(IS) Code. Load carrying capacity according to DSM is

found to be 117. 22 kN and the specimen fails by
distortional buckling. Load carrying capacity by Indian
Standard Code IS 801:1975 is found to be 167.05 kN
and specimen fails by flexural-torsional buckling.
4 Numerical Modeling and Validation

Numerical model of the column section is
modelled in ABAQUS. Specimens were modelled using
S4R, a shell 4-noded doubly curved general-purpose
shell element with reduced integration and hour glass
control and with finite membrane strains. The developed
model is validated with available experimental results
obtained from literature survey- Anil Kumar and
Figure 1a: TYPE I Section (Outward Lip) Kalyanaraman.[1]. Size of the channel section is 180mm
*All Dimensions in mm x150mm x1.6mm. Density and Youngs modulus is
taken as 7.85 x 105 N/mm2 and 2.1 x 105 N/mm2
respectively and yield stress as 500 N/mm2. Poissons
ratio is assigned as 0.3. Vertical load is applied at the
centre of gravity of the section. Experimental boundary
conditions are reproduced quite accurately in the finite
element model. Mesh size is fixed at about 10 mm
based on convergence study with aspect ratio of around
1. Job is created in the job module and submitted for
data check. The model is analysed and the deflected
shape is shown in Fig 2. The deflected shape is
compared with that of the experiment (Fig 2). Table 2
gives the load carrying capacity of the column. The
model correlates well with the experiment. Hence, it is
taken for further parametric study.
Figure 1b: Type II Section (Inward Lip)

*All Dimensions in mm
Table 1: Geometric Properties of the Section

Properties Value
Gross area of the section 870.66 mm2
Moment of inertia (Ixx) 3.91E+06 mm4
Moment of inertia (Iyy) 2.37E+06 mm4
Polar Moment of Inertia 743.22 mm4
Warping constant 2.08E+10 mm6
Radius of gyration (rx) 67.01 mm
Radius of gyration (ry) 52.20 mm
Centre of Gravity 53.05 mm
Shear Centre 70.31 mm
Effective Length 1600 mm
Figure 2: Buckled Shape from Experiment and FEA
3 Theoretical Study
The capacity of the selected section is found by Table 2: Load Carrying Capacity
Direct Strength Method (DSM) and Indian Standard Method of Analysis Load carrying
299
capacity (kN) 10mm, 20 mm, 30mm and 40 mm eccentricities in

FEA 98.19 positive x-direction respectively). Sample of labelling is
Experiment 94.66 shown in Table 3.
Hence, totally 108 specimens are analysed in FEA
with varying lip orientation, eccentricity and number of
5 PARAMETERIC STUDY spaces.
The validated model is analysed varying the
parameters such as number of spacers and eccentricity
of load
5.1 Spacers
Spacers are provided connecting both the lips of the
section by means of self-drilling screws. It is proposed
to vary the number of spacer from 1 to 5. Thickness of
the spacer is kept as 1.6mm. The dimension of the
spacer is given in Fig 3. Spacers are provided along the
length of the column section with equal spacing
between them.
Figure 3: Spacer
5.2 Loading Position

Load is applied axially and eccentrically on the
modified channel section. Eccentricity of loading is (a) OL-S5 (b) OL-S4 (c) OL-S3
varied as 10 mm, 20 mm, 30 mm and 40 mm in both
positive (away from the web) and negative (towards the
web) x-direction. Hence, a total of nine reference points
are selected for loading in the modified cold formed
steel channel column section as shown in Fig 4.
Figure 4: Eccentric Loading Position
The combined effect of spacers and eccentricity on

the load carrying capacity is studied for both types of
columns. The labelling of the specimens is done in such (d) OL-S2 (e )OL-S1 (f) OL-S0
a way to self-describe the specimen. The specimens are
labelled as follows: the first two letter indicates the Figure 5 : FEA model of Type I column
position of the lip whether outward lip(OL) or inward
lip (IL), the next two letter indicates the number of Fig 5 shows the model of Type 1 column (outward
spacers (S0, S1, S2, S3, S4, S5 for 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 number lip) developed with 5, 4, 3, 2, 1 and no spacers.
of spacers respectively), the last two letter indicate the Similarly FEA model of type II column with 5, 4, 3, 2, 1
eccentricity from 0 to 40mm (E0, E20, E30 and E40 for and no spacers is also developed.
300
Table 3: Sample Specimen Details for FEA

Label No. of Eccentricity Lip
Spacers
OL-S0-E0 0 0 outward
OL-S1-E0 1 0 Outward
IL-S2-E30 2 30 Inward
IL-S5-E-40 5 -40 Inward

Load carrying capacity and buckled shape of
the column are obtained from this analysis. Type I
columns with outward lip failed by distortional buckling
by opening of end stiffened elements. Figure 6 shows
the buckled shape. The specimens failed by global
buckling and local bucking due to eccentric loading and
by influence of spacers (Fig. 7 and Fig. 8). Type II
columns failed by distortional buckling by closing of
end stiffened elements (Fig. 9 and Fig. 10). The
specimens fail by global buckling and local bucking due
to eccentric loading and by influence of spacers.
Figure 7: Buckling of OL-S1-E0 and OL-S1-E10
301
spacers for both inward and outward lip under

concentric axial loading and shown in Fig 11.
Figure 11: Load vs. No. of Spacers for Type I and

II Column
It is observed that Type I column (outward lip)

carry (2-4%) more load than that of type II column
(inward lip). But both the columns carry almost equal
load when provided with 5 spacers.
Figure 9: Buckling of IL-S0-E0 and IL-S0-E20 Buckling load vs. eccentricity for varying number
of spacers is plotted for column with outward lip and
shown in Fig 12.
Figure 12: Load vs. Eccentricity for Outward Lip
It is observed that the load carrying capacity

increases by 10-30% when the number of spacers is
increased. Similar trend is observed for axial and
Figure 10: Buckling of IL-S5-E0 and IL-S5-E20 eccentrically loaded columns. The increase is gradual.
Load carrying capacity decreases by 40-50% at an
From the buckling analysis, buckling loads are eccentricity of 20mm and decreases by up to 60-70% at
obtained. Graph is plotted between load and number of an eccentricity of 40 mm.
302
Buckling load vs. eccentricity for varying number When the eccentricity exceeds 20 mm, the load
of spacers is plotted for column with inward lip and carrying capacity decreases by upto 50%. Load
shown in Fig 13. carrying capacity decreases more rapidly for
positive eccentricity (away from web) than for
negative eccentricity (towards the web).
When eccentricity is beyond 30 mm on
negative X-axis, load get concentrated on web
portion of the column section and therefore the
section fails by local buckling leading to a
great reduction in load carrying capacity.
Reference
1. Anil Kumar, M.V and Kalyanaraman V.,
Evaluation of Direct Strength Method for CFS
Compression Members without Stiffeners,
ASCE Journal of Structural Engineering, Vol.
136(7) pp 879-885, 2010
2. Anbarasu M, Amali D and Sukumar S, New
Approach to Improve the Distortional Strength
of Intermediate Length Web Stiffened Thin-
walled Open Columns, KSCE Journal of Civil
Engineering, Vol 17, pp1720-27, 2013.
3. Anbarasu. M and Sukumar S, Study on the
Effect of Spacers on the Ultimate Capacity of
Intermediate Length Thin Walled Section
under Compression, Transactions of Civil
Engineering, Vol. 38, pp 191-204, 2014
Figure 13: Load vs. Eccentricity for Inward Lip 4. AISI-S100:2007, North American
Specification for the Design of Cold-formed
It is observed that load carrying capacity of Steel Structural members Specifications.
column with inward lip increases by 30% when five 5. IS: 801-1975, Code of Practice for Use of
numbers of spacers are provided. Load carrying Cold Formed Light Gauge Steel Structural
capacity decreases by 40-50% at an eccentricity of Members in General Building Construction,
20mm and decreases by up to 60-70% at an eccentricity Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi.
of 40mm. Hence, the behaviour of column with inward
lip is similar to that of column with outward lip. But in
general, the load carrying capacity of columns with
inward lip is lesser than that of columns with outward
lip.
5 Conclusions
From the numerical study, the following
conclusions are made
Columns with outward lip carry more load than
columns with inward lip at all eccentricities
and at almost all number of spacers. But when
provided with five spacers both the columns
carry almost equal load
Outward lip column fails by opening of flanges,
whereas the inward lip column fails by closing
of flanges under concentric axial load.
Load carrying capacity increases by increasing
the number of spacers. Load carrying capacity
increases by almost 30% when provided with
five numbers of spacers.
When eccentricity is increased by upto 10mm
no change in buckling modes is observed in
both Type I and Type II columns.
303
SVM BASED ANALYSIS OF BLOCK SHEAR STRENGTH OF TENSION

MEMBERS
Ankamreddi Satyaveni1, CH. Suryanarayana2, Venkat Lute3
1,2,3
Gayatri Vidya Parishad College of Engg.(A) ,Visakhapatnam-530048, Andhra Pradesh, India.
Tension member is the principal structural element in steel trusses. According to IS: 800-2007, block shear which
occurs along the member at end connection is the major criteria for the tension member. The prediction of Block shear
strength of tension member is complicated and highly nonlinear in nature as it depends on many parameters like pitch
distance, grade of bolt and diameter of bolt. In recent studies, machine learning techniques are employed in modelling
of nonlinear processes with a great degree of accuracy. In the present study an attempt is made to predicting the block
shear strength of tension member using Support Vector Machine. SVM model is applied to predict the block shear
strength for different diameter of bolt and pitches. The performance of SVM model is compared with ANN. Results
indicate that SVM model gives better accuracy in predicting block shear strength. Also, the paper presents sensitivity
analysis for each parameter to understand the influence of each input parameter on block shear strength is carried out.
Keywords: Block shear, Tension member, Support Vector Machine (SVM), ANN.
1 Introduction: These modelling techniques will use the data obtained

from the numerical methods or from the experiment. In
Steel structures are advantageous due their adequate these techniques, ANN and support vector machine
strength to withstand direct and induced forces to techniques have been recently used in the civil
which it may be subjected during its life span. All the engineering and it provides accurate results compared
truss structures are constituted with tension and to experimental calculations [Ibrahim Turkoglu, et. al
compression members. Hence, finding the strength of 2008]. Artificial Neural Networks also have been
tension and compression members is crucial factor to proposed for predicting crack growth [Deepayan Gope,
construct a truss structure. et. al 2015]. The ANN extracts the implicit non-linear
1 relationship among input variables by learning from
Tension members are major structural members in
steel structures such as trusses and bracings. During the training data without making complex dependency
life time of the structure, tension members will assumptions among input variables. But learning
subjected to yielding of gross section or rupture at net algorithm of ANN lacks quantitative analysis and
section or block shear failure. Block shear failure perfect results since it adopts empirical risk
encountered in members along the end connection. The minimization (ERM) principle according to statistical
block shear failure indicates that tear-out material at the learning theory (SLT), which tries only to minimize
connected end in the direction of applied load and it experience risk. SVM is a small-sample theory firmly
combines a failure of tension in one plane and shear grounded on the framework of SLT [Ibrahim Turkoglu,
failure on perpendicular plane. Least strength of two et. al 2008]. SVM based on the structural risk
possibilities, rupture on tension plane and yielding on minimization (SRM) principle to minimize the
generalization error rather than the empirical error.
According to SVM theory, the regression problems can
be converted into linear ones, and finally deduced to
shear plane or rupture on shear plane and yielding on mathematical problems of quadratics programming.
tension plane is considered to be failure mode. In this present study, SVM and ANN are used. Various
Various modelling techniques are available to forecast parameters like pitch distance, diameter of bolt, grade
the performance of structures in civil engineering. of bolt and sectional area are used as the inputs for the
wavelet SVM. Sensitivity analysis can be performed by
1
P. G. Student, satyavenistructures@gmail.com eliminating the each input parameter at a time and
2
Assistant Professor, snarayana108@gmail.com found more influencing parameters on block shear
3 strength.
Associate Professor, lutevenkat@gmail.com
304
Ankamreddi Satyaveni, et al
Kulak et.al [1997] studied the shear lag effects on net bolt, grade of bolt and pitch distance. The prediction is
section rupture of single and double angle tension done by varying different input parameters. The
members. Angles were modelled with shell elements sensitivity of the models is checked by reducing the
and multi linear isotropic hardening behaviour was input parameters and varying them from model to
assumed for the material response. Recently, finite model. The models considered depending upon the
element studies were conducted by Barth et al. [2002] input parameters are shown in Table1 and sample
to predict the net section failure of tension members. values of training and testing data are shown in Table2.
CemTopkaya [2004] developed simple block shear
prediction equations based on numerical modelling and
a finite element parametric study was conducted to
identify the important parameters that influence the
block shear capacity. In Civil Engineering, support
vector machines have been successfully applied to
various areas like aerodynamic analysis of cable stayed
bridges [Venkat Lute, et.al 2009], prediction of shear
strength of pre stressed and reinforced concrete deep
beams [Mahesh pal et. al 2011], steel bridge rust
assessment [Po-Han Chen, et. al 2012]. Figure 1. Block shear failure of angle section
2 Computation of Design Strength: Table 1: Sensitivity analysis parameters

Model Input parameters
Tension Members: type
Design strength of angle sections for different bolt M Sectional area, grade of bolt, diameter
grades and diameters is calculated. Pitch of the bolt is of bolt, pitch, thickness
varied from 50mm to 80mm. The design tensile M1 Sectional area, diameter of bolt, pitch,
strength Td, is the lowest of the design strength due to thickness
yielding of gross section, Tdg rupture strength of M2 Sectional area, grade of bolt, pitch,
critical section, Tdn, and block shear Tdb. thickness
This strength is calculated [A. Satyaveni et. al 2016] by M3 Sectional area, grade of bolt, diameter
using equation (4) to (7) as per IS: 800-2007. of bolt, pitch
M4 Sectional area, grade of bolt, diameter
!" #$% of bolt, thickness
Tdg!=! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!(4)!
&'() M5 Sectional area, pitch, thickness
*.+#! #$ 1#! #$
Tdn!=!! ' ,- /!+! ' ") %!!!!!!!!(5)
(0 ()
!6" #$% *.+#!9, #$/ 3.1 SVM Model:
2345 != !+! !!!!!!!!!!!(6)!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
78#&'() '(0
SVM Regression
!!!!!!!!(Or)!
*.+#!6, #$/ !9" #$% Learning systems for regression estimation can be
234: !=! 78#'(0 &
!!+! ' !!!!!!!!!!!(7)
() described as follows. Given a set of input-output
training data (x1, y1), (x2, y2) ... (xl, yl) Rn R, we
need to estimate a function f: Rn R that will
correctly predict unseen examples generated from the
3 Modelling:! same underlying-probability-distribution as the training
data. The generic SVR regression estimation function
Design strength of tension member is predicted for the takes the form
model in the Figure 1 using SVM and ANN. The input
parameters used for the prediction of design strength of
the member are sectional area, thickness, diameter of
305
Table 2: Sample values of training and testing data
Training data Testing data-1

Input Output Input Output
L B t G D P Td (kN) L B t G D P Td (kN)
(mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm)
50 44.15 50 36.31
16 55 59.93 55 38.28
60 63.86 60 40.25
50 30.56 16 65 42.22
50 30 3 3.6
20 55 36.51 70 44.19
60 38.47 75 46.16
50 27.01 80 48.12
24 55 34.73 50 14.86
60 36.70 55 14.86
50 36.31 60 14.86
16 55 38.28 20 65 14.86
50 30 3 5.8
60 40.25 70 14.86
50 34.54 75 14.86
50 30 3
4.6 20 55 36.51 80 14.86
60 38.48 50 13.09
50 13.09 55 13.09
24 55 13.09 60 13.09
60 13.09 65 13.09
24
50 36.31 70 13.09
16 55 38.28 75 13.09
60 40.25
80 13.09
50 14.86
50 30 3 20 55 14.86 Testing data-2
6.8
60 14.86 50 34.1042
50 13.08 55 38.28215
24 55 13.08 60 40.25039
60 13.08 16 65 42.21863
50 16.63 70 44.18687
16 55 16.63 75 46.15511
60 16.63 80 48.12335
50 14.86 50 30.5618
50 30 3
8.8 20 55 14.86 55 36.51095
60 14.86 60 38.47919
50 13.12 20 65 40.44743
50 30 3 10.9
24 55 13.12 70 42.41567
60 13.12 75 44.38391
50 34.10 80 46.35215
16 55 38.28 50 27.0194
60 40.25 55 34.73975
50 30.56 60 36.70799
50 30 3
9.8 20 55 36.51 65 38.67623
24
60 38.47 70 40.64447
50 27.01 75 42.61271
24 55 34.73
80 44.58095
60 36.70
306
f ( x)= ( w.F ( x)) + b (1) maximum cross validation accuracy (minimum error).
Various combinations are tried for the three parameters
Where w R , b R and F denotes a non-linear
n
by sampling the search space at discrete intervals. Once
n
transformation from R to a high dimensional feature the combination with minimum mean-squared-error is
space. The goal is to find the value of w and b that found, the search is performed around the combination
minimize the regression risk. The optimal regression with a reduced sample interval. This procedure is
function is given by the minimum of the functional, repeated until there is no significant improvement in
the cross validation accuracy.
1
w + C (xi- + xi+ ) (2)
2
f ( w, x ) =
2 i
Training: Once the kernel is chosen the SVM is
- + trained. This involves identifying the Support Vectors
Where C is pre-specified value, and x ,x
i i are the
in the training data. For training SVM, MATLAB
slack variables representing upper and lower interface of the Steve Guns SVM library is used. The
constraints on the outputs of the system. output of SVM training is the model file which has the
The -Insensitive function is given by Eq.(2a) list of support vectors, values of beta and bias.
(Scholkopf et al., 1999; Mohandes et al.,2004)
f ( x) - y - e for f ( x) - y e Testing: The accuracy of model in predicting unseen
G( f ( x) - y ) = data is verified by predicting the performance of an
0, otherwise.
independent data set (test data set). The test data set is
(2a) scaled between +1 and -1 using the same scaling
The Optimization problem is solved while minimizing parameters as used in the input scaling step. The output
the regression function and loss functions field of the test data set is predicted using the model
simultaneously by Eq.(2b). file obtained after training SVM. The accuracy of
1 l * l
R(a * ,a ) = i i j j i j i=1 ai* ( yi - e ) - ai ( yi + e )
2 i, j =1
(a - a )(a *
- a )k ( x , x ) - prediction is defined in terms of Mean Squared Error
(MSE) and Relative mean Squared Error (RSE). MSE
(2b) and RSE are computed as follows
where k ( xi , x j ) = the kernel function;
Error = predicted value original value
e = e-Insensitive. n
error
i =1
i
2
Kernel Function Selection: The kernel function is MSE =

n (3a)
important because it creates the kernel matrix which
2
summarizes all the data. There are 4 commonly used n
errori
kernels and these are (i) Linear, (ii) Polynomial, (iii) original value
RSE =
i =1 i
RBF and (iv) Sigmoid. In practice, a low degree n
polynomial kernel or RBF kernel with a reasonable
width is a good initial trial. In this work, RBF kernel is
Where n is the number of sample points in test data
considered.
set.
x - x' 2
3.2 ANN Model:

k ( x, x' ) = exp - (3)
2s 2 Feed forward neural networks are the simplest and

most commonly adapted architectures. In this study the
where x ands are mean and standard
'
developed feed forward networks is having the
deviations of x data. architecture of 6-3-1. ANN's used the Levenberg
Marquardt (LM) algorithm for training as it is the
Model Selection: One of the important choices in fastest algorithm [J.Adamowski et. al 2010,
developing an SVM model is the selection of model J.Adamowski et. al 2011]. In this study ANN having
parameters which include kernel parameters, the one hidden layer and an output layer. Hyperbolic
penalty of estimation error (C), and the value of e- tangent sigmoid transfer function is use at the hidden
Insensitive ( e ). The goal of model selection is to layer and linear transfer fuction is used in the output
determine which combination of C, e and s has the layer. The linear output layer is most often used for
307
nonlinear regression problems. The performance of It shows that the performance parameter, R2 drops
ANN's greatly depends upon the optimal choice of down for M3 and M4 models. Which indicates that the
parameters. Most significant variable to be determined thickness of an ISA section and pitch distance for
is the number of neurons in the hidden layer. ANN connection are the more influencing factors. This fact
models used in this study consist of input layer with the is also strengthened by performance criteria, Ec.
neurons varying from 2 to 40 and a hidden layer and an
output layer. By trial and error process, the optimal Table 3: Performance criteria of SVM and ANN for
number of neurons in the hidden layer is determined to prediction of tensile strength connecting with grade 5.8
be three. The Neural Network Tool box of MATLAB bolt
package [H. Demuth, 1997] is used for developing Model Performance criterion
ANN model in this study and ANN models are NMSE R2 RMSE MAPE Ec
developed and the models which have best SVM 0.0027 0.9989 46.5175 0.0654 0.9973
performance criteria are selected as best ANN models
ANN 0.0118 0.9912 97.0598 0.2003 0.9881
for finding block shear strength of tension member.
4 Results and Discussion: Table 4 : Performance criteria of SVM and ANN for
prediction of tensile strength connecting with grade
10.9 bolt
The analytical data for angle sections were divided into
two groups namely one for training and other for Model Performance criterion
testing. The SVM and ANN is trained with the training NMSE R 2
RMSE MAPE Ec
data and then that prediction was compared with the SVM 0.0076 0.9933 44.1314 0.1165 0.9924
other group data i.e. testing data. Table 2 shows the
ANN 0.0365 0.9698 97.3845 0.2704 0.9631
training and testing data for both SVM and ANN
modelling.
Prediction of tensile strength of ISA for bolt grade 5.8
using SVM and ANN is carried out and the robustness
of SVM in the present context is best suited as
compared to ANN as shown in Figure 2. Similarly for a
bolt grade 10.9 prediction plot and scatter plot is
presented in Figure 3.
The accuracy of model in predicting unseen data is
verified by predicting the performance. The tensile
strength of ISA sections for various input combinations
performance of SVM model and ANN model is
presented in Table 3 and 4. Statistical parameters R2,
NMSE, RMSE, Ec, MAPE indicates the best
performance of SVM in comparison with ANN.
Essential input parameters influences the prediction of Figure 2: Tensile strength prediction for 5.8 bolt grade
tensile strength of ISA sections for bolted connections. (a) SVM (b) ANN
To understand the sensitivity of each of the parameter
in tensile strength a sensitivity analysis is carried out as Table 5.SVM model parameters for Sensitivity analysis
shown in Table 5.
Table 2. Training and Testing data for both SVM S.
Model NMSE R2 E
modelling No
S. 1 M 0.0031 0.9976 0.9969
Training data
No 2 M1 0.0358 0.9941 0.9641
1 Bolt grade Diameter of bolt (mm) 3 M2 0.7537 0.9971 0.2443
4 M3 0.2169 0.7874 0.7825
3.6, 4.6, 6.8,
2 16, 20, 24 5 M4 0.0524 0.9487 0.9475
8.8, 9.8
Testing data 6 M5 0.3532 0.9978 0.6458
1 5.8, 10.9 16, 20, 24
308
[5] Barth KE, Orbison JG, Nukala R. (2002),

Behaviour of steel tension members
subjected to uniaxial loading. Journal of
Constructional Steel Research vol.58
pp:11031120.
[6] CemTopkaya, (2004), A Finite Element
Parametric Study on Block Shear Failure of
Steel Tension Members.Journal of
Constructional Steel Research vol.60,
pp:1615-1635.
[7] Venkat Lute, Akhil Upadyay et.al [2009],
Support Vector Machine Based Aerodynamic
Analysis of Cable Stayed Bridges, Advances
in Engineering Software.
Figure 3: Tensile strength prediction for 10.9 bolt grade [8] Mahesh pal, Surinder Deswal [2011],
(a) SVM (b) ANN Support vector regression based shear
strength modelling of deep beams,
Summary and Conclusion: Computers and Structures vol.89, pp: 1430
1439
Tensile strength of ISA sections with bolted [9] Po-Han Chen, Heng-Kuang Shen et.al [2012],
connections is predicted using SVM and compared Support Vector Machine based method for
with ANN. automated steel bridge rust assessment,
It is concluded that SVM is a robust technique for Automation in construction, vol.23, pp: 9-19.
predicting the tensile strength of the ISA sections for [10] A satyaveni et.al [2016], Parametric
bolted connections. The performance criterion, NMSE, Evaluation of Steel Members under Tension,
R2, RMSE, MAPE, Ec is better for SVM in comparison Compression and Flexure Journal of
with the ANN. From the sensitivity analysis carried out Structural Engineering (JoSE), vol. 43, No. 6,
it is concluded that thickness of an ISA section, pitch pp:133-141.
of the connection and diameter of the connecting bolt [11] Scholkopf B, Mika S, Burges CJC, Knirsch P,
are the most influencing factors in decreasing order for Muller KR, Ratsch G, et al. [1999], Input
R2 performance index. For efficiency index, space versus feature space in kernel-based
influencing factors diameter of bolt, thickness of ISA methods. IEEE Trans NeuralNetworks,
section and pitch of the connection in decreasing order. 10(5).
[12] Mohandes MA, Halawani TO, Rehman S,
References: Hussain AA [2004]. Support vector machine
[1] IS:800-2007, Indian Standard general for wind speed prediction. Renew Energy
construction in steel code of practice vol.29:93947.
[2] Ibrahim Turkoglu, Engin Avei [2008], [13] J.Adamowski, C.Karapataki [2010],
Comparison of Wavelet-SVM and Wavelet- Comparison of multi variate regression and
adaptive network based fuzzy inference artificial neural networks for peak urban
system for texture classification, Digital water-demand forecasting :evaluation of
Signal processing, vol. 18, pp: 15-24. different ann learning algorithms,
[3] Deepayan Gope, et. al [2015], Application of J.Hydrol.Eng, vol.15(10) pp:729743.
artificial neural network for predicting crack [14] J.Adamowski, H.F.Chan [2011], Awavelet
growthdirection in multiple cracks neural network conjunction model for
geometry, Applied Soft Computing, vol. 30, groundwater level forecasting, J.Hydrol.,
pp:514528 vol.407(1) pp:2840.
[4] Kulak GL, Wu EY. (1997), Shear lag in [15] H. Demuth, M. Beale [1997] Neural Network
bolted angle tension members. ASCE Journal Toolbox for Use with MATLAB, Users
Of Structural Engineering vol.123 (9) pp: Guide, Version 3.0, The Mathworks Inc.,
11441152. Natick., MA, .
309
SEMI-ELLIPTICAL LDSS HOLLOW STUB COLUMNS UNDER

AXIAL COMPRESSION
Tekcham Gishan Singh1, Konjengbam Darunkumar Singh2
1, 2
Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati, India
In this paper, effect of thickness on the structural performance of concentrically loaded semi-elliptical
Lean Duplex Stainless Steel (LDSS) hollow stub columns is presented via non-linear finite element (FE)
analysis by using ABAQUS. The modeling procedure has been validated against the LDSS stub column
experimental results available in literature. The cross-sectional dimensions considered in this analysis
conform to the commercially available semi-elliptical hollow sections from Ancofer Stahlhandel GMBH.
Extensive parametric study was carried out to study the structural performance by varying the thickness
from t = 5 mm to 14 mm. Based on the FE analyses, it has been found that, for the sections considered, a
near linear increase (~+300%) in column resistance (Pu) is seen with increase (~+180%) in thickness from
t = 5 to 14 mm. Further, an enhanced strain hardening effect on the load capacity can be observed for the
thicker sections i.e. t ~12.5 mm.
Keywords: Finite element analysis; Lean Duplex Stainless Steel; Semi-elliptical; Thickness; Strain hardening.
1. Introduction as structural members. Semi-elliptical hollow sections

(SEHS) are commercially available and manufactured
Stainless steel sections are known to provide
by some of the prominent the structural steel
enhanced properties over traditional carbon steel
manufacturers, such as Ancofer Stahlhandel GMBH
sections in terms of mechanical strength, sustainability,
[1]. A typical SEHS is shown in Figure 1.
durability etc., such as higher strength, high corrosion
In the literature limited work has been reported
resistance, 100% recyclability, negligible maintenance
on LDSS. Theofanous and Gardner [2-3] studied the
required, better fire performance, good aesthetic
structural performance of square and rectangular LDSS
appearance, smooth and uniform surface, high ductility
hollow sections through experimental and numerical
etc. Despite these enhanced properties, high initial
process and then compared the structural performance
material cost and price fluctuation of important
with sections made of other commonly used stainless
alloying element like nickel in particular, hampers
steel grades such as austenitic steel grades. Huang and
widespread use of stainless steel sections over the most
Young [4-8] also performed experimental and
widely used traditional carbon steel sections. Among
numerical investigations on the structural behavior of
the different types of stainless steel, Austenitic steel
LDSS square and rectangular sections under
grade which has nickel content of ~8% 11% is
concentric, bending and eccentric loading conditions.
commonly used, but due to the recent increase in the
Sachidananda and Singh [9] carried out numerical
price of nickel, it becomes a difficult choice to use
investigations to study the effects of cross-section
stainless steel in the construction industry. Lean
thickness, flat length and curvature of end parts, on the
Duplex Stainless Steel (EN 1.4162) is a relatively new
load capacity of fixed ended LDSS flat oval stub
stainless steel grade with nickel content of ~ 1.5% and
columns. However, for such sections especially semi-
improved strength i.e., twice the mechanical strength
elliptical section, very limited information on their
of Austenitic steel. Hence LDSS is an alternative
structural behavior is available in the literature.
choice for use of stainless steel in construction sector
Nowzartash and Mohareb [10] studied the plastic
[2-3], [9], [17-18].
interactions relations for semi-elliptical hollow sections
Tubular hollow stainless steel sections have been
(SEHS) subjected to general loading combinations
increasingly used in exposed structures where aesthetic
involving axial force, biaxial bending and twisting
appearance is of primary importance. In addition,
moments. Silvestre et al., [11] studied the buckling
tubular sections are known to provide improved
behaviour, ultimate strength and failure of SEHS
torsional resistance, as compared to open sections. In
columns using finite-strip analyses and finite-element
the recent years, new sections such as elliptical, semi-
analyses. Both the studies are based on an idealized
elliptical, etc. with continuously varying curvature
bilinear elastic-perfectly plastic stressstrain curve.
(with or without flat elements) have been introduced,
1
Research Student, tekcham@iitg.ernet.in
2
Associate Professor, darun@iitg.ernet.in
310
T G Singh and K D Singh
Therefore, the additional capacity of the steel material 2.2 Boundary and loading condition
due to strain hardening is neglected. In this present In the present study all the models were fixed at
work, a parametric study on the structural performance both ends by restraining all degrees of freedom except
of LDSS semi-elliptical hollow stub columns subjected the degree of freedom in the loading direction which is
to concentric compressive load is attempted, using the
allowed to translate. The ends were coupled with
general purpose, commercial FE software, ABAQUS
[12]. reference points (RP-1 and RP-2) available in ABAQUS
[12] library and load was applied through RP-2. Typical
boundary and loading condition are shown in Figure. 3.
RP-2 Loading
RP-1
Figure 3 Typical boundary and loading condition

Figure 1: Semi-elliptical Hollow section. (Silvestre
et al., 2013) [11] 2.3 Element type and meshing
t Due to the thin-walled nature and the SEHS under
study, four-noded doubly curved shell element with
reduced integration (S4R) having six degrees of
freedom per node was utilized available in ABAQUS
[12]. Convergence studies were carried out to find the
appropriate mess size which will require optimal
h L computational time without compromising accuracy. An
approximate global mess size of 15-20 mm was found
to be appropriate for this analysis and thus used to
discretise the whole geometry. The number of S4R shell
b elements generated in various models range from ~
Figure 2: Nomenclature of Semi-elliptical hollow 1,000 to 4,000. A typical FE meshing is shown in
section Figures 2 and 3.
2.4 Material Modeling

2. Numerical modeling The material properties obtained from the test results
2.1 General of Huang and Young [4] were used to derive the stress-
The effect of thickness on the structural strain model and it is shown in Table 1. The stress-strain
performance of concentrically loaded semi-elliptical model up to 0.2% proof stress (0.2) was derived using
LDSS hollow stub columns was carried out using the Ramberg-Osgood model [13] as given in Eq. (1) and
commercial non-linear FE program ABAQUS, 2009 from 0.2 to 1.0, by Gardner and Ashraf model [14], as
[12]. Geometry of the semi-elliptical hollow sections given in Eq. (2) were employed.
2
considered in this study, has been adapted from the s s
commercially marketed sections from Ancofer [1]. e= + 0.002 ; For s s 0.2 (1)
Typical section nomenclature follows e.g. E0 s 0 .2
h252b276L828t5 where h = flat length, b = semi-
elliptical arm length, L = length of the column and t = n '0.2 ,1.0
thickness (as shown in Figure 2). The flat material s - s 0.2 s - s s - s 0.2
e= + e t1.0 - e t 0.2 - 1.0 0.2 + e t 0.2 ;
properties obtained from Huang and Young [4] was E0.2 E0.2 s 1.0 - s 0.2
assigned to both flat and corner parts of the sections
considered. The effect of residual stress was not For s 0.2 s s 1.0 (2)
considered.
311
where and are the engineering stress and strain in the present FE modeling. The flat and corner material
respectively, E0 is the initial young modulus, 0.2 is the properties are respectively assigned to the flat and
0.2% proof stress, n is the strain hardening exponent, corner part of the section. The load vs end-shortening
1.0 is the 1% proof stress, t1.0 and t0.2 are the total comparison curve and deformation pattern between
strain corresponding to 1.0 and 0.2 respectively. n0 .2 ,1.0 experimental and FE approach is shown in Figure 4 and
5 respectively. From Figure 4 and 5, good agreement
= strain-hardening exponent representing a curve that between the present FE modeling approach and
passes through 0.2 and 1.0 and its value was determined experimental result from Huang and Young [4] can be
using Eq. (3) proposed by Quach et al. [16]. The seen.
engineering stress-strain has been converted into true
stress ( s true ) and strain ( e true
pl
) using the Eq. (4) to Table 2: Cross-sectional dimension of SC6L450 [4]
input in ABAQUS [12]. Specimen Depth Width Thickness Outer Length
(mm) (mm) (mm) radius (mm)
(mm)
E s
n0.2,1.0 = 6.399 0.2 1.0 + 1.145 (3) SC6L450 150.0 50.2 2.463 4.3 450
E0 s 0.2
E0s 0.2 3. Parametric Study
where E = and s 1.0 = 0.662 1 + 1.085
0.2
s 0.2 + 0.002nE0 s 0.2 n The motivation of this present study is to investigate
s true = s (1 + e ) the structural behavior of semi-elliptical hollow stub
columns by varying the thickness. Finite element study
s true
e true
pl
= ln (1 + e ) - (4) on 21 stub columns were carried out using the validated
E0 FE procedure described in previous sections. Three
commercially marketed cross-sections from Ancofer
Table1: Flat and curve coupon material properties [4] were considered in the present study, which includes:
h203b223L669, h225b259L777 and h252b276L828. The
0.2 1.0
Cross-section E (MPa) n thickness of the sections was varied from 5 mm -14.2
(MPa) (MPa)
mm. The column length was taken as three times the
150x50x2.5-
202,000 664 766 4 larger dimension to capture the behavior of stub column.
Flat
The flat material property from Huang and Young [4]
150x50x2.5-
967,000 831 953 6 has been utilized for all the models for both the flat and
Corner
corner sections. The effect of residual stress was not
considered in the present study, as their effect on the
2.5 Local geometric imperfection column was relatively small [19]. The initial geometric
The lowest buckling mode shape was captured imperfection was introduced with imperfection
using linear elastic buckling analysis through Lanczos magnitude as given in Eq. (5).
method and utilized to simulate the local geometric
500
imperfection of the stub column. The imperfection
amplitude proposed by Theofanous and Gardner [2] was 450
used in all the models and is given in Eq. (5). 400
350
s
Load (kN)
w0 = 0.023 0.2 t (5) 300

s cr 250 Huang and Young-2013
Where s cr = E 0 l
DL 200
150 Gardner& Ashraf Model
L
100 Gardner& Ashraf Model
Here, cr is the elastic critical buckling stress, is
the Eigen value obtained from the buckling analysis, L 50 ( Flat Material Only)
is the initial displacement given at the movable end and 0
L is the length of the column. Modified Risk method 0 2 4 6
was employed to capture the complete load- End-shortening (mm)
displacement characteristics.
Figure 4: Comparison of Load-end shortening curves of
section 150x50x2.5
2.6 Validation of finite element model
The stub column experimental results by Huang and
Young [4] on LDSS rectangular hollow Specimen- 4. Result and Discussions
SC6L450 was utilized to assess the accuracy of the FE
Non-linear FE buckling analysis was conducted
modeling approach and verify the compatibility of
using ABAQUS [12]. The results of the FE analysis are
parametric study. The cross-sectional dimensions of the
shown in the form of table and curves. The ultimate load
column are shown in Table 2. Similar modeling
capacity and corresponding end-shortening magnitudes
approached published in [9], [15], [17-18] was followed
for different models are shown in Table 3. The load-end
312
shortening curves, load-thickness curves and von-Mises

contours are analyzed in subsequent paragraphs. 12000 t = 5.0 mm t = 6.0 mm t = 6.3 mm
Typical load vs end-shortening behavior for t = 8.0 mm t = 10.0 mm t = 12.5 mm
h252b276L828, h225b259L777 and h203b223L669 t = 14.2 mm
10000
sections are shown in Figure 6, 7 and 8 respectively. It
can be observed that an enhanced strain hardening effect
on the load capacity for the thicker section i.e. t ~12.5 8000
Load (kN)
6000
4000
2000
0
010 5 15 20 25
End shortening (mm)
Figure 6: Load vs. End-shortening behavior for
h252b276L828
12000 t = 5.0 mm t = 6.0 mm t = 6.3 mm

t = 8.0 mm t = 10.0 mm t = 12.5 mm
t = 14.2 mm
10000
Figure 5:Comparison of Test and FE deformation 8000

Load (kN)
mode for SC6L450

6000
Table 3: Key results from FE analysis
Sections Ultimate Load u (mm) 4000
(kN)
h203b223L669t05.0 2187.88 4.22 2000
h203b223L669t06.0 2770.09 4.21
h203b223L669t06.3 2971.09 4.14 0
0 10 5 15 20 25
h203b223L669t08.0 4139.89 4.35
End shortening (mm)
h203b223L669t10.0 5574.80 7.35 Figure 7: Load vs. End-shortening behavior for
h203b223L669t12.5 7122.85 10.88 h225b259L777
h203b223L669t14.2 8130.65 11.13
t = 5.0 mm t = 6.0 mm t = 6.3 mm
h225b259L777t05.0 2368.81 3.99 9000 t = 8.0 mm t = 10.0 mm t = 12.5 mm
h225b259L777t06.0 2976.97 5.07 8000
t = 14.2 mm
h225b259L777t06.3 3194.22 4.70

7000
h225b259L777t08.0 4472.55 4.40
6000
Load (kN)
h225b259L777t10.0 6083.83 6.06

5000
h225b259L777t12.5 8036.21 10.48
4000
h225b259L777t14.2 9168.67 11.38
3000
h252b276L828T05.0 2380.45 3.33
h252b276L828T06.0 3230.91 4.77 2000
h252b276L828T06.3 3438.83 4.63 1000
h252b276L828T08.0 4723.76 4.64 0
0 10 20
h252b276L828T10.0 6407.10 5.74
End shortening (mm)
h252b276L828T12.5 8697.95 6.03
Figure. 8: Load vs. End-shortening behavior for
h252b276L828T14.2 9999.10 12.21 h203b223L669
313
mm. The behavior of load with the increase in thickness Rheinstrae 163, 45478 Mlheim an der Ruhr,
is shown in Figure 9. It can be seen that, a near linear Germany.
increase (~+300%) in column resistance capacity with [2] Theofanous M, Gardner L. Testing and
increase (~+180) in thickness from t = 5 mm.
numerical modelling of lean duplex stainless
The von-Mises stress distribution contours coupled
with deformed shaped corresponding to u, where u is steel hollow section columns. Engineering
the end-shortening deformation with respect to ultimate Structures. 2009 Dec 31;31(12):3047-58.
load, Pu for section corresponding to h203b223L669t5.0 [3] Theofanous M, Gardner L. Experimental and
is shown in Figure 10. From the figure the onset of local numerical studies of lean duplex stainless steel
buckling at the ultimate load can be observed. beams. Journal of Constructional Steel Research.
2010 Jun 30;66(6):816-25.
12000 [4] Huang Y, Young B. Material properties of cold-
h252b276L828
10000 formed lean duplex stainless steel sections. Thin-
h225b259L777
walled structures. 2012 May 31;54:72-81.
Load (kN)
8000 h203b223L669
[5] Huang Y, Young B. Experimental and numerical
6000 investigation of cold-formed lean duplex
4000 stainless steel flexural members. Thin-Walled
2000 Structures. 2013 Dec 31;73:216-28.
[6] Huang Y, Young B. Experimental investigation
0 of cold-formed lean duplex stainless steel beam-
5 0 10 15
columns. Thin-Walled Structures. 2014 Mar
Thickness (mm)
31;76:105-17.
Figure. 9: Load vs. Thickness behavior for three
sections [7] Huang Y, Young B. Structural performance of
cold-formed lean duplex stainless steel columns.
Thin-Walled Structures. 2014 Oct 31;83:59-69.
Local Buckling
[8] Huang Y, Young B. Design of cold-formed lean
duplex stainless steel members in combined
compression and bending. Journal of Structural
Engineering. 2014 Jul 18;141(5):04014138.
[9] Sachidananda K, Singh KD. Numerical study of
fixed ended lean duplex stainless steel (LDSS)
flat oval hollow stub column under pure axial
compression. Thin-Walled Structures. 2015 Nov
30;96:105-19.
[10] Nowzartash F, Mohareb M. Plastic interaction
relations for semi-elliptical hollow sections.
Thin-Walled Structures. 2010 Jan 31;48(1):42-
Local Buckling
54.
[11] Silvestre N, Pires T, Duarte AP. Numerical
analysis of semi-elliptical hollow section
Figure. 10: Deformed shaped along with von-Mises
columns. Proceedings of the Institution of Civil
stress distribution for h203b223L669t5.0 at Pu
Engineers-Structures and Buildings. 2013
5. Conclusions Sep;166(8):424-33.
[12] Abaqus. Abaqus/Standard user's manual volume
a) The column load (Pu) capacity increases in a
linear fashion with increase in thickness. I-III and ABAQUS CAE manual. Version 6.9-
b) An enhanced strain hardening effect on the EF1, Dassault Systemes Corp., Providence,
load capacity can be observed for the thicker USA, 2009.
sections. [13] W. Ramberg, W.R. Osgood, Description of
stressstrain curves by three parameters,
REFERENCES: Technical Note No. 902, National Advisory
Committee for Aeronautics, Washington, DC,
[1] Ancofer (2008) Structural Hollow Section
1943.
Catalogue. Ancofer Stahlhandel GmbH,
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[14] L. Gardner, M. Ashraf, Structural design for non-

linear metallic materials, Eng. Struct. 28 (2006)
925936.
[15] Anbarasu M, Ashraf M. Behaviour and design of
cold-formed lean duplex stainless steel lipped
channel columns. Thin-Walled Structures. 2016
Jul 31;104:106-15.
[16] W. M. Quach, J. Gallknkkd Teng, and K. F.
Chung, Three-stage full-range stress-strain
model for stainless steels, Journal of Structural
Engineering134.9 (2008): 1518-1527.
[17] Patton ML, Singh KD. Numerical modeling of
lean duplex stainless steel hollow columns of
square, L-, T-, and+-shaped cross sections under
pure axial compression. Thin-Walled Structures.
2012 Apr 30;53:1-8.
[18] Patton ML, Singh KD. Buckling of fixed-ended
lean duplex stainless steel hollow columns of
square, L-, T-, and+-shaped sections under pure
axial compressiona finite element study. Thin-
Walled Structures. 2013 Feb 28;63:106-16.
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columns. Journal of Constructional Steel
Research. 2005 Dec 31;61(12):1631-49.
315
IDENTIFICATION OF SEMI-RIGID JOINTS IN STEEL FRAME

STRUCTURES USING VIBRATION BASED TECHNIQUE
Joy Pal1, Sauvik Banerjee2
Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, Mumbai 400076, India
The connections are the critical locations where damage commonly occurs. However, very limited
vibration-based studies using the artificial neural network (ANN) are found to identify the damaged
connections. Again, the ANN-based technique requires retraining of network for little variation in
geometry of the structure. Moreover, those studies were limited to damage at the beam end connection.
In this present study, health monitoring of steel plane frame structures having semi-rigid connections
either at the beam side or at the column side using a limited number of sensors is addressed. With that
purpose, a single-story and a two-story frame are considered. The frames are modeled using plane frame
elements, in which two rotational springs are placed at the ends to affect the stiffness of the rotational
springs only. The frames are excited using an impact at the right top corner, and strain time responses are
collected from the connections only. The strain data are then transformed into frequency spectra. Using
the frequency spectra, an objective function is developed, and minimized using particle swarm
optimization (PSO) to get the updated fixity factors for all the springs. In order to get more accurate
values of fixity factors of the two-story frame, it is divided into sub-structures, and it is found that the
technique estimates fixity factors with an acceptable error.
Keywords: planar frame structure, semi-rigid joint, rotational spring, particle swarm optimization, substructure
1 Introduction
Since last ten years, finite-element model updating
Vibration-based structural health monitoring is a
technique has received considerable attention among
popular approach among the scientists and researchers
researchers. In this technique, a numerical model is
due to its simplicity. Changes in mass or stiffness alter
developed as a reference structure, and updated to detect
modal properties, which contain localize-effect of
the damage sensitive parameters. The updating
damage. A vast amount of literature is reviewed by Fan
operation is carried out using different optimization
and Qiao in Ref. [1] on various types of structures like a
techniques like Nelder-mead algorithm, GA, etc. in
beam, plate, frame, etc. In these types of structures, the
Refs. [4, 5, 6].
damage is simulated by reducing the elemental
Newly developed optimization techniques, such as
properties, added mass, and saw-cut damage.
Particle Swarm optimization (PSO) proposed by
Surprisingly, very limited studies are found on joint
Kennedy and Eberhart in Ref. [7] require lesser
damage identification. Loosening of bolts, defects in
numbers of iterations than conventional optimization
welding, environmental variability are the reasons for
techniques, which ultimately reduces the computational
damage at joints.
costs. Moreover, it provides more accurate results than
Due to joint damage, fixity level reduces which
the above-mentioned algorithms. PSO was applied to
makes it semi-rigid. The elemental stiffness matrices for
complex engineering field due to its convergence speed
semi-rigid boundary conditions are developed in Ref.
and simplicity in Refs. [8, 9].
[2]. The study has been found on semi-rigid joint
In the present study, an effective theoretical model
identification using the ANN based approach in Ref.
is considered to represent both the beam and column
[3]. However, ANN is not a generalized technique; it side damage. In order to overcome the limitations of
requires a large amount of input-output data for training ANN based techniques, PSO based finite element model
the network. Moreover, small variations in the model updating technique is utilized to identify joint damage.
require re-training the network. Again, both the beam
and column side damage were represented using a
spring at beam end. Therefore, an effective theoretical 2 Numerical modeling
model is required to represent both the beam and In order to identify the location and severity of a
column side damage. semi-rigid joint, a single and a two-story plane frame as
shown in Fig. 1, are considered. The value of fixity
1
Research Associate, j.palcob@gmail.com
2
Associate Professor, sauvik@civil.iitb.ac.in
316
Joy Pal and Sauvik Banerjee
factors of the rotational springs in the reference state of In the above equation, LM , RM , Lrc and Rrc are
the structure is considered as 0.891 in Ref. [10]. The the applied moment and rotational spring constants at
frame is modeled using beam-column elements. left and right side of the element respectively. The
The displacement-based structural analysis assumes displacement over an element is calculated by the
fixed-fixed boundary condition for stiffness and mass following expression as given in Ref. [2].
matrices derivation. Therefore, to introduce the effect of
semi-rigidity, a rotational spring is considered at each y = P12 P2 L P1 P22 L
end of an element. The elemental matrices are then
-1
derived for this type of element following the below- 4 EI 2 EI
mentioned procedure. + LrC
- L L

2 EI 4 EI
+ RrC
L L
(2)
1 1 V1
1 - 0
- Lr 0 q1

C L L
0
- RrC 1 1 V
0 - 1 2
L
L q 2

+V1 P1 + V2 P2
The elemental stiffness and mass matrices are

formulated considering the flexible boundary conditions
(a) in Ref. [2].
L
'' x T N '' x dx
[ ] ( ) ( )
k = EI N (3)
0
L
[ m] = m N ( x )T N ( x ) dx (4)
0
Once the elemental stiffness and mass matrices are

(b) formulated, the health monitoring of the frames is
Figure 1: Location of springs and data acquisition carried out using finite element model updating
points of (a) a single story frame, (b) a two story frame technique based on Particle Swarm Optimization.
structure
2.1 Formulation of elemental matrices

In order to simulate the loosening of joints, the
elemental matrices are formulated based on semi-rigid
boundary conditions (BC). The deflected shape of an
element is shown in Fig. 2. The element consists of two
springs at the ends to introduce the semi-rigidity of the
joints. The degrees of freedom at each node of the
element are translations along x and y-axis and rotation
about the z-axis. A relative rotation will take place in
the inner and the outer side of the spring. In inner side, Figure 2: Displacement profile over an element
the rotations are Lq1 , Rq1 and in outer side, these
are Lq 2 , Rq 2 respectively. According to Monforton and
2.1 Model updating using particle swarm
Wu, in Ref. [11]
optimization
RM LM In model updating, development of an objective
= Rq 2 - Rq1 and = Lq 2 - Lq1 (1) function and parameter selection are the two most
Rrc Lrc
important tasks. The function is required to be selected
in such a way that it is sufficiently sensitive to the
updating parameter. The requirement of a large amount
317
of damage for the prominent identification of damage using numerical and experimental data is defined as
location indicates insensitivity of mode shape to the follows:
damage. Moreover, a large number of data point is
required. Therefore, in the present study, a limited e
n, i
(w ) e
exp, i
(w )
number of data point is used to identify the damage y =
i 1/ 2 1/ 2 (9)
location and severity. For that purpose, data are e 2 (w ) e 2
collected only from the nearest nodes of the joints. n, i exp, i ( w )
Using those data, objective function is developed. The
procedure of developing the objective function is given where, n and exp represent the undamaged and
below. damaged structure, respectively. It is clear that if both
the structure is in the same state then the correlation
2.1.1 Objective function and parameter selection value is nearer to 1 and if not then the value is away
from 1. The objective function is defined as follows.
In the present study, frequency shape correlation
and frequency amplitude spectra are considered for the
( Lrc , g Rrc ) = i = 1Wi e (w )ud , i - e (w )d , i
NS 2
development of objective function. Shape correlation is OF g
defined as follows.
The numerical model is excited by an impulse at the 2 (10)
top right corner. The forced vibration equation of the
system can be written as

(
w AMPmax
ud , i
)
- w AMP
max (

d,i
)
[ M ]{x ( t )} + [C ]{x (t )} + [ K ]{x (t )} = { f (t )} (5)
In the above equation, [M], [C], [K], {f(t)}, and In the above expression, g Lrc and g Rrc are left and
{x(t)} represent the mass matrix, damping matrix, right fixity factor of each member. NS indicates the
stiffness matrix, the force vector and the displacement number of sensors used to collect data. w ( AMPmax )
vector, respectively. Over dot indicates derivative of the represents frequency corresponding to the maximum
displacement component with respect to time. amplitude, and subscripts ud and d stand for undamaged
The displacement responses at SG1 to SG6 (for and damaged data respectively. The relationship
single story frame) and SG1 to SG12 (for two story between natural frequency and fixity factor is shown in
frame) as shown in Fig. 2 are evaluated using numerical Fig. 3a. It is found that fixity factor is having sufficient
integration scheme Newmark-Beta in Ref. [12]. The sensitivity to the natural frequency. Therefore,
displacement time histories are converted to strain time frequencies are utilized to form the objective function.
histories using strain-displacement relationship. Wi , the weight factor for each sensor, is defined as
follows:
e
n
( t ) = zxn (t ) (6)
y2
W = i (11)
where, z is the distance of extreme fiber of a section i 2
from the neutral axis and double dash over x represents y
i
the curvature at that section. n stands for the numerical
model. Weighted sum method is used to formulate the
objected function. It is presumed that the sensors near to
1 -iwt dt the loosely bolted connection are affected more than the
e (w ) = e ( t )e (7) other sensors. Therefore, higher weight is provided to
n 2p - n
those sensors to achieve more reliable results. This will
also ensure that no other set of g Lrc and g Rrc can give
where, represents frequency and e n w ( ) a better estimate.
represents corresponding amplitude. In the case of an Selection of parameters as an updating variable is a
experiment, the strain data is directly collected and significant measure of optimization. The parameters,
converted to the frequency domain using Fourier which are sensitive to the objective function, are needed
transform as shown below. to be considered as updating parameters. The
relationship between fixity factor and frequency, shown
1
( t )e-iwt dt
in Fig. 3, indicates that with the change of fixity factor,
e (w ) = e (8) modal frequency changes. Therefore, fixity factor can
exp 2p - exp
be considered as the updating variable where the
objective function is needed to be developed using
In the above expression, exp indicates experimental frequency and frequency amplitudes of the strain data.
model. The frequency shape correlation for ith sensor
318
The strain responses are utilized to captures more local Table 1: Damage cases of the single story plane
features of the structures. frame structure having semi-rigid connections
Spring Fixity level at different springs
Structure
2.1.1 Particle swarm optimization number SD1 SD2 SD3 SD4 SD5
Single storied S2 0.700 0.600 0.600 0.500 0.400
Particle swarm optimization (PSO) proposed by
S3 0.891 0.891 0.600 0.500 0.500
Kennedy and Eberhart, 1995 in Ref. [7], is a stochastic
evolutionary computation technique, grounded on the S4 0.891 0.600 0.700 0.600 0.600
motion and intelligence of swarms. The detail of the S5 0.891 0.891 0.891 0.600 0.700
particle swarm optimization technique is given in Pal
and Banerjee in Ref. [13], therefore, it is not presented Table 2: Damage cases of the single story plane
here for brevity. Fig. 3b shows the population size vs. frame structure having semi-rigid connections
fixity factor relationship. It is found that 20 to 25 Spring Fixity level at different springs
population size is sufficient for the convergence of the Structure
number TD1 TD2 TD3 TD4 TD5
function.
Two storied S2 0.600 0.650 0.891 0.450 0.450
S3 0.600 0.500 0.891 0.891 0.450
3 Numerical results and discussions
S8 0.891 0.891 0.500 0.550 0.650
Various damage cases are studied in order to validate S9 0.891 0.891 0.400 0.450 0.550
the health monitoring technique. Table 1 and Table 2
S11 0.891 0.600 0.600 0.550 0.650
listed the fixity levels at different springs in different
cases of damages for single and two story frame S12 0.600 0.500 0.550 0.450 0.550
structures. The undamaged strain response and its
frequency spectra are shown in Fig. 4. Using the strain
frequency spectra from all the sensors, objective
function is developed as mentioned earlier.
(a)
(a)
(b)
Figure 4: (a) Strain response and (b) Frequency
spectra of the response obtained at node 26 of the single
story frame
(b) Average of 10 run results is considered as the

Figure 3: (a) Fixity factor at different springs vs. estimated fixity factor in Ref. [13]. Table 3 depicts the
Frequency and (b) Population vs. fixity factor for SD1 estimated results for different damage cases for single
story structure. The mean value of fixity factors at
different locations are plotted and found that the
technique successfully identified the damaged locations
319
and fixity factors. The study is carried out for 80dB and Table 4: Estimated fixity factor at different springs
70dB levels of noise and the efficacy of the technique for the two story numerical model
by estimating the fixity factors is determined. Different Damage case Noise Spring
types of damage cases, which includes single and S2 S3 S8 S9 S11 S12
multiple locations, along with different levels of fixity TD1 WN 0.593 0.590 0.864 0.888 0.844 0.594
factor at the same location are studied and in each case, 80db 0.600 0.600 0.891 0.891 0.891 0.600
the technique perfectly estimates the fixity factors. 70db 0.592 0.592 0.864 0.872 0.852 0.591
With the increase in number of stories, the number of TD2 WN 0.633 0.487 0.855 0.846 0.560 0.485
variables increases thereby increasing the problem 80db 0.640 0.495 0.826 0.889 0.582 0.491
complexity. This complexity reduces the accuracy of the 70db 0.639 0.497 0.823 0.841 0.593 0.482
results. In some literature in Ref. [5], the sub-structuring TD3 WN 0.891 0.891 0.499 0.399 0.596 0.550
method is followed by dividing the frame into some
80db 0.891 0.891 0.509 0.418 0.634 0.560
small parts and carrying out the model updating
70db 0.891 0.891 0.500 0.400 0.600 0.550
considering that part only.
TD4 WN 0.449 0.890 0.565 0.448 0.551 0.450
In order to do so, the two-storied frame is divided
80db 0.442 0.873 0.534 0.439 0.517 0.441
into two parts, and the part inside the red box is
considered. In this context, the data are collected only 70db 0.451 0.888 0.556 0.451 0.554 0.450
from that region only. The robustness of the technique is TD5 WN 0.432 0.428 0.668 0.525 0.500 0.545
again observed in the estimation of fixity levels at 80db 0.466 0.470 0.685 0.566 0.522 0.559
different springs. All the damage cases tabulated in 70db 0.457 0.456 0.663 0.556 0.532 0.553
Table 2 are studied and the results are shown in Table 4.
It is found that the sub-structuring and a limited number
of data points do not affect the accuracy of results. Even
3 Conclusions
the noise based studies show perfection in estimating
the fixity factors. Observing all the results, it can be said In the present study, an effective theoretical model is
that the technique is able to find out the fixity levels at considered to estimate joint damage either at the beam
different joints. It also indicates the effectiveness of the side or at the column side. In order to overcome the
objective function for the estimation of fixity levels. shortcomings of ANN based technique, PSO based
Moreover, the technique has the capability to carry out finite element model updating technique using a limited
the identification with a limited number of sensors. number of data is applied. First, the effectiveness of the
theoretical model is observed in the identification of
Table 3: Estimated fixity factor at different springs joint damage either at the beam side or at the column
for the single story numerical model side. Second, the ability to detect 15% change in fixity
Spring level with and without the presence of noise proves the
Damage case Noise
S2 S3 S4 S5 robustness of the technique. Third, a limited number of
SD1 sensors used for analysis represent its efficacy to apply
WN 0.7 0.891 0.891 0.891
in large and real-life structures. After the successful
80db 0.7 0.891 0.891 0.891 identification of semi-rigid connections, an
70db 0.719 0.87 0.845 0.874 experimental validation is needed to examine the
SD2 WN 0.61 0.889 0.597 0.891 effectiveness of the theoretical model and the health
monitoring technique on a full-scale model. However,
80db 0.6 0.891 0.6 0.891
in absence of a baseline structure, numerical model
70db 0.6 0.891 0.6 0.891 updating technique can be applied if knowledge of
SD3 WN 0.592 0.591 0.695 0.884 structure topology and some basic id are available.
80db 0.592 0.577 0.693 0.881
70db 0.598 0.596 0.694 0.884
Acknowledgements
SD4 WN 0.56 0.509 0.604 0.605
80db 0.511 0.538 0.605 0.607 Authors are thankful to the MHRD for providing the
70db 0.499 0.502 0.597 0.598 scholarship to carry out the research work.
SD5 WN 0.398 0.496 0.596 0.696
References
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6), pp.1342, 1963.
[12] Choapra, A.K., Dynamics of structures: Theory
and applications to earthquake engineering,
Pearson, New Delhi, 2009.
[13] Pal, J., and Banerjee, S., A combined modal strain
energy and particle swarm optimization for health
monitoring of structures, Journal of Civil Structural
Health Monitoring, 5 (4), pp. 353-363, 2015.
321
ASSESSMENT OF LOAD CARRYING CAPACITY OF

THIN-WEBBED CASTELLATED BEAM
A .Cyril Thomas -11, K. Baskar2
1
Ph.D Scholar, Department of Civil Engineering, National Institute of Technology, Trichy 620015, India
2
Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, National Institute of Technology, Trichy 620015, India
Castellated beam (CB) is a type of expanded beam with hexagonal, circular and octagonal openings. This paper
reports the nonlinear behaviour of thin-webbed castellated steel beams under different lengths (high, moderate, low
shear) and the effect of cut out geometry. The sectional property of the beam is considered as semi-compact by using
the ratio of depth of the web (dw) to thickness of the web (tw). The main objective of this study is to understand the
prominent failure modes and to propose an equation to find the load carrying capacity of thin-webbed CBs. For
obtaining the failure modes and load carrying capacity, finite element models were developed with initial imperfections
and material non-linarites. The parametric study was carried out to propose an empirical equation to find the load
carrying capacity of the thin-webbed CBs, simultaneously the failure modes of CBs was observed and discussed.
Keywords: Castellated Beam, Non-linear finite element model, web post buckling, Load carrying capacity.
1 Introduction
Beams are the structural members which is capable
in transferring loads to the columns and withstanding
load mainly by resisting against the bending. The
utilization of steel structures in the construction industry
increased in drastic manner. Castellated beam is the one
of the most efficient structural steel member in steel
structure construction.
Castellated beam (CB) is a type of expanded beam Figure 1: Fabrication Process of castellated beams
with hexagonal, circular and octagonal openings. These
beams are generally fabricated by cutting the web of an The existence of opening the web in CBs leads to
I-section in a zig-zag pattern where the cut portion was different failure modes [3]. The major failure modes of
reassembled to the other end and welded along its castellated beams are mentioned below
length, to increase depth of the original beam. The a) Lateral-torsional buckling of one or several web
improved depth increases its section modulus and posts which is due to horizontal shear in the web
moment of inertia, results in greater strength and rigidity. post.
This increment was done without adding any additional b) Formation of Vierendeel mechanism which is due
weight in the existing member. to vertical shear transfer due to presence of hole.
The web opening is frequently used for duct work,
c) Rupture of welded joint in a web post which is due
piping etc., which conventionally suspends below the
beam. Providing the holes in the web decreases the to horizontal shear force in the web.
building height and the structure is in safer side from d) Web post-buckling due to vertical shear force.
wind and seismic effects. The typical castellated beam is e) Lateral-torsional buckling of entire span
mentioned in the Figure 1. f) Formation of a flexure mechanism.
These failure modes are obtained from the
2 Background experimental investigation. The experimental
In past two decades many research works were carried investigation is carried for understanding the buckling
out to understand the various structural behaviour of behaviour CBs web-post between the openings and it
castellated beams. was concluded that the web-post buckling is the leading
Boyer discussed the development, application and its failure mode in the thin-webbed (Banthan beam series)
advantages [1]. From the consideration of all failure CBs [5],[6]. The same work was numerically investigated
inducing terms, the design concepts are proposed by and it was compared with Euro Code. The effect of
Blodgett and Knowles [2], [4]. imperfection in the numerical model also studied by
finite element analysis [9]. Due to the economical and
light-weight usages, the thickness of the members (tw
1
Ph.D. Scholar, cyrilstrer@gmail.com
2
Associate Professor, kbaskar@nitt.edu
322
A. Cyril Thomas and K. Baskar
and tf) considered in this study is lesser than the of the beam is considered as semi-compact as per IS
minimum value as specified in the code and earlier 800-2007.
studies [5] [6] and [9]. In ABAQUS/CAE, the developed model should
In CBs, web-post buckling is one of the most complete two analysis. Buckling analysis was
important failure mode. This mode of failure occurs due performed in the first step for incorporating the
to the horizontal shear force in the web-post which is imperfections in the model. In general, the lowest
connected with double curvature bending over the buckling mode was considered for the non-linear
height of the post. Hence, there is no standard accepted analysis [7]. The imperfection factor of dw/100 was
design concepts are available for designing of CB considered for this study, which is preferred from the
connected with all of its failure modes [9]. But some earlier studies [9]. The second step is non-linear analysis.
research works carried out for assessing the load This analysis was performed by using Riks analysis
carrying capacity of the CBs using optimization tools with geometrical and material non-linearities.
like Artificial Neural Network (ANN), Gene Expression
Programming (GEP), etc. [11], [12]. On the other hand, 3.2 Validation of FE model
empirical equations also proposed for evaluating the In general, validation is one among the most
load carrying capacity of the CBs [13]. important term. This study the FE model of CB was
From the earlier studies the load carrying capacity developed and it was validated with the earlier
of the CBs depends up on the weld length (e) and size of
established experimental work [5]. The computed results
the opening (d). In this study, the empirical equations
are to be proposed by using the parameters (Moment to are mentioned in the Table 1.
shear ratio, weld length and size of opening). Table 1: Validation of FE model
Previous Present
Beam Error
3 Finite Element Study Study[5] Study
Name (%)
3.1 General and Meshing PEXP (kN) PFEM (kN)
10 -3 73.84 79.12 +7.15
The main objective of this study is to analyse the
leading failure modes and to assess the load carrying The load computed from the FE study is 7.15% higher
capacity of the thin-webbed CBs. The finite element than the experimental work. Hence, the same steps has
models were developed with the initial imperfections been initialized for this study.
and material non-linarites in ABAQUS / CAE 6.10. The
beam was modelled with four-node shell element (S4R) 3.3 Parametric study
which is frequently used in previous studies [9].
The validated FE model was utilized for the
assessing the load carrying capacity of CB with
different parameters. Totally 27 CBs are modelled with
various lengths and cross-sectional geometries. These
parameters are selected based on the length and
castellation geometries. The beams are analysed as
laterally restrained simply supported condition. In this
study, all beams are analysed as single point loading
condition. The ratio between maximum bending
moment to maximum shear force is known as Moment
Shear (M/V) ratio. In general, shear in the beam will
Figure2: Terminology of Castellated Beam affect the moment carrying capacity of the beam. In a
simply supported beam, shear is maximum when the
The geometrical parameters of the CBs considered M/V ratio is 0.5. On the other hand, the shear is
for this study are as follows moderate when the M/V ratio is 1.0 and also the shear is
1. Width of flange (bf) 100 mm low in the M/V ratio 1.5. Based on this condition, the
2. Thickness of flange (tf) 4 mm length of the beams chosen as High Shear (HS),
3. Depth of web (dw) 292 mm Moderate Shear (MS) and Low Shear (LS) by its
4. Thickness of web (tw) 2.5 mm Moment-Shear (M/V) ratio. The details of the
5. Over all depth (h) 300 mm parameters are as follows
The figure shows the important terms used for (a) Length According to the Moment (M) to
modelling of CB. Mild steel material is considered for Shear (V) ratio length of the CBs are considered as
this analysis. The average value of yield stress (y) of High Shear (HS with M/V ratio 0.5), Moderate
the steel is 233.3 MPa, the Youngs Modulus (E) is 210 Shear (MS with M/V ratio 1.0) and Low Shear (LS
GPa and Poisons ratio () is 0.3. A trilinear stress- with M/V ratio 1.5).
strain curve of mild steel is used for calculating the true (b) Castellation geometries The castellation
stress and plastic strain values [8]. The sectional property geometries are considered as per the ratio of depth
323
of the castellation (d) to depth of the web (dw) and 4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
weld length (e) to depth of the castellation (d). The assessment of load carrying capacity and the
leading failure modes of CB are numerically
The cutting angle of castellated beams ranges from investigated. For all cut-out geometries a constant
45 to 70. The considered cutting angle ( f ) in this length was not fixed, rather the length of the beam for
study is 60. The dimensional terms of CB were all cut-out geometries are specified by its M/V ratio. All
finalised using Blodgetts approach [2]. the CBs are failed by web-instability due to the
formation of vierendeel mechanism and web-post
( d / 2) or ( d / 2)
buckling. The following discussions explains the
tan f = tan f = (1) behaviour of CBs in detail.
d1 d3
4.1. High shear (HS) sections
S = 2(d1 + e) or S = 2(d 3 + e) (2) The CB sections with the Moment-Shear (M/V)
ratio of 0.5 is termed as HS sections. The maximum
load carrying capacity was noted in the beam
MV05SC554 and the minimum load carrying capacity
was witnessed in the CB section MV05SC754. The
computed values are mentioned in the Table.3.
According to the geometrical parameters of CB, it was
observed that the variation in the load carrying capacity
is continuously differing in load. From the analysis the
deflection values are varies from 2 mm to 4 mm.
Table 3: Load carrying capacity of CB in HS

1 Name e d n d/dw e/d Load
Figure 3: Finite Element Model of Castellated Beam (mm) (mm) ratio ratio (kN)
MV05SC552 32 160 6 0.2 54.24
Castellation geometries act as an important role in
the load carrying capacity of CB. From the earlier MV05SC553 48 160 6 0.55 0.3 58.13
research works indicates the increasing the castellation MV05SC554 64 160 4 0.4 63.42
depth which leads to web-post buckling. In the same
MV05SC652 38 190 6 0.2 44.54
manner, the increment and decrement of weld length
which affects the stability of web-post. The complete MV05SC653 57 190 4 0.65 0.3 51.75
parametric informations are mentioned in the Table 2. MV05SC654 76 190 4 0.4 47.42
The developed FE model of CB is indicated in the Fig.3.
All the CBs are modelled with even number of MV05SC752 44 220 4 0.2 44.32
holes, because in this study single point load was MV05SC753 66 220 4 0.75 0.3 41.07
applied in the centre span. To avoid local bucking, MV05SC754 88 220 4 0.4 33.97
stiffeners are provided in the loading point and end
points of the CB. The effect of residual stresses due to
From the non-linear FE analysis, it was noted that
welding is very small. So this effect of residual stress is
the Load Deflection behaviour of HS CBs are similar.
neglected in the model [7, 9].
Fig. 4 clearly indicates the same.
Table 2: Parametric information
M/V d/dw e/d

Section Name
ratio ratio ratio
0.55 0.2
0.5 0.65 0.3
0.75 0.4
0.55 0.2
Semi-
1.0 0.65 0.3
compact
0.75 0.4
0.55 0.2
1.5 0.65 0.3
0.75 0.4
Figure 4: Load Vs Deflection of HS sections
324
In HS sections, shear is the most important

dominant factor for failure. The typical failure mode of
HS section was shown in the Fig 5. The openings in the
web portions develops the double curvature bending in
the web-post. This leads to progresses the formation of
vierendeel mechanism.
Figure 5: Typical failure mode of HS section
4.2. Moderate shear (MS) sections Figure 6: Load Vs Deflection of MS sections
To obtain the load carrying capacity, the same The Load- Deflection behaviour of MS sections are
measures has been initialised for MS sections. The CB mentioned in the Fig.6. In MS sections, all the beam
sections with M/V ratio of 1.0 is named as MS sections. sections are failed due to the formation of flexural
In this study, the maximum and minimum load carrying mechanism and the formation of vierendeel mechanism.
capacity was achieved by MV10SC552 and The typical failure mode of MS section is mentioned in
MV10SC753. The obtained values are shown in Table the Fig.7.
4.
Table 4: Load carrying capacity of CB in MS
Name e d n d/dw e/d Load

(mm) (mm) ratio ratio (kN)
MV10SC552 32 160 12 0.2 54.39 Figure 7: Typical failure mode of MS section
MV10SC553 48 160 10 0.55 0.3 54.56
4.3. Low shear (LS) sections
MV10SC554 64 160 8 0.4 55.76
MV10SC652 38 190 10 0.2 44.31 The CB sections with M/V ratio of 1.5 termed as
Low Shear (LS) sections. The similar method has been
MV10SC653 57 190 8 0.65 0.3 48.56
applied for assessing the load carrying capacity of the
MV10SC654 76 190 8 0.4 45.97 LS CB sections. The maximum load carrying capacity
MV10SC752 44 220 10 0.2 36.00 was attained by MV15SC552 section. The changes in
the load carrying capacities are gradually decreased
MV10SC753 66 220 8 0.75 0.3 38.60
according to the cut-out geometries of the CB.
MV10SC754 88 220 6 0.4 39.44 The Load Deflection behaviour of LS sections of
CB is mentioned in the Fig.8. From the results, it was
The length of the MS sections are higher than the observed that the deflection values of LS sections are
HS section because of the M/V ratio. The deflection varying from 10 mm to 12 mm. Similarly, the load
values are from 4.5 mm to 5.5 mm. Similarly, there are carrying capacities of LS sections shown in the Table 5.
some notable changes which are found in the load
carrying capacities. The load carrying capacity values
are gradually increased from MV10SC552 to
MV10SC554. Similarly, the same kind of variation is
noticed in the MV10SC752 to MV10SC754. But in the
CB section MV10SC653 have the maximum load
carrying capacity compare to the other sections
MV10SC652 and MV10SC654.
Figure 8: Load Vs Deflection of LS sections
325
In LS sections, formation of flexural mechanism is finalized based on the M/V ratio. The failure modes also
the most important failure mode. The typical flexural varying according to the beam length. The vierendeel
mechanism formation in LS sections shown in the Fig 9. mechanism is the dominant failure mode in the HS
sections. In the same time, the beams fail by both
vierendeel mechanism and formation of flexural
mechanism in the MS sections. In LS sections beams
failed due to the formation of flexural mechanism.
Because of these various reasons the combination of
equations is not possible.
Figure 9: Typical failure mode of LS section Table 6: Failure modes of CB according to M/V ratio
Table 5: Load carrying capacity of CB in LS M/V

S.No Failure Mode
Ratio
Name e d n d/dw e/d Load
(mm) (mm) ratio ratio (kN) 1 0.5 Vierendeel mechanism
MV15SC552 32 160 20 0.2 49.51 Vierendeel mechanism and formation
2 1.0
MV15SC553 48 160 16 0.55 0.3 46.85 of flexural mechanism
MV15SC554 64 160 14 0.4 45.52 3 1.5 Formation of flexural mechanism
MV15SC652 38 190 16 0.2 44.75
MV15SC653 57 190 14 0.65 0.3 41.97 The conclusion based on the FE study is the
MV15SC654 76 190 12 0.4 41.50 maximum load carrying capacity was noted in the CB
MV15SC752 44 220 14 0.2 41.64 sections with the geometrical properties of d/h ratio 0.55
and e/h ratio 0.2. In all M/V ratios (M/V 0.5, 1.0 and
MV15SC753 66 220 12 0.75 0.3 38.47
1.5) the same results were observed. The load carrying
MV15SC754 88 220 10 0.4 36.00 capacity of CB sections with d/dw ratio of 0.55 is around
10 % to 25% higher than the CB section with d/dw ratios
5 CONCLUSIONS of 0.65 and 0.75. Hence, it is concluded the height of
The intention of this non-linear FE study is to castellation is inversely proportional to the load carrying
understand the behaviour of thin-webbed CB sections. capacity.
The earlier study was carried out in the thin-webbed It is also noted that the CB with M/V ratio of 1.5 is
sections. But in this study thickness of the web and performed well when compared with other CB sections
thickness of the flange was considered 33.33 % and with M/V ratios of 0.5 and 1.0. Meanwhile, the CB
10.65% lesser than the previous study. sections with the M/V ratio 0.5 and 1.0 are failed due to
From the obtained results, the following three shear. Table 6 indicates the different failure modes of
empirical equations are proposed to find the load CBs according to its M/V ratios.
carrying capacity of CBs with different M/V ratios and Hence, it is suggested that the utilization of these
cut-out geometries. types of thin-webbed CBs can be used in the light-
weight structures because of its less weight, economical
factor, easy handling, and durability also for its aesthetic
P0.5 = 128.8x2 - 233.2 y 2 - 488.2 xy - 115.1x + 460.1y + 47.97
appearance. On the other hand, providing CB sections
(3) should not be used for smaller lengths due to the
P1.0 = 17.83x2 - 126.2 y 2 + 51.75xy - 123.2 x + 52.85 y + 105 domination of shear in the castellation portions.
(4)
P1.5 = 72.33 y 2 - 41.25xy - 30.58x - 38.05 y + 75.25 Notations
(5)
Where x - (d/dw), y - (e/d) and P Load (kN). bf - Width of the flange (mm)
d - Depth of castellation (mm)
These equations are derived from the multi-linear d1 or d3 - Inclined cutting length (mm)
regression analysis. In all the equations, the coefficients d2 or e - Weld length (mm)
have 95% confidence bounds. Also the Root Mean E - Youngs modulus (GPa)
Square (RMS) values varying from 0.97 to 0.99. These h - Overall height of the beam (mm)
equations accomplished based on the assumed S - Distance between holes (mm)
parameters of this particular study which cannot be M - Bending moment (kN-m)
compared or elaborated with the other empirical tf - Thickness of the flange (mm)
equations. tw - Thickness of the web (mm)
The combination of these three proposed equations V - Shear force (kN)
are not possible because there is no fixed beam length f - Cutting angle
considered in this study. All the beam lengths are y - Yield stress (MPa)
326
- Poissons ratio [10] BIS 800, General Construction in Steel-Code of

M/V - Moment Shear ratio Practice, Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi,
P0.5 - Load carrying capacity of HS sections (kN) 2007.
P1.0 -
Load carrying capacity of MS sections (kN)
P1.5 - Load carrying capacity of LS sections (kN) [11] Gholizadeh, S., A. Pirmoz and R. Attarnejad
ANN - Artificial Neural Network (2011), Assessment of Load Carrying Capacity of
CB - Castellated Beam Castellated Steel Beams by Neural Networks,
GEP - Gene Expression Programming Journal of Constructional Steel Research 67, 770
RMS - Root Mean Square 779.
LS - Low shear section
MS - Moderate shear section [12] Gandomi, A. H., Tabatabaei, S. M., Moradian,
HS - High shear section M. H., Radfar, A., and Alavi, A. H., A New
Prediction Model For the Load Carrying Capacity
Acknowledgments
of Castellated Steel Beams, Journal of
The authors gratefully acknowledge the financial Constructional Steel Research 67, 1096 1105.
support provided by National Institute of Technology,
Tiruchirappalli and Technical Education Quality [13] Pourbehi, P., and A. Pirmoz, (2015), Shear
Improvement Program (TEQIP) Phase II. Response of Castellated Beams, International
Journal of Steel Structures 15(2), 389 399.
6 REFERENCES [14] ABAQUS / CAE 6.10 Users Manual.

[1] Boyer .J .P (1964), Castellated Beam- New
Developments, AISC National Engineering [15] Knowles. P. R (1985), Design of Castellated
Beams: for use with BS 5950 and BS 449, Steel
Conference, Omaha, Nebraska in May, 1964
Construction Institute, Great Britain, 1985.
[2] Omer W. Blodgett (1976), Design of Welded
Structures 7th printing, The James F. Lincoln Arc [16] Subramanian. N (2008), Design of Steel
Welding Foundation. Structures, 14th Impression, Oxford University
Press, New Delhi.
[3] Kerdal. D and D. A. Nethercott (1984), Failure
Modes for Castellated Beams, Journal of
Constructional Steel Research 4, 295-315.
[4] Knowles, P.R., (1991), Castellated Beams,

Proceedings of Institution of Civil Engineers, Part
1, 90, 521-536.
[5] Zaarour, W., and Richard Redwood (1996), Web

Buckling in Thin Webbed Castellated Beams,
Journal of Structural Engineering 122, 860-866.
[6] Redwood, R., and Sevak Demirdjian (1998),

Castellated Beam Web Buckling in Shear, Journal
of Structural Engineering (ASCE) 124, 1202-1207.
[7] Shanmugam, N.E., and K. Baskar (2003), Steel-

Concrete Composite Plate Girders Subjected to
Shear Loading, Journal of Structural Engineering
(ASCE) 129, 1230-1242.
[8] Mohebkah, A., (2004), The Moment-Gradient

factor in Lateral- Torsional Buckling on In-elastic
castellated Beams, Journal of Constructional Steel
Research, 60, 1481-1494.
[9] Soltani, M. R, A., Bouchair and M. Mimoune

(2012), Non-linear FE analysis of the Ultimate
Behavior of Steel Castellated Beams, Journal of
Constructional Steel Research 70, 101 114.
327
EVALUATION OF SEISMIC PERFORMANCE OF STEEL PLATE

SHEAR WALLS ARRANGED IN STAGGERED CONFIGURATION
Abhishek Verma1, Dipti Ranjan Sahoo2
1,2
Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Delhi, New Delhi
110016, India
Steel plate shear walls (SPSWs) are used as lateral load resisting systems in building structures,
which consist of thin steel plates surrounded by boundary elements. It is most often provided in the same
bay along the entire height of the buildings. This results in high demands on columns and foundation.
Instead of providing the plates in a single bay, it can be arranged in such a way that the column forces are
reduced inherently. The current study focusses on one such possible staggered arrangements. Nonlinear
dynamic and static analysis are conducted to evaluate the seismic performance of such system. The
staggered steel plate shear wall show excellent reduction in inter story drifts. It proves to be economical
in terms of steel usage, in case of narrow steel plate shear walls. Reduction in foundation forces is
observed, which further improves the economy.
Keywords: steel plate shear wall, staggered arrangement
1 Introduction design base shear is suggested. Lastly, 6- and 9- story

conventional and staggered SPSWs are modelled in
Steel Plate Shear Wall (SPSW) is used as a lateral OPENSEES, [8]. Nonlinear static and dynamic analysis
load resisting system. It consists of a thin steel plate are conducted and the results are presented.
surrounded by boundary elements. Its ductility, energy
dissipation capacity and ease of construction and repair
have attracted a lot of engineers and researchers over
the past few years [15]. SPSWs are most often
provided in the same bay along the complete height of
the buildings. The boundary elements of this system are
designed as per the capacity design approach. This
results in high axial forces in columns and on
foundations.
A couple of techniques to reduce the column forces
have been suggested by various researchers [6,7].
Instead of providing the plates in a single bay, it can be
arranged in such a way that the column forces are
reduced inherently. The current study focusses on one
such possible arrangement. The arrangement is shown
in Fig. 1 and is referred to as staggered arrangement.
In this arrangement, unlike conventional SPSW Figure 1: SPSW with staggered arrangement of
which has two, there are three columns which need to plates
be designed to resist lateral load. Horizontal boundary 2 Overstrength of staggered SPSW
Elements (HBEs) need to be designed to resist more
load than a conventional SPSW, as they are pulled by According to the current design practice [9], when
the plate tension field either from top or bottom. designing a SPSW, the entire lateral load is assumed to
Increased number of rigid beam-column joints and be resisted by the plates only. Then the boundary
heavier HBEs result in high overstrength of such elements are designed as per the capacity design
arrangements. approach. While this approach is satisfactory for a
In this study, the over strength of SPSW due to conventional SPSW, this results in a considerably high
staggered arrangement is investigated and an equation overstrength for a staggered SPSW. The overstrength is
to predict this overstrength is proposed. Then a design primarily due to two reasons. (i) The number of moment
procedure for staggered SPSW, by reduction of the resisting beam to column joints is twice when compared
1
PhD Candidate, abhiverma.civil@gmail.com
2
Assistant Professor, drsahoo@iitd.ac.in
328
Abhishek Verma and Dipti Ranjan Sahoo
to conventional SPSW and (ii) as HBEs in such a n

system have plates connected to them either at the top or
VM =
i =0M i
2
(3)
the bottom flange, they must be designed to resist higher n
forces. This results in further over-strengthening of the i =1Cvi H i
system. To address the fore mentioned problems, an Using Eq. (1) and Eq. (3),
analytical method is proposed. n
The aim of the method is to design a staggered
VCS = b Vd +
i =0M i
2
(4)
SPSW with static pushover strength similar to a n
conventional SPSW. It is done by analytically predicting i =1Cvi H i
the overstrength due to staggering, based on which the It is to be noted that the plastic moment at both the
base shear reduction factor is calculated. Finally, the ends of any HBE are assumed to be equal. This might
staggered SPSW is designed for a reduced base shear not be true in presence of different axial forces at the
using the conventional method. two ends, but it is expected to have a minor effect, as far
The lateral resistance of SPSW is a combination of as the objective of the study is concerned. Also, the
the lateral strength provided by the plate and the frame, effect of gravity loads is neglected for the same reason
see Fig. 2(a). The expected base shear strength of a to make the expressions simpler.
Consider an intermediate HBE at any level i, as in
Conventional SPSW, VCS can be expressed as:
Fig. 2(b). Tension field is inclined at an angle a to the
VCS = bVd + VM (1) vertical. Using the equilibrium equation for horizontal
and vertical directions we obtain the following.
Where, Vd is the design base shear, VM is the shear
b Fi = wxi L (5)
resisted by the moment frame action and b is the
overstrength factor for the plate strength incorporated wxi = wyi tan a i (6)
during the design procedure. If the thickness of plates b Fi
are chosen using the equation given in the code [9], b w yi = (7)
L tan a i
can be expressed as:
0.5 R y wxi and wyi are the net horizontal and vertical
b= (2)
uniformly distributed forces applied by both the plates
0.42 f p
on the HBE at any level i. Equation (8) is then used to
Where, R y is the ratio of the expected yield strength calculate the design bending moments for HBEs [10].
2
to the nominal yield strength of steel and f p is the w yi L
jb M i = (8)
resistance factor used for the design of plates. VM can 4
be expressed in terms of plastic moment capacities of
HBEs at each floor.
L Fn Mn Mn
Fi
Fn-1 Mn-1 Mn-1
F3 M3 M3 Fi xi
F2 + M2 M2
(b)
yi
F1 M1 M1
y0
x0
M0 M0
Vd
VCS Vd VM
Conventional SPSW Plate Action Frame Action (c)
(a)
Figure 2: Conventional SPSW (a) plate and frame action (b) forces on intermediate HBE (c) forces on anchor beam
329
Where, jb is the resistance factor for HBEs b Vi L

Mi = (14)
and M i is the plastic moment capacity of the HBE at ith 4 jb tan a i
floor. Putting the value of w yi in the Eq. (8) from Eq.
n
(7):
b Fi L
Where, Vi = Fj
Mi = (9) i
4 jb tan a i So the equation for VSS may be expressed as
Similarly, the moment capacity of the anchor beam
at the floor level can be given by: b L V 2 ( Ma + Mb )
VSS = bVd + + (15)
b Vd L jb CH CH
M0 = (10)
4 jb tan a i bVd + L V 2 ( M a + Mb )
VSS = CH +
Putting the value of M i and M 0 in Eq. (4) and
CH jb Vd bVd
assuming a constant value of a for all the stories, we
(16)
obtain:
n
V = Vi
n
VCS = b Vd +
i =0Fi + 2bVd L
2b L
(11)
Where
n i
4 jb tan a i Cvi H i VCS
i =1
g = (17)
n VSS
using Vd = Fi L
i =0
CH + j
g = b
(18)
VCS = b Vd 1 +
1

L
(12) L V 2 ( Ma + Mb )
jb tan a i
i =1Cvi H i
n CH + j +
b Vd
b Vd
Here, for simplicity, a may be assumed to be 45 .
n For M a = M1 and M b = M n , the equation becomes,
Also, Cvi H i is replaced by CH . L
i =1 CH + j
bVd L g= b
(19)
VCS = CH + (13) LV F
CH jb CH + j 0.5 + V + 2Vn
b d d
In case of staggered SPSW, as shown in Fig. 3,

moment capacity of any HBE may be given by:
Equation (19) can used to calculate the value of g.
2L Fn Mn Mn Mb Mb
Fn-1 Mn Mn Mn-1Mn-1
F3 M3 M3 M4 M4
F2 + M3 M3 M2 M2
F1 M1 M1 M2 M2
M1 M1 Ma Ma
VCS Vd VM
S-SPSW Plate Action Frame Action
Figure 3: Plate and frame action of staggered SPSW
330
Hinged connection
5 Bays @ 30'
5 Bays @ 30'
(a) (b) (c)

Figure 4: (a) Plan of 6- and 9-story specimen; Strip model representation of (b) 6M (c) 6M-S
g can then be applied to the design base shear for Non-linear strip models are developed in
staggered SPSWs to conservatively reduce the OPENSEES using center line approach. Offsets are
overstrength to be similar to that of conventional taken to account for the rigid panel effect at beam
SPSWs. The adequacy of the proposed approach is column joints. HBEs and VBEs are modeled using force
validated in section 4. based beam-column element with fiber section to
account for P-M interaction. Steel02 is assigned as the
material for the section. Diagonal strips are modeled as
3 Design and Modelling tension only truss members using hysteretic material.
To study the static and dynamic behaviour of Gravity columns are modelled to account for the P-
Staggered SPSW and to validate the proposed design Delta effect of the gravity loads. Fig. 4(b) shows the
approach for staggered SPSW, eight specimen were strip model for 6M and 6M-S.
designed and modelled in OPENSEES. Details of these In order to validate the analytical models, a four-
specimen are given in Table 1. Plan of the buildings is story SPSW test specimen [13] is modelled to compare
same for all the specimen and is shown in Fig. 4(a) The its hysteretic response with the test results. The load
dead and live loads are taken to be same as the 9 story displacement curve obtained from the experiment and
state-of-the-art building [11]. Height of all the stories is the analysis are compared in Fig. 5.
taken as 3.96m. The seismic parameters are same as
considered in [12]. The staggered specimen are
Driver et al. (1997)
designed by applying a factor g to the design base 3000
Present study
shear of their conventional counterpart. The values of 2000
g obtained for the four staggered specimen, calculated
Story shear (kN)
using Eq. (19), are given in Table 1. 1000

Table 1: Specimen details
Model SPSW No. of Aspect No. in g 0
name type stories ratio each
direction -1000
*
6M Conv 6 1.15 4 -
9N Conv* 9 0.77 8 - -2000
9M Conv* 9 1.15 6 -
9W Conv* 9 1.54 4 - -3000
6M-S Stag** 6 1.15 4 0.52
Stag** 9 0.77 8 0.58 -40 -20 0 20 40
9N-S
9M-S Stag** 9 1.15 6 0.50 First story deflection (mm)
9W-S Stag** 9 1.54 4 0.44
Figure 5: Validation of the modelling technique
*Conventional SPSW
**Staggered SPSW
331
4 Analysis and results in the top story. From these results it can be inferred that
staggering of plates is ineffective in reducing the drifts
Static pushover analysis is performed to investigate
in low-rise buildings whereas, it is very effective for
the overstrength obtained for the conventional and
medium rise buildings. The study will be extended to
staggered specimen, when designed by the proposed
high rise buildings in future to investigate its
methodology. Fig. 6(a) shows the pushover behaviour
effectiveness for the same.
of specimen in terms of base shear, normalized by the
Unlike conventional SPSW, staggered SPSW
design base shear, versus roof drift. It is evident from
requires three supports instead of two. This might result
the figure that the overstrength of staggered SPSWs are
in increased cost of foundation. But Fig. 6(c) shows that
conservatively reduced to match those of the
the maximum vertical reaction (normalized by design
conventional SPSWs.
base shear) on the supports are highly reduced in case of
Further, dynamic analysis using 20 DBE level
staggered specimen. Also, the reaction in the middle
ground motions is done for each specimen. For all the
support is very less. This reduces the overall design
considered models, plastic hinge formations was
force on the foundation and thus becomes more
restricted to the HBE end only. Staggered systems show
economical.
excellent reduction in the inter story drift for 9 story
Volume of steel used for each configuration are
specimen. Drift distribution is also improved. For 6
compared in Fig. 6(d). It should be noted that beams and
story specimen, the improvement was marginal. Fig.
columns in the gravity frame have not been included. It
6(b) shows the median inter-story drift ratio (MISDR)
can be observed that staggering reduces the tonnage by
for the specimen. 9W outperformed 9N and 9M with a
about 25% in case of 9N to 9N-S. Steel tonnage tends to
maximum MISDR of 1.62%. Maximum MISDR among
decrease with increase in aspect ratio of the plate for
all the staggered specimen was 1.32 for 9N-S. The
conventional SPSWs whereas, it increases in case of
reduction of drift from 6M to 6M-S was only observed
3.5 10
3.0
8
Normalized base shear
2.5
2.0 6M 6M
6
9N 9N
Story
1.5 9M 9M
9W 9W
4
1.0 6M-S 6M-S
9N-S 9N-S
0.5 9M-S 9M-S
9W-S 2
9W-S
0.0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 0 1 2 3
Roof drift Median inter story drift ratio (%)
(a) (b)
25 80
Supp1 Plate
Normalized max. vertical reaction
Supp2 HBEs
20 Supp3 VBEs
60
Volume of steel (m )
3
15
40
10
20
5
0 0
6M 6M-S 9N 9N-S 9M 9M-S 9W 9W-S 6M 6M-S 9N 9N-S 9M 9M-S 9W 9W-S
Model Model
(c) (d)
Figure 6: (a) Normalized base shear vs. roof drift (b) median inter story drift (c) Normalized maximum vertical support
reactions (d) Volume of steel
332
staggered SPSWs. 9M and 9M-S use approximately the 2011; 48(1): 4964.
same amount of steel whereas, in case of wide SPSWs, 4. Sahoo DR, Sidhu BS, Kumar A. Behavior of
9W-S uses slightly more steel than 9W. Staggering of unstiffened steel plate shear wall with simple
SPSW results in increase in the weight of HBEs but beam-to-column connections and flexible
reduction in the weight of VBEs and plates. Heavier boundary elements. International Journal of
beams may result in strong-beam weak-column, so it is Steel Structures 2015; 15(1): 7587.
important to check against the same. For the models in 5. Wang M, Shi Y, Xu J, Yang W, Li Y.
the study, no correction was required as the check for Experimental and numerical study of
weak beam strong column was satisfied for all. unstiffened steel plate shear wall structures.
Journal of Constructional Steel Research 2015;
112(1): 373386.
5 Conclusion
6. Sabelli R, Bruneau M. AISC design guide 20:
The current study investigates the behaviour of a steel plate shear walls. 2006.
staggered arrangement of plates in a steel plate shear 7. Hitaka T, Matsui C. Experimental Study on
wall. Following conclusions can be drawn from the Steel Shear Wall with Slits. Journal of
study. Structural Engineering 2003; 129(5): 586595.
Staggered steel plate shear walls demand 8. Mazzoni S, McKenna F, Scott MH, Fenves GL.
heavier Horizontal boundary elements and Open system for earthquake engineering
more beam-column rigid connections than simulation user command-language manual
conventional SPSWs. This results in Version 1.7.3. Pacific Earthquake Engineering
considerable increase in the overstrength of the Research Center, Berkeley, CA.; 2006.
system. An equation is proposed to estimate 9. AISC (American Institute of Steel Construction).
this overstrength due to staggering. It is Seismic provisions for structural steel buildings.
proposed, for design of staggered SPSW, to Chicago: ANSI/AISC 341-10; 2010.
reduce the design base shear by a factor g , 10. Qu B, Bruneau M. Capacity design of
which can be calculated using the proposed intermediate horizontal boundary elements of
equation. Staggered SPSWs conservatively steel plate shear walls. Journal of Structural
perform similar to their conventional Engineering 2010; 136(6): 665675.
counterparts. 11. Gupta A, Krawinkler H. Seismic demands for
When subjected to DBE level ground motions, performance evaluation of steel moment
reduction in interstory drift and a better drift resisting frame structures. John A. Blume
distribution is observed in staggered SPSWs earthquake engineering center. Stanford
for 9-story SPSWs. The improvement is not University; 1999.
equally remarkable in 6-story SPSW. 12. Berman JW. Seismic behavior of code designed
steel plate shear walls. Engineering Structures
Support reactions are reduced to about half on
2011; 33(1): 230244.
staggering of the plates. This reduces the
13. Driver RG, Kulak GL, Kennedy DJL, Elwi AE.
design force on the foundation and thus can
Cyclic test of four-story steel plate shear wall.
reduce the cost incurred in the substructure.
Journal of Structural Engineering 1998; 124(2):
When the proposed design procedure is used
112120.
for design of staggered SPSW, with respect to
conventional SPSWs, steel tonnage is reduced
for narrow medium rise buildings. When
compared to their conventional counterpart,
weight of plates and columns is reduced
whereas, weight of beams is increased.
References
1. Vian D, Bruneau M. Steel Plate Shear Walls for
Seismic Design and Retrofit of Building
Structures. Multidisciplinary Center for
Earthquake Engineering Research, Buffalo,
New York; 2005.
2. Berman JW, Celik OC, Bruneau M. Comparing
hysteretic behavior of light-gauge steel plate
shear walls and braced frames. Engineering
Structures 2005; 27(3): 475485.
3. Qu B, Bruneau M. Plastic moment of
intermediate horizontal boundary elements of
steel plate shear walls. Engineering Journal
333
IDENTIFICATION OF PARAMETER OF TRUSS STRUCTURE BY

LIMITED STATIC STRAIN MEASUREMENT
Dr.Debasish Bandyopadhyay1, Sumit Saha 2,Tanvir Sohail3
123
Dept. of Construction Engineering, Jadavpur University, Kolkata 700098, India
Structural Health Monitoring has become significantly important in recent times. Dynamic inverse
technique is widely accepted but seems to be complex in nature particularly in case of real life
application. The static inverse approach is simple on the other hand. The proposed paper discusses
parameter identification of truss structure adopting static inverse technique in a finite element
framework using limited strain measurement. In addition, noise in the measured data, which is quite
inevitable in real situations, is also considered to validate its applicability of the proposed model in
practical situation. The study further extends in identifying the exact location of the damage in the
damaged truss element. The predicated parameters seem to be accurate for various combinations of
damage even with noise consideration. The exact damage location in the damaged element is also able
to be identified by the proposed method.
Keywords: Structural Health Monitoring, Strain, Parameter estimation
INTRODUCTION sensitive nodes of the structure are identified by using

forward approach. After successfully identifying the
The need of health monitoring of structures has
sensitive nodes in the structure, the loads are applied at
increased manifold in recent years due to the defects
one set of DOFS and strains are measured at another
occurring in the structural members. These defects can
subset of DOFS, which may or may not overlap. The
be due to various reasons, such as corrosive
error between the analytical values and experimental
environment, aging, fatigue or result of collision with
values are calculated. The damaged parameters are
foreign particles. Structural health monitoring of these
identified by using inverse technique as well as by
structures can be performed by parameter estimation,
minimizing square of the error equation. Thereafter the
which is a mathematical approach using the major
model parameters are updated after each iteration. After
differences between the estimated and the experimental
successfully detecting the damaged member, the
values termed as errors. Parameter estimation attempts
member is further discretized and parameter estimation
to correlate changes in test data to the changes in
is performed on the damaged member. Isoparametric
structural elemental properties. Damages to sensitive
element is assumed to get the exact location of the
objects like aircraft, oilrigs can be successfully
damage in the damaged element of the truss. This is
identified through this technique.
performed in the same manner as for the whole trusses
Parameter estimation utilizes an art of reconciling on
as proposed by Sanayei and Saletnik1.However they
prior finite element model (FEM) of the structure with
detected the damaged element only. This method
the Non Destructive (NDT) test data. This technique
provides a good tool for damage detection for the linear
updates the parameters of an analytical model of a
truss structure. The results obtained are quite accurate.
structure such as finite element model (FEM) to match
Further the use of noise or random data enhances the
its response with the Non Destructive Test (NDT) data
accuracy of the result obtained. The result is able to pin
obtained from experiment. The estimated parameters
point the exact location of the damages in the truss as
represent the current condition of the structure .These
precise as the discretization of the member.
parameters are usually stiffness, mass and damping
properties of the structural elements. Parameter
2.1THEORETICAL FORMULATION:
estimation can be done using both static and dynamic
method. The static method is cost effective and less The static equation of truss structure is
complicated than the dynamic method. [F] = [k] [U] (1.1)
In this paper static method is utilized to detect damage
Where [F] is the force matrix containing different set of
of the members of truss bridges. The first truss has 21
force and [U] is the displacement matrix containing
members. The other truss has 65 members. At first the
1
Professor , dban65@yahoo.com
2
Undergraduate student , sumitsaha263@gmail.com
3
Undergraduate student,tanvirsohail20@gmail.com
334
Debasish Bandyopadhyay, et al.
different set of displacements for each set of force, Now the sensitivity matrix [S(p)] is formed by
Hence differentiating [E(p)] with respect to p j to form [ (p)]of
[U]= [k]-1[F] (1.2) the size NM NUP.
Displacement of each degree of freedom (DDOF) is [ (p)]= -[Ba] (1.10)
measured for each set of force for incremental damage
of each parameter. Now these DDOF are classified on These vectors are concatenated column wise to form
the basis of sensitivity. Then the set of DDOF which is sensitivity matrix [S(P)]
sensitive for all parameters of the structural model is
selected as a set of MDOF. SCALAR PERFORMANCE ERROR FUNCTION
MINIMIZATION
STRAIN DISPLACEMENT RELATIONSHIP: The scalar performance error function can be written as
We know through the stiffness method that force is
J ( p +Dp ) = E ( p +Dp ) E ( p +Dp )
T
related to displacement .Therefore we have to drive a (1.11)
mapping between strain and displacement, to use the Least square method is applied for minimization of
measured strain data. error matrix.
{}= [B]{U} (1.3) J p +Dp = 0
Where () is the elemental strain vector of the order of { p} ( ) {}
(1.12)
NEL1 and {U} global displacement vector,
multiplication results in {B} is the elemental mapping Now from the above equation it can be developed that
vector of the order of NELNDOF. {Dp} = -[[S (p)]T [S (p)]]-1[S (p)]T{E (p)} (1.13)
By (1.3) substituting in (1.2) we get the strain equation
Where {p} is the change in size of the parameters and
[]= [B] [F] (1.4)
is of the size NUP
Now the [B] matrix is portioned based on measured The size of sensitivity matrix[S(p)] is NM by NUP. So
strain a and unmeasured strains b inverse of sensitivity matrix is only possible when it is a
= [F] (1.5) square matrix i.e. NM=NUP. Now the evaluated vector
{p} is added to the vector {p}.An iterative process is
The unmeasured strain is eliminated and we work with done till error matrix becomes null matrix. Once {p} is
only the measured strain established an iterative process is used for solving where
[a]= [Ba][F] (1.6) for each iteration k
{pk+1}= {pk} + {p} (1.14)
[a]= NMSNSF, [Ba] =NMSNDOF, where NMS =
Thus the parameter is updated after each iteration.
number of measured strains. Equation (1.6) gives the
relationship between force strain and parameters. It is
hereby solved for the parameters {p} of size NUP1. 2.2 ISOPARAMETRIC FORMULATION
OUTPUT STRAIN ERROR The term isoparametric is derived from the use of the
[E (p)]= [a (p)] a - [a] m (1.7) same shape functions (or interpolation functions) [N] to
define the elements geometric shape as are used to
The superscript refers to analytical values and m define the displacements within the element. Thus, when
superscript refers measured values. the shape function is u = a1+a2s for the displacement, we
On substituting (16) and (17) we get.... use x = a1+a2s for the description of the nodal coordinate
[E(p)]= [Ba] [F] -[a]m (1.8) of a point on the bar element and, hence, the physical
shape of the element. We will now develop the
isoparametric formulation of the stiffness matrix of a
EVALUATION OF PARAMETER VECTOR simple linear bar element [with two nodes as shown in
Figure 1.
Now The size of the error matrix[E(p)] is no. of
measured degrees of freedom (NMD) by no of set of
force (NSF).Now the error matrix is transformed into an
error vector of size NM (NMD x NSF) by 1. {p} is the
vector containing unknown parameter .So size of {p} is
NUP by 1.Now the error vector is liberalized by first
order Taylor series as shown in below. Figure-1: coordinate system (a) global. (b) Natural
{E ( p +Dp )} ={E ( p )} + {d p }{Dp}

d E( p) (1.9) Select Element Type First, the natural coordinate s is
attached to the element, with the origin located at the
d {E ( p )}
Where [S(p)] =
dp
{Dp} centre of the element, as shown in Figure 1(b). The s
axis need not be parallel to the x axisthis is only for
convenience. Consider the bar element to have two
335
degrees of freedomaxial displacements u1 and u2 at This algorithm consists of iteration processes where the
each node associated with the global x axis. first iteration value has been taken as initial value of
For the special case when the s and x axes are parallel to parameters {pi}. The limited measured data is obtained
each other, the s and x coordinates can be related by by simulation technique using the true value of
parameters{pt} .We have to identify the sensitive
x= xc+ s (2.1) degrees of freedom followed by the estimation of
Where xc is the global coordinate of the element parameter with the simulated noise or noise free data
centroid. Using the global coordinates x1 and x2 in Eq. and then identify the portion of damaged member .
(2.1) with xc =(x1+x2)/2, we can express the natural For each example several arbitrary combination force
coordinate s in terms of the global coordinates as sets are used. By using these force sets the sensitive
s=[x-(x1+x2)/2] 2/ (x1-x2) (2.2) degree of freedoms (DOFs) can be identified. After that
the above mentioned parameter estimation process is
We now relate global coordinate system to its natural carried out with this simulation technique.
one through the formula x = a1+a2s (2.3)
On solving for ais terms we get TRUSS EXAMPLE-1:
The two dimensional truss structure as shown in the
x= [(1-s)x1+ (1+s)x2] (2.4) figure is modeled as an example.
In matrix form we can write as
{u} =[ N1 N2] (2.5)
The final strain equation can be written as:
{x}= (2.6)
Since {x} = [B]{d}
Figure 2: Pratt Truss of Example 1
[B]= (2.7)
The stiffness matrix can be represented as It carries only axial loads i.e. tension and compression
and pinned at both ends. In this paper the only
[k]= (2.8) applicable parameter is the area of the member of truss
The jacobian is represented by in case of simple bar as structure. The physical properties and geometric
properties of the truss structure are as follow:
|J|= = (2.9) Total member- 21 and total nodes 12
1-6,18-21 no. members area 25.06 cm2
The Jacobian relates an element length in the global- 7,9,11,13,15,17 no. members area 19.03 cm2;
coordinate system to an element length in the natural- 8,10,12,14,16 no. members area 13.79 cm2
coordinate system. In general, |J| is a function of s and Modulus of Elasticity of all members is 2x105 N/mm2
depends on the numerical values of the nodal
Several experiments are carried out with the simulation
coordinates.
data. The forward approach is used to study the
After integration the k matrix can be represented as sensitivity of the nodes with the help of every set of
[k]= (2.10) FDOF (force degree of freedom) for incremental
damage of each element of the truss structure. The
After this isometric forward formulation the inversion selection of sensitive nodes with the help of forward
approach is same as the previous one to identify the problem with incremental damage is able to avoid the
damaged portion of the truss member. requirement of large number of strain measurements.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The inversion approach integrates state-of-the-art Table 1: Different cases of elemental damage
experimental and analytical approaches to parameter
estimation. This simulation based estimation is carried Case No Damaged Element % of damage
out with some truss examples. Both the examples are
two dimensional trusses as seen in Fig.2 and Fig.10.This
1. 6 6%
simulated truss structures are modeled as designed
2. 18 5%
trusses. This simulation based model-algorithm helps to
estimate the parameters of these truss structures. The 3. 18 5%
estimation of the parameters of finite element based 4 2%
truss structure is carried out with the help of measured 10 3%
strain data. Using simulation technique strain data with 6 6%
measurement noise or without measurement noise has 4. 2 2% - 10% @ 2%
been extracted and the algorithm must identify the true increment
values of the parameters respectively.
336
In this truss structure node numbers 2, 6,9,11 are The maximum error in prediction of both damaged and
sensitive. Strain measurement of the member is easy and undamaged condition error is very less and correctly
each element will have one strain .Now it will be a implemented with respect to the conceptual model.
challenge to estimate all the parameters of truss structure
using inversion technique with the help of limited static
strain measurements .Error in prediction can be defined
by-
Error in prediction=
Few cases are discussed in this paper and 1KN is applied
at four degree of freedoms (FDOFS) and corresponding
result has been interpreted through the corresponding
graphs.
Figure 6: Max Error (%) for Multiple Damaged Cases
It is noted that the maximum error of different members
parameter prediction is very low for multiple damage
scenarios.
Figure 3: Maximum Error (%) vs. No. of Measurement
The maximum error in prediction for each type of

member i.e. top chords, bottom chords, diagonal chords,
vertical chords are seemed to be low to the extent of
2.5%.
Figure 7: Maximum Error (%) for Incremental Damage
The proposed model is able to identify damages

accurately for different degree of damages.
PREDICTION OF EXACT DAMAGE LOCATION

In the above discussion we have talked about the
prediction error of the truss member. In this article
segment we will discuss about the damaged portion of
the truss-member with the help of isoparametric
formulation. The term isoparametric is derived from the
use of the same shape function [N] to define the
Figure 4: Maximum Error (%) vs. No. of Measurement elements geometric shape as are used to define the
displacements within the element. In this formulation
truss member is considered as a bar whos both ends are
It is noted that the error of prediction decreases with the fixed and member is discretized into five elements.
number of measurements. v Area of the five segments (2 no. member)-25.06cm2
v Modulus of Elasticity(2 no. member)-2x105 N/mm2
v Connecting nodes-1-2;2-3;3-4;4-5;5-6
v Degree of freedoms-1-2;2-3;3-4;4-5;5-6
Table 2: Different cases of elemental damage
Case no. Portion of Percent to
Element damage damage (%)
1. 3rd portion 5%
of 4th member
Figure 5: Error for Undamaged & Damaged Condition 2. 3rd portion of 6th member 5%
4th portion of the 8th 8%
member
337
57,59 no. members area 8.66 cm2;

Modulus of Elasticity of all members is
2x105N/mm2
The forward approach is first used to identify the
parameter. In this truss structure 6,8,12,14,15,18 no.
nodes are sensitive nodes. Strain measurement of
the members is not as intricate as displacement
measurement. The measurement is restricted to one
per element. A load of 1KN is applied at 12 degree
Figure 8 Max Error (%) for Single Element Damage of freedoms (fdofs) and corresponding result has
been interpreted in this graph-1for both noisy and
noise free data. Few cases have been outlined in this
section.
Table 3: Different cases of elemental damage
Case no. Damaged Element % of damage

1. 10 10%
2. 1 2%
2 3%
5 5%
Figure 9: Max Error (%)for Multiple Element Damage 18 6%
3. 18 2%,4%
The figure 8 and 9 shows the variation of maximum
error in prediction of segmental damage with respect to
member segment number.The error evaluated in this
case is quite small .So the model is correctly able to
identify the degree and exact location of damage.
TRUSS EXAMPLE-2
A real life Pipe line Bridge at Kolkata as shown in the
figure is modeled as an example
Figure 11: Max Error (without noise) multiple damage
Figure 10: Pipeline Truss structure of example 2
It carries only axial loads i.e. tension and compression

and pinned at both ends. In this paper the damaged Figure 12: Max Error%(with noise) multiple damage
parameter is considered as the reduction of cross section The error evaluated in both the cases considering both
area of the member of truss structure. with and without noise is small .Thus the validation of
The physical properties and geometric properties of the the proposed models for the identification of the
truss structure as follows: damaged truss systems is established. However, the
Total member- 65 and total nodes 34 error seems to be more in case of noisy data.
1,8 no. members area 25.06 cm2
26,28,32,34,38,40,44,46,50,52 no. members area
19.03 cm2;23,24,29,30,35,36,41,42,47,48 no.
members area 13.79 cm2;27,33,39,45,51no.
members area 11.38 cm2;2-7,15,20,22,54,56,58,60
no. members area 34.59 cm2
9,16 no. members area 21.06cm2;17, 18, 61-65 no.
membersarea110.74cm2;19,21,25,31,37,43,49,55,
338
duly considered..The static displacements are the

primary responses and which may be used as the
input to identify the damage state of structure.
The selection of FDOF also plays an important role
to predict the structural parameters with appreciable
accuracy. The rank of the sensitivity matrices is
important and responsible for the accuracy of the
stiffness parameter identification.
Figure 13: Comparison of Max. Error in prediction Noise is inevitable and may occur during
experiment. The noise is assumed as zero mean
Similarly the change of maximum error in prediction unbiased random variables. It is observed that
with respect to each member of this truss example in
accuracy of prediction is slightly affected due to
case of multiple damage to the members has been shown
in the figure 13. It represents the contrast between incorporation of noise. In these cases both noisy and
maximum error in prediction with respect to vertical, noise free data are used.
diagonal middle, top and bottom chords with the help of The model is able to identify the location and
noise free and noisy data. degree of damage with great accuracy with
To study the versatile applicability of the proposed minimum required strain data.
method variable damage states are considered to study
Accuracy of the predicted structural properties is
the effect of multiple damages on different members.
The graphical representation of considered damaged significantly depends on the proper selection of
cases in terms of maximum error in prediction of MDOF
structural parameters is shown in Fig 14 and Fig 15. It is The selection of sensitive MDOF seems to have
noted that the proposed model is able to predict the contributed accurate prediction even with noisy data
maximum error for each element. using limited strain measurement.
The isoparametric formulation further points out the
exact location of the damage in the particular
element.
REFERENCES
[1] Banan, Mo. R., Banan, Ma. R., and Hjelmstad, K.

D. (1994).
"Parameter estimation of structures from static
response. I: Computational aspects.
measured information." J.Struct.Engrg. 120(11),
Figure 14: Max error (Noise) multiple damage
ASCE, 3243-3258
[2] Fritzen, C. P., and Zhu, S. (1991).
"Updating the finite element models by means of
measured information."
Comp. and Struct, 40(2), 475- 486.
[3] Saletnik, M.J. (1993) Parameter identification
using static strain measurements MS thesis, Tufts
Univ., Medford, Mass.
[4] Masoud Sanayei and Michael J. Saletnik (1996)
"Parameter Estimation Of structures From Static
strain Measurements 1."Journal of Structural
Figure 15: Max error (without Noise) multiple damage Engineering,1996 ,Vol.122,No.-5
CONCLUSIONS: Based on the numerical studies the

following conclusions may be drawn.
Static parameter identification is simple and

experimental data can be collected easily in real life
situation in most of the cases. Structural damage
mainly refers the reduction of stiffness, which is
339
EFFECTS OF COLUMN TO BEAM STRENGTH RATIO ON

BEHAVIOUR OF BEAM TO COLUMN MOMENT JOINTS
Arnav Anuj Kasar1, S. D. Bharti 2, M. K. Shrimali3, Rupen Goswami4
1, 2, 3
Department of Civil Engineering, Malaviya National Institute of Technology Jaipur, Jaipur 302017, India
4
Steel Moment Resisting Frames (MRFs) are believed to be very ductile structures, and are highly regarded
structural systems, even in areas of high seismicity. The overall ductility of a steel MRF depends on many
factors, such as connection configuration, column to beam strength ratio, effect of joint panel zone, material
and cross-sectional properties, rate of loading etc. Seismic performance of a steel MRF depends, primarily,
on the performance of beam to column joints in the frame. The capacity of a joint to undergo inelastic
deformation determines the ductility of an MRF. In a beam to column moment joint, the desirable behaviour
is to limit inelastic actions at beam end regions, thereby preventing irreparable damage to structures. In a
simple unreinforced moment connection, this is achieved by varying the Column to Beam Strength Ratio
(CBSR). In this paper, a minimum value of CBSR, which ensures the formation of plastic hinge at beam end
region, for a simple unreinforced joint, is determined. A parametric study, using Nonlinear Finite Element
Analysis (NFEA), is carried out to determine the force-deformation behavior of ten beam to column joint
subassemblages. The CBSRs are varied from 1.2 to 11 to determine the value at which, inelastic actions can
be limited to the beam ends. The selection of CBSRs is based on the strength of AISC standard sections and
their compatibility along with the various prevalent Codal provisions. Results of NFEA shows that the
minimum CBSR required to prevent inelastic actions in columns is close to 7.5.
Keywords: Steel Moment Resisting Frames; Column to Beam Strength Ratio; Capacity Design; Strong
Axis Moment Joints; Force Deformation Behaviour; Strong Column Weak Beam.
1 Introduction improper design, leading to insufficient strength of

connections; and, (ii) excessive rotation, due to inelastic
Since their inception, steel Moment Resistant Frames
yielding of Joint Panel Zone (JPZ) region. As MRFs are
(MRFs) are considered to be the most effective structural
more flexible then other common earthquake resistant
systems. This belief is based, partially, on the inherent
structural systems, such as braced frames and steel plate
ductility of steel as a construction material, and partially
shear wall systems, they require to be designed on the
on their ease of construction and architectural suitability.
basis of drift limits. When subjected to lateral forces, the
During mid twentieth century, steel MRFs were the most
lateral deformation of steel moment frames, is supposed
preferred structural systems, especially in areas of high
to be accommodated through inelastic flexing of beams,
seismicity. It was because of their assumed good ductile
while the columns are supposed to remain in elastic
behaviour, that these structural systems were assigned the
range.
most optimistic design parameters.
The concept of capacity design recommends that, in
The damages sustained by steel MRFs during and in
a frame structural members should be proportioned to
the aftermath of 1994 Northridge and 1995 Kobe
yield at predetermined sequence and locations. Thus,
earthquakes were phenomenal, and led to substantial
better control on the inelastic behaviour of structures is
research on the behaviour of such frames, under seismic
achieved, by accommodating the imposed ductility
excitations [Nakashima, 2000]. The Northridge
demand in a few predetermined locations, while rest of
earthquake led to the damage of nearly 200 steel MRF
the structures remains in elastic range. A typical strong
buildings, most of which were located in the connection
axis, interior beam to column joint subassemblage, of an
region. The damage to welded beam to column
MRF, is shown in Figure 1, depicting different regions of
connections can be attributed to two broad reasons, (i)
1
Ph.D. Research Scholar, Department of Civil Engineering, MNIT Jaipur, arnav.kasar@gmail.com
2
Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, MNIT Jaipur, sdbharti@mnit.ac.in
3
Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, MNIT Jaipur, mkshrimali@mnit.ac.in
4
Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, IIT Madras, rg@iitm.ac.in
340
Arnav Anuj Kasar, et al.
the subassemblage. The concept of capacity design The objectives of code based design are to assure life
suggests that both, the columns and the beam to column safety (strength and ductility) and, to some extent,
joints has to be stronger than the beams [Penelis and prevent damage (limiting the drifts). The first objective
Kappos, 1997]. may be achieved by allowing yielding of JPZ region,
nevertheless the shear yielding of JPZ region leads to
In the past, numerous researches has been carried to
uncontrolled overall deformation of the structure. Also,
determine the factors on which the ductility of steel beam
as the JPZ is an integral part of column, shear yielding of
to column moment joint depends. One of the most critical
JPZ necessarily means yielding of column web, and is
factors is design of Joint Panel Zone (JPZ) region, which
irreparable in nature, and thus shall not be permitted. In
may be based on one of the three design philosophies; (i)
the prevalent state of steel design, the JPZs are designed
Strong JPZ, wherein the JPZ remains elastic [AISC,
to undergo yielding simultaneously with the beams. This
1980], forcing all inelastic actions to the beam ends; (ii)
design philosophy needs to be revisited and suitable
Weak JPZ, all inelastic deformations are limited to the
amendments needs to be brought in, so that the shear
JPZ [Kawano, 1984] region thereby preventing the
yielding of JPZ can be postponed upto the formation of
formation of plastic hinges at beam ends; and (iii)
beam plastic hinge.
Balanced JPZ, allows controlled inelastic yielding of JPZ
[Krawinkler, 1978; FEMA 267A, 1997, Mazzolani, 2 Modeling and Analysis
1996] region, leading to sharing of inelasticity between To determine the effects of CBSR on the behaviour
beams and JPZ region. Most of the prevalent design codes of strong axis interior beam to column joint
recommends that, the JPZ region shall be designed on the subassemblages, a range combination of columns and
basis of third approach, i.e. sharing of inelastic actions beams are selected. Two important deciding parameters
between beams and JPZ region. for selecting a section as column or beam are, (a) plastic
When subjected to lateral force, JPZ region section moduli and (b) width of flange. Beam sections are
undergoes very stable shear yielding, and is capable of such selected, that the width of beam flanges remains
undergoing large inelastic deformations [Krawinkler, lesser than width of corresponding column flanges for a
1978]. To utilize this reserve strength, designers particular CBSR. A fair representation of a wide range of
configured the joints such that, the JPZ region is allowed column to beam strength ratios is achieved through
to participate, along with the beams, in dissipating the section selection. Ten beam to column joint
input seismic energy through inelastic action. Much subassemblages are modelled having different CBSRs,
research has been carried out to determine the effects of ranging from 1.2 to 11. A list different beam and column
behaviour of JPZ region on overall performance of MRFs sections, used to obtain beam to column joint
[Bertero et al., 1972; Bertero et al., 1973; Englekirk, subassemblages with different CBSRs, is presented in
1999, FEMA 355D, 2000; FEMA 350, 2000]. Table 1. The class of selected section is determined using
tables B4.1a and B4.1b of AISC 361-10, and most of the
sections selected are compact, while only a few classifies
as non-compact.
For the purpose of analysis, both exterior and interior
beam to column joint subassemblages are modelled
Figure 1. A typical Exterior Beam to Column moment Figure 2: Strong Axis Interior Beam to Column Joint
joint subassemblage showing different regions of the Subassemblage modelled for analyses.
Joint.
341
Table 1. Standard AISC sections used for Beam to Column Joint Subassemblages
S.N. Beam Sections Column Sections CBSR

Section MpB (kNm) Section MpC (kNm) MpC/MpB
1. W27X84 1,000 W18X130 1,188 1.19
2. W18X97 864 W24X176 2,093 2.42
3. W18X71 598 W24X176 2,093 3.50
4. W24X103 1,147 W33X318 5,203 4.54
5. W30x124 1,671 W36x529 9,545 5.71
6. W27X102 1,250 W36X487 8,726 6.98
7. W21X101 1,036 W27X539 7,743 7.47
8. W30X90 1,159 W40X503 9,504 8.20
9. W27X84 1,000 W36X529 9,545 9.55
10. W24X94 1,041 W40X593 11,307 10.86
starting from CBSR of 1.2, based on IS 800:2007 The shown in figure 3 (yield stress of 250 MPa and ultimate
subassemblages consists of column with height equal to stress of 415 MPa).
sum of the distance of point of contraflexure, above and
Stress strain relationships for A36 Grade steel and
below the joint. Beam length for subassemblage is also
E70 electrodes used for analysis are shown in Figure 3.
taken to be equal to distance between two points of
The modulus of elasticity and Poissons ratio of both the
contraflexures, on either side of the column for an interior
materials are 200GPa and 0.260 respectively. The height
joint.. The point of contraflexures are assumed at the mid-
of columns in the subassemblages is 3.8m, which, in most
heights of members, and centerline dimensions are
cases, is the average storey height (Figure 2). The
considered at this stage (Figure 2).
distance considered between column centerline and the
The subassemblages are simply supported at column point of application of load on beams is 3.0m,
ends and displacement loading is applied at beam ends. A representing span of beam. Nonlinear analyses are carried
displacement based nonlinear finite element analysis of out on 3-dimensional solid models. A uniform mesh is
all the subassemblages is performed using ABAQUS developed for the subassemblage models using eight
software package [HKS, 2013]. The members are noded linear brick element (C3D8R). Single step
assumed to be of ASTM A36 grade steel with isotropic monotonic drift loading upto a drift level of 4%is used for
hardening model, the stress strain behavior of which is analyses to obtain the differences in responses of these
beam column joints. Axial compressive load is not
considered on the columns, to reduce the number of
parameters on which the behaviour of subassemblage
depends.
3 Results and Discussion
Displacement based Nonlinear Finite Element
Analyses are carried out for ten beam to column joint
subassemblages. The results obtained from ABAQUS are
presented in Figures 4 and 5. Figure 4 shows the level of
inelasticity induced in a beam to column joint, at a drift
level of 4% through von-Mises Stress contours. For
combinations having a CBSR less than 7, inelastic
yielding of JPZ is observed. The extent of inelasticity in
JPZ region reduces, with an increase in CBSR. This is
primarily due to increase in strength of beams, which in
turn increases their participation in dissipation of induced
Figure 3: Stress-Strain Relationship of materials used. energy, through inelastic excursions.
342
Figure 5 depicts Shear Stress contours for the construction, 8th Ed American Institute of Steel
analysed beam to column joint subassemblages, at the Construction
initiation of yield. The state of inelastic shear action [2] AISC 341 -10 (2010) Seismic Provisions for Structural
indicates that, for joints having CBSR lesser than 7, Steel Buildings American Institute of Steel
yielding of JPZ initiates at a very small drift level. Construction, Chicago,Ill.
Inelastic actions in a structure at a drift level of 0.0067
[3] Bertero V V Popov E P and Krawinkler H (1973)
radians is in-acceptable, especially in areas prone to
Further Studies on Seismic Behaviour of Steel Beam-
seismic excitations. Table 2 gives the NFEA based
Column Subassemblages Earthquake Engineering
estimates of drifts, and beam forces corresponding to
those drift levels, at which yielding of three components Research Center UCB/EERC-73/27 University of
of a beam to column joint occurs. From the Table, it can California Berkeley
be noted that, upto a CBSR of 4.52, there is no [4] Bertero V V Popov E P and Krawinkler H 1972 Beam-
contribution of beams in the inelastic energy dissipation Column Subassemblages under Repeated loading
mechanism, and all the inelasticity remains limited to the Journal of Structural Engineering, ASCE 98 (ST5)
JPZ region. 1137-1159
[5] Englekirk R E 1999 Extant Panel Zone Design
Figure 6 shows the force deformation behaviour of Procedures for Steel Frames are Questioned
beam to column joint subassemblages analysed for this Earthquake Spectra EERI, 15 (2), 361 369
study. The extent of energy dissipation depends on the [6] FEMA-267A (1997) Interim guideline: Advisory no.
sections selected for designing the joint, along with the 1, supplement to FEMA-267 SAC Joint Venture SAC-
CBSR. 96-03 Sacramento, California
[7] FEMA 350 (2000) Recommended Seismic Design
4 Conclusions Criteria for new Steel Moment-Frame Buildings
The seismic behaviour of steel MRFs depends Federal Emergency Management Agency
primarily on the CBSR of the beam to column joints. The [8] FEMA 355D (2000) State of the Art Report on
concept of Capacity Design recommends that the Connection Performance Federal Emergency
columns of a frame remains undamaged in a moderate Management Agency
level shaking. As joints panel zones are integral part of [9] HKS ABAQUS/Standard Users Manual (2013)
the columns, inelastic activities in JPZ region shall not be Hibbitt, Karlsson & Sorensen, ABAQUS Inc. RI USA
allowed for a moderate level shaking. Following
[10] IS 800:2007 (2007) General Construction in
conclusions can be drawn from the study carried out in
Steel: Code of Practice Bureau of Indian Standards
this paper:
[11] Kawano A 1984 Inelastic behavior of low-rise
1. The JPZ region in a simple unreinforced beam steel frame based on a weak beam-to-column
to column moment joint is susceptible to inelastic actions connection philosophy to earthquake motion
at a drift level of 0.64%. This yield drift is much less than Proceeding of 8th World Conference on Earthquake
that expected during a moderate level of shaking. Engineering Vol. IV 519526 Prentice-Hall
2. The beam end regions of a beam to column joint Englewood Cliffs N.J
subassemblage shall be allowed form plastic hinges, [12] Krawinkler H 1978 Shear in beam-column
before shear yielding of JPZ region initiates. joints in seismic design of steel frames Engineering
Journal AISC 3 8291
3. In a beam to column joint subassemblage, a
strong JPZ can be obtained by use of column web [13] Mazzolani F M and Piluso V (1996) Theory and
stiffeners of sufficient thickness. This thickness of Design of Seismic Resistant Steel Frames E&FN Spon;
column web region (JPZ) needs to be arrived at, on the Great Britain
basis of strength requirements. Further research is [14] Nakashima M Roeder C W and Maruoka Y
required to determine the column web stiffening strategy. 2000 Steel moment Frames for Earthquakes in United
States and Japan Journal of Structural Engineering
4. The minimum value of CBSR to prevent
126(8)
inelastic shear yielding of JPZ before the formation of
plastic hinges in the beams is about 8.0. [15] Penelis G G and Kappos A J (1997) Earthquake
Resistant Concrete Structures E & FN Spon Great
It is recommended that the suitability of steel MRFs Britain
in areas of high seismicity is re-evaluated in the light of
present conclusions.
References
[1] AISC. (1980). Specifications for the design,
fabrication, and erection of structural steel for
buildings, with commentary Manual of steel
343
Figure 5: von Mises Stress Contours of Beam to Figure 4: Shear Stress Contours of Beam to Column
Column Joint subassemblages at 4% Drift. Joint Subassemblages at initiation of Yield.
Force Deformation Curves CBSR

1200
1.19
1000 2.42
3.50
Beam Shear (kN)
800
4.54
600
5.71
400 6.98
7.47
200
8.20
0
0 30 60 90 120 9.55
Drift (mm) 10.87
Figure 6: Force Deformation Behaviour of Beam to Column Joint Sub assemblages upto 4% Drift
344
Table 2: Yield Sequence of components of a beam to column moment joint
Panel Zone Yielding Beam Flange Yielding Beam Plastic Hinging

S.N. CBSR
%Drift Force (kN) %Drift Force (kN) %Drift Force (kN)
1. 1.19 0.644 340.97 1.099 453.62 - -
2. 2.42 0.643 154.60 0.972 180.57 - -
3. 3.43 0.753 139.95 1.065 177.05 - -
4. 4.52 0.840 419.93 0.699 394.39 - -
5. 5.66 2.554 976.84 0.753 678.56 2.954 1014.28
6. 7.02 3.087 773.11 0.647 484.27 2.767 751.85
7. 7.57 - - 0.768 399.93 2.568 566.81
8. 8.43 - - 0.574 456.79 2.434 706.58
9. 9.62 - - 0.613 401.35 2.749 623.73
10. 10.99 - - 0.614 418.92 2.954 660.30
345
READY RECKONER FOR BRACKET AND COLUMN SPLICES

Vanapalli Naveen Kumar1, A.Satyaveni2, Venkat Lute3
Department of Civil Engineering, GVP College of Engineering, Visakhapatnam-530048.
Connections are used to join elements of a structure together at a point. Connections are critical components of steel structures
as they have the potential for greater variability in behaviour and strength. General eccentric connections i.e.., beam supported
over a bracket connected to a column is considered. In the present paper Bracket connections and column splice connections
are designed. In Bracket connections depth, breadth of weld and eccentricity of load are varied for various weld sizes and
design weld strengths are calculated. The ultimate axial, moment and shear capacity of Indian standard rolled sections are
used for the design of column splice i.e., dimensions of splice plate and number of bolts. The design of the connections is
done according to IS: 800 (2007).
KEY WORDS: Design strength, In-plane bending, Out of plane bending, splice design
INTRODUCTION:
The design is done according to IS: 800 (2007) Ref [1]. complex stress conditions in the joint than concentrically
For the ease in design calculations MATLAB program has loaded joints where the welds are generally subjected to
been written. shear in only one direction. Design methods that account
for load eccentricity on welded joints have been developed
General eccentric connections i.e.., beam supported over a for both in-plane and out-of-plane eccentricity. A larger
bracket connected to a column is considered. Welded experimental program was later conducted by Ref [2]
joints are often subjected to loads which are eccentric, so Beaulieu and Picard and included a total of 24 fillet
for the present study weld connections of different weld welded plate connections loaded eccentrically out-of-
sizes are considered. Bracket connections are of two kinds plane. The main variables investigated in this study
depending upon the plane of transfer of the forces. For first included the weld size, the load eccentricity and the
type of bracket connection the twisting moments are in the bearing width. All specimens were fabricated from ASTM
plane of the weld and is subjected to direct shear and A36 steel, and the welds were made with AWS E70XX
torsion. The centre of gravity of weld lies in the plane of electrodes. Weld failure, plate rupture and plate buckling
the line of action of the applied load in this connection. were the various failure modes observed in the
The other type of bracket connection has the moment in experimental program.
the plane perpendicular to the weld. The centre of gravity
of weld lies in the plane perpendicular to the plane of Splices are connections between two structural elements
action of the applied load. In this study both types are within their length, to form a single and longer element.
considered. Design strength of the weld is calculated by Splices between parts of columns are necessary to keep
varying the breadth, depth and eccentricity of the weld for individual column lengths within manageable dimensions
various weld sizes. or to provide an opportunity to change the section serial
size. Ref [4] AnaM.GiroCoelho had studied the following
If the length of the column is more than the length of the parameters for splices (i) splice location and rotational
column section available, a number of pieces are jointed stiffness, (ii) change in the column section serial size and
to furnish the full length of the column. A joint when (iii) column end-restraints stiffness coefficients. Simple
provided in the length of a member is called a splice. relationships are developed for use as a basic stiffness
Splices are designed as short columns. design criterion for column splices.
For axial compressive loads splice plates are provided in Ref [3] J. Lindner had studied old and new solutions for
only flanges. For axial compressive including shear and contact splices in columns. If a contact splice is placed
moment splice plates are provided on flanges and web. In inside the length of a column these initial additional
the present study both the conditions are considered. imperfections will have an inuence on the buckling
In many joint configurations used in practice, in-plane or behaviour and thus the load carrying capacity of the
out-of-plane eccentricity is unavoidable, creating more column. Report on theoretical investigations on the
1
P.G Student, vanapallinaveen57@gmail.com
2 P.G Student, satyavenistructures@gmail.com
3 Associate Professor, lutevenkat@gmail.com
346
Vanapalli Naveen Kumar, et al.
member behaviour and on the design of a splice and its The following are the models considered for splice design.
fastenings is given. Also full scale tests on different types The first model has been designed for only axial
of splices are referred to. The test results are compared to
ultimate load calculations and respective design methods
are proposed. Especially for contact splices in columns
arranged directly one on top of the other the stability
behaviour for a splice at mid span is examined and leads
to a special buckling curve.
MODELLING:
The following are the models considered for the present
study. Design strengths of the weld for various
configurations have been evaluated for different weld
sizes. Ultimate tensile strength of weld has been taken as
410mPa i.e.., the yield strength of steel is 250MPa. The
depth (d), breadth (b) and eccentricity (e1) of bracket plate
for bracket connection type I had varied from 200mm to
400mm at an interval of 50mm, 100mm to 200mm at an
interval of 25mm and 40mm to 240mm at an interval of
40mm respectively.
Fig-2 Bracket connection type II (Out of plane bending)

compressive loads i.e.., splice plates are provided only for
flanges. The design strength of the Indian standard
sections are obtained and are used in the calculation of
splice design. The yield strength of steel is considered as
250 Mpa. The design calculations has been done by
varying the bolt diameter and grade of bolts. The details
have been found out for different grades of bolts. Column
splice design had been obtained for the design capacities
(axial compressive, moment and shear) of the Indian
standard sections. . The arrangement of bolts had been
considered as four bolts in a row.
Fig-1 Bracket connection type I (In-plane bending)

Design strengths of the weld have been evaluated for
different weld sizes. Ultimate tensile strength of weld has
been taken as 410 mPa i.e.., the yield strength of steel is
250 mPa. The depth and eccentricity of bracket plate for
bracket connection type II had varied from 200mm to
400mm at an interval of 50mm and 40mm to 240mm at an
interval of 40mm respectively.
Column splices:
Fig-3 Column splice provided for flange

The second model has been designed for axial
compression along with bending and shear i.e.., splice
plates are provided for both flange and web. The axial,
bending and shear design capacities of the Indian standard
sections are found out and are used in the design
347
calculation of splice plates. The ultimate and yield varied from 100mm to 200mm with an interval of 25mm.
strength of steel are considered as 410 MPa and 250 MPa. Eccentricity is varied from 40mm to 240mm at an interval
The details have been found out for different grades of of 40mm. Load carrying capacities of the weld is found for
bolts. The results presented in the paper for 5.6 grade of different weld sizes for different depth, breadth and
all diameter bolts. eccentricity of plate. The following charts provided are for
weld size of 8mm.
In the bracket connection type II i.e.., Out of plane bending
depth and eccentricity of weld are varied. Depth of weld
is varied from 200mm to 400mm at an interval of 50mm.
Eccentricity is varied from 40mm to 240mm at an interval
of 40mm. Load carrying capacities of the weld is found for
respective values of different weld sizes. The present chart
provided is for 8mm weld size.
Column splices: For axial compressive loads including
shear and moment (i.e.., splices are provided for both
flanges and web) splice design and its connection details
to the member using bolting are calculated for the ultimate
load and moment carrying capaity of the specified section
and shear is claculated by dividing the ultimate moment
capactiy of the section by average height of
column(considered as 3mts). For axial compressive loads
(i.e.., splices are provided only for flanges) splices design
and its connection details to the member using bolting is
calculated for the load carrying capaity of the specified
section for different lengths.All dimensions are in mm.
where D is diameter of bolt and G is grade of bolt. The
strength of bolt is taken as minimum of shear and bearing
strength of bolt . It is advisable to provide splice plates on
web also in case of only axial loads. It is observed that
Fig-4 Column splice provided for both flange and web changing grade of bolt is better in most of the cases than
changing diameter of bolts for reducing the length of
splice in case of long joints The number of bolts provided
in the table are on each side of the splice (joint) out of the
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS: total joint. Length of splice provided is the total length
Eccentric connections: In the bracket connection type I required for joint. The no of bolts required should be
i.e.., In-plane bending, depth, breadth and eccentricity of rounded off to 4 bolts in a row when provided from the
weld are varied. Depth of weld is varied from 200mm to table.
400mm at an interval of 50mm. Width of lap of bracket is
Fig-5 Design chart of in-plane bracket for depth of weld D=200mm for s=8mm
348
Fig-6 Design chart of in-plane bracket for depth of weld D=250mm for s=8mm
Fig-7 Design weld capacity for out of plane eccentricity

Table-1 Splicing Design for Axial and B.M of ISHB Sections for D=30mm, G=5.6
Flange splice design Web splice design

ISHB
@Kg/m Thickness Breadth Length No. Of Thickness Breadth Length No. Of
(mm) (mm) (mm) Bolts (mm) (mm) (mm) Bolts
150@27.1 10 150 350 4 6 110 200 2
150@30.6 10 150 350 4 6 110 200 2
150@34.6 11 150 350 4 6 110 200 2
200@37.3 11 200 500 6 6 160 200 2
200@40.0 12 200 500 6 6 160 200 2
225@43.1 12 225 500 6 6 180 200 2
225@46.8 13 225 500 6 6 180 200 2
250@51.0 13 250 500 8 6 210 200 2
250@54.7 14 250 500 8 6 210 200 2
300@58.8 15 250 500 8 6 250 200 2
300@63.0 15 250 500 8 6 250 200 2
350@67.4 17 250 500 8 6 300 200 2
350@72.4 17 250 650 10 6 300 200 2
400@77.4 19 250 650 10 6 340 200 2
400@82.2 19 250 650 10 6 340 200 2
450@87.2 21 250 650 10 6 390 200 2
450@92.5 21 250 650 12 6 390 200 2
349
ISHB
@Kg/m Thickness Breadth Length No. Of Thickness Breadth Length No. Of
150@27.1 10 150 380 18 6 110 80 2
150@30.6 10 150 380 20 6 110 80 2
150@34.6 11 150 380 20 6 110 80 2
200@37.3 11 200 500 28 6 160 80 2
200@40.0 12 200 500 28 6 160 80 2
225@43.1 12 225 560 32 6 180 80 2
225@46.8 13 225 620 34 6 180 80 2
250@51.0 13 250 680 40 6 210 200 3
250@54.7 14 250 680 40 6 210 200 3
300@58.8 15 250 740 44 6 250 200 3
300@63.0 15 250 800 46 6 250 200 3
350@67.4 17 250 860 50 6 300 140 4
350@72.4 17 250 860 52 6 300 140 4
400@77.4 19 250 920 56 6 340 200 5
400@82.2 19 250 980 58 6 340 200 5
450@87.2 21 250 1040 62 6 390 200 6
450@92.5 21 250 1040 64 6 390 200 6
Table-3 Splice Design for only Axial of ISHB for D=12, G=5.6
Length Breadth Length

Thickness of Thickness of
ISHB of No. of of
Web Plate
@kg/m Column of Bolts Plate Plate
(mm) (mm)
(mm) (mm) (mm)
400@82.2 10.6 1.5 6 30 250 560

400@82.2 10.6 2.5 6 28 250 500
400@82.2 10.6 3.5 6 26 250 500
400@82.2 10.6 4.5 6 24 250 440
400@82.2 10.6 5.5 6 20 250 380
400@82.2 10.6 6.5 6 18 250 380
400@82.2 10.6 7.5 6 16 250 320
400@82.2 10.6 8.5 6 14 250 320
400@82.2 10.6 9.5 6 12 250 260
400@82.2 10.6 10.5 6 10 250 260
400@82.2 10.6 11.5 6 10 250 260
400@82.2 10.6 12.5 6 8 250 200
400@82.2 10.6 13.5 6 8 250 200
350

ISHB
@Kg/m Thickness Breadth Length No. of Thickness Breadth Length No. of
150@27.1 10 150 350 10 6 110 110 2
150@30.6 10 150 350 12 6 110 110 2
150@34.6 11 150 350 12 6 110 110 2
200@37.3 11 200 430 16 6 160 110 2
200@40.0 12 200 430 16 6 160 110 2
225@43.1 12 225 510 18 6 180 110 2
225@46.8 13 225 510 20 6 180 110 2
250@51.0 13 250 590 22 6 210 110 2
250@54.7 14 250 590 24 6 210 110 2
300@58.8 15 250 670 26 6 250 110 2
300@63.0 15 250 670 26 6 250 110 2
350@67.4 17 250 670 28 6 300 270 3
350@72.4 17 250 750 30 6 300 270 3
400@77.4 19 250 750 32 6 340 270 3
400@82.2 19 250 830 34 6 340 270 3
450@87.2 21 250 830 36 6 390 190 4
450@92.5 21 250 830 36 6 390 190 4
Conclusion: Since less amount of work has been [4]. Ana M. Girao Coelho, et.al, Journal of
contributed in this area an attempt has been made to obtain Constructional Steel Research 66 (2010)
1261_1277, Stability design criteria for steel
design aids for bracket connections and splice design
column splices.
according to IS: 800 for Indian standard sections. Design
aids had been prepared by varying different parameters for
different weld sizes. The Design strength of connection
had reduced with increase in eccentricity.
References:
[1]. IS: 800(2007), GENERAL CONSTRUCTION

IN STEEL CODE OF PRACTICE.
[2]. M.Dumas, Beaulieu and Picard, 5th Structural
Specialty Conference of the Canadian Society for
Civil Engineering, June 2-5, 2004, pp ST-152-
1-10.
[3]. J. Lindner, Journal of Constructional Steel
Research 64 (2008) 833844, Old and new
solutions for contact splices in columns.
351
BEHAVIOUR OF COLD-FORMED STEEL BOX AND BUILT-

UP I-SECTION UNDER COMPRESSION
G.Beulah Gnana Ananthi1
1
Anna University/Department of Civil Engineering, Division of Structural Engineering, Anna University,
Chennai 600025
Cold-formed steel structural elements are widely used in the construction industry and have emerged as best
suited for low-rise single-storey buildings, and portal steel frame industrial buildings. This paper presents the
validation study on cold-formed steel box stub columns reported in the literature using finite element analysis
(FEA). The prediction of experimental studies matches well with the FEA results. In addition, a reliability
analysis is performed for the prediction of the load carrying capacity of the box sub columns. This paper also
presents an experimental and parametric study done on cold-formed steel built-up plain channel columns with
their end as fixed condition. Experimental and numerical studies on built-up plain channel columns are
compared with the ultimate column strength predicted by Direct Strength Method (DSM).
Lei Gao et.al [4] studied the load carrying capacity of

Keywords: Cold-formed stub columns, Finite Element Analysis, thin walled box-sections stub columns fabricated by
built-up columns, Direct Strength Method, Ultimate load carrying high strength steel with different geometrical
capacity. dimensions are carried out. Experimental results were
compared by numerical study using ANSYS and by
1 Introduction the AISI code. The values from the parametric study
indicates that the width-thickness ratio of the flange
Cold-formed steel members can lead to a more and the sections side ratio should be the main factors
economical design for low-rise buildings than hot-rolled steel to decide the ultimate strength of the loading capacity
members, as a result of their advantages, such as superior strength of the high strength steel stub column was suggested
to weight ratio, various sections shapes, ease of fabrication. The which was proved to be effective. The comparison of
square and rectangular hollow sections are superior to conventional the theoretical results conducted made and an
structures in torsion, compression, bending, fatigue, tension and agreement between both is very satisfactory. The
shear. It has other functional advantages owing to lesser experimental failure loads of the tested columns are
susceptibility to corrosion, lower drag co-efficient, ease of compared with the corresponding theoretical values
fabrication, concrete filling transportation, maintenance and obtained by the method proposed by Richard Liew.
aesthetics etc. In the past, few test data were available for cold- Guo and Fukumota [5] have studied the theoretical
formed pin ended stub box columns with different hollow cross ultimate load of locally buckled stub columns loaded
sections. Besides tests, finite element analysis (FEA) is another eccentrically. The analysis is based on the combined
powerful tool for investigation. FEA is more economical than geometric and material nonlinear finite strip method in
physical experiments provided than physical experiments, association with modified illusion yielding function. A
provided that the finite element analysis (FEA) is accurate. total of 24 single channels, double channels welded
Henceforth it becomes important to verify the FEA with some back to back and double channels welded as box
experimental results. Ji-Hua Zhu and Ben Young [3] presented a sections both with and without lip stub columns are
numerical simulation and design of cold-formed steel oval hollow tested till failure with hinged ends and their behavior
section columns. A parametric study consisted of 100 columns was was studied by Beulah et al [2]. An attempt was made
conducted using the verified numerical model. The experimental to study the effect of lip, and the effect of
column strengths and numerical results predicted by the parametric symmetricity of cross-section on the ultimate load
study are compared with the design strengths calculated using the carrying capacity. The flat width to thickness ratio of
current North American, Australian/New Zealand and European all the specimens are kept less than the limiting value
specification for cold-formed steel structures. as per IS 801-1975. It was shown that the design
column strengths calculated based on the codal
specifications generally are conservative with
1
Associate Professor, beulahceg@gmail.com experimental and numerical strengths. The purpose of
this paper is to present a validation study on
experimental study reported by Beulah and Samuel
352
Knight [1] on box stub columns subjected to uniaxial compression Load exerted in
using finite element analysis (FEA). Secondly, an experimental Movable (-U3)
study is conducted on built-up unlipped channel sections connected end
Ball &
by using self drilling screws at proper intervals. Thirdly, in Bolted End
Welded End
continuation with the study done by Tina Ting Chui Huon [6] an Condition
Condition
experimental and parametric study with unlipped channel using RP1
RP2 RP1 RP2
both theoretical and numerical studies was conducted.
2. FINITE ELEMENT MODELLING AND ANALYSIS
2.1 General
Immovable
Commercial finite element software package ABAQUS end
version 6.10 was used for the numerical studies. Prior to analyzing
the post-buckling behaviour of the structure, a linear buckling Figure. 1 Boundary Conditions for the Validation
and Parametric Study in FEA
analysis is performed on the specimens to obtain its buckling
mode shape. Following this nonlinear post-buckling analysis is
carried out to study the load versus end-shortening characteristics
and to predict the ultimate load capacity. The details of finite
element modelling and analysis (FEA) are discussed in the
following sections.
Master Node
2.2 Finite Element Modelling, Analysis and calibration
Figure. 2 Rigid Region Formed At both the
As the cold-formed steel sections are very thin as
Movable And Immovable Ends
compared with their other dimension, plate-shell element available
in ABACUS software (S4R) is generally suitable for modelling. The displacement control method was used for the
The program has static, stability and non-linear analysis analysis of the columns by forming a rigid region at
capabilities, which are used in this study. Stub column effective both the movable and the immovable ends as shown in
length is the actual length of the specimens taken for the Figure 1. Axial compressive load was applied to the
experimental study. The main purpose of the perturbation analysis column by specifying a displacement to the nodes at
is to establish probable buckling modes (Eigen-mode) of the the top end of the stub box column. Generally, a
column. The eigen-mode is then scaled by a factor (scale factor) to displacement of 5 mm was specified, and the axial
obtain a perturbed mesh of the column for the nonlinear analysis. shortening of the column is to its corresponding
The displacement control loading method is used which is displacement. The model was then loaded uniaxially
identical to the loading method used in the tests. The S4R5 thin on the loading point at the movable end. For obtaining
shell elements are used and the mesh used in the model is the ultimate load of the column the structure must be
investigated by varying the size of the elements. A nonlinear post- modelled using some initial geometric imperfection
buckling analysis is carried out to study the load versus axial- obtained from the buckling analysis. This was
shortening characteristic curves and ultimate load capacity. To achieved by modelling the structure with an initial out-
determine the type of element to be used for modelling, the model of-plane deflection. The scaled value of linear
validation was done with first order element (S4R) type of buckling mode shape is used to create an initial
element. A high mesh density usually increases the accuracy of geometric imperfection for the non-linear post
the results obtained at the expense of computation time while low buckling analysis. The degree of imperfection
mesh density can lead to serious errors. Element aspect ratios are assumed as the maximum amplitude of the buckling
kept in 1/2 -2 range as it was found to give better results as per mode shape and considered as percentage of the
literature review. Element meshes are refined until the acceptable structures thickness. The distortional buckling
converged solution is obtained. The boundary conditions for stub imperfection amplitude considered for the study was
column models are close to the simple support condition. All the one fifth that of the thickness. Material nonlinearity
degrees of freedom are restrained except for the translation along and geometrical nonlinearity were incorporated to
the axial direction and rotational along all three directions in the predict the strength and behaviour. The section was
movable end. In the immovable end, only the translational degrees loaded axially at the movable end by prescribing
of freedom are arrested as shown in Figure 1 and 2. The loading suitable increments of axial displacements. For each
method used in the finite element analysis (FEA) was identical to incremental step of end-shortening the total reaction at
that used in the tests. the end was obtained. ABAQUS employs a
353
33
modification of Riks arc length method for equilibrium path 50x100x1.2 15 5 - 39.4 40.76 33.00 1.24 1.03
34 50x100x1.2 15 10 - 35.9 39.05 23.50 1.66 1.09
following in nonlinear static problems that was used in the
35 50x100x1.2 15 - 5 49.9 49.97 46.50 1.07 1.00
analysis. For the validation study local and distortional 36 50x100x1.2 15 - 10 43.7 44.98 41.50 1.08 1.03
imperfection was taken as 0.25t and 0.35t whereas for the 37 50x100x1.2 20 5 - 38.6 39.17 32.25 1.21 1.01
experimental study 0.006*w*t and 1.0*t was adopted. 38 50x100x1.2 20 10 - 30.7 35.48 22.75 1.56 1.16
39 50x100x1.2 20 - 5 46.9 49.54 45.00 1.10 1.07
3. VALIDATION STUDY: 40 50x100x1.2 20 - 10 39.5 45.58 38.00 1.20 1.15

Mean 1.36 1.08
Behaviour of welded thin-walled steel box stub columns hinged at Standard Deviation 0.29 0.06
(=0.85) 3.08 3.08
the ends was studied. The load versus axial shortening behaviour
(=0.8) 3.26 3.34
under the elastic as well as in the plastic ranges of loading are
studied. The effect of slenderness ratio, cross-section geometry,
A reliability analysis is carried out as per the
eccentricity of loading and the flat width to thickness ratio of the
procedure provided in Chapter F of AISI-S 100-2007
box stub columns on the load carrying capacity were studied. The
for assessing the current and modified direct strength
mode of buckling of the box columns was also studied. The mean
method for the built-up box columns based on NAS
values of the FEA -to- theoretical and FEA -to- experimental
Manual (2007) for cold-formed steel structures.
ultimate load ratios are 1.36 and 1.08 respectively with the
Chapter F of NAS-S 100-2007 provides the equations
corresponding standard deviation of 0.29 and 0.06 respectively as
to determine the capacity reduction factor (). The
shown in Table 1.
load combination of 1.2DL+1.6LL is used in the
Table 1. Comparison of Experimental, Theoretical and Finite analysis as shown in the American Society of Civil
Element analysis (FEA) for B/D ratio 1:1, 1:1.5 and 1:2 Engineers (ASCE) Standard (2006), where DL is the
respectively [1] dead load and LL is the live load. The statistical
parameters Mm, Fm, VM and VF are the mean values
S.
P P P P PFEA and coefficients of variation for material properties
No Section ex ey Exp FEA Theo FEA
(kN) (kN) (kN) /P
Theo
/PExp and fabrication factors. These values are taken from
1 40x40x1.2 15 4 - 48.3 53.08 44.00 1.21 1.10 Table F1 of the NAS Manual (2007) for concentrically
2 40x40x1.2 15 8 - 44.3 44.19 35.50 1.24 1.00 loaded compression members, where M m=1.10,
Fm=1.00, VM=0.10 and VF=0.05. The statistical
3 40x40x1.2 20 4 - 47.2 50.22 43.00 1.17 1.06
parameters Pm and VP are the mean value and
4 40x40x1.2 20 8 - 43.3 44.94 35.00 1.28 1.04
5 50x50x1.2 15 5 - 51.2 57.15 47.50 1.20 1.12 coefficient of variation of tested and FEA-to-predicted
6 50x50x1.2 15 10 - 46.2 50.18 39.00 1.29 1.09 ratios, respectively, as shown in Table 1. A correction
7 50x50x1.2 20 5 - 50.2 50.42 46.50 1.08 1.00 factor CP is used in the analysis, which accounted for
8 50x50x1.2 20 10 - 42.3 47.1 38.00 1.24 1.11
the influence due to the number of analysis. As per
9 30x45x1.2 15 3 46.3 50.81 35.00 1.45 1.10
NAS Manual, a capacity reduction factor of 0.85 and
10 30x45x1.2 15 6 - 38.3 43.48 25.75 1.69 1.14
11 30x45x1.2 15 - 3 48 51.8 42.50 1.22 1.08
0.8 are recommended for compression members. NAS
12 30x45x1.2 15 - 6 43.9 46.58 36.00 1.29 1.06 recommends a reliability index () which is greater
13 30x45x1.2 20 3 - 43.6 48.45 34.00 1.43 1.11 than 2.5 for compression members. Even though the
14 30x45x1.2 20 6 - 36.5 42.86 24.75 1.73 1.17 existing DSM is reliable, the proposed linear equation
15 30x45x1.2 20 3 46.5 51.23 41.50 1.23 1.10
provides a good improvement in the design rule. The
16 30x45x1.2 20 6 42.9 44.32 35.25 1.26 1.03
use of single factor for each limit state introduces a
17 50x75x1.2 15 5 - 46.5 52.88 41.50 1.26 1.14
18 50x75x1.2 15 10 - 42.9 48.12 31.75 1.52 1.12 certain level of approximation. It is shown that the
19 50x75x1.2 15 - 5 50.3 55.08 46.00 1.20 1.10 failure modes and ultimate loads obtained from the
20 50x75x1.2 15 - 10 44.5 50.51 41.00 1.23 1.14 FEA closely predicted the experimental failure modes
21 50x75x1.2 20 50 - 45.8 46.19 36.50 1.27 1.01
and ultimate loads. Comparison of ultimate loads of
22 50x75x1.2 20 10 - 37.4 43.7 28.50 1.53 1.17
sections with b/d ratio 1:1 is shown in Figure 3. The
23 50x75x1.2 20 - 5 49 49.25 44.50 1.11 1.01
prediction by FEA is upto a margin of 12% more with
24 50x75x1.2 20 - 10 41.5 45.82 40.00 1.15 1.10
respect to the experimental results. Both the
25 20x40x1.2 15 2 - 39.4 41.92 23.50 1.78 1.06
26 20x40x1.2 15 4 - 31.6 38.1 16.25 2.34 1.21
experimental and FEA results over estimates the AISC
27 20x40x1.2 15 - 2 43.6 44.71 36.00 1.24 1.03 method upto 29%.
28 20x40x1.2 15 - 4 42 41.36 31.50 1.31 0.98
29 20x40x1.2 20 2 - 35.6 37.39 22.75 1.64 1.05
30 20x40x1.2 20 4 - 31.2 35.89 15.75 2.28 1.15
31 20x40x1.2 20 - 2 38.8 40.02 35.00 1.14 1.03
32 20x40x1.2 20 - 4 34.6 36.45 30.00 1.22 1.05
354
1- CFB 40x40x1.2 mm (e=r/2, -15) Theoritical

70 2- CFB 40x40x1.2 mm (e=r/4, -15) Theoretical
Experimental 60
3- CFB 40x40x1.2 mm (e=r/2, -20) Experimental
FEA
60 4- CFB 40x40x1.2 mm (e=r/4, -20) FEA
50
Ultimate Load (kN)

50
40
40
30
Ultimate Load (kN)
30
20
20
10
10
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Sections
Sections 1- CFB 50x100x1.2 mm (ex=r/2, -15) 5- CFB 50x100x1.2 mm (ex=r/2, -20)
2- CFB 50x100x1.2 mm (ex=r/4, -15) 6- CFB 50x100x1.2 mm (ex=r/4, -20)
5- CFB 50x50x1.2 mm (e=r/2, -15) 3- CFB 50x100x1.2 mm (ey=r/2, -15) 7- CFB 50x100x1.2 mm (ey=r/2, -20)
6- CFB 50x50x1.2 mm (e=r/4, -15) 4- CFB 50x100x1.2 mm (ey=r/4, -15) 8- CFB 50x100x1.2 mm (ey=r/4, -20)
7- CFB 50x50x1.2 mm (e=r/2, -20)
8- CFB 50x50x1.2 mm (e=r/4, -20)
Figure 5 Comparison of Ultimate Loads for b/d
Figure 3 Comparison of Ultimate Loads for b/d ratio 1:1 ratio 1:2
Change in slenderness ratio from 15 to 20
Comparison of ultimate loads of sections with b/d ratio of 1:1.5 is does not significantly reduce the load carrying
shown in Figure 4. It was observed that the predicted ultimate load capacity. The ultimate load carrying capacity is
carrying capacity by FEA agrees well with the observation made maximum for columns with (w/t) > (w/t)lim and with
low eccentric loading. Columns with flat width to
from the experimental studies. The prediction by FEA is upto a
thickness ratio greater than the limiting takes the
margin of 17% more with respect to the experimental results. Both maximum load unlike expected and this is due to the
the experimental results and FEA results over estimates the AISC total area of cross section of the column which
method upto 73%. contributes to the load carrying capacity.
3.1 Load Versus Axial Shortening Behaviour:

Theoritical
60 Expeimental The load versus axial shortening behaviour is
FEA
linear initially in most cases up to 50-75% of ultimate
50
load irrespective of the cross section of the specimens.
As the end-shortening increases and exceeds the
Ultimate Load (kN)
40
critical buckling load, the columns enter the post-
30 buckling range where nonlinear behaviour dominates.
In the post-buckling range, the load increases
20 progressively at a slower rate and the end-shortening
increases rapidly. This can be noticed as the gradient
10 of the curves is slightly gentler than that at the initial
stage. The load versus axial shortening behaviour of
0 40x40x1.2 mm shows a steeper behaviour for stub
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
columns. The drop in the load is gradual for most of
Sections
5- CFB 30x45x1.2 mm (ex=r/2, -20) the tested columns. Figures 6 to 9 show the load
1- CFB 30x45x1.2 mm (ex=r/2, -15)
2- CFB 30x45x1.2 mm (ex=r/4, -15) 6- CFB 30x45x1.2 mm (ex=r/4, -20) versus axial shortening behaviour of 40x40x1.2 mm,
3- CFB 30x45x1.2 mm (ey=r/2, -15) 7- CFB 30x45x1.2 mm (ey=r/2, -20) 30x45x1.2 mm, 50x75x1.2 mm and 20x40x1.2 mm
4- CFB 30x45x1.2 mm (ey=r/4, -15) 8- CFB 30x45x1.2 mm (ey=r/4, -20) stub columns. It was observed that the behaviour is
Figure 4 Comparison of Ultimate Loads for b/d ratio 1:1.5 similar irrespective of the cross section and
Comparison of ultimate loads of sections with b/d ratio of slenderness ratio for angles with bolted-end condition.
1:2 is shown in Figure 5. It is shown that the predicted ultimate The long horizontal plateau after the ultimate load is
load carrying capacity by FEA overestimates the experimental noticed, indicating high degree of ductility.
results upto 21%. The prediction by AISI factor method
underestimates both FEA and experimental results upto a margin
of 78%.
355
=15
e=rmin/4 The failure modes and ultimate loads (P) obtained

60 FEA
from the FEA were compared with the experimental
EXPERIMENTAL failure modes. The comparison of experimental and
50 40
Load (kN)
40
FEA deformed shapes for several specimens are
shown in Table 2. The deformed shapes of the
30 40 specimens obtained from the FEA closely simulate the
20 experimental buckling modes. It could be seen that the
10 maximum stress mainly concentrated near the edges of
the section. This is consistent with the effective
0
0 1 2 3 4 width concept under the stub column condition. The
failure patterns predicted by the FEA closely matches
Axial Shortening (mm) with the experimental results.
Figure 6 Load versus axial shortening for the square box stub Table 2. Comparison of Experimental and Finite
column 40x40x1.2 mm Element analysis (FEA) specimens
60 =15 Specimen Location of Experimental FEA

Experimental
50 FEA e=rmin/2 ID failure
40 50x75x1.2 Local failure at
Load (kN)
30 30 mid -height
20 inward buckling
10 45
0
0 1 2 3 4
Axial Shortening (mm)

Figure 7 Load versus axial shortening for the rectangular box 50x100x1.2 Local buckling
stub column 30x45x1.2 mm and Inward
FEA buckling at the
60 =15
Experimental top end
50 e=rmin/4
Load (kN)
40
30
20
50 40x40x1.2 Local + Overall
buckling
10
75 Outward
0 buckling at mid
0 1 2 3 4
height of the
Axial Shortening (mm)
column
Figure 8 Load versus axial shortening for the rectangular box
stub column 50x75x1.2 mm respectively
4 Experimental Study
60
Experimental =15 20 mm 50 mm
50 FEA
e=rmin/4
Load (kN)
40
30
20
20 75 mm 90 mm
10
40
0
0 1 2 3 4
Axial Shortening (mm) 20 mm 50 mm
Figure 9 Load versus axial shortening for the rectangular box

Figure 6 Specimen Labelling
stub column 20x40x1.2 mm
4.1 Labelling
356
The test specimens are labelled such that the type of Table. 4 Experimental Results
section, screw spacing, nominal length of specimen and specimen S. SPECIMEN PFEA PExp PDSM PFEA/ PFEA/
NO (KN) (KN) (KN) PDSM PDSM
number were expressed by the label as shown in Figure 6. The
1 BU75S50L500 55.55 49.42 52.89 1.12 1.05
type of section is denoted as C for C-channels column, BU for 2 BU75S200L500 47.24 40.52 42.89 1.17 1.10
plain back-to-back C-channel built-up column (without a gap). 3 BU90S50L500 65.7 54.92 60.29 1.20 1.09
Two types of cross sectional dimensions tested are differentiated 4 BU90S200L500 60.69 54.18 59.33 1.12 1.02
by their web width with 75 and 90 in the label. The intermediate Mean 1.15 1.07
fastener spacing is denoted as S with spacing. The column length is
stated last in the label as L together with the nominal column
length.
4.2 Experimental Investigation
A 500 kN capacity hydraulic jack is used to test all the

four specimens. Self-driving screws of 5mm diameter are used as
fastener to connect the two sections. Also welded connection at
regular intervals was used to connect the specimens. Tensile
coupon tests are carried out to obtain the material properties of the
test specimens taken from the plate in the horizontal direction of Figure 8 Failure patterns of Experimental and FEA
the finished specimens belonging to the same batch of specimens
as the column tests in accordance with IS 1608 Part I (2005) 5 Parametric Study
[8] . The tension test is carried out in UTM to find out the material Two types of cross-sections with various
properties such as yield stress (fy=252MPa), Youngs Modulus combinations of screw spacing was chosen for the
(E=2x102MPa), ultimate Stress (ult = 430MPa), percentage of detailed parametric study. Totally 21 number of
analysis is carried out by both by FEA and DSM by
elongation of 25%, etc. The specimens are fabricated by press North American Specification (AISI S100-2007) [7].
braking operation to the nearest tolerance for the required cross This study is taken up from the results by Ting and Lau
section. The fastener strength [resistance] and spacing shall satisfy [6]. The length chosen for this are 300mm, 500mm and
that the intermediate fastener or spot weld spacing, a, is limited 1000mm. Table 5 shows the mean values of ultimate
such that a/ri does not exceed one-half the governing slenderness load from FEA to DSM of 1.08. From the results the
ratio of the built-up member. The required edge distance is DSM closely predicts the failure patterns similar to the
FEA. The modes of failure is very much by a
provided to avoid the connection failure. In this way all the 4
combination of L+F except for the column of L=500m
specimens are fabricated with utmost care to avoid geometrical which fails by local buckling mode.
imperfections, eccentricity of loading and connection failures. A Table. 5 Experimental Results
typical experimental set-up with two dial gauges one at the top end
S.No SPECIMEN PFEA PDSM PFEA/
and another at the mid support is shown in Figure 7.
(kN) (kN) PDSM
1 BU75S50L300 64.55 62.89 1.03
2 BU75S100L300 55.02 46.48 1.18
3 BU75S200L300 44.83 37.89 1.18
4 BU75S100L500 54.13 57.37 0.94
5 BU75S200L500 53.42 55.02 0.97
6 BU75S400L500 53.9 54.5 0.99
7 BU75S225L1000 33.9 29.88 1.13
8 BU75S450L1000 32.83 29.88 1.10
9 BU75S900L1000 31.42 29.88 1.05
10 BU75S475L2000 9.28 7.47 1.24
11 BU75S950L2000 8.59 7.47 1.15
Figure 7 Experimental Set-up 12 BU75S1900L2000 8.54 7.47 1.14
13 BU90S50L300 66.76 63.77 1.05
14 BU90S100L300 66.25 62.78 1.06
The experimental ultimate loads (PExp kN) obtained from the tests 15 BU90S200L300 66.17 61.61 1.07
is with the FEA and by DSM is presented in Table 4. The 16 BU90S100L500 65.60 60.55 1.08
deformed shape at failure load from FEA for some of the sample 17 BU90S200L500 65.18 59.59 1.09
sections is shown in Figure 8. 18 BU90S400L500 64.76 59.23 1.09
19 BU90S225L1000 60.98 58.3 1.05
20 BU90S450L1000 60.38 58.16 1.04
21 BU90S900L1000 59.39 58.02 1.02
Mean 1.08
357
Conclusion and Future Work
Cold-formed steel stub box columns available in the literature are

numerically investigated using FEA and reported in this paper.
This validated model is then used for an experimental and
parametric analysis on plain built-up channel sections connected
using self drilling screws or welded at regular intervals.
Experimental observations proves that the pattern of failure
mechanism from the FEA is similar to that of the experimental
observations. Hence a detailed parametric study considering two
types of sections with three lengths are developed and the ultimate
load carrying capacity of the sections are compared using FEA and
DSM. The prediction by the DSM is almost very closer to that of
FEA. Hence, the study can be extended to various dimensions and
length. More work can be extended by considering stiffened
flanges and web in the built-up sections. Ultimate load carrying
capacity decreases uniformly with the increase of slenderness ratio.
The author is currently working on to develop sections which can
resist local and distortional buckling with varying lengths.
REFERENCES
[1] Beulah Gnana Ananthi G, Vishuvardhan S and Samuel

Knight G.M, "Experimental and Theoretical Study on
Cold-Formed Steel Box Stub Columns Under Uniaxial
Compression", Arabian Journal for science and
Engineering, Vol.39,2014, pp: 6983-6993.
[2] Beulah Gnana Ananthi G, Vishuvardhan S and Samuel
Knight G.M, "Experimental Theoretical And Numerical
Study On Thin Walled Steel Single and Compound
Channel Sections In Axial Compression", Indian Journal
of Engineering & Materials Sciences, Vol. 22, 2015, pp:
570-580.
[3] Ji-Hua Zhu, Ben Young (2012) Design of cold-formed
steel oval hollow sections columns, Journal of
constructional steel research, Vol. 71,pp.26-37.
[4] Lei Gao, Hong Cai sun, Fenguian Jin and Hualin Fan
(2009), Load Carrying Capacity of high strength steel
box secion I: Stub columns, Journal of constructional
steel research, Vol. 65, pp.918-924.
[5] Richard Liew J.Y., Shanmugam N.E and Lee S.L (1989)
Thin walled steel box columns under biaxial loading,
Journal of Structural Engineering, ASCE,
Vol.115,No.11,pp.2706-2716.
[6] Tina Ting Chui Huon, "The Behaviour of Axially Loaded
Cold-formed Steel Back-to-back C-channel Built-up
Columns" Ph.D thesis Curtin University, 2013.
[7] AISI-S100:2007 North American Specification for the
Design of Cold-Formed Steel Structural members
Specifications.
[8] IS: 1608 Part-1. (2005). Metallic materials-Tensile
Testing at Ambient Temperature, Bureau of Indian
Standards.
358
359
TWLIGHT-IITM- A COMPUTATIONAL UTILITY FOR ELASTIC

BUCKLING STRESS PREDICTIONS OF COLD-FORMED STEEL
ELEMENTS
S S Ajeesh1, S Arul Jayachandran2
1,2
A new design method, Direct Strength Method (DSM) has been introduced by researchers in recent years
for calculating the ultimate design strength of cold-formed steel sections. DSM is basically a stress based
approach wherein the strength of the section is reduced to take care of buckling effects. The ultimate
strength corresponding to three buckling modes, local, distortional and global modes are distinguished in
DSM, in which the elastic buckling stresses are determined using analytical expressions or by using
numerical methods like finite element, finite strip or spline finite strip method. A finite strip computational
procedure for evaluating the critical elastic buckling stresses has been proposed in the present study. Also
decomposition of buckling modes into pure modes can be performed using the formulation. This
formulation has been validated for range of cross sectional dimensions under uniaxial compression and
flexure and can be used as a design utility for IS 801 based on DSM.
Keywords: finite strip method, buckling, direct strength method
1 Introduction North American specification, AISI S100-2007 (Ref [2])

for the design of cold-formed steel structural members.
Cold-formed steel construction is becoming popular
The direct strength method requires the determination of
nowadays in housing and industrial sector. Cold-formed
elastic local, distortional and global buckling stress.
steel sections manufactured using rolling, folding or
Elastic analysis can be done using finite element or finite
press braking operation offer enough freedom for the
strip method for the determination of buckling stress. In
designer to make variety of cross sections. The main
addition to finite element and finite strip method,
advantages of cold-formed sections include high strength
analytical and semi analytical expressions are available
to weight ratio, versatility of profile shape, variety of
for the determination of elastic buckling stresses. This
connections and materials which can be formed and
paper presents a finite strip code (TWLIGHT-IITM)
increase in yield strength due to cold-forming. The
programmed in Fortran for the evaluation of elastic
important structural application of cold-formed steel
buckling stresses of cold-formed steel open cross
sections include purlins, wind bracings, roof trusses,
sections. This free program serves as a design utility for
storage racks, columns, beams and rigid frames. The
Indian designers in cold-formed steel member design for
slender cold-formed steel members are prone to
revised Indian code, IS 801 based on direct strength
instabilities in the form of local, distortional and global
method.
buckling which poses the main challenge for design
The semi-analytical finite strip method was
engineer. Traditionally effective width method has been
developed by Cheung (Refs [3,4]) for the stress analysis
used for the design of cold-formed steel which involves
of isotropic and orthotropic plates with constant and
lengthy calculations in the determination of ultimate
variable thickness under bending. Przmieniecki (Ref [5])
strength of complex cross sections.
presented finite element analysis of plates, stiffened
To overcome these difficulties, a new design method,
panels and thin walled columns made up of plates to
Direct Strength Method (DSM) has been introduced by
predict local buckling under biaxial state of stress. Both
researchers in recent years. DSM is basically a stress
elastic and geometric stiffness matrix were formulated to
based approach wherein the strength of the section is
solve the eigen value problem in buckling analysis. Finite
reduced to take care of buckling effects. Basically the
strip method for the buckling analysis of thin flat
ultimate strength corresponding to three buckling modes,
isotropic plates subjected to longitudinal and transverse
local, distortional and global modes are distinguished in
compression, longitudinal in-plane bending and shear
DSM. This method can be easily employed in the
was developed in Ref [6]. The variation of buckling mode
strength determination of complex section geometries
was assumed as sinusoidal function in longitudinal
considering the interaction of individual elements. The
direction. The method can be used to calculate natural
method has been incorporated in the Australian/New
frequencies of prismatic structures. Hancock (Ref [7])
Zealand standards, AS/NZS 4600:2005 (Ref [1]) and
developed local, distortional and lateral torsional
1
Ph.D. Scholar, ss_ajeesh@yahoo.co.in
2
Associate professor, arulsteel@gmail.com
360
S S Ajeesh and S Arul Jayachandran
buckling curves of cold-formed steel beams using finite conditions are used as interpolating function in the y
strip method. The paper identified the signature curve of direction.
a beam cross section being plotted with buckling stress The strain-displacement relation and stress-strain
versus half buckling wave length. Adany and Schafer relation are established based on displacement function
(Ref [8]) developed constrained finite strip method in as shown in Eqs. (4,5). The matrix B represents the
which the buckling mode is decomposed into pure local, strain-displacement relation and D represents the stress-
distortional and global modes. Key and Hancock (Ref strain relation based on orthotropic plate theory.
[9]) developed finite strip method for the large
displacement elasto-plastic analysis to determine the
non-linear local buckling behaviour of cold-formed steel
sections in compression. The analysis includes geometric
imperfection, variation in yield stress and complex
pattern of residual stress during the cold forming process.
Buckling of plates and channel sections subjected to
localized loading using semi-analytical finite strip
method by including multiple series terms in the
longitudinal direction is assessed in Ref [10].
In this paper, the finite strip formulation used in
TWLIGHT-IITM is briefly presented. In order to validate
the program, analysis has been done on lipped channel
section under simply supported boundary condition for
the determination of signature curve. The results of the
proposed program are compared with CUFSM software.
Also results are presented for the decomposition of
buckling modes into pure local, distortional and global
buckling modes using the proposed finite strip program. Figure 1: Plate strip with degree of freedom
{D} = [E]{F}
{G} = [H]{D}
2 Finite strip method (4)
(5)
In finite strip method, the thin walled prismatic
member is discretized into strips by nodal lines in The stiffness equation (Eq. (6)) has been formulated
transverse direction (x axis). Each nodal line has four from equilibrium equation based on variational principles.
degree of freedom, two out of plane (flexural) The expression for stiffness matrix is shown in Eq. (7).
displacements (w, xz) and two in-plane (membrane) The loads acting on a plate strip can be in the form of
displacements (u, v) as in Fig. 1. In transverse direction, pressure loads, line loads and concentrated loads and are
Lagrangian and Hermitian interpolation functions are imposed on to the load vector appropriately.
[I]{F} = {J}
used for membrane and flexural displacements
respectively, whereas in the longitudinal direction (6)
[I] = K [E]L [H][E]M/

continuously differentiable smooth series satisfying the
(7)
N
boundary condition has been implemented. The general
displacements, u, v and w of the plate strip are expressed
as the product of displacements of nodes and shape The membrane and flexural stiffness matrices of the
functions as shown in Eqs. (1,2,3).
% % !*
plate strip has to be developed separately. Based on linear
! = "#1 $ ' () ,-
& !+ .
theory, there is no interaction between in-plane
&
% % /* 0
(1) membrane and out of plane bending characteristics of a
/ = "#1 $ ' ( )/ , -. !
& & + 2.
flat plate strip. In the case of folded plate structures like
(2)
5% 6 8% 9 8% % 6 5% 6
thin walled open sections, the membrane action of a flat
3 = 41 $ 6 7 9 ::::% ;1 $ 7 6 <::: 6
strip will affect the bending action of the neighboring
& & & & &

strip and vice versa. Hence to fulfil the minimum
3*
compatibility requirement and convergence of results,
8% 9 %6 % @*
$ 9 :::% ; 6 $ <> ?3+ A -.
(3) the membrane and bending characteristics have to be
& & &

combined and the resulting formulation having four
@+
degree of freedom (u, v, w, and ).
Membrane Characteristics are given by
Where 2. = BC and m is the number of half-waves O**. O*+

.
F*. J*.
4 > P Q = P Q
in the longitudinal direction. Here -. is the shape O+*. O++
. F+.
J+.
(8)
function in the longitudinal direction. Usually
trigonometric functions satisfying various boundary Bending Characteristics are given by
361
O**R O*+
R
F*R J*R
4 R R>P RQ = P RQ
O+* O++ F+ J+
coordinate system and application of boundary
(9) conditions.
The geometric stiffness matrix for plates subjected
to edge stresses has been formulated for both flexural and
Flat strip characteristics inclusive of membrane and
membrane characteristics. The increase in potential
bending characteristics is given by
O. V O*+ V F. J.
energy due to membrane deformation and flexural
.
U ** Y_ * b _ *R b
deformation has been formulated The state of stress
R \ R\ \ J* \
TV O**R V O*+ X F*
= J.
acting on a plate strip consists of longitudinal
TO . V O++ V X ^F+ a
.
^ + a
.
T +* X\ R\
compressive stress l varying linearly across the width of
\ JR \
(10)
SV O+*R V O++ W Z F+ ` Z + `
the strip, uniform transverse compressive stress t and
R uniform shear stress . The increase in potential energy
of the membrane forces resulting from flexural and in-
The stiffness matrix and load vector of a plate strip plane buckling deformations developed by Plank and
whose local axes inclined at an angle to the global axis Wittrick (Ref [6]) is implemented in the present study as
are to be transformed into global system using shown in Eqs (15,16).
1 R 3 6 3 6
zR = $ K K PG| ~ 7 G ~
transformation matrix. A plate strip inclined at an angle
8 %
with global axis is shown in Fig. 2 and the relationship
3 3
between local and global system is given in Eq. 11.
7 8 Q :M%M
(15)
%
1 R ! 6 / 6
z. = $ K K G| P~ 7 ~ Q :M%M
8 %
(16)
Applying the principle of minimum total potential

energy for infinitesimal buckling deformations., the
eigen buckling equation is formulated as shown in Eq.
(17), where [K] and [G] are the elastic stiffness and
stability matrices, is the buckling load factor and {}
is the eigen vector.
t[I] $ []u{} = V (17)
For certain thin-walled cross sectional dimensions,

the signature curve obtained during finite strip analysis is
not able produce distinct minima for buckling stresses.
Figure 2: Finite strip inclined to global co-ordinate axis Hence the decomposition of buckling modes into pure
local, distortional and global buckling stresses has to be
For nodal line i performed based on the principles of generalized beam
!c* jkl:m V $lno:m V !*
_ /d b
theory (GBT).
V 1 V V /*
e* = i lno:m V jkl:m ::V p ? 3* A:
*
For decomposition of buckling modes, the principles
3
^ a
of GBT are used to develop the restraint matrices
d `
Z@fg V V V ::1 @fgh
(11)
corresponding to various buckling modes. For global and
h distortional subspace, Vlazovs hypothesis has to be
satisfied, ie the in-plane shear strain and transverse strain
In short form has to be zero. The cross section is in transverse
qF*d r = [stmu]{F* }
equilibrium. Also the longitudinal warping is constantly
(12) not equal to zero. In the case of local buckling mode, all
the warping displacements are zero and also the
The stiffness and load matrices in local coordinate transverse equilibrium is violated. Other assumptions are
system can be transformed into global system as shown same as the global-distortional subspace. The restraint
in Eq. (13,14). matrices are applied on to the finite strip stiffness
s L tmu V O** O*+ stmu V
[I] = 4 >v wv w
matrices using transformation technique. The pure
V s L tmu O+* O++ V stmu
(13) buckling modes are obtained from the constrained eigen
s tmu
L
V J*
{J} = v wx y
value analysis. For more details on the development of
V s L tmu J+
(14) restraint matrices and decomposition of buckling modes,
one can refer to Ref. [8].
The element stiffness matrices are assembled to form
the global stiffness matrix after transforming to global
362
3 Analysis of cold-formed steel sections using The deformation of the lipped channel section under
TWLIGHT-IITM uniaxial compression at salient points are shown in Figs.
5,6,7. In Fig. 5, local buckling mode of the cross section
The finite strip program (TWLIGHT-IITM)
is observed with the longitudinal edges of the member
developed in FORTRAN has to be validated for the
rotates without any translation. For half buckling wave
evaluation of elastic buckling stresses. The elastic
length of 1000 mm, the cross sectional deformation mode
buckling stresses are compared with finite strip software,
is in the form of flange-lip combination rotating about
CUFSM developed by John Hopkins University. A lipped
flange-web junction (Fig. 6). This form of buckling is
channel cross section subjected to uniform compression
called distortional buckling. In Fig. 7, for a half wave
and flexure with simply supported boundary condition
length of 10000 mm, the member buckles in flexural
has been analyzed using the proposed program and the
torsional mode, ie a combination of torsional and major
buckling stress corresponding to various half-buckling
axis buckling mode. The local and distortional modes
wavelengths (signature curve) has been compared with
involves distortion of the cross section whereas in the
CUFSM as shown in Fig. 3 and Fig. 4. It has to be noted
global buckling mode the cross section as a whole moves
that the longitudinal term m is taken as one and the
laterally and rotates without any distortion. In all the
lipped channel is allowed to buckle in a single half-wave
three modes the member is allowed to buckle in a single
in the longitudinal direction.
half wave length in the longitudinal direction
350
h=150 mm TWLIGHT-IITM
300 (Present study)
b=75 mm
c=20 mm CUFSM
t=1 mm
Buckling stress (N/mm2)
250
E=200000 N/mm2
200
=0.3
150
100
50
0
10 100 1000 10000
Half buckling wave length (mm)
Figure 5: Local buckling of the lipped channel (L=100
Figure 3: Comparison of finite strip result of lipped mm)
channel in compression
800
h=150 mm TWLIGHT-IITM
700 (Present study)
b=75 mm
c=20 mm CUFSM
600 t=1 mm
E=200000 N/mm2
500 =0.3
400
300
200
100
0
10 100 1000 10000 Figure 6: Distortional buckling of the lipped channel
Length (mm)
(L=1000 mm)
Figure 4: Comparison of finite strip result of lipped
channel in flexure
The signature curve evaluated in the present study

matches exactly with the CUFSM software for all the
half-buckling wave length compared in the present study
for both uniaxial compression and flexure with simply
supported ends. The minimum local, distortional and
global buckling stresses are to be applied in the DSM
equations to evaluate the ultimate strength of the lipped
channel cross section analyzed.
363
500
450 Present study

CUFSM
400

350
300
250
200
150
D
100
L G
50
0
10 100 1000 10000
Figure 7: Global buckling of the lipped channel Figure 8: Decomposition of buckling modes for lipped
(L=10000 mm) channel under uniaxial compression
The lipped channel cross section used in Fig. 3 and 1000
Fig. 4 for calculating signature curve has been used for
900
decomposing the buckling modes into pure local, Present study
800
distortional and global buckling modes. The buckling CUFSM

700
curves evaluated by constraining the finite strip model to
buckle in a particular mode for both uniaxial compression 600
and bending is shown in Fig. 8 and Fig. 9. The buckling 500
curves matches very well with the constrained finite strip 400
method using the software CUFSM expect for the 300 L
distortional buckling in cases where the length of the 200 D
G
member is less than 100 mm. This type of mode 100
decomposition is useful in cases where the minima for 0
buckling modes cannot be distinguished from the 10 100 1000 10000
signature curves.
Figure 9: Decomposition of buckling modes for lipped
channel under flexure
Table 1: Comparison of critical buckling stresses for lipped channel under compression
Local buckling stress Distortional buckling stress Global buckling stress

b t (N/mm2) (N/mm2) (N/mm2)
No.
(mm) (mm) TWLIGHT- TWLIGHT- TWLIGHT-
CUFSM CUFSM CUFSM
IITM IITM IITM
1 200 1 19 19 47 48 60 60
2 150 1 24 24 72 73 59 59
3 100 1 25 27 114 120 53 53
4 75 1 26 28 135 168 46 46
5 50 1 27 30 133 141 25 25
6 200 1.5 43 43 71 72 61 61
7 150 1.5 53 53 110 112 60 60
8 100 1.5 56 60 175 217 55 55
9 75 1.5 58 63 208 224 48 48
10 50 1.5 60 67 206 214 25 25
11 200 2 76 76 97 97 62 62
12 150 2 94 95 149 165 61 61
13 100 2 100 106 238 259 57 57
14 75 2 103 112 285 293 52 52
15 50 2 107 120 284 296 25 25
364
[3] Cheung, Y. K., Finite strip method analysis of elastic

The study has been extended for lipped channels slabs, J. Eng Mech Div ASCE, Vol. 94 (EM6), pp.
with various cross sectional dimensions under uniaxial 1365-1378, 1968.
compression by varying the width (b) and thickness (t) of
the cross section. The depth of the section and lip size has [4] Cheung, Y. K., Finite strip method in structural
been maintained constant (h=200 mm, c=30 mm). The analysis, Pergamon, New York, 1976.
modulus of elasticity and Poissons ratio has been [5] Przmieniecki, J. S., Finite element structural analysis
maintained as 200000 N/mm2 and 0.3 respectively. The of local instability, J. Am Inst Aeronaut Astronaut,
length of the member has been taken as 6000 mm for Vol. 11 (1), pp. 33-39, 1973.
evaluating the critical global buckling stresses. The
critical stresses calculated using the present study has [6] Plank, R. J. and Wittrick, W. H., Buckling under
been compared with CUFSM as shown in Table 1. combined loading of thin, flat-walled structures by a
The critical global buckling stress predicted by both complex finite strip method, Int. J. of Numerical
the programs are identical for all the cross sectional Methods in Engineering, Vol. 8 (2), pp. 323-339,
dimensions compared. The critical local and distortional 1974.
buckling prediction by the present study are lower bound [7] Hancock, G. J., Local, distortional and lateral
to CUFSM for majority of the cross sectional dimensions buckling of I- beams, J. Structural Division ASCE,
compared. The maximum variation in distortional Vol, 104 (ST11), pp. 1787-1798, 1978.
buckling prediction is less than 20 percentage whereas in
the case of local buckling the maximum variation is less [8] Adany, S. and Schafer, B. W., Buckling mode
than 10 percentage. decomposition of thin walled, single branched open
The newly developed program (TWLIGHT-IITM) cross-section members via a constrained finite strip
validated for lipped channel cross section is applicable method, Thin-walled Structures, Vol. 64 (1), pp. 12-
for buckling stress prediction of any thin walled open 29, 2006.
section. Currently the program is having features similar [9] Key, P. W. and Hancock, G. J., A finite strip method
to finite strip software, CUFSM. But new methods like for the elastic-plastic large displacement analysis of
Generalized beam theory (GBT) and spline finite strip thin walled and cold-formed steel sections, Thin-
method will be added to the formulation in future. The walled Structures, Vol. 16 (1-4), pp. 3-29, 1993.
proposed finite strip program is an utility for Indian
designers for evaluating elastic buckling stresses [10] Hancock, G. J. and Pham, C. H., Buckling analysis
applicable in DSM as per IS 801 revised code (to be of thin-walled sections under localised loading using
released). the semi-analytical finite strip method, Thin-walled
Structures, Vol. 86 (1), pp. 3-29, 2015.
4 Conclusion
A finite strip formulation for the buckling analysis of

cold-formed steel sections has been developed in the
present study. The formulation incorporated in a software
is capable of effectively capturing the signature curve of
cold-formed steel section under uniaxial compression
and flexure and the results compares well with the
existing finite strip software, CUFSM. Also the
decomposition of general buckling modes into pure local,
distortional and global buckling are performed by the
present software. The pure buckling modes calculated for
a range of cross sectional dimensions is comparable with
the existing finite strip software. This finite strip software
is proposed to be used for the direct strength method
design of cold formed steel members using the new IS
801 code.
References
[1] Australian/New Zealand Standard (AS/NZS).
(2005). Cold-formed steel structures. AS/NZS
4600:2005, Australia/New Zealand.
[2] American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI). (2007).
North American specification for the design of
cold-formed steel structural members. AISI S100-
2007, Washington, DC.
365
COMPARATIVE STUDY OF FATIGUE DESIGN OF STEEL

STRUCTURES AS PER IS800:2007, EN 1993-1-9:2005, AS4100:1998
AND AISC360:2010
Dhara Shah1, Trupal Patel2

1
Faculty of technology, CEPT University, Ahmedabad, Gujarat 380009, India
2
Faculty of Technology, CEPT University, Ahmedabad, India
Fatigue is an initiation and circulation of microscopic cracks into macro cracks by cyclic loading of
stress. The failure induced in a structural member due to fatigue is called fatigue failure. Such type of
failure is common in steel structures like bridges, gantry girders, crane girders, offshore structures, etc.,
which are prone to moving and repetitive loading. It is also claimed that nearly 80% of all structural
failures are associated with fatigue. This study focuses on comparison of fatigue design method for steel
structures as per Indian standard (IS800), Australian standard (AS4100), Eurocode (EN1993-1-9) and
American standard (AISC360). The study includes fatigue design of gantry girder with 25T and 50T
capacity, with span varying from 6m to 10m, using stress cycles as 400000 and 560000. The parameters
used here reflect the data of the local survey done in Industrial estates of Ahmedabad. The normal design
of gantry girder is done as per IS800. The fatigue design of the girder is compared as per different
standards. It is concluded that Indian standard is conservative for flexural stress as well as shear stress
under fatigue assessment amongst all considered standards. Further, around 10% escalation in the overall
section of the gantry girder was observed when the number of stress cycle was increased from 400000 to
560000, irrespective of spans and capacities.
Keywords: Fatigue design, steel structures, IS800:2007, AS4100:1998, AISC360:2010, EN1993-1-9:2005
1 Introduction Normally, small cracks will not cause failure, but if

the design is insufficient in relation to fatigue, the
The word fatigue is originated from Latin
cracks may propagate to such an extent that failure of
expression fatigare means to tire. Fatigue damage in
engineering application is called as the failure of the detail occurs [2].
materials under cyclic loads. Fatigue failure generally When approached the design industry regarding
takes place at a stress much lower than the yield stress fatigue design of steel structures (Ahmedabad), it was
of the material, which is considered safe on the basis of observed that thumb rules are followed to get design
static failure analysis [1]. Such type of failure is sufficed under codal provisions. Exact calculations of
common in steel structures like bridges, gantry girders, fatigue design are not being performed. Majority of the
crane girders, offshore structures, etc., which are prone professionals directly increase the section of the
to moving and repetitive loading. It is also claimed that structure by maintaining the stress ratio below 50%
nearly 80% of all structural failures are associated with instead of going for exact calculations, leading to a safe
fatigue. In most cases where fatigue was identified as but overdesigned and uneconomical section. The section
responsible for a structural failure, it was not because may be optimized by following appropriate design
the fatigue design was inadequate, but rather because no calculations. The quantum of research in this area is less
attempt was made to design against fatigue and give and the procedures are being sidelined in current
attention to proper joint selection and detailing [2]. practice. So a need was felt to compare different
Some classic examples of structural failure due to available standards for fatigue design of steel structures
fatigue are: to get a realistic procedure for fatigue stress calculation,
Alexander L. Kielland (offshore platform), throwing light on grey areas pertaining to fatigue.
North Sea, March 1980 This study focuses on comparison of fatigue design
method for steel structures as per Indian standard -
Dee bridge disaster, Chester, England, May
IS800 [3], Australian standard AS4100 [4], Eurocode -
1947
EN1993-1-9 [5] and American standard - AISC360 [6].
Ashtabula River railroad disaster, USA,
The study includes fatigue design of gantry girder with
December 1876
25T and 50T capacity, with span varying from 6m to
Ekofisk (offshore platform), Norway, March 10m, using stress cycles as 400000 and 560000. The
1980 parameters used here reflect the data of the local survey
done in Industrial estates of Ahmedabad. The normal
1 Assistant professor, dharashah@cept.ac.in

2
M.Tech student, trupal.patel.mtech14@cept.ac.in
366
Dhara Shah and Trupal Patel
design of gantry girder is done as per IS800. The fatigue

design of the girder is compared as per different
standards. It is concluded that Indian standard is
conservative for flexural stress as well as shear stress
under fatigue assessment amongst all considered
standards.
2 Fatigue characteristics
There are typically three phases to fatigue failure:
crack initiation, crack propagation and final rupture. Figure 1: Typical S-N curve for ferrous and non-ferrous alloys
Areas where stress concentrations occur such as weld
flaws, notches, bolt holes, pits, inclusions, out-of-plane increase in the stress range and at a limiting value of
distortion, etc. are potential zones for crack initiation. stress, called fatigue limit or endurance limit, the curves
The crack gradually propagates as the load continues to flattens out [1]. For normal steel and many ferrous
cycle. A sudden fracture of the material occurs when the alloys, the knee point of the fatigue limit is normally
remaining cross-section of the material is too small to in the range of 105107 cycles after which failure does
support the applied load. not occur. Many high-strength steels, aluminum alloys,
and other materials do not generally exhibit a knee point
2.1 Factors affecting fatigue of the fatigue limit. For these materials, the fatigue limit
is defined at the stress level corresponding to 10 7 cycles.
Three factors playing a significant role in fatigue
failure are value of tensile stress (maximum), magnitude
of variation in stress and number of cycle loading. 3 Fatigue resistant design
Specimen geometry and microstructural aspects do play 3.1 Uncorrected fatigue strength calculation using S-
a key role in fatigue failure. Stress concentrators from N curves
both these sources have a lethal effect along with The simplest method for estimating the fatigue
residual stress and a corrosive environment. life of structural joints and elements is the usage of S-N
curves along with detail classes of basic joints. Detail
2.2 Fatigue loading categories are provided differently in various standards
Structural components are subjected to two kinds of where in each category is designated by a number which
load history in fatigue design i.e. constant amplitude represents normal fatigue stress - ffn range at particular
loading such as in machinery parts and variable number of stress cycles. IS800 provides ffn value at 5
amplitude loading as experienced by wind loading on million cycles while AS4100 and EN1993-1-9 provides
aircraft, wave loading on ships and offshore platforms, ffn value at 2 million cycles. AISC360 provides the value
and truck loading on bridges [1]. Both type of loading for the same in the form of alphabets. The detail
can cause unidirectional stresses in structural categories provided by different standards are for non-
components, such as pure tension and compression, welded joints, welded details in built-up sections,
pure bending, or pure torsion. welded details in hollow sections and bolts. Some of the
details are classified below in Table 1. S-N curves as
2.3 S-N curves per different standards for normal stress and shear stress
are shown in Figure 2 and Figure3.
The most important fatigue data for engineering
designs are the S-N curves, which is the Stress-Number 3.2 Uncorrected fatigue strength calculation using
of cycles curves. In a fatigue test, a specimen is equations
subjected to a cyclic stress of a certain form and The uncorrected fatigue strength of the standard
amplitude and the number of cycles to failure is detail for the normal and shear stress range as per
determined. The number of cycles, N, to failure is a different standards are discussed below in Table 2.
function of the stress amplitude, S. A plot of S versus N
is called the S-N curve, which is plotted in a logarithmic 3.3 Partial safety factors
scale as shown in Figure 1. A linear relationship
between the stress range and the fatigue life exists can Partial safety factor for loads - gfft is 1.0 as per
be expressed as
log ! = log " # $%&'( )*
IS800. The partial safety factor for fatigue strength -
(1) gmft as per IS800 is given below in Table 3. The
where, N is the number of cycles to failure, C is a partial safety factor for fatigue strength as per EN-
constant, ff is the fatigue strength dependent on detail
1993-1-9 is given below in Table 4. As per AS4100,
category, and m is the slope of the fatigue strength curve
the capacity factor - shall be taken as per Table 5.
with a value of 3 and/or 5. The fatigue life reduces with
There is no such provision in AISC360 for partial safety
factors.
367
Table 1: Detail categories and ffn values
S-N Curves for Normal Stress:

AS4100
Figure 3: Typical S-N curves for shear stress
Table 2. Uncorrected normal and shear stress
Standard Normal stress range Shear stress range
1
+,%-%./0
IS800- %%%%%when Nsc 5 x 5
+,%-%./0
%%%%
234
ff = ffn
234
f = fn
6
2007 10
5
+,%-%./0
%%%%%when 5 x 106
234
ff = ffn
8
Nsc 10
where,
ff , tf = Uncorrected normal and
shear fatigue stress range
respectively, for Nsc life cycle
ffn , tfn = Normal and shear fatigue
strength of the detail at 5 x 106
cycles, for the given detail
category
Nsc = Number of stress cycles
m m 6 m m 6
EN1993- Dt N = Dt 2 x 10
D N = D 2 x 10
S-N Curves for Normal Stress: S-N Curves for Normal Stress: 1-9 R R C R R C
IS800 EN1993-1-9 with m = 3 for N 5 x 106

R
with
m m 6
D N = D 5 x 10
R R C
with m = 5 for 5 x 106 N 108 m = 5 for N 5 x 108
R
R
where,
D , Dt =Uncorrected normal and
R R
shear fatigue stress of the detail
respectively, for NR load cycles
D , Dt = Reference value of
S-N Curves for Normal Stress: S-N Curves for Normal Stress: C C
AS4100 AISC360 normal and shear fatigue strength
Figure 2: Typical S-N curves for normal stress at NC = 2 million cycles
D = Fatigue limit for constant
D
amplitude stress ranges at the
number of cycles at 5 million
cycles
N = Number of stress cycles
R
related to constant stress range
9! ,!
* :!;:./^< * :!;:./<
AS4100-
f =6 @ when f =6 @
3 5
78 7>
S-N Curves for Shear Stress: S-N Curves for Shear Stress:
8 8
>? >?
IS800 EN1993-1-9 1998 f f
nsc 5 x 106 when nsc 108
368
,!
* :!./Â
f = 6 @ when 5 x 106
5 c) The load cycles are not highly
,
8
irregular
>?
f
d) The detail is subjected to
nsc 108 regular inspection
where,
f = uncorrected normal or shear None of the above conditions 0.7
f
fatigue strength
f , f = Detail category reference

rn rs
3.4 Capacity reduction factors
normal and shear fatigue strength
at 2 million cycles
Capacity reduction factor for different standards
f = Detail category fatigue are given below in Table 6.
5
strength at cut off limit (108
Cycles) Table 6. Capacity reduction factor
nsc = Number of stress cycles Standard Capacity reduction factor
C :!9;D 0.33
IS800-2007 mr= (25/tp) 0.25 < 1.0 for tp > 25mm
H
AISC360 *! F
SR
E
F =%B where tp = actual thickness in mm of the
FG C :I..!:!./^JK 0.167
-2010 SR
H
*!
thicker plate being joined by transverse
E
=%B
FG
when nSR 108 where, fillet or butt welding
when nSR 108
EN-1993-1-9 Ks= (25/t) 0.2 when t > 25 mm
Ks= (30/t) 0.25 when t > 30 mm
F = Allowable fatigue stress
SR where t = actual thickness in mm of the
range for normal or shear stress
n = Number of stress range thicker plate being joined
SR
fluctuation in design life AS4100-1998
/P;,
;,
btf = L O
Cf = Constant for the respective
MN
fatigue category for tp > 25mm
Detail Constant
where tp = actual thickness in mm of the
Category Cf
thicker plate being joined
A 250 x 108
B 120 x 108
C 44 x 108
3.5 Fatigue design strength
D 22 x 108 The design fatigue strength is obtained from the
E 11 x 108
E 3.9 x 108 uncorrected fatigue strength which is the minimum of
F 150 x 1010 fatigue strength calculated from S-N curve and from the
equation, multiplied by the capacity reduction factor and
G 3.9 x 108
divided / multiplied by the partial safety factor. The
equations for design fatigue normal stress and shear
Table 3: Partial safety factor for fatigue strength (gmft) as per IS800 stress as per different standards is given below in Table
SI No. Inspection and Access Consequence of Failure 7.
Table 7: Design fatigue normal and shear stress
Fail-Safe Non-Fail-Safe Standard Normal stress range Shear
stress
1 Periodic inspection, 1.00 1.25 range
maintenance and IS800- f ffd = mr ff / gmft t tfd = mr
accessibility to detail is 2007 where, tf / gmft
good ffd, tfd = Design fatigue strength
2 Periodic inspection, 1.15 1.35 for normal and shear stress
maintenance and respectively
accessibility to detail is f, t = Actual normal and shear
poor. stress range for the detail
category
ff , tf = Uncorrected normal and
Table 4: Partial safety factor for fatigue strength as per EN-1993-1-9 shear fatigue stress range
SI No. Assessment Method Consequence of Failure respectively , for Nsc life cycle
Low High mr = Capacity reduction factor
Consequence consequence gmft = Partial safety factor
1 Damage Tolerant 1.00 1.15 EN1993- D D kS / gmft Dt Dt kS
R R
2 Safe life 1.15 1.35 1-9
Where, / gmft
D , Dt = Actual normal and
Table 5: Capacity factor as per AS4100 shear stress range for the detail
Reference design conditions Capacity category
factor - D , Dt = Uncorrected normal
R R
a) The detail is located on a 1.0
redundant load path and shear fatigue stress range
b) The stress history is estimated respectively
by conventional methods kS = Capacity reduction factor
369
gmft = Partial safety factor

AS4100- f ff btf f ff btf 5 Analysis and results
1998 where,
f = Actual normal and shear Typical result for 25T gantry girder with span
stress range for the detail
varying from 6m to 10 m, using 400000 stress cycles for
category
ff = Uncorrected normal or shear fatigue design as per different standards are shown in
fatigue stress range respectively figure 4 to figure 7. A typical comparison of elastic
btf = Capacity reduction factor section modulus and web area for normal and shear
= Partial safety factor stress is shown in figure 8 and figure 9. Similarly, figure
AISC360- There is no classification of 10 to 13 shows the results for 50T gantry girder and
2010 partial safety factor and capacity
reduction factor. Therefore
560000 stress cycles.
uncorrected fatigue strength
(FSR) is the fatigue design 6 Conclusions
strength for normal and shear
stress. The study shows that the prevalent difference
between the standards considered, lies in the
3.6 Fatigue limitation explicit use of partial safety factor due to which the
permissible stress limit in fatigue reduces.
Fatigue assessment is not required for a member,
Among the standards, Indian standard is
connection or detail if actual normal and shear stress
conservative for flexural stress as well as shear
range and number of stress cycles satisfy the following
stress under fatigue assessment.
conditions as per Table 8.
An increase in elastic modulus of the section of
Table 8: Fatigue limitation gantry girder is observed in range of 10% -12%, for
Standard Normal stress and shear Number of all spans, all capacities (25T and 50T), where the
stress cycles number of stress cycles are increased from 400000
Q < 5 x10
6
IS800- f 27 mr / gmft to 560000 under flexural stress.
2007 t 67 mr / gmft sc
;R!m %S%g An increase in web area of the section of gantry
7 T*M )
! 3
*%U7%t
(
girder is observed in range of 8% -10%, for all
;
1/3 6
EN1993-
DV%%DV = ( )
,
D NR 2 x10 spans, all capacities (25T and 50T), where the
9<!Sg
1-9 D
T*M
C
! 3
when NR 5 x 106 (
DW%U7%Dt
) number of stress cycles are increased from 400000
,
1/5 to 560000 under shear stress.
.//
DV%%DV = ( ) D
L D
when 5 x 10 NR 108
6
1.20
;
1/5 6m 7m 8m 9m 10 m
.//
Dt%%Dt = ( ) Dt 1.00
L C
when NR 108 0.80
Stress Ratio
where,
DV , Dt = Cut off limit for 0.60
L L
8
strass ranges at 10 cycles 0.40
n < 2 x10
6
AS4100- f < 27
1998 sc
0.20
X%9<% 3
0.00
*%
( )
AISC360- Detail Actual stress nSR < 20000 IS - 800 EN -1993-1-9 AS-4100 AISC - 360
2010 Category limit (FTH) Standards
(N/mm2)
A 165 Figure 4: Stress ratio for normal stress with 25T capacity and 400000
B 110 stress cycles
C 69
D 48
E 31 25000 6m 7m
E 18 8m 9m
20000
Number of cycles
F 55
G 48
15000
10000
4 Problem formulation 5000
Fatigue design of gantry girder with 25T and 50T 0
capacity, with span varying from 6m to 10m, using IS - 800 EN -1993-1-9 AS-4100 AISC - 360
stress cycles as 400000 and 560000 have been done Standards
using excel spreadsheet as per IS800. Design life of
structure is assumed as 50 years. Crane operation per Figure 5: Fatigue limitation of number of cycles for normal Stress,
year as 250/ 280 days and per day as 8/ 10 hours. 25T capacity and 400000 stress cycles
Maximum trip per hour is assumed as 4.
370
1.00 6m 7m 8m
1.20
0.90 9m 10 m 6m 7m 8m 9m 10 m
0.80 1.00
0.70
Stress Ratio
Stress Ratio
0.80
0.60
0.50 0.60
0.40
0.30 0.40
0.20
0.20
0.10
0.00 0.00
IS - 800 EN -1993-1-9 AS-4100 AISC - 360 IS - 800 EN -1993-1-9 AS-4100 AISC - 360
Standards Standards
Figure 10: Stress ratio for normal stress with 50T capacity and
Figure 6: Stress ratio for shear stress with 25T capacity and 400000 560000 stress cycles
stress cycles
6m 7m 8m 9m 10 m
6m 35000
350000
300000 7m 30000
Number of cycles
Number of cycles
250000 8m 25000
200000 9m 20000
150000 10 m 15000
100000 10000
50000 5000
0 0
IS - 800 EN -1993-1- AS-4100 AISC - 360 EN -1993-1-9 AS-4100 AISC - 360
IS - 800
9 Standards Standards
Figure 11: Fatigue limitation of number of cycles for normal Stress,
Figure 7: Fatigue limitation of number of cycles for shear Stress, 25T 50T capacity and 560000 stress cycles
capacity and 400000 stress cycles
1.20
9000000 6m 7m 8m 9m 10 m
400000 Cycles
Elastic modulus (mm3)
8000000 1.00
560000 Cycles
7000000
Stress Ratio
6000000 0.80
5000000 0.60
4000000
3000000 0.40
2000000
1000000 0.20
0
6M 7M 8M 9M 10 M 0.00
400000 Cycles 3490424 4700652 5551783 6472912 7578928 IS - 800 EN -1993-1-9 AS-4100 AISC - 360
560000 Cycles 3904159 5261574 6193906 7284913 8484772 Standards
Span length
Figure 12: Stress ratio for shear stress with 50T capacity and 560000
stress cycles
Figure 8: Comparison of elastic section modulus for normal stress, 25
T capacity gantry girder 500000 6m 7m 8m 9m 10 m
Number of cycles
400000
400000 Cycles
300000
10000 560000 Cycles
9000 200000
8000
Web area (mm2)
7000 100000
6000
5000 0
4000 EN -1993-1- AS-4100 AISC - 360
IS - 800
3000 9
2000 Standards
1000 Figure 13: Fatigue limitation of number of cycles for shear Stress,
0 50T capacity and 560000 stress cycles
6M 7M 8M 9M 10 M
Span Length
Figure 9: Comparison of web area for shear stress, 25 T capacity

gantry girder
371
References
[1] Subramaniam N., "Fatigue Resistant Design," in
Design of Steel Structures, New Delhi, Oxford
University Press, 2012, pp. 17.1-17.36.
[2] Wagter J., "Introduction to fatigue design," IIS/IIW-
1221-93,Cambridge, England, pp. 1-17, 2009.
[3] IS800, "General construction in steel- code of
practice," Bureau of Indian Standard, New Delhi,
2007.
[4] AS4100, "Steel structures," Standards Association
of Australia, Homebush NSW 2140, Australia,
1998.
[5] EN1993-1-9, "Eurocode 3: Design of steel
structures - Part 1-9: Fatigue," European
Committee for Standardization, Brussels, 2005.
[6] ANSI/AISC360, "Specification for Structural Steel
Buildings," American Institute of Steel
Construction, Chicago, Illinois, US, 2010.
[7] Robert J. Dexter, W. J., "Fatigue and Fracture of
Steel Girders," ASCE, pp. 278-286, 2004.
[8] Hamdulay, H., Mathew, M. and Wani, S., Study of
Fatigue and Life Assessment of Steel Structures:IS
800:2007 Provision. International Journal of
Scientific & Engineering Research, 17-21.
372
A STUDY ON CORRUGATED WEB STEEL GIRDER

P Prathebha1, Dr. H Jane Helena2
1
Ph. D research scholar, Department of Civil Engineering, College of Engineering, Guindy, Chennai-600025, India
2
Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, College of Engineering, Guindy, Chennai-600025, India
This paper presents the behavior of simply supported corrugated web steel girder under point load at mid
span using the commercial finite element software ABAQUS. The finite element model was used to
simulate the flexural behavior of corrugated web beams and a standard plate girder. The parametric study
was done to study the effect of three different thickness of web and effect of five different corrugation
angles. All the specimens were compared to each other and a standard plate girder specimen by means of
load vs. deflection curve. It was found to be that when the web thickness increases the deflection
decreases. At 6mm thickness the deflection is decreased about 68.5% when compared to plate girder with
flat web. Also when the corrugation angle increase the deflection increases. The best result was found
with corrugation angle of 30 which has lesser deflection and more stiffness about 60.6% when compared
to flat web plate girder. From this study, it can be concluded that the corrugated web steel girder acts as a
continuous stiffeners.
Keywords: Corrugated web steel girder, corrugation angle, plate girder, web thickness, stiffness.
1 Introduction efficiency of plate girder with corrugated web versus

Plate girders are widely used in bridges as well as plate girder with flat plate. It was found to be that the
industrial buildings. As we know, plate girders have ultimate strength of plate girders with trapezoidally
maximum moment carrying capacity than any of the hot corrugated and flat webs were compared using
rolled section used. To carry these moments ANSYS12. The effects of following parameters were
economically, the sections have to be slender sections. considered such as corrugation angle and depth, web
But slender sections are susceptible to web buckling. So thickness etc. It is found to be that a girder with
the web loses its buckling strength. Hence to avoid this corrugations has higher load carrying capacity and less
buckling and to gain maximum strength corrugations deflection compared to flat web.
are provided in the web region. A corrugated web girder
represents a new structural system that has excellent The main objective of this study is to develop a
load carrying capacity. The purpose of using corrugated numerical model using the software ABAQUS version
web is that it permits the use of thin plates without the to study the stiffness degradation of corrugated web
need of stiffeners and it considerably reduces the cost of steel girder.
girder fabrication and improves the fatigue life. Also it
gives good aesthetic appearance. 2 Finite element analysis
Chan et al [1] has investigated the finite element The finite element analysis is a numerical analysis
analysis of corrugated web beams under bending and it technique for obtaining approximate solutions of partial
was found to be that corrugated web beams with larger differential equations as well as integral equations. Thus
corrugation radii could sustain higher bending moment. complex engineering problems with non-standard shape
Qi cao et al [2] made a study on shear behavior of and geometry can be solved using finite element
corrugated steel webs in H shape bridge girders and it software. This results the stress distribution,
was found to be that as web thickness increases, shear displacements, reaction loads etc. for the models.
capacity of corrugated web also increases. Fatimah
3 Validation work
Denan et al [3] conducted both numerical and
experimental study on trapezoidal corrugated web
To validate the models to be created in finite
section and it was concluded that the steel beam with element analysis of an existing work on finite element
trapezoidal corrugations have higher resistance to lateral analysis of corrugated web beams under bending, Chan
torsional buckling compared to that of flat web section. et al (2003) was taken and the existing beam were
Sedhky Abdullah et al [4] conducted a study on
1
Designation, theEmail@goes.here
2
374
P Prathebha and H Jane Helena
modeled and analyzed using ABAQUS software to get

the load vs. deflection curve. The results were compared
with the existing experimental results of the beam
created. The finite element modeled plate girder
dimension are flanges as 77.05x7.05mm and web
dimensions as 127.05x4.45 of a span of 0.5m. The
models were subjected to point load at mid span and
simply supported end conditions. The elastic properties
of materials were assigned. Figure 1 shows the
comparison of results of FEM model and experimental
results.
Figure 2: Geometry of standard plate girder
Figure 1: Comparison of load vs deflection curve
4. Specimen detail
In this study the following different geometric Figure 3: Geometric model of corrugated web
parameters were used for the standard plate girder and
corrugated web plate girder were mentioned in table 1
and table 2. For the analysis a 10m span girder is 4.1 Material properties
considered for all the specimens. Figure 2 and figure 3
shows the standard plate girder and corrugated web
profile. The elastic properties of the material were assigned
to the created specimens. The value of youngs modulus
TABLE 1: Plate girder dimensions is given as 2.1x105N/mm2. The poissons ratio is given
Specimen Flange Flange Web Web as 0.3. The yield stress of the material is 250MPa. The
detail width thickness thickness height density of the material is given as 785x10-7N/mm3.
(mm) (mm) (mm) (mm)
tf tf tw hw 5 Finite element model
PW 240 30 6 800
The geometric model of plate girder and corrugated

TABLE 2: Corrugated web girder dimensions web girder was done using ABAQUS and is shown in
Specimen Corrugation Corrugation Web Angle figure 4 and 5. The connectivity between flanges and
detail width (mm) depth (mm) thickness web for welding, tie coupling was done. After creating
Cw C (mm) the model, the properties were assigned and the model
tw was meshed with meshing size of 25mm which is
30, shown in the figure 6. In this study the corrugated web
2, 45, beam was analyzed as simply supported end conditions.
CW 200 50 4, 60, That is one end of the specimen was constrained in X, Y
6 90, and Z directions and the other end was constrained in Y
120 and Z directions. The load was applied at the mid span
as shown in the figure 7. The specimens were subjected
to static general analysis.
375
Figure 7: Loading and boundary conditions of

Figure 4: Standard plate girder model specimen
This study is to investigate the influence of various

parameters such as effect of corrugation angle and effect
of corrugation thickness. The othe parameters like
corrugation width and corrugation depth were kept as
constant. Totally sixteen models were created including
control specimen which is a standard plate girder. The
span of the girder is 10m which was kept as constant
span for all the specimens.
6.1 Effect of corrugation angle
Each specimen was tested under static analysis with

point load at mid span. It was observed that the
specimen with 30corrugation angle has lesser
deflection at the same load when compared to other
corrugation angle. Also the deflection was very lesser
Figure 5: Corrugated web girder
when compared to the standard plate girder. It was
found to be that deflection increases as corrugation
angle increases. But at 120 corrugation angle it was
observed that, the deflection decreases when compared
to other angles that is 45, 60 and 90. Various load vs
deflection curves for various angle of corrugation and
various thickness of web was presented on figure 9 to
figure 13.
Figure 6: Meshed model of corrugated specimen
Figure 9: Load vs deflection curve for 30 corrugation

angle
376
P Prathebha and H Jane Helena
web thickness increases. Also the stiffness decreases

when the corrugation angle increase, where as in the
case of 120 corrugation angle, the stiffness increases.
Figure 10: Load vs deflection curve for 45 corrugation

angle
Figure 14: Comparison of stiffness for various

corrugation angle
7 Conclusion
Therefore from this study, it is concluded that the
corrugated web girder has 60% higher stiffness value
Figure 11: Load vs deflection curve for 60 corrugation when compared to standard plate girder. Also from the
angle result, it was found that as the web thickness increases
the deflection decreases. For 30 corrugation angle, the
stiffness was found to be very effective and also very
less deflection. Thus the designed corrugated web steel
girder at various angles acts as continuous stiffeners.
References
[1] Chan C. L, Khalid Y. A, Sahari B. B, Hamouda A.
M. S, Finite element analysis of corrugated web
beams under bending, Journal of constructional
steel research, vol. 58, pp. 1391-1406, 2015.
[2] Qi cao, Haibo Jiang, Haohan Wang, Shear behavior
of corrugated web steel in H shape bridge girder,
Hindawi publications, 2015.
Figure 12: Load vs deflection curve for 90 corrugation [3] Fatimah Denan, Mohd Osman, Sariffudin Saad,
angle The study of lateral torsional buckling behavior of
beam with trapezoidal corrugated web steel section
by experimental and finite element analysis,
IJRRAS, vol 2, pp.3, 2010.
[4] Sedky Abdullah Tohamy, Osama Mohammed Abu
El Ela, Effeciency of plate girder with corrugated
web versus plate girder with flat web, Minia
Journal of Engineering Technology, vol. 32,pp. 62-
77,2013.
[5] Revathi N, Satheshkumar G.K, Dr. Arunkumar G,
Numerical investigation on flexural behavior of
Figure 13: Load vs deflection curve for 120 cold formed steel I section with triangular
corrugation angle corrugated web, International journal of research
and innovation in engineering technology, Vol. 2,
6.2 Effect of corrugation web thickness pp. 48-53, 2016.
The influence of web thickness has highly [6] Fatimah Denan, Nor Salwani Hasim, Experimental
influenced the corrugation deflection. As the web study on bending behavior of triangular web profile
thickness increases, the deflection decreases. Based on steel beam section, International journal of research
the graph at 6mm web thickness the corrugated web in engineering and technology, vol.2, pp. 384-390,
girder has lesser deflection when compared to standard 2013.
plate girder and other specimens. [7] Divahar. R, Joanna P. S, The effect of web
6.3 Effect of stiffness on web corrugation corrugation in cold formed steel beam with
Based on the figure 14, it was observed that the trapezoidally corrugated web, American journal of
stiffness of the corrugated web girder increases as the Engineering Research, vol. 3, pp, 137-142, 2014.
377
LIMIT STATE DESIGN OF COLD-FORMED STEEL STRUCTURES-

RESEARCH BASES FOR IS: 801
S Arul Jayachandran1 V Kalyanaraman2
1
Department of Civil Engg, IIT Madras, Chennai 600036, India
2
Former Professor, Department of Civil Engg, IIT Madras, Chennai 600036, India
IS:801 Ref [1], the Indian code of practice for the design of cold-formed steel structures is being revised
into limit state format. This is in line with IS:800-2007 Ref [2], both in terms of chapter layout and the
design formalism. Most Indian codes of practice have often adapted provisions from codes of practice from
one or more developed countries, since not much credible research material is available from within India
to support the code provisions. For the revision of IS: 801 to limit states format, there is an added element
of complexity. The physical evidence based effective width method which withstood the test of time for
over four decades has been replaced by an empirical and computer based method called Direct Strength
Method (DSM), in most codes of practice. This change has been driven by the complexity of the effective
width method and simplicity of the direct strength method. The direct strength method is basically a stress
based approach, wherein the strength of the section is reduced to take care of buckling effects in local,
distortional and global modes. The elastic buckling stresses are determined using analytical expressions or
by using numerical methods. Significant amount research has taken place in India over the last decade to
support and improve upon the direct strength method. This paper reviews some of the research efforts
which have been published as internationally reviewed papers and also in the form of theses. This paper
underlines the fact that the possible revision of IS:801 in the DSM format will have significant amounts of
home grown research on compression members, flexural members, web crippling, beam-columns and
wall panels for cold-formed steel housing.
Keywords: Cold-formed steel design, direct strength method.
1 Introduction to weight ratio is difficult in the traditional effective

width method, in which the yield stress is taken as the
IS: 801, the Indian code of practice for the design of
target strength and the sections properties are back
cold-formed steel structures is being revised into limit
worked to arrive at an effective section.
state format. This is in line with IS: 800, both in terms of
More recently, based on extensive international
chapter layout and the design formalism. Most Indian
research, Direct Strength Method (DSM) has been
codes of practice have often adapted provisions from
proposed as an easier alternative for designing cold-
codes of practice from one or more developed countries
formed steel compression members (Ref [7]). The DSM
Ref [3-6], since not much credible research material is
is basically a stress based approach, wherein the strength
available from within India to support the code
of the section is reduced to take care of buckling effects
provisions, Hence sustained research efforts are needed
in local, distortional and global modes. The elastic
within our country to develop codes of practice with
buckling stresses, required in this approach, are
credible research bases. This paper reviews such
determined using analytical expressions or by using
research efforts in the area of cold-formed steel, which
numerical methods. Many countries have started
have been published as international research peer
migrating to the DSM in their codes of practice for the
reviewed papers and also in the form of theses. The paper
design of cold-formed steel structures. In the DSM, the
underlines the fact that possible revision of IS: 801 will
full section properties are considered and the reduced
have significant input from home grown research.
stresses at failure due to buckling effects is empirically
The greatest advantage in the concept of cold-
calculated in all the possible buckling modes. This has
formed steel structures is in its variety of shapes and the
the advantage that for any sectional shape that is derived,
material yield strength that can be beneficially used.
the design procedure becomes straight forward. This
Cold-formed steel members under compressive stresses
aspect can be an impetus for the manufacturers and the
suffer reduction in strength below that as governed by
designers alike to innovate new cold-formed steel
yielding of the material, due to the local, distortional and
structural shapes. There is a spurt in reportage of
overall buckling. This has been traditionally taken care
research on DSM in the literature in the last decade. This
of in design by using a reduced width or thickness of the
paper reports some research efforts published as papers
thin plate elements of the cross section. However, the
and theses in a thematic format.
ease of design of complex shapes to increase the strength
1
Associate professor, aruls@iitm.ac.in
2
Former Professor, 01729@retiree.iitm.ac.in
378
S Arul Jayachandran and V Kalyanaraman
2 Tension members stiffener. These members experience interaction of only

Members under tension applied through a local and overall buckling before failure. They present
connection to a single leg may fail by overall yielding of the suitability of DSM to evaluate the compressive
the cross section or rupture of the net section at end bolted strength of plain channel, I and rectangular tubular
connection experiencing shear lag. Prabha et al (Ref [8]) members. Extensive experimental data in literature and
presented the shear lag phenomenon in cold-formed additional data generated using the currently accepted
angles under tension, which are connected by one leg. A effective width method and a better estimate of the local
new expression for shear lag factor which represents the buckling stress considering element interaction, are used
net section reduction coefficient has been suggested in in this study.
the paper. The proposed expression based on the Later, Anil Kumar and Kalyanaraman (Ref [11])
regression analysis of 108 experimental results reported suggested minor modification to the DSM to further
in the literature is validated by experiments involving net improve the design of stiffened channel compression
section failure in angles under tension. Totally 18 members, by taking into account all parameters that
experiments were carried out on single angles fastened affect the strength. The DSM equations for evaluating the
with bolts to the gusset plates and subjected to tension strength of members that fail after experiencing only
loaded up to the net section rupture mode of failure. For local buckling were discussed. The strength of such
the tested range of specimens, both NAS:2001 and members, according to the DSM, is a function of only the
AISC:2005 standards over-predicted the capacities for all ratio of yield strength of the section (Py) to the elastic
the specimens. The IS:800-2007 and AS/NZS 4600:2005 local buckling load (Pcrl). This study indicates that the
predictions are found to be good for the specimens with relative area of the stocky elements of the cross section,
three bolted connections and un-conservative in the case which are less vulnerable to elastic local buckling, also
of specimen with two bolts. Both BS:5950-Part-5:1998
influences the strength of such members. Simple
and the proposed equation for IS:801 predict good
modifications to the currently available DSM equations
estimate of the tensile capacity of cold-formed angle
were suggested to more accurately evaluate the strength
members. The proposed equation for cold-formed steel
tension members, which is in the same format of IS:800 of such members.
(2007), has been demonstrated to be good. Anil Kumar and Kalyanaraman (Ref [12]) evaluated
Ram Arkala (Ref [9]) presented new design the DSM equations for the distortional buckling (DB)
provisions for tension members, which is basically a strength using the results of the experimental study on
refinement to the work reported by Prabha (Ref [8]). channel compression members with edge and
Finite element model is used to validate the comparisons intermediate stiffeners as well as nonlinear finite element
on experimental results. The final equation for analysis of the stiffened lipped channel compression
evaluating the design strength of cold-formed lipped members with various configurations, which fail after
section member in tension is as given below only DB. A total of 14 fixed-ended stiffened lipped
channel compression members with intermediate
Tdn = 0.9 Ancfu /gm1+Agofy /gm0 (1) stiffeners in both the web and flanges were tested, which
failed after only DB. Further, additional data on the DB
= 0.697-0.0045(w/t) (bs/Lc) (fy/fu) 0.4 (2) behavior is generated based on a parametric study using
the nonlinear FEA, which was initially calibrated with
where Anc is the net section area of connected leg, Ago is the test data. A study on effect of parameters, such as the
the gross section area of unconnected leg, fu is ultimate type of cross section, the dimensions of the cross section,
stress and is shear lag reduction factor, connection the lip depth to flange width ratio (d/b), the web height to
length Lc, shear lag width bs, slenderness of outstanding the flange width ratio (h/b), the yield stress (fy), end
leg w/t. The block shear failure is very unlikely in thin boundary condition (EBC), and the failure modes, shows
cold-formed steel sections under the combined effect of that the non-dimensional ultimate strength, expressed as
tension and shear and this this not been considered in the the ratio of the ultimate strength to yield strength under
proposed revision of IS: 801. compression, Pu/Py, is adequately addressed through the
non-dimensional DB slenderness, d, alone as assumed
in the DSM. The test and the analysis results showed that
3 Compression members the DSM equations generally evaluate the strength of
Anil Kumar and Kalyanaraman (Ref [10]) stiffened lipped channel members under DB
investigated the axial compressive strength of the cold- conservatively. Modifications to the DSM equations
formed steel members without edge or intermediate were suggested to evaluate the DB strength of stiffened
stiffeners, and affected by interaction of local and overall lipped channel members more accurately.
buckling. They reported that the DSM has not been Although the reduction in compressive strength of
adequately evaluated for calculating the strength of stiffened channel members due to interaction of local,
compression members such as tubular, plain channel, and distortional and overall buckling modes has been
I-sections consisting of only stiffened and unstiffened recognised in literature, currently proposed DSM
elements, without either lip stiffener or intermediate considers the interaction of local-overall and distortional-
379
overall buckling only and disregards the local- failure. ABAQUS software based on finite element
distortional and local-distortional-overall buckling analysis is used to analyse the interaction behaviour of
modes. Anil Kumar Ref [13] has presented a simplified these buckling modes in this study. The finite element
procedure to design such members, considering all the model, after calibration with experimental results
possible interaction buckling modes. This was based on available in the literature, is used to perform parametric
extensive experimental and numerical data. The studies, to evaluate the behaviour and strength of such
following equations are suggested for evaluating the beams under different types of interactions due to
strength under individual buckling modes and the variation of material and member properties. The large
interaction of the different buckling modes. volume of synthetic data thus generated over a range of
failure modes along with the available test results are
The ultimate strength of lipped channel section, as used to evaluate different equations for calculating the
governed by local buckling, (Pul), is given by strength of such cold-formed lipped channel beams.
Based on the comparison, a method for the design of
Pul
when ll 0.60 = 1.00 lipped channel beams failing under the interaction of
Py local, distortional and overall lateral torsional buckling is
when ll > 0.60

Pul
Py
[
= 1 - a1 / ll b / ll b
Pul,max
Py
] recommended. Three candidate equations were
presented by Nandini (Ref [15]) for the flexural strength
predictions of cold-formed steel members. The
Where ll = (Py/Pcrl); expressions are being evaluated for adoption in IS: 801.
1
a1 = 0.27 (2 - m ) ; b = (50 - 7m ) 0.7 ;
50 5 Work on beam-columns
m = max h b , b h

0.6
( )

Vijaya Vengadesh Kumar (Ref [16]) presented a
systematic experimental program on two kinds of singly
Pul ,max P
0.15

0.15
Pcrl h symmetric compression members with plate elements
= 1 - 0.12 crl for 1.00
Py Py Py b
having large width to thickness ratios enabling the study

of the interaction buckling behaviour in the advanced
postbuckling range. The controlling parameters form the
0.32 0.32 basis in the design of specimens. The eccentricity of the
Pul , max P (3)
= 1 - 0.20 crl Pcrl for h < 1.00 load was varied from -Xcg to Xo in the plane of
Py Py Py b

symmetry, where Xcg the distance between the centre of
Pcrl is the elastic local buckling load, Py is the yield load, gravity and the centre line of the web and Xo is the shear
b and h are the flange width and web height of the lipped centre distance from the centre of gravity. The
channel cross section, respectively. slenderness ratio of the members was varied from 30 to
120 covering shorter to longer columns.
Modified DSM (MDSM) Equation for Distortional An analytical method was developed, based on the
Buckling (DB) Strength effective section concept, to study the coupled local and
Pud torsional-flexural buckling of singly symmetric
for ld 0.474 = 1.0
Py compression members. The available knowledge about
[ ]
Pud the plate local buckling and the overall buckling
for ld > 0.474 = 1 - 0.23 / ld / ld
0.60 0.60 (4) behaviour was integrated to develop the analytical
Py
method. This method is capable of estimating the local
where ld = (Py/Pcrd) ) Pcrd is the elastic distortional buckling loads of stiffened and unstiffened plate elements
buckling load. of the sections, the ultimate strength of the member with
The strength under the interaction of the different respect to the three possible failure modes (material
modes is evaluated using yielding, flexural buckling and torsional-flexural
Pulde P P P buckling) after the plate local buckling. Finite element
= 0.15 + ul ud ue
Py based numerical study of the interaction buckling
Py Py Py
behaviour was also carried out and the results are
Minimum of (Pul/Py, Pud/Py, Pue/Py) (5) compared with those of analytical and the test results of
the present study.
The analytical method was validated with the help of
4 Flexural members
others test results reported elsewhere in literature. To
Nandini and Kalyanaraman (Ref [14]) investigated overcome the limitations of the current design procedures
the cold-formed thin-walled lipped channel steel beams based on the analytical method a more rational method
may undergo buckling modes such as short half- was proposed for the design of cold-formed steel
wavelength local buckling, intermediate half-wavelength members to account for the coupled local and torsional-
distortional buckling and long half- wavelength lateral- flexural buckling failure mode. This was shown to
torsional buckling or a combination of these before
380
compare well with the results of tests conducted in this behaviour and strength of such panels. In this paper,
study and reported elsewhere. details of an experimental study on behaviour and
Vijaya Vengadesh Kumar and Arul Jayachandran strength of the screw connections between the cold-
(Ref [17]) investigated the behaviour of storage rack formed steel profiles and calcium silicate boards, under
uprights that are predominantly subjected to axial monotonic and cyclic shear loading, were presented. The
compression but are also subjected to bending moments, objectives of the experimental study were: (a) to develop
hence acting as beam-columns by nature. The design of a new test procedure that realistically represents the
uprights is currently based on experimental or high-end behaviour and failure of screw connections in CFS wall
computational methods, but analysis based design panels; (b) to investigate the effect of edge distance of the
screws and thickness of the boards on behaviour and
involves lesser design office effort enabling development
strength; (c) to study behaviour under monotonic and
of innovative and optimized sections. Although recent
cyclic loading; (d) to develop the values of the important
attempts use DSM to determine the nominal strength of
parameters that determine the loaddeformation
uprights, experimental evidence on beam-column behaviour of the screw connection in such wall panels
behaviour of uprights that validate analytical equations under in- plane shear; and (e) to develop design equation
are scarce. With this back ground, 16 experiments were to evaluate the ultimate shear strength and its resistance
carried out on uprights subjected to axial compression, factor required in load resistance factor design (LRFD).
and biaxial bending causing constant and linearly varying Later Nithyadharan and Kalyanaraman (Ref [20])
moments. Interaction of distortional mode with global presented the results of an experimental study on the
modes is evident from the experiments, which is behaviour and strength of the cold- formed steel shear
generally ignored in DSM. In this paper, DSM is briefly wall panel (CFSSWP) with calcium silicate board as
explained and the choice of appropriate yielding moment sheathing, when subjected to monotonically increasing
is explained. The experimental results are presented in and reversed cyclic in-plane shear deformation. These
terms of DSM for both Linear Interaction (LI from specimens were specifically designed to reach the
current code of practice) and Nonlinear Interaction (NLI strength as governed by the strength of the screw
from literature). The results show that NLI may lead to connection between the board and the CFS framing and
un-conservative design for eccentrically loaded avoid all other modes of failure, ahead of this. The main
specimens with linearly varying moments. objectives of the experiments were (a) to study the
Later Vijaya Vengadesh Kumar and Arul influence of board thicknesses and the distance of the
Jayachandran (Ref [18]) presented analysis based design screws from the nearest free edge of the board on the wall
of pallet rack upright member is complex due to buckling panel behaviour and strength; (b) to study the behaviour
mode interaction, axial force - bending moment of different wall board configurations normally used in
interaction and buckling - yielding interactions. construction practice (c) to develop the values of the
important parameters that determine the load-
Published literatures on these interactions are scarce in
deformation behaviour of the wall panels under in-plane
both experimental and analytical aspects. In this study,
shear and (d) to determine the different limit states in the
experiments with careful choice of eccentricities along
failure of the screws connecting the board and the CFS
symmetry axis (uniaxial bending about minor axis) that framing in such CFSSWP. In addition, a simplified
affect the behavior of the uprights are considered for (i) design equation is proposed to evaluate the ultimate shear
concentric loading and (ii) uniaxial eccentric loading strength of CFSSWP based on the strength of the screw
with (a) constant, (b) linearly varying and (c) double connection obtained from a sub assemblage shear
curvature bending moments. In view of flexible bracings strength test.
against twisting restraints, the support conditions are Nithyadharan and Kalyanaraman (Ref [21])
considered as flexurally simply supported but twisting is developed a numerical model of the hysteretic behaviour
restrained by friction forces at the ends of the specimen. of such panels, that is necessary to study the system
Totally 36 specimens were tested for two types of cross behaviour under various earthquake loading. In this paper,
sections having 6 configurations of loadings and 3 BoucWenBaberNoori (BWBN) model is used to
specimens for each configuration. The experimental capture the deteriorating behaviour under cyclic loading,
results were presented and compared with DSM such as the strength and stiffness degradation with severe
predictions. pinching, observed in the screw connections between the
CFS framing members and sheathing, as well as the full
6 Study on wall panels for cold-formed steel housing wall panels under cyclic loading. The system
identification technique based on Nelder and Meads
Nithyadharan and Kalyanaraman (Ref [19]) studied
simplex algorithm is used to identify the unknown
Cold-formed steel (CFS) wall panels with different board
parameters of the model. The representation of the
materials, which are used extensively in residential and
constitutive relationship, both under static and cyclic
commercial buildings. These wall panels resist lateral
loading of the screw connections and the wall panel sub-
loads by in-plane shear, in addition to gravity loads.
Generally the screw connection between the board and system, is demonstrated using the BWBN model.
CFS skeleton frame, which experience shear, dictates the Through these studies it was shown that using
appropriate constitutive models based on experimental
381
data of the behaviour of screw connections between CFS capacity is seen as an exponentially decreasing function
framing members and wall boards, it is possible to of ratio of flat depth of web to thickness (h/t). When the
evaluate the behaviour of wall panels and building other parameter, bearing width to flat depth ratio (N/h) is
systems through non-linear static and cyclic finit3e varied, the coefficients (multiplier and exponent) of
element models. above exponentially decaying function undergo
quadratic and linear variations, respectively. Further,
when the inner root radius to thickness ratio (R/t) is
7 Formulations for calculating elastic buckling stress varied, the multiplier of above decaying function
of cold-formed steel members followed a linear variation and the exponent remained a
Rakhi Jain (Ref [22]) .presented a formulation using constant, independent of the R/t ratio.
what is called Generalized Beam Theory (GBT), to the Plotting of crippling capacity values as contours is
analysis of thin-walled cold-formed cross sections which done using the AISI S-100 crippling capacity equation
has been well documented in the literature. In the work, and constants (Table 3.4.1.2 of AISI S-100). The study of
a computational framework was used to analyse cross the behaviour of the web crippling capacity against the
sectional behaviour of any generic open section, using parameters h/t, N/h and R/t for a selected range of 12
first order GBT, where elementary mode shapes and cases are cast into DSM type equations. The contours of
stiffness matrices are developed. As these elementary crippling capacity plotted as per AISI S-100 and the one
mode shapes are coupled in nature, simultaneous plotted with present DSM format expressions agree well
diagonalization and normalization processes were with each other. A ratio plot of these two was also made
performed to uncouple elementary modes and then GBT to know the variation of error over the extent of valid
mode shapes and stiffness matrices were established. To range which is specified for prequalification of the
evaluate the contribution of each mode, analysis was run sections. The DSM equation for the web crippling is of
for different member lengths and finally modal the form
participation is obtained. The entire procedure is coded
7+8
!" ' *+ . ( 2+3 4'5( 6
= %& ) ,1 - %. & )0 & )
in MATLAB.
(6)
Ajeesh and Arul Jayachandran (Ref [23]) presented !#$ ( / /
a model for distortional buckling stress predictions which where, gross squash load, Psq = N t fy and Pu is the web
is semi analytical in nature and is simple to incorporate crippling capacity. All the other parameters are as
in the direct strength method (DSM) of cold-formed steel defined in (Ref [6]) and (Ref [25])
design. The proposed expression incorporates the effect
of complex lip stiffeners on the elastic distortional
9 Summary
buckling capacities. In the proposed model, the (i)
translational stiffness at lip-flange junction and (ii) Most Indian codes of practice have often adapted
rotational stiffness at the flange-web junction, are derived provisions from codes of practice from one or more
from regression analysis of wide range of cross sectional developed countries, since not much credible research
dimensions. The proposed method is calibrated with material is available from within India to support the
semi-analytical finite strip method presented in literature. code provisions, This does not absolve the onus on the
This formulation has been demonstrated to be good in academia and research institutions to take up research
comparison with recently published numerical work which results in better codes of practice and good
distortional buckling predictions. construction practices. Towards codification of the Direct
Ajeesh and Arul Jayachandran (Ref [24]) presented Strength Method in the possible next revision of IS: 801
an analysis procedure for cold-formed steel sections, for significant amount research has taken place over the last
decomposing the buckling modes obtained using spline decade even within in India. This paper attempts to pool
finite strip method (SFSM) into their primary and together a set of publications which may become the
independent buckling modes such as local, distortional basis for the revision of IS:801 into a limit state format.
and global buckling. This procedure utilizes principles of The research efforts which have been published as
generalized beam theory (GBT). The proposed analysis internationally peer reviewed papers and thesis. The
technique termed as constrained spline finite strip paper underlines the fact that possible revision of IS:801
will have significant amounts of home grown research
method (cSFSM) has been validated for cold-formed
in the DSM format for compression members, flexural
steel open cross sections subjected to axial compression
members , enclosure systems for cold-formed steel
and bending under various boundary conditions.
housing, web crippling and beam-columns.
8 Study on web crippling

References
Selvam (Ref [25]) attempted to relate the web
[1] Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS). (1975). Code of
crippling capacity with the web shear capacity analogous
to the DSM format. Of the five categories of sections and practice for use of cold-formed light gauge steel
46 cases listed in the codes of practice, initially 12 cases structural members in general building construction
of C sections were taken for parametric study. The IS 801: 1975, India.
proportion of the web crippling capacity against the shear
382
[2] Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS). (2007). General [15] Nandini P. Interaction of local and distortional
Construction in Steel- Code of Practice IS 800: buckling with lateral torsional buckling in cold-
2007, India. formed lipped channel beams, MS Thesis, Guide:
Prof. V.Kalyanaraman, IIT Madras, Chennai, India.
[3] Australian/New Zealand Standard (AS/NZS).
(2005). Cold-formed steel structures. AS/NZS [16] Vijaya Vengadesh Kumar, J., Buckling Behaviour of
4600:2005, Australia/New Zealand. Cold-formed Steel Rack Uprights, Ph.D. Thesis-
Guided by S.Arul Jayachandran, IIT Madras, 2016.
[4] British Standards Institute (BS). (1998). Structural
use of steelwork in building. Code of practice for [17] Vijaya Vengadesh Kumar, J. and Arul Jayachandran,
design of cold-formed thin gauge sections. BS S., Experimental investigation and evaluation of
5950-5, London. Direct Strength Method on beam-column behavior
of uprights, Thin-walled Structures, Vol. 102 (5), pp.
[5] European Committee for Standardization (CEN).
165-179, 2016.
(2004). Design of steel structures, part 1.3:
Supplementary rules for cold-formed members and [18] Vijaya Vengadesh Kumar, J. and Arul Jayachandran,
sheeting. ENV 1993-1-3, Eurocode 3, Brussels. S., Beam-column behavior of uprights subjected to
uniaxial bending, Journal of Structural Engineering,
[6] American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI). North
American specification for the design of cold- ASCE (under review).
formed steel structural members. AISI S100-2007, [19] Nithyadharan, M. and Kalyanaraman, V.,
Washington, DC. Experimental study of screw connections in CFS-
[7] Schafer B W, The Direct Strength Method of cold- calcium silicate board wall panels, Thin-walled
formed steel member design, J of Constructional Structures, Vol. 49 (6), pp. 724-731, 2011.
Steel Research, 64(78), 766-778, 2008. [20] Nithyadharan, M. and Kalyanaraman, V., Behaviour
[8] Prabha, P., Arul Jayachandran, S., Saravanan, M. of cold-formed steel shear wall panels under
and Marimuthu, V., Prediction of the tensile capacity monotonic and reversed cyclic loading, Thin-walled
of cold-formed angles experiencing shear lag, Thin- Structures, Vol. 60 (11), pp. 12-23, 2012.
walled Structures, Vol. 49 (11), pp. 1348-1358, 2011. [21] Nithyadharan, M. and Kalyanaraman, V., Modelling
[9] Ram Arkala., Development of background material hysteretic behaviour of cold-formed steel wall
for the revision of cold-formed structural steel code panels, Engineering Structures, Vol. 46 (1), pp. 643-
IS: 801-1975, MTech Thesis-Guided by S.Arul 652, 2013.
Jayachandran, IIT Madras, 2013. [22] Rakhi Jain., A computational frame work for the
[10] Anil Kumar, MV. and Kalyanaraman, V., Evaluation analysis of cold-formed steel members using
of Direct Strength Method for CFS Compression generalized beam theory, MS Thesis-Guide:S.Arul
Members without Stiffeners, J of Structural Jayachandran, IIT Madras, 2015.
Engineering (ASCE), Vol.136 (7), pp. 879-885, 2010. [23] Ajeesh, SS and Arul Jayachandran, S., Simplified
[11] Anil Kumar, MV. and Kalyanaraman, V., Design semi-analytical model for elastic distortional
Strength of Locally Buckling Stub-Lipped Channel buckling prediction of cold-formed steel flexural
Columns, Journal of Structural Engineering (ASCE), members, Thin-walled Structures, Vol. 106 (9), pp.
Vol. 138 (11), pp. 1291-1299, 2012. 420-427, 2016.
[12] Anil Kumar, M. V. and Kalyanaraman, V., [24] Ajeesh,SS. and Arul Jayachandran, S., A constrained
Distortional Buckling of CFS Stiffened Lipped spline finite strip method for the mode
Channel Compression Members, Journal of decomposition of cold-formed steel sections using
Structural Engineering (ASCE), Vol. 140 (12), pp. GBT principles, Thin-walled Structures (Tentatively
04014099-14, 2014. accepted).
[13] Anil Kumar M.V. ,Interaction of local, distortional [25] Selvam, C., Web crippling behaviour of cold-formed
and overall buckling in cold-formed steel lipped steel beams by direct strength method, M Tech
channel compression members PhD Thesis, Guided Thesis-Guided by S.Arul Jayachandran, IIT Madras,
by Prof.V.Kalyanaraman, IIT Madras, Chennai, 2016.
India.(2012)
[14] Nandini, P. and Kalyanaraman, V., Strength of cold-
formed lipped channel beams under interaction of
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877, 2010.
383
HERITAGE
STRUCTURES
DYNAMIC MODELING OF UJJAYANTA PALACE -

A HERITAGE LOAD-BEARING MASONRY BUILDING
S Raghunath1, K S Jagadish2
1
Department of Civil Engineering, BMS College of Engineering, Bangalore 560019, India
2
Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore 560012, India
This paper discusses the modeling of the Ujjayanta Palace building, a highly asymmetrical load-bearing masonry
structure, for the purpose of carrying out time-history analysis for earthquake inputs. The analysis enabled the ductility
based design, which was a major requirement for seismic retrofitting of the heritage building. The building is situated at
Agartala, the capital of the state of Tripura. The building has a number of piers which are assumed to carry the axial
gravity loads and the lateral seismic forces. The asymmetry in the plan and elevation necessitated the development of a
relatively simple model which includes the lateral sway modes as well as the torsional modes of vibration. Thus the
scheme included calculation of the location of the mass and stiffness centre in each floors. The in-plane and the out-of-
plane stiffness of the masonry piers were included in the formulation of the stiffness matrix. The seismic mass lumped
at the floor levels were obtained in accordance with the provisions of IS-1893 (2002). After setting up the coupled
equations of motion, which included 3 degrees-of-freedom (translations in the two horizontal directions and rotation
about the vertical axis passing through the mass centre) for each floor, the mass matrix and stiffness matrices were
obtained. Later, the seismic forces were computed in each of the masonry piers by solving the equations of motion
using a numerical integration scheme. The earthquake inputs were taken by considering the site-specific earthquake
parameters. This dynamic analysis enabled the crucial computation of the deformation of the masonry piers, following
which a containment reinforcement scheme was detailed.
Keywords: heritage building, load-bearing masonry, dynamic modeling, seismic retrofitting, containment
reinforcement
1 Introduction addition, there are some components such as front

tower, rear tower and the long corridors. The floor
Ujjayanta Palace is an important heritage building
heights of these components vary from 4.8m to 6.2m.
situated Agartala, the capital city of the state of Tripura,
Also, at some places, the first floor supports five
India. At the time of structural assessment, the building
dominant vertical projections viz. (a) the front tower, (b)
served as the Legislative State Assembly of the state.
the ball room, (c) the extremely massive central tower
The palace was reported to have been constructed by the
with a dome, (d) the durbar hall and (e) the rear tower.
then King - Maharaja Radha Kishore Manikya in 1901.
The load-bearing walls are made of various sizes and
The building is styled in Greek architecture and was
shapes in the two floors. Most of the walls have a good
designed and constructed by Sir. Alexander Martin of
number of openings, majority of which have an arch at
M/s Martin Burn co. After the completion of the
the lintel level. The presence of these large openings
retrofitting the building is serving as Tripura
allows for modeling the walls as a series of piers by
government museum.
neglecting the portion of the walls above the openings.
The building is situated in seismic zone V, which
Figures 1 and 2 shows the plan view and front elevation
has the highest level of seismicity in India. The detailed
of the building.
investigation by M/s BBR (India) Pvt. Ltd, revealed the
In total, about 270 piers can be identified. The
vulnerability of the building which is predominantly an
centroidal location of these piers is shown graphically in
un-reinforced masonry structure. It was thus decided to
Fig. 3. The location and size of the piers was obtained
carry out the seismic retrofitting.
from the measured drawings. In addition to these, there
As the part of the retrofitting project, the condition
are three single-storey appendages in the front portion
assessment of the building was carried out. The
of the building to house the steps leading to the first
structure is mainly a two-storeyed load-bearing building
floor of the building. In summary the building can be
with the walls being 3.3m high in the ground floor;
described as a highly asymmetric structure both in plan
however the walls in the first floor are of varying
and elevation.
heights especially in the durbar hall and ball room. In
1
Professor, raghunath.smrc@gmail.com
2
Professor (retd.), ksjagadish@gmail.com
384
S Raghunath and K S Jagadish
for the suggested earthquake ground

motion parameters, using the time history
method suggested in IS 1893 (2002) [1].
Obtain the peak displacements and forces
in the load-bearing components of the
building.
(v) Develop a heuristic design method for arriving
meeting the ductility demand in the
masonry elements. Ductile reinforcement
in the form of (vertical) aluminum strips to
be quantified using a simplified lateral
inertial force equivalent to the peak ground
Figure 1: Ground floor plan view of Ujjayanta Palace acceleration.
(vi) Heuristic design of horizontal bands and corner
vertical reinforcement based on codal
recommendations, but using advanced
polymer composites (APC) - Epoxy-glass
fiber reinforced composite.
The following section discusses the development of
Figure 2: Front view of Ujjayanta Palace the dynamic model.
2.1 Development of the dynamic model

Assumptions
1. It is assumed that the seismic forces shall be
taken up by the masonry piers. The floor and
rood slab being relatively, is considered rigid
in its plane and the seismic forces are
transmitted to the piers in diaphragm action.
2. The seismic force developed in each masonry
pier is proportional to the relatively lateral
stiffness of the piers. The in-plane shear and
bending deformations are considered in
computing the stiffness.
Figure 3: Coordinates of masonry piers The in-plane shear stiffness is taken as
, where b is the length of the pier, t
is the thickness of the pier, h is the height of
2 Design objectives and strategy the pier and G is the modulus of rigidity of
The major objectives of the seismic retrofitting was to masonry (~ 0.4E).
achieve the following The in-plane bending stiffness is taken as
(i) To permit the structure to undergo inelastic , where I is the moment of inertia, E
deformations without brittle mode of is the modulus of elasticity of masonry.
failure and thus prevent loss of lives. The total in-plane deformation is a considered
(ii) To limit the damage to minor repairable cracks as a linear combination of in-plane shear
when the structure is subjected to deformation and in-plane bending deformation.
Maximum Considered Earthquake (MCE). Thus the in-plane stiffness along an axis works
The method of retrofitting followed should be such
as not to alter or mar the architectural features of the out to . [2]
heritage structure. 3. The masonry wall portions between the
The strategy adopted to analyse, design and detail openings are assumed to contribute to the mass
the retrofitting scheme was as follows and not to the stiffness.
4. For the purpose of analysis only two floors are
(i) Assess the expected ground motion in the considered (average height of ground floor and
event of MCE, utilizing the characteristics first floor is 3.3m and 5.5m respectively),
of the local soil strata. although the towers are much taller. However
(ii) Asses the strength and elastic properties of the the appropriate portion of mass of the towers
brick masonry used in the building (front, central and the rear towers) are assumed
(iii) Develop a dynamic model to analyse the at the roof of the upper floor. It may be noted
structure. that the super structure of the central tower
(iv) Analyse the structural response of the structure begins at the first floor level and is inaccessible
385
underneath it. The stiffness of the huge pillars

of this tower at the upper floor is also
considered.
5. The seismic mass lumped at the floor level is
obtained by considering (a) floor/roof slab
mass, (b) mass contribution from the live load
(as per IS 1893-2002), (c) the mass of the
masonry spandrels between the openings
(above the opening level) (d) based on the
consistent mass approach, 30% of the wall
mass is also lumped at the floor level (e) the
mass of the parapets and all corbel projections
at the roof level Figure 3 (a): Schematic representation of sway
6. Based on the laboratory investigations, the mode
modulus of elasticity of brick masonry in lime-
surkhi mortar is taken as 2000.0MPa. Mass
density of masonry is assumed as 1800.0kg/m3,
while that of floor slabs as 2400.0k/m3.
7. Each of the two floors is assumed to possess 3
degrees-of-freedom (d.o.f) viz., translation
displacements in the x and y direction and
rotational displacement q, about a vertical axis
passing through the mass centre. Hence the
total number of d.o.f is 6.
8. The vertical projections (towers, parapets etc)
are designed and checked for stability by for 5
times the design horizontal seismic coefficient,
as per the provisions of IS 1893 (2002).
Step 1: Setting up the equations of equilibrium Figure 3 (b): Schematic representation of torsion
The following notations are used; mode
..
i = masonry pier no. (totally 270 piers are identified) M x + k ( x - r q ) - k ( x - r q ) = 0
1 1
x1i 1 iy 1 x 2i 2 iy 2
x1, x2 = translation of ground floor and first floor lumped ..

M 1 y1 + k y1i ( y1 + rixq1 ) - k y 2i ( y2 + rixq 2 ) = 0
mass in x-direction ..
I M 1 q 1 + k y1i ( y1 + rixq1 )rix - k x1i ( x1 - riyq1 )riy - k y 2i ( y2 + rixq 2 )rix + k x 2i ( x2 + riyq 2 )riy = 0
y1, y2 = translation of ground floor and first floor
..
lumped mass in y-direction M 2 x 2 + k x 2i ( x2 - riyq 2 ) = 0
q1, q2= rotation of the ground floor and first floor ..
M 2 y 2 + k y 2i ( y2 + rixq 2 ) = 0
lumped mass about the vertical axis passing through the ..
I M 2 q 2 + k y 2i ( y2 + rixq 2 )rix - k x 2i ( x2 + riyq 2 )riy = 0
mass centre
rix, riy = x and y coordinate of the ith masonry pier from
the corresponding mass centre (1)
M1, M2= lumped mass at the ground floor and first floor Step-2:Obtaining natural frequencies and mode shapes
roof level These above six equations are used to obtain the
kx1i, kx2i = stiffness of the ith ground floor pier and first natural frequencies and mode shapes. These are
floor pier in the x-direction computed by obtaining the Eigen value and Eigen
ky1i, ky2i = stiffness of the ith ground floor pier and first vectors. The Eigen vectors are represented in the matrix
floor pier in the y-direction form as [f]
Im1, Im2= mass moment of inertia of the ground floor Step-3: Determination of modal mass and modal
mass and first floor mass about the its mass centre. stiffness
The modal mass and modal stiffness matrices are
The displacement of a pier can be considered as a obtained as follows;
_
combination of sway and rotation about the vertical
axis. The net displacement can hence be considered to
M = f T Mf (2)
be a linear summation of the two. This is shown
_
schematically in Figures. 3 (a) and (b). Here, counter
clock-wise rotation is taken as +ve rotation. Ofcourse K = f T Kf (3)
the location of the piers from the centre of mass requires
that the mass centre has to be computed prior.
Step-4: Time history analysis
386
After uncoupling the equations of equilibrium, for the difference being in the stress block. The stress-strain
each modal mass and stiffness a time history analysis curve of masonry obtained from experiments is
has been carried out by the well-known Newmark considered.
scheme [3]. A time step interval of 0.01s has been The design of the walls for out-of-plane flexure is
chosen. Analysis has been carried out by choosing based on the premise that during an earthquake the
damping value of 4% and 5%. The earthquake records lateral forces in a masonry building shall be shared by
considered are from the site specific ground acceleration the shear walls, since the cross walls possess relatively
time history data based on the geotechnical data. A very low lateral stiffness. As a result, the cross walls can
typical ground motion data (acceleration time history be expected to experience only out-of-plane inertial
data) is shown in figure 4. forces due to their self-weight. By considering a
masonry pier of thickness d and width b as shown in
figure - 5, the depth of the neutral axis can be obtained
by equating the moment of compression area to the
moment of the transformed area.
Figure 5: Linear elastic stress distribution across the

thickness of the pier
Figure - 4: Acceleration time history response at the Thus, using the usual notations and same
surface assumptions as that made for linear elastic analysis of
Step-5: Obtaining forces in masonry piers singly reinforced RC beam, we get the following
The above three cases were studied separately. It equation;
may be mentioned that this data was chosen as an input 1 b(kd )2 + mA (d - kd ) = 0 (4)
for ground acceleration both in the x-direction and y- 2 st
direction. The peak response quantities were combined The tensile strain in steel (es) and the compressive
using modal combination technique as per IS 1893-2002 strain in extreme fiber of masonry (em) can be related by
[1]. The load cases considered are in accordance with cl. referring to figure - 4, as
6.3.2 (IS 1893-2002) [1]. The shear force in each es 1- k
masonry pier was obtained by the relative stiffness = (5)
coefficient i.e., in proportion to their stiffness.
em k
3 Heuristic Design of Masonry Elements to Resist If the yield strain of the reinforcing material is esy,
Lateral Earthquake Loads then the compressive strain in extreme fiber of masonry
Masonry buildings can undergo different types of when the reinforcement yields, is:
failures during earthquakes [4]. Some of the typical e sl k
failures may be classified are: (ii) out-of-plane flexural = e ml (6)
failure, (ii) In-plane shear failure (iii) In-plane flexural
1- k
rocking of narrow masonry piers between openings, (iv) If the limiting compressive strain in masonry is em,
Shear failure at corners (separation of walls at vertical then the ductility of masonry in flexure is:
junctions), (v) Separation of floor/roof and walls, (vi) e m (max)
Buckling of wythes and (vii) Local failures. The (7)
mitigation of these damages can be achieved by
em
strategic introduction of reinforcement, for a given The moment of resistance of the cross section at
geometrical layout of the building. The maximum stress yield of steel, assuming a linear stress distribution in
levels reached in each of the masonry pier can be used compression is:
to compare with the corresponding strengths and this
can lead to a design basis. Amongst these, the design to
(
Ese e sl Ast d 1 - k
3
) (8)
withstand out-of-plane flexural failure has been One can carry out a simple non-linear analysis if
described in brief. the stress distribution is non-linear.
As an example;
4 Design of Vertical Containment Reinforcement for Consider a masonry pier of width of 1300.0mm (b) and
a Typical Masonry Pier depth/thickness (d) of 800mm and a length of l.
The design of masonry for ductility requirements Assuming a modulus of elasticity aluminium E Al =
was carried out as outlined by Raghunath et al. [5]. This 70,000.0 MPa and modulus of elasticity of masonry Em
is in the form of containment reinforcement [2, 5]. This = 2000.0 MPa
is similar to that of a singly reinforced concrete beam,
387
Cross sectional area of aluminium AAl = 2strips x 50mm horizontal GFRP wrap for ornate column heads is
x 2mm shown in figure - 8.
Tensile strain in aluminium = Al
Tensile strain in masonry = m
Modular ratio = m
The neutral axis depth is now obtained assuming linear
variation of stress in masonry by the following equation;
1
b(kd ) + mAAl kd - mAAL d = 0
2
2 (9)
Solving for k, we get k = 0.11
Assuming a linear strain variation in masonry,
e m 0.11 1
= = (10)
e Al 0.89 8
Assuming an inertial horizontal load due to an
acceleration of 0.57g, the maximum bending moment =
14525.0Nm (for l = 3.3m) and 40346.0 Nm (for l = Figure - 6: Aluminum flats used for vertical
5.5m) containment reinforcement
Now stress in Aluminium reinforcement is given (source: http://english.cctv.com)
by obtaining the lever arm (771.0mm) and hence the
total tension in Aluminium = 14525.0/0.771 =
18839.0N (for the case of l=3.3m) and similarly it is
52329.0N for the case of l=5.5m.
The corresponding stress in Aluminium is thus
obtained (=94.2MPa for l=3.3m and 262.0MPa for
l=5.5m). Since the yield strength of aluminium is about
100.0MPa, it will remain in elastic range for l=3.3m and
will go into elasto-plastic range for l=5.5m. The strain
in aluminium at yield = 0.014 and the corresponding
strain in masonry will be 0.0014/8 = 0.00018. Various
measurements have shown that the peak compressive
strain (limiting strain) in masonry to be 0.006 to 0.008.
Thus the masonry with such reinforcement will
maintain ductile behaviour till the peak strain in
masonry reaches 0.006. The ductile capacity of the
masonry with containment reinforcement is hence =
0.006/0.00018 = 33.3
Figure - 7: Typical seismic retrofitting scheme for
The aim of the design here is to maintain the
masonry piers
ductile capacity at as high a level as possible. Similar
calculations are made for all the piers of the palace
structure.
Containment reinforcement is an external
reinforcement and the strain compatibility needs to be
established by ensuring that the reinforcement is
hugging the masonry element by the provision of
special shear connector keys which are anchored into
the masonry by anchor plugs and screws.
It was noticed that the minimum ductility capacity
is about 19.3, which is generally considered as
adequate. Similar analysis was performed by choosing
(a) Glass fiber reinforced plastic (GFRP) strips and (b)
stainless steel flats as a material for vertical containment
reinforcement. The choice of the material was then
based on the cost considerations and ease with which
the containment reinforcement can be introduced. Figure - 8: Vertical reinforcement and horizontal GFRP
Aluminum flats being provided as vertical wraps for masonry pier heads
containment reinforcement is shown in figure - 6. The (source: http://english.cctv.com)
typical seismic retrofitting scheme for masonry piers is
shown in figure - 7. Vertical reinforcement and
388
5 Concluding remarks
Ujjayanta Palace at Agartala is a heritage building

situated in seismic Zone V and hence the need for
seismic retrofitting. The equations of motion for the
highly un-symmetric 2-storeyed building have been set-
up by considering the coupled effects of lateral sway
and torsion of the masonry piers. After obtaining the
natural frequencies and mode shapes, the time-history
analysis was performed to obtain the maximum forces
in each of the masonry piers by considering a series of
site-specific ground motion records. This output of the
analysis was used to carry out the ductility based design
and detailing using the concept of containment
reinforcement with aluminum flats and/or surface
wrapping using GFRP strips. This type of ductile
detailing helped in ensuring the retaining the
architectural embellishments of the heritage building.
The seismic retrofitting was completed in 2013.
Acknowledgement
The authors thank Sri. M N Ramesh, formerly Principal

Coordinator of the retrofitting project, representing M/s
BBR (India) Pvt. Ltd., for giving the opportunity to
assist them in the analysis and design. The ground
motion data based on the geotechnical data provided
was generated by Dr. K V Vijayendra, Department of
Civil Engineering, Bangalore Institute of Technology,
Bangalore. His crucial inputs are gratefully
acknowledged.
References
[1] IS 1893 (Part 1): 2002, Indian Standard Criteria for
Earthquake Resistant Design of Structures, Part 1:
General Provisions and Buildings, BIS, New Delhi
[2] Raghunath S, 2003, Static and Dynamic behaviour
of Brick Masonry with Containment
Reinforcement, PhD thesis, Department of Civil
Engineering, IISc, Bangalore
[3] Chopra A K, 2001, Dynamics of Structures
Theory and Applications to Earthquake
Engineering, 2nd edition, Pearson Education Asia
pub., India
[4] Jagadish, K. S., Raghunath, S. and Nanjunda Rao,
K. S., Behaviour of Masonry Structures During
Bhuj Earthquake of January 2001, Jl. Indian
Academy of Sciences (Earth and Planetary
Sciences), Vol. 112, No.30, 2003, pp 431440.
[5] S. Raghunath, K.S. Nanjunda Rao and K.S.
Jagadish, Ductility of brick masonry beams with
containment reinforcement, Journal of Structural
Engineering, Vol. 39, No. 4, October-November
2012, pp. 399-408 No. 39-43
389
ADVANCED NDT FOR CONDITION ASSESSMENT OF A

MASONRY HERITAGE STRUCTURE
Bhaskar Sangoju 1, Ramanjaneyulu, K2.
1,2
ACTEL, CSIR-Structural Engineering Research Centre, Chennai, 600113, India
Advanced non-destructive testing (NDT) techniques such as Impact-echo (IE), Ground penetrating Radar
(GPR), Ultrasonic Pulse-echo (UPE), Infrared thermography (IRT), etc. are being used recently for the
condition assessment of concrete structures. However, applicability of some of these NDT techniques are
not very well established for the masonry/heritage structures. At CSIR-SERC, the possibility of carrying
out different advanced NDT for getting the details of the masonry heritage structure is explored. In-situ
investigations were carried out on selected structure by IE, UPE, GPR and IRT for material
characterization and condition assessment. Test results demonstrated that IE and GPR techniques can be
effectively used for thickness estimation of masonry structures, when only one side is accessible. The
estimated p-wave velocity and shear wave velocity of masonry were in good agreement with the values
reported in the literature for historical materials.
Keywords: Impact-echo; Radar; Methodist Church; Seepage; p-wave velocity.
1 Introduction play an important role when the members are accessible

only from one side.
Historical structures are defined as existing Wesley Methodist church was one of the important
structures with significant cultural value to society [1]. and historical churches in Chennai city. It was located
Buildings or structures which have architectural, on the Poonamalle High Road Egmore, Chennai. This
aesthetic, historic, archaeological, economic, social, heritage structure was constructed during 1903-05. It
political, spiritual values and are symbol of our cultural was listed as a heritage structure by the Chennai
identity can be acknowledged as historic or heritage Metropolitan Development Authority (CMDA) [4]. The
building/structure [2]. Historical structures are primarily load bearing walls of the church were of brick masonry
brick or stone masonry constructions, either with lime with lime mortar as bonding material. From
mortar used as a bonding material or dry-stacked atheistic/architectural point of view, stone units were
(mortar less construction). Masonry is generally a placed at most of the openings and at some corners.
highly durable form of construction. However, the Other than the above, no structural or material
materials used, the quality of the mortar and properties are available. Figure 1 shows the photograph
workmanship, and the pattern in which the units are of Wesley church. The main challenging task was
assembled can significantly affect the durability of the getting the details of materials used for construction and
overall masonry construction. Engineers involved in their properties (structural or material) and also the
monitoring and maintenance of masonry/heritage physical dimensions. For assessing the present
structures need to know information about the condition, these properties are very important. However,
engineering properties of different materials and their most of the times, they shall not be available. Hence, in
response to different tests. CSIR-SERC has vast the present study, efforts were made to explore the
expertise on the condition assessment of reinforced possibility of getting the physical details, material
concrete structures using Non-destructive testing (NDT) characteristics and also to assess the present condition
such as Rebound hammer test, Core sampling and of this masonry heritage structure using the advanced
testing, Ultrasonic pulse velocity (UPV), and advanced NDT.
NDT techniques like Impact-echo (IE), Ultrasonic
Pulse-echo (UPE), Infrared thermography (IRT), 2 NDT techniques
Ground penetrating Radar (GPR), etc [1-3]. The term As mentioned earlier, there are many NDT techniques,
advanced NDT is used since these methods greatly each based on different theoretical principles, and
increase the speed, utility and allow the near continuous producing sets of information regarding the physical
acquisition of data along any given path over a structure. properties of the structure. These properties, such as p-
Another advantage is that the entire cross section can be wave (compressional wave) and shear wave velocities,
scanned and results can be interpreted for reliable electrical resistivity, dielectric constant and so on, have
quality and integrity assessment [5,6]. These methods to be interpreted in terms of material characteristics and
1
Scientist, bhaskar@serc.res.in
2
Scientist, rams@serc.res.in
390
Bhaskar Sangoju and Ramanjaneyulu, K
its engineering properties. This interpretation involves No.

some degree of assumption about the structure, and the 1 Impact-echo Indirect NDT
use of calibration measurements is an essential feature
of most of the non-destructive testing. The main factors 2 Infrared Thermography Indirect NDT
that influence the success of any advanced NDT
technique are: the required depth of penetration into the 3 Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Indirect NDT
structure, contrast in physical properties between the
target and its surroundings, vertical and horizontal 4 Single Flat jack Test Direct PDT
resolution required for the expected targets, signal-to-
noise ratio for physical properties to be measured, 5 Double Flat jack Test Direct PDT
understanding of the physical principles of test method
and information about the structure being tested [7,8]. 6 Core Sampling Test Direct PDT
7 Endoscope/Borescope Indirect PDT

(Hole Drilling
Method)
8 Ultrasonic Pulse Echo Indirect NDT
9 Ground Penetration Radar Indirect NDT
10 Schmidt Hammer Indirect NDT

(Hardness test)
11 Mechanical (Sonic) Pulse Indirect NDT
12 Neutron Probe Indirect NDT
3 Condition Assessment of Methodist Church using

advanced NDT techniques
The main objective of the present study is to

explore the possibility of getting the details of the
structure and also to assess the condition of the structure
using advanced NDT, if feasible. Besides visual
Figure 1: Wesley Methodist Church inspection, IE, GPR, UPE and IRT techniques were
used for the condition assessment, which include,
Application of NDT techniques to masonry has geometry details, material properties and defect
traditionally involved a translation of techniques used identification [11]. The procedure to collect data,
for the NDT of concrete and rock to masonry [9,10]. methodology and working principle of IE, GPR UPE
Masonry NDT techniques can be divided into those and IRT techniques are reported in Ref. [7-9,11-13].
intended to measure material condition, (i.e. the
presence of flaws or deteriorated areas), and those It was reported that some years back (may be 7 to 8
intended to measure mechanical properties such as the years), deterioration of bricks in the form of dry powder
material compressive strength and deformability. The was noticed in the outer walls. The dry powder could be
latter can be further divide into two general categories: due to efflorescence. A fine, white, powdery deposit of
(1) indirect tests in which masonry mechanical water-soluble salt was left on the surface of masonry as
properties are estimated via correlations to water evaporates [14]. Therefore, the entire outer
nondestructive measurements, and (2) direct physical surface was cladded by bonding brick shaded tiles to the
measurements of mechanical properties. original surface using cement mortar.
The different NDT and partially destructive testing
(PDT) techniques which have been potential for During visual inspection, no significant
assessment of masonry structures are listed in Table 1 deterioration of the church structure was observed
[9]. except some seepage/dampness signs, peeling of plaster,
erosion of mortar between masonry, etc. The seepage
Table 1 Different NDT and partially destructive testing signs were observed in a room adjacent to the prayer
(PDT) techniques area and is shown in Figure 2. Figure 3 shows peeling of
plaster near one of the openings. At many places, mortar
S. Technique Category Type joint between key stones and brick masonry got
391
deteriorated and eroded, which could allow moisture dampness/leakage) near the prayer hall area, which
penetration. Figure 4 shows the erosion of mortar could be due to seepage of rain water.
between decorated/architectural key stones. On roof top,
vegetation debris accumulation near the rain water
outlets and vegetation growth on brick masonry were
noticed. No evidence of wood rot and insect infestation
was observed. The details of the church construction,
materials used, subsequent repairs done, etc. are not
available.
Since, the material details are not available, trials

have been carried out at known thickness to get the
material characteristics like p-wave velocity, shear wave
velocity and di-electric constant of stone and brick
masonry using IE, UPE and GPR techniques. These
parameters are very important input parameters for data
collection and can be used in estimating the unknown
Figure 2: Seepage signs near the roof
thickness/depths and defect location in the masonry.
Figure 5 (a) shows the IE scanning on the masonry wall.
Figure 5 (b) presents the IE test result in terms of
thickness. With the known thickness, the p-wave
velocity in the brick masonry and stone masonry was
estimated and is found to be 2500m/sec and 3500m/sec,
respectively. Using the p-wave velocity, the wall
thickness estimated (64 cm) for the brick masonry was
close to the actual thickness (64.5 cm), which confirms
the reliable estimation of p-wave velocity of historical
materials. The shear wave velocity estimated by Pundit
PL-200PE for the stone masonry (single unit) is in the
range of 2300m/sec to 2350m/sec. The estimated
material characteristics such as p-wave velocity and
shear wave velocity were in good agreement with the
values reported for historical materials [15]. Shear wave Figure 3: Peeling of plaster near one of the openings
velocity could not be found for brick masonry (multiple
units). The reason could be due to the
scattering/reflection/dissipation of waves at each and
every mortar joint. This could be one of the limitations
of UPE technique in the case of masonry (constructed
by number of masonry units) structures. For depth
estimation of stone masonry (single unit), where, only
one side access is available and could not be measured
physically, scanning has been carried out by using PL-
200PE. Figure 6 (a) shows the photograph of typical
UPE scanning for the depth evaluation of the stone
masonry. The B-scan image in Figure 6 (b) shows the
estimated depth and is about 16 to 17cm (back wall).
GPR survey was carried out using 2.6GHz antenna to
get the stone masonry depth. The depth found out was
close to the value estimated by using UPE technique.
Similarly, GPR scanning was also carried out to trace
the profile of stone masonry (Figure 7 (a)), where only
one side access is available. Figure 7 (b) shows the back
wall image obtained for the above stone masonry. It can
be observed that the thickness profile of stone masonry
Figure 4: Erosion of mortar joint between stones
is varying and is clearly depicted through back wall.
IRT technique is applied to identify the probable
dampness areas (cold spots) inside the church. IR
Thermography results show cold spots (signs of
392
Figure 6 (b): B-scan image of stone masonry

Figure 5 (a): IE scanning on masonry wall for depth estimation by UPE technique
Figure 7 (a): GPR scanning on stone masonry for

thickness/depth profile
Figure 5 (b) IE test results in terms of thickness
Figure 7 (b): B-scan image of stone masonry for

Thickness/depth profile
Based on the test results, it can be said that the

Figure 6 (a): Ultrasonic pulse-echo (UPE) scanning on quality of materials used and material
stone masonry for thickness/depth characteristics/properties seem to be Ok and are close to
estimation the values of historical materials reported in the
literature. Also, during visual inspection, no significant
393
structural damage was observed, except erosion of The sand must match the sand in the historic
mortar joints at many places and peeling of plaster at mortar.
some places. Eroded mortar joints and peeled-off plaster The new mortar must have greater vapour
allowed moisture and other deteriorating agents to enter permeability and be softer (measured in
into the masonry, which would further compressive strength) than the masonry units.
damage/deteriorate the heritage structure. Hence, it is
recommended to replace the peeled-off plaster and carry 4.2 Long term Durability
out repointing of the eroded mortar joints using the
appropriate and compatible materials [11]. Care has to be taken to stop the vegetation growth
to avoid seepage/dampness and vegetation debris
4 Recommendations accumulation that block the rain water outlets. Hence,
regular maintenance is needed for free flow of rain
4.1 Repointing water from gutters and rain water outlets. This may
prevent seepage and vegetation growth in the masonry
To improve the mortar joints of masonry, structure. It is to be noted that regular maintenance is
the most important and the most cost effective
repointing is recommended. Repointing is the process of
preservation measure for extending the life of historical
removing deteriorated mortar from the joints of a
structures.
masonry wall and replacing it with new mortar.
Properly done, repointing restores the visual and
5 Summary and Concluding Remarks
physical integrity of the masonry. Improperly done,
repointing not only detracts from the appearance of the Based on the visual inspection and advanced NDT
building, but may also cause physical damage to the testing carried out, following conclusions are drawn.
masonry units themselves. Repointing mortar shall be Advanced NDT techniques such as IE, UPE,
compatible with the masonry units and matches with the GPR and IRT are applied for data generation,
historic mortar as closely as possible, so that the new getting physical details, material
material can coexist with the old in a sympathetic, characterization, condition assessment, etc.
supportive and, if necessary, sacrificial capacity [16,17]. Due to aging and dampness, peeling of plaster
Mortars for repointing should be softer or more at some places and deterioration of mortar
permeable than the masonry units and no harder or more joints between stones at many places were
impermeable than the historic mortar shall be used to noticed. No significant deterioration of the
prevent damage to the masonry units. It is a common church structure was observed.
error to assume that hardness or high strength is a Test results demonstrated that IE and GPR
measure of appropriateness, particularly for lime-based techniques can be effectively used for
historic mortars. Stresses within a wall caused by thickness identification of masonry structures,
expansion, contraction, moisture migration or settlement when only one side is accessible.
must be accommodated in some manner; in a masonry The estimated p-wave velocity in brick and
wall, these stresses should be relieved by the mortar stone masonry is about 2500m/sec and
rather than by the masonry units. A mortar that is 3500m/sec, respectively.
stronger in compression than masonry units, will not The shear wave velocity of masonry obtained
giveaway, thus causing the stresses to be relieved is in the range of 2300m/sec to 2350m/sec.
through the masonry units; resulting in permanent Repointing is recommended to improve the
damage to the masonry, such as cracking and spalling, mortar joints of the masonry.
that cannot be repaired easily. While stresses can also Regular maintenance is recommended, which
break the bond between the mortar and the masonry is the most important and cost effective
units, permitting water to penetrate the resulting hairline preservation measure for extending the life of
cracks. Nevertheless, this is easier to correct in the joint historical structures.
through repointing than if the break occurs in the
masonry units. In general, a mortar that is slightly
weaker than the adjacent masonry should be used. This Acknowledgements
allows trapped moisture in the masonry to migrate out
Authors gratefully acknowledge the assistance rendered
through the mortar and not the masonry. The exact
by Dr. J A Peter and Dr. K. Sivasubramanian, Scientists
physical and chemical properties of the historic mortar and Project Assistants, CSIR-SERC during in-situ
are not of major significance as long as the new mortar testing.
conforms to the following criteria:
The new mortar must match the historic mortar References

in colour and texture. [1] CIB Publication 335 (2010), Guide for the
structural rehabilitation of heritage buildings,
394
W023 Wall Structures; CIB Commission, International Journal of 3Rs, Dr. Fixit
Lisbon, Portugal. Publications, Vol. 5 (4), 2014, pp. 762-768.
(http://site.cibworld.nl/dl/publications/pub335.pd
[14] Merrigan, Michael, P.E., (1986), Efflorescence:
f)
Cause and control, The masonry society journal,
[2] A Primer, (2014), Proceedings on Non- Vol. 5 (1), pp. G19-G22.
destructive testing techniques for historical (www.masonrysociety.org/TMSJournal/Vol5No
monuments and heritage structures, National 1.pdf)
cenre for safety of heritage structures (NCSHS),
[15] Ratay, R. (2005), Structural Condition
IIT Madras, Chennai
Assessment, American Society of civil
[3] Bhaskar, S. and Wiggenhauser, H. Advanced Engineers.Operating instructions for Proceq
NDT for the Evaluation of Quality, Durability Profoscope, 2013.
and Integrity of Concrete/RC
[16] Robert C. Mack and John P. Speweik, (1998),
Structures/Components, Report No. CEL-
Preservation Briefs 2: Repointing mortar joints
OLP131-RR-04, December, 2008.
in historic masonry buildings,
[4] http://www.cmdachennai.gov.in/HeritageBuildin (http://www.nps.gov/tps/how-to-
gs-PhaseII.html preserve/briefs/2-repoint-mortar-joints.htm).
[5] Bhaskar, S., Srinivasan, P., Murthy, S. G. N., [17] Sharon C. Park, (1998), Preservation Briefs 47:
Nagesh R. Iyer and Ravisankar, K., Evaluation Maintaining the exterior of small and medium
of thickness and defects in concrete using size historic buildings, 1998
Impact-echo technique, The Indian Concrete (http://www.nps.gov/tps/how-to-
Journal, Vol. 87, No. 1, pp. 19-27, 2013. preserve/briefs/47-maintaining-exteriors.htm;
accessed on 20 July 2015).
[6] Srinivasn, P., Ravisankar, K. and
Thirugnanasambandam, S., (2013), Forensic
evaluation of a large reinforced concrete
specimen using radar and ultrasonic pulse echo,
International Journal of Forensic Engineering, pp.
198-208.
[7] McCann, D. M., and Forde, M.C., (2001),
Review of NDT methods in the assessment of
concrete and masonry structures, NDT & E
International, Vol. 34, pp. 71-84.
[8] Helal, J., Sofi, M. and Mendis, P. Non-
destructive testing of concrete A review
methods, Special Issue: Electronic Journal of
Structural Engineering, 14 (1) 2015, 97-105.
[9] de Vekey, R.C., Non-destructive test methods
for masonry structures, Proceedings of the 8th
International Brick/Block Masonry Conference,
Dublin, Ireland, pp. 1673, September 1988.
[10] M. S. Mathews, Conservation Engineering, IIT
Madras, Chennai, 1998.
[11] Bhaskar, S., Sivasubramanian, K., and
Ramanjaneyulu, K, Condition Assessment of
Wesley Methodist Church, Poonamalle High
Road, Egmore, Report No. R&D 02-
MLP17241-RR-05, 2015
[12] Bhaskar, S., Ramanjaneyulu, K., Prabakar, J and
Nagesh R. Iyer, Condition assessment of
masonry structures: A state-of-the-art review,
Report No. R&D 02-MLP17241-RR-01, 2013.
[13] Bhaskar, S., Rajthilak, G., and K.
Ramanjaneyulu, Thickness evaluation and
identification of embedded inclusions in masonry
wall using Ground penetrating radar technique,
395
SEISMIC PERFORMANCE OF A HERITAGE RUBBLE STONE

MASONRY BUILDING-A CASE STUDY
Hina Gupta1, Debdutta Ghosh2, Achal K. Mittal3
1,2,3
Structure Engineering Division, CSIR-Central Building Research Institute, Roorkee 247667, India
The old masonry buildings in India are terribly vulnerable to lateral loads especially the buildings lying in
the high seismic zones of lower Himalayas. This paper deals with evaluation of the seismic performance of
an old unreinforced rubble stone masonry building situated in Uttarakhand. CSIR-CBRI conducted a study
on the structural soundness of Pant Sadan, the official residence of the Chief Justice of Uttarakhand. After
a preliminary survey of the building, architectural plans of the building were developed. A finite element
analysis was performed using commercially available SAP2000 software. Linear and non-linear analysis is
performed to assess the present strength of the old structure by computing different stresses in the building
under earthquake load. In the modeling, it is assumed that the masonry structure is homogeneous and the
material behavior is nonlinear. Subsequently, the static analysis results (stresses) are compared with the
values given in masonry code (IS 1905:1987). Pushover analysis and Time history analysis for Uttarkashi
earthquake (1991) is also performed to assess the performance of building under a Himalayan earthquake.
The analysis results shows that building response is satisfactory under vertical loading and shows some
weak zones for the previous seismic activities. The results of the finite element modeling will help to predict
the local and global collapse mechanisms and will reduce the seismic risk by adopting the proper retrofitting
strategy.
Keywords: unreinforced masonry, finite element modelling, time history, non-linear analysis, heritage building
1 Introduction performed by [9],[10],[11] and [12]. The vulnerability of

the old buildings situated in the areas of high seismic
Masonry is composite, non-homogeneous and activities is a matter of concern especially if the building
anisotropic material. These buildings consists of stones, is still being used. Non-linear analysis is emerging as a
bricks, adobe, tiles, stucco or precast blocks which are powerful tool to assess the strength of the structures
bonded together with mortar. Most of the old masonry under the seismic actions [12], [13].
buildings are load bearing structures and constructed This paper deals with the detailed analysis of a random
without any codal provisions. rubble masonry building situated at Nainital. Detailed
Masonry being a heterogeneous material, its investigation has been carried out by a team of scientists
properties are dependent on many factors like its from CSIR-Central Building Research Institute (CSIR-
components which have different mechanical properties, CBRI) [1].
the array and interfaces between the units etc. Intensive
research has been going on to understand these variations 2 A Case study
in parameters of masonry construction. Homogenization The building undertaken for study was constructed
techniques for the analysis of masonry structures have by Nawab Hamid Ali Khan of Rampur State in the year
been discussed by [2],[3],[4] and [5]. On the basis of 1890 and was later named as Pant Sadan. In 2002, it
these homogenization techniques, various techniques became official residence of the Chief Justice of
like micro-modelling, simplified micro-modelling and Uttarakhand High Court. This old building is in distress
macro-modelling are widely used by different condition and has also developed some cracks. It is two
researchers. Analyzing and strengthening of masonry and storeyed load bearing random rubble masonry building
specially the old structures has always been a challenging with wooden trussed roof covered with GI sheets and
task because of the complex geometries, deficient wall thickness of 18 to 24. The building also has
knowledge about the used materials, structural wooden staircase and wooden flooring at first floor.
modifications and ageing of material [6]. With the Foundation type and depth is not known and detailed
development of computational methods, Finite Element engineering drawings of this old building are not
Analysis has become the widely accepted tool for the available. Some exposed foundation showed dry random
analysis of masonry structures [7] and [8]. Finite element rubble masonry without offset. The building is situated in
analysis of historical buildings in SAP2000 have been seismic zone IV of IS: 1893-2002 [14] and located on a
1
Scientist, hina@cbri.res.in
2
Scientist, debdutta@cbri.res.in
3
Principal Scientist, akmittal@cbri.res.in
396
Hina Gupta, et al.
talus deposit lying on a sloping hill at different terraces. From the visual inspection of the building, several
Some additions and alterations have been carried out in distresses were observed, viz:
the building as per the need. The recent photograph of the
building is shown in Figure 1. The hill slope and deposit Settlement and tilting of portico pier.
in the downhill, where the building is situated is shown Cracks in one circular piers of the inner room at
in Figure 2. The ground floor plan of the building and the the ground floor.
surrounding area is shown in Figure 3. Cracks in the masonry load bearing wall and
separation of wooden truss/support from
masonry at several locations.
Cracked and decayed wooden roof truss
members.
Vibrations of wooden flooring during
movement at the first floor level.
Decayed wooden false ceiling at some places
and separation of joints at various locations.
Dampness in some portion of the building.
Sagging choukhats and separation gaps between
wooden beam and masonry.
3 Numerical Modeling
The structure studied here is an unreinforced rubble stone
masonry hence it is a load bearing structure. Being a very
large structure, heterogeneous modelling of structure is
Figure 1: Pant Sadan building not possible. Therefore, the stone and the mortar are
considered as homogeneous units as in the macro-
modelling. The floor plans (ground and first) of the
building are almost similar.
These homogeneous masonry units are analyzed as
macro-model using SAP 2000 FEM numerical package
[9]. The material properties for the numerical analysis are
taken from chemical analysis of stone, mortar and wood
samples collected from the site by the CBRI team [1], and
the available literatures on the similar types of material
([15],[16] and [17]). The properties are tabulated in Table
1.
Table 1: Material Properties
Properties of Material Value

Unit Weight of Masonry(kN/m3) 18.5
Figure 2: Talus deposit on downhill slope
Prism strength of masonry, fm (MPa) 3.5
Elastic modulus of masonry, E (MPa) 1925

Shear modulus, G (MPa) 315
Poissons ratio, 0.2
Walls are modeled as SHELL elements while timber

beams of the roofs are modeled as FRAME elements.
The building rests on a talus deposit with about 0.8 - 1.2
m deep masonry strip footing. Hence the support
condition is taken as fixed in the analysis. Building is
having GI sheet roofing supported on timber beams
which are resting on masonry walls.
In the software model timber beams are taken over walls
Figure 3: Ground floor plan of Pant Sadan building and roof load is applied. The 3D view of the modeled
building is shown in Figure 4. Values of Dead load and
397
Imposed load are taken in accordance with IS 875:1987. The time history of the Uttarkashi Earthquake is shown
[18] in Figure 6 [19].
Figure 6: Uttarkashi time history curve [19]
Both static and dynamic non-linear analysis has been

identified as powerful tools for analysis of masonry
buildings [20]. In non-linear static or pushover analysis,
the distribution of lateral forces with the height of the
structure is done and the load is increased to push the
structure until an ultimate value of displacement is
Figure 4: 3D model of the building reached. This analysis provides information about the
4 Non-linear Analysis peak response in terms of storey drift, floor
displacements and other deformation quantities [21].
The seismic analysis of building is done using non-linear Similarly, parametric studies can be done by dynamic or
pushover and time history method as described in the time history analysis.
code IS 1893(Part I): 2002 [14]. The 1991 Uttarkashi
earthquake is considered for time history analysis. The Dead load, live load and earthquake time history of
present structure is analyzed using SAP2000 software. Uttarkashi earthquake is applied to the building and the
One of the nearby disastrous earthquake data is taken response of the building is observed.
here for the study of seismic behavior of the building in
case of similar events. The time history data of Uttarkashi
earthquake, 1991-10-19 21:23:15 (30 78' N, 78 77' E) 5 Results
which happened at a hypocentral distance of 5.1 Analysis of stresses under Gravity loading
approximately 200 kms from the location of the present
building in Nainital (29 23' N, 79 30' E) (Figure 5). The The building is analyzed for the combination of dead and
magnitude of the earthquake was 7.0 on Richter scale imposed loads. Fundamental time period of the building
with depth of 10 kms. for free vibration analysis is 1.893 seconds.
The force distribution of gravity loads is shown in Figure
7. The structure is mostly under compressive forces while
upper and bottom corners and wall beam junctions seems
to have high concentration of tensile forces. As per IS
1905:1987, compressive stresses for the given rubble
stone masonry building is taken 0.25 MPa while no
tensile stresses are permitted [15]. As seen from Figure
8, the compressive stresses developed in the building
under gravity loading is within permissible limits while
tensile stress is exceeded at a very few locations. Beam
wall junctions at the roof level, at the bottom and upper
corners of walls at each floor lever are subjected to high
tensile stress concentration due to combined effect of
Dead load and Imposed load. The maximum value of
tensile stress reached is about 0.7 MPa, which is at a
beam wall junction showing crack between wall and roof
which may be responsible for the cracks in the structure.
Maximum value of displacement observed is about 12.8
Figure 5: Location of Nainital and Uttarkashi [19] mm under gravity loads.
398
Hina Gupta, et al.
Figure 7: Compressive and tensile force distribution due Figure 9: Shell stresses due to Pushover in X direction
to gravity Load (MPa)
Figure 8: Shell stress due to gravity Load (MPa) Figure 10: Shell Stresses due to pushover in Y direction
(MPa)
5.2 Analysis of stresses under Non-Linear Static Loads
(Pushover Analysis) 5.3 Analysis of stresses under Non-Linear Dynamic
Loads (Time History Analysis)
Figure 9 and Figure 10 shows the shell stresses for
pushover analysis in X and Y direction respectively. The The structure is analyzed for the input ground motion of
out of plane failure of the walls can be clearly observed the Uttarkashi earthquake to determine its seismic
from the figures as the walls perpendicular to X direction performance. As seen from Figure 11, due to time history
are having maximum stress concentration for pushover in applied for the structure, most part of the structure
X direction and vice versa for Y direction. The increasing remains under compression within permissible limits.
value of tensile stresses in the out of plane walls is Tensile stress is having high concentration at many
indicating the vulnerability of the building under locations as seen from figures. This shows that structure
earthquake loads. Maximum value of top displacement may not be able to sustain an earthquake of the same
observed is about 115.3 mm in X direction while 97.4 intensity as that of Uttarkashi and it may fail.
mm in Y direction.
399
earthquake. Therefore, adequate repair and rehabilitation

works are necessary to make it earthquake resistant.
7 Acknowledgments
The authors are grateful to team of CBRI staff associated
with Pant Sadan project for providing the details of the
visual inspection of the building.
References
[1] CSIR-CBRI, Detailed Project Report on Suggesting
Repair Cum Strengthening Measures for Pant Sadan,
Nainital by CSIR-Central Building Research
Institute, Roorkee, 2010.
[2] Loureno P. B., Computations on historic masonry
structures, Progress in Structural Engineering and
Materials, vol. 4, no. 3, pp. 301319, 2002.
[3] Luciano R., and Sacco E., Homogenization
Figure 11: Shell stress under Uttarkashi time history technique and damage model for old masonry
data (MPa)
material, International Journal of Solids and
Structures, vol. 34, no. 24, pp. 31913208, 1997.
As seen from Figure 12, large portion of building is
[4] Loureno P. B., Milani G., Tralli A., and Zucchini A.,
subjected to a displacement below 30 mm under the
Uttarkashi earthquake while maximum displacement Analysis of masonry structures: review of and recent
observed at the top of the building is about 123.6 mm. trends in homogenization techniques, Canadian
Also the portico piers and area around openings is having Journal of Civil Engineering vol. 34, no. 11, pp.
large displacement values. 14431457, 2007.
[5] Loureno P. B. and Rots J. G., On the use of
homogenisation techniques for the analysis of
masonry structures, Masonry International, vol. 11,
no. 1, pp. 2632, 1997.
[6] Roca P., Cervera M., Gariup G., and Pela L.,
Structural analysis of masonry historical
constructions. Classical and advanced approaches,
Archives of Computational Methods in Engineering,
vol. 17, no. 3, pp. 299325, 2010.
[7] Asteris P. G., Chronopoulos M. P., Chrysostomou C.
Z., Varum H., Plevris V., Kyriakides N., and Silva V.,
Seismic vulnerability assessment of historical
masonry structural systems, Engineering Structures,
vol. 6263, no. March 2014, pp. 118134, 2014.
[8] Akhaveissy A. H., The DSC Model for the
Nonlinear Analysis of In-plane Loaded Masonry
Figure 12: Displacement contours under Uttarkashi time Structures, The Open Civil Engineering Journal, vol.
history (in mm) 6, no. 1, pp. 200214, 2012.
[9] SAP2000 Manuals. [Online]. Available:
6 Conclusions http://www.comp-engineering.com/SAPManE.htm.
[10] Kappos A. J., Penelis G. G., and Drakopoulos C. G.,
The building is more than 100 years old and is having Evaluation of simplified models for lateral load
clear sign of distress in the form of cracks, tilting of piers, analysis of unreinforced masonry buildings, Journal
decayed wooden structural members and false ceiling, of Structural Engineering, vol. 128, no. July, p. 890,
dampness etc. Further the test results of the soil samples,
2002.
bedding mortar, plaster and wooden samples also show
[11] Khadka S. S., Seismic Performance of Tradational
that the building is not in good condition.
Unreinforced Masonry Building in Nepal,
The cracks observed from visual inspection are in good Kathmandu University Journal of Science,
agreement with the stress concentration observed from Engineering and Technology, vol. 9, no. I, pp. 1528,
the analysis of finite element model under gravity 2013.
loading. The results of pushover and time history analysis [12] Spyrakos C. and Francioso A., Shaking Table Test
show that the building is vulnerable during large intensity and Pushover Analysis on a Scaled Masonry
400
Hina Gupta, et al.
Building, 15th World Conference on Earthquake

Engineering, 2012.
[13] Simes A., Bento R., Gago A., and Lopes M.,
Seismic Vulnerability of Old Masonry Gaioleiro
Buildings in Lisbon, 15th World Conference on
Earthquake Engineering, 2012.
[14] IS 1893 (Part 1): Criteria for Earthquake Resistant
Design of Structures. 2002.
[15] IS 1905 (1987): Code of Practice for Structural use
of Unreinforced Masonry. 1987.
[16] Lombillo I., Thomas C., Villegas L., Fernndez-
lvarez J. P., and Norambuena-Contreras J.,
Mechanical characterization of rubble stone
masonry walls using non and minor destructive tests,
Construction and Building Materials, vol. 43, pp.
266277, 2013.
[17] Milosevic J., Bento R., Gago A. S., and Lopes M.,
Shear Tests on Rubble Stone Masonry Panels -
Diagonal Compression Tests, 15th World
Conference on Earthquake Engineering, 2012.
[18] IS 875 (Part 1 & 2): Code of Practice for Design
Loads (Other Than Earthquake) For Buildings and
Structures. 1987.
[19] Strong Motion Virtual Data. [Online]. Available:
http://www.strongmotioncenter.org/vdc/scripts/eart
hquakes.plx.
[20] Galasco A., Lagomarsino S., Penna A., and
Resemini S., Non-Linear Seismic Analysis of
Masonry Structures Alessandro, 13th World
Conference on Earthquake Engineering, 2004, no.
147.
[21] Chopra A. K., Dynamics of Structures, 4th Edition.
2012.
401
COMPUTATIONAL
STRUCTURAL
MECHANICS
IMPROVED SPARSE HIGH DIMENSIONAL MODEL

REPRESENTATION BASED ON LEAST ABSOLUTE
SHRINKAGE AND SELECTION OPERATOR
Tanmoy Chatterjee1 and Rajib Chowdhury2
1,2
Department of Civil Engineering, IIT Roorkee, Roorkee 247667, India
The increasing complexity of real-time problems has posed a perpetual challenge to existing simulation
models. In particular, such models governing any physical system usually entail long hours of simulation,
making them computationally intensive for large-scale problems. In order to mitigate this issue, a novel
computational tool has been developed for efficient stochastic computations. The proposed model has
been developed by two-tier improvement of the existing approximation techniques. As the first
improvement, Kriging [1] has been incorporated within high dimensional model representation (HDMR)
[2] model so as to enhance approximation capabilities in terms of accuracy. Secondly, least absolute
shrinkage and selection operator (LASSO) [3] has been utilized and integrated with the refined model so
as to construct a sparse HDMR approximation, eventually leading to reduced computational complexity.
Implementation of the proposed approach has been demonstrated with two analytical benchmark
examples and a twenty five element space truss problem.
Keywords: Kriging, HDMR, LASSO, sparse, stochastic
1 Introduction within the refined model so as to construct sparse

HDMR approximation at a much reduced computational
The computational effort associated with
cost.
uncertainty quantification of engineering systems has
The rest of the paper has been organized in the
been one of the prime concerns over the years. In order
following sequence. Section 2 describes the formulation
to mitigate the problem of computational intensiveness,
of the proposed methodology. In section 3, numerical
the concept of surrogate modelling has originated [4].
investigation has been carried out. Two analytical
Surrogate modelling is a technique of approximating the
benchmark examples have been solved by utilizing the
underlying computational model in a sample space and
proposed approach in section 3.1. In section 3.2, a
thereby reducing the simulation time significantly.
twenty five element space truss have been investigated.
Among these techniques, high dimensional model
Finally, some conclusions have been drawn in section 4
representation (HDMR) is one of the most promising
based on the present study carried out.
dimension reduction approaches [5]. HDMR has
evolved as a general set of quantitative assessment and
analysis tools for capturing the high-dimensional 2 Methodology
relationship between the model input and its output.
2.1 High dimensional model representation
However, many of the existing forms of HDMR suffer
from several drawbacks [7]. In high-dimensional HDMR approximates multivariate functions in such
complex systems, the standard HDMR models, i.e., cut- a way that the component functions of the
HDMR and random sampling HDMR (RS-HDMR) approximation are ordered starting from a constant and
constructed over the whole functional space has been gradually approaching towards multivariance as we
observed to be deficient in accurately capturing the proceed along the terms like first order, second order
input-output relationship [8]. and so on. Let, i = (i1 , i2 , , iN ) N0 be a multi-index
Therefore, the primary objective of this work has
been towards the formulation of a refined HDMR model with i = i1 + i2 + + iN , and let N 0 be an integer.
operable in high dimensional functional space. The Considering, x = ( x1 , x2 , , xN ) be a N dimensional
following improvements have been performed on
existing HDMR model: Firstly, Kriging [9] has been vector, representing the input variables of a structural
incorporated with the HDMR model so as to achieve system, HDMR expresses the response function g ( x )
local refinements and improve its approximation [6] as:
capabilities. Secondly, least absolute shrinkage and
selection operator (LASSO) [3] has been integrated
1
Research scholar, tanmoydce88@gmail.com
2
Assistant professor, rajibfce@iitr.ac.in
402
Tanmoy Chatterjee and Rajib Chowdhury
N
g ( x ) = gi ( x i ) (1) Where, (
Rij = R c ( ) , c ( ) ;
i j
) is the correlation
i =0
matrix of the points in the experimental design,
Definition 1: Two subspace A and H in Hilbert space ( )

Fij = f j c ( )
i
is the Vandermonde matrix and
are spanned by basis {a1 , a2 , , al } and {h1 , h2 , , hm }

(i )
y = y , i = 1,, , M are the model responses at the
respectively. If (i) H A and (ii) H = A A^ where, training/sample points c (i ) , i = 1,, , M . The set of
A^ is the orthogonal complement subspace of A in H , hyperparameters defines the autocorrelation
H is termed as extended basis and A as non-extended R ( x, x; ) between two points x and x . The
basis. Considering y is to be a suitable basis of x , Eq.
prediction of the Kriging model at a new sample xS ,
(1) can be expressed in terms of extended bases as,
N N - k +1 N k denoted by Y ( x ) , is a Gaussian variable defined by a
g ( x ) = g0 + {
S
k =1 i1 =1 ik = ik -1 r =1 mean value mY and a variance s Y2 [4] as shown in Eq.

(2)
(7) and Eq. (8), respectively.
[ a( i1i2 ik )ir
y mi 1
y mi ]}
] r
mY = f ( x ) + r ( x ) R -1 ( y - F )
m1m2 mr 1 r T T
m1 =1 m2 =1 mr =1 (7)
where, g0 is a constant term representing the zeroth -1
0 FT f ( x )
s Y2 = s y2 1 - f ( x ) r ( x )
T T
order component function or the mean response of any (8)
response function g ( x ) . It has been observed that most

F R r ( x )
real-life problems exhibit only the lower order (
Where, ri ( x ) = R x, c (i ) ; ) is the correlation
cooperative effect and therefore, the higher order
components in Eq. (2) can be ignored. Considering up between the new sample xS and the sample points in
to M th order component function and s th order basis, the experimental design. The Kriging model prediction
Eq. (2) can be rewritten as is stochastic, i.e., the mean and variance of the
M N - k +1 N k prediction is obtained at any prediction point. It is to be
g ( x ) = g0 + { noted that the prediction variance obtained using Eq. (8)
k =1 i1 =1 ik = ik -1 r =1 is a local error measure and is useful for searching the
(3)
s s s regions of input with low prediction accuracy.
[ a (i1i2ik )ir
m1m2 mr y i1
m1 y ]}
] ir
mr
m1 =1 m2 =1 mr =1
2.3 Least absolute shrinkage and selection operator
Once the unknown coefficients associated with the LASSO represents the most fundamental
bases are determined, Eq. (3) represents the basic augmentation of the ordinary least squares solution
functional form of HDMR. which implements coefficient shrinkage and selection
[3]. The sum of squared residual loss function
2.2 Kriging ( )
L b ( l ) is combined with a penalty function
J ( b ( l ) ) based on the l
Kriging is a surrogate modelling technique in which
1 norm as,
the interpolated values are modelled by Gaussian
process governed by prior covariance [10]. Suppose, (
b ( l ) = arg min L b ( l ) + l J b ( l ) ) ( )
x = ( x1 , x2 , , xN ) are the input variables, where b
(9)
2
xD N
. Now assuming the model output MK ( x ) = arg min y - Xb +l b 1
b
to be a realization of a Gaussian process, one obtains The l1 penalty promotes sparse solutions. This also
MK ( x ) = T f ( x ) + s 2 Z ( x, ) (4)
means as l increases, elements of b ( l ) become zero.
P
Where, T f ( x ) = b j f j ( x ) is the mean value of Due to the non-differentiability of the penalty function,
j =1 there are no closed form solutions to Eq. (9). Further
the Gaussian process and Z ( x, ) is a zero mean, unit details of the computations related to LASSO have been
provided in section 2.4.
variance Gaussian process. s 2 denotes the process
variance. The solution of Eq. (4) with respect to b , s 2
2.4 Proposed approach
may be obtained as [11]
The proposed approach serves as a two-tier
( ) = ( FT R -1F ) FR -1y
-1
(5) approximation tool. To be specific, HDMR ensures the
1 approximation on a global scale and Kriging accounts
s y2 ( ) = ( y - F) R -1 ( y - F )
T
(6) for the fine deviations in the functional space. Further,
N
in order to identify the most relevant bases required in
order to construct the surrogate model, LASSO has been
403
integrated within the above refined model, which results weighted normal equations as shown in Eqs. (19) and
into a sparse and efficient model. (20)
Suppose, x = ( x1 , x2 , , xN ) are the input variables, ( TR -1 ) * = TR -1d (19)
where x D N . Now substituting Eq. (3) in Eq. (4), 1
( d - * ) R -1 ( d - * )
T
the output M can be represented as

s2 = (20)
m
M N - k +1 N k
In general, the correlation parameters are a priori
M = ( g0 + {
k =1 i1 =1 ik = ik -1 r =1
unknown. The optimal parameters have been obtained
s s s by maximum likelihood estimate [13]. The objective
[ a( i1i2 ik )ir
m1m2 mr y mi 1
1
y mi ]]})
r
r
(10) function to be minimized is shown in as Eq. (21).
1
( )
m1 =1 m2 =1 mr =1
f ML ( ) = log R ( ) + log dT R ( ) d
-1
(21)
+s 2 Z ( x, ) N
Alternatively, Eq. (10) can be represented as Alternatively, Eq. (19) can be represented as shown
in Eq. (22)
d = +e (11) B = C
(22)
where d is the difference between response at the
T -1
where, B = R , C = T R -1d, = *
sample point and the mean response and mxp . It is On obtaining the form as defined by Eq. (22), the
also assumed that unknown coefficients have been determined. The
estimate a as illustrated in Eq. (23) is equivalent to the
E [ei ] = 0, E ei e j = s 2 Rij (12)
LASSO estimate
where, Rij is the ( i, j ) th element in the covariance l
d l d
2 2
a = arg min a j Bij - Ci + a j (23)

matrix R . E ( ) , used in Eq. (12), denotes expectation j =1 i =1 d j =1
operator. Eq. (12) can be expressed in matrix form as Where, l is the Lagrange multiplier and Eq. (23)
E [e ] = 0, E eeT = s 2 R (13) d
2
imposes the constraint a j d K1. The

Primarily, the errors are assumed to be uncorrelated
j =1
and have the same variance such that R = I , and
expectation maximization (EM) algorithm utilized to
maximum likelihood estimate of the parameter is the
determine the unknown coefficients have been
least square solution * , obtained as
demonstrated below.
* = ( T ) T d
-1
(14) At each step s , the EM algorithm estimates the
optimal parameters l (j ) of the Bayes prior based on the
s
The maximum likelihood estimate of the variance is
obtained as
estimate a (j
s -1)
, and then maximizes the posterior to
1
( )( )
T
s 2 = d - * d - * (15) evaluate the current estimate a (j ) . (a , l ) have been
s
m
Now, the errors are assumed to be uncorrelated and parameterized to (g , d ) in order to avoid divergent
have different variance such that E [ei ei ] = s i2 and solutions, which yields,
d g (j
s)
2
E ei e j = 0 for i j . In this case, the covariance ( s +1)2
dj =
g (s)
d 2
matrix and the weight matrix WK are defined as
k =1 k
s2 s m2
( ( ) ( ) )
-1
R = diag 12 , , (16) g ( s +1) = diag d ( s +1) B T B diag d ( s +1) + l I (24)
s s2
diag (d ( )
)B C s +1 T
s s
WK = diag , , (17)
s
1 s m lj l
Where, g j = a j and d j = , j = 1, , d .
Comparing Eq. (16) and (17), it is implied that l lj
WK2 = R -1 . The weighted observations
Thus, the unknown coefficients can be evaluated
d = WK d = WK d + e have been observed to satisfy the iteratively by utilizing Eq. (24). For easy understanding
relations in Eq. (18) [12]. of the readers, the proposed approach has been briefly
E [e ] = 0, E eee T = WK E eeT WKT = s 2 I (18) summarized in algorithm 1.
From Eq. (18), the transformed set of observations

is observed to satisfy the assumptions depicted in Eq.
(13) and it follows that * and can be found by
replacing , d in Eqs. (14) and (15) by WK , WK d
respectively. Hereafter, one can very easily obtain the
404
Algorithm 1: Pseudo code for the proposed approach performance of computational models in terms of their
1: Input the variable bounds and distributional prediction accuracy.
parameters. Generate sample points within the outer
limits and evaluate actual response. 3.1 Analytical examples
2: Normalize the variables.
Two nonlinear test functions have been selected in order
1
3: g0 g ( xs ) to investigate the performance of the proposed approach.
n n The description of the problems and random variables
have been provided in table 1 and 2, respectively. The
4: for i = 1: n number of sample points utilized have been reported in
di g ( xi ) - g0 table 3.
end for Table 1. Description of the analytical test problems
Name Function
( ) y ( x2 ) y ( x N )
T
5: y x1 Ishigami f ( x ) = sin ( x1 ) + a sin 2 ( x2 ) + bx34 sin ( x1 ) ;
function
[16] a = 7, b = 0.1, - p x p
6: d [d1 dn ]
T
d2
30-D n
n
2
n
4
s2 s2 function f ( x ) = xi2 + (1 2 ) ixi + (1 2 ) ixi ,

7: R diag 12 , , m2 i =1 i =1
s s [17] i =1
i = 1, 2, , n , n = 30
s s
8: WK diag , ,
s1 sm Table 2. Description of the random variables
Function Distribution Parameters
9: Minimize objective function Eq. (21) to determine
the correlation parameter.
Ishigami Uniform [-p ,p ]
function
10: B T R -1, C T R -1d 30-D function Uniform [1,5]
( ( ) ( ) )
-1
g ( s +1) diag d ( s +1) BT B diag d ( s +1) + l I Table 3. Number of sample points utilized
11: Function No. of samples
(
diag d (
s +1)
)B CT
Ishigami function 256
30-D function 3000
12: Construct g ( x ) using g (the parameterized
unknown coefficients.
13: Evaluate response using g ( x ) .
3 Numerical examples
This section has been bifurcated into two portions,
the first containing two analytical examples and the
second containing a finite element (FE) model of a
twenty five element space truss. The performance of the
proposed approach has been represented in the form of
probability density function (PDF) plot of responses.
Results obtained using the proposed approach have been
validated with that of full scale Monte Carlo simulation
(MCS). Comparison of the proposed approach has also
been carried out w.r.t HDMR and Kriging in case of the
analytical examples.
Out of the various available uniform and non-
uniform sampling techniques, latin-hypercube sampling Fig. 1. Response PDF for Ishigami function
[14] has been utilized. Gaussian correlation function has
been utilized in Kriging [15]. For all of the examples Table 4. Comparison of the error metrics for
investigated, various error metrics have been evaluated, Ishigami function
in order to access the performance of the proposed
Approach R2 RMSE E (%) [18]
approach. The use of such statistical metrics is quite
PA 0.992 0.331 6.496
recurrent in the literatures in order to access the
Kriging 0.651 2.199 43.118
HDMR 0.505 2.620 51.356
405
variables have been provided in table 6. Stochastic

response analysis has been carried out in terms of
maximum nodal displacement of the truss.
Fig. 2. Response PDF for 30-D function

Fig. 3. Twenty five element space truss
Table 5. Comparison of the error metrics for 30-D
function Table 6. Description of the random variables
Approach R2 RMSE E (%) [18] Variable Unit Distribution Parameters
PA 0.996 9.843x105 2.222 mean=1000
Kriging 0.975 2.603 x106 5.878 P1 lb Gumbel
cov=0.1
HDMR 0.998 7.429 x105 1.677 mean=10000
P2- P5 lb Gumbel
cov=0.1
The results of the two problems obtained have been mean=500
represented in figs. 1-2 and tables 4-5. Good agreement P6 lb Gumbel
cov=0.1
with that of MCS reveals accurate performance of the mean=600
proposed approach. On comparing the performance of P7 lb Gumbel
cov=0.1
PA, w.r.t Kriging and HDMR, it has been observed that mean=10000
PA performs well, especially in Ishigami function (refer E ksi Beta
cov=0.1
table 4), where, both Kriging and HDMR fails to A1-A25 sq.in Uniform [0.5, 2.0]
accurately the capture the non-linearity in the functional
space. In case of the 30-D function, it can be observed
from table 5 that, HDMR performs the best, however,
the performance of PA is worth mentioning as the
difference in error metrics obtained seems to be quite
less. The performance of PA in approximating a highly
non-linear function and a high dimensional problem is
observed to be good in terms of accuracy. Further, in
order to illustrate the computational efficiency of PA, an
FE model of a twenty five element space truss is solved
in the next section.
3.2 FE model of a twenty five element space truss

A twenty five element space truss [19] as shown in
fig. 3 has been considered in this section. The truss
structure consisting of ten nodes and twenty five
elements is subjected to seven loads (for details refer
[19]). All the loads acting on the truss structure have
been considered to be random. Furthermore, the cross-
sectional area of all twenty five members Ai , i = 1to25 Fig. 4. Comparison of response (maximum
displacement in inches) PDF obtained by PA
and Youngs modulus ( E ) have been considered to be
random. As a result, there are thirty three random
( Ns = 3000) w.r.t MCS ( N s = 3 104 ) .
variables in this problem. The description of the random
406
Table 7. Error metrics obtained by PA ( Ns = 3000) High dimensional model representation, J.

Phys. Chem. A, 105, pp. 77657777.
R2 RMSE E (%) [18]
[7] Jiang, L., and Li, X., 2015, Multi-element
0.9637 0.0216 2.9746 least square HDMR methods and their
applications for stochastic multiscale model
Good agreement with MCS illustrates robust reduction, J. Comput. Phys., 294, pp. 439461.
performance of PA in terms of accuracy (refer fig. 4 and [8] Yuan, Q., and Liang, D., 2011, A New
table 7). The number of sample points utilized for PA Multiple Sub-Domain RS-HDMR Method and
are 3000, which is significantly less than that of Its Application to Tropospheric Alkane
MCS ( N s = 3 104 ) . This illustrates the computational Photochemistry Model, Numer. Anal. Model.
efficiency of PA with excellent accuracy achieved. Ser. B, 2(1), pp. 7390.
[9] Dubourg, V., Sudret, B., and Bourinet, M.,
2011, Reliability-based design optimization
4 Conclusion using kriging surrogates and subset simulation,
In this work, a novel computational model for Struct. Multidiscip. Optim., 44(5), pp. 673690.
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approximation accuracy and computational effort has experiments, Stat. Sci., 4(4), pp. 409423.
been well illustrated through the numerical study carried [11] Kaymaz, I., 2005, Application of kriging
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have been summarized below: Struct. Saf., 27(2), pp. 133151.
The proposed model is non-intrusive in nature, [12] Dubourg, V., 2011, Adaptive surrogate
which allows a broad class of problems to be models for reliability analysis and reliability-
addressed. based design optimization, PhD thesis,
PA is flexible to be utilized with any sampling Universite Blaise Pascal, Clermont-Ferrand,
strategies. France.
[13] Marrel, A., Iooss, B., Van Dorpe, F., and
The two-tier approximation framework of the
Volkova, E., 2008, An efficient methodology
proposed model enhances the ability to capture
for modelling complex computer codes with
non-linear functional space adequately.
Gaussian processes, Comput. Stat. Data Anal.,
LASSO enables the proposed approach to
52, pp. 47314744.
construct a sparse model, which results to
[14] McKay, M. D., Beckman, R. J., and Conover,
lesser computational complexity w.r.t
W. J., 1979, A comparison of three methods
respective full model.
for selecting values of input variables in the
analysis of output from a computer code,
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[16] Sobol, I., and Levitan, Y., 1999, On the use of
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G., Schoendorf, J., and Rabitz, H., 2006,
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Random Sampling-High Dimensional Model
Comput. Phys. Commun., 117, pp. 5261.
Representation (RS-HDMR) and orthogonality
[17] Tavassoli, A., Haji Hajikolaei, K., Sadeqi, S.,
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[3] Tibshirani, R., 1996, Regression Shrinkage
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[18] Chakraborty, S., and Chowdhury, R., 2015,
[4] Sudret, B., 2012, Meta-models for structural
Multivariate function approximations using the
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D-MORPH algorithm, Appl. Math. Model.,
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39(23-24), pp. 71557180.
Stuctural Reliabilty and its Applications
[19] Chakraborty, S., and Chowdhury, R., 2015, A
(APSSRA, 2012), Singapore, pp. 5376.
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407
RELIABILITY BASED DESIGN OPTIMIZATION A

HYBRID PCFE BASED APPROACH
Souvik Chakraborty1 and Rajib Chowdhury2
1,2
Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee, Roorkee 247667, India
This paper presents a novel approach for reliability based design optimization. The proposed approach
facilitates a novel surrogate modelling technique, referred to as hybrid polynomial correlated function
expansion (H-PCFE), for reliability analysis and a particle swarm optimization for solving the
optimization. H-PCFE performs a bi-level approximation: first on a global scale by using polynomial
correlated function expansion and second on a local scale by using Kriging. Application of the proposed
approach has been illustrated with three numerical examples. For all the problems, the proposed approach
is found to yield excellent results, outperforming popular approaches available in literature. Moreover, the
computational effort associated with the proposed approach, as indicated by the number of actual function
evaluations, is significantly low which indicates the possible application of the proposed approach for
large scale problems.
Keywords: RBDO, H-PCFE, PCFE, Kriging
1 Introduction surrogate based RBDO techniques [4]. The FORM-

based RBDO techniques are again categorised into three
Reliability based design optimization (RBDO) is an
categories, namely (a) double loop approach [2], (b)
important prototype for performing optimization in the
single loop approach [3] and (c) decoupled approach [5].
presence of uncertainties. The basic goal of RBDO is to
As the name suggests, double loop approach uses two
ensure that the configuration obtained at the end of the
loops coupled with each other for solving the RBDO
optimization loop is reliable. To this end, an additional
problem. Two parallel approaches namely reliability
constraints, describing the reliability of the system, is
index based approach and probability measure based
introduced into the optimization framework. A RBDO
approach are available for double loop approach [2].
problem reads [1]:
Nonetheless, the double loop approach is
arg
gmmin f (x) computationally inefficient. In order to address this
x
issue, the other two variants have emerged. However, all
s.t. gi ( x ) 0, i = 1, 2, nie
(1) the three approaches relies on the FORM for performing
g ( x ) g threshold , i = 1, 2,,
i
p
, np reliability analysis and hence, results obtained for high
dimensional and highly nonlinear problems are often
h j ( x ) = 0, j = 1, 2, , ne
erroneous. Due to this reason, the other possible
where f ( x ) represents the objective function, gi ( x ) alternative that is the surrogate based RBDO techniques
has emerged. The basic idea of this approach is to utilize
represents the equality constraints, gip ( x ) represents
surrogate models for the reliability analysis. Naturally,
the probabilistic constraints and h j ( x ) represents the choice of surrogate model becomes extremely important
for this approach. Surrogate models that have been used
equality constraints. nie , n p and ne , respectively,
for RBDO are Kriging [4] and least square based
denotes the number of inequality constraints, number of response surface method [6]. However as already
probabilistic constraints and number of equality demonstrated, Kriging based approach requires
constraints. significantly more sample points [7] making the
Solving Eq. (1) described above entails solving a procedure inefficient. On the other hand, the least
reliability analysis problem. It is well established that square based response surface approach yields
solution of a RBDO problem is heavily dependent on satisfactory results only for linear and weakly nonlinear
the methods used for reliability analysis. The methods systems.
for RBDO, available in literature, can be broadly In order to address the above mentioned issues, a
classified into two groups: (A) first order reliability hybrid polynomial correlated function expansion (H-
method (FORM) based RBDO techniques [2,3] and (B) PCFE) based RBDO approach has been proposed in this
1 Research Scholar, csouvik41@gmail.com

2 Assistant Professor, rajibfce@iitr.ac.in
408
Souvik Chakraborty and Rajib Chowdhury
paper. H-PCFE [8,9] is a novel surrogate model recently 1

( d - * ) R-1 ( d - * )
T
proposed by the authors. Unlike conventional surrogates, s2 = (7)
m
H-PCFE performs a bi-level approximation: first on a
global scale by using the PCFE [1014] and secondly s s
where WK = diag , , .
on a local scale by using Kriging [15]. As a s1 sm
consequence, accuracy is significantly enhanced. In this Eq. (6) can be written in a matrix form as:
paper, the H-PCFE has been coupled into a conventional B = C (8)
particle swarm optimization (PSO) tool. While H-PCFE T -1 T -1 *
where, B = R , C = R d, = . Since H-
is used for performing the reliability analysis,
optimization is performed by using the PSO. As a PCFE employs extended bases [9] as already shown in
consequence, the computational effort associated with Eq. (2), matrix B has identical rows. These are
the RBDO problem is significantly reduced. redundants and can be removed. Removing the
The rest of the paper is organised as follows. In redundants, one obtains:
Section 2, the basic formulation of H-PCFE has been B = C (9)
provided. In Section 3, the proposed approach for
where B and C correspond to B and C , respectively,
RBDO has been presented. Section 4 presents three after removing the redundant equations. Eq. (9)
numerical examples to illustrate the performance of the represents a set of underdetermined equations and
proposed approach. Comparison with other state-of-the- naturally there exists an infinite solutions given as:
art techniques has also been presented. Finally, Section
5 presents the concluding remarks.
-1
(
= ( B ') C '+ I - ( B ') B ' v ( s )
-1
) (10)
where, ( B ' )
-1
denotes the generalized inverse of B '
2 H-PCFE that satisfies partially or completely all four Penrose
Suppose, x = ( x1 , x2 , , xN ) are the input variables, conditions [16]. I represents an identity matrix of
where x D N . In H-PCFE the output M( H-PCFE) dimensions q q .
can be represented as: Out of all the possible solutions for Eq. (10), the
M N - k +1 solution that minimizes the least squared error and

M( = g0 +
H-PCFE )
satisfies the hierarchical orthogonality of the component
k =1
i1 =1 functions [10], is termed as the best solution.
N k s s In H-PCFE, homotopy algorithm [1720] is
employed to determine the best solution. Employing
ik = ik -1 r =1 m1 =1 m2 =1 homotopy algorithm, the best solution is obtained as:
*HA = Vq - r ( UTq - r Vq - r ) UTq - r ( B ') C ' (11)
-1
s
a( i1i2 ik ) ir
m1m2 mr y mi
1
1
y mi + s 2 Z ( x, )
r

r

mr =1 where,
(2) A 0 T
where g0 is a constant and referred to as zeroth order PWHA = U r V (12)
0 0
component function. M denotes the maximum order of and
component function and y denotes some suitable basis.
P = I - ( B ') B '

(13)
Writing Eq. (2)in matrix form
( B ')

d = + e (3) in Eq. (13) is the generalised inverse of
where d is the difference between response at the B ' satisfying all four Penrose conditions. WHA in Eq.
sample point and the mean response and mxp . If (12) is the weight matrix utilised for formulating the
the errors are assumed to be uncorrelated and have the objective function in homotopy algorithm. For details
same variance such that R = I , and maximum regarding the formulation of weight matrix, interested
likelihood estimate of the parameter is the least square readers may refer [10,21]. For details regarding
solution * , obtained as homotopy algorithm, interested readers may refer [17
* = ( T ) T d ,
-1 20].
(4)
Once the unknown coefficient vector *HA is
the maximum likelihood estimate of the variance is
determined, the prediction mean and prediction variance
obtained as
are given as:
s 2 = ( d - * ) ( d - * )
1
m ( x ) = g 0 + M*HA + r ( x ) R -1 ( d - Y*HA ) (14)
T
(5)
m
Now extending the above concept for uncorrelated and
errors having different variance such that E ( ei ei ) = s i2 2

s ( x) = s 1- r ( x) R r ( x) +
2 -1 T (
1 - YT R -1r ( x )
T
) (15)
( )
and E ei e j = 0 for i j

YT R -1Y

( T
R -1 ) * = T R -1d (6) where
409
(
M = y 1 ( x p ) ,y 2 ( x p ) , ) (16) Step 10: iteration > maximum iterations, go to step 5.
at the prediction point x p and 4 Numerical Examples

(
r ( x ) = R ( x p , x1 ) , R ( x p , x2 ) , ) (17) In this section, three numerical examples are
presented to illustrate the performance of the proposed
approach. For all the examples, only a second order H-
3 H-PCFE based RBDO Framework PCFE model and a third order basis have been used. As
for the stochastic part of H-PCFE, Gaussian covariance
H-PCFE described in previous section provides an
function has been used due to its superior performance
efficient means to represent the constraint functions in a
[22]. The sample points required for H-PCFE have been
RBDO problem and perform reliability analysis. As for
generated by using the sequential experimental design
the objective function(s), it is generally not necessary to
scheme based on optimal Latin hypercube sampling.
employ H-PCFE since the objective functions are more
Further details of this scheme can be found in [1].
or less simple. However as a special case, if the
Results obtained using the proposed approach have
objective function of a RBDO problem involves
been validated against brute force optimization
stochastic computations, it is possible to employ H-
performed by using Monte Carlo simulation (MCS)
PCFE by using the same procedure. One such problem
with PSO. Additionally comparison with results
is presented in example 3 of this paper.
obtained using other state-of-the-art techniques has been
There exists multiple alternatives for formulating a
presented to illustrate the superior performance of the
RBDO framework by using the H-PCFE. The obvious
proposed approach.
option is to represent the constraint by using H-PCFE at
each optimization step. However, such an approach is
computationally inefficient. In this work an alternative 4.1 A Highly Nonlinear Test Function
approach has been adopted. The basic idea of the
In this example, a two dimensional mathematical
proposed approach is to first generate a single H-PCFE
problem first proposed by Lee and Jung [23] has been
based surrogate and subsequently update it based on
considered. The typicality resides in the probabilistic
local refinement. The different steps involved in the
counterpart of this problem. The two performance
proposed approach are:
functions involved are:
Step 1: Input the statistical properties of the input
parameters. Also provide no. of particles, no. of
iteration count and technology parameter. g1 ( x ) = - x1 sin ( 4x1 ) -1.1x2 sin ( 2x2 ) (18)
Step 2: Using the H-PCFE, generate approximate g2 ( x ) = x1 + x2 - 3 (19)
functions for the probabilistic constraint(s). where x represents the realization of the random vector
Step 3: Randomly initialize the position and velocity of X composed of two independent Gaussian random
the particles variables with standard deviation s = 0.1 . For solving
Step 4: For each particle, perform the followings steps
the RBDO problem, the mean of the random variables
(for the probabilistic constraints)
are considered to be the design variables. The objective
(a) Generate random numbers corresponding to
function for this problem reads:
each input variables.
(b) Predict response using the H-PCFE model.
c ( d ) = ( m1 - 3.7 ) + ( m2 - 4 )
2 2
Also predict error in prediction (Eq. (15)). (20)
(c) Identify the sample points corresponding to The problem domain is restrained to the following hyper
which prediction error is significant. Place rectangular design space:
additional points in the vicinity of those points.
Update the H-PCFE model. = [0;3.7] [0
0;4] (21)
(d) Compute the probability of failure and hence, The probabilistic constraints associated with this
the probabilistic constraints. problem are
(e) Compute other deterministic constraints as
well. g1 ( X ( d ) ) 0 F ( - b ) (22)
Step 5: If for each particles, all the constraints are
satisfied, proceed. Else, go to step 3
Step 6: For each particle, calculate fitness value. If
fitness value is better than the best fitness value in g 2 ( X ( d ) ) 0 F ( - b ) (23)
history, repeat Step 4 to check whether the constraints where b represents the generalised reliability index.
are satisfied. If constraints are satisfied, set the current
value as the best value (pbest). For both the probabilistic constraints,
Step 7: For each particle, choose the particle with the
best pbest as the gbest.
b =2 (24)
Step 8: Calculate particle velocity and particle position. has been considered.
Step 9: Increment iteration count by 1 Results obtained using the proposed approach have
been presented in Table 1. It is observed that the results
410
obtained using the proposed approach are almost Table 2 Statistical parameters for Euler buckling
identical to the benchmark solution. Additionally, the problem
number of sample points required using the proposed
approach is significantly less as compared to other state- Variable Distribution Mean COV
of-the art methods.
E (MPa) Lognormal 10,000 15%
Table 1 Comparative results for the nonlinear function
b (mm) Lognormal
mb 5%
Method m1 m2 Cost b 1
a
b a
2
g1 g 2 -call
mh
h (mm) Lognormal 5%
Brute 2.79 3.28 1.34 2 107
Force L (mm) Deterministic 3,000
PMA 2.82 3.30 1.26 1.67 >8 296

Proposed approach has been employed for RBDO
PMA- 2.82 3.30 1.26 1.67 >8 90 of the above mentioned problem. Results obtained has
Kriging been shown in Table 3. In absence of result obtained
using the other state-of-the-art RBDO techniques, only
Meta- 2.81 3.25 1.35 2 >8 80/10 the results obtained using the proposed approach and
RBDO brute force approach (benchmark solution) have been
shown. It is observed that the results obtained using the
H- 2.8 3.27 1.34 2 32/12 proposed approach are almost identical to the
PCFE benchmark solution. Additionally, number of sample
RBDO points required using the proposed approach is
significantly less as compared to the benchmark
solution.
4.2 Euler Buckling of Straight Column Table 3 RBDO results for Euler Buckling of
Column Problem
In this example, the well-known Euler buckling of
straight column [1] problem has been considered. The Method m1 m2 g1 -call
underlying problem involves three random variables and
two design variables. The objective is to minimize the Brute Force 231 231 107
overall cross-sectional area, i.e.,
H-PCFE 230.8 231.1 64
f ( x ) = mb mh (25)
RBDO
The problem is subjected to a probabilistic constraint
defined in term of the buckling load. Hence, the
performance function of the system is
4.3 A Short Column under Oblique Bending
p 2 Ebh3 p 2 mE mb( 0) mh(0)3
g1 ( x ) = - (26) The last example considered involves a short
12L2 12L2
column under oblique bending. This is a well-known
where E, b, h are the random variables with mean m E ,
example that has been widely used for RBDO problems.
mb and mh . The details regarding the random variables It is inspired by the article by Royset et al. [5].
are provided in Table 2. The probabilistic constraint The structure under consideration is a short column
reads with rectangular cross-section b h . It is subjected to
( g1 ( x ) ) F ( -b ) (27) two moments M 1 and M 2 and an axial force P . The
where b denotes the generalised reliability index. For system described above is referred to as oblique bending
because of the rotation of the neutral axis, as illustrated
this problem,
in Fig. 1. According to the actual reference, the
b =3 (28) performance function describing the ultimate
serviceability of the column is given as:
has been considered. Additionally one deterministic 2
constraint, as shown in Eq. (29), is also involved with 4M 4M P
g (x) = 1- 2 1 - 2 2 - (30)
this problem bh s y b hs y bhs y
g2 ( x) = mh - mb 0 (29) Eq. (30) is obtained by assuming the constitutive

material to be having an elastic perfectly plastic
behaviour. The stochastic model considered involves six
independent random variables. Statistical properties of
the random variables are given in Table 4. Similar to
411
previous example, mb and mh are considered to be the 5 Conclusions

design variables. In this paper, a novel approach for reliability based
design optimization (RBDO) has been presented. The
proposed approach facilitates a novel surrogate model,
referred to as hybrid polynomial correlated function
expansion (H-PCFE) for reliability analysis and particle
swarm optimization for solving the optimization. It is
argued that coupling H-PCFE into the optimization
framework significantly reduces the computational cost
without affecting the accuracy. Additionally, a scheme
to update the generated H-PCFE model has also been
proposed in this work.
Performance of the proposed approach for RBDO
has been illustrated with three numerical examples. For
all the examples, the proposed approach yields highly
accurate results. Additionally, the computational effort
as indicated by the number of actual function
evaluations, has also been reduced significantly.
Fig. 1 Short Column under Oblique Bending
Table 5 Comparative results for the beam subjected to
Table 4 Probabilistic model for short column subjected oblique bending
to oblique bending Method mb mh Cost b1a g1 -call
Variable Distribution Mean COV
M 1 (N.mm) Lognormal 250 10 6 0.3 Brute 359 556 2.15 105 3.1 19 106
M 2 (N.mm) Lognormal 125 106 0.3 Force
P (N) Lognormal 2.5 106 0.2
DSA 372 449 2.15 105 3.38 4 106
sy (MPa) Lognormal 40 0.1
b (mm) Normal mb 0.01 Nested 399 513 2.12 105 3.38 9472
h (mm) Normal mh 0.01 FORM
Meta- 358 560 2.15 105 3.32 70

The objective function of this problem is given as: RBDO
c ( d ) = c0 ( d ) + p f ( d ) c f ( d )
H- 360 557 2.15 105 3.16 48
= c0 ( d ) (1 + 100 p f ( d ) ) (31) PCFE
= mb m h (1 + 100 p f ( d ) ) RBDO
where p f c f is the expected failure cost which, in this

case, is considered to be proportional to the construction Acknowledgments
cost c0 . The search for the optimal designs is subjected
SC acknowledges the support of MHRD, Govt. of
to the following geometric constraints:
India. RC acknowledges the support of CSIR via grant
1 mb
2 (32) no. 22(0712)/16/EMR-II.
2 mh
and References
100 mb , mh 1000 (33)
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using other state-of-the-art techniques. It is observed new study on reliability-based design
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413
Numerical Modeling of Spalling in High Strength Concrete at High

Temperature
P.Ravi Prakash1 , Gaurav2

1
Ph.D. Candidate, Department of Civil engineering, IIT Gandhinagar, India
Email: patnayakuni.prakash@iitgn.ac.in
2
Assistant Professor, Department of Civil engineering, IIT Gandhinagar, India
Email: gauravs@iitgn.ac.in
Abstract
High strength concrete (HSC) is predominantly used in high rise reinforced concrete buildings. While excellent from
strength point of view at room temperature, HSC is known to be prone to spalling, when exposed to high
temperatures (e.g. in case of a fire). Fire resistance evaluated from building codes[1,2] and through simulation-based
studies typically do not consider the effects of spalling. To alleviate these difficulties, a 2-D hydrothermal model has
been developed for predicting the extent of spalling in HSC. The numerical model evaluates pore pressure inside the
concrete as a function of time using the laws of thermodynamics. Spalling is said to occur when the pore pressure
built-up within concrete exceeds its tensile strength. The model depends on several parameters such as permeability,
initial moisture content and thermo-mechanical properties of concrete. All of these parameters are considered by the
model through a two-way coupling between the pore pressure analysis and thermal analysis, both implemented
using the finite element method. Validity of the numerical example is established by comparing the spalling
predictions obtained from the numerical model against standard experiments available in the literature. Parametric
studies have also been performed using the numerical model to quantify the effects of model parameters such as
permeability, grade of concrete and type of fire scenario on the prediction of spalling.
Keywords: NSC, HSC, Spalling, Permeability, Fire response
Introduction characterized by high density, high strength and low

permeability and hence, it is more susceptible to
Reinforced concrete structures are extensively spalling at elevated temperatures. Spalling occurs due
utilized as load bearing mechanisms in residential, to the accumulation of built-up pore pressure inside
office and industrial buildings. In addition to the concrete. Low permeability and high density in HSC
usual service loads, these buildings carry the risk of can cause internal pore-pressures of as high as 6
being exposed to fire during their design life. Hence, MPa. Such internal vapor pressures are can be
quantification of their response against fire is vital. In critical for materials like concrete which possess low
recent years, use of high strength concrete in tensile strength, and eventually result in explosive
structural engineering applications like high rise spalling at elevated temperatures.
buildings, bridges etc, has increased significantly. Fire induced spalling is a key physical behavior
This is mainly due economic and architectural which needs to be incorporated in coupled thermo-
advantages associated with HSC compared to mechanical analysis of concrete structures, especially
conventional normal strength concrete (NSC). For for HSC, primarily because spalling can cause
performance based design of these HSC structures, significant reduction in the cross-section/thickness of
understanding the behavior of HSC at elevated the structural member which, in turn, accelerates the
temperatures is vital. Concrete structures, in general, heat transfer to the embedded steel rebars and
exhibit good fire resistance compared to steel and eventually affects the load carrying capacity of the
timber structures. However, they are prone to structure. Experimental investigations as reported in
explosive spalling which enhances the risk of the literature [3], [4] infer contradictory picture of
structural collapse during fire. Previous studies on spalling mechanism as well as spalling occurrences.
spalling in concrete structures [3], [4] revealed that Many research investigations reported explosive
HSC structures are more prone to spalling compared spalling during laboratory fire tests as well as full
to NSC when subjected to rapid heating. HSC is scale tests on HSC structures [5]. At the same time
414
P .Ravi Prakash and Gaurav
there were tests on HSC where almost no spalling has reasonably accurate, computationally efficient
been reported [5]. The main reason for this framework is required for spalling prediction in
phenomenon is, spalling is dependent on several concrete structures.
interdependent physical parameters. In terms of
spalling mechanisms, in-built pore pressure based as Pore pressure inside concrete sections can be
well as thermal dilatation based spalling mechanisms computed in a computationally efficient manner
are most widely accepted. Present study focus mainly using a pore pressure analysis coupled to a heat
on in-built pore-pressure based spalling mechanism. transfer analysis. The hydrothermal model is
essentially derived from the laws of thermodynamics
A very limited number of numerical models [6], and structural mechanics. Dwaikat and Kodur [10]
[7] are available to quantify the pore pressure across developed a 1-D hydro thermal model for pore
a concrete section at elevated temperatures. pressure computations inside concrete structures
Aforementioned numerical models perform utilizing laws of thermo-dynamics and validated
combined 3-D heat and mass transfer analysis in against standard experiments. However, parameters
concrete structures and are computationally intensive. like critical state of water and permeability of
Also, to accurately capture the spalling phenomenon concrete were not addressed properly. In the present
using the aforementioned numerical models, input study, utilizing the laws of thermodynamics, a-2D
parameters like mass of liquid, mass of vapor, coupled heat transfer- pore pressure analysis
material permeability tensor coupled with material framework is developed for spalling prediction in
stiffness tensor should be known at elevated concrete structures. Due consideration is given to
temperatures. However, some of these parameters critical state of water while computing the Bazants
are not accurately defined even at room temperatures. isotherms [11], which are required for pore pressure
To alleviate these difficulties, few researchers analysis. In case of permeability, a non-uniform
suggested simplified analytical methods to predict permeability suggested by Gawin et al. [6] is
spalling in concrete structures. Kodur et al. [8] followed for realistic structures utilizing a thermo-
proposed a temperature-based spalling criteria. Their mechanical solver developed by Prakash and Gaurav
spalling criteria had been developed from the [12]. Utilizing the developed framework, validation
experimental observations of full-scale fire tests on studies are performed for standard experiments
HSC structures. However, these simplified analytical available in the literature. Also, parametric studies
methods cannot be relied upon due to the are demonstrated to quantify the effect of
uncertainties pertaining in spalling monitoring permeability and grade of concrete on the extent of
system. Also, the effect of parameters like grade of explosive spalling in HSC structures.
concrete, permeability, porosity etc. are not
accounted for in the aforementioned analytical 2 Thermal analysis
method. In terms of codal provisions, very few
guidelines are available regarding spalling in Thermal analysis is performed for concrete cross-
concrete structures without actually integrating it in sections by solving the transient heat conduction
the design philosophy. Eurocode-2[1] provides equation in 2D given by
simplified guidelines to prevent spalling in concrete
structures. It suggests that concrete structures with T
k T + Q = rc ,
2
moisture content less than 3 % are not prone to (1)
spalling. However, it ignores the effects of t
permeability and strength of concrete which can
accelerate spalling phenomenon even at low moisture where, k is the coefficient of thermal conductivity, c
contents. ACI 216.1 [9] suggests that spalling can be is the specific heat, and is the mass density of the
avoided with the aid of poly propylene fibers in the material; Q is the heat source, t represents time, and T
design mix. Above mentioned guidelines are represents temperature. The effects of convection and
developed on the basis on laboratory tests on small radiation have been considered through boundary
samples without accounting for built up pore pressure conditions given by
due to moisture migration. Also, above mentioned
laboratory tests uses standard fire curves and doesnt k T n = h (T - T ) , (2)
account for design fire curves. The lack of reasonably
accurate spalling prediction frame work is the
where T is the ambient temperature, h is the
principle reason for ignoring spalling effects in
temperature-dependent combined convective-
building codes as well as in typical thermo-
radiative heat transfer coefficient, and n is the vector
mechanical analysis frameworks. Hence, a
415
normal to the boundary. The fire exposure of Mass transport of liquid water is ignored as
concrete structures is considered by linking T with permeability of liquid water in concrete is
the fire temperature. For instance, to subject a much smaller compared to that of water
structural member to the standard fire ASTME119 vapor.
[13], T is prescribed as Mass transport of water vapor through
( (
T = T0 + 750 1 - exp -3.9953 th )) + 170.41 th , (3) concrete is modeled using Darcys law.
Spalling is assumed to occur when the built
up pore pressure exceeds the temperature
where, T0 is the initial ambient temperature and th is dependent tensile strength of concrete.
time in hours. Eq.(2) is discretized in space using Based on the above mentioned assumptions, 2-D pore
four noded bilinear quad elements and is solved using pressure inside concrete is modelled by
the Galerkin method [14]. Upon spatial discretization
of Eq.(2), a first-order nonlinear ordinary differential Pv
equation in time is obtained as k p Pv + Q p = A
2
, (6)
t
M T T + K T T = F, (4)
kt mv dml Vvz
where, k p = mv , A= 1 - V r dP + RT , Pv
where MT is the heat capacity matrix, KT is the m v l v
conductivity matrix, and F is the heat flux vector. is pore pressure, is coefficient of dynamic viscosity,
The generalized trapezoidal scheme in time domain is mv is the mass of water vapor, Vv is the volume of
applied to Eq.(4) which yields a system of nonlinear water vapor, l is the density of liquid water, is the
algebraic equations given by molar mass of water, R is the ideal gas constant, t is
the coefficient of intrinsic permeability and Qp is the
(M T
+ tb K T ) Tn +1 = ( M T - t (1 - b ) K T ) Tn + mass flow rate of water vapor computed using
(5) Bazants isotherms and can be found in [10], [11].
t ( b Fn +1 - (1 - b ) Fn ) ,
The initial condition for above vapor diffusion model
is given by
where is the time step, is a constant between 0
and 1 ( 0.5 for unconditional stability), and the
Pvo = Rho Pso (7)
subscripts n or n+1 represent functions being
evaluated at times tn or tn+1, respectively. Eq.(5) is
highly nonlinear due to temperature-dependent where, Pvo is initial pore pressure in concrete, Rho is
material properties as well as the convective-radiative the initial relative humidity in concrete and Pso is the
boundary conditions, and is solved iteratively using initial saturation pressure. Eq.(6) is discretized in
the Newton-Raphson (NR) method. The NR residual spatial domain using four noded bilinear quad
Rsn+1 at a given time tn+1 is defined from Eq.(5) and elements and is solved using the Galerkin method
the iterations are continued until the residual reaches [14]. Upon spatial discretization a first-order
a specified relative tolerance of 10-4. nonlinear ordinary differential equation in time is
obtained as
3 Pore pressure analysis
A P PV + K P PV = FP . (8)
To quantify the extent of spalling in concrete
structures, a 2-D two-way coupled pore pressure and Furthermore, a generalized trapezoidal scheme is
heat transfer analysis needs to be performed. Two- applied to Eq.(8) and series of non-linear algebraic
way coupling between thermal and pore pressure equations are obtained and are solved iteratively
analysis is required to cater for cross-sectional using NR method as discussed in the thermal
reduction due to spalling and is accounted for in the analysis. Spalling is said to occur in an element when
subsequent heat transfer analysis. In the present the built-up pore pressure exceeds temperature
study, following assumptions are considered while
dependent tensile strength of concrete (.Pv fT' ).
performing the pore pressure analysis.
Concrete is assumed to be an isotropic Where is the porosity of concrete and fT' is the
continuum medium. temperature dependent tensile strength of concrete
Water vapor is treated as an ideal gas with and is taken from constitutive relationship proposed
due consideration to the critical state of by Rots et al.[15].
water in the numerical model.
416
4 Numerical Examples 450

Computed
Block thickness (mm)

This section illustrates validation studies on spalling 400
Experimental
in HSC structures. For validation studies, following
examples are considered. 350
HSC block exposed to Fire
HSC concrete beam exposed to fire. 300
4.1 HSC block subjected to Fire

250
A HSC block shown in Fig.1 with specifications in 0 1 2 3

Time (hours)
Table 1 is subjected to ASTM-E1529 fire exposure.
Bilodeu et al. [16] investigated the experimental
spalling response of aforementioned HSC block
(Fig.2) exposed to a 2 hour ASTM-E1529 [6] fire. 4.2 HSC beam exposed to Fire
Reduced block thickness due to spalling had been
measured only at the end of experiment. 2-D A HSC beam with specifications in Table 2 is
hydrothermal analysis is performed for this HSC considered. Dwaikat and Kodur [17] experimentally
block and temperature dependent spalling prediction characterized the spalling response history of this
is obtained and compared against experimental beam which is subjected to a long term Design fire
counterpart as shown in Fig.2. The developed as shown in Fig.3.
numerical model is able to predict the reduction in
the thickness of the block due to spalling with Table 2 : Specifications of Concrete beam [17].
reasonable accuracy.
Physical property Value
Table 1 : Specifications of HSC block [16]. Dimensions(mm) 254406
t (m2) 110-18
Physical property Value c (kg/m3) 513
t (m2) 110-18 Vso (m3) 0.929
c (kg/m3) 461 fck (MPa) 93.3
Vso (m3) 0.96 Rh(%) 86
fck (MPa) 65 Clear cover (mm) 38
Rh(%) 86
1200
Temperature (oC)
1000
800
600
400
200
0
0 2 4 6
Time (hours)
Figure 3: Long term design fire for HSC beam.
In case of HSC structures subjected to flexure, initial

intrinsic permeability is non-uniform depending upon
Figure 1: HSC block subjected to ASTM-E1529 fire.
the extent of mechanical damage in compression and
tension regimes. Gawin et al [6] addressed this issue
Figure 2: Reduction in block thickness due to
by proposing a modification factor which is a
spalling. function of damage in concrete. In the present study,
mechanical damage in concrete is quantified from
417
the thermo-mechanical analysis frame work 10
% of concrete spalled
developed by Prakash and Gaurav [12] and is utilized
in permeability computations. Also, spalling is 8
assumed to occur outside of the confinement as
6
observed from many full scale fire tests. fck=70 MPa
Incorporating above mentioned phenomena, 2-D 4 fck=93MPa
hydro thermal analysis is performed for the HSC fck=110MPa
beam under consideration. Volume of concrete 2
spalled is compared against experimental
observations as shown in Fig.4. The spalling response 0
history computed by the model shows good 0 1 2 3 4
agreement with the experimental observations. Time (hours)
Further, parametric studies are performed to study the
effects of intrinsic permeability and grade of concrete Figure 6: Effect of grade of concrete on spalling
on the response of this beam, as shown in Fig.5 and response.
Fig.6. Parametric studies indicate that intrinsic
permeability and grade of concrete have a significant
5 Conclusions
effect on spalling response of concrete structures
under fire. A simplified framework for the prediction the
spalling response of HSC structures at elevated
10 temperatures has been developed. The developed
framework considered two-way coupling between

8
thermal and pore pressure anlysis with temperature
6 dependent thermal and mechanical properties. The
Experimental accuracy of the developed framework was
4 demonstrated through two numerical examples. The
numerical examples indicate that devloped
2 Computed
framework is reasonably acurate for spalling
prediction in HSC structures. Furthermore,
0 parametric studies were performed to study the effect
0 1 2 3 4 of permiability and grade of concrete on splalling in
Time (hours) HSC structures. Parametric studies showed that,
permiabilty of concrete has signficant effect on the
Figure 4: Comparison of experimental and computed extent of concrete spalling. Higher permiabilty leads
Spalling respnse to lower spalling and vice versa. Also, higher tensile
strength of concrete leads to lower spalling and vice
12 versa.
10 6 References
8
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t = 510
= 110
Series2 -18 m2 Structural Fire Design. Brussels: Eurocode-
t
2 t = 0.510-18 m2 2, 2004.
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Matrix Method Based Framework for the
419
ANALYTICAL SOIL-STRUCTURE INTERACTION

FORMULATIONS IN FREQUENCY DOMAIN FOR STRUCTURES
FOUNDED ON FLEXIBLE BASES
Vishwajit Anand 1, S R Satish Kumar 2
1,2
Over last few decades, the traditionally prevailing view of the always-beneficial role of soil-structure
interaction (SSI), in seismic response of structures, has been challenged. It has been established that
ignoring SSI can be an oversimplification which may lead to an unsafe design in certain cases. There has
also been a simultaneous development of solution techniques for SSI problems. Analytical solutions occupy
a prominent place among them as compared to experimental and numerical solutions which are either
cumbersome or computationally expensive. This paper presents an array of analytical formulations
available to solve an SSI problem involving flexible footings. An attempt is made to report convenience
and/or difficulties involved in each formulation. The scope of this paper is restricted to analytical
formulations in frequency domain alone. This paper thus finds its place in assisting researchers and
professionals in selection of an efficient and convenient analytical formulation for an SSI problem.
Keywords: Soil-structure interaction, Substructure method, Analytical formulations, Frequency domain,

Flexible bases.
1 Soil-structure interaction: General Introduction neglecting SSI would mean a loss in economy which is
of major concern in contemporary construction.
In order to provide simple frameworks for design,
An approximate description of the term, as presented
building codes all around the globe often incorporate
in Ref. [7] states SSI to denote a particular category of
substantial approximations which may not be true in
contact problems where along the surface of a structural
every case. Soil-structure interaction (SSI) is one such
element (e.g. shallow/piled foundation, earth-retaining
example which has been traditionally considered to pose
structure) in contact with the surrounding ground, the
beneficial effects on seismic response of a structure. Most
stresses acting along the interface cannot be defined
seismic codes either do not make a note of it or suggest it
without simultaneously determining the deformation and
to be reasonably neglected in order to achieve a
displacement fields along the very same interface.
conservative design without getting involved into
Therefore SSI problems belong to a class of coupled
complicated analysis. The usual reasoning provided in
contact problems where action and reaction along the
this regard is that considering SSI makes a structure more
contact surface are functions of each other. As suggested
flexible, increases its natural period and enhances its
in Ref. [5], the total interaction effect, comprising of
effective damping ratio. Though negligence of SSI has
kinematic and inertial components, can be analysed in a
been based on numerous investigations such as Ref. [2],
number of ways, viz. linear versus nonlinear cases,
this notion has been challenged at times. As investigated
continuum versus discrete formulations, frequency-
in Ref. [8], this may turn out to be an oversimplification
domain versus time-domain solutions, direct versus
and result into unsafe design in certain cases. In this
substructure method, etc. Seismic events trigger soil
regard, there have been numerous observations from
displacements known as free-field motion which gets
earthquake damaged sites round the globe such as Ref.
revamped while getting transmitted to the foundation
[8,11] which show that the local soil conditions and the
system. This revamp is attributed to the kinematic
interaction between soil and foundation affect the
interaction. Simultaneously, mass of the structural system
dynamic behaviour of structure. SSI effects have been
transmits an inertial force to the soil causing further soil
observed in Ref. [9] to be predominant for rigid heavy
deformations, referred to as inertial interaction.
structures like nuclear reactors and elevated highways
Predominance of either factor in the complete scenario is
founded on soft soils. Moreover Ref. [6] observed that
a function of concerned ground excitation. Ref. [9]
non-homogeneity of soil tends to enhance interaction
suggests that at low levels of ground shaking, kinematic
effects and to filter out high frequency components of
effect is more dominant while inertial effects rule in case
excitation. This emphasizes upon need of including non-
of stronger shaking.
homogeneity of soil in an SSI analysis. On the other hand,
The direct method analyses the idealized soil-
even in cases where SSI turns out to be beneficial,
structure system by applying free-field ground motion to
1
Research Scholar, vishan1710@gmail.com
2
Professor, kim@iitm.ac.in
420
Vishwajit Anand and S R Satish Kumar
the boundaries of a discrete model and thus determines dynamic stiffness of soil [!] (also known as impedance
the overall response of the combined soil-structure functions), which for a bounded system is calculated as:
[!] = ["](1 + 2#$) % &' [*]

system. This idealized system comprises of a significant
part of the surrounding soil beyond which interaction (1)
where ["] and [*] are respectively static stiffness

effects are considered to be negligible. Computation of
actual structural response thus requires a further analysis
with SSI results as input, which adds to the complexity and mass-matrices, and is frequency-independent
of the problem. On the other hand, substructure approach hysteretic damping ratio which is assumed constant
divides the SSI problem into a series of simpler problems, throughout the structure. Dynamic stiffness of soil, being
whose solutions are simply superimposed to obtain the frequency dependent and complex upon considering
structural response. Since superposition implies linearity radiation damping, renders unbounded soil domain to be
well assumed within the framework, this approach does best described for harmonic excitation, where material
not work well when non-linear effects such as those damping can also be easily introduced. This implies that
arising from partial uplift of shallow footings or pile-soil linear SSI analysis is best handled in frequency domain
gaps are expected. Because of the same reasoning, this using complex response method. The scope of this paper
method cannot be used in computing damage to a is therefore restricted to analytical formulations in
structure during an earthquake. Substructure approach frequency domain alone. Before proceeding with the
rests on the determination of force-displacement formulations, certain notations, as depicted in Figure 1,
characteristics of the soil either in form of impedence or are introduced.
compliance functions. Since substructure approach rests
on superposing results of various segments, linearity is
implicitly assumed in the procedure. However advances
have been made to incorporate non-linearity of structure
and nearby soil which may include formation of gap
between footing and soil. Moreover, substructure
approach is most often implemented in frequency domain
to account for frequency dependence of foundation
impedance functions. Section 2 describes analytical
frameworks for solving SSI problems in frequency
domain followed by a critical evaluation of their scope
and limitations. There has been further development of
physical models which can mimic the behavior at soil- Figure 1: Various substructures and nodes (Ref. [9])
structure interface. Lumped parameter models and cone
models are the prominent ones which have been [A]: Kinematic transformation matrix.
elaborately described in Ref. [10]. Cone models have also [S]: Dynamic stiffness matrix.
been implemented in Ref. [5]. Though these physical {u}: Displacement amplitude vector.
models provide little physical insight into the problem, Superscripts (except t which denotes total) denote
they are best suited to be used in design offices owing to substructure involved. The structure is indicated by s,
their simplicity. Another advancement in this regard has soil with excavation by g (for ground), soil without
been development of macro-element method which is excavation by f (for free-field), and excavated soil by
expected to overcome drawbacks of substructure method. e.
Subscripts denote nodes of discretized system.
2 Analytical formulations Nodes on structure-soil interface are represented by b
while the remaining nodes on structure alone are
Experimental studies such as Ref. [3], being represented by s. In the substructure method, no nodes
cumbersome and uneconomical, are quite a few. are introduced in the interior of the soil. However, in
Numerical solutions, including those based on finite direct method, i and r respectively denote nodes of soil
element or boundary element methods, involve extensive located in interior region and on exterior boundary.
computations especially in cases of stratified soil Since rigid base formulations can be obtained by
deposits. But, in actual practice, most of the soil media considering rigid body motion about any point O on its
are inhomogeneous. Since analytical solutions do not base, they can be easily deduced using following
need nodes to be defined in soil media except those transformation.
{,-. } = [/]{,0. }
located at structure-soil interface, they can be of practical
significance. This section presents an array of analytical (2)
(substructure approach) formulations in frequency
domain available in Ref. [9] to solve an SSI problem. A The transformation matrix is kinematic in nature and
further attempt is made to report convenience and/or depends only on geometric quantities. Hence, rigid base
difficulties involved in each formulation. The first step formulations have not been reported in this paper for the
involved in using these formulations is computation of sake of brevity. However notable observations have been
pointed at few instances.
421
2.1 Equation of motion in total displacement application of seismic loads only at nodes located on
structure-soil interface. However, since structural
The most basic of all these formulations involves
engineers find it convenient to apply seismic inertial
equation of motion expressed in terms of total
loads at all nodes of the structure, two-step interaction
displacement amplitudes of the nodes in the structure and
analysis- kinematic and inertial as dealt in Section 2.2 is
on the structure-soil interface. It has been observed that
frequently used. The total displacements are split into
the direct method and the substructure method, if
those caused by kinematic and inertial interactions,
implemented consistently, yield identical equation (3).
denoted by superscripts k and i respectively as
The underlying derivation through substructure method
illustrated by equation (7).
{,4. } = {,4G } + {,4H }

makes use of corresponding principle, i.e. equation (4).
[!44 ] [!4- ] {,4. } {<}

3 6 89 . : = ; > > A
(7a)
[!-4 ] [!-- ] + 5!-- 7 {,- } 5!-- 7?,- @
(3)
{,-. } = ?,-G @ + ?,-H @!
4
(7b)
5!-- 7?,- @ = 5!-- 7?,- @

> > 6 6 (4)
Superposition of substructures excavated part e

and soil after excavation g results into free-field f , and
this implies
5!-- 7 = [!-- ] + 5!-- 7

> B 6 (5)
Substituting equation (5) into equation (3) results

into the following equation of motion.
[!44 ] [!4- ] {,4. }
3 > 89 . :
[!-4 ] [!--
4 ]
% [!--
B ]
+ 5!-- 7 {,- }
{<}
=; > > A
5!-- 7?,- @
(6)
suggests that difference of property matrices ([CEDD ] %

This formulation, physically depicted in Figure 2, Figure 3: Physical interpretation of kinematic and
[CFDD ]) of structure and soil in embedded region is of

inertial interactions (Ref. [9])
much significance. In other words it is the relative For kinematic interaction alone, mass of the structure
difference in stiffness of structure and soil which actually is set equal to zero. Introducing dynamic stiffness matrix
affects whether SSI effect would be beneficial or of structure (equation (1)) into formulation for flexible
detrimental. Rigid structures on flexible soil are the ones base (equation (6)) results in equation of motion for
most susceptible to detrimental nature of SSI. On the kinematic interaction part as given in equation (8). On the
other hand flexible structures founded on rigid rock are other hand, substituting equation (7) into formulation for
likely to be benefitted by SSI. flexible base (equation (6)) and making use of equation
(8) leads to equation of motion for inertial interaction part
as reported in equation (9).
(1 + 2#$)["44 ] (1 + 2#$)["4- ] {,4G }

3 6 8; G A
(1 + 2#$)["-4 ] (1 + 2#$)["-- ] + 5!-- 7 ?,- @
4
{<} {<}
=; > > A =; 6 6 A
5!-- 7?,- @ 5!-- 7?,- @ (8)
[!44 ] [!4- ] {,4H }
3 6 8; H A
[!-4 ] [!--
4 ]
+ 5!-- 7 ?,- @
[* ] [*4- ] {,4G }
= &' I 44 4 ]J ; G A!
[*-4 ] [*-- ?,- @
(9)
Figure 2: Physical interpretation of basic equation of

motion in total displacements (Ref. [9]) Equation (8) can be solved by Gaussian elimination
to yield displacements due to kinematic interactions.
They can be further substituted in equation (9) which can
2.2 Kinematic and inertial interaction be solved to yield displacements due to inertial
The equations of motion formulated in total interactions. One of the most intriguing aspect in this
displacements, as presented in Section 2.1 involves formulation is that load vector assumes a form which is
422
very familiar to conventional seismic analysis. However {,-. } = ?,-6 @ + {,- } (12)
[!44 ] [!4- ] {,4. }

the solution of kinematic interaction part is itself as
3 6 89 :
[!-4 ] [!-- ] + 5!-- 7 {,- }
cumbersome as the solution of equation of motion in total
4
[! ]
displacements. As a result, this two-step solution strategy
= % I 4-4 J ?,- @!
6
is of not much help in case of structures founded on
flexible base. However it does ease the solution for [!-- ] (13)
structures founded on rigid base as kinematic solution in
this case is the same as that of the ground enforcing rigid
body kinematics along the base. A mathematical 2.5 Equation of motion in terms of quasi-static
explanation in this regard is presented in Ref. [9]. The transmission of free-field input motion
physical interpretation of this two-step strategy for
Quasi-static motions, as shown in Figure 4(a), are defined
flexible footings is depicted in Figure 3.
base ?KD @ are applied statically either to structure or
N
as motions that arise when known free-field motions at
2.3 Equation of motion in terms of base response complete structure-soil system. Because of reason
motion relative to free-field input motion already stated in Section 2.3, this formulation defined by
Defining base response motion of total dynamic equation (14) holds only for flexible bases in general.
as {KD } (illustrated in equation 10), the basic equation of {,4. } = P[Q4- ]?,-> @ + {,4R }S
system relative to corresponding free-field input motion
(14a)
{,-. } = P?,-> @ + ?,-R @S!

motion (equation (6)) results into equation (11).
{,-. } = ?,- @ + {,- }

(14b)
>
Here [TED ] represents the quasi-static transmission

(10)
[!44 ] [!4- ] {,4. } matrix, ?KUE @ and ?KUD @ represent motion in nodes s and
3 6 89 :
[!-4 ] [!--
4 ]
+ 5!-- 7 {,- }
[! ]
b respectively in addition to quasi-static motions.
= % I 4 4- B J ?,- @!
>
[!-- ] % [!-- ]
Including static equilibrium at nodes s, this
?KUE @ and ?KUD @ as presented in equation (15).

(11) transformation yields equation of motion in terms of
[!44 ] [!4- ] {,4R }

Few points worth mentioning in regard to this
3 8 ; A
[!-4 ] [!--
4 ]
+ 5!-- 7 ?,-R @
6
formulation are as follows:
arising from placing the structure, {KD } is

A physical insight about additional motion of base
[*4- ] + [*44 ][Q4- ]

= &' I J ?,- @
>
[*--
4 ]
+ [*-4 ][Q4- ]
determined.
Apart from free-field motion along the base, the load
[<]
vector depends on the property matrices of structure
+V [" 4 ] + Y ?,-> @!
B ]
[!-- % (1 + 2#$) W -- X
and excavated soil region, both of which are
["-4 ][Q4- ]
bounded. This reduces the computational rigour as (15)
compared to basic formulation in terms of total
Since [CED ] is banded in nature, only those nodes

displacements.
Some important points related to this formulation are
which are directly coupled with base nodes, are mentioned below.
In case of rigid base, {KML } is not compatible with

loaded in addition to all base nodes. Total response is equal to sum of those of quasi-
?KD @ . Therefore, it is impractical to define base

N
static transmission of free-field motion and of actual
dynamic analysis.
response motion relative to free-field motion. An analogous relationship applies to stress
However, for exceptional case of rigid surface resultants, and hence formulations for stresses will
footing being excited by vertically propagating body be quite straightforward.
waves which is far from being practical, this For special case of surface footing excited by
formulation can be deduced. vertically incident body waves, second term of load
vector vanishes, and hence analysis gets simplified.
Formulation in terms of base response motion
2.4 Equation of motion in terms of base response
relative to free-field motion can be considered to be
motion relative to scattered motion
In case of rigid base, {KML } is not compatible with
a special case of the present formulation.
{KD } is defined in equation (12), upon substitution of ?KD @. Therefore, it is impractical to define quasi-
Base response motion relative to scattered motion,
N
which the basic equation of motion yields equation (13). static transmission of free-field motion.
should not be used as it requires ?KD @ to be calculated.
O
Although load vector appears simpler, this formulation
423
matrix, the structure-soil system does not possess
fixed base, for which 5CDD 7 is not involved, is used to

O
classical vibrational modes. Therefore, a structure on a
For such a fixed base structure, {KMD } is set equal to

define vibrational modes.
zero, and as a result ?KUE @ is the only non-zero
by assuming ?KUE @ as a linear combination of first few

displacement amplitude. The solution can be simplified
Figure 4: Quasi-static transmission (a) Free-field base vibrational modes of structure on fixed base. The number
motion (b) Base response motion (Ref. [9]) of modes which can be used without compromising much
with accuracy is usually much lesser than the number of
nodes defined on the structure as a whole. This implies
2.6 Equation of motion in terms of quasi-static
that there is a major reduction in computational rigour
transmission of base response motion
and cost. The transformation involved can be obtained
Analogous to Section 2.5, this formulation includes base from Ref. [1], and the final formulations for both flexible
response motion being applied statically to the structure, and rigid bases have been presented in Ref. [9].
as given by equation (16) and Figure 4(b). The resulting Major benefits which form motivation for this
equation of motion is further reported in equation (17). formulation are as follows:
{,4. } [Z] [Q4- ] {,4R }

Order of equation of motion is considerably reduced
9 :=I J; . A
{,-. } [<] [Z] {,- }
(16) against other formulations. However the equations
need to be solved separately for every frequency.
[*4- ]
A physical insight into determination of frequencies
_ [!44 ] %&' W X i
+[*44 ][Q4- ]
and mode shapes of structure fixed at base is
^ h
^ [!--
4 ]
+ [!-4 ][Q4- ] % h {,4R }
achieved.
^ [*4- ]` + c ' [*4- ] + fh ; {,-. } A

^%& W X & [Q ] W X
[*44 ][Q4- ] eh
' `
[Q4- ]` [*44 ] b
4-
^ h
+5!-- 7
6
\ a dg
Analytical formulations available in Ref. [9] to solve
an SSI problem involving structures founded on flexible
{<}
bases have been reported in Section 2. The formulation
=; > > A
5!-- 7?,- @
in terms of total displacements, as presented in Section
2.1, acts as base for derivation of other formulations. An
(17) attempt has been made to explore advantages and/or
limitations involved with each of the formulations. As a
Few points worth-mentioning about this formulation summarizing note, following points are reported so as to
are as follows. aid choice of proper and efficient equation of motion
Since base response motion is unknown apriori, before proceeding with solving them analytically.
quasi-static displacements, unlike previous Dividing an SSI problem into kinematic and inertial
formulation, cannot be obtained before actual interactions has been quite fascinating for structural
calculations. engineers because load vector assumes a form which
Load vector remains unchanged. Though the is very familiar to conventional seismic analysis.
coefficient matrix looks complicated, it contains However kinematic part is itself as difficult to solve
quite simple terms for rigid base case. as the basic equation of motion in terms of total
If base response motion relative to free-field motion displacement, making this strategy not very
is quasi-statically applied, coefficient matrix on the efficient. As suggested in Section 2.2, this
left hand side remains the same but load vector gets formulation has potential to ease computations in
fairly complicated. For the sake of brevity, that has case of rigid footings.
not been mentioned here. Equation of motion, in terms of either base response
motion relative to free-field motion or quasi-static
2.7 Transformation to modal amplitudes of fixed- transmission of free-field motion, is only applicable
base structure to structures founded on flexibly foundations. The
reason is already mentioned in Sections 2.3 and 2.5.
Even for quite complicated structures, the seismic The formulation in terms of base response motion
response is governed by only a few vibrational modes. relative to free-field input motion involves reduced
Each one of the previous formulations can therefore be computational rigour as compared to the basic
expanded to reduce the number of degrees of freedom of formulation owing to the simplified load vector. The
Since 5CDD 7 is frequency dependent and

O
the structure. load vector contains property matrices of bounded
domains and has non-zero values only on nodes on
orthogonality condition does not apply to damping the interface and those which are directly coupled
424
with interfacial nodes. Another advantage is the [3] Durante, M.G., Sarno, L.D., Mylonakis, G., Taylor,
physical insight about additional motion of base C.A. and Simonelli, A.L., Soil-pile-structure
arising solely out of erecting the structure. interaction: experimental outcomes from shaking
An impromptu look may suggest equation of motion table tests, Journal of Earthquake Engineering and
in terms of base response motion relative to scattered Structural Dynamics, Vol. 45(7), pp. 1041-1061,
motion, in Section 2.4, to be similarly advantageous. 2016.
However since it demands scattered motion as an
input, this formulation in fact adds to complications [4] Gazetas, G., Formulas and Charts for Impedances of
and therefore is not worth applying. Equation of Surface and Embedded Foundations, Journal of
motion in terms of quasi-static transmission of base Geotechnical Engineering, Vol. 117(9), pp. 1363-
response motion, reported in Section 2.6, has a 1381, 1991.
similar limitation. If applied, these two formulation
involve an iterative procedure.
[5] Jaya, K.P., Dynamic Behaviour of Embedded and
In regards to formulation obtained by quasi-static Pile Foundations in Layered Soil using Cone Models
transmission of free-field motion, an analogous (Doctoral thesis), Indian Institute of Technology
relationship exists for stress resultants. This is a Madras, Chennai, 2000.
major advantage that this formulation presented in
Section 2.5 holds within.
[6] Kaynia, A.M. and Kausel, E., Dynamics of piles and
The last formulation, outlined in Section 2.7, has
been obtained by transforming basic formulation to pile groups in layered soil media, Journal of Soil
modal coordinates of corresponding fixed base Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering, Vol. 10(8),
structure, and is basically a negotiation between pp. 386-401, 1991.
computational rigour and accuracy. Without
compromising much on accuracy, this formulation [7] Lai, C.G. and Martinelli, M., Soil-Structure
has been observed to significantly reduce the Interaction Under Earthquake Loading: Theoretical
computations involved. Another advantage is Framework, ALERT Doctoral School, Aussois,
physical insight into determination of frequencies 2013.
and mode shapes of structure fixed at base.
Most of the analytical formulations involve [8] Mylonakis, G. and Gazetas, G., Seismic Soil-
computation of property matrices of unbounded Structure Interaction: Beneficial or Detrimental?,
domain as a first step. These matrices can be Journal of Earthquake Engineering, Vol. 4(3), pp.
conveniently obtained from literature such as Ref. 277-301, 2000.
[4].
Despite the fact that all the formulations look quite [9] Wolf, J.P., Dynamic Soil-Structure Interaction,
different, they are essentially transformations of the Prentice Hall, New Jersey, 1985.
basic equation of motion in terms of total
displacements. All of them, except the one involving
[10] Wolf, J.P., Foundation Vibration Analysis using
transformation to modal amplitudes, yield the same
Simple Physical Models, Prentice Hall, New Jersey,
results, if applied consistently.
1994.
This paper is expected to facilitate researchers and
professionals in selecting an efficient and convenient [11] Yashinsky, M., The Loma Prieta, California,
analytical formulation for an SSI problem. Future scope Earthquake of October 17, 1989- Highway Systems,
in this field may involve quantifying computation U.S. Geological Survey, United States Government
involved in these analytical solutions and comparison Printing Office, Washington, 1998.
with that involved in physical models. The choice
between analytical solution and physical modelling can
then be exercised based on the project under
consideration.
4 References
[1] Chopra, A.K., Dynamics of Structures: Theory and
Applications to Earthquake Engineering, Prentice
Hall, New Jersey, 1995.
[2] Ciampoli, M. and Pinto, P.E., Effects of soil-

structure interaction on inelastic seismic response of
bridge piers, Journal of Structural Engineering, Vol.
121(5), pp. 806-814, 1995.
425
A STUDY ON FINITE ELEMENT MODELLING OF ACOUSTIC

EMISSION WAVEFORMS IN COMPOSITE AND SANDWICH PLATES
Sanjay Sengupta1 , Pijush Topdar2, Aloke Kumar Datta3

1
Dr. B.C Roy Engineering College, Durgapur -713206, India and National Institute of
Technology , Durgapur, Pin-713209, India
2,3
National Institute of Technology , Durgapur, Pin-713209, India
Acoustic Emission (AE) technique is non destructive Structural Health Monitoring (SHM) technique which has
the potential to detect internal damages in real time. Literature reveals that researchers have used three
dimensional (3d) Finite Element Method (FEM) to predict AE waveforms in isotropic and single layer
anisotropic plates. However, the study to predict acoustic emission waveforms using FEM in layered composites
and sandwich plates is limited in literature. Modelling of such layered plates is challenging as material
properties may vary from one layer to another across the plate thickness. In this study an effort has been made
for two dimensional finite element modelling for predicting AE waveforms in layered composites and sandwich
plates using a generalised refined plate theory modelling. Numerical examples are first solved for isotropic and
anisotropic plates and validated with the results obtained from 3d FEM. New results are presented for multi-
layered composites and sandwich plates.
Keywords: Acoustic Emission, Finite Element Method, Structural Health Monitoring, Layered composites,
Sandwich plates
1 Introduction using some wave propagation based approach.

However, the geometries for the practical structure of
Acoustic Emission (AE) technique is non interests for AE monitoring are not necessarily infinite
destructive Structural Health Monitoring (SHM) in lateral extent; instead they are often supported at
technique which has the potential to detect internal their ends. Very often structures like plates are
damages in real time. Study on AE waveforms using supported in such a way that they are more sensitive in
Finite Element Method (FEM) for structural the transverse / out of plane direction and such out of
investigations is considered to be an important area of plane displacements is actually equivalent to the
research [1]. Researchers have used three dimensional flexural response. Thus flexural mode is predominant
(3d) dynamic finite element method (DFEM) to predict in those cases and can be better predicted using
acoustic emission waveforms in isotropic and vibration based approach than the wave propagation
anisotropic plates [2,3]. In carbon fibre reinforced based approach. Therefore, in detecting damage in
plastic undamaged and damaged specimens the layered composite / laminate prediction of flexural
simulation of acoustic emission was studied through behaviour of any given structure can be useful. In this
FEM by researchers [4, 5]. Literature reveals that FEM study an effort has been made for two dimensional
is used by the researchers to study the acoustic finite element modelling for predicting AE waveforms
waveforms generated by glass capillary fracture for in layered composites and sandwich plates using a
calibration of sensors [6, 7]. To model AE signal generalised refined plate theory modelling. More
propagation in an isotropic plate with an attached emphasis is given on predicting the flexural
waveguide, FEM is used recently [8]. In most of these waveforms. Numerical examples are first solved for
studies using FEM, researchers have used either isotropic and anisotropic plates. Results obtained for
isotropic plates or single layer anisotropic plates. such plates using present study is compared with three
However, the study to predict acoustic emission dimensional DFEM. In general, agreement between the
waveforms using FEM in layered composites and two theoretical approaches is good. Moreover, the
sandwich plates is limited in literature. Modelling of present two dimensional approach is computationally
such layered plates is challenging as material properties more efficient than that of the three dimensional
may vary from one layer to another across the plate approach. New results are presented for layered
thickness. Moreover, most studies focus on circular composites and sandwich plates using the present
plates or plates with infinite geometry which are not formulation.
supported at the extreme outer boundary and primarily
the displacements in the in-plane direction i.e. 2 Mathematical Formulation
extensional / compressional modes are considered
___________________________
1
Assistant Professor & Research Scholar, sanswati2004@gmail.com
2
Assistant Professor, topdar72@yahoo.co.uk
3
Associate Professor, dattarec@yahoo.com
426
Sanjay Sengupta, et al.
In this study, a generalised refined plate theory

(RPT) as proposed by Cho and Parmerter [4] is used 3.1 Preliminary remarks
for modelling so that the transverse shear stress
continuity at the interface of two consecutive layers is The implementation of the mathematical formulation
satisfied, which is very critical for laminated composite as described above is done by solving numerical
and sandwich plates. The 3d view of the plate is shown problems. In AE technique structural damage is studied
is Fig. 1. Displacements at the reference plane (mid in real time. Signal generated due to damage developed
plane of the plate) along x axis, y axis and z axis are is considered in the present modelling. However, signal
represented as u, v and w respectively. The variation of corresponding to a particular damage and its
in-plane displacements across the plate thickness is identification is a grey area of research. Due to non
expressed as a combination of linearly varying zigzag availability of exact signal corresponding to a
component and a cubically varying continuous particular type of damage in a structure researcher
component. The transverse displacement is taken to be normally adapt the signal generated by pencil lead
constant over the plate thickness. A rectangular higher break widely available in literature. Authors have tried
order C1 continuous element having four nodes at its to check the efficacy of the mathematical model in
four corners is used considering eight degrees of simulated environment. Thus, the damage/ crack is
freedom !, ", #, #,$%% , #,&% , #,$&% , '$ , '& at each node simulated by a forcing function corresponding to a
[10]. The field variables !, ", '$% ()*%'& are pencil lead break which can be considered to be an
approximated by bi-linear interpolation functions equivalent AE source [3]. The forcing function is
whereas the transverse displacement w is approximated considered to be a unit step function of duration 150 s
by bi-cubic interpolation function. following Prosser et al. [10] for each problem. To
The Hamiltons variation principle of dynamics is obtain the flexural AE waveforms, the forcing function
applied to get the equation of motion of the system. For is applied out of the plane i.e. in transverse direction of
an element, if {+} is the nodal displacement vector, the plate in all cases. Rectangular plate geometry is
considering the effect of damping, the equation of used for all the problems with simple supported
motion for an element may be expressed as: boundary condition along all the edges. This condition
[M- ].+/0 1 [C- ].+20 1 [K - ]{+} = {R} (1) is implemented by making u= w = w,x= w,xy= x = 0
along the boundary line parallel to x axis and u= w =
w,y= w,xy= y = 0 along the boundary line parallel to y
axis. Displacement, velocity and acceleration at initial
time were considered as zero. Damping is not
considered. The time step used for solution using
Newmarks method is taken as 0.164 s and the
value of 5%and%6 are taken as 0.25 and 0.50
respectively.
3.2 Example 1
The present formulation is used to study an

isotropic plate, made of aluminium, as studied by
Prosser et al. [10] for validation purpose, before
Figure 1: 3d view of plate along with axis system
studying layered composites and sandwich plates. The
dimension of the plate along x and y direction is 0.508
The element level mass matrix[M- ], damping
m and 0.381 m respectively. The plate is 0.003175 m
matrix [C- ] and stiffness matrix [K - ] and load vector
thick. The material properties are as follows:
{R} for all the elements can be computed and
assembled together to form the system level mass Density: 2770 kg/m3
matrix [M], damping matrix [C] , stiffness matrix [K] Youngs Modulus: 73 x 109 N/m2
and load vector {F} for the entire structure. The Poissons Ratio: 0.3
equation of motion for the system may be expressed as:
The plate is analysed present study (RPT). The x
[M].3/0 1 [C].320 1 [K]{3} = {F} (2) and y coordinate for the AE source is 0.254 m and
0.127 m respectively. The flexural waveform
where, {3} is the global displacement vector for the responses are obtained along y direction at a distance
entire plate. The governing equation of dynamic 0.0762 m and 0.127 m from the source. Based on
response i.e. Eqn. (2) can be solved by direct time convergence study, the mesh size used is 40 30. The
integration scheme following Newmarks 4 method, displacement responses at a distance 0.0762 m from
which is an explicit time integration technique [11]. source in the z direction i.e. the flexural mode is
plotted for present study, and as obtained by Prosser et
3 Numerical Examples and Discussion al. [10] from 3d FEM in Fig. 2a. The flexural
427
waveform responses at a distance 0.127 m from source AS4/3502 graphite/epoxy. The dimension of the plate
are presented in Fig. 2b. It is observed from Fig. 2a and along x and y direction is 0.254 m and 0.1524 m
Fig. 2b that the responses obtained by Prosser et al. respectively. The plate is 0.00254 m thick. The x axis
[10] using 3d FEM and the present study (i.e. RPT) is along the fibres and the y axis is perpendicular to the
agrees well. From the comparison it can be inferred fibres in the plane of the plate. The material is
that for isotropic plates for predicting flexural AE unidirectional and transversely isotropic.
waveforms 2d FEM using RPT may be used effectively
instead of 3d FEM. The computational efficiency for The material properties are chosen as reported by
2d FEM will be much higher than that of 3d FEM. Prosser et al. [10]:
Density: 1550 kg/m3
C11: 147.1 x 109 N/m2 C12: 4.11 x 109 N/m2
C13= C12
C22: 10.59 x 109 N/m2 C23: 3.09 x 109 N/m2
C33= C22
C44: 3.75 x 109 N/m2 C55: 5.97 x 109 N/m2
C66= C55
The source is positioned at x=0.0508 m and y =

0.0762 m. Based on convergence study, the mesh size
used is 40 24. The responses are recorded along the
fibre direction i.e. along the x direction at a distance
0.0762 m and 0.127 m from the source and are
(a) presented in the Fig. 3a and Fig. 3b. It is observed that
the AE flexural wave responses obtained using the
present study and the study by Prosser et al. [10] using
3d FEM for the single layer anisotropic material is in
good agreement.
Some discrepancies are observed at long times in
the waveforms may be due to the differences in the
contribution from reflections at the plate edges which
has been taken care in the DFEM modelling. However,
with the present model (RPT), the results obtained are
found to be matching well with 3d FEM in the near
filed and shorter times; where the plate edge reflections
do not have a major impact in the response.
(b)
Figure 2: Comparison of flexural waveform response
for isotropic (aluminium) plate at propagation distance
(a) 0.0762 m, (b) 0.127 m
3.3 Example 2
In this example the applicability of the present

model for single layered anisotropic plates is studied
and validated with the available results of 3d FEM
[10]. The plate is made of anisotropic material
428
(a) Example 2. The material properties used are after Kant

et al. [12]:
For Face:
Density = 1580 kg/m3
Youngs modulus:
E1=1308 x 1008 N/m2 E2=106.0 x 1008 N/m2
E3=106.0 x 1008 N/m2
(b)
Figure 3: Comparison of flexural waveform response

for anisotropic (graphite/epoxy) material perpendicular
to the fibre direction at propagation distance (a) 0.0762
m, (b) 0.127 m
3.4 Example 3
(a)
In the previous two examples, the present model is
validated for isotropic and single layered anisotropic
material. In this example, the present model is used to
further study the four layer orthotropic plate
[0/90/90/0] of graphite/epoxy. The plate dimension and
material properties are same as in Example 2. The
source is positioned at x = 0.0508 m and y = 0.0762 m.
The flexural waveforms i.e. out of plane displacement
time history are obtained using the present study at a
distance of 0.0762 m and 0.127 m from the source
along the direction of the longer side of the plate i.e.
along the x direction. The responses presented in the
Fig. 4a and Fig. 4b respectively. In this context it can
be mentioned that, in the present model (RPT) the
transverse shear stress continuity at the interface of two
consecutive layers is considered; which is a very
important consideration while modelling the composite
plates for predicting flexural AE response which is not
taken care of while modelling using 3d FEM [10]. (b)
Hence, it is expected that 2d model using RPT will Figure 4: Flexural waveform response for four layer
predict the flexural AE responses in a better way for [0/90/90/0] (graphite/epoxy) material along the x
multi-layered composites than that of the 3d FEM. direction at propagation distance (a) 0.0762 m, (b)
0.127 m
3.5 Example 4
In this example the present model is used to the Poissons Ratio:

flexural response of a sandwich plate due to out of
plane AE source. For this, a rectangular sandwich 12=0.28 13= 0.28 23=0.34
composite plate [f(0/90)/c/f(90/0)] having core to face
thickness ratio of 3 is considered. Each face is 0/90 Shear modulus:
fibre reinforced laminated composite (FRLC). The
dimension of the plate is considered to be same as in G23=39.0 x 1008 N/m2 G13= 60.0 x 1008 N/m2
429
plates may be used for validation with experimental

G12=60.0 x 1008 N/m2 results.
For Core:
Density = 100.9 kg/m3
Youngs Modulus:
E1= 1.0 x 1006 N/m2 E2= 1.0 x 1006 N/m2
E3= 1.0 x 1015 N/m2
Poissons Ratio:
12=0 13= 0 23=0
Shear modulus:
G23= 1.772 x 1008 N/m2 G13= 5.206 x 1008 N/m2

(a)
G12= 0.5 x 1006 N/m2
The source is positioned at x=0.0508 m and y = 0.0762

m. The responses for different a/h ratio 60, 30 and 15
are studied in this case at a distance of 0.0762 m from
the source along the longer direction of the plate using
the present study and are presented in Fig. 5a. Similar
responses at a distance 0.127 m from the source are
presented in Fig. 5b. Reason behind taking different
thickness ratio is to check the effect of shear
deformation in case of composite plates on total
structural behaviour in flexural mode. Here an attempt
is made to develop a purely mathematical model which
can later be verified with experimental observations.
The basis of the mathematical model and mechanism
of the plate consider the linear flexural behaviour as
well as continuity of shear stress at the laminar
interfaces. The results indicate that with the decrease in
a/h ratio i.e. with the increase in thickness of the plate (b)
the flexural AE responses are reducing. Thus using the
present model the responses for thin to moderately Figure 5: Comparison of flexural waveform response
thick sandwich plates can be predicted well. However, for Sandwich Plate [f(0/90)/c/f(90/0)] for different a/h
deviations are observed in the flexural response ratio along the x direction at propagation distance (a)
obtained after some time step for different a/h ratio. 0.0762 m, (b) 0.127 m
This may be linked to the typical mechanism of the
structure under consideration. Further investigation in 4 Concluding Remarks
this regard is under way for establishment of the same
in proposed mathematical model.
In this context, it can be mentioned that as In this paper, multi layered composite and
sandwich plates are made of low strength core and high sandwich plates under simulated out-of-plane AE
strength laminated stiff face sheets; the material source is studied for predicting flexural waveforms. A
properties of the plate under consideration are varying refined plate theory (RPT) is used for modelling. The
model is highly computationally efficient and
widely between consecutive layers. In such cases,
modelling of transverse shear stress continuity at the comparable with the 3d FEM as proposed by the
layer interfaces becomes very critical for realistically researchers earlier. Moreover, it is very general in
predicting the flexural AE response. The present model nature and captures the variation in material properties
(RPT) takes care of this requirement. However, the of multi-layered plates. A C1 continuous four node
results predicted by the present study, for sandwich rectangular element is used for FE modelling and
implementations of RPT. Numerical examples are
solved by this finite element model for different types
430
of plate. It is observed that the present model can

predict flexural wave modes due to AE source for thin [10] Topdar, P., Sheikh, A.H., Dhang, N., Vibration
to moderately thick isotropic, anisotropic, layered characteristics of composites/sandwich laminates with
orthotropic, fibre reinforced laminated composite piezoelectric layers using a refined hybrid plate model,
(FRLC) and sandwich plates realistically. The results International Journal of Mechanical Sciences, Vol. 49,
from present study may be used as standard solutions pp. 1193-1203,2007.
for future research in absence of experimental results of
FRLC and sandwich plates for predicting flexural AE [11] Bathe, K.J., Finite Element Procedures, Prentice
waveforms. The in-plane (i.e. non-flexural) responses Hall, 1996.
due to out-of-plane excitations are found to be very
feeble and hence are not included in the results. Using [12] Kant, T., Varaiya, J.H., Arora, C.P., Finite
the proposed model, the effect of extensional mode is Element Transient Analysis of Composite and
yet to be studied. Sandwich Plates Based On A Refined Theory and
Implicit Time Integration Schemes. Computers and
5 References Structures, Vol. 36(3), pp. 401-420, 1990.
[1] Sengupta, S., Datta, A.K.,Topdar, P., Structural

Damage Localisation by acoustic emission technique:
A state of the art review, Latin American Journal of
Solids and Structures, Vol. 12, pp.1565-1582, 2015.
[2] Hamstad, M.A., Gary, J, OGallagher, A., Far-

field Acoustic Emission Waves by Three-Dimensional
Finite Element Modeling of Pencil Breaks on a Thick
Plate, Journal of Acoustic Emission, Vol. 14 (2), pp.
103-14, 1996.
[3] Prosser, W.H., Hamstad, M.A., Gary, J.,

O'Gallagher, A., Finite element and plate theory
modeling of acoustic emission waveforms, Journal of
Nondestructive Evaluation, Vol. 18(3), pp. 83-90,
1999.
[4] Sause, M.G.R.,Horn, S., Simulation of Acoustic

Emission in Planar Carbon Fiber Reinforced Plastic
Specimens, Journal of Nondestructive Evaluation, Vol.
29, pp. 123-142, 2010.
[5] Sause, M.G.R, Acoustic Emission Signal

Propagation in Damaged Composite Structures,
Journal of Acoustic Emission, Vol. 31, pp. 1-18, 2013.
[6] Burks, B., Re-Examination of NIST Acoustic

Emission Sensor Calibration: Part I Modeling the
loading from glass capillary fracture, Journal of
Acoustic Emission, Vol. 29, pp. 167-174, 2011.
[7] Hamstad, M.A., Re-Examination of NIST Acoustic

Emission Absolute Sensor Calibration: Part II - Finite
element modeling of acoustic emission signal from
glass capillary fracture, Journal of Acoustic Emission,
Vol. 29, pp. 175-185, 2011.
[8] Zelenyak, A.M, Hamstad, M.A.,Sause, M.G.R.,

Modeling of Acoustic Emission Signal Propagation in
Waveguides, Sensors, Vol. 15, pp. 11805-11822, 2015.
[9] Cho M, Parmerter RR., Efficient higher order plate

theory for general lamination configuration. AIAA
Journal, Vol. 31(7), pp. 1299-308, 1993.
431
HDMR BASED BAYESIAN STRUCTURAL SYSTEM

IDENTIFICATION
Shereena O A 1, B N Rao 2
1,2
Structural Engineering Division, Dept. of Civil Engineering, IIT, Madras Chennai, Tamil Nadu, 600036, India
This paper presents a method for faster identification of structural systems within a Bayesian framework
with the use of High Dimensional Model Representations (HDMR). For system identification problems
solved within Bayesian framework, the intractable multidimensional integrals involved always pose a
problem. To address this issue, the multidimensional integrands are expanded approximately by HDMR,
an exact hierarchical representation for the multivariable functions, thereby significantly reducing the
computational expenditure and ensuring the applicability of the procedure to systems of infinite
dimensionality. The proposed method combines HDMR with Bayesian inference and follows an iterative
procedure for convergence. In the present study, a stochastic plane strain field and a single degree of
freedom system are analyzed. The results obtained, are compared with the estimates from Extend Kalman
Filter. In future, the proposed method will be tested on structural identification problems involving
nonlinearity, non-gaussianity and high dimensionality.
Keywords: High dimensional model representation, Structural identification, Bayesian Inference
The basic idea behind these approaches is Bayes

1 Introduction theorem. Mathematical representation of the theorem
contains multi-dimensional integrals. Computation of
Structural system identification techniques are of these integrals is quite difficult. Hence, the above cited
particular interest because of its potential use in structural methods are developed, avoiding the need of
health monitoring, damage detection etc. [5, 8, 10]. This computation of these multifold integrals, and are in wide
requires the structural parameters such as vibration and efficient use for the appropriate applications. Here,
frequencies, damping ratios, stiffness to be identified in we attempt to evaluate the high dimensional integrals
real time. Starting from the method of least squares, with the help of High Dimensional Model representations
Kalman Filter (KF) and its variants, Sampling based [2, 9, 11, 12], to proceed through the Bayes theorem
techniques such as Monte Carlo methods and particle combined with the basic concepts of probability and
filters have been adopted for the same from time to time estimation. This attempt is done with an intention of
for different types of challenges with consistent employing this method for high dimensional nonlinear
improvements on a variety of aspects, say non-linear, dynamic systems in future.
non-gaussian and high dimensional systems.
Extended Kalman Filter (EKF) is a modification 2 Bayesian Inference with HDMR
over Kalman Filter to accommodate nonlinearity of
Bayes theorem helps to predict the posterior
systems. EKF linearizes the nonlinear relations by
distribution, combining the available observation data
Taylor series expansions and proceed in a similar manner
and the prior distribution. This relation contains a
as does KF. Linearization leads to significant bias and
multidimensional integral in the denominator as shown
convergence issues as the number of variables increases.
in equation (1), which forms the normalizing constant.
Further demand of avoiding the calculation of Jacobian
The computation of this term is almost practically
matrices, all these together led to the development of
impossible. The normalizing constant is evaluated by
Unscented Kalman Filter (UKF). This technique employs
expanding the integrand with HDMR. To do this, we
a set of sigma points and performs an unscented
incorporate prior informations on each of the state
transformation to estimate the mean and variance of the
variables in the form of lower and upper bounds. The
state variables and system parameters. Additionally, there
numerator term i.e. the product of likelihood and prior
are various Gaussian filters too.
density which is the same as integrand in the
denominator integral is also expressed in the HDMR
1
PhD scholar, ce14d020@smail.iitm.ac.in
2
432
Shereena O A and B N Rao
expanded form. This is required in order to evaluate the Sampling)-HDMR, Cut-HDMR and ANOVA-HDMR
conditional means and variances from the based on Cut-HDMR expansions. In this paper, we are
multidimensional marginal densities obtained. using cut-HDMR technique for approximating the
Brief descriptions on Bayesian Inference and nonlinear relations.
HDMR followed. Thereafter the proposed method is Cut-HDMR expands the multi-dimensional function
explained. g(x) with respect to a reference point c, chosen within
the neighborhood of interest of the input variables and the
2.1 Bayesian Inference final outcome is independent of c at the convergence
limit.
Cut HDMR yields:
!# = !(C)
2.2 High Dimensional Model representation
(HDMR) (7a)
!% ("% ) = !("% / C % ) ; !#3 ! (7b)

!%, %- = !."%, / "%- / C %,%- 0 ; !%, ."%, 0
A multi-dimensional nonlinear function g(x), where
; !%- ."%- 0 ; !# !
x is vector of N variables/parameters is expanded by
(7c)
HDMR technique, taking into account the co-operative
effects between the variables to the most extent. The
hierarchical expansion representation of g(x) goes as
!# is evaluated at the reference point c. !("% / C % ) =
and so on.
follows:
!(C* / C8 / / C%D* / "% / C%E* / / C2 ) denotes the function in
!(")
&
terms of the input variable xi alone, i.e. univariate and at
= !# + $ !% ("% )
second order bivariate term !%, %- ."%, / "%- 0 takes into
all the other variables at their reference point value. The
%'*
+ $ !%,%- ."%, / "%- 0 +34 443
account the co-operative effects of binary sets of input
(6) variables. Subtracting off the lower order terms from
*1%, 1%- 12
+ $ !%,%5 ."%, / "%- / / "%5 0 +

higher order terms is to ensure the unique contribution
from each term.
*1%, 676%5 12
+ !*82 ("* / "8 / / "& )
First and second order approximations of g(x),
excluding the higher order residual terms and with
reference to the reference point are as follows:
!# is a constant valued function which is the mean
response of !3 . !% ("% ) s are the first order terms !F(") = !("* / "8 / 4 4 4 / "2 )
2
= 3 $ !(C* / C8 / / C%D* / "% / C%E* / / C2 )3

representing the contribution from individual variables.
Succeeding higher order terms represent the joint (8)
%'*
; (G ; H)!(C)
interaction contributions of the respective number of
variables. Inclusion of the final term is to ensure an exact
approximation. Typically, the expansion up to the second
order will serve the purpose of approximate expansion by And
the assumption that contribution of higher order terms to
!F(") = I8 3 ; (G ; J) I*
the overall performance is negligible.
Consider the functional
&
3 (G ; H)(G ; J)
9 :!(") ; !# + $ !% ("% ) + !(C)
< J
%'*
+ $ !%,%- ."%, / "%- 0 +34 4433+ $ !%, %5 ."%, / "%- / 2

C* / C8 / / C%,D* / "%, / C%,E* /
I8 = $ !K /C L3
%- D* / "%- / C%- E* / / C2
*1%, 1%- 12 *1%, 676%5 12
8
(9)
%, '*/%- '*
+ 7 + !*82 ("* / "8 / / "& )> ?@(") %, 6%-
2
3 I* = $ !(C* / C8 / / C%D* / "% / C%E* / / C2 )3
Subjected to the constraint
9 !%, %5 ."%, / "%- / / "%5 03?"%A = B %'*
[#/*]
Along the cut points, this approximation gives exact

values. For any arbitrary point in the domain, response
!%, %- ."%, / "%- / / "%5 0 uniquely.
This functional is minimized to obtain the terms
surface models are required.
"%&MN is:
The first order interaction term for an arbitrary point
Major and popular HDMR techniques are ANOVA
(ANalysis Of VAriance) HDMR, RS (Random
433
!% ("%&MN ) =
The mean excitation is:
@m (X) = @o 4 CZl(U* X).

O&Q'* PQ ("%&MN ) !(C* / / C%D* / "%Q / C%E* / / C& )
(10) (14)
Where PQ ("%&MN ) is one dimensional Lagrange

Auto-covariance of the forcing function is
qrr (X/ l) = to8 4 CZl(U* X)4 CZl(U* l) (15)

interpolation polynomial.
In a similar fashion, the second order interaction
Mean response:
v
@u (X) = 9 @m (X)4 c(X ; \)4 ?\
term for any two arbitrary points, is as follows:
!%Q ."%&MN / "%&MN 0

(16)
#
, -
&
= $ PQ,Q- ."%&MN / "%&MN 0

Auto-covariance of the response:
, - w v
Q'* quu (X/ l) = 9 9 qrr (X/ l)4 c(X ; \* ) 4 c(l
# # ; \ )4 ?\ 4 ?\
R !(C* / / C%, D* / "%,, / C%, E* / / C%- D* / "%-- / C%- E* / /C )
Q Q
(17)
(11) 8 * 8
Where PQ,Q- ."%&MN

,
/ "%&MN
-
0 is the tensor The likelihood function, i.e. conditional density
product of PQ, ."%&MN 0 and PQ- ."%&MN 0.

function for the response over a specified time span is
, - obtained thereof. The normalization constant is
calculated by integrating the complicated integrand
In the proposed method, all the multidimensional which is the product of the prior density and likelihood,
integrals involved in Bayesian Inference problems are on 1st order HDMR expansion approximation of the
computed with the help of HDMR. For the same, the integrand. Posterior distribution thus arrived, is utilised
bounds of the parameters or variables of interest need to to compute the marginal densities of each of the unknown
be specified. Thereof the integrands are approximated by parameters. The conditional expectation or mean and
HDMR expansions and then the integrals are evaluated. variance of each parameter is computed from the
marginal densities as usual. With the updated variance
3 Numerical example 1 and mean value, an iterative procedure is followed for
convergence.
Consider a single degree of freedom system The observations were generated as such there is co-
governed by the equation:
with 3U# = y4Jz3_` and 3T = {b . At rest initial
efficient of variation of 0.1% around the mean, and
"S + JTU# "V + U# 8 " = W(X) (12) conditions. Initial values for calculation U# = y4B3_`
and 3T = zb.
The excitation force is taken to be harmonic with a The results are represented graphically as shown in
parameters T and3U# need to be identified. The analysis

known deterministic frequency 1 (=1.5Hz). The figures below. Natural frequency is converging to the
original value. Damping is converging to a value of 9.6%,
is carried out in time domain. Prior knowledge of the i.e. with a slight deviation. These estimates may be used
bounds of the parameter values are used in constructing to identify the stiffness K and damping c of the system.
the prior density function.
YZ\3U# 3/ ^ ; HJ_`
Assumed bounds:
YZ\3T/ ab ; Hab
Statistics of the displacement response is evaluated
using the tools of stochastic dynamics.
Impulse response function for the system is given by:
c(X) = gxp(;TU# X) 4 sin3(Uh X)

*
def
(13)
where3333Uh = U# jH ; T 8 .
Let W(X) = kCZl(U* X); k~G(H/H)
434
Figure 3: Plane strain field as considered in the problem

Figure 1: Natural frequency as identified using HDMR
combined Bayesian Inference Lateral displacements at given nodes are taken as
observations. They are assumed to be with a known
coefficient of variation and uncorrelated.
The estimation is carried out by Bayesian inference
approximated by 1st order HDMR and 2nd order HDMR
as well. Six sets of measurements of displacements are
used in the identification process. With each set of
measurement, a suitable number of local iterations are
performed. Then iterations are started afresh with a new
set of measurements. As the procedure shows good
convergence at the end of iterations with 3rd set of
measurements, it can be concluded six sets of
measurements are good enough to prove the stability of
the algorithm.
The procedure is repeated for two sets of initial
values to test the robustness as shown in figures below.
The same field is analyzed using extended Kalman Filter
Figure 2: Damping ratio as identified by HDMR and results are shown graphically for comparison.
combined Bayesian Inference Extended Kalman Filter requires more number of
iterations for convergence.
4 Numerical example 2
A stochastic plane strain elastic field [3] with

specified nodal loads is analyzed to identify the
equivalent moduli of elasticity over three different sets of
layers of similar characteristics.
|* = 3HBBB3XZ}W8
Top two layers of the field
3|8 = 3JBBB3XZ}W8
Middle three layers of the field
| = 3BBB3XZ}W8
Bottom three layers of the field
? = q D* Y
Measurement model for the problem is
where d is the displacement vector, K is the stiffness

matrix and F the external force vector. Figure 4: Estimation using HDMR combined Bayesian
Inference with first order HDMR and set of mean initial
values [1500, 2500, 3500] tonf/m2
435
Figure 7: Estimation using HDMR combined Bayesian

Figure 5: Estimation using HDMR combined Bayesian Inference with first order HDMR and set of mean initial
Inference with second order HDMR and set of mean values [500,1500,2500] tonf/m2
initial values [1500, 2500, 3500] tonf/m2
Figure 8: Estimation using HDMR combined Bayesian

Inference with second order HDMR and set of mean
initial values [500, 1500, 2500] tonf/m2
Figure 6: Estimation using EKF for mean initial values
[1500, 2500, 3500] tonf/m2
Figure 9: Estimation using EKF for mean initial values

[500, 1500, 2500] tonf/m2
436
5 Conclusions [8] Koh, C.G. and See, L.M., Identification and

uncertainty estimation of structural parameters,
In this paper, we attempted to identify the moduli of Journal of Engineering Mechanics, Vol. 120(6),
elasticity of a stochastic plane strain field, with the pp.1219-1236, 1994.
displacement measurements available at specified nodes. [9] Rabitz, H. and Alis, O.F., General foundations of
This problem has a non-linear measurement model. high-dimensional model representations, Journal of
Extended Kalman Filter may be used for the state
Mathematical Chemistry, Vol.25, pp.197233,
estimation in such a case. It has certain convergence
issues. Here, we attempt to carry out the identification 1999.
by HDMR based Bayesian Inference. This method [10] Sirca, G.F. and Adeli, H., System identification in
provide results with better convergence. This may be structural engineering, Scientia Iranica, Vol.19(6),
compared against sampling based approaches/filters for pp.1355-1364, 2012.
efficacy, accuracy and faster convergence. In this [11] Smith,R.C., Uncertainty Quantification: Theory,
problem, the state variables/system parameters are not Implementation, and Applications, SIAM
changing with time. We have also considered an SDOF Computational Science and Engineering, 2014.
system with a known harmonic excitation input. In this [12] Sobol, I.M., Theorems and examples on high
problem, the damping and stiffness are identified with the dimensional model representation, Reliability
proposed method. Identification of a SDOF system by the Engineering & System Safety, Vol. 79(2), pp.187-
proposed method yields faster convergence as compared 193, 2003.
to that obtained by Extended Kalman Filter. The [13] Yuen, K.V., Recent developments of Bayesian
identification of material or structural parameters of model class selection and applications in civil
various structures such as multistory buildings, bridges engineering, Structural Safety, Vol. 32(5), pp.338-
etc. under different types of dynamic loadings will be 346, 2010.
found useful in damage detection, health monitoring etc.
These problems involve nonlinear high dimensional
relations which is not easy to be handled with the
conventional methods in terms of the computational
issues. The proposed method will be applied to check the
same in future.
References
[1] Beck, J.L. and Katafygiotis, L.S., Updating models
and their uncertainties. I: Bayesian statistical
framework, Journal of Engineering Mechanics, Vol.
124(4), pp.455-461, 1998.
[2] Chowdhury, R., Rao, B.N. and Prasad, A.M., High
dimensional model representation for structural
reliability analysis, Communications in Numerical
Methods in Engineering, Vol. 25(4), pp.301-337,
2009.
[3] Hoshiya, M. and Saito, E., Structural identification
by extended Kalman Filter, J. Eng. Mech., ASCE,
1984.
[4] Hoshiya, M. and Sutoh, A. ,Kalman FilterFinite
Element Method in Identification, J. Eng. Mech.,
Vol. 119, pp. 197-210, 1993.
[5] Jones, N.P., Shi, T., Ellis, J.H. and Scanlan, R.H.,
System-identification procedure for system and
input parameters in ambient vibration surveys,
Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial
Aerodynamics, Vol.54, pp.91-99, 1995.
[6] Julier, S.J. and Uhlmann, J.K., A general method
for approximating nonlinear transformations of
probability distributions, Technical report, Robotics
Research Group, Department of Engineering
Science, University of Oxford, 1996.
[7] Kalman, R.E., A new approach to linear filtering
and prediction problems, Journal of basic
Engineering, Vol. 82(1), pp.35-45, 1960.
437
ADAPTIVE METAMODEL BASED EFFICIENT ROBUST DESIGN

OPTIMIZATION OF OFFSHORE STRUCTURE UNDER
STOCHASTIC WAVE LOADING
G Datta1, S Bhattacharjya2 and S Chakraborty3
1, 2, 3
Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Engineering Science and Technology, Shibpur,
Howrah- 711103, India.
The present paper deals with the Robust Design Optimization (RDO) of an offshore steel structure under
stochastic wave loading considering parameter uncertainty. A novel Moving Least Squares Method
(MLSM) based metamodelling strategy has been adopted in the framework of MCS to evade extensive
computational time requirement. The optimization problem is posed as weight minimization problem
under displacement constraint. The proposed MLSM based RDO strategy yields more accurate solutions
than the conventional Least Squares Method based metamodeling when compared with the direct MCS
results as benchmark. The proposed approach requires less computational time than the direct MCS. The
results show that by compromising a small increment in structural weight, one can achieve robust and
reliable design solution within affordable computational time by the proposed RDO approach.
Keywords: Robust Design Optimization, Offshore structure, Parameter Uncertainty, Stochastic wave load,
Moving Least Squares Method
1 Introduction parameter uncertainty. Moreover, for life cycle cost

analysis, the deviation of the structural performance
The studies on deterministic design concepts, should be designed to a minimum to avoid maintenance
methods and cost-effectiveness of offshore structure in and repair cost. It has been observed that the RDO study
last decade are exhaustive [1]. Among different on offshore structure is scarce. Application of RDO in
elements of marine structure, the support structure has designing offshore structure is felt to be more prudent
the highest cost share [2]. Currently, the most widely under such extreme loadings, largely uncertain in nature.
used support structure is steel tubular tower that is The present study focuses on the RDO of a steel
connected through a transition piece to a mono pile offshore structure under stochastic wave loading
which is a suitable concept for water depths of up to considering parameter uncertainty.
40m [3]. It has been now well established that In [6], RDO of offshore turbine supporting
disregarding uncertainty in the Deterministic Design structure is presented considering normally distributed
Optimization (DDO) process will invite catastrophic dimension and material properties. However,
consequences [4]. Hence, there is a growing trend to uncertainty in load and robustness of constraints are not
incorporate uncertainty directly in the optimization considered in their study. The direct Monte Carlo
process. In recent years, efforts have been observed to Simulation (MCS) have been applied to offshore
explore probabilistic optimization and design under structure optimization that makes the implementation
wave load. Critical parameters for designing such an procedure extensively time consuming [6-8]. It is of
elevated structure are the wave height crest and its worth mentioning that solution of RDO of such
probability distribution. The most conventional structure would involve complex computer codes and
approach of optimization under uncertainty is the numerical analyses by the direct MCS approach. Also,
Reliability based Design Optimization (RBDO), where several repetitive analyses of finite element model
specific target reliability is sought for the critical limit would be involved to yield a single solution of RDO.
states [5]. However, the RBDO yields design which Moreover, the gradients of the constraint functions are
may be sensitive to input parameter variation due to required to be evaluated many times during the
uncertainty. A Robust Design Optimization (RDO) execution of the RDO process. Therefore, in the present
becomes an attractive alternative to the RBDO approach study, Metamodelling technique based on Response
in such cases to make a design least sensitive to input Surface Method (RSM) has been adopted to evade
1
Ph.D student, gaurav.rs2015@civil.iiests.ac.in
2
Assistant Professor, soumya@civil.iiests.ac.in
3
Professor, schak@civil.iiests.ac.in
438
G Datta, et al.
complex interlinked repetitive evaluation of structural 2.1 The RDO Methodology

response and their gradients. Once the RSM
The presence of uncertainty in structural parameters
approximation is obtained and validated by goodness
causes significant deviation of performance of a
of fit tests, the gradient evaluation becomes extremely
structural system from its desired behaviour. Such
simplified to cast the RDO problem. Conventionally,
undesirable deviation of system performance indicates a
Least Squares Method (LSM) based RSM is applied for
poor quality and added life-cycle cost of the structure,
dealing optimization problems including implicit
including inspection, repair and other maintenance costs
constraint functions. However, the accuracy with the
in the perspective of the entire design life of the
LSM based RSM is often challenged. On the other hand,
structure. To decrease such deviation, one possible way
the Moving Least Squares Method (MLSM) is found to
is to reduce or even to eliminate the source of
be more efficient in this regard [9]. Thus, in the present
uncertainty in the structural parameters by prudent
study, a novel MLSM based adaptive metamodelling
design and construction practice [10], which may either
strategy has been adopted in place of the direct MCS to
be practically impossible or adds much to the total cost
avoid extensive computational time requirement. The
of the structure. Another way is to find a design, in
proposed RDO approach is elucidated by a numerical
which the structural performance is less sensitive to the
study on a steel jack-up platform.
variations of the parameters without eliminating the
cause of parameter variations. This later one is the task
2 Development of the proposed RDO approach of the RDO. The RDO is fundamentally concerned with
minimizing the effect of uncertain DVs and DPs to the
The performance of an optimal design depends on the
output response. The concept of RDO is presented in
Design Variables (DVs) and the Design Parameters
Fig.1. Two designs: conventional optimal design under
(DPs). The DVs are the variables that the designer
uncertainty (xopt) and RDO (xrob) are shown in the same
wants to optimally evaluate. The DPs are the other
figure. Both design inputs (x) are deviated with same
involved system parameters used for design which
amount due to uncertainty. However, Probability
cannot be controlled by the designer. The objective of a
Density Function of the output response is considerably
typical design optimization is to determine the DVs to
less deviated by the RDO (frob) than the other case
meet the desired design performance. Design objectives
(fopt). Also, it can be readily observed from Fig. 1 that
are normally specified by a performance function
the RDO captures comparatively a flatter insensitive
associated with a set of constraints. The Deterministic
region of the performance function. The RDO is
Design Optimization (DDO) can be mathematically
formulated by simultaneously optimizing the expected
expressed as:
value and the variation of the performance function. The
robustness in constraint is ensured by adding suitable
minimize f (u)
penalty term and ensuring a target reliability index.
subjected to g j (u) 0 j = 1, 2,......, J
x iL xi x iU , i = 1, 2,....., K (1)
In above, f(u) is the performance function;
g j (u) denotes the jth constraint; u = x z is a n-
dimensional vector composed of both the DVs and DPs
denoted by:
x = [x1 , x 2 ,....., xK ]T and z = [z1 , z2 ,....., zL ]T ,
respectively; xiL and xiU are the lower and the upper
bounds of the ith DV, respectively. J, K and L are the
total number of constraints, DVs and DPs, respectively.
It can be noted here that the DDO problem as described
by Eq. (1) does not consider the effect of randomness in Figure 1: A robust solution vs. an optimal solution [11]
x and z. But, the performance function and the
constraints are the function of x and z. Thus, the The RDO problem is formulated following [12] and
randomness in x and/or z are expected to propagate at [13] as:
the system level, influencing the performance function
and the constraints of the related optimization problem. mf sf
minimize: f( u) = (1 - a) *
+a , 0 a 1
The development of the RDO methodology is described mf sf *
next in the section 2.1. Then, in section 2.2 the MLSM subjected to: mg + k jsg 0 j = 1, 2,......, J
j j
strategy is briefly discussed.
x Li x i x iU , i = 1, 2......,K (2)
where, k is a designer specified penalty factor to
enhance the feasibility of the jth constraint and can be
439
{
obtained as -1 1 - -bT ( )} and b T is the target 3 Estimation of Extreme Wave Loading
reliability index and is the cumulative density Offshore structures are subjected to temporally and
function of a standard normal distribution. f(u) is a new spatially varying random loads due to wind, wave,
earthquake, ice and thermal gradient. The complexity of
objective function, called desirability function and the wind and earthquake load is compounded by the wave
parameter a serves as a weighting factor; mf and sf are environment. The long-term behaviour of loads is non-
the mean and the standard deviation of the performance stationary and due to non-linear functional dependence,
function respectively; m*f and s*f are the optimal values it is non-Gaussian as well [15]. The wave forces on the
of the mean and the standard deviation obtained for a offshore structures depend on the characteristic of the
wave environment and the geometric and dynamic
equals to 0.0 and 1.0, respectively; m g j and s g j are the
properties of the structure. Morison et al. [16] proposed
mean and the standard deviation of the jth constraint gj, an empirical formula or the in-line force per unit length
respectively. as,
.. . .
F(s, t) = FI + FD = M I U + CH U U (6)
2.2 The MLSM based RSM strategy
The MLSM based RSM is a weighted LSM that has
varying weight functions with respect to the position of pD2 pD2
where,MI = CMr = (Cm + 1)r
approximation [14]. The weight associated with a 4 4
particular sampling point xi decays as the prediction rD
and CH = C D
point x moves away from xi. The weight function is 2
defined around the prediction point x and its magnitude where, FI and FD are the inertia and drag force,
changes with x. The modified error norm Ly(x) can be
respectively ; D is the diameter of a single column; r is
defined as the sum of the weighted errors [14],
.
the density of the sea water; U is the fluid particle
Ly ( x ) = W ( x ) = ( Y - Q
Q ) W ( x )( Y - Q )
T T
(3) ..
velocity; U is the fluid particle acceleration; CM is the
where, e is lack of fit error term; Y represents the
response of the structure; Q is the design matrix and b inertia co-efficient; Cm is the hydrodynamic mass and
is the unknown coefficient vector. The coefficient (x) CD is the drag co-efficient. The wave force can be re-
can be obtained by the matrix operation as below [14], written as:
b (x) = [ QT W(x) Q ]-1 QT W(x)Y (4) pD x

C m K 2 sin 2p -
t

H 2 L 4H L T
Fh = prD 2
T x t x t
In the above equation, W(x) is the diagonal matrix of + Cd K1 cos 2p - cos 2p -
L T L T
the weight function and it depends on the location of the
where,
associated approximation point of interest (x); W(x)
4pS2 4pS1 4pS2 4pS1
may be obtained by utilizing the weighting function as - + sinh - sinh L
K1 =
L L L
an exponential function [14]; 2
2pd
16 sinh
L
w(x - x I ) = w(d) = exp(-d/R I ) (5)
2pS2 2pS1
sinh - sinh L
and K 2 = L (7)
where, R I the approximate radius of sphere of influence, sinh
2pd

chosen as twice the distance between the most extreme L
points from the centre point considered in the Design of where, S1 is the level of equivalent force from the
Experiment (DOE). The exponential form of the weight bottom of sea and S2 refers to the depth of the sea; L is
function is used in the present numerical study. The length of the wave; D is the diameter of a single
weight matrix W(x) can be constructed by using the column; T is time period of wave; t is the time step
weighting function in diagonal terms as below: interval; H is the maximum wave height.
w(x - x1 ) 0 ... 0 Morison Equation for Flexible Members

The original Morison equation of Eqn. (6) is modified
0 w(x - x 2 ) ... 0
W(x) = for flexible or moving members, by replacing the
... ... ... ...
absolute velocity by relative velocity and including an
0 0 ... w(x - x n ) added mass term associated with the acceleration of the
structure [17]. The modified equation is represented as:
440
G Datta, et al.
rpD2 rpD 2 .. 1
F(s, t) = (C M - 1) Y+ U + rC D DY
YY
4 4 2
..
= M a Y + M w U + CH Y Y (8)
.
where, Y = U- X is the relative velocity, and X(t) is the
displacement in the direction of the wave propagation.
The modified hydrodynamic load vector F(t) may be
obtained by aggregating the hydrodynamic load on each
member. It includes the effect of inertia, drag and fluid-
structure interaction.
Figure 2: The Jack-up platform
.. . .
F(t) = M1 U - M a X + CH U - X U - X (9)

Table 1: Details of the uncertain DVs and DPs
1
where, M I = rCM V, Ma = r ( CM - 1) V, CH = rCD A Variable Notation Mean CoV
2
. ..
Hmax (m) z1 4.34 20%
U , U are the fluid particle velocity and fluid particle T (sec) z2 8.51 10%
p p Es (t/m2) z3 2.1x107 10%
acceleration, respectively; A = D 2 and V = D 2 l , DPs s t/m3 z4 7.83 10%
4 4
w (t/m3) z5 1.03 10%
where l is the length of a column.
W (t) z6 3000 10%
Dia. of
4 Numerical Study col x1 3 5%
A single storied jack-up platform made up of steel (dc ) (m)
plates is taken up to study the proposed RDO procedure. DVs Dia. of
The structure is considered to be subjected to wave load bracing x2 1 5%
with a maximum wave height of 3 m, and the (db ) (m)
corresponding wave period is taken as 8.25 seconds.
The DoE for generating the RSM approximation is
The values of CM and CD are taken as 2 and 1,
performed by randomly generating 20 sampling points
respectively [18]. In this particular problem DVs are
as per Latin Hypercube Sampling method. The RDO is
taken as Column diameter (dc ) and Bracing executed by Sequential Quadratic Programming routine
diameter (db ) . The sections are tubular with uniform available in MATLAB. The results are presented for
thickness of 25 mm. The uncertain DPs are maximum varying Reliability Index in Figs. 3 to 6. The results
height of wave (Hmax), time period of wave (T), obtained from the Direct MCS, the conventional LSM
modulus of elasticity of steel (Es), unit weight of steel based RSM and the proposed MLSM based RSM are
(s), unit weight of sea water and weight of deck. The shown in the same figure. The direct MCS result serves
DVs and DPs are tabulated in Table 1. The mean values here as the benchmark for the comparison. In Fig. 3,
of the DPs are taken from Ref. [15]. Time period T is optimal weight is plotted. The Coefficient of Variation
assumed to be log-normally distributed [15], whereas all (CoV) of optimal weight is presented in Fig. 4. It can be
other parameters are assumed as random normal. The observed from these Figs. that the optimal weight and
structure and the sea-level are shown in Fig. 2. its COV increase with increase in target reliability
S2=d=25m. S.W.L refers to the mean sea water level. index. The trend is similar by all the three approaches.
The DDO is then formulated as: From Figs. 3 and 4, it can be observed that the optimal
Find x1 , x 2 weight and the CoV of optimal weight by the MLSM
based RSM approach is in close conformity with the
To minimize f (u) = Weight of frame direct MCS based approach. From Fig. 3, it can be
subjected to: g(u) = d dal , xL x x U (10) observed that the results by the conventional LSM based
RSM approach is significantly deviated from the direct
where, and al are the maximum top displacement and MCS results. Hence, the results by the LSM based RSM
allowable displacement, respectively. al is taken as seems to yield inaccurate design solutions, which may
(Hs/500), where Hs refers to the height of the structure. be even to the unsafe side inviting catastrophic failure
The RDO has been performed by i) the direct consequences. This warrants the application of the LSM
MCS framework, ii) the MLSM based RSM framework, based RSM in the RDO. The marginal deviation of the
and iii) the LSM based RSM framework. results by the MCS and the MLSM predictions is
expected to be further reduced by taking more sample
points, iterative improvement of the DoE which is under
study at this stage. The COV of the optimal weight
441
(Fig.4) obtained by the conventional LSM based RSM It is generally observed that there is a trade-off between
approach is not only more (i.e. less robust) than the the objective values of a design and its robustness. If
MLSM based RSM results, but also not in agreement one desires more robustness, the design will be further
with the benchmark direct MCS results. The RDO away from its ideal optimal value. The situation can be
results for different values of the parameter are studied further in terms of Pareto-front [19]. The
presented in Fig.5 showing the variation of the CoV of function space representation of the Pareto optimal set is
optimal weight with the weight factor. The inaccuracy the Pareto optimal front. When there are two objectives,
with the conventional LSM based RSM approach is the Pareto optimal front is a curve, when there are three
pertinent here also. On the other hand, the MLSM based objectives, the Pareto optimal front is represented by a
RSM approach is in close agreement with the surface and if there are more than three objectives, it is
benchmark MCS solutions and more robust than the represented by a hyper-surface. The Pareto optimal front
LSM based RSM, as well. It can be further observed in multi-objective optimization problems is useful to
that the robustness (i.e. less COV of the optimal weight) visualize and assess trade-offs among different design
achievement is more for decrease in the value of objectives. In addition to identify compromise solutions,
from 1.0 to 0.0. this also helps the designer to set realistic design goals.
The Pareto-front is one where any improvement in one
objective can only occur through worsening of at least
Direct MCS one other objective. If one chooses a design that is not
MLSM based RSM
12000
LSM based RSM
Pareto-optimal, one essentially forfeits improvements
that would otherwise entail no compromise. Thus, one
of the important tasks in the RDO is to obtain the
Optimal Weight (Kg)
11000 Pareto-front. The Pareto-fronts as obtained by the

proposed and the conventional RDO approaches are
plotted in Fig. 6. It can be readily observed from this
10000 figure that to achieve a specific level of variation in the
desired objective (COV of the weight here), the required
1 2 3
weight by the proposed MLSM based RSM approach is
Reliability Index () lesser than that by the conventional LSM based RSM
approach. On the other hand, for a prescribed weight of
Figure 3: Optimal Weight vs. Reliability index
the structure, the COV of optimal weight as obtained by
the proposed MLSM based RSM approach is lesser than
that obtained by the conventional LSM based RSM
0.220
approach. Hence, more robust (i.e. lesser COV)
MLSM based RSM solutions are achieved by the proposed MLSM based
LSM based RSM
0.215
Direct MCS RSM approach, which is also more economic (i.e. lesser
structural weight yielded by the proposed approach), as
COV of Optimal Weight
0.210
well. Moreover, the MLSM based RSM results are in
0.205
close conformity with the benchmark direct MCS
0.200 solutions in comparison to the conventional LSM based
RSM results. Thus, more efficient Pareto-front is
0.195
obtained by the proposed MLSM based RSM approach
0.190 as compared to the conventional LSM based RSM
1 2 3
approach.
Reliability Index ()
Figure 4: CoV of optimal weight vs. Reliability index

0.220
Direct MCS
0.215 MLSM based RSM
LSM based RSM
0.220
Direct MCS 0.210

MLSM based RSM
0.215
LSM based RSM
0.205
0.210
0.200
0.205
0.195
0.200
0.195
0.190
10000 11000 12000
0.190 optimal weight (Kg)
0.0 0.5 1.0
weight factor,a Figure 6: The Pareto-optimal curve
Figure 5: CoV of optimal weight vs. weight factor
442
G Datta, et al.
It has been observed that the direct MCS approach Journal of Marine Science and Technology, Vol. 20,
requires on an average nine minutes, whereas the pp. 689702, 2015.
proposed MLSM based RDO approach takes fifteen [7] Ziegler, L., Voormeeren, S., Schafhirt, S. and
seconds for producing a single solution of the RDO. The Muskulus, M., Design clustering of offshore wind
LSM based RSM yields result in approximately five turbines using probabilistic fatigue load estimation,
seconds. This endorses the computational efficiency of Renewable Energy, Vol. 91, pp. 425-433, 2016.
the proposed approach. The MLSM based RSM [8] Haghi, R., Ashuri, T., L.C. van der Valk, P. and
approach takes more time than the LSM based RSM Molenaar, D.P., Integrated Multidisciplinary
since the former fits a new RSM curve for each of the Constrained Optimization of Offshore Support
iterations of the RDO. Structures, Journal of Physics: Conference Series,
2014.
5 Conclusions [9] Chakraborty, S. and Bhattacharjya, S., Efficient
An efficient RDO of offshore structure is presented Robust Optimization of Structures Subjected to
under stochastic wave loading. The MLSM based RSM Earthquake Load and Characterized by Uncertain
approach is used in the present study to reduce the high Bounded System Parameters, Structural Seismic
computational time requirement by the direct MCS. It Design Optimization and Earthquake Engineering:
has been observed that with respect to the conventional Formulations and Applications., 2012.
deterministic design the RDO yields 18% higher [10] Knoll, F. and Vogel, Th., Steel Construction.,
optimal weight considering uncertainty in load and Volume 2, Issue 2, page 147, 2009.
other system parameters. The proposed MLSM based [11] Augusto, O.B., Fouad Bennis, F. and Stephane
RDO approach is not only computationally efficient, but Caro, S., Multiobjective Engineering Design
also acceptably accurate as evinced from the numerical Optimization Problems: A Sensitivity Analysis
study. The proposed MLSM based RSM approach Approach, Pesquisa Operacional, Vol. 32(3), pp.
yields more efficient Pareto-front than the conventional 575-596, 2012.
LSM based RSM approach. The results indicate that by [12] Doltsinis, I., Kang, Z. and Cheng, G., Robust
sacrificing a small increment in the structural weight design of non-linear structures using optimization
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RDO approach. The proposed RDO method is valid and [13] Beyer, H.G. and Sendhoff, B., Robust
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443
SHEAR STRENGTH OF SEMI CORRUGATED WEBBED

BEAM
Anjaly J. Pillai1, Laxmikant M. Gupta2
Department of Applied Mechanics, Visvesvaraya National Institute of Technology, Nagpur

440010, India
The main purpose of using corrugation is to increase the shear strength of the web, hence no
stiffeners are required for the same. This helps in reducing the material and fabrication cost. For
a simply supported beam, the shear force is less at the middle portion of the span. Therefore, the
web is kept plain in the middle portion and corrugations are provided for the remaining portion.
Hence, it is called as Semi Corrugated Web. In this paper, various models of the web are analyzed
in ABAQUS. The shear stress of the plain webbed beam and that of semi corrugated webbed
beam is compared for the same loading. The behavior of the semi corrugated web is then observed
by changing the height of the web. The optimum depth of corrugation is found out by changing
the flange width and the depth of corrugation.
Keywords: corrugation, shear strength, web
1. Introduction loading. The behavior of corrugated webs under

fatigue loads have been carried out by Elgaaly et al.
Plate girder structure, fabricated from welded
(2006) Ref. [8]. In this, six trapezoidally corrugated
steel plate, is well recognized. Economical design of
web plate girders are tested under monotonic and
girders and beams normally requires thin webs. But if
repeated loading under different stress ranges.
the web is extremely thin the problem of plate
Relationship between stress range (!" ) and the number
buckling may arise. Possible ways to reduce this risk
of cycles (#) is developed for 1trapezoidally
consist of using thicker plates, web stiffeners or
corrugated web plate girders. The shear strength and
strengthening the web by making it corrugation. The
failure modes of corrugated webs is given by Driver et
conventional provision of stiffeners to allow the use of
al. (2006) Ref. [7]. The effect of web initial geometric
thin webs has two disadvantages, i.e., high fabrication
imperfections is assessed through measurements of
cost and a possible reduced life due to fatigue cracking
out of plane displacements of the web. A lower bound
that may initiate at the stiffener weld. The use of
equation is proposed considering web imperfections
corrugated plates is used to replace the flat stiffened
due to fabrication process and material nonlinearities.
plates as the web can eliminate both disadvantages. It
This equation takes into account both local and global
is assumed that the web carries only shear forces due
buckling of the web in elastic and inelastic domain.
to the accordion effect in a corrugated web. Due to
The shear strength and design criteria of trapezoidal
this, the corrugated steel webs fail due to shear
corrugated webs, based on the 1st order interactive
buckling or yielding. Three different shear buckling
equation is given by Moon et al. (2009) Ref. [13]. The
modes (local; global; and interactive) are possible,
shear buckling parameter of corrugated webs,$% is
depending on the geometric characteristics of
then proposed. The shear buckling strength,
corrugated steel webs.
considering material inelasticity, residual stresses, and
Extensive experimental and numerical
initial imperfections, is determined from the buckling
investigation were found in the literature highlighting
curves using the proposed&$% . A series of tests were
the behaviour and ultimate strength of girders with
performed with large corrugated webs in order to
corrugated webs when subjected to compressive patch
verify the proposed shear strength. The shear buckling
loads applied at the top flange explained in Elaagly et
strength and design of curved corrugated steel webs
al. (1997) Ref. [4]. The test results provided by Elaagly
for bridges considering material inelasticity is studied
et al. (1997) Ref. [4] have given information regarding
by Eldib (2009) Ref. [14]. The inelastic buckling
failure of corrugated web under compressive patch
strength is determined from the buckling curves based
1
Research Scholar, anjalypillai92@gmail.com
2
Professor, lmgupta@apm.vnit.ac.in
444
Anjaly J. Pillai and Laxmikant M. Gupta
on the proposed shear buckling parameter$% . Shear the beam deflects in the direction of load and then
buckling formula is proposed which depends on the rotates about its longitudinal axis.
geometric properties of the curved corrugated web
profile. The parameters considered are web thickness
'
to web height (+* , the radius , of the curved web
(
and the corrugation angle-.
In this paper, using a general purpose finite
element (FE) program (ABAQUS), a numerical
parametric study was carried out for a simply
supported semi corrugated web plate girders of length
5m. The parameters considered to observe the effect
on shear stress are height of web, flange width and
depth of corrugation. Also the optimum depth of
corrugation was found out by varying the parameters Figure 1: Plain web with end moments and boundary
mentioned. conditions
2. Numerical Parametric Study

A numerical parametric study was carried out on
simply supported plate girders with semi corrugated
web in ABAQUS (2007), a general purpose finite
element program. Parametric study was performed on
number of models with varying the web height, flange
width, and depth of corrugation. The modelling
including the loading, material and boundary
conditions are described in the next section.
Figure 2: Deformed shape of plate girder in buckling
mode 1
2.1 Verification of finite element model
To verify the result of the finite element model, an Table 1: Comparison of Critical Moment (./" )
eigenvalue analysis (with elastic properties of steel Plate
./" (manual ./"
i.e., modulus of elasticity E=200000MPa and girders %
calculation) (ABAQUS)
Poissons ratio 0.3) of various plate girders is carried of depth Error
(kNm) (kNm)
out to find their critical moment value that correspond (mm)
to lateral torsional buckling mode of failure. Critical
moment of simply supported plate girder with plain 100 14.6 16 9.5
web is evaluated, considering depth 100mm and 300 241.7 249.1 3
300mm. The end of the simply supported plate girder
subjected to uniform end moment is shown in Fig. 1.
The critical moment given by Timoshenko (1961) is 2.2 Description of the FE Models for semi
given by Eq. (1): corrugated
In this study, various models were prepared by
P EI y
2
P EI w
2 changing the depth of corrugation, web height and
M cr = 2 GI t + . (1) flange width. The modelling of semi corrugated
L L2 webbed beam is explained below.
The element used in the models were four-node
where L is the unbraced length, Iy is the minor moment doubly curved shell element (S4R) available in
of inertia of the cross section, GIt and Iw are torsional ABAQUS (2007). The dimensions of the upper and
and warping constant of the beam respectively. The lower flange is 200mmX12mm. The web thickness is
results of the comparison of manual calculation as per 8mm. The span of the plate girder is 5m. Area load
Eq. (1) and that from ABAQUS are summarized in applied on the upper flange was of magnitude
Table 1. The deformed shape of the plate girder when 0.0075N/mm2. The dimensions of the plain webbed
undergoing lateral torsional buckling in mode 1 is beam is shown in Fig. 3. The geometric notations of
shown in Fig. 2. It is understood from the figure that the semi corrugated webbed beam shown in Fig.4 and
the dimensions used for modelling are given below.
445
Depth of corrugation, d = 120mm !

Flat panel width, a = 200mm
Horizontal projection of the inclined panel width,
b = 200mm
Inclined panel width,c = 233.24mm
Thickness of the web, tw = 8mm
Boundary conditions were applied to either ends Figure 4: Geometric Notations of the semi
of model to simulate the simply supported boundary corrugated web
condition by restraining appropriate degrees of (Shear strength and design of trapezoidally
freedom. corrugated steel webs by Moon et.al. (2008) Ref.
An elastic material was modelled with modulus of [13])
elasticity E=200000MPa and Poissons ratio 0.3.
The shear stress distribution along the cross- Table 2: Comparison of shear stress values obtained
section of the beam is calculated by the formula given for area load of 0.0075N/mm2
in Eq. (2). For area load of 0.0075N/mm2, the shear Shear stress Manually ABAQUS
stress for a plain webbed beam at support and at at section (N/mm2) (N/mm2)
500mm from the support is calculated using the shear
stress equation and from ABAQUS. The values At support 0.77 0.76
obtained are compared as show in Table 2. At 500 mm 0.61 0.61
Also the shear stress of a plain webbed beam and from support
that of semi corrugated webbed beam caused due to
area load of 0.0075N/mm2 is compared in Table 3.
The semi corrugated webbed beam modelled in Table 3: Comparison of shear stress of plane web
ABAQUS (2007) is shown in Fig. 5. from that of semi corrugated web for area load of
0.0075N/mm2
Shear Plane web Semi corrugated
VAy stress at web
t= . (2) section Analytically Analytically
Ib1
(N/mm2) (N/mm2)
ymax
At 0.68 0.54
Where; Ay =

y1
ydA . support
At 0.61 0.48
500mm
from
support
Figure 3: Dimensions of the plain webbed beam
Figure 5: Semi corrugated web modelled in

ABAQUS with loading and boundary conditions
Since the cross section is same for both plain

webbed and semi corrugated webbed beam, the shear
446
stress variation is also the same. The maximum The flange width was changed from 200mm to
deflection in the direction of loading is compared as 250mm. The depth of corrugation was also changed
shown in Table 4. from 80mm to 120mm with an increment of 10mm for
250mm flange width.
Table 4: Comparison of maximum deflection

3. Results of the parametric study
Plain web Semi corrugated
Maximum Web Fig. 6 and Table 6 shows the variation of shear
deflection (mm) stress by varying the depth of corrugation from 80mm
0.16 0.08
to 120mm with an increment of 10mm for 200mm
flange width.
The shear stress was compared by changing the
following parameters tabulated in Table 5. These 0.6
Shear stress (N/mm2)

variations are explained below.
0.5
Table 5: Parametric Variations 0.4
Parameter Parameter Dimensions
0.3
varied kept constant
Depth of Height of web 80mm to 0.2
corrugation ( hw ) is 120mm with an 0.1
(d ) increment of
500mm, 0
10mm
Flange width 0 50 100 150
( b f ) is Depth of corrugation (mm)
200mm
Figure 6: Plot of shear stress and depth of
Height of web Depth of 400mm to
corrugation
( hw ) corrugation 600mm with an
( d ) is increment of Table 6: Shear stress at the support on changing the
120mm, 100mm depth of corrugation for the area load of
Flange width 0.0075N/mm2
( b f ) is Models Depth of Shear stress
corrugation,0 (mm) at support
200mm
(N/mm2)
Flange width Depth of 200mm to
1 80 0.49
(bf ) corrugation 250mm with an
increment of 2 90 0.48
( d ) is
50mm 3 100 0.42
120mm,
Height of web 4 110 0.45
( hw ) is 5 120 0.54
500mm
From Fig. 6 and Table 6, it was observed that the
shear stress was found to decrease from 80mm to
Depth of corrugation 100mm and then increase from 110mm and 120mm.
The depth of corrugation was changed from Therefore, the optimum depth of corrugation is
80mm to 120mm with an increment of 10mm for a 100mm giving the least shear stress.
web height of 500mm and flange width of 200mm. Fig. 7 and Table 7 shows the variation of shear
stress for 250mm flange width. Depth of corrugation
Height of web was changed from 80mm to 120mm with an increment
The height of the web was changed from 400mm of 10mm. There is no change in shear stress variation
to 600mm with an increment of 100mm for a depth of when the flange width is increased to 250mm.
corrugation 120mm and flange width 200mm
Flange width
447
0.5 Models Height of web, Shear stress at

23& &455) support (N/mm2)
0.4 1 200 0.72

0.3 2 300 0.65
3 400 0.6
0.2
4 500 0.54
0.1 5 600 0.49
0
0 50 100 150
The behaviour of semi corrugated web on
Depth of corrugation (mm) increasing the height of web was same as that of plain
web.
Figure 7: Plot of shear stress and depth of Reduction in shear stress with increase in height
corrugation for flange width of 250mm of web is observed. The shear stress is reduced due to
increase in web area.
Table 7: Shear stress at the support on changing the
flange width to 250 mm and increasing the depth of
corrugation for the area load of 0.0075N/mm2 4. Conclusions
Models Depth of Shear stress at The aim of this study was to observe the variation
corrugation,1 support (N/mm2) in shear stress of semi corrugated web by changing
(mm) various parameters. Based on the results obtained,
1 80 0.45 following conclusions are made:
2 90 0.37 1. The shear stress distribution is same for a plate
girder with plain web and that of corrugated web.
3 100 0.35
The cross section is an I-section for both the cases. The
4 110 0.39 only difference in semi corrugated web is that the
5 120 0.41 moment of inertia about y-axis increases due to shift
of web from the centroid plane either to the left or
right. Hence, the shear stress values are zero at top and
Fig. 8 and Table 8 shows the variation of shear bottom and maximum at the neutral axis.
stress for increase in web height from 400mm to 2. The maximum deflection in the direction of loading
600mm with an increment of 100mm. The depth of was compared for a plain webbed beam and that of
corrugation was kept as 120mm and flange width semi corrugated webbed beam. The maximum
200mm. deflection obtained for semi corrugated webbed beam
was found to be less than that of plain webbed beam.
0.8 Hence, stiffness provided by the semi corrugated
webbed beam is more than that of plain webbed beam.
0.7
3. Shear stress was found to decrease and then increase

0.6 when the depth of corrugation was increased.
0.5 Therefore, the depth of corrugation giving least shear
0.4 stress termed as optimum depth of corrugation was
0.3 found out for the loading considered.
4. The shear stress was found to decrease as the height
0.2 of web increases due to increase in web area.
0.1 5. No change in shear stress variation was observed
0 when the flange width was increased from 200mm to
0 200 400 600 800 250mm.
Height of web (mm)
Acknowledgments
Figure 8: Plot of shear stress and height of web
The authors are thankful to the Director,
Table 8: Shear stress at support and at 500 mm from Visvesvaraya National Institute of Technology,
support on changing the height of web for the area Nagpur.
load of 0.0075N/mm2
448
References [15] Romeijn, A., Sarkhosh, R., and Hoop, H., Basic
parametric study on corrugated web girders with
[1] Timoshenko, S. P., and Gere, J. M.s., Theory of
cut outs. Journal of Constructional Steel
elastic stability. McGraw Hill, 1961.
Research, Vol. 65(2), pp. 395-407, 2009.
[2] EN 1993-1-5: Eurocode 3: Design of steel
[16] Pasternak, H., and Kubieniec, G., Plate girders
structures-Part 1-5: Plated Structural Elements.
with corrugated webs. Journal of civil
[3] Elgaaly, M., Hamilton, R. W., and Seshadri, A., engineering and management, Vol. 16(2), pp.
Shear strength of beams with corrugated webs. 166-171, 2010.
Journal of Structural Engineering, Vol. 122(4),
[17] Kiymaz, G., Coskun, E., Cosgun, C., and Seckin,
pp. 390-398, 1996.
E., Transverse load carrying capacity of
[4] Elgaaly, M., and Seshadri, A., Girders with sinusoidally corrugated steel web beams with web
corrugated webs under partial compressive edge openings. Steel and Composite Structures, Vol.
loading. Journal of Structural Engineering, Vol. 10(1), pp. 69-85, 2010.
123(6), pp. 783-791, 1997.
[18] Davison, B., and Owens, G. W. (Eds.)., Steel
[5] Elgaaly, M., Plate and box girders. Structural designers' manual. John Wiley & Sons, 2011.
engineering handbook, CRC Press LLC, US,
[19] Sause, R.,and Braxtan, T. N., Shear strength of
Boca Raton, 1999.
trapezoidal corrugated steel webs. Journal of
[6] Duggal, S. K., Design of steel structures. Tata Constructional Steel Research, Vol. 67(2), pp.
McGraw-Hill Education, 2000. 223-236, 2011.
[7] Driver, R. G., Abbas, H. H., and Sause, R., Shear [20] Divahar, R., and Joanna, P. S., The effect of web
behavior of corrugated web bridge girders. corrugation in cold-formed steel beam with
Journal of Structural Engineering, Vol. 132(2), trapezoidal corrugated web. American Journal of
pp. 195-203, 2006. Engineering Research, Vol. 3(6), pp. 137-142,
2014.
[8] Ibrahim, S. A., El-Dakhakhni, W. W., and Elgaaly,
M., Behavior of bridge girders with corrugated
webs under monotonic and cyclic loading.
Engineering Structures, Vol. 28(14), pp. 1941-
1955, 2006.
[9] Version, A. B. A. Q. U. S., 6.7 Users manual. Inc.
and Dassault systemes., 2007.
[10] Abbas, H. H., Sause, R., and Driver, R. G.,
Behavior of corrugated web I-girders under in-
plane loads. Journal of Engineering Mechanics,
Vol. 132(8), pp. 806-814, 2007.
[11] Subramanian, N., Design of steel structures.
Oxford University Press. Pp. 980-983, 2008.
[12] Moon, J., Yi, J., Choi, B. H., and Lee, H. E., Shear
strength and design of trapezoidally corrugated
steel webs. Journal of Constructional Steel
Research, Vol. 65(5), pp. 1198-1205, 2009.
[13] Moon, J., Yi, J. W., Choi, B. H., and Lee, H.E.,
Lateraltorsional buckling of I-girder with
corrugated webs under uniform bending. Thin-
Walled Structures, Vol. 47(1), pp. 21-30, 2009.
[14] Eldib, M. H., Shear buckling strength and design
of curved corrugated steel webs for bridges.
Journal of Constructional Steel Research, Vol.
65(12), pp. 2129-2139, 2009.
449
THERMAL STRESS ANALYSIS OF ISOTROPIC THICK BEAM BY USING

HYPERBOLIC SHEAR DEFORMATION THEORY
V. G. Pardeshi 1, G. R. Gandhe 2 , D. H. Tupe 2
Department of Civil Engineering, Deogiri Institute of Engineering and Management

Studies, Aurangabad (M.S)-431005, India.
In this paper, A hyperbolic shear deformation theory (HPSDT) taking into account transverse shear deformation effect
is presented for thermal stress analysis of thick isotropic beam subjected to linear thermal load. The displacement eld
contains two variables. The hyperbolic sine and cosine function is used in the displacement field in terms of thickness
Co-ordinate to represent the effect of shear deformation. The most important feature of the theory is that, the transverse
shear stresses can be obtained directly from the use of equilibrium equation, satisfying the stress free boundary
conditions at top and bottom surfaces of the beam. The present theory obviates the need of shear correction factor.
Governing differential equations and boundary conditions of the theory are obtained using the principle of virtual work.
Navier solution technique is employed for the simply supported beams. The results obtained for bending analysis of
isotropic beam subjected to linear thermal load are compared with those obtained by other theories like elementary
theory of beam (ETB), first-order shear deformation theory (FSDT), to validate the accuracy of the presented theory.
Keywords: Hyperbolic Shear deformation, Isotropic thick beam, Principle of virtual work, Thermal loading, Thermal
stresses.
1. Introduction Where x, y and z are Cartesian coordinates. The beam

The isotropic and anisotropic structural elements is subjected to, linear thermal load of intensity T(x) on
are used in aerospace vehicles, construction of rockets, whole length of beam.
high speed vehicle and nuclear reactors. The
temperature variation often represents a significant
factor and sometimes the predominant causes of failure
of structure. The deflection and stress analysis of beam
subjected to linear thermal load has beam subject of
research interest in recent years.
B. A. Boley et. al [1] explained effect of uniform
thermal load on thick beam for its analysis of thermal Figure 1: Simply supported beam bending under x-z
stresses. Wan-Lee Yin [2] have used a variational plane
method involving stress functions is used to determine Under this condition, the axial displacement,
the interlaminar stresses and the free-edge effects in a Transverse displacement, Axial bending stress and
laminated beam under a temperature loading. S. transverse shear stress are required to be determined.
Kapuria et. al [3] has presented a new e!cient higher The numerical results for axial displacement, axial
order zigzag theory for composite and sandwich beams stress and transverse shear stress are presented in
subjected to thermal loading. Reddy J. N. et. al [4] are following graphs by comparing results of ETB, FSDT
presented Thermal deformations in symmetric and theories respectively for different values of
antisymmetric cross-ply beams are investigated. ( x = 0, z = h / 2)
Yepeng Xu et. al [5] are presented Two-dimensional
2.1 Assumptions Made In the Theoretical
thermoelastic analysis for simply supported beams with
Formulation
variable thickness and subjected to thermo-mechanical
loads. Gandhe G. R. et. al [6] are presented Thermo- Theoretical formulation of present theory is based on
elastic Stress Analysis Perfectly clamped metallic rod the following assumptions.
using Integral Transform Technique.
2. Theoretical Formulation 1. The axial displacement (u) consists of two parts:
The variationally correct forms of di"erential a) Displacement given by elementary theory
equations and boundary conditions, based on the of bending.
assumed displacement eld are obtained using the b) Displacement due to shear deformation,
principle of virtual work. The beam under which is assumed to be hyperbolic in nature
consideration occupies the following region: with respect to thickness coordinate, such
Consider a thick isotropic simply supported beam of
1
that maximum shear stress occurs at neutral

dimensions L, b and h in x, y, z direction respectively. axis as predicted by the elementary theory
0 x L; - b / 2 y b / 2; -h / 2 z h / 2 of bending of beam.
2. The axial displacement (u) is such that the
1
PG Student,pardeshivijay95@gmail.com,7709277854 resultant of inplane stress (x) acting over the
2
Assistant professor, gajendra_gandhe@yahoo.co.in
450
V. G. Pardeshi, et al.
cross-section should result in only bending 1 z

moment and should not in force in x direction. t xz = G g XZ = G cosh - cosh f ( 6)
3. The transverse displacement (w) in z direction is 2 h
assumed to be function of x coordinate. Where E and G are youngs modulus and shear
4. The displacements are small as compared to modulus or the elastic constants of the beam material,
beam thickness. and # is the coefficients of thermal expansion in x and
5. The body forces are ignored in the analysis. (The z direction respectively and T0 and T1 are the linear
body forces can be effectively taken into account thermal load.
by adding them to the external forces). The temperature field variation through the thickness is
6. Equilibrium equations are used. assumed to be
7. The beam is subjected to thermal load only. z
2.2 The Displacement Field T ( x , z ) = T0 ( x , z ) + T1 ( x , z ) (7 )
Based upon the before mentioned assumptions, the
h
Where T0 and T1 are the linear thermal load.
displacement field of the proposed beam theory is
given as below 2.3 Governing Differential Equations
Governing differential equations and boundary
dw
u ( x ,z ) = - z ( x) + conditions are obtained from Principle of virtual work.
dx Using equations for stresses, strains and principle of
virtual work, variationally consistent differential
1 z
z cosh 2 - h sinh h f ( x ) ( 1) equations for beam under consideration are obtained.
The principle of virtual work when applied to beam
w ( x ,z ) = w ( x ) (2) leads to:
h
x =l z=
Where,
u = Axial displacement in x direction which is function
b
x =0 (s
z =-
2
h
2
x d x + t xz d g xz )dz dx -
of x and z. x =l
w = Transverse displacement in z direction which is
x =0
q( x ) d wdx = 0 (8)
function of x.
f = Rotation of cross section of beam at neutral axis Where = variational operator,
Employing Greens theorem in above Equation
which is function of x. successively, we obtain the coupled Euler-Lagrange
Normal strain: equations which are the governing differential
Normal strains and shear strains are obtained within the equations and associated boundary conditions of the
framework of linear theory of elasticity using the beam. The governing differential equations obtained
displacement field given by Eq. (1) are as follows:
u
x =
x d 4w d 3f a d 2T
EI 4 - A0 3 + 21 = q( x ) (9)
2 w 1 z f dx dx h dx
= - z 2 + z cosh - h sinh (3)
x 2 h x d w 3
d 2f a
Shear strain:
EI A0 3
- B0 2
+ A0
dx dx h
u w
g xz = + dT1
z x + GAC0f = 0 (10 )
1 z dx
g xz = cosh - cosh f (4 )

2 h The associated consistent natural boundary conditions
Stress: obtained are of following form along the edges x = 0
The one dimensional Hookes law is applied for and x = L.
isotropic material, stress is related to strain and shear
stress is related to shear strain by the following d 3w d 2f a dT
constitutive relations. EI 3 - A0 2 - 1 = 0 (11)
s x = E x dx dx h dx
= E (x -a T( x ) ) Where w is prescribed.
z
put T ( x , z ) = T0 ( x , z ) + T1 ( x , z ) d 2w df a
h EI 2 - A0 + T1 = 0 (12 )
2w 1 z dx dx h
s x = - zE 2 + E z cosh - h sinh
x 2 h w
Where is prescribed.
f z x
- a ET0 - a E T1 (5)
x h
451
px p px p
4 3
d 2w df a
EI A0 2 - B0 - A0T1 = 0 (13) EI w0 sin 4 - A0 EI f0 sin
l l3
dx dx h l l
Where f is prescribed. EIa T1 px p px
2
- sin 2 = q0 sin
Where E is elastic constants of the material and I is
h l l l
moment of inertia of beam. p4 p 3 EIa T1p 2
EI 4 w0 - A0 EI 3 f0 - = q0
2.4 The solution scheme l l hl 2
Here we concern with the close form solutions of
simply supported and rectangular aluminum (5086)
p4 p 3
beam. The boundary conditions for simply supported EI 4 w0 - A0 EI 3 f0 = q0 +
edges are l l
At x= 0, and x= L
EIa T1p 2
u0 = 0 and w0 = 0 (18 )
hl 2
The following is the solution form for u0(x, z), w0(x, z)
px p
that satisfies above boundary conditions exactly. Such 3
px
solution in theory of plates and shells is called as - A0 EI w0 cos 3 + B0 EI f0 cos
closed-form solution. This type of solution was l l l
suggested by Navier for the bending problem of simply
supported rectangular beam. p2 a px p
+ A0 EI T1 cos + GAC0
mp x l 2
h l l
w( x) = w0 sin
m=1 L px p
cos =0
l l
px
w = w0 sin (14) p 3 p2 p
L - A0 EI 3 w0 + B0 EI 2 + GAC0 f0 +
mp x l l l
f ( x) = f0 sin
m=1 L A0 EIa T1p
=0 (19 )
px hl
f = f0 cos ( 15 )
L p4
To assess the performance of the present theory in the K11 = EI
prediction of bending response of a beam under a
l4
thermal load, a simply supported isotropic beam of
length L, width b, and thickness h is considered. The
beam is subjected to thermal load which is given by p3
K12 = K 21 = EI
mp x l3
T1 = T1 sin
m=1 L
p2 p
px K 22 = B0 EI 2
+ GAC0
T1 = T1 sin ( 16 ) l l
L
Here T1 is the intensity of thermal load
K11 K12 w0 q0
q( x ) = q0 sin
px
( 17 ) = ( 20 )
L K
21 K 22 f0 T1
Equation number (14), (15), (16) and (17) substituting
in Equation number (9) and (10), where w0 and f0 2.5 Illustrative Example
In order to prove the efficiency of the present theory,
are the unknown coefficients of the respective and put the following numerical examples are considered. The
the load q ( x ) into governing equations and discarding following material properties for beam made of
aluminum (5086) is used having E = 70.3 GPa,
all the terms containing time derivatives yields the two
=0.33, =23.9x10-6 /oc where E is the Youngs
algebraic simultaneous equations which can be written
modulus, is the Poissons ratio and is the
in following matrix form.
coefficients of thermal expansion. Consider Cross
section of beam is as follows Length=3m,
452
Width=0.23m, Depth=0.30m and T1=500 subjected to

p x -z h2
2
thermal load on it. t xz = 4.171 E -03 cos +

l 2 8
w0 = 3.632 E -03
- 08 px
+3.732 E cos x
f0 = -3.4027 E -08 l
Example 1: Simply supported beam with thermal load 1 z h z
2 2
cosh - + + h cosh
2
T (x)
2 2 8 h
A simply supported beam with the origin of beam on ( 24 )
left end supported at x=0. The beam is subjected to, 1
thermal load of intensity T (x) over the span L on - h cosh
2
2
surface z = h/2 acting in the z direction.
Table 1: Dimensional Axial Displacements u at
( x = 0, z = h / 2) , Axial Stress s x at
( x = L / 2, z = h / 2) , Maximum Transverse Shear
Stress t xz at ( x = 0, z = h / 2) , Simply Supported
EE
Beam Made of Aluminium Material Subjected to

Figure 2: A simply supported uniform beam subjected Thermal load for ETB Theory.
to thermal load
z/h u (meter) sx (N/m2) t xz (N/m2)
2.6 Numerical Results 0.15 -0.000570 0.000597 0
In this paper the numerical results for axial
displacement, transverse displacement, bending stress, 0.12 -0.000456 0.000478 0.00001689
transverse shear stress and thermal stress are 0.08 -0.000304 0.000318 0.00003357
determined for simply supported isotropic beam 0.04 -0.000152 0.000159 0.00004359
subjected to thermal load only. 0.02 -0.0000760 0.0000796 0.00004609
px
w = w0 sin 0 0 0 0.00004692
l -0.02 0.0000760 -0.0000796 0.00004609
px -0.04 0.000152 -0.000159 0.00004359
w = 3.632 E -03 sin ( 21) -0.08 0.000304 -0.000318 0.00003357
l
-0.12 0.000456 -0.000478 0.00001689
px
f = f0 cos -0.15 0.000570 -0.000597 0
l
px
f = -3.4027 E -08 cos ( x = 0, z = h / 2) , Axial Stress s x at
l
z ( x = L / 2, z = h / 2) , Maximum Transverse Shear
( x ) + z cosh - h sinh f ( x )
dw 1
u = -z
EE
dx 2 h
px Beam Made of Aluminium Material Subjected to
u = -3.8034 E -03 cos z - 3.4027 E
-08
Thermal load for FSDT Theory.
l
1 z p x
z cosh 2 - h sinh h cos l ( 22 ) 0.15 -0.0005706 0.000597 0

0.12 -0.0004565 0.000478 0.0000168
u 0.08 -0.0003043 0.0003187 0.0000335
sx =
x 0.04 -0.0001521 0.0001593 0.0000435
px 0.02 -0.0000760 0.000079 0.0000461
s x = 3.9829 E -03 sin z + 3.5633 E
-08
l 0 0 0 0.0000469
px 1 z -0.02 0.00007609 -0.000079 0.0000461
sin z cosh - h sinh ( 23 )
l 2 h -0.04 0.0001521 -0.000159 0.0000435
-0.08 0.0003043 -0.000318 0.0000335
-0.12 0.0004565 -0.000478 0.0000168
-0.15 0.0005706 -0.000597 0
453

( x = 0, z = h / 2) , Axial Stress s x at
( x = L / 2, z = h / 2) , Maximum Transverse Shear
EE
Beam Made of Aluminium Material Subjected to

Thermal load for HPSDT Theory.
0.15 -0.000570 0.000597 0
0.12 -0.000456 0.000477 0.00001689
0.08 -0.000304 0.000318 0.00003357
0.04 -0.000152 0.000159 0.00004358
0.02 -0.0000760 0.0000796 0.00004608
0 0 0 0.00004692
-0.02 0.0000760 -0.000079 0.00004608
Figure 5: Variation of Maximum Transverse Shear
-0.04 0.000152 -0.000159 0.00004358
-0.08 0.000304 -0.000315 0.00003357 Stress ( t xz ) in N/m2
-0.12 0.000456 -0.000477 0.00001689
-0.15 0.000570 -0.000597 0 3 Discussion Of Results
Thermal stress analysis of a thick beam using
hyperbolic shear deformation theory is carried out in
the present research work and result obtained are
discussed as follows. The theory has several features as
given below:
a) The number of unknown variables is same as
that in FSDT.
b) The shear deformation in the beam is properly
accounted.
c) The theory obviates the need of shear correction
factor.
d) The governing differential equations and the
associated boundary conditions are variationally
consistent.
The results obtained for axial displacements, stresses
and Transverse shear stress for simply supported
Figure 3: Variation of Maximum Axial Displacement isotropic beam subjected to thermal load are presented
(u) in Meter in Table 1, Table 2 and Table 3. The Tables shows the
comparison of maximum displacements, stresses and
Transverse shear stress for the isotropic beam
(aluminum) subjected to thermal load through
thickness variation of displacements and stress. The
comparison of theories show that the value of
maximum displacements, stresses and Transverse shear
stress obtained by HPSDT are mostly same compared
to the values given by ETB and FSDT. The result of
maximum axial displacement u obtained by present
theory. The variation of u is presented as shown in
Figure 3.The variation of maximum dimensional axial
stresses s x for a beam as shown in Figure 4. The
maximum transverse shear stress t xz obtained by
present theory using equilibrium equation. The through
thickness variation of this stress obtained via
equilibrium equation obtained are presented in Figures
Figure 4: Variation of Maximum Axial Stress (s x ) in 5.
N/m2
454
[4] A. A. Khdeir, J. N. Reddy, 2010, Jordan

4 Conclusion Canonical Form Solution For Thermally Induced
Deformations Of Cross-Ply Laminated Composite
Thermal response of isotropic beam under thermal
Beams Journal of Thermal Stresses 22:3, pp. 331-
load across the thickness of beam has been studied by
346.
using hyperbolic shear deformation Theory (HPSDT)).
[5] Yepeng Xu and Ding Zhou, 2012,Two dimensi-
Present theory gives good prediction of the thermal
response of beam in respect of displacements and onal thermoelastic analysis of beams with variable
stresses. The present theory obviates the need of shear thickness subjected to thermo-mechanical loads,
correction factor and theory is variationally consistent. Applied Mathematical Modelling 36, Elsevier
The present theory satisfies the shear stress free surface Ltd., UK. pp.5818-5829.
conditions on the top and bottom surfaces of the beam. [6] Gandhe G. R and Ghugal Y. M, 2015,
Thermoelastic Stress Analysis Perfectly clamped
List of Abbreviations
ETB Elementary Theory of Beam metallic rod using Integral Transform Technique,
FSDT First Order Shear Deformation Theory Advances in structural Engineering, Springer
HPSDT Hyperbolic Shear Deformation Theory India, pp.181-189.
List of Nomenclature
A= Cross sectional area of beam
b= Width of beam in y direction
E, G and = Elastic constants of the material
E= Youngs modulus
G= Shear modulus
h= Thickness of beam
I=Moment of inertia of cross section of beam
L=Span of the beam
q=Intensity of transverse Load
u=Axial displacement in x direction
w=Transverse displacement in z direction
x, y, z=Rectangular Cartesian coordinates
d= Variational operator
=Poissons ratio of the beam material
=Axial stress in x direction
=Transverse shear stress in zx plane
= Transverse normal stress in z direction
T=Thermal load.
Appendix
The constants A0, B0 and C0 appeared in governing
di"erential equations Eqs. (9) and (10) are as follows:
A0 = cosh (1/2) 12[cosh (1/2) 2 sinh (1/2)],
B0= cosh2 (1/2) + 6[sinh (1) 1] 24cosh (1/2)
[cosh (1/2) 2sinh (1/2)],
C0= cosh2 (1/2) + (1/2) [sinh (1) + 1] 4cosh (1/2) sinh
(1/2).
Reference
[1] B. A. Boley and J. H. Weiner, 1960, Theory of
Thermal Stresses John Wiley, New York,
[2] Wan-Lee Yin, 1991, Thermal Stresses and Free-
Edge Effects in Laminated Beams: A Variational
Approach Using Stress Functions, Journal of
Electronic Packaging, Vol. 113.
[3] S. Kapuria, P.C. Dumir, A. Ahmed, 2003, An
e!cient higher order zigzag theory for composite
and sandwich beams subjected to thermal loading
International Journal of Solids and Structures 40,
pp.66136631.
455
TRIGONOMETRIC SHEAR DEFORMATION THEORY FOR

THERMAL STRESS ANALYSIS OF ISOTROPIC DEEP BEAM
P.H.Dinkar1, Dr.G.R.Gandhe2, D.H.Tupe2
Department of Civil Engineering, Deogiri Institute of Engineering and Management

Studies, Aurangabad (M.S)-431005, India.
ABSTRACT
The structural components used in the aeronautical and aerospace vehicles, as well as civil and mechanical
structures often encounter severe thermal environment. The high velocities of these aircraft and spacecraft give
rise to aerodynamic heating which produces significant thermal stresses due to the thermal gradient across the
thickness that reduce the strength of aircraft structures so it is necessary for predicting the bending response of
these structures. Theories of beams involve basically the reduction of a three dimensional problems of elasticity
theory to a one-dimensional problems. This study presents the flexural response of isotropic rectangular deep
beam subjected to uniformly distributed thermal loads using trigonometric shear deformation theory. Thermal
loads are difficult to visualize and usually need to be determined by a thermal analysis Therefore the stiffness
matrix used for assessing thermal stresses are developed and implemented to analyze isotropic deep beam. The
in-plane displacement field uses sinusoidal function in terms of thickness coordinate to include the shear
deformation effect. The present theory foreclose the need of shear correction factor. To endorse the accuracy
of the presented theory the simply supported thick isotropic beams subjected to uniformly distributed thermal
loads is analyzed The results obtained for bending analysis of isotropic beam subjected to uniform thermal load
are compared with those obtained by other theories, like Elementary Theory of Beam (ETB) and first order
shear deformation (FSDT) to validate the accuracy of the presented theory.
Keywords: Principle of virtual work, Thermal loading, Trigonometric shear deformation.
Introduction nonlinear analysis on Timoshenko beams under

thermo-mechanical loads. Yepeng Xu et. al [3] carried
1
The beam and plate theories are the prime areas of out analysis for simply supported beams with variable
research since the historical time. Theories of beams thickness and subjected to thermo-mechanical loads
involve basically the reduction of a three dimensional and proposed an approximate analytical method. Kiani
problems of elasticity theory to a one-dimensional and Eslami [4] analyzed the buckling of FGM beams
problems. Shear deformation effect are more by using the Timoshenko beam (TB) theories, and gave
significant in thick beam subjected to external load and a closed-form expression for the critical buckling
thermal load are considered. It is well-known that temperature for three types of thermal loads. Kapuria
elementary theory of bending of beam is based on the et. al [5] has presented a new e!cient higher order
assumption that the transverse normal to neutral axis zigzag theory for composite and sandwich beams
remains so during bending and after bending, based on subjected to thermal loading. Gandhe G. R. et. al [6]
Euler-Bernoulli hypothesis, implying that the are presented Thermo-elastic Stress Analysis Perfectly
transverse shear strain is zero. The theory is suitable clamped metallic rod using Integral Transform
for slender beams only. Disregards the effects of the Technique Reddy J. N. et. al [7] are presented
shear deformation and stress concentration. Thermal deformations in symmetric and antisymmetric
To remove the discrepancies in classical cross-ply beams are investigated.
(ETB) and first order shear deformation theories In this paper, a trigonometric shear deformation
(FSDT) beams forced the development of higher order theory is developed for static flexural analysis of
shear deformation theories. The theories based on isotropic thick beams subjected to thermal load only.
trigonometric and hyperbolic functions to represent the The numerical results for axial displacement, in plan
shear deformation effects through the thickness is the stress, and transverse shear stress are presented for
another class of refined theories. B. A. Boley and J. H. analysis the axial displacement, in plan bending stress
Weiner [1] explained effect of uniform thermal load and transverse shear stress. The results obtained are
on thick beam for its analysis of thermal stresses. S.R. compared with those of Elementary theory of beam
Li, Y.H. Zhou [2] carried out the geometrically (ETB), Timoshenkos beam theory (FSDT), and other
higher order refined theories(TSDT).
1.
PG, student,dinkarpriyanka001@gmail.com.
2. Assistant Professor, gajendra_gandhe@yahoo.co.in
3. Assistant Professor, durgeshtupe@gmail.com.
456
P.H.Dinkar, et al.
d 2w h p z df z
s x = E[- z + sin( ) - aT0 - a T1(x) ] (6)
I. Theoretical formulation dx2 p h dx h
Displacement eld are obtained using the principle of Where E and G are youngs modulus and shear
virtual work. The beam under consideration occupies modulus or the elastic constants of the beam material.
Following region.
0 x L; - b / 2 y b / 2; - h / 2 z h / 2 I. Governing Differential Equations
1.1. The Displacement Field Governing differential equations and boundary
The displacement field in terms of trigonometric conditions are obtained from Principle of virtual work.
function is according to the shearing stress distribution x =l z=
h
through the thickness of beam can be expressed as
follows.
b
x =0 (s
z =-
2
h
2
x d xe x + t xz d g xz )dz dx -
dw h p z x =l
u( x, z ) = - z + sin f ( x)
dx p h
(1) x =0
q( x ) d wdx = 0 (7)
w( x, z) = w( x) (2) Where = variational operator

Where, successively, we obtain the governing differential
u = Axial displacement in x direction which is function equations and associated boundary conditions of the
of x and z. beam
w = Transverse displacement in z direction which is 2
d 4w 24 EI d 3f a EI T1(x)
function of x. EI - + - q ( x) = 0 (8)
f = Rotation of cross section of beam at neutral axis dx 4 p 3 dx3 h x 2
which is function of x.
The temperature profile used as thermal load is
24 EI d 3w 6 EI d 2f 24EIa T1(x) GA
expressed as follow - + + f =0 (9)
z p 3 dx3 p 2 dx2 p 3h x 2
T( x ) = T0( x ) + T1( x ) The associated consistent natural boundary conditions
h
Consider a thick isotropic simply supported beam of obtained are of following form along the edges x = 0
dimensions L, b and h in x, y z direction respectively.
and x = L.
Where x, y and z are Cartesian coordinates. The beam
is subjected to, thermal load
d 3w 24 EI d 2w a EI T1( x )
v = - EI + - =0 (10)
x dx 3 3
p dx 2 h x
Where w is prescribed.
Figure 1: Simply supported beam bending under x-z d 2w EI df a EI

plane M x = EI - 24 3 + T1( x ) = 0 (11)
Normal strains and shear strains are obtained within the dx 2
p dx h
framework of linear theory of
elasticity using the displacement field given by Eq. (1)
w
d 2w h df Where
x
is prescribed.
e x = -z + sin(p z / h) (3)
dx 2 p dx
pz 24 EI d 2 w 6 EI df 24EI
g xz = cos( )f (4) Ms = - 3 + - 3 hT1( x ) = 0 (12)
h p dx 2 p 2 dx p
Stress Strain Relationship Where f is prescribed.
s x = E (e x - a T( x ) ) IV. The Solution Scheme
z
put T( x ) = T0( x ) + T1( x ) (5) The boundary conditions for simply supported edges
h are
457
At x = 0, and x = L 24 EI p
3
p x 6 EI GA p x
- w cos + 2 . +
3 3 0
f0 cos
u0 = 0 and w0 = 0 p l l l 2 l
This type of solution was suggested by Navier (1820)
for the bending problem of simply supported 24 EIaT0( x ) px
rectangular beam. The following is the solution form + cos
p hl
2
l
for u0 ( x, z ) , w0 ( x, z ) that satisfies above boundary
24 EI 6 EI GA 24 EIaT0( x )
conditions exactly. - w0 + 2 . + f0 = - (18)
l 3
l 2 p 2hl
mp x
T1( x ) = T0 sin
m =1 L
px
T1( x ) = T0 sin (13)
L w0
Here To is the intensity of thermal load {k} ={f} (19)
f0
Following are the assumtions in above theory 4
p
K11 = GA
mp x l
w(x) = w0 sin
m =1 L
Where, K = K = 24 EIf0
px 12 21
L3
w = w0 sin (14)
L 6 EI GA
K 22 = f0 2 +
mp x L 2
f (x) = f0 sin
m =1 L
K11 K12 w0 q0
f = f0 cos
px = (20)
L
(15) K21 K22 f0 T1
px
q( x ) = q0 sin (16)
L V. Illustrative Example
At x = 0, and x = L In order to prove the efficiency of the present theory,
the following numerical examples are considered. The
u0 = 0 and w0 = 0
following material properties for beam made up of
Put the value eq. (13), (14), (15) and (16) in eq. steel is used having E = 210 GPa T1=500c, =0.3,
(8) and (9), Where wm and fm are the unknown =12.E-6 and where E is the Youngs modulus and is
coefficients of the respective. Substituting this Poissons ratio. Consider Cross section of beam is as
form of solution into governing equations and follows Length=3m, Width=0.23m, Depth=0.30m and
subjected to thermal load on it.
discarding all the terms containing time
derivatives yields the two algebraic simultaneous
equations which can be written in following
matrix form.
p x p px p
4 3
24 EI
EI w0 sin 4 - 3 f0 sin Figure 2: A simply supported uniform beam subjected
l l p l l3
to thermal load
EIaT0( x ) p x p
2
px
- sin 2 = q0 sin VI. Numerical Results
h l l l In this paper the numerical results for axial
displacement, transverse displacement, bending stress,
p 4 24 EI EIaT0( x )p 2 transverse shear stress and thermal stress are
w0 EI 4 - 3 EIf0 = q0 + (17) determined for simply supported isotropic beam
l l hl 2
subjected to thermal load across the thickness of beam.
458
P.H.Dinkar, et al.
p x Table2. : Axial displacements u

w = 0.001825 sin (21) at ( x = 0, z = h / 2) , in plan stress s x
l
p x at ( x = L / 2, z = h / 2) , Maximum Transverse
f = 2.530e-9 cos (22)
l shear stress t xz at ( x = 0, z = h / 2) , simply
supported isotropic beam subjected to thermal load for
z p x
-3 FSDT theory.
u = -5.730e cos
L l z/h u sx t xz
h pz p x 0.15
+ 2.53e -9 sin cos (23) -0.0002865 0.0003 0
p h l 0.12
-0.0002291 0.00024 0.00000848
0.08
-0.0001527 0.00016 0.00001685
z px 0.04
s x = 1.79e-2 2 sin -0.00007639 0.00008 0.00002188
L L 0.02
-0.00003819 0.00004 0.00002314
h -9 p z p x 0
-2.53e sin sin (24) 0 0 0.00002356
L h L -0.02
0.00003819 -0.00004 0.00002314
-0.04
0.00007639 -0.00008 0.00002188
-2 p
p x h 2
2
-0.08
t xz = 1.79e 3
cos - z 0.0001527 -0.00016 0.00001685
2L l 4 -0.12
0.0002291 -0.00024 0.00000848
2
h pz p x -0.15
-2.53e -9 cos cos (25) 0.0002865 -0.0003 0
L h l
Table3. Axial displacements u at ( x = 0, z = h / 2) ,
Table1. Axial displacements u
sx at ( x = L / 2, z = h / 2) ,
at ( x = 0, z = h / 2) in plan stress s x in plan stress
Maximum Transverse shear stress
at ( x = L / 2, z = h / 2) , Maximum Transverse
t xz at ( x = 0, z = h / 2) , simply supported isotropic
shear stress t xz at ( x = 0, z = h / 2) , simply beam subjected to thermal load for TSDT theory.
supported isotropic beam subjected to thermal load for
z/h u sx t xz
z/h u sx t xz 0.15
-0.0002865 0.0003 0
0.15
-0.0002864 0.0002997 0 0.12
0.12 -0.0002292 0.00024 0.00000848
-0.0002291 0.0002398 0.00000843 0.08
0.08 -0.0001528 0.00016 0.00001686
-0.0001527 0.0001591 0.00001675 0.04
0.04 -0.0000764 0.00008 0.00002188
-0.0000763 0.00007955 0.00002175 0.02
0.02 -0.0000382 0.00004 0.00002314
-0.0000381 0.0000397 0.00002300
0
0 0 0 0.00002356
0 0 0.00002341
-0.02
-0.02 0.0000382 -0.00004 0.00002314
0.0000381 -0.0000397 0.00002300
-0.04 -0.04
0.0000763 -0.0000795 0.00002175 0.0000764 -0.00008 0.00002188
-0.08 -0.08
0.0001527 -0.0001591 0.00001675 0.0001528 -0.00016 0.00001686
-0.12 -0.12
0.0002291 -0.0002398 0.00000843 0.0002292 -0.00024 0.00000848
-0.15 -0.15
0.0002864 -0.0002997 0 0.0002864 -0.0003 0
ETB theory.
459
0.15
ETB
FSDT
0.15 TSDT
0.10
z/h
ETB
0.10
FSDT 0.05
TSDT
0.05 0.00
0.000000 0.000005 0.000010 0.000015 0.000020 0.000025
-0.05 tzx
0.00
-0.0003 -0.0002 -0.0001 0.0000 0.0001 0.0002 0.0003

u
-0.10
-0.05
-0.15
-0.10
Figure 5. Variation of Maximum Transverse Shear

Stress ( t xz ) in (N/m2)
-0.15
VII. Discussion Of Results

Figure 3. Variation of Maximum displacement u in
(m) The results obtained for axial displacements, in plan
0.15
stress and Transverse shear stress for simply supported
isotropic beam made subjected to uniform thermal load
ETB
z/h are presented in Table 3, 4 and 5. Above three graphs
FSDT
0.10
shows the comparison of maximum displacements, in
TSDT plan stress and Transverse shear stress for the isotropic
beam made up of steel subjected to thermal load
through thickness. The comparison of theories show
0.05
that the value of maximum displacements, in plan
stress and Transverse shear stress obtained by FSDT
are higher compared to the values given by ETB and
0.00
TSDT. The maximum transverse shear stress t xz
-0.0003 -0.0002 -0.0001 0.0000 0.0001 0.0002 0.0003
obtained by present theory using equilibrium equation.
sx
-0.05 The through thickness variation of this stress obtained
via equilibrium equation are presented in Figures 5.
And variation of maximum in plan stress s x for a
-0.10
beam is as shown in Figure 4.
VIII. Conclusion
-0.15 Thermal response of isotropic beam under thermal
load across the thickness of beam has been studied by
using trigonometric shear deformation Theory
(TSDT)). Present theory gives good prediction of the
Figure 4. Variation of Maximum Axial Stress s x in thermal response of beam in respect of displacements
(N/m2) and stresses. The present theory obviates the need of
shear correction factor and theory is variationally
consistent. The present theory satisfies the shear stress
free surface conditions on the top and bottom surfaces
of the beam.
List Of Nomenclature
A= Cross sectional area of beam
b= Width of beam in y direction
E, G and = Elastic constants of the material
460
P.H.Dinkar, et al.
E= Youngs modulus Deformations Of Cross-Ply Laminated Composite

G= Shear modulus Beams Journal of Thermal Stresses 22:3, pp.
h= Thickness of beam 331-346.
I=Moment of inertia of cross section of beam
L=Span of the beam
q=Intensity of transverse Load
u=Axial displacement in x direction
w=Transverse displacement in z direction
x, y, z=Rectangular Cartesian coordinates
d= Variational operator
=Poissons ratio of the beam material
x=Axial stress in x direction
xz=Transverse shear stress in zx plane
T=Thermal load.
List Of Abbreviations
ETB Elementary theory of beam

FSDT First order shear deformation Theory
TSDT Trigonometric shear deformation Theory
Reference
[1] B. A. Boley and J. H. Weiner, Theory of Thermal

Stresses John Wiley, New York, 1960.
[2] S.R. Li, Y.H. Zhou, Geometrically non linear

analysis of Timoshenko beams under thermo
mechanical loads, J. Therm. Stress. 26 (2003)
861872.
[3] Yepeng Xu and Ding Zhou, Two-dimensional

thermo elastic analysis of beams with variable
thickness subjected to thermo-mechanical loads
Applied Mathematical Modelling 36 (2012)
58185829.
[4] Y. Kiani and M. R. Eslami, Thermomechanical

Buckling of Temperature-dependent FGM Beams,
Latin Amer. J. Solids Struct., vol. 10, pp. 223
245, 2013.
[5] S. Kapuria, P.C. Dumir, A. Ahmed, 2003, An
e!cient higher order zigzag theory for composite
and sandwich beams subjected to thermal
loading International Journal of Solids and
Structures 40, pp.66136631.
[6] Gandhe G. R and Ghugal Y. M, 2015,
Thermoelastic Stress Analysis Perfectly clamped
metallic rod using Integral Transform
Technique, Advances in structural Engineering,
Springer India, pp.181-189.
[7] A. A. Khdeir, J. N. Reddy, 2010, Jordan

Canonical Form Solution For Thermally Induced
461
A HYPERBOLIC SHEAR DEFORMATION THEORY FOR STATIC

FLEXURAL ANALYSIS OF THICK BEAM
P. M. Pankade1, D. H. Tupe2, G. R. Gandhe3, S. L. Dhondge4
1
P. G. Student, Deogiri Institute of Engineering and Management Studies, Aurangabad, 431001, India.
2,3
Dept. of Civil Engineering, Deogiri Institute of Engineering and Management Studies, Aurangabad, 431001,
India.
4
Dept. of Applied Science, Deogiri Institute of Engineering and Management Studies, Aurangabad,
431001, India.
In the present study, a hyperbolic shear deformation theory is developed for static flexural analysis of
thick isotropic beams. The theory assumes a parabolic variation of transverse shear stress across the
thickness of the beams. Simply supported thick isotropic beam is analysed for the axial displacement,
transverse displacement, axial bending stress and transverse shear stress. In this theory the hyperbolic
sine and cosine function is used in the displacement field to represent the shear deformation effect and
satisfy the zero transverse shear stress condition at top and bottom surface of the beams. The governing
differential equation and boundary conditions of the theory are obtained by using the principle of virtual
work. The simply supported isotropic beam subjected to varying load is examined by using present theory.
The numerical results have been computed for various lengths to thickness ratios of the beams and the
results obtained are compared with those of elementary, Timoshenko, trigonometric and other higher
order refined theories and with the available solution in the literature.
Keywords: Thick beam, shear deformation, isotropic beam, transverse shear stress, static flexure, hyperbolic
shear deformation theory, principle of virtual work.
1 Introduction Ghugal and Dahake [4] have developed a trigonometric

shear deformation theory for flexure of thick or deep
It is well-known that elementary theory of bending of
beams, taking into account transverse shear deformation
beam based on Euler-Bernoulli hypothesis that the plane
effect. The number of variables in the present theory is
sections which are perpendicular to the neutral layer
same as that in the first order shear deformation theory.
before bending remain plane and perpendicular to the
The sinusoidal function is used in displacement field in
neutral layer after bending, implying that the transverse
terms of thickness coordinate to represent the shear
shear and transverse normal strains are zero. Thus, the
deformation effects. This theory obviates the need of
theory disregards the effects of the shear deformation. It
shear correction factor. Ghugal and Sharma, Sayyad
is also known as classical beam theory. The theory is
and Ghugal developed a variationally consistent refined
applicable to slender beams and should not be applied to
hyperbolic shear deformation theory for flexure and
thick or deep beams. When elementary theory of beam
free vibration of thick isotropic beam. This theory
(ETB) is used for the analysis thick beams, deflections
takes into account transverse shear deformations effects.
are underestimated and natural frequencies and buckling
loads are overestimated. This is the consequence of In this paper, a hyperbolic shear deformation theory is
neglecting transverse shear deformations in ETB. developed for static flexural analysis of thick isotropic
Rankine [1], Bresse [2] were the first to include both the beams. The theory is applied to a Simply supported
rotatory inertia and shear flexibility effects as refined thick isotropic beams to analysed the axial
dynamical effects in beam theory. This theory is, displacement, transverse displacement, axial bending
referred as Timoshenko beam theory as mentioned in stress and transverse shear stress. The numerical results
the literature by Rebello, et.al. [3] based upon obtained for various lengths to thickness ratios of the
kinematics it is known as first-order shear deformation beams and the results obtained are compared with those
theory (FSDT). of elementary, Timoshenko, trigonometric and other
1
P. G. Student, pallavicivilpankade@gmail.com
2
Assistant Professor, durgeshtupe@gmail.com
3
Assistant Professor, gajendra_gandhe@yahoo.co.in
4
Assistant Professor, satyawandhondge@gmail.com
462
P. M. Pankade, et al.
higher order refined theories and with the available Normal strain:
solution in the literature. u
ex =
x
2u 1 f
3
2 Formulation of Problem z 4 z
e x = - z 2 + h sinh - 2 cosh
Consider a thick isotropic Simply supported beam of x h 3 h 2 x
length L in x direction, Width b in y direction and depth
h as shown in Figure-1. Where x, y, z are Cartesian (3)
coordinates. The beam is subjected to transverse load of Shear strain:
intensity q(x) per unit length of beam. Under this u w
g xz = +
condition, the axial displacement, transverse z x
displacement, axial bending stress and transverse shear
stress are required to be determined. z z3 1
g xz = cosh - 4 cosh f
h h2 2
2.1 Assumptions made in the theoretical
formulations (4)
Stresses:
1. The axial displacement (u) consist of two The one-dimensional Hookes law is applied for
parts: isotropic material, stress is related to strain and shear
stress is related to shear strain by the following
a. Displacement given by elementary theory constitutive relations.
of bending.
s x = Ee x
b. Displacement due to shear deformation,
2u 1 f
3
z 4 z
which is assume to be hyperbolic in = - zE + E h sinh - cosh
nature with respect to thickness x 2 h 3 h2 2 x
coordinate.
(5)
2. The transverse displacement (w) in z direction t xz = Gg xz
is assumed to be function of x coordinate.
z z3 1
3. One-dimensional constitutive laws are used. = G cosh - 4 cosh f
h h2 2
4. The beam is subjected to lateral load only. (6)
Where E and G are the elastic constants of the beam
material.
2.2 The Displacement Field
2.3 Governing Differential Equations
Based on the above mentioned assumptions, the
displacement field of the present beam theory can be Governing differential equations and boundary
expressed as follows. The hyperbolic function is conditions are obtained from the principle of virtual
assigned according to the shearing stress distribution work. Using equations for stresses, strains and the
through the thickness of beam. principle of virtual work, variationally consistent
differential equations for beam under consideration are
w
u ( x, z , t ) = - z ( x, t ) + obtained. The principle of virtual work when applied to
x beam leads to:
x = L z = h /2
z 4 z
2
1

h sinh
h 3 h
- 2
cosh f ( x, t )
2
b (s x .de x + t xz .dg xz )dxdz
x = 0 z =- h /2
(1) x = L z = h /2
2u 2w
w( x, t ) = w( x, t ) (2)
+ rb x=0 z =-h/2 t 2 .d u +
t 2
.d w dxdz

Where,
x=L
u = Axial displacement in x direction which is a
function of x, z and t.
w = Transverse displacement in z direction which is
- qd wdx = 0
x =0 (7)
function of x and t. Where = variational operator.
= Rotation of cross section of beam at neutral axis due
Employing Greens theorem in above equation
to shear which is an unknown function to be determined
successively, we obtained the coupled Euler-Langrange
and it is function of x and t.
equations, which are the governing differential
equations and associated boundary conditions of the
463
beam. The governing differential equations obtained 2.4 The General solution of Governing equilibrium
are as follows: equations of beam
The general solution for transverse displacement w(x)
w4
f 3
w f
4 3 and (x) can be obtained from equation 8 and 9 by
EI 4 - A0 3 - r I 2 2 - A0
xt 2
discarding the terms containing time (t) derivatives.
x t x t Integrating and rearranging the equation 8, we obtained
the following equation
2w
+ r A 2 = q ( x, t ) (8) d 3w d 2f Q ( x )
t = A +
dx3 0 dx 2 D (16)
3w 2f 3w 2f
EI A0 3 - B0 2 - r I A0 - B0 2 Where, Q(x) is generalized shear force for beam.
x t xt t
2 x
Q ( x ) = qdx + k1
+GAC0f = 0 (9) 0 (17)
The second governing equation 9 can be written as:
Where A0, B0 and C0 are the stiffness coeffcients in d 3 w B0 d 2f
governing equations. The associated consistent natural = - bf
boundary conditions obtained are of following form dx3 A0 dx 2 (18)
along the edges x = 0 and x = L. Now using equations 16 and 18 a single equation in
d 3w d 2f d 3w d 2f terms of is obtained as:
EI 3 - A0 2 - r I - A0 2
=0 d 2f Q ( x)
- l 2f =
2
dx dx dxdt dt 2
Where w is prescribed (10) dx D (19)
The general solution of equation 19 is as follows:
d 2w df
EI -A =0 Q ( x)
2 0 dx f = k2 cosh l x + k3 sinh l x -
dx bD (20)
Where dw/dx is prescribed. (11) Where the constants , , and D used in above
equations are given below
d 2w df B GAC0 2 b
EI A0 2 - B0 =0 a = 0 - A0 , b =
dx DA
, l = , D = EI
dx A a
0 0
Where is prescribed. (12)
The flexural behaviour of beam is given by solution of The equation of transverse displacement w(x) is
above equations 8 and 9 by discarding all terms obtained by substituting the expression of (x) in
containing time derivatives and satisfying the associate equation 18 and integrating it thrice with respect to x.
boundary conditions. The stiffness coefficient used in The general solution for w(x) is obtained as
governing equations 8, 9, 10, 11 and 12 are described as follows:
below:
D B0 2
EIw ( x ) = qdxdxdxdx + 3
l -b
1 1 1 1 l A0
A0 = 12 cosh - 24 sinh - cosh
2 2
5 2 kx 3
x 2
(13)
( k2 sinh l x + k3 cosh l x ) 1 + k4 + k5 x + k6
21 6 6
6 sinh (1) - 1 - 200 cosh 2 (21)

B = (14) Where k1, k2, k3, k4, k5 and k6 are the constants of
0
+432sinh cosh + cosh 2
1 1 1 1 integration and can be obtained by applying the

2 2 21 2 boundary conditions of the beams.
1 21
2 sinh (1) - 1 + 16 cosh 2 3 Formulation of Problem

C = In order to prove the efficiency of the present theory,
0
-36sinh 1 + 1 cosh 1 + 1 cosh 2 1
the following numerical example is considered. The
2 2 2 5 2 following material properties for beam are used.
(15) Material properties:
1. Modulus of Elasticity E = 210GPa
2. Poissions ratio = 0.30
3. Density = 7800 Kg/m3
464
x x2
3.1 Example 1: Simply supported beam with 120 - 120 - 20
2
varying load q(x) = q0(2x/L-1) EE 1 L q0 z 2 L L
t zx = 4 - 1
80 h b h 2 2
A Simply supported beam with the origin of beam on E h2 A0 2l L cosh l x
left end support at x = 0, subjected to varying load of +10 2-
G L2 C cosh l L
0
q(x) over the span L on surface z = h/2 acting in the z
direction is considered. A0 E h 2l L cosh l x
2-
C0 G L cosh l L
+ ( 26 )
1 1 z
4 1 z
48 cosh 2 16 4 - 1 + cosh 2 - cosh h
h

CR q0 A0 L
z z 2

1
t zx = cosh - 4 cosh
b C h
0 h h2 2
-2cosh l x x 2 x 1
+
l L cosh l L L2 L 6
- + ( 27 )

Figure-1: Simply Supprted beam under x-z plane

3 Numerical Results
The boundary conditions at Simple Support (x = 0 and x
= L) associated with this Problem are as follows: The numerical results for axial displacement, transverse
2 displacement, bending stress and transverse shear stress
d w df are presented in following non-dimensional form and
EI = EI = EIw = 0
2 dx the values are presented in Table-1 and Table -2
dx
General expressions obtained for w(x) and (x) are as 0.18
follows
A0 q0 L 2cosh l x x 2 x 1
f ( x) =
0.16
- + - +
C0 Gbh l L cosh l L L2 L 6 0.14
(22) Present- HPSDT
0.12 TSDT
HSDT
x x 10 x 1 x
4 5 3
E h A0 2 2

5 4 - 2 5 - + +5
FSDT
3 0.10
q L L
4 L 3 L 3 L G L2 C0
ETB
w( x) = 0 3
10 Ebh 1 x3 1 x 2 1 x 2sinh l x
0.08

3 L3 - 2 L2 + 6 L - l 2 L2 cosh l L
0.06
(23)
0.04
The axial displacement, stresses and transverse shear
stress obtained based on above solutions are as follows:
0.02
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
S
x 3 x4 x2 1
20 3 - 10 4 - 10 2 + Figure-2: Variation of Transverse Displacement for
q L
3 L L L 3
u = -z 0 3 various aspect ratio (S)
10 Ebh E h 2 A0 2 x 2 x 1 2 cosh l x
+10 G L2 C L2 - L + 6 - l L cosh l L 5 Concluding Remark
0
A0 E L z 4 z3 1 x 2 x 1 2 cosh l x From the static flexural analysis of simply supported
+ sinh - cosh 2 - + -
C0 G h h 3 h3 2 L L 6 l L cosh l L beam following conclusion are drawn:
( 24 ) 1. The result of maximum transverse displacement
x
obtained by present theory is in excellent
2
x 3
x
60 2 - 40 3 - 20 agreement with those of other equivalent
z 1 q0 L L
2
L L
sx =- refined and higher order theories. The variation
h 10 b h 2 E h 2 A0 2 x 2sinh l x of for aspect ratio 4 and 10 are presented as
+10 G L2 C 2 L - 1 - cosh l L
0 shown in Fig-2.
A E z 4 z3 1 x 2sinh l x 2. From Fig-3 and Fig-4, it can be observed that,
+ 0 sinh - cosh 2 - 1 - the result of axial displacement for beam
C0 G h 3h 3
2 L cosh l L
subjected to uniform load varies linearly
( 25) through the thickness of beam for aspect ratio 4
and 10 respectively.
465
3. The maximum Non-dimensional axial stresses transverse shear stress for thick isotropic beam
for aspect ratio 4 and 10 varies linearly for aspect ratio 4 and 10. From this fig it can
through the thickness of beam as shown in be observed that, the transverse shear stress
Figure 5 and Figure 6 respectively. satisfy the zero condition at top (z = h/2) and
4. The transverse shear stresses are obtained at bottom (z = -h/2) surface of the beam.
directly by equilibrium equation. Fig-7 and
Fig-8 shows the through thickness variation of
Table 1: Non-dimensional axial displacement at (x = 0.75L, z = h/2), transverse deflection at (x = 0.75L, z = 0),
axial stress at (x = 0.75L, z = h/2), maximum transverse shear stresses and (x = 0, z = h/2) of the simply
supported Beam subjected to varying load for aspect ratio (s) 4.
Source Model
Present HPSDT -0.0793 0.0800 1.6300 1.0003 1.0081
Dahake TSDT -0.0792 0.0813 1.6382 1.0320 1.0091
Krishna Murty HSDT -0.0793 0.0800 1.6300 1.0000 1.0081
Timoshenko FSDT -0.0792 0.0583 1.5000 0.8000 1.0000
Bernoulli-Euler ETB -0.0488 0.0583 1.5000 ---- 1.0000
Table 2: Non-dimensional axial displacement at (x = 0.75L, z = h/2), transverse deflection at (x = 0.75L, z = 0),
axial stress at (x = 0.75L, z = h/2), maximum transverse shear stresses and (x = 0, z = h/2) of the simply
supported Beam subjected to varying load for aspect ratio (s) 10.
Source Model
Present HPSDT 0.0537 0.9656 -9.5050 2.5009 2.5032
Dahake TSDT 0.0537 0.9690 -9.5132 2.5801 2.5036
Krishna Murty HSDT 0.0537 0.9656 -9.5050 2.5000 2.5032
Timoshenko FSDT 0.0537 0.9114 -9.3750 2.0000 2.5000
Bernoulli-Euler ETB 0.0488 0.9114 -9.3750 ---- 2.5000
0.5 0.5
z/h z/h
0.4 0.4
Present- HPSDT
TSDT 0.3 0.3
HSDT
0.2
FSDT 0.2
ETB
0.1
0.1
0.0
0.0
-0.10 -0.08 -0.06 -0.04 -0.02 0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10
-1.00 -0.75 -0.50 -0.25 0.00 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00
-0.1
-0.1
-0.2
-0.2
Present- HPSDT
-0.3
TSDT
-0.3
HSDT
-0.4
-0.4 FSDT
-0.5 ETB
-0.5
Figure-3: Variation of Maximum Axial displacement Figure-4: Variation of Maximum Axial displacement
for aspect ratio(S) 4 for aspect ratio(S) 10
466
0.5 0.5
z/h z/h
0.4 0.4
Present-HPSDT
TSDT 0.3 0.3
HSDT
FSDT 0.2 0.2
ETB
0.1 0.1
0.0 0.0
-2.0 -1.5 -1.0 -0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 -10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10
-0.1 -0.1
-0.2 -0.2
Present- HPSDT
TSDT
-0.3 -0.3
HSDT
-0.4 -0.4 FSDT

ETB
-0.5 -0.5
Figure-5: Variation of Maximum Axial stress for Figure-6: Variation of Maximum Axial stress for
aspect ratio (S) 4 aspect ratio (S) 10
0.5
Present- HPSDT
0.5 z/h
Present- HPSDT TSDT
z/h 0.4
TSDT HSDT
0.4
HSDT FSDT
0.3
0.3 FSDT ETB
0.2
0.2
0.1
0.1
0.0
0.0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
0.0 0.6 1.2 1.8 2.4 3.0
-0.1
-0.1
-0.2 -0.2
-0.3 -0.3
-0.4 -0.4
-0.5 -0.5
Figure-7: Variation of Transverse shear stress for Figure-8: Variation of Transverse shear stress for
aspect ratio (S) 4 aspect ratio (S) 10
References Scientific and Research Publications, Vol. 2, Issue 11,

November 2012.
[1] Rankine W. J. M., A Manual of Applied [5] Stephen, N. G., and Levinson, M., A Second
Mechanics, R. Griffin and Company Ltd., London, U. Order Beam Theory, Journal of Sound and Vibration,
K., pp. 342-344, 1858. Vol. 67, pp. 293-305, 1979.
[2] Bresse J. A. C., Cours de Mecanique [6] Levinson M., A New Rectangular Beam Theory,
Applique, Paris: Mallet-bachelier, (1866 2nd ed.), Journal of Sound and Vibration, Vol. 74, pp. 81-87,
Gauthier-Villars, Paris, 1859. 1981.
[3] Rebello C. A., Bert, C. W., and Gordaninejad, F., [7] Tupe D. H. and Dahake A. G Trigonometric
Vibration of Bi modular Sandwich Beams with Thick Shear Deformation Theory For Thick Simply Supported
Facings: A New Theory and Experimental Results, Beams, International Journal of Re- search in
Journal of Sound and Vibration, Vol. 90, No.3, pp. 381- Engineering and Technology, Vol. 4, No. 13, pp. 476-
397, 1983. 483, 2015.
[4] Ajay G. Dahake, Dr. Yuwaraj M. Ghugal, Flexure [8] Levinson M., Further Results of a New Beam
of Thick Simply Supported Beam Using Trigonometric Theory, Journal of Sound and Vibration, Vol. 77, pp.
Shear Deformation Theory, International Journal of 440-444, 1981.
467
COMPARISON OF VARIOUS DISPLACEMENT FIELDS FOR

STATIC ANALYSIS OF THICK ISOTROPIC BEAMS
D.H.Tupe1, A.G.Dahake2,G.R.Gandhe3
1, 3
Civil Engineering Department, Deogiri Institute of Engineering and Management Studies,
Aurangabad (M.S.), India,
2
Associate Professor, Civil Engineering Department, Marathwada Institute of Technology,
Aurangabad (M.S.), India,
A review of displacement and stress based displacement fields for static isotropic laminated beams is
presented. Stiffness coefficients for various Displacement Fields have been compared. The theories involve
parabolic, sinusoidal, hyperbolic and exponential functions in terms of thickness coordinates to include
transverse shear deformation effect. Governing differential equations and associated boundary conditions
of the theory are derived by employing the static version of the principle of virtual work. The various
displacement field depends on a parameter , whose value is determined so as to give results closest to
each other.
Keywords: Thick beam, displacement fields, static isotropic beam, shear deformation, principle of
virtual work.
1 Introduction for static analysis of beam.

Levinson [6], Bickford [7], Rehfield and Murty
It is well-known that elementary theory of [8], Krishna Murty [9], Baluch, Azad and khirdir [10],
bending of beam based on Euler-Bernoulli hypothesis Bhimaraddi and Chandrashekhara [11] presented
disregards the effects of the shear deformation and parabolic shear deformation theories assuming a higher
stress concentration. The theory is suitable for slender variation of axial displacement in terms of thickness
beams and is not suitable for thick or deep beams coordinate. These theories satisfy shear stress free
since it is based on the assumption that the transverse boundary conditions on top and bottom surfaces of
normal to neutral axis remains so during bending and beam and thus obviate the need of shear correction
after bending, implying that the transverse shear strain factor.
is zero. Since theory neglects the transverse shear In this article the various displacement field depends
deformation, it underestimates defections in case of on a parameter , whose value is determined so as to
thick beams where shear deformation effects are give results closest to each other. The accuracy of the
signicant. present work is ascertained by comparing it with
Bresse [1], Rayleigh [2] and Timoshenko [3] were various available results in the literature.
the pioneer investigators to include refined effects
such as rotary inertia and shear deformation in the 2 Beam Under Consideration
beam theory. Cowper [4] has given refined expression
for the shear correction factor for different cross Consider a thick isotropic simply supported beam of
sections of beam. The accuracy of Timoshenko beam length L in x direction, Width b in y direction and
theory for transverse vibrations of simply supported depth h as shown in Figure 1. Where x, y, z are
beam in respect of the fundamental frequency is Cartesian coordinates. The beam is subjected to
verified by Cowper [5] with a plane stress exact transverse load of intensity q(x) per unit length of
elasticity solution. To remove the discrepancies in beam. The beam can have any boundary and loading
classical and first order shear deformation theories, conditions.
higher order or refined shear deformation theories
were developed and are available in the open literature
1
Assistant Professor, durgeshtupe@gmail.com
2
Assistant Professor, ajaydahake@gmail.com
3
Assistant Professor, gajendra_gandhe@yahoo.co.in
468
D.H.Tupe, et al.
Stresses
The one dimensional Hookes law is applied for
isotropic material, stress x is related to strain x and
shear stress is related to shear strain by the following
constitutive relations:
2w f
s x = Ee x = E - z 2 + f ( z )
x x
t zx = Gg zx = Gf '( z )f (5)
Figure 1: Beam bending under x-z plane Where E and G are the elastic constants of material.
2.1 Assumptions made in the theoretical

formulation 3 Governing differential equation and boundary
conditions
1. The axial displacement (u) consist of two
parts: Governing differential equations and boundary
a. Displacement given by elementary conditions are obtained from Principle of virtual
theory of bending. work. The principle of virtual work when applied to
b. Displacement due to shear the beam leads to:
deformation, which is assumed to be
parabolic, sinusoidal, hyperbolic and x = L z = h /2 x=L
exponential functions in nature with b (s xde x + t zxdg zx ) dxdz - q( x)d wdx = 0
respect to thickness coordinate. x = 0 z =- h /2 x =0
2. The transverse displacement (w) in z direction (6)
is assumed to be function of x coordinate.
3. One dimensional constitutive law is used. Where = variational operator.
4. The beam is subjected to lateral load only.
successively, we obtain the coupled Euler-Lagrange
2.2 The Displacement Field equations which are the governing differential
Based on the above mentioned assumptions, the equations and associated boundary conditions of the
displacement field of the present beam theory can be beam. The governing differential equations obtained
expressed as follows: are as follows:
w
u ( x, z ) = - z + f ( z )f ( x) 4w 3f
x (1) A0 - B = q( x)
x 4 x3
0
w( x, z ) = w( x) (7)
(2)
Where, 3w 2f
B0 3 - C0 2 = 0
u = Axial displacement in x direction which is x x (8)
function of x and z.
w = Transverse displacement in z direction which is The associated boundary conditions obtained are of
function of x and z. following form:
= Rotation of cross section of beam at neutral axis
due to shear which is an unknown function to be
3w 2f
determined and it is a function of x. - A0 - B =0
x3 x 2
0
f(z) = Function assigned according to the shearing (9)
stress distribution through the thickness of beam.
Where w is prescribed.
Normal strain:
u 2w f 2w f
ex = = - z 2 + f ( z) A0 - B0 =0
x x x (3) x 2
x (10)
Shear strain:
u w Where dw/dx is prescribed.
g xz = + = f '( z )f
z x (4)
469
- h /2
2w f
- B0
x 2
+ C0
x
=0
(11)
C0 = E
h /2
f 2 ( z )dz
- h /2
[ f '( z )]
2
Where is prescribed. D0 = G dz
h /2
Where A0, B0, C0 and D0 are the stiffness coefficients
given as follows
- h /2 3.1 The Displacement Fields of several theories
A0 = E
2
z dz
Based on the literature reviewed in above section, the
h /2
displacement fields of several layer beam theories
- h /2
available in the literature are compared in Table 1.
B0 = E
h /2
zf ( z )dz
Table 1: Displacement Fields of several beam theories
Sr. No. Model Year Displacement Field
z h2 z 2
f ( z) = -
1. Ambartsumyan 1958 2 4 3
Model
5z 4 z 2
f ( z) = 1-
2. Kaczkawski 1949 4 3h2
Model
4z2
3. Krishna Murty f ( z ) = z 1 - 2
Model 1984 3h
(1 + u ) h 2 4 z 2
4. Y. M. Ghugal f ( z) = z 1 - 2
Model 2012 4 3h
pz
5. Arya f ( z ) = sin
Model 2000 h
3z 2 z 3
6. Ray f ( z) = - 3
Model 2003 2h h
z 4 z
3
1
7. Zenkour f ( z ) = h sinh - 3
cosh
Model 2013 h 3 h 2
3.2 Governing differential equation and boundary general solution for w(x) and (x) can be obtained.
conditions Final solution for w(x) and (x) can be obtained
The governing equation for analysis of beam can be depending upon the loading and boundary conditions of
obtained from equation 7 and 8. Using this equations, the beams. Substituting the final solution for w(x) and
470
D.H.Tupe, et al.
(x) in displacement field, the final displacement can be C0

obtained. Finally, the axial stress x, can be obtained by a = - B0 ;
using stress strain relationship as given in equation 5. B0
The transverse shear stress xz can be obtained by using
the constitutive relation or by equilibrium equations. GAD0
b = ;
DB0
Where, D = EI
b
l2 =
a
Table 2: Comparison of Stiffness coefficients for various Displacement Fields
Model A0 B0 C0 D0
Ambartsumyan 3 5 7 5 17.22/h
Model 0.08333333Eh 0.00833333Eh 0.00084333Eh 0.0008433Gh
Kaczkawski 3 3 3 0.83333333Gh 17.97/h

Model 0.08333333Eh 0.00833333Eh 0.08432539Eh
Krishna Murty 3 3 3 0.53333333Gh 18.20/h

Model 0.08333333Eh 0.06666666Eh 0.05396825Eh
Y. M. Ghugal 3 5 7 0.05633333Gh5 17.97/h

0.08333333Eh 0.02166666Eh 0.00057003Eh
Model
Arya 3 2 0.50000000Eh 4.934802201Gh 16.20/h

Model 0.08333333Eh 0.02026423Eh
Ray 3 2 0.12428571Eh 1.2000000Gb/h 17.97/h

Model 0.08333333Eh 0.10000000Eh
Zenkour 3 3 3 0.53293225Gbh 17.95/h

Model 0.08333333Eh 0.06664158Eh 0.05392925Eh
4. Conclusion
References
The wide spread use of shear flexible material
in aircraft, automotive, shipbuilding and other industries [1] Bresse J. A. C., Cours de Mechanique Applique,
has stimulated interest in the accurate prediction of Mallet-Bachelier, Paris, 1859.
structural behavior of beams. The flexural analysis of
thick beam led to development of refined theories in
order to obtain the correct structural behavior. The basic [2] Lord Rayleigh J. W. S., The Theory of Sound,
aim of this review article is to present various methods Macmillan Publishers, London, 1877.
available for the analysis of thick isotropic beam and to
guide the researchers for the future research. [3] Timoshenko S. P., Goodier J. N., Theory of
Many displacements based higher order shear Elasticity, Third International Edition, McGraw-
deformation theories have been reported in the literature Hill, Singapore. 1970.
presented in Table1.
Based on the review presented in this paper, [4] Cowper G. R., The shear coefficients in
the value of obtained for various displacement fields is Timoshenko beam theory, ASME Journal of
in the range of 17 to 18 and the displacement and Applied Mechanic, vol. 33, no. 2, 1966, pp. 335-
stresses obtained by using this value of are gives 340.
results closest to each other. The accuracy of present
work is ascertained by comparing it with various [5] Cowper G. R., On the accuracy of Timoshenko
available results in the literature. beam theory, ASCE J. of Engineering Mechanics
Division. vol. 94, no. EM6, 1968, pp. 1447-1453.
471
[6] Levinson M., A new rectangular beam theory, Translation Ltd., Jerusalem, 1966.
Journal of Sound and Vibration, Vol. 74, No.1,
1981, pp. 81-87. [13] Thai C.H., Analysis of laminated composite
plates using higher-order shear deformation
[7] Bickford W. B., A consistent higher order beam plate theory and node-based smoohed discrete
theory, International Proceeding of Development shear gap method, Applied Mathematical
in Theoretical and Applied Mechanics Modeling, 2012, 36, pp. 5657-5677.
(SECTAM), vol. 11, 1982, pp. 137-150.
[14] Grover N, Singh B. N, Maiti D. K, Analytical
[8] Rehfield L. W., Murthy P. L. N., Toward a new and finite element modeling of laminated
engineering theory of bending: fundamentals, composite and sandwich plates: An assessment
AIAA Journal, vol. 20, no. 5, 1982, pp. 693-699. of a new shear deformation theory for free
vibration response, International Journal of
[9] Krishna Murty A. V., Towards a consistent beam Mechanical Sciences, 2013, 6, pp. 89-99.
theory, AIAA Journal, vol. 22, no. 6, 1984, pp.
811-816. [15] Song Xiang, Ke-Ming Wang., Free
vibration analysis of symmetric laminated
[10] Baluch M. H., Azad A. K., and Khidir M. A., composite plates by trigonometric shear
Technical theory of beams with normal strain, deformation theory and inverse multiquadric
ASCE Journal of Engineering Mechanics, vol. RBF, Thin-Walled Structures, 2009 , 47, pp.
110, no. 8, 1984, pp. 1233-1237. 304-310.
[11]Bhimaraddi A., Chandrashekhara K., [16] Ribeiro Pedro, On the influence of membrane
Observations on higher order beam Theory, inertia and shear deformation on the
ASCE Journal of Aerospace Engineering, vol. 6, geometrically non-linear vibrations of open,
no. 4, 1993, pp. 408-413. cylindrical, laminated clamped shells,
Composites Science and Technology, 2009, 69,
[12] Vlasov V. Z., Leontev U. N., Beams, plates and pp. 176-185.
shells on elastic foundations, Moskva, Chapter1,
18. Translated from the Russian by Barouch A.
and Plez T., Israel Program for Scientific
472
Thermoelastic Stress Analysis of Rectangular Plate by Using Integral Transform

Technique
G. R. Gandhe1, Y. M. Ghugal2, V. S. Kulkarni3

1
Assistant Professor and Head,Department of Civil Engineering, Deogiri Institute of Engineering and
Management Studies, Aurangabad (M.S)-431005, India.
2
Professor and Head,Applied Mechanics Department, Government
Engineering College, Karad, India.
3
Associate Professor, Department of Mathematics, Mumbai University, Mumbai, India
1
gajendra_gandhe@yahoo.co.in
Abstract: Many important stress analysis problems involve structures that are subjected to both
mechanical and thermal loadings. The thermoelastic stress analysis is being used by engineers and
scientists to solve practical problems in structural and material design. The problem in the manuscript
deals with the determination of the temperature change and thermal stresses in a thin steady state
rectangular plate subjected to constant heat source supply. The mathematical solution of heat
conduction equation is obtained by Integral Transform Technique which gives analytical solution for
temperature distribution in series form. The convergence analysis of series solution is done. The result
obtained for temperature distribution and thermal stresses are expressed in the form of analytical
solution and corresponding numerical results are shown graphically and illustrate technically.
Key Words: Thermal Stress Analysis, Integral Transform Technique thermal stress function.
1. Introduction: Thermal stress analysis of

isotropic plates is given by Boley and Weiner Bahar and Hetnarski [7] have obtained the
[1] and thermal stresses of laminated plates Laplace transforms with respect to time of the
subjected to linear thermal load across the governing equations of one-dimensional
thickness of the plate with classical plate thermoelasticity, with the displacement. In the
theory are given by Jones[2] and Reddy[3]. present work thermal profile are determined by
Ghugal and Kulkarni [4] pre-sented thermal solving heat conduction equations in
stresses and displacement for orthotropic, two thermodynamics which gives exact solution of
layer antisymmetric and three layer symmetric thermoelastic problems. The results presented
square cross ply laminated plates subjected to here will be useful in thermal analysis of high
nonlinear thermal load through the thickness of speed vehicles, aircraft, space craft etc.
laminated plates by using trigonometric shear
deformation. Tauchert [5] have discussed and
investigated the stationary two-dimensional 2. Formulation of problem: The problem
temperature, stress, and displacement deals with the determination of the temperature
distributions are investigated for simply change and thermal stresses in a thin steady
supported slab consisting of bonded orthotropic state rectangular plate subjected to constant
layers theory. Kulkarni and Deshmukh [6] have heat source supply on an initial edge (x = 0)
discussed the determination of a quasi-static whereas the edges (y = o and y = b) are
thermal stresses in a thick circular plate thermally insulated and the extreme edge (x =
subjected to arbitrary initial temperature on the a) is kept at zero temperature. The initial
upper face with lower face at zero temperature temperature of rectangular plate is zero. Due to
and the fixed circular edge thermally insulated. constant heat source supply on initial edge (x =
474
G. R. Gandhe, et al.
0) the heat conduction takes place within 2T

rectangular state and then convection due to L = P 2 T - PT (0) - T ' (0) (6)
y 2
dissipation starts through the extreme edge (x =
a) and hence steady state is maintained within 2T
rectangular plate. Under these conditions the L = P2 T (7)
y 2
temperature change and thermal stresses in a
rectangular plate are required to be determined. 2T 2 T
L = (8)
x 2 x 2

From equation (7) and (8) we have
2T
+ P2 T = 0
y=b x 2
( D2 + P 2 ) T = 0 (9)
T=T0 T=0 Solution of ODE is as follows.

at x=0 at x=a
(0,0) T0
- cos( pa)
T0
T = cos( px) + P
sin( px)
P sin( pa)
y=0
Figure 1: A schematic representation of Taking inverse Laplace transform on both

geometry and coordinates of rectangular plate. sides.
2.1 Solution for Temperature Change cos( px)
p -
2.1.1Application of Laplace Transform
The governing partial differential equation of
-1
( )
L T = T = L T0-1 (10)
two dimensional heat conduction in a thin cos( pa) sin( px)
rectangular plate for steady condition is a p sin( pa)

follows. Simple poles are obtained by equating
2T 2T denominator to zero
+ =0 (1)
x 2 y 2
T = T0 at x = 0 (2) \p=0 and sin( pa ) = 0
T ( pa ) = - np
T = = 0 at y = 0 (3)
y -np
p= where n = 0,1, 2,3
T = 0 at x = a (4) a
T
T = = 0 at y = b (5)
y
Applying Laplace Transform to equation (1)
gives
475
py cos px - nap y np
e e cos ( np ) sin x
p 1 a (17)
=-
Lim
(cos p ( a ) cos( px) x + cos ( np ) np
= ( p - 0)
P0 sin( px) sin( pa ) a ) (11)

-
p [ cos( p ( a ) a ]
- nap y
np
e sin x
1 a
=- (18)
( np ) 1
py ( x)
= e 1 - (12)
a
Substitute the equation (12) and (18) in
np equation (10)
Residue at p = - =m
a x 1 - np y np
\ T = T0 1 - - e a sin x
a np a
( p - m) For n = 1, 2,3,....... (19)

Lim sin( pa ) Combining all solutions temperature change is
= py (13)
P m e ( cos p (a ) sin( px) ) given us
np y

p
x n= 1 - a np x

T = T0 1 - - e sin
a n=0 np
a
1 For n = 1, 2, 3,...... (20)

Lim cos( pa )(a )
= py (14) 2.2 Determination of Thermal Stress
P m e ( cos p (a ) sin(npx) ) Function

p Airy's thermal stress function are used to
determine stresses in plate due to temperature
1 variation is given as follows.
=-
np 4 c = K2t (21)
cos a
a
- nap y np By substituting eqn. (20) in eqn. (21) one
e cos a sin(npx) obtain
1 a
np (15)
a -
np y

T0 a 2 k n = e a np x
a c = 2 3 3 sin
1 n p n =0 n a
=-
cos ( np )
- nap y np 2.3 Determination of Thermal Stress
e cos ( np ) sin xa
a component in x-direction
(16)
Thermal stress in x-direction is given by
np
476
-
np y
np x
2 c T0 k n = e a np x Also the term sin and
s xx = 2 =
y

p n =0 n
sin
a
(22) a
np x
cos bounded
a
2.4 Determination of Thermal Stress Thus necessary condition for convergence is
component in y-direction satisfied; by applying D-Alemberts ratio test.
Also the term in the expression for temperature
The thermal stress component in y-direction is and stresses are negligible for large value of n
given by and it converges to zero at infinity. Therefore
for better accuracy numerical calculations have
n = - npa y
c2
T0 k e np x been performed by taking n = 100 with the
s yy = 2 =-
x

p n =0 n
sin
a
(23) help of computer programme.
50
Y=0.00 m
2.5 Determination of Thermal Stress 40
Y=0.25 m
component in Resultant-direction Y=0.50 m
The thermal stress component in resultant 30 Y=0.75 m
Temperature
direction is given by Y=1.0 m
2 c
s xy = - 20
xy
n = - npa y 10
c T0 k e
2
np x
=
xy p n =0 n
cos
a
(24)
0
0.0 0.4 0.8 x 1.2 1.6 2.0
2.6 Numerical Results

Figure 1: Variation of Temperature in x
The numerical calculations are performed for a direction of plate
steel plate with the material properties as 0.00030
1. Thermal diffusivity
( )
Y=0.00 m
a = 14.74 X 10-6 m2 / s
0.00025
Y=0.25 m
Y=0.50 m
2. Youngs modulus E = 210 Gpa with 0.00020
Temperature Stress
Y=0.75 m
temperature conditions as Y=1.00 m

0.00015
3. Initial temperature T0 = 0 o C
4. Temperature given at end x = 0,
0.00010
T1 = 50 o C 0.00005
5. Dimension of the plate is a = 2 m, b = 1 m. 0.00000

0.0 0.4 0.8 x 1.2 1.6 2.0
2.7 Convergence Analysis of Series Solution

Figure 2: Variation of Thermal stress xx along
Considering
- np y
x direction of plate

a
lim e =0
n
477
0.0 0.4 0.8 x 1.2 1.6 2.0 50

0.00000
X=0.0 m
-0.00005 40 X=0.5 m
X=1.0 m
Temperature
-0.00010
30 X=1.5 m
Temperature Stress
Y=0.00 m X=2.0 m
-0.00015
Y=0.25 m
20
Y=0.50 m
-0.00020 Y=0.75 m
Y=1.00 m
10
-0.00025
-0.00030
0
0.0 0.2 0.4 y 0.6 0.8 1.0
Figure 3: Variation of Thermal stress yy along Figure 5: Variation of Temperature in y
x direction of plate direction of plate
0.0004 0.0003
0.0000
X=0.0 m
Temperature Stress
X=0.5 m
-0.0004 0.0002
X=1.0 m
Thermal Stress
Y=0.00 m
X=1.5 m
Y=0.25 m
-0.0008
Y=0.50 m X=2.0 m
Y=0.75 m
-0.0012 Y=1.0 m
0.0001
-0.0016
0.0 0.4 0.8 x 1.2 1.6 2.0
Figure 4: Variation of Thermal stress xy along

0.0000
x direction of plate y
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Figure 6: Variation of Thermal stress xx along

y direction of plate
478
0.0004 to quarter span of the plate and then decreased

continuously along x-direction. However there
is reversal of variation in thermal stress is
0.0000 observed in x-direction.
2) From the numerical results of thin
rectangular plate with edges (y = 0, b) insulated
Thermal Stress
-0.0004 under steady state heat conduction there is

decrease in thermal stress from one end of the
X=0.0 m insulation to the other insulated end
-0.0008 X=0.5 m continuously along y-direction. However there
X=1.0 m is reversal of variation in thermal stress is
X=1.5 m observed in y-direction.
-0.0012 References:
X=2.0 m
[1] B. A. Boley and J. H. Weiner, John Wiley,
Theory of Thermal Stresses, New York,
-0.0016
1960.
0.0 0.2 0.4 y 0.6 0.8 1.0
[2] R. M. Jones. Mechanics of Composite
Figure 7: Variation of Thermal stress yy along Material, Taylor and Francis, London,
y direction of plate 1990.
[3] J. N. Reddy, Mechanics of Composite
0.0004 Plates, New York, London, Tolyo: CRC
Press, Boca Raton, 1997.
[4] Y. M. Ghugal and S.K. Kulkarni, Thermal
0.0000 flexural analysis of cross-ply laminated
plates using trigonometric shear
deformation theory, Latin American Journal
Thermal Stress
of Solids and structures, vol. 10, pp.1001-

-0.0004
1023, 2013.
[5] Tauchert T. R., Thermoelastic Analysis of
Y=0.0 m Laminated Orthotropic Slabs. Journal of
-0.0008 Y=0.5 m Thermal Stresses, Vol. 3, pp. 117-132,
1980.
Y=1.0 m [6] Kulkarni V. S. and Deshmukh K. C.,
-0.0012 Y=1.5 m Quasi-Static Thermal Stresses in a Thick
Circular Plate, Applied Mathematical
Y=2.0 m
Modelling, Vol. 31, pp. 14791488, 2007.
[7] Bahar L. Y. and Hetnarski R. B., Direct
-0.0016
Approach to Thermoelasticity. Journal of
0.0 0.2 0.4 y 0.6 0.8 1.0
Thermal Stresses, Vol. 2, pp.135-147,
Figure 8: Variation of Thermal stress xyalong y 1979.
direction of plate [8] Ozisik M.N., Boundary value problem of
heat conduction, International Text book
3. Conclusions: Company, Scranton, Pennsylvania ,1968.
1) From the numerical results of thin [9] Sneddon I.N. The Use of Integral
rectangular plate where heat source is applied at Transform, McGraw Hill, New York, pp.
edge (x = 0, y) under steady state heat 235- 238,1972.
conduction there is increase in thermal stress up
479
FAILURE ANALYSIS OF COMPOSITE CYLINDRICAL SHELLS USING

CONTINUUM DAMAGE MECHANICS
Maharshi Kintada1, Arbind Kumar Singh2
1,2
Abstract:
Progressive failure analysis of laminated composite cylindrical shells subjected to internal pressure is carried out
based on continuum damage mechanics. The state of distributed microscopic damage is modelled as the damage variable
in the irreversible thermodynamic formulation. The damage tensor for composite material accounts for the breakage of
fibres, matrix cracking in perpendicular to the fiber direction. The damaged constitutive modelling is formulated by the
assumption of strain energy equivalence. The damage analysis of composite shells is carried out using C 0 continuous
degenerated shell element which uses 3D continuum properties to reduce thickness degrees of freedom onto the surface
in terms of rotations. Selective reduced integration is employed. In the present paper, brittle damage analysis of composite
shell is investigated by implementing plane stress conditions into the damage evolution functions and assuming the
damage distribution to be linear across the thickness of the shells. The nonlinear governing equations are solved using
Newton-Raphson iterative technique to trace the equilibrium path. Examples have been presented to apply the employed
model for composite shell problems.
Keywords: Failure Analysis, Continuum Damage Mechanics, Degenerated Shell Element.

deformations was modelled. The elastic but non-linear
1. Introduction: nature of composites in longitudinal (fiber) direction is
Laminated composite cylindrical shells have their observed by Allix et al. (1994)[11]. A modification of
wide range of applicability in aerospace engineering, material characteristic parameter for the fiber direction
turbine industry and auto mobile industry. Progressive modulus non-linearity was presented. Matzenmiller et al.
failure analysis of such shells is required to understand (1995)[9] proposed a damage model based on the failure
the structure integrity during their life cycle. Continuum criterion by Tsai-Wu. The effective stress is formulated
Damage Mechanics (CDM) has developed as a tool to by the strain equivalence concept. A fourth order
predict the progressive failure of laminated composites damage tensor was utilized to model the effective
([1-2]). A realistic analysis based on CDM is relied on stresses in in-plane principal directions and also a
the proper selection of damage variable and its evolution. separate variable for shear stress reduction. The damage
Analytical solution of shells using CDM based evolution in accordance with strain rate effects was also
constitutive relations is almost impossible to obtain. presented. The failure mode of fiber in compression is
Finite element method is popularly used to analyze shell introduced to be fiber kinking termed as fiber buckling
structures. A continuum based shell element often called modes, kink band models [12]. Barbero and DeVivo
as degenerated shell element is employed in the present (2001)[10], Barbero and Lonetti (2001)[13] introduced
study. In the following paragraph, various damage a generalized damage evolution model based on Tsai-
models for composites and its implementation for shells Wu failure criterion for in-plane loading and bending of
are briefly reviewed. composite plates. A fourth order damage tensor was
Continuum damage mechanics has been used to used which considers the damage as fiber breakage
understand the crack initiation, fracture and failure of (longitudinal tension), fiber kinking (longitudinal
metals and alloys, concrete, ceramics and composites. compression) and matrix cracking in only tension. This
Details of formulation are available in many textbooks model only needs the experimental shear stress-strain
and monographs [1-4]. Application of CDM to curve for its model parameters and critical damage
composites started in eightys of last century ([5-6]). parameters identification. In Lonetti et al. (2003)[14],
The breakage of fiber, cracking of matrix, debonding of composite with ductile polymer resins are modelled for
fiber-matrix interface and also delamination have been unrecoverable plastic strains in matrix directions. The
modelled in CDM using scalar [5-6], vector [7], second inter-laminar delamination is also accommodated with
order tensor [8] and fourth order tensor [9-10] for the damage variable in thickness direction. The
damage variables. unilateral effect is considered in Mayugo and Barbero
Ladeveze and Le Dantec (1992)[6] proposed a (2011)[12] for the deducing the effective stiffness in
ductile damage model for composites. The matrix compression and tension for fiber damage. Kennedy and
cracking and the interface de-bonding were represented Nahan (1996) [15] utilized the eigenvalues of second
by individual scalar damage variables. The unilateral order damage tensor at lamina level for formulating the
effect of matrix cracks along with only matrix plastic effective stress resultant and effective moment resultant
1
Research Scholar, maharshi.kintada@gmail.com
2
Professor, arvind@iitg.ac.in.
480
Maharshi Kintada and Arbind Kumar Singh
at the laminate level. The extension-bending coupling order damage effect tensor M and virgin constitutive
?" ) = @A <) M
matrix is assumed to be zero i.e., the model is applicable matrix C as (Barbero (2011)[12])
The Helmholtz free energy density B for damage

only for symmetric laminates. It was assumed that the (4)
only membrane tension was dominant and flexure
doesnt induce any compressive damage. A non-local composite considering the damage hardening can be
B = *B0CD ED ;3 = F H I0CD E3 2 J0;3

damage model was also implemented to avoid mesh
'
written as
sensitivity problems in strain softening region. Shell
G
The internal variable ; in the above equation is a non-
(5)
buckling and post buckling response effects on intra-
laminar and inter-laminar progressive failure of
composite panels with circular cutouts is carried out by dimensional damage hardening parameter that
Goyal et al.(2004)[16]. A second order damage tensor is symbolizes the overall state of damage. The Clausis-
MB MB MB
Duhem inequality is given as[2],
K{!} 7 L N {$O} 7 KL N P:O Q 7 KL N ;O R S
presented relating the damaged and undamaged material
M{$} M{:} M;
modulus. The Hashin failure criterion is used for
constructing the damage evolution in fiber, matrix and
O
where, L is material density, P Q**indicates the time
fiber-matrix shear damages. (6)
Robbinson et al. (2005)[17] implemented the
driving force Y and damage hardening variable T are

Barbero and DeVivo damage model to shear deformable derivative of the quantity. The thermodynamic damage
laminated composite plates. A 3D element with
quadratic damage distribution among the element area defined as[4]
Y
VF {\}^ [_% ` ]{\}H
{U} = * 7L = * 7 {$}A {$}
V[_% ` ]
=*7
VW Z '
as well as thickness is considered. The failure load
sensitivity for different element types, mesh densities, V{X} V{X} / V{X}
element distortion levels and element integration
T = * 7L
VW
(7a)
schemes are compared. Gupta et al. (2012)[18] analyzed
Va
(7b)
shallow cylindrical shells using modified Love-Sanders
shell theory based element with and without damage. A generalized damage loading surface proposed by
Geometric non-linearity is also implemented along with Barbero and Lonetti (2001)[13] which uses
exact shear correction scheme. Problems with different thermodynamic force and hardening parameters is
radius of curvature, thickness, and lamina schemes are employed in the present study. The damage surface
g(Y,T) = bc'' U'/ 2 c// U// 2 cdd Ud/ -(Te +*T(;)) (8)
analyzed. defined as a convex surface is given as
where, c'' , *c// and cdd represent experimentally

In the present paper, the continuum damage
mechanics based progressive failure analysis of shells
using degenerated shell element is carried out. obtained material constants that define the damage
Degenerated shell element is a general continuum shell tolerance of the material. Y1, Y2 and Y3 are
hardening function T0;3 denotes the damage surface

element of which applicability is not limited to certain thermodynamic forces in principal directions. The
expansion threshold and Te is the intial damage surface

geometry. The advantages of degenerated shell element
is its general applicability and easy implementation of
large deformation formulation. threshold. These material constants are taken from
experimental results as in Barbero and DeVivo
{U}P:O Q 7 T;O R S*subjected to the constraint g(Y,*T) =0,

2. Continuum Damage Mechanics Model: (2001)[10]. Extremization of the dissipative inequality
The constitutive relations for damaged composites
9O+ = * fO , TO = * fO
Vg Vg
are obtained using strain energy equivalence principle[4] yields damage evolution equations,
{!"} = [#]{!}; {$%} = [#&' ]{$} Vhi Va

which can be stated as
O
- Eq (9)
{!} = [(% ) ]{$}; {!"} = [( ) ]{$%} where, f is the Lagrange multiplier. The
(1a)
(1b)
implementation of the above constitutive equations is
where, terms with over-bar**are effective quantities, [M]
employed in the non-linear finite element formulation
is the fourth order damage effect tensor which is related
discussed in next section.
#+,-. = 01+- 1,. 2 1+. 1,- 3
'
to the integrity tensor as[12]
/
(2) 3. Finite Element Formulation:
tensor, 4 = * 56 7 8 and
. The dual variable of the damage tensor is the integrity In this paper, an eight noded degenerated shell
9+, = :+ ;+, ; i = 1, 2, 3. (no-sum on i)

element formulation for laminated composite shells is
(3) employed with Gauss integration along the thickness
where, Dij are the components of the second order direction.
damage tensor D. The coordinate system coinciding
fiber, transverse and thickness directions and :+ are the

with the principal directions of D coincides with the Geometric definition of the element:
In the present formulation, four types of coordinate
eigenvalues of the damage tensor, which represents the systems are employed: shell coordinate system (x, y,
The damaged stiffness tensor < > is derived by the
damage ratio along these directions.
coordinate system ( jD kD l ) and material coordinate
z), global coordinate system (x, y, z), parent element
concept of strain energy equivalence with the help of 4th
481
S S S S $
YY ZY YY
!'' 0'& YZ ZY3 0'& YZ ZY 3 ''
!// YZ ZZ
system (1, 2, 3). The coordinates of any Point is a
S S S S $//
n+
ZZ
n wd+ ! 0'& YZ ZY3 $dd
transformation of element coordinate system using [20]
0'& YZ ZY 3
=* S T'/
moq = * r s+ to+ u 2 r s+ *l i txd+ u
S S S S S
dd
v
'/ S S S '/ S

S T/d
p p+ yd+ /d
/
(10)
d' S S S S /d S Td'
in which s+ , is the shape function of ith Node of the S S S S S d'
eight-node quadratic plane element (n+ , o+ , p+ ) are the {!} = [( ) ]*{$} (16)
wd+ ,*xd+ , and yd+ represent the directional cosines of

mid-surface global coordinates of the ith nodal point and where these directions (1,2,3) are presumed to be in the
principal material directions of the material i.e., as
the mid-surface unit normal. At any typical node i, one orthotropic configuration.
wd+ wd+ n~ 7 n
can write a thickness direction vector V3i as, The governing equations are solved using Newton-
zd+ = * |+ txd+ u; where txd+ u = * t o~ 7 o u (11)

'
[A ]{+ } = {} 7 []A {! + }:z
Raphson method given as
yd+ yd+ p~ 7 p
vi (17)
[A ]) = * &'[]A [(A ][]c:--

where, [KT] is the tangential stiffness at the ith iteration.
'
Displacement field definition of the element: - Eq (18)
The displacement of Point P on the vector V3i is where, [CT] is the tangential constitutive relation
formed by displacement of Node i plus the obtained from Newton-Raphson solution of non-linear
displacement relative to Node i created by rotation of constitutive relations in Section 2. As the composite
V3i with respect to V1i and V2i. The relative displacement consists of lamina which is having different material
components must be resolved into (x, y, z) components configurations, a layer-wise thickness integration
before being added to the displacements of Node i. scheme is recommended by Panda and Natarajan
(1981)[21]. Using incremental finite element
+ = * + 7 + Fl iH w/+ 2 + Fl iH w'+
Thus the total displacement at the node i is [20]
v v formulation as in Eq: 17, the incremental displacements
/ /
(12) are found out upon a proportional load increment, the
+
+
Displacement of an arbitrary point in the element is strains at each gauss points are calculated. The
m q = * r s+ t + u 2 r s+ *l[]
incremental damage variable values are calculated and
+ +
(13) the damage variables are updated. This iterative
procedure is repeated till the norm of the incremental
displacement vector between two consecutive iterations
$
The strains are expressed as,
$
is less than the specified convergence tolerance
$
(0.001%). The loading increments are continued till the
= {V 2 2 2
V V V V V V V V V A
} =

T
maximum value of the damage variables reaches unity
V V V V V V V V
T
or convergence failure.
T
*[][c]&' []{} * = * []{}
Layer wise integration
(14) In the present work 222 (selective reduced
respect to the (jD kD l), [H] is relating matrix from strains
Here, [G] matrix is displacement derivative matrix with integration) is used for thick and thin shells. For layer
to displacement derivatives and [c]&' is the inverse of
wise integration scheme, the integration limits are not
from -1 to 1 in any layer. To overcome this, the variable
the 99 Jacobian matrix [J]. All six strains are included in any kth layer is changed to k such that k varies from
in the above equation because the shell mid surface has -1 to 1 in the kth layer. Thus the stiffness integration
no particular orientation with respect to Cartesian
l = * 7 2 7- 0 7 l- 3 2 r-,' ,
'
becomes,
coordinates (x, y, z) and left if any stiffness arise after
v
(19a)
[A ]) = * r-' &'[]A (A - []c :---
'
converting the constitutive matrix to the shell coordinate
v
system. Plane stress condition 3 = 0 is implemented (19b)
through the stress-strain relation shown in next sections. The internal force vector is evaluated by integrating the
As the displacement and strains are defined in (x,y,z)

-
equilibrium stresses at the Gauss points (, ,*),
'
{ ) } = * [] A {!}:z
= []A {!}c :---
space only, it cannot be applied directly to a problem in
&' |
shell coordinate system. With the assumption of no
thickness stress i.e., 3 = 0 is in global axis, and applying -'
this formulation to a shell coordinate system requires a - Eq (20)

transformation of the current (x,y,z) system to the shell
coordinate system (x,y,z). 4. Results:
{$} = [\ ] {*$} (15) The developed finite element formulation is applied to a
The above discussed is a way of orienting element composite cylindrical shell with lamina configurations
properties to element face using element Jacobian [21]. of [0/90]ns (where n is any number) to carry out damage
The constitutive relation for an orthotropic material is analysis. Problems involving shallow and deep shells
given as, are chosen to check the performance of the present
degenerated shell element in combination with
progressive failure analysis for membrane and bending
482
failure loads. The results are plotted in contour levels by Table 1: Mesh convergence study and validation with
linear extrapolation of the results from Gauss points to results of damage analysis of laminated cylindrical shell.
the nodes. The evolution of damage of a laminated Failure
composite shell subjected to uniformly distributed Mesh Load w0 center/h Max-D1 Max-D2 Max-D3
transverse loading is analyzed. The shear correction (MPa)
factor for the first-order shear deformation theory to 9.2 9.7867 0.2411 0.8445 4.113x10-03
account for through the thickness variation of transverse 5x5
(9.2) (10.622) (0.2313) (0.8881) (1.407x10-04)
shear stresses are taken as k = 1.2. The boundary 9.2 9.7867 0.2411 0.8445 4.118x10-03
conditions considered unless otherwise specified, are: 10x10
(9.2) (10.622) (0.2313) (0.8881) (1.323x10-04)
e = * e = * e = * = S*wy*:*:
Immovable simply supported or hinged (S): 9.2 9.7867 0.2411 0.8445 4.118x10-03
e = * e = * e = * = S*wy*||*:
20x20
(9.2) (10.622) (0.2312) (0.8880) (1.284x10-04)
e = * e = * e = * = * = S*wy*ww*:
Clamped (C): analysis stopped at 9.2MPa due to convergence failure.
The transverse loading effects on the evolution of
The combinations of support conditions considered are: damage variable in thickness direction is observed to
SSSS: All edges simply supported; very low than damage variables in other principal
CCCC: All edges clamped; directions. The composite laminate is failed in matrix
SSFF: Simply supported along straight edges and free cracking in the upper middle layer (top gauss points)
along curved edges; which yielded the maximum damage variable of 0.8445
CCFF: Clamped along straight edges and free along at (x/a = 0.511, y/b = 0.511, and z/h = 0.65). There is no
curved edges. much mesh sensitivity observed in the results after 5by5
'' = 167 GPa, // = 8.13 GPa, '/ = /d = d'

Unless specified, material properties considered are[10]: mesh.
= 8.8252 GPa, '/ = 0.27; 'v = 3060 MPa, ' = 1255

The present shell element is based on degenerated
MPa, /v = 35.8 MPa, = 75 MPa; c'' = 0.9524

shell element whereas Gupta et al. (2012) is based on
x S&' , c// = cdd = 0.4381x S&'/ , k = 7.595

Love-Sanders shell theory. The present element can also
xS&e where E, G, and are Youngs modulus, shear

be used for doubly curved shells. Force displacement
curves using degenerated shell element with plane stress
modulus, and Poissons ratio, respectively. The constitutive model and linear distribution of damage
subscripts 1, 2, 3 represent the principal material along thickness is plotted in Fig 2 which is exactly
directions. matching with equilibrium path given in Gupta et al.
(2012)[18]. Hence, a linear distribution of damage
across thickness with plane stress constitutive model can
also be sufficient for thin shells.
The damage contours were plotted using MATLAB as
shown in Figs 3, 4, 5, and 6 to understand the
progression of damage across the whole shell. Y-axis
shows the length and X-axis shows the angular direction
of the cylindrical shell (here, X and Y are used for
legibility rather than x and y used before). The layer
(Here, layer means layer of Gauss points starts from
bottom along the whole laminate 2 Gauss points layer
along thickness per lamina) is chosen where maximum
transverse matrix cracking is occurring (Fig: 3, 4 and 5).
Figure 1: Typical laminated cylindrical shell with global The D2 contours for different load steps are plotted at
and local coordinate system. 5Mpa, 8.2MPa and 9.2Mpa as shown in Figs 3, 4 & 5. A
contour plot at layer of maximum D1 is also plotted in
The present degenerated shell element formulation
Fig: 6b. It was observed from the Figures 3, 4 and 5 that
along with evolving damage is validated with four-
the matrix cracking was initiated near the X = 0, it can
layered cross-ply [0/90]S laminated SSFF cylindrical
be interpreted as the matrix damage i.e., debonding
a = 2m, a/h = 100, r1/a = 2.0, = 0.4 rad.
panel. The geometrical properties of the problem are:
occurred at the fiber-matrix interfaces.
The critical eigenvalues D2 were initiating at X = 0
Laminated cylindrical shell: [0/90]2 and spreading across the Y-axis on either directions. At
Boundary Conditions: SSFF the failure load (final stage), the fibers act as a loose
The values in the brackets are results from Gupta et al. bundle of fibers. The contour showing maximum
(2012)[18]. The Values of maximum damage damage eigenvalue D1 is plotted at 8th layer of laminate
eigenvalues column are obtained from the maximum of is shown in Fig: 6b. It can be interpreted from the Fig:
all the eigenvalues for the specific principal direction 6b that the multiple brittle fractures of fibers have
only at failure load. occurred (same location near X=0). The degraded stress-
It was been observed that the present elastic strain curve in Fig: 7 shows the stiffness degradation at
damage analysis results are in close with the solutions the D2 maximum critical Gauss point. As the damage
given by Gupta et al. (2012)[18]. The present FEM
483
Figure 2: Force-displacement curve of a shell with

[0/90] 2s configuration.
Figure 5: Damage surface and eigenvalues plotted at 6th

layer of Gauss points at a load of 9.2MPa.
Figure 6: Damage surface and Damage eigenvalue D1 plotted

at 8th layer of Gauss points at a load of 9.2MPa
was observed that assumption of plane stress condition

and linear distribution of damage across thickness is
Figure 3: Damage surface and all damage eigenvalues plotted sufficient for thin shells. It was also shown, the damage
at 6th layer of Gauss points at a load of 5MPa. initiation is possible at X=0 and spread of damage will
occur across the y-axis. Maximum damage of fibers
surface (Fig: 3a, 4a, 5a and 6a) is obtained from Tsai-
Wu failure criterion, the damage surface here serves as
indicative measure of the damage level at that
corresponding load.
5. Conclusions:
Failure analysis of composite laminated shell with
[0/90]2S configuration is carried out using degenerated
shell element based on continuum damage mechanics. It
a)
Figure 4: Damage surface and Damage eigenvalues plotted b)

at 6th layer of Gauss points at a load of 8.2MPa.
484
9. Matzenmiller A., Lubliner J., and Taylor R. L., A

constitutive model for anisotropic damage in fiber-
composites. Mechanics of Materials, 20:125-152,
1995.
10. Barbero, E. J., & De Vivo, L., A constitutive model
for elastic damage in fiber-reinforced PMC
laminae. International Journal of Damage
Mechanics, 10(1), 73-93, 2001.
11. Allix O., Ladeveze P. and Vittecoq E., Modelling
and identification of the mechanical behavior of
composite laminates in compression. Composites
c) Science and Technology, 51:35-42, 1994.
12. Barbero E. J., Finite Element Analysis of Composite
Materials. CRC Press, 2011
13. Barbero E. J., Lonetti P., Damage model for
composites defined in terms of available data.
Journal of composite materials, 4(8):299-315,
2001.
14. Lonetti, P., Zinno, R., Greco, F., & Barbero, E. J.
Interlaminar damage model for polymer matrix
composites. Journal of Composite Materials, 37(16),
1485-1504, 2003.
15. Kennedy TC., Nahan MF., A simple nonlocal
d) damage model for predicting failure of notched
laminates. Composite structures, 35(2):229-236,
Figure 7: Damaged stress-strain curves at the critical
1996.
gauss point at the failure load (9.2MPa).
16. Goyal V. K., Jaunky N. R., Johnson E. R., and
occurred in top most layer while matrix damage is in Ambur D. R.. Intralaminar and interlaminar
middle layer. The failure of composite cylindrical shells progressive failure analyses of composite panels
are possible by damage in longitudinal bending than with circular cutouts. Composite Structures,
cylindrical bending. 64(1):91-105, 2004.
17. Robbins Jr D. H., Reddy J. N., and Rostam-Abadi
F., An efficient continuum damage model and its
6. References: application to shear deformable laminated plates.
1. Krajcinovic, D., Damage mechanics (Vol. 41). Mechanics of Advanced Materials and Structures,
Elsevier, 1996. 12(6):391-412, 2005.
2. Lemaitre, J., & Desmorat, R., Engineering damage 18. Gupta, A. K., Patel, B. P., & Nath, Y., Continuum
mechanics: ductile, creep, fatigue and brittle damage mechanics approach to composite
failures. Springer Science & Business Media, 2005. laminated shallow cylindrical/conical panels under
3. Voyiadjis, G. Z., & Kattan, P. I., Damage mechanics. static loading. Composite Structures, 94(5), 1703-
CRC Press, 2005. 1713, 2012.
4. Zhang, W., & Cai, Y., Continuum damage 19. Gupta, A. K., B. P. Patel, and Y. Nath., "Continuum
mechanics and numerical applications. Springer damage modeling of composite laminated plates
Science & Business Media, 2010. using higher order theory." Composite Structures
5. Dumont, J. P., Ladeveze, P., Poss, M., & Remond, 99 : 141-151, 2013.
Y., Damage mechanics for 3-D composites. 20. Krishnamoorty, C. S., Finite Element Analysis:
Composite structures, 8(2), 119-141, 1987. Theory and Programming, Mc Graw Hill, 1994.
6. Ladeveze P., Le Dantec E., Damage modelling of 21. Panda, Suresh, and Raghu Natarajan. "Analysis of
the elementary ply for laminated composites. laminated composite shell structures by finite
Composite Science and Technology, 43:257-267, element method." Computers & Structures 14.3-4:
1992. 225-230, 1981.
7. Talreja, R., A continuum mechanics
characterization of damage in composite materials.
In Proceedings of the Royal Society of London A:
Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences
(Vol. 399, No. 1817, pp. 195-216). The Royal
Society, 1985.
8. Voyiadjis, G Z., Venson A. R., Abu-Alrub R. K.,
Advances in damage mechanics: metals and metal
matrix composites. Elsevier, 2012.
485
A NEW ELASTIC CONSTITUTIVE RELATION FOR PLAIN

CONCRETE
C. Gokulnath, U. Saravanan
1
2
Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Madras, Chennai600036, India
Current mathematical models to model the nonlinear behavior of concrete are based on elasticity, plasticity and
micromechanics based models. Elasticity based models are based on modified Hookes law, where the material moduli
are arbitrarily made a function of the stress or strain or both. This approach is known to be incorrect as such models
could result in negative work in a closed mechanical cycle. It has shown that even within the realms of elasticity if the
stress and displacement gradient are related through an implicit relation then the linearized strain could be a nonlinear
function of stress. In this study three dimensional models based on the implicit constitutive framework were studied to
model the uniaxial stress strain response of the concrete. Itis shown that different three-dimensional models able to
predict the uniaxial stress strain response to a similar degree of fidelity. This emphasizes the need for using biaxial test
to develop three dimensional models for concrete.
Keywords: Concrete, Elasticity, Constitutive model, Implicit framework
Introduction cracks develop when the specimen is subjected to pure

compression. Also, the amount of dissipation of
Stress-strain relationship, displacement-strain relation mechanical energy does not seem to vary much up to
and equilibrium equations are the equations used in the ultimate load in compression Ref [3]. More over
solving boundary value problems in mechanics. While continuum damage mechanics models require large
the displacement-strain relation and equilibrium computational power to solve the boundary value
equations are well established, the constitutive relation problems.
which relates stress and strain is not fixed for many
materials, like concrete. With the increasing The uniaxial stress required to engender same
computational capacity and efficient numerical incremental axial strains is different, i.e. the stress strain
procedures, there is a need to develop better constitutive response of concrete is nonlinear, even though the
relations so that the prediction of response of the body magnitude of the strains is of the order of 10-3.
made of engineering materials can become more Following, classical approach of elasticity wherein the
realistic. stress is related explicitly to the displacement gradient,
the stress could at most depends linearly on the
Current models to capture the stress strain response of linearized strain. Therefore, traditionally appeal is made
concrete under monotonic loading are based on the to some inelastic phenomena to have a nonlinear
elasticity, plasticity or continuum damage mechanics. dependence between the stress and displacement
The elasticity based models for concrete are based on gradient.
modified Hookes law. Here the material moduli are
arbitrarily made a function of the stress or strain or both. However, in Ref. [7] and Ref. [8] showed that even
Some of the examples for elasticity based models are within the realms of elasticity if the stress and
given in Ref. [1] and Ref. [5].This approach is known to displacement gradient are related through an implicit
be incorrect as such models could result in negative relation then the linearized strain could be a nonlinear
work in a closed mechanical cycle. In case of classical function of stress. Hence, appeal to inelastic phenomena
plasticity based models, the mode of dissipation is dry is not necessary. If there is an inelastic phenomenon,
friction between sliding surfaces. In concrete also the significant energy has to be dissipated. However,
dissipation is through dry friction. However, unlike in experiments reported in Ref. [3] shows this not to be the
classical plasticity based models, the unloading elastic case. In fact, this is consistent with the perception that
response differs from the loading response. So, concrete is a brittle material, meaning there is no
modelling concrete within the framework of classical significant energy dissipation till the ultimate load is
plasticity will not be appropriate. Continuum damage attained. Therefore, non-dissipative models could be
mechanics assumes that the nonlinear stress-strain used to describe the response of concrete.
response of the concrete is due to development of micro
cracks during the loading. It is not clear as to how
1
Phd scholar, gokulchinnasamy@gmail.com
2
Asscoiate professor, saran@iitm.ac.in 486
C. Gokulnath and U. Saravanan
The following paragraph discusses the implicit where ;*U V)are material parameters. It can be seen that if
constitutive relation. Then, 3 dimensional models based m3 = 0, this potential is same as that used to obtain
on a representation developed within the implicit Hookes law. Therefore, it is required that m1> 0 and
constitutive relation framework is used to model the m2< 0 so that the displacement occurs in the direction of
stress-strain behavior of concrete. In the finally section, the applied force. The potential for the second model
a comparison of the predictions of the proposed models studied is,
and the experiments is presented and the same HI = ;% )<> + ;' )/<A 0' )<>
discussed. +;A /Q @ exp/;1 )<> 00)<A ,))))))))))))))))))) (6)
where);*U V)are material parameters. It can be seen that if
m4 = 0, this potential reduces to that of the potential
Implicit Constitutive relation
used to obtain Hookes law. Therefore, it is required
Traditionally constitutive equation is written such that m1> 0 and m2 < 0.
that the stress is an explicit functional of displacement
gradient. Well known Green elasticity is based on that In above models, the first two terms models the linear
formulation. On linearization of the Green elastic response and last term is used to capture the non-linear
constitutive representation, one gets well known stress strain response of the concrete. In first model, the
Hookes law. From Ref. [6] it is known that the stress nonlinear response is captured by using the product of
and displacement gradient could be related through an invariants of stress. However, in second model, the non-
implicit form. In Ref. [7] it has been shown that on linear effect is captured by exponential functional form.
linearization of the implicit constitutive representation While the first model depends on all the three
for small deformations one obtains a nonlinear invariants, the second model depends only on two
invariants. Despite these differences in the models it is
relationship between stress and linearized strain of the
found that the uniaxial response of concrete is captured
form,
equally well by both of them, as illustrated next.
! = "# $ + "% & + "' &( ),)))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))(1) The boundary value problem corresponding to that of
where "* = " ...(tr(&), tr(/&0' ), tr(/&01 )) are the material
the uniaxial experiment is solved. The Cartesian
-) components of Cauchy stress in a chosen Cartesian
response functions. A systematic study on generating
P X X
basis is
general representations for implicit relations such that
the second law of thermodynamics holds along with the & = WX X XY, (7)
restriction due to material frame indifference, material X X X
symmetry has been accomplished in Ref. [2]. They also Using the relationship between the stress and strain field
give a representation between linearized strain and as given by the constitutive relation (1), the strain
Cauchy stress when the norm of the displacement obtained by substituting (7)in (1),
gradient is small. The expressions for the "# , "% and "'
[% X X
is given as
% 567 Z = WX [' X Y,
"# = ,))
(8)
234 5)38
(2) X X ['
% 567 567 567

"% = 9:;# )<> @ )<A @ B)<C E, (3)
where,
34 5)3? 5)38 5)3D \% = "# + "% P + "% P ( , \' = "# , (9)
Expression for "* will bedepends on the form forHI ,
1 567
"' = ,)
)34 FG4 5)3D
(4) which is chosen to model the material. Thus, for a given
magnitude of uniaxial stress, the strains are obtained
JI /)<A , <C , <> 0,)<A = )
where HI = H
)3K
, <C =
from equation (8) knowing the form of the potential and
234 the material parameters in the potential.
)3F
, )<> = ) <' LM ,<% = NO/P0), <' = NO//P0' 0,<1 =
)34 FG4
NO//P01 0and ;# is material constant.
Uniaxial stress-stain data as reported by Ref. [4] for
M30 grade concrete in compression is used to find the
material parameters in the expression for the potentials.
Proposed model The unknown material parameters were found by using
the constrained nonlinear optimization function
In this study, forms for the potential,HI is chosen so that fmincon built-in MATLAB by minimizing the root
the monotonic uniaxial stress strain behavior of plain mean square error between the theoretically predicted
concrete could be captured. The potential for the first and experimentally measured strains. The estimated
HI = ;Q )<R + ;: )/<S 0: )<R + ;B )<T )<R ,)))))))(5)

model studied is, material parameters for both the models are listed in
table (1).
487
Table 2:R2 error comparison of the models for the data

Model \% \'
Table 1: Material parameters for various models
studied 1 0.99 0.91
Model ;# ;% ;' ;1 ;A 2 0.99 0.91
1 1.25 310-6 -110-6 -110-6 -
-6 -7
2 1.27 510 -910 -0.85 -510-6
Figure 1: Comparison of axial stress vs. axial strain in the uniaxial test as predicted by the models with that
experimentally observed in Ref. [4]
Figure 2: Comparison of axial stain vs. lateral strain in the uniaxial test as predicted by the models with that
experimentally observed in Ref. [4]
quantitative comparison of R2 error value from Table

(2). This points to the need for comparison with more
Results and Discussion
set of experiments so that one can deduce a unique
model to describe concrete.
To compare the performance of different models use is
made of R2value. TheTabe1 (2) show the R2 values
From Figure (1) and Figure (2), it is observed that the
respectively for both models and for both the non-zero
components of the strain:)/!$ , !( 0.The Figure (1) and
error between the experiment and prediction is more at
the peak stress. Reason for this is that since concrete is
Figure (2) portrays the experimental data and the
crushing the energy dissipation would be more.
theoretical prediction for both models. It observed that
Therefore, using non-dissipative models to predict the
the both the models are able to predict the experimental
stress-strain response near the peak stress will result in
data well. Same conclusion is validated from
higher error.
488
C. Gokulnath and U. Saravanan
Thus, though the proposed models are able to

adequately describe the strains developed in uniaxial
compression of plain M30 concrete, the ability of these
models to predict the strains under biaxial loading
conditions as well as in tension needs to be ascertained.
The material parameters listed in Table (1) is fitted to

the experimentally observed response of a M30 grade
concrete. For other grades of concrete, corresponding
parameters has to be found from the corresponding
experimental data. Then, the variation of the material
parameters, mi with respect to the grade of concrete can
be determined and a functional form prescribed for the
same.
Conclusion
In this study, constitutive models are developed for

plain concrete within the framework of implicit
constitutive relations. These constitutive models seem to
predict the strains under uniaxial compressive loading
conditions adequately. Their performance in biaxial
loading conditions needs to be ascertained. It seems the
implicit framework would prove useful to develop
constitutive relation for concrete.
References
[1] Gerstle, K.H. (1981).Simple formulation of

biaxial concrete behavior. ACI Journal, 78(1),
6266.
[2] Gokulnath, C. and Saravanan, U. (2016). A
general representation for implicit constitutive
relation to capture non-dissipative response of
isotropic, compressible materials. Proceedings
of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical
and Engineering Sciences, submitted.
[3] Gokulnath, C. and Saravanan, U. (2016) A
non-dissipative constitutive model for concrete
in compression, ASCE Journal of Materials in
Civil Engineering, in preparation.
[4] Kupfer, H.Hilsdorf, H.K. and Rsch, H.
(1969). Behaviour of concrete under biaxial
stresses. ACI Journal Proceedings, 66(8),
656666.
[5] Kupfer, B. and H. Gerstle (1973).Behavior of
Concrete Under Biaxial Stresses. Journal of
the Engineering Mechanics Division, 99(4),
853866.
[6] Morgan, A. (1966).Some properties of media
defined by constitutive equations
inimplicitform.International Journal of
Engineering Science, 4(2), 155178.
[7] Rajagopal, K. R. (2007). The elasticity of
elasticity. Zeitschrift fur
AngewandteMathematik und Physik, 58(2),
309317.
[8] Rajagopal, K. R. (2014). On the nonlinear
elastic response of bodies in the small strain
range. ActaMechanica, 225(6), 15451553.
489
STATIC ANALYSIS OF FUNCTIONALLY GRADED PIEZOELECTRIC PLATE

S. S. Sawarkar1, S. S. Pendhari2, Y. M. Desai3
1
Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, Mumbai, India
2
Department of Structural Engineering, Veermata Jijabai Technological Institute, Mumbai, India
3
Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, Mumbai, India
A new semi-analytical model has been developed for static analysis of a simply supported functionally graded
piezoelectric material (FGPM) plate. Formulation part is based upon elasticity approach and the solutions are
obtained using numerical integration in thickness direction. The mathematical model developed is a set of
mixed first ordered ordinary differential equations (ODEs). Numerical investigation is carried out on a single
layer FGPM plate to validate the new formulation. The results obtained with present theory are compared with
exact solutions and are found to be in good agreement with the same.
Keywords: semi-analytical method, 3D domain; static analysis, functionally graded piezoelectric materials.
1. Introduction point BVP in the interval h/2 z h/2 with half of the
In piezoelectric material, natural or man-made, the variables specified at the edges z = h/2.
elastic and electric fields are coupled. The ability of
piezo-materials to convert mechanical energy into 2. Theoretical Formulation
electric energy and vice-versa may be judiciously used in An all-round simply supported FGPM plate with
designing smart materials to control deflection and dimensions abh is considered. Longitudinal edges at x
vibrations in structural members. In functionally graded = 0, a and y = 0, b are grounded to zero potential. The
piezoelectric material (FGPM), the mechanical and plate is subjected to transverse mechanical and electrical
electric properties vary gradually, usually in thickness loading at the top surface (Figure 1).
direction. Due to the continuous variation in properties,
f (x, y ) = f 0 sin a m x sin b n y
all the benefits of a composite are gained, yet avoiding z
discontinuity in stresses leading to de-bonding, typically
observed at interfaces in layered laminates.
Several investigations have been carried out to
study the behavior of FGPM plates. Lu et.al. [1] have
proposed an elasticity solutions for functionally gradient h x
piezoelectric plate subjected to electro-mechanical
loading in 2D domain. Lu et.al. [2] have also provided
elasticity solutions for an all-round simply supported
FGPM plate. Lim and He [3], Reddy and Cheng [4], a
Zhong and Shang [5] too have provided exact solutions
for FGPM plate. Elasticity solutions, however invaluable, Figure 1: All-round simply supported FGPM
may be obtained only for specific loading, boundary and plate.
geometry. Thus most of the studies on FGPM plates are
based on various 2-D plate theories, which in turn are
based on equivalent single layer theories. Significant Elastic, electric and dielectric properties are assumed to
contribution on approximate analysis of FGPM has come vary in thickness direction as;
from Almajid et.al. [6], Joshi et.al. [7] and Taya et.al. [8].
In the present work, semi-analytical model proposed Cij = f (z )Cij0 , eij = f (z )eij0 , gij = f (z )gij0 (1)
by Kant et.al. [9] is reformulated for the static analysis of
an FGPM plate. Displacements, transverse normal stress, where Cij0 , eij0 and g ij0 are the available reference
transverse shear stresses, electric potential and transverse
values. The gradation rule f(z) is either exponential or
electric displacement are chosen as the primary variables.
power law. The field equations are; coupled elastic and
A simply supported FGPM plate subjected to transverse
electric equations in piezoelectric medium [10], 3D
electro-mechanical loading is formulated as a mixed two-
1
Research Scholar, sawarkar@iitb.ac.in
2
Associate Professor, sspendhari@vjti.org.in
3
Professor, desai@iitb.ac.in
490
S. S. Sawarkar, et al.
elasticity equilibrium equations, 3D strain-displacement mp np

equations and 3D charge equilibrium equation [11], as where a m = and b n =
a b
given below;
Applied mechanical and electric load are expressed using
double Fourier series as;
{s } = [CE]{ e } [ e ]{ E }
(2)
{ D } = [ e ]T{ e } + [gS]{ E }
p(x, y, z ) pmn
s x t yx t zx
+ + + Bx = 0 =
f (x, y, z )
f sin a m x sin b n y
mn
(7)
x y z m n
t xy s y t zy
+ + + By = 0 (3) Using Eqs. (6), (7) and the derivatives, the set of PDEs
x y z obtained earlier is converted into a set of ODEs as;
t xz t yx s z
+ + + Bz = 0
x y z dumn t e0
= -a m wmn + xzmn0 - 150 a mfmn
f (z )C55 C55
u
, e y = v , e z = w ,
dz
ex =
x y z dvmn t yz e0
u v = - b n wmn + - 24 b nfmn
g xy = + , g xz = u + w , (4) dz f (z )C66 C66
0 0
y x z x
dwmn 1 0
g 33
s
v w =
g yz = + dz f (z ) C33 g 33 + e33e33
0 0 0 0 zmn
z y
Dx D y Dz 1 0
e33
D
+ + =0 (5) +
x y z f (z ) C33 g33 + e33e33
0 0 0 0 zmn
g 0 C31
0 0 0
+ e33e31
where {s} is stress vector, [CE] is elasticity matrix at + 33
0 0
a u
0 0 m mn
constant electric field, {e} is strain vector, [e] is C33 g33 + e33e33
piezoelectric stress constants matrix, {E} is electric field g 0 C23
0 0 0
+ e33e32
intensity vector, {D} is electric displacement vector and + 33
0 0
b v
0 0 n mn
[gS] is dielectric constant matrix at constant strain. The C g + e
33 33 33e33
elements of the matrices in Eqs. (2) are given in the dfmn 1 0
e33 (8)
Appendix. = s
Equations (2)-(5) constitute a system of 19 inter- dz f (z ) C33 g 33 + e33e33
0 0 0 0 zmn
dependent unknowns u, v, w (displacements), ex, ey, ez 1 0

C33
(normal strains), gxy, gyz gxz (shear strains), sx, sy, sz - D
f (z ) C33 g 33 + e33e33
0 0 0 0 zmn
(normal stresses), txy, tyz, txz (shear stresses), Dx, Dy, Dz
(electric displacements) and f (electric potential) in 19 C 0 e31
0 0 0
- e33 C31
equations. After some algebraic manipulation of the - 33
0 0
a u
0 0 m mn
C g + e
33 33 33e33
above sets of equations, a set of partial differential
equations (PDEs) involving only eight primary variables; C 0 e32
0 0 0
- e33 C32
u, v, w, f, txz, tyz, sz and Dz is obtained (not given here - 33
0 0
b v
0 0 n mn
for the sake of brevity). C33 g33 + e33e33
e31
0 0 0 0 0 0
C33e31 - e31C31e33
The in-plane variation of primary entities is
expressed in double trigonometric series, so as to satisfy C33 g 33 + e33e33
0 0 0 0

the simply supported boundary conditions as; dt xzmn
u ( x, y , z ) u mn = f (z ) + C11
0 0
- C44 (b n a m )2 - a m2 umn
=
t xz (x, y, z ) m n t xzmn
cos a m x sin b n y dz 0 0 0 0 0 0
C13 g 33C31 + e33C13e31
C 0 g 0 + e0 e0
v ( x, y , z ) u mn 33 33 33 33

t yz (x, y, z )
= t
m n
sin a m x cos b n y
xzmn (6)
w(x, y, z ) wmn

s z (x, y, z ) =
D (x, y, z )

m n
s zmn sin a m x sin b n y
D
z zmn
491
3. Numerical Investigation

C12 + C 44
0 0 A PZT-4 based all-round simply supported single
layered FGPM plate with a/h=10 is considered. Material
0 0 0 0 0 0
C13 g 33C32 + e32C13e33
- f (z ) - 0 0 0 0 a m b n v mn
properties are assumed to vary exponentially as;
C33 g 33 + e33 e33
e0 C 0 e0 - e0 C 0 e0 (
Cijkl , eijkl , g ijkl = e bz Cijkl
0 0
, eijkl 0
, g ijkl ) (9)
+ 31 33 32 31 32 33
0 0
C33 g 33 + e33 0 0
e33
where the values of gradation constant used for
C g 33 + e31e33
0 0 0 0
investigation are; = -1, -0.5, 0, 0.5, 1 and Cij0 , eij0 ,
- 13 a s
C 0 g 0 + e 0 e 0 m zmn
33 33 33 33 g ij0 are elastic, electric and dielectric coefficients values
C 0 e33
0 0 0
- e31 C33 at the bottom face of the plate (given in Table 1). The
- 13 a D - Bx
C 0 g 0 + e 0 e 0 m zmn sensory plate is subjected to a doubly sinusoidal
33 33 33 33 mechanical load; p = 1sin(px a )sin(py b) at the top
e32
0 0 0 0 0 0
C33e32 - e32C32e33 face, with top and bottom surfaces held at zero potential
C33 g 33 + e33e33
0 0 0 0
and the actuating plate is subjected to a doubly sinusoidal
dt yzmn electric load; f = 1sin(px a )sin(py b) at top face, with
= f (z ) + C 022 - C440
(a m b n )2 - b n2vmn
dz 0 0 0 top and bottom surfaces being traction free. Results
0 0 0
C23 g 33C32 + e32 C23e33 evaluated at a section (x, y) = (0.25a, 0.25b) using
0 0 0 0 present formulation are compared with exact results
C33 g 33 + e33 e33 given by Lu et al. [2] and depicted in Fig. 2 for sensory
plate and in Fig. 3 for actuating plate.
0 0
12
C + C 44
Table 1: FGP Material Properties
0 0 0 0 0 0
C32 g 33C31 + e33 23e31 Material Properties
- f (z ) - 0 0 0 0 a m b n u mn 0 0 0
C33 g 33 + e33 e33
C11 = 139 (GPa), C12 = 77.8, C13 = 74.3,
e0 C 0 e0 - e0 C 0 e0 0
C22 0
= 139, C23 0
= 74.3, C33 = 115,
+ 32 33 31 32 31 33
C330 0
g 33 + e33 e33
0 0 0 0 0
C44 = 25.6, C55 = 25.6, C66 = 30.6
C 0 g330
+ e320 0
e33 PZT-4a 0
e31 0
= -5.2 (C/m2), e32 0
= -5.2, e33 = 15.1,
- 23
0 0
bs
0 0 n zmn
C g + e
33 33 33 33 e 0
e15 0
= 12.7, e24 = 12.7
C 0 e33
0 0
- e32 0
C33 0
g11 0
= 1.306E-8 (F/m), g 22 = 1.306E-8,
- 23 b D - B y
C 0 g 0 + e 0 e 0 n zmn
33 33 33 33 0
g 33 = 1.151E-8
d zmn
= a mt xzmn + b nt yzmn - Bz a
Reference [2]
dz
0
dDzmn e15 e0
= 0 a mt xzmn + 24 0
b nt yzmn 4. Conclusion
dz C55 C66
Semi-analytical methodology for static analysis of
e0 e0 e0 e0 2 an all-round simply supported FGPM plate has been
+ f (z ) 15 015 + 24 0 24 + g11
0 0
+ g 22 a mfmn developed. The proposed mathematical model is simple,
C55 C66 efficient, computationally inexpensive and highly
accurate. The methodology is free from any a priori
The above Eqs. (8) represent the governing mixed two- assumptions on stress or displacement field in thickness
point BVP in the domain -h/2 z h/2, with electric direction. Stresses and displacements are found
potential and stress components known at the top and simultaneously and with same degree of accuracy.
bottom surfaces of the plate. Solution to Eqs. (8) is found Results obtained by present formulation have been
by numerical integration in thickness direction. compared with exact results available in literature and are
Availability of efficient BVP solvers makes it possible to in very good agreement with the same.
find accurate solutions for stresses and displacements.
492
References [13] Tzau H. S. and Pandita S. A multipurpose dynamic

and tactile sensor for robot manipulators, Journal of
[1] Lu P., Lee P., Lu C. An exact solution for
Robotic Systems, Vol.4, pp. 719-741, 1987.
functionally graded piezoelectric laminates in
cylindrical bending, International Journal of
Mechanical Sciences, Vol. 47(3), pp. 437-458, Appendix
2006.
The stiffness coefficients matrix for orthotropic
[2] Lu P., Lee P., Lu C. Exact solutions for simply material is given as;
supported functionally graded piezoelectric
laminates by Stroh-like formalism, Composite C110 0
C12 0
C13 0 0 0
Structures, Vol. 72(3), pp. 352-363, 2006. 0 0 0
C12 C22 C23 0 0 0
[3] Lim W. and He H. Exact solution of a C 0 C 0 C 0 0
compositionally graded piezoelectric layer under [ ]
C E = 13 23 33 0
0
0
(10)
uniform stretch, bending and twisting, International 0 0 0 C44 0 0
Journal of Mechanical Sciences, Vol. 43, pp. 2479- 0 0 0 0 C55 0
0

2492, 2001. 0 0

0 0 0 0 C66
[4] Reddy J. and Cheng Z. Three dimensional solutions in which;
of smart functionally graded plates, ASME Journal
0 E 0 (1-n 23n 32 )
of Applied Mechanics, Vol. 68, pp 234-241, 2001. C11 = 1 ,
D
E 0 (n +n n )
[5] Zhong Z. and Shang E. Three dimensional exact
0
analysis of a simply supported functionally gradient C12 = 1 21 31 23 ,
piezoelectric plate, International Journal of Solids D
& Structures, Vol. 40, pp. 5335-5352, 2003. 0 E (n +n n )
0
C13 = 1 31 21 32 ,
[6] Almajid A., Taya M., Hudnut S. Analysis of out-of- D
plane displacement and stress field in a 0 E (1-n 13n 31 )
0
C22 = 2 , (11)
piezocomposite plate with functionally graded D
microstructure, International Journal of Solids &
0 E 0 (n +n n )
Structures, Vol. 38, pp. 3377-3391, 2001. C23 = 2 32 12 31 ,
D
[7] Joshi S., Mukherjee A., Schmauder S. Exact
0 E (1-n12n 21 )
0
solutions for characterization of electro-elastically C33 = 3 ,
graded materials, Computational Materials Science, D
0 0
Vol. 28, pp. 548-555, 2003. C44 = G12 , C55 0
= G130
, C660 0
= G23
[8] Taya M., Almajid A., Dunn M., Takahashi S. D = (1 -n12n 21 -n 23n 32 -n 31n13 - 2n12n 23n 31 )
Design of bimorph piezo-composite actuators with
functionally graded microstructure, Sensors & The piezoelectric constant matrix [12] and
Actuators A, Vol. 107, pp. 248-260, 2004. dielectric constant matrix [13] for transversely polarized
orthorhombic piezoelectric material are;
[9] Kant T., Pendhari S., Desai Y. On Accurate Stress
Analysis of Composite and Sandwich Narrow
Beams, International Journal for Computational 0 0 0
e31
0
Methods in Engineering Science and Mechanics, 0 0 e32 g11
0
0 0
0 0
[ ]
Vol. 8(165), pp. 165-177, 2007. 0 e33
[10] Tiersten H. F. Linear piezoelectric plate vibrations,
[e] = ; g S = 0 0
g 22 0 (12)
0 0 0 0 0
e 0 0 g 33
0
Plenum Press New York, 1969.
15 0
[11] Maxwell J. C. A dynamical theory of the 0 e24
0
0
electromagnetic field, Royal Society Transactions,
Vol. 155, pp. 459-512, 1865.
[12] Cady W. G. Piezoelectricity Volumes I & II Dover
Publications, New York, 1946.
493
(a) 1 (b) 1 z
z
0.9 0.9
0.8 0.8
0.7 0.7
Exact Exact
0.6 b = -1 b = -1 0.6
b = -0.5 b = -0.5
0.5 b=0 b=0 0.5
0.4 r b = 0.5 r b = 0.5 0.4
b=1 b=1
0.3 PT PT 0.3
0.2 0.2
0.1 0.1
u10-11 w10-13
0 0
-4 -2 0 2 4 6 -4 -3.5 -3 -2.5 -2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0
(c) 1 z (d) 1
z
0.9 0.9
0.8 0.8
0.7 0.7
Exact 0.6 0.6
b = -1
b = -0.5 0.5 0.5
b=0
r b = 0.5 0.4 0.4
b=1 0.3 0.3
PT
0.2 0.2
0.1 0.1
sz txz
0 0
-0.6 -0.5 -0.4 -0.3 -0.2 -0.1 -1E-15 -1.4 -1.2 -1 -0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0
(e) 1 1 z (f)
z
0.9 0.9
0.8 0.8
Exact Exact
0.7 0.7
b = -1 b = -1
b = -0.5 0.6 b = -0.5 0.6
b=0 b=0
r b = 0.5 0.5 r b = 0.5 0.5
b=1 b=1

0.4 0.4
PT PT
0.3 0.3
0.2 0.2
0.1 0.1
f10-3 Dz10-10
0 0
-10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 -10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4
Figure 2: Through-thickness variation in an all-round simply supported FGPM sensory plate at

(0.25a, 0.25b) in (a) In-plane displacement, (b) Transverse displacement, (c) Transverse normal stress
(d) Transverse shear stress, (e) Induced electric potential, (f) Transverse electric displacement.
494
(a) z (b)
1 z 1
0.9 0.9
0.8 0.8
Exact Exact
b = -1 0.7 b = -1 0.7
b = -0.5 b = -0.5
0.6 0.6
b=0 b=0
r b = 0.5 0.5 r b = 0.5 0.5
b=1 b=1
PT 0.4 PT 0.4
0.3 0.3
0.2 0.2
0.1 0.1
u10-10 w10-13
0 0
-2.5 -2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 -10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4
1 z 1 z
(c) (d)
0.9 0.9
Exact
0.8 0.8 b = -1
b = -0.5
0.7 0.7 b=0
0.6 Exact 0.6 r b = 0.5
b = -1 b=1
0.5 b = -0.5 0.5 PT
b=0
0.4 r b = 0.5 0.4
0.3 b=1 0.3
PT
0.2 0.2
0.1 0.1
sz txz
0 0
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4
1 (e) (f) 1 z
z
0.9 0.9
0.8 0.8
0.7 0.7
Exact Exact
0.6 b = -1 b = -1 0.6
b = -0.5 b = -0.5
0.5 b=0 0.5
b=0
0.4 r b = 0.5 r b = 0.5 0.4
b=1 b=1
0.3 PT PT 0.3
0.2 0.2
0.1 0.1
f Dz10-9
0 0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 -18 -16 -14 -12 -10 -8 -6 -4 -2
Figure 3: Through-thickness variation in an all-round simply supported FGPM actuating plate at

(0.25a, 0.25b) in (a) In-plane displacement, (b) Transverse displacement, (c) Transverse normal stress
(d) Transverse shear stress, (e) Applied electric potential, (f) Transverse electric displacement.
495
UNCERTAINTY ANALYSIS OF HYGRO-THERMO-MECHANICAL

BEHAVIOUR OF CONCRETE
V. Svetha1, D. Harinadha Reddy2, Ananth Ramaswamy3
1,2,3
The work evaluates the uncertainty associated with the material properties that affects the response of
reinforced concrete members subjected to fire. The study includes identification and modelling of
uncertain parameters, a stochastic analysis of the hygro-thermo-mechanical response and interpretation of
the results. The probabilistic treatment of the thermal problem provides a better understanding of the
factors influencing the structural fire response of concrete. As a step towards performance based design, it
provides the necessary data required to evaluate the risk associated with these problems.
Keywords: Concrete, fire, hygro-thermo-mechanical, spalling, uncertainty, Monte Carlo
1 Introduction behaviour with fire. The hygro-thermo-mechanical

model used for the study is founded on the one
Predicting the response of reinforced concrete (RC)
developed in [1,2,3] based on poromechanics. The
systems subjected to thermal loads is one of the major
model chosen is capable of handling normal concrete,
areas of research in the recent past. Most of the prior
high strength concrete and blended concretes through an
research focuses on a deterministic analysis and ignores
appropriate input of properties.
the uncertainty ingrained in such studies. Under the
With increasing focus on performance based design,
exposure of fire, RC members lose strength and
it is important to address the aspects of uncertainty. The
stiffness due to increased temperatures in reinforcing
properties of a material such as concrete are highly
steel and concrete. Concrete subjected to elevated
variable and a deterministic analysis does not depict a
temperatures exhibit the phenomenon of spalling. Being
real case scenario. The probabilistic framework is
a porous material, concrete consists of a solid skeleton,
demonstrated through the analysis of a simply supported
water in liquid and vapour phase and dry air. When such
RC beam subjected to mechanical and thermal load
a material is exposed to high temperatures various
given the uncertainties in material parameters. Monte
coupled processes including moisture and vapour
Carlo simulations embedded with a partially uncoupled
migration, evaporation of liquid water, dehydration of
finite element (FE) analysis is performed to predict the
cement paste, thermal expansion, material degradation
response of the beam to the combined loads. The
occurs that result in spalling on account of vapour
validity of the approach is determined by comparing the
pressure build up. The material properties of a specific
results obtained from the analysis with those obtained
concrete are often not unique and difficult to identify.
from corresponding experiments.
The challenge is thus two-fold. Firstly, a robust model is
required to account for the complex process that occurs
within concrete. Secondly, a probabilistic approach is 2 Hygro-thermo-mechanical Model
required to deal with the uncertainties that arise from
In the mathematical model adopted for the study,
the parameters in the model.
concrete is considered as a multi-phase material
Numerous models have been developed in the past
composed of solid, liquid and gaseous phases. The
to estimate the phenomena of hydration, adsorption-
liquid phase consists of capillary water (or free water)
desorption, evaporation-condensation and nonlinearities
present in pores when the moisture content exceeds the
due to the dependence of material properties on
solid saturation point and the adsorbed water which is
temperature. Some researchers have theorized spalling
physically bound to the solid skeleton. No distinction is
due to build-up of pore pressure and thermal spalling
made between the two forms of water. The model
[13,14]. The notable works amongst the development of
accounts for vapour and moisture migration using
numerical models include the model developed by
Darcys Law, temperature variation through Fouriers
Gawin, et al. [12] and Kodur, et al. [9]. However,
law and mechanical behaviour through the momentum
modelling techniques are still limited and very few 3D
balance equation. Explosive spalling that occurs due to
models are available that can capture the complex
increase in pore pressure is incorporated in the model.
physics. With the increased use of different kinds of
Calculation of mechanical strains, thermal strains and
concrete ranging from normal to high strength concrete
transient thermal creep strains are included in the
and various admixtures like fly ash and silica fumes,
analysis. The degradation of material properties with
there is a demand for models that can encompass their
1
Student, svethav@civil.iisc.ernet.in
2
Student, hari123reddy@gmail.com
3
Professor, ananth@civil.iisc.ernet.in
496
V. Svetha, et al.
high temperature is modelled [16]. The resulting tensile viscosity and pressure of phase of concrete. Water
stresses (mechanical and thermal) that exceed the tensile vapour is assumed to obey ideal gas law. The
strength of concrete leading to thermal spalling are equilibrium of liquid water and water vapour is assumed
captured in the model. The model rests on the following to be governed by the sorption isotherms [11]. The
assumptions. terms and bt in Eq. (3) refer to the total stress tensor
The gaseous phase is composed only of water and biots coefficient respectively. The differential
vapour. The presence of dry air is neglected due to equations are solved for the state variables pore pressure
its negligible contribution to the development of (pv), temperature (T) and displacement (u).
pore pressure [8]. The boundary conditions for the problem are
The velocity of the solid skeleton is much lower specified in terms of Dirichlet and Cauchys type
than that of other species like water and water conditions on the boundary .
vapour and thus neglected. Dirichlet boundary conditions:
The advective heat transport within the porous
medium is negligible compared to heat transfer by pv ( t ) = pv (t ) on ,
conduction.
Bond-slip between steel rebar and concrete is not T (t ) = T (t ) on ,
modelled implying that there is a perfect bond and
that the strain in concrete equals that of steel. u (t ) = u (t ) on .
Cracks that occur in the tensile zone may weaken
the bond resulting in slip. However, the average
Cauchys boundary conditions:
strain in the reinforcement and the concrete is
approximately equal over a length of cracked beam
( rwhw vw + rvhv vv + J v ).n = qw + qv + bc ( rv - rv ) on ,
segment [9].
(r v h + leff T ) .n = qT + hg (T - T ) + es 0 (T 4 - T4 ) on ,
w w v
2.1 Governing Equations
The model consists of three governing equations s .n = t on ,
(Eqs. (1) - (3)) which define mass balance of water and
water vapour, balance of energy and conservation of where, Jv is the mass flux of water vapour, n is the unit
linear momentum respectively [5,6,7,8]. normal vector, is the traction applied on the boundary,
v is the mass concentration of vapour in the
(h w r w + hv rv )
, (1) surrounding environment, T is the environment
+ . (h w r w v w + hv rv vv ) = - mdhydr
t temperature, e is the emissivity, 0 is the Stephen-
Boltzmann constant, hg is the convective heat transfer
T
, (2) coefficient, c is the mass exchange coefficient and qw,
( rC )
p eff t
+ ( r C p v ) .T - . ( leff T ) = - hv M v + hde mdhydr
qv and qT are the flux of water, water vapour and
temperature respectively.
. ( - bt pv I ) + r g = 0 , (3)
where, is the volume fraction of each phase ( = w, v 3 Stochastic Model

refers water, water vapour respectively), is the Probabilistic simulation of the fire-structure
density of each phase, v is the velocity of each phase, interaction is rather involved due to the high order of
mdhydr is the mass of dehydrated water, (Cp)eff is the dimensionality and multi-physical nature of the
effective volumetric heat capacity, hv is the enthalpy of problem. The scope of this study is restricted to evaluate
vaporization, hde is the enthalpy of dehydration per unit the response of RC structures subjected to uncertain
mass and eff is the effective thermal capacity of moist material parameters. The uncertainty arising from fire
concrete. The mass of vaporization term (M v) is given and mechanical loading and boundary conditions are not
by Eq. (4). considered in the present study. Correlation between the
uncertain parameters is included in the model. To aid
(hv rv )
+ . (hv rv vv ) = M v
, (4) sampling from a set of correlated non-Gaussian random
t
variables, the variables are transformed to a Gaussian
The transport of liquid water and water vapour is space with the use of Nataf transformation [18]. Monte
assumed to be governed by Darcys law. The velocity Carlo simulation technique was chosen due to its
component for each phase can be written as: versatility and to account for the propagation of
uncertainty from input parameters to response.
kkrq
nv = - pq , (5)
mq
where, k is the permeability of concrete, kr is the

relative permeability of phase , and p are the
497
4 Numerical Example Beam B1 in [4] was first modelled

deterministically to evaluate the response under
The methodology is applied to a simply supported
thermal and mechanical loading. Two point loads each
RC beam subjected to a combination of mechanical
50 kN were applied at a distance of about 1.4m from
and thermal loading. The variability present in the
the ends of the beam. A standard ASTM E119 fire load
material parameters is considered in the analysis of the
was applied to the longitudinal faces of the beam
beam through appropriate probabilistic models and
except the top face. The beam deflections were
parameters. For this study, the experimental work
measured for a fire exposure time of 3 hrs. The
conducted by Dwaikat and Kodur in [4] is used as the
geometry and reinforcement details are shown in Fig.1.
basis for validation.
The material properties of concrete and steel used in
the deterministic analysis of the beam are tabulated in
4.1 Deterministic Analysis Table 1. The initial values of the state variables and
boundary conditions are given in Tables 2,3.
Figure 1: Geometry and reinforcement details of beam B1 [4]
Table 1: Properties of concrete and steel Table 2: Initial Conditions

Parameter Symbol Unit Value Variable Value
Concrete pv 3334.9 [Pa]
Porosity n [%] 12 293.15 [K]
T
Water-cement ratio w/c [1] 0.4 u 0
Initial water content wc [kg/m3] 74.7
Aggregate-cement ratio ac [1] 4.78 Table 3: Boundary Conditions for RC beam
Permeability k [m2] 1E-17
Side Variable Value
Density 0 [kg/m3] 2178
pv c = 0.009 [m/s]
Thermal Conductivity eff [W/mK] 1.7 Non-heating
T = 293.15 [K] and hg =
Specific Heat (Cp)eff [J/kgK] 1020 side T
9 [Wm-2K]
Elastic Modulus Ec [GPa] 26.25
pv c = 0.019 [m/s]
Poissons ratio [1] 0.20
Heating side T = Tex [K] and hg = 25
Compressive Strength fc [MPa] 52.2 T
[Wm-2K]
Tensile Strength ft [MPa] 3.5
Tex ASTM E119 fire curve
Steel
Elastic Modulus Es [GPa] 200
Yield Stress fs [MPa] 420 4.2 Uncertainty Analysis
When deciding whether a parameter is to be
The hygro-thermal problem was implemented in
treated as uncertain or not, the variability of the
COMSOL using weak form PDEs and heat transfer
parameter was taken into consideration. For instance,
module. In the heat transfer analysis, the exposed faces
the material properties of steel have negligible
were heated by convection and radiation. The
variability compared to those of concrete. Hence, the
mechanical analysis is carried out with the help of
properties of steel were treated as deterministic in the
structural mechanics module. The temperature
following analysis. Table 4 gives the list of parameters
dependence of material parameters such as elastic
chosen for the uncertainty analysis along with their
modulus of concrete and steel (Ec and Es), compressive
stochastic distribution and properties used for the
and tensile strength of concrete (fc and ft), porosity (n)
simulations [19]. A lognormal distribution is
and permeability (k) is modelled. A time dependent
considered for permeability, porosity, thermal
analysis with a constant time step of 1s was used for
conductivity and coefficient of thermal expansion
computations. Newton Raphson method is used to
based on their relation with the strength parameters.
solve the equations iteratively. After every iteration,
the jacobian matrix is updated to achieve convergence.
498
V. Svetha, et al.
Table 4: Uncertain Parameters and Properties variables to a set of correlated Gaussian variables. A
Parameter Mean COV Distribution sample size of 1000 was used for the analysis as
Youngs Modulus of 26.25 convergence was achieved. MATLAB coupled with
0.15 Lognormal COMSOL was used to perform Monte Carlo
concrete (Ec) [GPa]
Compressive simulations. The deflection-time curves are obtained
52.6 from the FE analysis performed using COMSOL.
Strength of Concrete 0.06 Lognormal
[MPa]
(fc)
Tensile Strength of 3.5 Table 5: Correlation Matrix
0.3 Lognormal Ec fc ft k n eff c
Concrete (ft) [MPa]
1E-17 Ec 1 0.5 0.5 -0.5 -0.5 0.4 -0.4
Permeability (k) 0.1 Lognormal 0.5 1 0.5 -0.5 -0.5 0.4 -0.4
[m2/s] fc
Porosity (n) 12 [%] 0.1 Lognormal ft 0.5 0.5 1 -0.5 -0.5 0.4 -0.4
Thermal k -0.5 -0.5 -0.5 1 0.6 -0.4 0.4
1.7 n -0.5 -0.5 -0.5 0.6 1 -0.4 0.4
Conductivity of 0.1 Lognormal
[W/mK] eff 0.4 0.4 0.4 -0.4 -0.4 1 -0.4
Concrete (eff)
Thermal Expansion 1E-6 c -0.4 -0.4 -0.4 0.4 0.4 -0.4 1
0.1 Lognormal
of Concrete (c) [1/K]
The mean deflection from Monte Carlo simulations is
The assumed correlation matrix [19,22] is as evaluated as:
shown in Table 5 is applicable to normal and high
1000
strength concretes. The correlation matrix will have to
be altered for concretes blended with admixtures like Mean Deflection =
i =1
Di
. (6)
silica fume and fly ash. Suitable correlation values that
1000
depict the decrease of thermal conductivity with an where, Di is the mid-span deflection in the ith iteration.
increase in these admixtures should be used [21]. From the simulated cumulative distribution function
Random variables considered for the uncertainty for deflection, the upper (wu) and lower (wl) confidence
analysis are not completely specified. Knowledge is bounds are estimated using Eq. (7).
limited to marginal probability density functions (pdfs)
and covariance matrix. Nataf transformation is used to
P ( wl Di wu ) = 0.95;1 i 1000 . (7)
transform the set of correlated non-Gaussian random
Figure 2: Comparison of the experimental results with that of numerical simulations for the mid-span deflection of B1
beam
499
4.3 Results [3] Harinadha Reddy, D., Time dependent deformations

and high temperature effects on different types of
Based on the assumed distributions for the material
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Ph.D. thesis submitted to Department of Civil
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Engineering, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore,
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501
PREDICTION OF COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF CONCRETE:

MACHINE LEARNING APPROACHES
Dipro Dutta1, Sudhirkumar V Barai2
1
Civil Engineering, Manipal Institute of Technology, Manipal, 576104, India
2
Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur, Kharagpur 721302, India
Abrams law is commonly used to predict the compressive strength of concrete with respect to the water
content of the mix, but it is largely inaccurate. High-performance concrete, with its complex additional
ingredients, make the prediction more difficult. The goal of the paper is to find the most accurate model for
prediction of the compressive strength of a given concrete mix using machine learning (ML). First, the
various ML models are explained along with their working principles. Second, the evaluation methods used
for the error analysis in the study are discussed. Third, the findings of the study are displayed and inferences
are drawn from them. It is found that the 2-nearest-neighbour performs the best with an error of 8.5% and
a standard deviation of 1.55
Keywords: Machine Learning, Prediction, Strength of Concrete
1 Introduction connections. Back-propagation algorithms are popularly

used to solve problems of ANN. Back-propagation
The compressive strength is the most important
minimises the error using a gradient-descent method.
property of a concrete mix. Abrams law of 1919 gives
Yeh [5] compared regression and ANN for predicting
an inverse proportionality between the compressive
compressive strength of the concrete. He found that the
strength of hardened concrete and the water-to-cement
ANN model performs better than regression.
ratio (w/c) used in the concrete mix measured by volume
There is a need to search and develop better machine
[1]. It hence implies that the strengths of distinct but
learning models apart from well reported ANN Models.
comparable concrete are identical as long as their w/c
This study explores ANN further, along with another
ratios remain the same, regardless of the details of their
model of ML called the Instance-Based Learning (IBL)
composition. The law is acceptable within wide limits,
or k-nearest neighbours (k-NN).
but is not completely accurate [2]. Abrams assumed that
In the present study, the main objective is to compare
the concrete is completely compacted. For this, the air
the machine learning models ANN and IBL for
gaps present between the cement and the dry particles of
predicting compressive strength of the concrete. ANN
the aggregates need to be removed completely after the
based two back propagation algorithms. Further, this
addition of water to the concrete mix. However, in
study tests the IBL model for integral values of k ranging
practice, fully compacted concrete still contains 1% of air
from 1 to 6.
gaps [3].
Along with the basic components of conventional
2 Background of Tools Used
concrete (Portland cement, fine and coarse aggregates,
and water), HPC incorporates supplementary Machine learning (ML), a subset of artificial
cementitious ingredients like fly ash, silica fume, blast intelligence, has evolved from the study of pattern
furnace slag, and usually a chemical admixture, such as recognition. Two ML subfields have been studied. Yeh
superplasticizer. These additional ingredients make HPC [5] compared regression and ANN for predicting
a complex conglomerate and predicting its strength compressive strength of the concrete. He found that the
becomes difficult. ANN model performs better than regression.
Compressive strength can also be predicted using Instance-based learning (IBL) is a learning method
regression analyses and several methods which can be which compares new problem instances with the
collectively classified as machine learning (ML). One of instances that the program has been trained. Its k nearest
the popular machine learning approaches is Artificial training examples (k - nearest neighbours or k-NN) are
Neural Networks (ANN). The ANN model is inspired by utilised to deliver the output and the value is determined
the biological neural network. It utilises several as the mean of the output values of its k nearest
computing elements to parallel process the input data. neighbours.
These elements, called artificial neurons, are arranged in
layers and interact with each other via weighted
1
Mr., diprodutta96@gmail.com
2
Dr., skbarai@civil.iitkgp.ernet.in
502
Dipro Dutta and Sudhirkumar V Barai
The contribution of the neighbours have weights 7. Fine aggregate (kg/m3)

assigned to them. This allows the output to be more 8. Age at the time of testing (days)
similar to the nearer neighbours than the distant ones.
Artificial neural networks (ANN) is learning The set includes data from several sources. This
method used to solve problems requiring nonlinear and verifies the reliability of the data [2]. Only, the 28-day
parallel processing through a mesh of simple computing samples have been taken for the study. The summary of
elements called artificial neurons. Each neuron can have the 425 samples is shown in Table 1.
R inputs (x) and each input is weighted (w). There is a The data set was randomised before each iteration.
bias with a constant input of 1. The sum of the weighted 43 samples (10%) were kept aside for testing, while the
inputs and the bias passes through the transfer function remaining was used for training the algorithm. The same
(f) and generates an output (a). sets of randomised data were utilised to conduct the
) experiment across the three algorithms to ensure a perfect
! = " #$ + % &' (' , comparison between the three.
*
Backpropagation algorithm, commonly used in 4 Model Development
ANN, minimises the error by the gradient-descent 4.1 Instance-Based Learning
method. The neurons are arranged in two or more layers
and interact with each other via weighted connections. The weighting scheme used in the analysis gave each
The first layer is an input layer where the data are fed into neighbour a weight, which was the inverse of the
the network, and the last layer is an output layer which Euclidean distance between the simulation point and the
contains the response of the network to the given input. neighbour. The analysis was run for 1-NN through 6-NN
The intermediate layers (hidden layers) facilitate the models. The average of the absolute error in the
interactions between the elements of the network. The prediction of the output had been calculated and a graph
learning process goes through several iterations (epochs) of predicted versus expected values of the output was
where the weights are modified till the network can generated.
properly associate between the inputs and their respective
outputs. Once trained, the network can rapidly simulate 4.2 Artificial Neural Network
the desired output to a given input of similar nature. The feed forward neural network is trained using 7
Backpropagation further involves several algorithms inputs in the input layer and 1 output in the output layer.
such as the LevenbergMarquardt algorithm (LM) and a Training is the process of presenting testing data to the
variable-learning-rate-with-momentum gradient-descent network and have it modify its weights to accurately
algorithm (GDX). produce the strength when presented with the mix
LM is an iterative technique that locates the proportions. The performance function in the networks is
minimum of a function as the sum of squares of nonlinear mean squared normalised error (MSE). The parameters
functions. It is used to solve nonlinear least-squares for the training of the network are:
problems [4].
In the standard steepest descent algorithm, the
training rate is a constant value. An optimum learning For LM,
rate is important for the algorithms performance. A high No. of hidden layers = 1
rate makes the algorithm oscillate unstably, whereas a No. of hidden units = 7
low rate makes the algorithm take too long to converge. Initial momentum (mu) = 0.001
In fact, the ideal rate keeps changing during the training mu increase factor = 0.1
of the network. The algorithm performs better if the mu decrease factor = 10
learning rate is allowed to change during training. GDX Max. validation failures = 6
implements a momentum factor to determine the varying Max. epochs to train = 1000
rate.
For GDX,
3 Data Collection & Analysis No. of hidden layers = 1
No. of hidden units = 7
The data was collected from the machine learning Learning rate (lr) = 0.01
repository of the University of California, Irvine [5]. It Ratio to increase lr = 1.05
provided 1030 samples. The output variable is the Ratio to decrease lr = 0.7
compressive concrete strength (MPa) which depends on Momentum constant (mc) = 0.9
8 input variables:
mu increase factor = 0.1
1. Cement (kg/m3)
mu decrease factor = 10
2. Fly ash (kg/m3)
Max. validation failures = 6
3. Blast furnace slag (kg/m3)
4. Water (kg/m3) Max. epochs to train = 1000
5. Superplasticizer (kg/m3)
6. Coarse aggregate (kg/m3)
503
5 Model Performance
For LM,
The absolute error percentage (AEP) was calculated
for each testing data point and subsequently, the mean of
Mean = 15.18%
that was calculated (MAEP). The MAEP thus produced
S.D. = 2.36
by each algorithm (IBL, LM, and GDX) was statistically
Minimum = 11.39%
analysed using hold-out and cross-validation. These give
Maximum = 18.67%
an estimate of the accuracy of the performance of the
1st Quartile = 13.80%
models in a practical setting [6].
Median = 15.54%
In hold-out (HO), the data was divided randomly
3rd Quartile = 16.78%
into training and testing sets consisting of 90% and 10%
of the entire data. The errors in the output of the testing
For GDX,
set were used for the analysis. 10 iterations of each k-NN,
LM, and GDX were evaluated using HO.
Mean = 20.18%
Cross-validation (CV) is preferred for prediction
S.D. = 6.93
models [6]. In k-fold cross-validation, the data set is
Minimum = 12.89%
equally split into k subsets. Each of which is used as the
Maximum = 38.39%
test set while the others (k-1) are used together as the
training set. The average error of the k trials is calculated.
Median = 18.62%
A 10-fold cross-validation has been used for the analysis.
6 Results
Tables 5 and 6 show the evaluation of the 10-fold
6.1 Instance-Based Learning analysis of the 5th experiment of neural network method
using LM and GDX respectively. Their summaries are as
1-NN through 6-NN models were run and the
follows:
experiment was iterated 10 times and analysed. Table 2
shows the results of the hold-out experiments. The 2-NN For LM,
model has shown the best performance and its summary
is as follows:
Mean = 14.2%
S.D. = 1.2
Mean = 8.5%
Minimum = 12.83%
S.D. = 1.55 Maximum = 16.33%
Minimum = 5.81% 1st Quartile = 13.1%
Maximum =10.87%
Median = 14.08%
1st Quartile =7.60%
Median =8.25%
3rd Quartile =10.08%
For GDX,
The 10-fold cross-validation analysis on the k-NN
model too shows that the 2-NN algorithm performs the
Mean = 19.45%
best. Table 3 shows evaluation of the analysis, and its
S.D. = 4.19
summary is presented as follows:
Minimum = 14.52%
Maximum = 30.29%
Mean = 9.32% 1st Quartile = 17.42%
S.D. = 0.78
Median = 18.62%
Minimum = 8.52%
Maximum = 11.49%
Scatter plotted graphs of the expected values vs the
Median = 9.17% predicted values of the 7th experiment of LM and GDX
3rd Quartile =9.33% using hold-out are shown in Figs. 2, 3 respectively.
A scatter plotted graph of the expected values vs the
predicted values of the 5th experiment of 2-NN using
hold-out is shown in fig. 1.
6.2 Artificial Neural Networks

A hold-out analysis was performed on the artificial
neural network models. Table 4 shows the AEPs and
MAEP as calculated from the LM and GDX algorithm.
The summary of the findings are as follows:
504
Table 1: Features summary of the data set Table 4: Arithmetic mean and standard deviation of
1st 3rd ANN models using hold-out
Min Median Mean Max
Quart Quart LM GDX
Cement 102 160.1 260.5 265.4 322.2 540
MAEP 15.18 20.18
Slag 0 0 94.3 86.3 160.1 359.4
SD 2.36 6.93
Ash 0 0 59.5 62.8 120.0 200.1
Water 121.7 171 185 183.1 193.2 247
S.P. 0 0 7.8 7.0 10.3 32.2
Table 5: Arithmetic Mean and Standard Deviation
C.A. 801 882.2 953 956.1 1012.4 1145 for the absolute error percentage in the Cross-
F.A. 594 712 769.2 764.4 810.9 992.6 Validation of the LM algorithm
MAEP SD
E1 9.26 1.53
E2 9.02 2.15
E3 8.98 2.17
Table 2: Arithmetic mean and standard deviation for E4 8.52 1.39
the absolute error percentage in the hold-out analysis E5 9.35 1.76
of the k-NN model
E6 8.65 1.68
MAEP SD
E7 9.25 3
NN 1 9.24 2.56
E8 9.08 1.56
NN 2 8.50 1.55
E9 9.62 1.54
NN 3 9.00 1.72
E 10 11.49 3.03
NN 4 8.99 1.78
NN 5 8.77 1.82
NN 6 8.71 1.79
Table 6: Arithmetic Mean and Standard Deviation

for the absolute error percentage in the Cross-
Validation of the GDX algorithm
Table 3:Arithmetic mean and standard deviation for
MAEP SD
the absolute error percentage in the cross-validation
of the 2-NN model E1 29.86 13.02
MAEP SD E2 27.82 14.00
E1 9.26 1.53 E3 21.43 7.37
E2 9.02 2.15 E4 23.04 11.29
E3 8.98 2.17 E5 25.49 11.82
E4 8.52 1.39 E6 21.61 7.17
E5 9.35 1.76 E7 19.77 5.63
E6 8.65 1.68 E8 23.66 8.00
E7 9.25 3.00 E9 24.71 6.75
E8 9.08 1.56 E 10 19.85 4.71
E9 9.62 1.54
E 10 11.49 3.03
505
Figure 3: Scatter plot of expected vs predicted values

for Exp. 7 of hold-out for GDX
Figure 1: Scatter plot of expected vs predicted values
for Exp. 5 of hold-out for 2-NN
Figure 4: Comparison of the MAEPs and SDs of the 3

algorithms
7 Comparative Study
The analysis shows that the ML algorithms can
predict the compressive strength of 28-day hardened
concrete with varying accuracy. A comparison of the data
Figure 2: Scatter plot of expected vs predicted values in Tables 2 and 4 is shown in Fig. 4.
for Exp. 7 of hold-out for LM Fig. 4 shows that IBL performs considerably better
than either of the neural network algorithms. It follows
that the 2-NN model performs slightly better than the
other k-NN models with an MAEP of 8.50%. The 2-NN
model also has the lowest SD at 1.55.
The variable-learning-rate-with-momentum
gradient-descent algorithm (GDX) has a very high
performance error at 20.18%. The standard deviation of
6.93 indicates that it may not be dependable to produce
consistent results.
The Levenberg-Marquardt algorithm (LM) performs
better than GDX and other gradient descent algorithms.
It has an error of 15.18% and a standard deviation of 2.36.
506
8 Conclusions
HPC is a complex material and that makes the
modelling and predicting its behaviour difficult. The
study was an attempt to demonstrate the possibilities of
using machine learning to predict the compressive
strength of concrete. The initialisation values were not
optimised and hence there is a scope for further study of
the ANN models. Optimising the initial weights and
constants may give better results.
It must be noted that none of the explored methods
is applicable to extrapolation. Hence, the minimum and
maximum of the training set must be selected carefully.
Also, more training instances will produce more accurate
predictions. Hence, larger training data sets should be
utilised for modelling.
Based on the comparison of the models, the following

can be concluded:
Instance-Based Learning (IBL) is a preferred choice

for the prediction of the compressive strength with
the 7 parameters.
The neural network models are comparatively easier
to train and hence easier to simulate the predictions,
but their performance is relatively poor.
The Levenberg-Marquardt (LM) algorithm can be
used for approximations where the tolerance for
error is high (preferably above 15%).
It is advisable to not use the variable-learning-rate-
with-momentum gradient-descent algorithm (GDX)
for the prediction.
References
[1] Kleiger, Paul., Significance of Tests and
Properties of Concrete and Concrete-making
Materials., Issue 169, Part 3. ASTM, (1994).
[2] I-Cheng Yeh., Modeling of strength of high
performance concrete using artificial neural
networks, Cement and Concrete Research, Vol.
28, No. 12, pp. 1797-1808 (1998).
[3] M.S.J. Gani., Cement and Concrete, Chapman
& Hall, (1997).
[4] Lourakis, Manolis I. A., A Brief Description of
the Levenberg-Marquardt Algorithm
Implemented by levmar, (2005):6.
[5] Yeh, I.C., UCI Machine Learning Repository:
Data Set. University of California Irvine, (03
Aug. 2007).
[6] Reich, Y. and Barai, S.V., Evaluating machine
learning models for engineering problems,
Artificial Intelligence Engineering 13 (1999).
507
NUMERICAL STUDY OF THE EFFECT OF BOUNDARY CONDITIONS ON

BUCKLING BEHAVIOUR OF FLAT OVAL LDSS STUB COLUMN UNDER
AXIAL COMPRESSION
KHWAIRAKPAM SACHIDANANDA1, KONJENGBAM DARUNKUMAR SINGH2
1
Dept. of Civil Engineering, National Institute of Technology Manipur, India
2
Dept. of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati, India
ABSTRACT
This paper presents the effects of two support boundary conditions viz., simply mounted and fixed on
the buckling capacity of flat oval LDSS (Lean Duplex Stainless Steel) stub columns of two thicknesses
(t = 20 mm and 5 mm, corresponding to Class 3 and 4 sections respectively) under pure axial
compression, analysed using Abaqus. It is observed that the ultimate load (Pu) capacity of both the
boundary conditions (BCs) are similar for the Class 3 section, whereas simply mounted specimen
showed lower value of Pu as compared to the fixed support boundary condition, for the Class 4 section
considered. Further, in contrast to the Class 3 section, the Class 4 section with fixed BCs showed
formation of elephant foot near the end of column with denting located at the quarter height of column,
while the simply mounted column showed mid height denting only.
Keywords: Stub; Flat oval; LDSS; Simply mounted; Fixed.
Introduction and numerical studies are reported by Park and Yu

(1989), Zhu and Young (2011, 2012), Sachidananda
Tubular steel sections are popular choices in the and Singh (2015), considering mainly fixed ended stub
construction industry as they provide relatively higher columns. Liang (2015) describe the importance of
moment of inertia and torsion capacity than those of open boundary conditions (i.e, simply supported steel plates
sections. In the recent years, several new sections such as and free plates) in determining the strength of steel
elliptical, oval, flat-oval etc. have become available (or plate columns. From the literature review, it is found
proposed) in the steel market, due to their enhanced that the effects of such support boundary effects on the
aesthetics. As they are relatively new, many researchers behaviour of stub flat oval columns have not been
(e.g. Chan and Gardner, 2008; Theofanous et al., 2009; reported. Hence an attempt has been made in this
Zhu and Young, 2012) have devoted their attention to study, to assess the effects of both simply mounted and
study their structural performances. In the experimental fixed boundary conditions on the buckling capacity of
studies reported, three types of support boundary flat oval LDSS (Lean Duplex Stainless Steel) stub
conditions (BCs) viz., fixed, hinged or simply mounted columns under pure axial compression. LDSS such as
(the specimen being simply placed between steel platens) grade EN 1.4162 belongs to the family duplex stainless
were used while assessing the tubular column strength. steel and provides attractive benefits e.g. lower initial
The importance of end boundary conditions on cylindrical cost (due to lower nickel content ~1.5% as compared
panels, ellipse/oval section under axial load has been to austenitic stainless steel), enhanced strength, high
studied by different researchers [Theofanous et al., 2009; temperature performance, weldability and fracture
Shariati et al., 2011]. Theofanous et al., 2009 showed the toughness properties etc. (e.g. Theofanous and
inaccuracy of the FE models with fixed end columns for Gardner, 2010). In this work, two thicknesses viz., t =
the experiments conducted on oval section with both of its 20 and 5 mm are considered to represent Class 3 and
end simply mounted on flat plate compression testing Class 4 sections, as per EN 1993-1-4 (2006) for the
machine. Shariati et al., 2011 reported the increased of analysis of flat oval column.
load carrying capacity for clamped/fixed section as
compared to section under simply supported. Simply Finite element modelling
mounted or fixed BCs are generally adopted for stub
column tests, due to their easier support preparation. In the FE modelling of the flat oval stub column has been
literature, for the case of flat-oval sections, experimental conducted with the FE software, Abaqus (2009). Typi-
-cal geometrical dimensions considered are l = 300 mm, w
= 300 mm, r = 150 mm, h = 900 mm, and t = 5 (Class 4)
and 20 mm (Class 3) respectively as shown in Table 1,
1
Lecturer, khwairakpam@iitg.ernet.in
2
Associate Professor, darun@iitg.ernet.in 508
Sachidananda. K and Darunkumar Singh. K
where l, w, r, t, h represent flat length of cross-section, Reference point (RP2)

width between flat plates, curvature radius of curve
portion, thickness and height of column. Schematic
r
diagram of the flat oval section is presented in Figure 1.
The stub column has been meshed using 4-noded element,
S4R element with 6 degree of freedom per node (available
in Abaqus, 2009) as reported in the literature for such
work (e.g. Zhu and Young, 2012). The boundary
conditions of the columns were applied through Reference h
point (RP-1 and RP-2) by constraining the end nodes of
the column through kinematic coupling (Abaqus, 2009) as
shown in Figure 2. S4R elements
In the FE model, simply mounted and fixed BCs are
accomplished by constraining the rotation and axial
displacement degree of freedom for the simply mounted
support (i.e. U10, U20, U3=0; UR1=UR2=UR3=0) ;
and constraining both rotation and vertical displacement
(U1=U2=U3=0; UR1=UR2=UR3=0) at the fixed support
respectively (e.g. Theofanous et al., 2009) as shown in
Figure 3. At the loaded end also, corresponding similar
l
boundary conditions have been applied, except that
Reference point (RP1)
vertical translation is allowed (i.e. U30). Typical mesh
size of 10 mm x 10 mm with the aspect ratio of 1 was
taken for the analysis, based on mesh convergence study.
Following previous work (e.g. Theofanous and Gardner, Figure 2: Typical FE meshing with boundary
2009), non-linear buckling analyses have been performed, condition.
considering a local imperfection magnitude of t/100. The
material properties for the LDSS are taken as Youngs
modulus (E) = 197200 MPa, yield stress (0.2 = 657 MPa)
from the experimental study of Theofanous and Gardner U10, U20, U30 U1=U2=0, U30
(2009) as shown in Table 2. Before proceeding with the
FE study, the FE modelling procedure was validated by UR1=UR2=UR3=0 UR1=UR2=UR3=0
comparing the present FE result with that of an
experimental result from Theofanous and Gardner (2009)
in the form of load (P) vs axial displacement (), as
shown in Figure 4. From Figure 4, it can be seen that the (a) (b)
FE analysis is able to predict the experimental result with
reasonable accuracy, hence the FE procedure followed
herein can be considered as acceptable. The von-Mises
stress superimposed on deformed shape for the
experimental and FE results in Figure 5 shows the
accuracy of the FE modelling as it shows similar stressing
and deformation.
l = 300 mm
U10, U20, U3=0 U1=U2=U3=0

w = 300 mm
r = 150 mm
UR1=UR2=UR3=0 UR1=UR2=UR3=0
Figure 3: Typical FE (a) Simply mounted support,

Figure 1: Flat oval hollow section. (b) Fixed support.
509
Ultimate load (Pu) Table 2: Compressive flat material properties

(Theofanous and Gardner, 2009).
1000
900
Cross- E 0.2 1.0 R-O
800 section (MPa) (MPa) (MPa) coefficients
700 n n'0.2,1.0
600 80x80x
197200 657 770 4.7 2.6
P (kN)
500 4-SC2
400 Exp (80x80x4-SC2 )
300 Theofanous and Gardner (2009) 4000
200 FE-(80x80x4-SC2) 1
u (a) 3500
100 2
0 3000 4
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
2500 3
P (kN)
5
(mm) 2000
1500
Figure 4: SHC 80x80x4-SC2 6
1000
500 FE (BC-Fixed)
FE (BC-Simply mounted)
0
0 10 20
Axial displacement, (mm)
ii) P vs for l300w300r150t5 (Class 4)
(b)
Experimental FE
Figure 5: Von-Mises stress superimposed on deformed

Pu (Stage 1)
shape for stub LDSS column (Theofanous and Gardner,
2009). (c) (d)
Table 1: Stub column dimensions

(Theofanous and Gardner, 2009).
L B H t ri
Specimen
(mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm)
80x80x4
332.2 80 80 3.81 3.6
-SC2
P (stage 2) P (stage 3)
L = Length, B = Width, H = Depth, t = thickness, ri =
internal corner radius iii) Fixed support (l300w300r150t5)
510
(e)
(b)
Pu (stage 4)
Pu(stage 1)
(f) (g) (c) (d)
iii) Simply mounted (l300w300r150t5) P (stage 2) P (stage 3)

ii) Fixed Support (l300w300r150t20)
Figure 6: i) l300w300r150t5 (Class 4) (a) P vs ; von- (e)
Mises superimposed on deformed shape for (ii) fixed
support (b,c.d) and (iii) Simply mounted (e,f,g).
1
(a) 25000
4 2
3 Pu (stage 4)
20000 5 (f)
(g)
15000
P (kN)
6
10000
FE (BC-fixed)
5000
FE (BC-Simply mounted)
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Axial displacement, (mm)
i) P vs for l300w300r150t20 (Class 3) iii) Simply mounted (l300w300r150t20)
Figure 7: i) l300w300r150t20 (Class 3) (a) P vs ;
von-Mises superimposed on deformed shape for (ii)
fixed support (b,c,d) and (iii) Simply mounted (e,f,g).
511
Results and discussion -ly mounted column for t = 5 mm (Class 4

section).
The performance of flat oval column under different
boundary conditions of fixed ended and simply mounted 3) The load carrying capacity of post Pu is more in
have been presented in the form of load (P) vs case of fixed condition as compared to simply
displacement () in Figures 6(a) and 7(a) for different supported boundary condition, where the column
thicknesses of t = 5 (Class 4) and t = 20 mm (Class 3) failed suddenly once it reached the Pu.
sections. For different boundary conditions of column,
von-Mises stress contour superimposed on different stages 4) The columns buckle in mid height for the case of
of deformed shapes are also shown in Figures 6 and 7 simply supported column while the fixed ended
(Note that the contour intervals are kept same so that column shows the local buckling in quarter
comparison can be made easily; also the grey colours height of column at t = 5 mm (Class 4 section).
indicate the region that has crossed the yield stress). It can
be seen from Figures 6 and 7 that, the load carrying 5) For thicker section (t = 20 mm, Class 3 section),
capacity of column increases up to Pu, after which the load there is no formation of elephant footing on the
capacity decreases in post-Pu, irrespective of the boundary column.
condition (BC) of column. Further, a sudden drop in the
post-Pu profile is seen after a short post-Pu axial References
displacement, for the simply mounted boundary condition.
For the Class 4 section, a distinct drop in Pu can be [1] ABAQUS. Version 6.9-EF1 HibbittKarlsson
observed for the simply mounted BC (Figure 6). A and Sorensen Inc USA, 2009.
comparison of the von-Mises stress contour plot shows
that local buckling is seen at two location on the flat
[2] Chan, T.M. and Gardner, L., Compressive
element, with the formation of elephant foot at the ends
resistance of hot-rolled elliptical hollow
(or near the support and loading BCs), when the supports
sections.Engineering Structures, Vol, 30, pp.
are fixed (see inset figure c of Figure 6); however, when
522-532,
the supports are simply mounted, local buckling at the
2008.
mid-height of the column is seen, with no significant
formation of elephant foot (see inset figure f of Figure 6).
[3] EN 1993-1-4.Design of steel structures.
On the other hand, for the Class 3 section, up to a small
General rules, Supplementary rules for
axial deformation beyond post-Pu (upto inset stage 2 or 5
stainless steel, 2006.
in Figure 7), both the BCs produced similar load-
deformation profile (see also similar von-Mises stress
[4] Liang Q.Q. Analysis and design of steel and
contour in Figure 7). Although, initiation of outward local
composite structures.CRC Press, Taylor and
buckling can be seen for both types of BCs (see stages 2
Francis Group, New York, 2015.
and 5 in Figure 7), in the case of fixed BC, at Stages 3, it
is seen that most region of the column is yielded, whereas
[5] Parks M.B. and Yu W.W., Local buckling
at Stage 6, corresponding to simply mounted BC, the
behaviour of stiffened curved elements. Thin-
column has started significant distressing. In general, the
Walled Structures, Vol. 7, pp. 1-22, 1989.
post-Pu with sudden drop in load for the simply-mounted
cases, may be related to the relatively unstable boundary
[6] Shariati M., Saemi J., Sedighi M. and Eipakchi
condition imposed as compared to that of fixed-BC.
H.R., Experimental and numerical studies
Further, it is also observed that elephant foot type of local
buckling is not seen for the thicker Class 3 section, using on buckling and post-buckling behaviour of
cylindrical panels subjected to compressive
fixed-BC.
axial load. Strength of Materials, Vol. 43(2),
pp.190-200, 2011.
Conclusions
[7] Sachidananda, K. and Singh, K.D., Numerical
Based on the study of flat oval column for different study of fixed ended lean duplex stainless
boundary conditions (Simply mounted and fixed), the steel (LDSS) flat oval hollow stub column
following conclusions have been concluded. under pure axial compression. Thin Walled
1) The load carrying capacity of fixed ended flat oval Structures, Vol. 96, pp. 105119, 2015.
column is relatively higher than simply mounted in
case of Class 4 section (t = 5 mm) but for Class 3 [8] Theofanous, M., Chan, T.M. and Gardner, L.,
section (t = 20 mm), there is negligible effect. Structural response of stainless steel oval
hollow section compression members.
2) Elephant foot formation can be seen in the case of Engineering Structures, Vol. 31(4), pp. 922
fixed ended column while it is absent in case of simp- 934, 2009.
512
[9] Theofanous, M. and Gardner, L., Testing and

numerical modelling of lean duplex stainless steel
hollow section columns. Engineering Structures,
Vol. 31(12): pp. 30473058, 2009.
[10] Zhu, J. and Young, B., Cold-Formed-Steel Oval

Hollow Sections under Axial Compression. Journal
of Structural Engineering, Vol. 137(7), pp. 719727,
2011.
[11] Zhu, J. and Young, B., Design of cold-formed steel

oval hollow section columns. Journal of
Constructional Steel Research, Vol. 71, pp. 2637,
2012.
513
Two-dimensional mesoscale compressive damage analysis of CT

images of a concrete cube
Vinay Kumar. S1 and Nirjhar Dhang2
1. Research scholar, Departement of Civil engineering, Indian institute of Technology, Kharagpur, India.
Email: 2007.bitmtech@gmail.com
2. Professor, Departement of Civil engineering, Indian institute of Technology, Kharagpur, India.
Email: nirjhar@civil.iitkgp.ernet.in
This paper evaluates the two-dimensional (2D) compressive response of a computed tomography (CT)
scan image. The image of size 150x150mm has been used in numerical simulation. The CT image
consists of realistic structures of the aggregates, mortar and voids inside the concrete. The effect of the
shapes and the distribution of the aggregates and the voids on load carrying capacity have been studied.
The numerical results indicate that the concrete modeled as mortar and aggregate has a high nucleation of
micro-cracks near the vicinity of aggregates and also high load carrying capacity compared to concrete
modeled with voids. Aggregates modeled as a regular shape with the same area and centroid show
comparable load carrying capacity with real aggregate shape.
Keywords: CT scan, mesoscale, aggregate shape and voids
1. Introduction coupled plasticity model to simulate separate strain-

softening in tension and compression. These equations
Concrete is a heterogeneous material consists
capture the stress hardening and softening behaviors of
of cement, sand and coarse aggregates. Inclusion of
concrete Ref. [Hsu and Hsu 1994; Naraine and Sinha
these embedded constituents in a numerical model
1989]. Hsu and Hsu (1994) developed an empirical
would result in better understanding of failure of
stress-strain model for high-strength concrete; this
concrete. The mesoscale ranges from 10-1 to 10-3mm.
model consists of separate equations for the hardening
Reduction of scale of study from the macro to meso-
part and the softening part of the curve. Naraine and
level exhibits distribution of aggregates and voids. The
Sinha (1989) developed an exponential stress-strain
numerical analysis of mesoscale consists of two steps.
relationship consisting of a single equation for the
The first step generates mesoscale geometry consisting
hardening and softening part of the curve, with only
of aggregate and voids. The second step applies
three simple parameters required to develop the curve.
individual material properties and responses are
simulated using numerical methods Ref. [Kim and Abu
The mesoscale geometry is developed using two
Al-Rub 2011].
methods namely ordered and random packing. Ordered
packing arranges aggregates into a predefined pattern
The aggregates occupy 60-70% of the volume
Ref. [Mostofinejad and Reisi 2012]. Random packing
of concrete. These aggregates are the skeleton of
adopts statistical distributions and Monte Carlo
concrete and carry the bulk of the load Ref. [Chen and
simulation for particle generation Ref. [Hafner et al
Liu 2004]. The shape, size, distribution and volume
2006 ;Wang et al. 1999 ;Wriggers and Moftah
fraction of these aggregates play an important role in the
2006].This paper emphasizes the use of CT scan images
fresh and hardened states of concrete Ref. [Elices and
to capture the realistic geometrical shapes and the
Rocco 2008; Rocco and Elices 2009]. The aggregate
spatial distribution of aggregates with voids embedded
properties, such as shape, size, volume fraction and
inside the concrete. CT scan is very versatile technique,
distributions are included in the mesoscale model of
where series of 2D images are produced from three-
concrete. Regular shapes of aggregates such as circles,
dimensional (3D) objects Ref. [Henry et al. 2014]. CT
ellipses, squares, rectangles, pentagons and hexagons,
scan in concrete technology is mainly used to develop
are used in the numerical analysis Ref. [Kim and Abu
the numerical and statistical models from the real
Al-Rub 2011; Skaryski and Tejchman 2010; Du et al.
geometrical shape, spatial distribution of aggregates and
2014;Unger et al. 2011]. The circular shape of
voids Ref. [Ren et al. 2015; Dai 2011]. CT images are
aggregates is commonly used due to the ease of
also used for better understanding of the micro-
application in the packing algorithm.
structural characterization, heat generation during
hydration, curing, permeability and damage evolution
Mortar is a designed mix proportion of cement and
Ref. [Ren et al. 2015; Kogbara et al. 2014; Fukuda et al.
sand. Mortar is simulated using damage plasticity
2012; Wang et al. 2003; Wong & Chau 2005].
model. Abaqus finite element software adopts the
514
Vinay Kumar. S and Nirjhar Dhang
This paper focuses on finite-element density variation as shown in the Fig. 1 (a). The CT
simulation of the CT scanned image model under the image contains exact shape, position, surface roughness,
influence of compressive displacements. Models of distributions of aggregates and voids.
regular shaped aggregates are prepared based on the
areas and centroids of actual aggregates extracted from 2.3 Meoscale model of concrete
CT images. The mesoscale analysis of concrete is
performed using the following steps. The first step The CT image exhibits mortar, aggregates and
consists of the preparation of concrete with a specified voids inside the concrete as shown in the Figs.1 (a).
proportion and curing for 28 days. Next, CT scan This image is converted into computer model of lines,
imaging was performed on the cube to non-destructively which separates aggregates and mortar. The computer
determine the actual shape of the aggregates and the model consists of total of 87 coarse aggregates as shown
voids from the images. In the second step, a critical in the Fig. 1 (b). The aggregates are randomly
image was selected from the series of captured images. distributed over the mortar domain, consisting of
The threshold segmentation technique was performed different shapes, sizes and aggregates surface possess
on the CT image to separate mortar, aggregate and numerous sharp corners. The air-pockets get trapped
voids. A computer aided drawing (CAD) was prepared between the aggregates. For simulation air voids are
from the image model. In the third step, finite-element introduced into the model.
simulation was performed on the CAD model by using
the commercially available finite-element analysis
software, Abaqus 6.11. The mesoscale simulations
evaluate the effects of the shape, size, and volume
fraction of the aggregates and the voids on micro-crack
localization and the load carrying capacity of concrete.
2. 2D CT image model
CT scanning is a non-destructive technique

which is used for visualizing the embedded features
within solids. It provides 3D image model from the
series of 2D images Ref. [Henry et al. 2014]. The 2D
image contains exact shape, position, distributions of Fig. 1: CT model of aggregates. (a) CT image of
aggregates and voids. The development of irregular concrete. (b) Edge model of concrete consisting of
shape of aggregates model from the CT image has been coarse aggregate and each aggregate had been marked
explained in this section. with the number.
2.1 Specimen Preparation 3. Regular geometric shape of the aggregates
Nominal mix design for M20 grade of concrete The regular geometric shaped aggregate was
consists of 1(Cement):1.5(Sand): 3(Coarse aggregates) created from the area and centroid from the CT image as
proportion with water-cement ratio of 0.45 was used for shown in Fig. 2 (a). The different regular geometric
making cubes of dimension 150mm. After casting shapes considered are circular, elliptical, triangle,
process, the concrete was allowed to air cure for 24 hrs square, pentagon and hexagon as shown in Fig. 4. The
and then water cured for 28 days. After completion of areas of all the aggregates are calculated by dividing the
curing period, concrete cubes were oven dried and shapes into rectangles, triangles and trapezoidal shapes,
packed for CT scanning. and the centroid of each aggregate is evaluated from the
left corner. The modeled regular geometric shape of
2.2 Working principle of CT scanning aggregates also account for the orientation of the real
model. In some cases, the area and the centroids of
The CT scan machine consists of X-ray aggregates collide with each other. In that case, the
emitter, detector and centrally placed concrete aggregates are randomly searched from space until there
specimen. The process of CT scan starts with placing is no overlapping of the area of the aggregates.
the concrete specimen at the center of donut shaped
gantry which consists of 360o of X-ray emitters and 4. Finite element analysis
detectors. The X-ray emitters emits beam of X-rays
which passes through concrete specimen are captured Mesoscale compressive behaviors are
by detectors. The CT scan performs 360o of X-ray simulated using the commercially available Abaqus
emittion and detection on the specimen. These data are 6.11 finite-element software. The mesoscale finite-
stored in computers, where it uses advanced algorithms element simulations were performed in four steps. The
to form the 2D image. The CT scan detects the first step involves importing the CAD drawings to
embedded materials inside the concrete based on the Abaqus and the creation of the geometrical models of
515
each phase separately. The second step consists of the In this section, results of compressive response
application of the mechanical properties to each phase. of mesoscale model to aggregates shapes, distribution
Aggregates are modeled as linear elastic and stress- and fractions and voids have been discussed.
softening models for mortar. The interaction between
aggregates and mortar are modeled as being perfectly 5.1 Effect of the distribution of aggregates and the
bonded with no gap. The third step is meshing, volume fraction
performed by using triangular plane stress elements
with unit thickness. In the fourth step, a vertical CT image slices provide insight into the
compressive displacement of 200 m is applied on the distribution and volume fraction of the aggregates inside
top surface, and the fixed boundary condition is applied the concrete. The effects of CT image slices with
to the bottom edge of the surface. The Abaqus explicit different volume fraction and distribution of aggregates
technique is used to analyze the displacement controlled on compressive displacement are investigated. For
simulation of the models. Stress, strain, force, simulation, six slices at different locations of the cube
displacement and compressive damage are evaluated. are selected, as shown in Fig. 2. These slices vary in the
The finite element simulations are also used to evaluate distribution and volume fraction of the aggregates. The
the effects of the shape and distribution of the result shows that the localization of micro-cracks and
aggregates and voids. the load carrying capacity is different for all the slices,
as represented in Fig. 2 and 3, which suggest that the
4.1 Material properties aggregates and mortar volume fraction of the aggregates and the distribution of
the aggregates affect the compressive response of the
The aggregates are comprised of higher concrete. Therefore, it can be concluded from this study
strength and stiffness material compared to the mortar. that the initiation of micro-cracks is affected by the
Igneous dolerite crushed aggregates are used in this volume fraction of the aggregates. The distribution of
study. Youngs modulus and the Poisson ratio of the the aggregates influences the propagation and
aggregates are 70 GPa and 0.2 respectively. localization of the micro-cracks.
The compressive stress-strain model proposed

by Naraine and Sinha (1989) was used to model the
compressive and tensile stress-strain response of the
mortar. This stress-strain model consists of a single
equation for the strain hardening and softening parts of
the curve. Three parameters, namely, maximum
strength, strain at maximum strength and ultimate strain,
are required to capture the strain softening
characteristics in the mortar. The tensile stress-strain
responses are modeled considering the reduced strength
and stiffness of the compression curve. Eq. (1) shows
the empirical stress-strain model (Naraine and Sinha
1989).
e e
s = su exp 1 - (1)
eu eu
in which su , e u and ef represent the ultimate strength,

the strain at the ultimate strength and the failure strain,
respectively. The compressive and tensile stress-strain
curve for mortar phase using Eq. (1).The parameters for
compression are taken as: e u = 0.0015 and ef = 0.007;
the parameters for tension are taken as: e u = 0.00015
and ef = 0.0007. su for the compression and tension
strength of the mortar 56 and 6 MPa are used in
simulation.
Fig. 2. Micro-crack localization of CT scanned slices at

different position of the cube.
5. Results and discussion
516
The result reveals that localization of micro-cracks is

different for each of the aggregate shape models, as
visualized from Fig. 4. The ultimate loads carried by the
models of different shape of aggregates are shown in
Fig. 5. The circular aggregates carried the maximum
failure load, with 10.35% variation from the actual
shape of aggregates. The elliptical aggregates carried
the nearly same load as the model of irregular shapes of
aggregates, that is, the actual shapes of the aggregates.
In the hexagonal, pentagonal and square models, the
failure loads vary from 3.44 to 5.80%. Therefore, it can
be concluded from this study that the shape and position
of the aggregates have less influence on the load
carrying capacity and failure pattern of concrete under
Fig. 3. Load carrying capacity of CT slices at different compressive load.
position of the cube.
5.2 Effect of aggregate shape and position
This section presents the effects of the shapes

of the aggregates on the compressive behavior of
concrete. The models of circular, elliptical, square,
hexagonal and pentagonal aggregates are presented in
Fig. 4.
Fig. 5. Load carrying capacity of different aggregate

shapes.
5.3 Effect of the voids

The voids are empty spaces created by
entrapped air pockets due to an excessive water-cement
ratio, insufficient compaction, surface roughness of the
aggregates, and the materials and shape of the molds
used for the concrete specimen. The voids are included
into the mortar phase to evaluate the compression
response of the mesoscale model. The void shapes
collected from CT images are placed between
aggregates. The CAD software employs pick and place
methods for placing voids (0.65% of the area of the
model). Figure 6 illustrates that the introduction of
voids increases the localization of micro-cracks and
reduces the load carrying capacity. The load-
displacement curves for mesoscale models with and
without voids are shown in Fig. 7. The inclusion of
voids into the concrete model reduced the load carrying
capacity to 23.72%. The result shows that for voids with
0.65% area occupation, the micro-cracks are diverted to
the region of the voids. From this study, it can be
Fig. 4. Micro-crack localization of regular aggregates concluded that voids significantly control the ability of
shape in concrete. a) Circle. b) Ellipse. c) Triangle. d) the concrete load carrying capacity.
Square e) Pentagon. f ) Hexagon.
517
Models of regular-shaped aggregates developed

based on the area and centroid of the actual shape
of the aggregates show a variation in the load
carrying capacity of up to 10%. The model of the
circular aggregates carried more load compared to
the model using irregular shaped aggregates. Each
aggregate shape has different strain localization,
which proves that the aggregate shape has an effect
on the load carrying capacity of the concrete model.
The inclusion of voids in mortar results in micro-
cracks localized near the empty space. Due to the
voids inside the model, the concrete load carrying
capacity is reduced by 23.72%, which proves that
voids play an important role in the mesoscale
model. Porous structure (voids) should be
considered while modeling, analyzing and
Fig. 6. Micro-crack localization around aggregates and
designing concrete.
voids region.
In summary, CT scan is an effective technique for
capturing the real shape of aggregates and voids inside
concrete. Finite element simulations of the realistic
mesoscale models can be effectively performed using
Abaqus 6.11 software. The effects of the size, shape,
distribution of the aggregates were elucidated. The
influences of voids in the mesoscale models were
evaluated. These realistic mesoscale models facilitate a
better understanding of the failure process of concrete
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Eng. Mech. (ASCE), 124(8), 892900.
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[15] Lubliner, J., Oliver, J., Oller, S., & Oate, E. (1989). Effects of interfacial transition zones on the stress
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Masonary under cyclic compressive loading.
519
NON-LINEAR STATIC ANALYSIS OF OFFSHORE J LAY RISERS

USING FINITE ELEMENT METHOD
Madhuri. S.1, Narendra Kumar. B.2, Venkateswara Rao. K.3
1
Department of Civil Engineering, University College of Engineering Kakinada, JNTU Kakinada, India.
2
Department of Petroleum Engineering and Petrochemical Engineering, University College of Engineering Kakinada,
JNTU Kakinada, India.
3
Department of Petroleum Engineering and Petrochemical Engineering, University College of Engineering Kakinada,
JNTU Kakinada, India.
Abstract: Keywords: Riser Stat, Axial Displacement, Lateral

Risers are used for carrying crude oil/gas from sea Displacements, Effective Tension.
bed to supporting platform. These risers experience
various environmental loads while carrying the fluids. Introduction and Literature Review:
Generally the length of the riser depends on water depth, In Offshore industries risers play a key role to
type of the platform that it attached to, sea state and bringing the hydrocarbons from the sea bed to the
environmental conditions. The deformation offloading vessel (ship) in deep/ultra deep water. In
characteristics of the risers shall be analyzed in order to deepwater, installation of risers is most efficient and
assess the design parameters and safety operation. A non- economical for transportation of crude oil and natural
linear finite element analysis of the riser at 300m and gas. The subsea risers are subjected to environmental
2000m water depth has been performed under wave, loading such as wind, wave & current motions in
current and wave + current loading in the present study. different directions, vessel motion, pipeline seabed
The riser is modelled as a two dimensional beam element interaction, etc. Various studies on risers are discussed
considering six degree of freedom which is suspended in below. Michael et.al (1985) presented the three-
the floating drilling platform and subjected to both axial dimensional, nonlinear, large deformation of marine riser
and lateral forces. A straight riser at 300m water depth is analysis using small strain theory for three numerical
considered for the present study. As the J-lay technique applications. It was concluded that the stiffening effects
of the riser is easy and mostly used in the industry, a J- of nonlinearity were important in the analysis of the
lay at 2000m is also analyzed. A MATLAB code Riser risers. Lenci and Callegari (2005) proposed an approach
Stat is developed to analyze the riser. The axial to boundary layer phenomenon by considering the
extensions of all the elements are estimated considering stiffness of the soil of a J-Lay riser and concluded that
top tension, weight of the riser, internal liquid weight and the boundary layer effect of the soil shall be given
buoyancy. Morison equation is used to estimate the wave importance on predicting the accurate results. Jinlong and
force on the riser. The axial and horizontal displacements Menglan (2015) performed finite difference method
are at each node of the finite element model of the riser analysis of a steel lazy-wave riser (SLWR) considering
are estimated due to the effect of top tension and wave small deflection and large deflection beam theories
force in a wave cycle. Series of analyses are performed including soil pile interaction, internal flow of the riser
on the J-Lay riser under wave height of 2.0m and wave under ocean wave and current loading. Based on the
period of 5s to 15s at and increment in wave period of 1s. analysis it was observed that the increase in current
Linearly varying current velocity of 1.4m/s and 1.0m/s at velocity increased the axial tension at touchdown point
sea surface to 0m/s at a depth of 200m is considered to but decrease in equivalent stress. The deformation
estimate the current loading. The effective tension along (Yanbin et al., 2014) of riser and stress analyses (Senthil
the length of the riser at 2000m water depth is compared and Panneer Selvam, 2015) of riser were carried out
with the Lenci and Callegari et al. (2005). The results are under wave, wave+current including vessel motions
compared well. The response of the riser under the using OrcaFlex. Lucile et.al (2014) presented variations
combination of wave and current showed more when of the maximum stress at TDZ for SCRs of riser using
compared with the response of the riser under only wave FRONTIER and OrcaFlex softwares. Yang Jin et.al
loading. (2015) examined riser stability and the bottom over pull
margins using a mechanical analysis approach and
verified the results with common methods. The effect of
1
Assistant Professor, madhuri.seeram@gmail.com
2
M. Tech Scholor, narendrakumar.bezawada@gmail.com
3
Programme Director, profkvrao@gmail.com
520
Madhuri S, et al.
true axial force and effective axial forces were examined ABCC = AD;) 1 0EFGHI ? HD 1 HJ K (4)
and concluded that the stability of the riser depends on
effective tension. Based on the brief literature review, it
is observed that the nonlinear response studies of J lay The wave force is estimated using Morison equation as
riser under wave, wave+current loading are minimal. The the D/L ratio of the riser is less than 0.2. The wave force
variation of effective tension, axial and horizontal is estimated for one cycle of wave by incretemental time
displacement along the length of the riser during its step method. The wave force is taken as combination of
operation is minimal. Hence a MATLAB code, inertia and drag forces (Eq. 5). The water particle
RiserStat is developed to analyze the riser at any water kinematics (velocity and acceleration, Eq. 6a, 6b) at each
depth using finite element method. The internal fluid time step are estimated using linear Airys wave theory.
velocity and the motions of the vessel are ignored in the As the wave height to wave length ratio is less than one
present analysis. in the present case, linear Airys wave theory is
considered.
Finite Element Modelling
)
The riser is descritized into finite elements. The df = LM N O* uP ? (LQ NO(Gu ? uR K|u ? uR |

(5)
coordinates of the riser elements, connectivity of the / *
STU RVWXGQYZK
u= ( (cosGkx 1 tK
elements, dimensions, material properties and boundaries
(6a)
are given as input. The elements are modelled as two RVWX UQ
dimensional beam elements by considering three degrees RVWXGQYZK
of freedom (axial, lateral and rotational) at each node. uP = (agk( (sinGkx 1 tK (6b)
RVWX UQ
The elemental stiffness matrices (Kl) were developed
based on elastic stiffness (Eq. 1) and geometric stiffness \= [!@ ];) {^} (7)
(Eq. 2). Elastic stiffness matrix is developed based on
material properties, cross sectional area and length of the
riser element. Geometric stiffness matrix is developed The global stiffness matrix and load vectors are generated
based on effective tension in each element of the riser. based on geometry and boundary conditions of the riser.
Top tension at the vessel connecting point is applied. The The displacement vector (Eq. 7) is estimated using
effective tension of each element is estimated considering stiffness method. The axial forces obtained due to the
top tension, weight of the riser element, weight of effective top tension in each riser element are considered
internal fluid and buoyancy of the riser element (Eq. 4). in the first time step. The coordinates of the nodes are
Global stiffness matrices (Eq. 3) were generated using updated based on the global displacement and the
transformation technique. All the elemental stiffness variation in top tension is also estimated. The obtained
matrices are assembled based on their elemental displacements are used to estimate the displaced
connectivity. The translational degrees of freedom are coordinates of the nodes. The displaced coordinates and
arrested (hinge) at vessel connection point and at estimated top tension are given as input for the analysis
touchdown point. in the next time step. The stiffness matrix and load vector
are estimated for the updated coordinates. The wave force
&" &"
%' ((((((0 ((((((0 ((((((1 ((((0 ((((0 4 is estimated in addition to top tension. The displacement
' and top tension are estimated and are used for the next
$ 0 ((((()*"+ (((((((((-"+(((((( ((((((((((0 ((1 )*"+ (((-"+3 time step, and this process is continued for one cycle of
$ ', '. ', '. 3
$ 0 (((((-"+ (((((
/"+ -"+
(((((((((0 (((1 . (((
*"+ 3 the wave. The axial and lateral deformations at each time
!" = $ &" ' ' 3
. ' ' step are obtained as output in the MATLAB code. The
&"
$1 (0 (0 (((( (0 (((0 3 flow chart of the present analysis is shown in Fig. 1.
$ ' )*"+ -"+
'
)*"+ -"+
3
$ ((0 (((1 ', ((1 . ((((( ((0
'
((( ,
'
1 . 3
'
$ -"+ *"+ -"+ /"+ 3
# (((0 ((((((( . ((((((((
' '
((0 (((1 . 1
' ' 2
(1)
0 0 0 0 0 0
% - ' ;- ' 4
0 0
$ 9 ): ((((( 9 ): 3
$0 ' *'.
0
;' ;'. 3
6
5" = 788 $ ): )9 ): <: 3 (2)
'
$ 0 ;-
0 0
;'
0 0
-
0 3
;'
$0 9 ): (((
0
9 ):
3
$ ' ;'. ;' *' 3
.
# 0 ): <:
0
): )9 2
!> = !" ? 5"

Figure 1 Scheme of Nonlinear static analysis of riser
!@ = [A 6 ][!> ][A] (3)
521
Analysis of Straight Riser at 300m water depth

Table 1 Details of Straight Riser
A straight steel riser of 0.6 m outer diameter and
0.05 m wall thickness is analyzed under the combination Description Quantity Units
of top tension and wave loading. The schematic diagram Outer diameter 0.6 m
of straight riser is shown in Fig. 2. The details of the riser Inner diameter 0.55 m
are given in Table 1. Wave height of 2m and wave period Water Depth 300 m
of 10s is assumed for the analysis. Uniform current Top tension 2700 kN
velocity of 1m/s is considered for current load estimation. young's modulus 2.1x 105 N/m2
The axial and lateral deformations at different time steps Density of sea water 1030 kg/m3
under wave loading are presented (Figs. 3a and 3b). The Density of steel 7850 kg/m3
variation of top tension in one wave cycle with and Density of crude oil 800 kg/m3
without current is shown in Fig. 4.
Wave Height 2 m
Wave Period 10 s
Current velocity 1.0 m/s
Uc=0m/s
Uc=1m/s
20000
Top Tension (kN)

15000
10000
5000
0
Figure 2 Schematic Diagram of Riser at 300m water 0 2 4 6 8 10
depth Time (s)
Figure 4 Variation of top tension in one wave cycle of
t=0 t=3 t=5 straight Riser
t=6 t=9 t=10
Depth from sea surface (m)
0
Analysis of Catenary Riser at 2000m water depth
-50
-100
As the oil exploration is going towards deeper and
-150 ultra deep water depths, installation of straight risers is
-200 not feasible. Flexible risers are being used at deeper and
-250 ultra deep water depths. J Lay risers are common and
-300 easy to install. Hence a J Lay catenary riser at 2000m
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 water depth is analyzed using the developed MATLAB
Axial Displacement (m) code RiserStat. The schematic diagram of catenary riser
is shown in Fig. 5. The length of the riser is considered
Figure 3a Axial displacement of straight Riser from free hang point to touchdown point in catenary
shape. The origin of global coordinates system is taken at
t=0 t=3 t=5 free hang point. The free hang point of the riser is
t=6 t=9 t=10 assumed at sea surface. The pipeline welding ramp angle
of 80o with the vertical axis at free hanging point is
Depth from sea surface (m)
0
-50 considered. The horizontal distance between touchdown
-100 point and free hanging point is assumed about 1200m.
-150 Top tension of 7x106 N is applied. The riser details are
-200
given in Table 2.
-250
The coordinates of the elements of the catenary riser
-300
are estimated using the following equations.
-0.01 -0.005 0 0.005 0.01
e
Lateral Displacement (m) x_ = a_ `sinh;) b j ? tan _ l 1 sinh;) Gtan _ Km (8)
Sj
Figure 3b Lateral displacement of straight Riser x_
y_ = a_ `cosh b ? sinh;) Gtan _ Kl 1 coshGsinh;) Gtan _ KKm
i
(9)
q
p_ = a_ bsinh b j ? sinh;) Gtan _ Kl 1 tan _ l (10)
Sj
v
tanGrDY) K = tan brD ? w l (11)
zw
522
Madhuri S, et al.
Lenci & Callegari(2005) Present Analysis

7
Effective Tension(MN)
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
-1500 -1200 -900 -600 -300 0
Horizontal Distance(m)
Figure 5 Layout o f Catenary Riser Figure 6 Effective tension variation of catenary riser
Table 2 Details of Catenary Riser (Lenci and Callagari,

2005) only wave wave+current=1-0
wave+current=1.4-0
5
Amplification Factor
Description Quantity Units
4
Outer diameter of pipeline 0.6 m 3
Inner diameter of pipeline 0.55 m 2
1
Water depth 2000 m
0
Elastic modulus of riser 2.1 x 105 N/mm2 0 5 10 15 20
Time Period (s)
Density of sea water 1030 kg/m3
Density of steel material 7850 kg/m3
Figure 7 Maximum Axial deformation of catenary riser
Density of crude oil 800 kg/m3
Top tension 7x106 N
25
Amplification Factor
wave height 2 m 20
Wave period range 5 to 15 s 15
10
The catenary riser is analyzed using RiserStat and the 5
effective tension variation along the length of the riser is 0
compared with Lenci and Callagari (2005). The 0 5 10 15 20
comparison is shown in Fig. 6. Results show that the Time Period (s)
effective tension is compared well along the length of the Figure 8 Maximum Lateral deformation of catenary riser
riser. A non-linear finite analysis of riser is performed
under wave loading and the maximum axial and lateral Results and Discussions
deformations in a wave cycle are recorded. The non-
linear analysis is performed by varying wave period from A MATLAB code RiserStat is developed to perform
5s to 15s with a increment of 1s. Linearly varying current nonlinear static analysis of the riser. Analysis is
velocity for a depth of 200m from mean sea level (MSL) performed for in two different risers at 300m and 2000m
is applied as current loading. The current velocity is water depth. The variation of effective top tension one
considered in two cases. In case I current velocity of wave cycle (10s wave period) of straight riser is plotted
1.0m/s at MSL and 0m/s at a depth of 200m from MSL is against time step. The results indicate that the maximum
considered. In case II current velocity of 1.4m/s is effective tension is obtained at 3s time step which is
considered at MSL. The combined effect of wave and indicating that the riser crest at 3s time step. This
current loading is estimated. The maximum axial and behaviour is observed due to increase in water particle
lateral deformations of the riser in the considered wave velocity and acceleration at 3s time step. The maximum
and current load combinations are obtained and effective top tension under wave loading is about 2.97
amplification factor (Ratio of maximum deflection and times of initial top tension. The maximum effective top
wave height) of the riser for each case is plotted against tension under wave and uniform current loading is about
wave periods. The maximum axial and lateral 6.55 times of initial top tension. The maximum axial and
amplification factors of the riser in the considered cases lateral displacements in straight riser are observed about
are shown in Figs 7 and 8 respectively. 50m below the MSL.
A catenary riser at 2000m water depth is also
analyzed and effective tension variation along the length
of the riser is compared well with Lenci & Callegari
(2005). Non-linear static analysis is performed for
catenary riser and amplification factors are plotted
against wave period. The comparison of lateral and axial
523
amplification under wave loading indicate that the u water particle velocity m/s
maximum lateral amplification factor is about 10 times Current velocity m/s
the maximum axial amplification factor which is P Water particle acceleration m/s2
indicating that the riser is flexible in nature. The HI Weight of the riser element kg
comparison of amplification factors under wave and HD Weight of the internal fluid kg
wave + current loadings cases indicates that the increase HJ Buoyancy of the riser element kg
in current velocity increased the response of the riser. x Spatial location of the node in the direction of
The maximum axial amplification under wave + current the wave
(case I) loading is observed 29% higher than the axial D Spatial location of the riser in the direction of
amplification factor under wave loading. 57% higher the wave
axial amplification is observed when case II current D Spatial location of the riser in the direction of
velocity is compared with maximum axial amplification water depth
under wave loading. No major significant effect is z Elemental water depth (m)
observed in the lateral deformation even current velocity
is applied in addition to wave loading. Density of sea Water kg/m3
Displacement vector
Conclusions rD angle of the riser with vertical axis
The present MATLAB code RiserStat is developed Wave angular frequency (Hz)
using finite element method by neglecting internal fluid
velocity and vessel motions. A straight riser at 300m
water depth and a catenary riser at 2000m water depth are
analyzed using the developed code. The variation of the References
top tension in one wave cycle under wave loading of 2m
wave height and 10s wave period is studied and
maximum effective top tension is obtained at wave crest [1]. Jinlong, Wang., and Menglan, Duan., A nonlinear
model for deepwater steel lazy-wave riser
location. The maximum axial and lateral displacements
configuration with ocean current and internal flow,
are observed at 50m below the MSL. The present
Ocean Engineering, 94 155162, 2015.
effective tension variation of catenary riser is compared
well with Lenci and Callegari (2005). The increase in [2]. Klaus-Jurgen, Bathe., Finite element procedures,
current velocity indicated the increase in amplification Prentice Hall, New Jersey
[3]. Lenci, S., and Callegari. M., Simple analytical
factor of the riser. The present analytical results shows
models for the J-lay problem, ActaMechanica,178,
that the lateral deformations of the cateranty raiser are
23-39 2005.
about 10 times the axial deformations indicating that the
[4]. MATLAB 7.10.0, user guide
riser is flexible in nature.
[5]. Michael, M. Bernitsas., John, E. Kokarakis., and
Nomenclature Asjhar, Imron., Large Deformation three
~ Cross sectional area of the riser m2 dimensional static analysis of deep water marine
a Wave amplitude (m) riser, Applied Ocean Research, 7(4), 178-187.
Cd Drag Coefficient [6]. Morison,. J. R., OBrien., M. P., Johnso,. J. W., and
Cm Inertia coefficient Schaaf, S. A., The Force Exerted by Surface Waves
d Water depth (m) on Piles, Petroleum Transactions, AIME, 189, 149-
C wave loading per unit length kN/m 154, 1950.
D Outer Diameter of the riser [7]. Senthil, B., and Panneer, Selvam, R., Dynamic
E Modulus of elasticity of the riser material Analysis of a J-lay pipeline, Procedia engineering,
N/m2 116 (730-737), 8th International Conference on
f Force Vector Asian and Pacific Coasts, 2015.
g Acceleration due to gravity (m/s2 ) [8]. Yanbin, Wang., Deli, Gao., and Jun, Fang., Static
I Area moment of inertia (m4) analysis of deep-water marine riser subjected to both
k Wave number (m-1) axial and lateral forces in its installation, Journal of
!" Elastic stiffness matrix Natural Gas Science and Engineering, 19, 84-90,
!@ Global elemental stiffness matrix 2014.
!> Local elemental stiffness matrix [9]. Yang, Jin., Meng, Wei., Yao, Mengbiao., Gao, Deli,
L Length of the element Zhou, Bo., and Xu, Yunjin., Calculation method of
D Length of the riser element riser top tension in riser deep water drilling,
D curved length of the riser Petroleum -Exploration and Development, 42(1),
5" Geometric stiffness matrix 119-122, 2015.
t Time step (s)
A Transformation Matrix
AD;) Effective tension of the previous element kN
A"CC Effective tension in the element kN
524
FORCE-BASED SEISMIC EVALUATION OF URM WALLS IN OUT -

OF-PLANE ACTION
P. Pravin Kumar Venkat Rao1, Yogendra Singh2, Sreekanta Das3
1, 2
Department of Earthquake Engineering, IIT Roorkee, Roorkee, 247 667, India
3
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Windsor, Ontario N9B 3P4, Canada
The paper presents a state of the art review on force based formulations to evaluate the response of
unreinforced masonry (URM) walls subjected to out-of-plane seismic loading. The paper also presents
two case studies of buildings with flexible and rigid floor/roof diaphragms. In the first case study of a
building with flexible roof diaphragm, two classes of collapse mechanisms are examined: overturning of
faade wall due to vertical cracks at connections and a diagonal crack on transverse walls. In the second
case study on a building with rigid diaphragm, one-way vertical, and two-way diagonal bending capacity
of a URM wall in out-of-plane action is examined. It is observed that walls in buildings with rigid roof /
floor diaphragm have much higher capacity in two-way bending compared to that of one-way bending
action and also possess substantially higher strength compared to walls in buildings with flexible
roof/floor diaphragm.
Keywords: unreinforced masonry, out-of-plane, force-based approach, flexible & rigid diaphragm
1 Introduction internal exural stresses act in both the horizontal and

vertical directions.
Unreinforced masonry (URM) is one of the oldest
and most worldwide used material for the construction
of buildings. It is one of the simplest type of structural
systems due to its assemblage, but on the other hand, in
terms of seismic evaluation, it is one of the most
complex construction systems to handle, particularly
considering the out-of-plane seismic behaviour. Since,
earthquake forces are bi-directional in nature, the URM
wall in a building is subjected to both, in-plane and out-
of-plane direction. When an earthquake shakes an URM
building, it causes the wall of building to fail in flexure
due to out-of-plane action and to fail in shear due to in-
plane action.
Indeed, the low strength to mass ratio of masonry
walls increases their vulnerability especially in out-of-
plane direction, because inertia forces are not restrained Figure 1: Cracking patterns of URM walls with
due to reduced strength and stiffness of the masonry different support conditions, due to out-of-plane
walls in that direction. When a wall is subjected to out- bending
of-plane loading due to earthquake, it undergoes
bending. The Orientation of the internal stresses within The out-of-plane collapse of walls are the most
the wall and the resulting crack pattern developed is recurrent damage observed in existing URM buildings
influenced by the position of its supported edges, as during post-earthquake surveys of Jabalpur 1997,
shown in Fig. (1). One-way spanning walls shown in Chamoli 1999, Bhuj 2001, Kashmir 2005, Sikkim 2011,
Fig. (1a) undergo uni-axial bending, which can be Nepal 2015, and Imphal 2016. Thus, it is clear that
classied as either vertical or horizontal depending on existing URM walls are vulnerable to future
the orientation of the span. Two-way spanning walls earthquakes and therefore should be studied for their
shown in Fig. (1b) undergo bi-axial bending, where the out-of-plane seismic resistance. Hence, the analytical
modelling of this complex behaviour becomes very
essential.
1
Research Scholar, ppkvr49@gmail.com
2
Professor, yogendra.eq@gmail.com
3
Professor, sdas@uwindsor.ca
526
P. Pravin Kumar Venkat Rao, et al.
2 Out-of-Plane Capacity of URM Walls lower bound theorem will overestimate the failure load
in such cases, but the existence of the overestimate can
Various analytical methodologies have been
be detected immediately by inspecting the corrected
proposed till date for the seismic assessment of URM
failure mechanism for a given boundary condition.
walls under out-of-plane action. Force-based
Following Heymans work, [3] and [4] presented
formulations, which are more simplistic, relying on
constitutive models based on the assumption that URM
consolidated and traditional perceptions of the response
can be idealized as a no-tension material which lead to
under lateral forces; and Displacement-based
the solution in closed form i.e. it solves a given problem
formulations, which are less conservative than the
in terms of functions and mathematical operations.
previous formulations, providing more logical means of
In the year 1990, [5] presented a work based on a
the out-of-plane seismic behaviour of URM walls. In
series of post-earthquake damage surveys in Italy,
this paper, force based formulations are discussed in
wherein the author states that given the complex nature
detail.
of the possible out-of-plane mechanism in URM walls
and taking into account the load patterns that causes
2.1 Force-Based Formulations each of the possible modes, the study of out-of-plane
mechanisms must be performed on an individual basis,
In the year 1966, [1] was the first author who had
identifying the different loads, geometry, and boundary
applied limit state theories on the analysis of masonry
conditions controlling the mechanism. According to [6],
structures. The limit analysis of structures is an
frictional resistance and cohesion between courses in
analytical method to find the maximum load parameter.
dry block masonry forms the basis of the limit-state
The limit analysis represents a simple and effective tool
model used to estimate ultimate load factors, l for the
for determination of ultimate strength capacity. This
out-of-plane behaviour in 3D assemblies.
approach has an advantage of finding a solution without
The out-of-plane behaviour of URM walls are
any numerical instabilities. Compared to the step-by-
also very much dependent on floor to wall connections.
step method (i.e. incremental analysis), the efficacy of
For masonry walls which are properly anchored to the
the limit analysis can be achieved by observing its final
floors, the out-of-plane behaviour is usually not critical.
state and the state of failure.
In the case where the connection between return walls
Heymans work was based on the assumption that
and between walls and floors is rather poor
limit theorem analysis of plasticity (static theorem or the
and in the case of gable walls, the walls might fail in an
theorem on the lower edge of the limit loads i.e. lower
out-of-plane mechanism before an in-plane mechanism
bound theorem, and kinematic theorem or the theorem
can be triggered. In the absence of any floor-wall
about the upper limit of the ultimate load i.e. upper
connections, the whole wall plane behaves like a tall
bound theorem) that can be applied to masonry
unrestrained cantilever which is most vulnerable to
structures. The static (lower) theorem is based on the
flexural out-of-plane action. The seismic evaluation of
static equilibrium of a system. The static theorem gives
URM walls under out-of-plane action under different
the value of failure load factor, l. The kinematic (upper)
roofing conditions has been explained in next section.
theorem refers to the possible mechanism of failure,
which comprises a kinematically unstable system.
In the case when the failure mechanism is known, 2.2 Buildings with Flexible Diaphragm
failure load factor, l can be determined by equating the Buildings with flexible roofs/floors (e.g. sloping
work of external forces with the work absorbed. In case roof, floor with tiles on joist) have been subjected to
the mechanism of failure load corresponding to the limit more damage due to out-of-plane failure of walls, if not
load is not known in advance, then the equation of work supported by external ties or bands. This lack of support
can be written for each assumed failure mechanism, to the walls in out-of-plane action has resulted large
where the values of external load, lP will be obtained scale damage as shown in Fig. (2). In the case of a floor
and which corresponds to the presumed failure consisting of timber joists placed with brick tiles placed
mechanism. For a given static system, which is in directly over the joists and covered with clayey earth,
subjected to external load, lP; the value the brick tiles have no binding effect on the joists.
l corresponding to any assumed failure mechanism Therefore, relative displacement of the joists is quite
must be greater than or equal to the failure load factor, likely to occur during an earthquake, which could easily
l. bring down the tiles, damaging property and causing
Heyman made the following assumptions about the injury to people.
properties of the material: 1) masonry has no tensile From the literature review, it is observed that, In
strength (i.e., compressive strength of masonry is 1990, [7] found that compared to non-linear analysis
effectively infinite), and 2) no sliding will occur within methods, the collapse-mechanism method presents the
the masonry. According to such formulations, the failure advantage of requiring few input parameters and
of URM walls can occur only due to instability rather allowing consideration of different failure modes. They
than material failure, which was later introduced by [2]. were among the first to use this approach. Procedures
Later, [2] showed that limit analysis fails to give using this approach are based on collapse multipliers, c
a right answer only in those friction problems where the which identify the occurrence of different possible
failure load is affected by boundary movements. A
527
mechanisms for the given typology and structural interfaces. According to these authors, the assumption
characteristics. Following this early work, [8], studied that bricks cannot break is not so restrictive; if masonry
unreinforced full-scale wall elements which were with bricks and dry joint is considered and if the
subjected to static lateral loading test. A simple yield- influence of the geometry of the assembly on the
line analysis based on wall overturning was shown to ultimate behaviour of the masonry is investigated.
be able to give a useful prediction of the mode of failure The effectiveness of connections through simple
and failure load in the static test. They proposed three failure mechanism for seismic resistance of faade wall
set of equations for the collapse load by equating the with respect to out-of-plane collapse was studied by
work done for three different collapse mechanisms. [14]. They proposed two possible failure or collapse
mechanisms with the corresponding equations to
estimate the collapse acceleration, ag. In the year 2003,
[15] developed a simple analytical mechanical model
based on limit state analysis and macro-elements to
calculate load factors associated with various collapse
mechanisms of wall assemblies. The collapse
mechanisms were followed by the identification of the
one associated with the lowest value of the load factor,
able to maintain a limit equilibrium configuration.
According to this proposal, the load factor, is
described by the ratio between the lateral acceleration,
ag and the gravitational acceleration, g under the
following assumptions: 1) Dead load and horizontal
Figure 2: Flexible diaphragm on URM building force are applied at the center of gravity of the building
wall and are expressed as a function of the gravity
Later, [9] proposed a set of equations for
constant, 2) The masonry walls are simulated as a
overturning failure modes of cracked and uncracked
system of rigid bodies, articulated by hinges, whose
wall section of free-standing cantilever walls subjected
geometry is defined by the failure mechanism, and 3)
to static point loads. In the same line, [10] proposed
The masonry is simulated by a discontinuum model
ultimate load factors in terms of equivalent shear
with friction.
capacity together with the restoring moments for
Recently, [16] presented a study based on
different boundary condition for out-of-plane class of
equilibrium limit approach using kinematic procedure
mechanisms for a case study of the historic center of
where collapse mechanism of wall assemblies has been
Lisbon.
studied for historical buildings such as churches. The
In 2000, [11] presented a computer procedure
collapse load multiplier (01, 02) for wall assemblies
that provides the ultimate load and the collapse
similar to church facade, were computed using theorem
mechanism for two and three-dimensional (3D) URM
of virtual works in equilibrium limit condition for two
structure made of blocks with frictional interfaces. The
specific collapse mechanisms. Both parameters were
collapse mechanisms considered involve rotations of the
formulated in order to take into account some masonry
blocks about the edges of the contact surfaces
technological aspects such as the texture of the lateral
(hingeing), sliding along the joints, and relative rotation
walls, brick dimensions, and frictional effects. In the
of two blocks about an axis normal to the plane of their
same line, [17] has observed that the quality of the
interface (twisting). They adopted combined
connection between the faade walls and the party walls
equilibrium and mechanism approach for determining
are the governing factors which act as a means of
the minimum collapse load in the presence of non-
restraint to overturning and this will give rise to
associated flow rules. The authors pointed that limit
different types of failure mechanisms. The authors
analysis of such systems in the presence of non-
investigated the seismic vulnerability of the church
associative flow rules, proved to be very effective to
faade through the analysis of two principal
evaluate the failure mechanism and the problem on the
mechanisms including total/partial or no connection
evaluation of the ultimate load for an assembly of rigid
between the walls and the formulation used is same as
bodies with no-tension and frictional constraints
reported by [16].
subjected to proportional load can also be studied as
stated by [12].
In the same line, [13] again presented a work 2.3 Buildings with Rigid Diaphragm
focused on the study of the collapse behaviour of brick-
In this case, the earthquake-induced inertia force is
block masonry. A two-step procedure for the application
distributed to the vertical structural elements in
of non-linear constrained programming to the limit
proportion to their stiffness or relative rigidity, provided
analysis of rigid brick-block systems with no-tension
the roofs/floors are rigid to act as horizontal diaphragms
and frictional interface was implemented and applied.
as shown in Fig. (3). Therefore, the stiffness and
The model describes brick or stone masonry as a system
integrity of roofs and floors are important for
of rigid blocks supposed to have infinite strength,
earthquake resistance. The floors/roof with rigid
interacting through no-tensional and frictional
528
diaphragm (e.g. RC slab) action is capable of

transferring lateral load from one component to another.
These diaphragms should have adequate bearing and
proper connection with the walls. The rigid floor
diaphragm transfers the lateral load from out-of-plane
action to shear walls which are acting in in-plane action.
Figure 4: URM building with sloping roof
Table 1: Geometrical and material parameters

Length of brick, c 230 mm
Figure 3: Rigid diaphragm on URM building Height of brick, a 76 mm
Friction co-efficient in the joint, f 0.6
The roofs and floors, which are rigid, flat and are
bonded or tied to the masonry through good quality Length of faade wall, l 3m
mortar, have a positive effect on the wall. Otherwise, Thickness of transverse wall, s 230 mm
the roof and floor inertia will only go to the vertical Density of brick masonry, g 20 kN/m3
elements (walls) on which they are supported. Then,
masonry walls will offer resistance to relative motion For the case study building, two simple collapse
only through friction, which may or may not be mechanisms are investigated for the prediction of
adequate depending on the earthquake intensity. collapse load acceleration. (a) The out-of-plane collapse
From the literature study, it is seen that, several of faade, which breaks away from the transverse wall
researchers like [8], [18], [19], and [20] proposed with a vertical crack at the connection; (b) The rigid
different kinematic models for out-of-plane mechanism. body out-of-plane overturning of faade with part of the
In the year 1997, [11] proposed limit overturning transverse wall breaking away with a diagonal crack.
acceleration in terms of restoring moment and Using the formulation given by [14], collapse
equivalent shear capacity for different constraint acceleration, ag is found out for mechanism (a) and (b)
condition for masonry wall under out-of-plane action. using the Eqs. (1) and (2) respectively, where other two
Importance of floor to wall connection like rigid dimensionless parameters can be found out using Eqs.
diaphragm possessing high in-plane stiffness on out-of- (3) and (4).
plane behaviour is explained by [21]. They proposed an ag 2a (1)
equation for out-of-plane moment of a wall panel with =
g 3r
free vertical edges subjected to lateral loading, where
different coefficients has been suggested depending on ag a (2r ( 3r - 2) + 7 r - 6) (2)
=
the boundary condition or floor-wall connections. In g r ( 3r - 2 + 2) 2
order to evaluate the internal work, expressions for the
cf (3)
vertical, horizontal, and diagonal bending moment a=
capacity of unreinforced clay brick masonry walls 2a
suggested by [22]. These formulations account for the l (4)
vertical pre-compression as well as the material r=
s
properties of the masonry. The collapse acceleration, ag for mechanism (a)
and (b) shown in Fig. (5) and (6) resp. is found to be
3 Case Studies 0.304g and 0.272g. It has been observed from the values
examined that the collapse acceleration corresponding
3.1 Building with Sloping Flexible Roof to failure in mechanism (b) (i.e. crack in the transverse
wall) is lower than that of mechanism (a) (i.e.
First, an example of a sloping roof building has detachment of the faade). Therefore, the collapse is
been taken as shown in Fig. (4). The single story more probable according to mechanism (b).
building is made of unreinforced clay brick masonry
and the geometrical and material parameters of a
building are shown in Tab. (1).
529
Table 2: Geometrical and material parameters

Overburden load on wall, N (From 272 kN
upper story)
Thickness of wall, t 230 mm
Flexural tensile strength of masonry 70 kN/m2
(parallel to bed-joint)
Flexural tensile strength of masonry 140 kN/m2
(perpendicular to bed-joint)
For pier A, vertical one-way bending capacity, wo is

determined using Eqs. (5) and (6). For wall B, one-way
horizontal and two-way bending capacity of masonry
Figure 5: Mechanism (a) Detachment of the faade wall, wt is found out using analytical expression shown
wall with vertical crack at connection in Eq. (7), (8), and (9), suggested by [22].
M v / h .8 (5)
wo =
h2
( )(
M v = f .kmt . f 'mt.zd + f d .zd ; 3.f .kmt . f 'mt.zd ) (6)
1 tu 2 1 (7)
Mh = ( fut -n f d )hu ; t u kb 0.5(lu + t j )tu 2
2(hu + t j ) 6 (hu + t j )
2a f (8)
wt = ( k1M h + k2 M d )
ld 2
sin q 0.5(lu + t j )tu 2 (9)
Md = f (sin q ) t u kb 0.5(lu + t j )tu + (cosq ) ( fmt + fd )
3 2 3

hu + t j 6
Figure 6: Mechanism (b) Detachment of the faade where, Mv, Mh & Md are the bending moment
wall with diagonal crack in the transverse wall capacity, af is the aspect factor; ld is the design length;
k1 and k2 are the coefficients for horizontal and diagonal
bending; lu, tu, and hu are, respectively, the length,
3.2 Building with Flat RC Roof thickness and height of the brick unit; tj is the mortar
To check the out-of-plane capacity of wall in one- joint thickness; f is the capacity reduction factor for
way and two-way bending mechanism, an example of bending; q is the slope of a diagonal crack line which
single story URM building flat RC roof has been taken can be determined from unit geometry; v is the
as shown in Fig. (7). The geometrical and material poissons ratio of the masonry, typically taken as 0.2; fmt
parameters are given in Tab. (2). It is assumed that the is the flexural tensile strength of the masonry; fut is the
pier A in Fig. (7) is subjected to one-way bending as flexural tensile strength of the brick unit; u is the
there is no load transfer due to openings on both sides. ultimate shear bond stress of a bed joint given as, u =
Whereas, wall B is subjected to two-way bending 1.6fmt + 0.9fd ; and kb is a numerical factor and is equal
action as it is restrained by both top and bottom floors to 0.214 for the half overlap stretcher bonded masonry
as well as by return walls on its vertical edges. used in walls. The term fd represents the vertical
compressive stress in the wall.
The values obtained from Eq. (5) and (8) are
converted from pressure (kN/m2) to collapse
acceleration (in terms of g). For wall (A), in one-way
vertical bending action, collapse acceleration is found to
be 0.358g. For wall (B) in two-way action, the diagonal
bending capacity of 0.441g is found to be more than one
way vertical bending, because in diagonal bending, the
masonry walls are supported by shear walls and by
floors above and below resulting in two-way load
transfer.
4 Conclusion
From the review, it has been observed that force-
based methods basically lie in the simplicity of its
Figure 7: URM building with flat roof approach, characterized by a reduced number of input
530
parameters. This fact makes this kind of analysis [9] Hobbs, B., Ting, M., and Gilbert, M., An analytical
particularly appropriate in the assessment of historic approach for walls subjected to static and dynamic
masonry structures for which the input data are usually out-of-plane point loads, In Proceedings of the 10th
difficult to obtain in an accurate manner. Despite the International Brick and Block Masonry Conference
advantages, force-based approaches only give the idea Calgary, Alberta, Canada, pp. 329-338, 1994.
of maximum strength, whereas it does not provide any [10] DAyala, D., Spence, R., Oliveira, C., and Pomonis,
information on maximum displacement, which A., Earthquake loss estimation for Europes historic
represents a clear limitation of the method. town centres, Earthquake Spectra, Vol. 13, pp.
Thus, for the present study, force-based approach is 773-794, 1997.
used only to estimate the minimum acceleration value [11] Baggio, C., and Trovalusci, P., Collapse behavior
for two different buildings which may trigger a certain of three-dimensional brick-block systems using
collapse mechanism. It has been observed that the non-linear programming, Structural Engineering
boundary conditions have a significant role in out-of- and Mechanics, Vol. 10(2), pp. 1-15, 2000.
plane seismic response of URM walls. In case of [12] Livesley, R.K., A computational model for the limit
buildings with flexible diaphragm, the walls are analysis of three dimensional masonry structures,
supported on three sides. In comparison, the walls in Meccanica, Vol. 3(27), pp. 161-172, 1992.
building with rigid diaphragm either bend in one-way [13] Baggio, C., and Trovalusci, P., Limit analysis for
action vertically, or act in two-way action. The out-of- no-tension and frictional three-dimensional discrete
plane strength in two-way action has been found to be systems, Mechanics of Structures and Machines,
24% higher than that of one-way action and 63% higher Vol. 26(3), pp. 287-304, 1998.
than building with flexible diaphragm. In order to [14] De Felice, G., and Giannini, R., Out-of-plane
correctly assess its out-of-plane behaviour, a step seismic resistance of masonry walls, Journal of
forward needs to be made by integrating available Earthquake Engineering, Vol. 5(2), pp. 253-271,
analytical procedures (displacement or energy-based) 2001.
for post-cracking assessment and/or full dynamic [15] DAyala, D., and Speranza, E., Definition of
behaviour. collapse mechanisms and seismic vulnerability of
historic masonry buildings, Earthquake Spectra,
Vol. 19(3), pp. 479-509, 2003.
References
[16] Lagomarsino, S., and Resemini, S., The assessment
[1] Heyman, J., The stone skeleton, International of damage limitation state in the seismic analysis of
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249-256, 1966. 25:323, 2009.
[2] Livesley, R.K., Limit analysis of structures formed [17] Castellazzi, G., and Di Tommaso, A., Assessment
with rigid blocks, Int. J. Num. Methods, Vol. of seismic vulnerability of a Basilica: Modeling and
12(12), pp. 1853-1871, 1978. analysis of the facade macro-element, In ANIDIS:
[3] Giaquinta, M., and Giusti, E, Researches on the XIV Convegno Nazionale lingegneria sismica in
equilibrium of masonry structures. Archive for Italia, Bari, Italy, 2011.
Rational Mechanics and Analysis, Vol. 88(4), pp. [18] Giuffr, A., and Carrocci, C., Codice di pratica per
359-392, 1985. la sicurezza e la conservazione del centro storico di
[4] Del Piero, G., Constitutive equation and Palermo, Bari, 1999.
compatibility of the external loads for linear elastic [19] De Felice, G., Terenzi P., and Tocci C., Criteri di
masonry-like materials, Meccanica, Vol. 24(3), pp. progetto nel recupero strutturale, On: Codice di
150-162, 1989. pratica per la sicurezza e la conservazione del
[5] Giuffr, A., Letture sulla meccanica delle murature centro storico di Palermo, Bari, 1999.
storiche, Rome, Italy, Kappa, 1990. [20] Avorio, A., Borri, A., and Corradi, M., Ricerche
[6] Menon, A., and Magenes, G., Out-of-plane seismic per la ricostruzione. Iniziative di carattere tecnico
response of unreinforced masonry: Definition of e scientifico a supporto della ricostruzione, Roma:
seismic input. Research report, Pavia, Italy: IUSS Regione dellUmbria, DEI, 2002.
Press/European School for Advanced Studies in [21] Lang, K., and Bachmann, H., On the seismic
Reduction of Seismic Risk, 2008. vulnerability of existing unreinforced masonry
[7] Bernardini, A., Gori, R., and Modena, C., buildings, Journal of Earthquake Engineering, Vol.
Application of Coupled Analytical Models and 7(3), pp. 407-426, 2003.
Experimental Knowledge to Seismic Vulnerability [22] Willis, C.R., Griffith, M.C., and Lawrence, S.J.,
Analyses of Masonry Buildings in Engineering Horizontal Bending of Unreinforced Clay Brick
Damage Evaluation and Vulnerability Analysis of Masonry Walls, Masonry International, Vol. 17(3),
Building Structures (edited by A. Koridze), pp. 109-121, 2004a.
Omega Scientific, Oxon, U.K, 1990.
[23] IS 1905, Indian Standard Code of Practice for
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Structural Use of Unreinforced Masonry, Bureau of
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Meccanica, Vol. 27(3), pp. 213-221, 1992.
531
ESTIMATION OF MODAL CHARACTERISTICS OF A

REDUCED ORDER FLUID STRUCTURE INTERACTION SYSTEM
Hridya P Lal1, W. Dheelibun Remigius2, Sayan Gupta3, Sunetra Sarkar4.
1, 3
Department of Applied Mechanics, Indian Institute of Technology Madras, Chennai 600036, India
2, 4
Department of Aerospace Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Madras, Chennai 600036, India
Understanding of modal characteristics of fluid structure interaction (FSI) systems plays a vital role in
avoiding large oscillations and instabilities. Further, with parametric uncertainties, the onset of the
instabilities may change and hence it is important to know the statistics of the modal characteristics of the
coupled system to avoid system failures. The primary objective of the study is to estimate the statistics of
modal characteristics of the stochastic FSI system which demands intensive computation resources
especially for large ordered FSI systems. The present study also focusses on developing and
implementing a stochastic reduced order model to resolve pressure induced oscillations of a disc-like
structure as a generic fluid structure interaction system. The stochastic reduced order model uses a modal
reduction approach together with spectral projection based polynomial chaos expansion (PCE) to truncate
both the system degrees of freedom (dof) as well as the random modes. Interfacing algorithms have also
been developed that enable finite element (FE) modelling of the FSI system using commercial software
and in-house developed codes.
Keywords: modal characteristics, SEREP, FSI, PCE, reduced order model.
1 Introduction associated in estimating the modal characteristics can be

significant. The problem is compounded by the presence
This study focuses on estimating the modal
of stochasticity in the model. There is thus a need to
characteristics of a stochastic fluid-structure interaction
investigate methodologies for reducing computational
(FSI) system. The system being studied consists of a
cost.
thin annular disc immersed in a compressible fluid filled
Reduced order models for the stochastic FSI system
cylindrical enclosure. The interaction between the disc
which can reduce the computational costs without
and the acoustic system arises either from the flow
compromising the accuracy of the solution is developed
induced vibrations of the disc or from the structure
in this study. A scheme based on polynomial chaos
induced acoustic oscillations [1]. Additionally, it is
expansion (PCE) [2] and system equivalent reduction
assumed that there exist uncertainties in the
expansion process (SEREP) [3] has been developed that
mathematical modelling of the system properties, which
enables formulation of reduced order models for the FSI
are treated as random variables. A first step in
system. Reduction in the global coupled system
understanding the dynamical behavior of the FSI system
matrices is obtained through SEREP by retaining the
involves characterizing the modal properties such as the
active dofs along with the dominant dynamic modes and
coupled natural frequencies, mode shapes and the
in uncertainty quantification through PCE by retaining
frequency response functions of the coupled system.
only the first few dominant stochastic modes.
Deterministic eigenvalue analysis reveals the
Interfacing algorithms have been developed that enable
dependence of the system parameters on the disc and
finite element (FE) modelling of complex systems using
acoustic dominated coupled mode shapes. Due to
commercial FE software and the developed codes.
uncertainties in system parameters and depending on the
coupling, an eigenvalue veering phenomenon may occur.
2 Problem Formulation
As a result, a structure dominated coupled mode may
become an acoustic dominated mode and vice versa. This section explains the evaluation of the coupled
Hence, this kind of FSI systems requires the frequencies using FE approach for the full FSI model
development of high fidelity finite element (FE) models shown in Fig. 1. Further the development and the
for both the disc and the fluid. This result in system implementation of the PCE based SEREP formulation is
matrices of high dimensions, and the computational cost also explained in this section.
1
PhD scholar, hridyaplal@gmail.com
2
PhD scholar, remigius.dheelibun@gmail.com
3
Associate Professor, gupta.sayan@gmail.com
4
Associate Professor, sunetra.sarkar@gmail.com
532
Hridya P Lal, et al.
[ A] Q N is the structural-acoustic coupling matrix of

the boundary surface areas (Ref [5]).
The field Eqs. (1, 2, 3) are rewritten in matrix
form, with damping and forcing neglected, as
[M ] [0] [0] {u(t)}
-( r c) 2 [A T ]a [G]a [0] {p
p (t )} +
a

( r c) 2 [A T ]b [0] [G]b {p
p b (t )}
(4)
[ K ] [A]a -[A]b {u(t)} {0}

[0] [H]
a
[0] {p a (t )} = {0}
[0] [0] [H]b {p b (t )} {0}

Figure 1: A schematic of the considered FSI model
(Ref [4]). This equation yields the eigenvalue problem of the
gyroscopically coupled disc-acoustic system from which
2.1 Full FSI Model one can get the coupled mode shapes and the system
frequencies in the physical coordinate system. Since, the
Consider a thin annular disc backed by an annular physical coordinate involves all the degrees of freedom
cavity as shown in Fig. 1. The system shown in the Fig. (dof), which makes the analysis computationally intensive
1 can effectively model the fluid structure interaction especially for large order systems. In order to reduce the
behavior of the various engineering systems such as computational cost, as a conventional way, the field
compact disc drives, saw blades and impeller discs of equations are converted into generalized coordinate system
the centrifugal compressors, etc. The FSI behavior of using the following transformation.
the considered system involves the interaction of the ]{h (t )},
{u(t )} = [F ]{s s } = [F ]{h (t ))},
{ p(t ))} f
(5)
f
elastic field of the disc with the acoustic field of the
surrounding fluid. where [F s ] Q k and [F f ] N l are the uncoupled
Based on the discretization technique given by Ref
[1], the field equations governing the pressure modal matrix of the disc and the acoustic cavity with k and
oscillations in the upper and lower cavities coupled with l dominant dynamic modes respectively.
disc oscillations are rewritten as (Ref [5]), {hs (t )} l 1 and {h f (t )} k 1 are the generalized
[G]a {p(t)} +[H]a {p(t)}a =(c)2 [AT ]a {u(t)},
p(t)}a +[H (1) coordinates of the disc and the acoustic cavity respectively.
Making use of the transformation (5), the Eq. (4) becomes,
[G ]b { p(t )}b + [ H ]b { p(t )}b = -( r c) 2 [ AT ]b {u (t )}, (2) [ m] [0] [0] {h s (t)}
(
-( r c) 2 [CT ]a
[g]a [0] {h f (t )}
) a+
where the column matrix { p} N 1 gives the pressure at ( r c) 2 [CT ]b [0] [g]b {h f (t )}
) b
Q1 (6)
the grid points of the finite element mesh, {u} Q is [k ] [C]a -[C]b {hs (t)} {0}
the structural acceleration vector, and [ A ]
T N Q
is the
[0] [h]
a
[0] {hf (t )})}a = {{0}
transposed structural-acoustic coupling matrix of the [0] [0]
[h]b {h f (t )}
)}b {0}
{
boundary surface areas. [G ],[ H ] N N represent
acoustic mass and stiffness matrices respectively. Here the
where, [C] = [Fs ]T [ A][
][F f ] is the modal coupling matrix,
superscript a, b denote the upper and lower cavities
respectively and r ,c are the fluid density and wave and [m] = [F s ]T [ M ][
] F s ] , etc are diagonal matrices. The
propagation speed in the fluid medium respectively. elements of [C ] represent the product of the structural
Similarly, the finite element field equation governing modes with the acoustic cavity modes weighted by the
the disc displacement u coupled with the fluid oscillations bounding area attributed to each boundary point. Further it
p are discretized and rewritten as (Refs [1, 5]), is worth noting here that the modal coupling matrix
[C ] describes the gyroscopic coupling between the disc
[M ]{{u(t )} + [ D]{u(t )} + [ K ]]{u(t )}
(3) and cavity mode shapes (Refs [6]). Each coupled mode is
= {[ A]b{ p(t )}
)}b - [ A]a{ p(t )}
) a } + {F (t )}, designated either as a disc dominated mode or as an
acoustic dominated mode depending upon its energy
where, {u} Q1 designates the structural displacement content (Ref [6]). The cavity and disc mode shapes are in
general expressed as (k1, k2, k3) and (k4, k5) respectively.
vector, [ M ],[ D],[ K ] QQ represent structural mass, Here, k1, k4 represent the number of nodal diameters, k2, k5
damping, stiffness matrices respectively, {F } Q1 is the represent the number of nodal circles and k3 represents the
vector of external forces applied to the structure, and z directional node number. Moreover, for a large order FSI
system, the analysis in the modal domain by retaining the
533
selected modes is still computationally intensive which [mo ] [0] [0] {h s (t)} (
encourages the use of the model reduction techniques. -( r c) 2 [C T ]a
ro [g r ]a [0] {h f (t )} ) a+
( r c) 2 [Cro T ]b [0] [g r ]b {h f (t )}
) b
2. 2 Reduced FSI Model Using SEREP Technique (11)
Among all model reduction techniques, SEREP has [ko ] [Cor ]a -[Cor ]b {hs (t)} {0}

been found to be more reliable and accurate (Ref [7]) [0] [h r ]
a
[0] {hf (t )} )}a = {{0}
which preserves the essential dynamical behavioral [0]
[0] [h r ]b {h f (t ))}}b {{0}
characteristics of the full scale model by retaining only
lesser number of dofs known as active dofs along with
modal truncation. SEREP is an eigenvalue based In the following subsection, the effect of system
reduction technique, used to find a low dimensional randomness is going to be incorporated into the
subspace in order to approximate the state deterministic model and uncertainty quantification (UQ)
vectors {u (t )} and { p(t )} . Partitioning the state vectors is carried out in order to obtain the statistics of the
modal characteristics.
in terms of active and deleted dofs by retaining the few
important modes, one can write
2.3 Uncertainty Quantification
{ p (t )} [F r ]
{ p(t )} = r = {h f (t )}, Uncertainties can occur due to modelling
{ pe (t )} [F e ] (7) limitations and these uncertainties associated with the
{u (t )} [F o ] system parameters are treated here as random
{u (t )} = o = {h s (t )}. variables q . After incorporating the randomness, the
{ud (t )} [F d ]
deterministic model will become a stochastic model. To
Here r , o and e , d are the active and deleted dofs of get the statistics of the modal characteristics, as a
the cavity and the disc respectively. Using Eq. (5), the conventional approach, one has to solve the
truncated modal vector can be expressed as deterministic model corresponds to each sample
{h f (t )} = [Fr g ]]{
{ pr (t )},
)}, {hs (t )} = [Fo g ]{uo (t ))}, (8) realizations. This statistical sampling based approach is
widely known as Monte Carlo Simulations (MCS).
where, the superscript g refers to a generalized inverse However, to obtain the desired level of accuracy, one
needs to generate large sample sets which in turn require
of [F r ] and [F o ] respectively. Substituting Eq. (8) into
a large number of solutions of the problem. For large
Eq. (5), one gets ordered system, this can be computationally
{ p(t )} = [F f ][
][F rg ]{
]{ pr (t )} = [Tf ]{ pr (t )}, prohibitively expensive.
(9) As an alternative approach, spectral projection
{u(t )} = [F s ][
][Fo ]{
g
] uo (t )} = [Ts ]{uo (t )}, based approach known as PCE has been used here. In
where, [Tf ] N r and [Ts ] Qo are the this approach the stochastic quantities are projected
using a family of orthogonal polynomials in the random
transformation matrix which relates the full system and space. The polynomials are chosen from the generalized
the reduced system. Using the transformation matrices,
Askey scheme. A projection based non-intrusive version
Eq. (4) is reduced as, of PCE has been used here. In the PCE form, stochastic
[M o ] [0] [0] {u o (t)} state vectors can be written as the following (Ref [2]),
-( r c) 2 [A T ]a [G ]a
[0]] {p p r (t )}a + B E
ro r
u (t ,q ) = ui (t )y i (x (q )), p(t ,q ) = p j (t )y j (x (q )), (12)
( r c) 2 [A ro T ]b [0] [G r ]b {p
p r (t )}b i =0 j =0
[ K o ] [A or ] a
-[A or ]b
{u o (t)} {0} (10) where, u (t ), p (t ) are deterministic coefficients, y i ,y j are
a the orthogonal polynomials of the order i, j respectively,
{p r (t )} = {0} .
a
[0] [H r ] [0]
[0] [0] [H r ]b {p r (t )}b {0} B, E are the highest order of the orthogonal polynomials,

x is the basis random variables. Deterministic coefficients
Here, the reduced submatrices are,
are evaluated as follows,
[ M o ] = [Ts ]T [ M ][Ts ], [Gr ] = [T f ]T [G][T f ],
[ K o ] = [Ts ]T [ K ][Ts ], [ H r ] = [T f ]T [ H ][T f ], u (t , V ),y i
ui (t ) = , i = 0,1,..., B,
[ Aor ] = [Ts ] [ A][T f ].
T y i ,y i
(13)
Eq. (10) yields the gyroscopic eigenvalue problem of p(t , V ),y j
p j (t ) = , j = 0,1,..., E ,
the reduced system. In the modal domain, the Eq. (10) y j ,y j
can be rewritten as,
The inner product in the numerator is evaluated using a
tensor product quadrature as follows,
534
B1
u (t , V ),y i = u (t , V )y i wi , where B1 B,
i =0 [mo (V )] [0] [0] {u o (t , V )}
(14) -( r (V )c(V )) 2 [C (V )T ]a
E1
[h r (V )]a [0]] {p p r (t , V )}
) a+
p(t , V ),y j = p(t , V )y j w j , where E1 E. ro
j =0
( r (V )c(V )) 2 [Cro (V )T ]b [0] [g r (V )]]b {p ) b
p r (t , V )}
(17)
Here, B1 , E1 are the total numbers of collocation points [ko (V )] [Cor (V )]a -[Cor (V )]b {u o (t , V )} {0}

and wi , w j are the weight functions corresponding to the [0] [h r (V )]a [0] {p r (t , V )}a = {0} ,
[0]
[0] [h r (V )]b {p r (t , V )}b {0}
i th , j th collocation points. The weighing function
depends on the orthogonal polynomials being used; for
Hermite polynomials the associated function is the
Gaussian distribution function and the orthogonality and has to be solved to obtain the modal characteristics
condition becomes, y j ,y j = j ! and a, b represents at the collocation points. The corresponding spectral
representation of the desired random coupled eigenvalue
the standard inner product. These deterministic output can be obtained using the procedure explained in
coefficients are substituted back into Eq. (12) and Section 2.3 and the statistics of the same can be
subsequently MCS runs are carried out on these evaluated.
expressions to get the statistics of the modal
characteristics. The computational time reduction in the
uncertainty quantification has been achieved through 3. FE Modelling
PCE formulation for the full FSI model. Moreover for
the large ordered stochastic FSI model, further reduction To demonstrate the proposed methodology
in computational time can be achieved by extending the described in Section 2, the FSI system shown in Fig. 1
SEREP technique to this PCE approach. The following with the system parameters described in Ref. [4] have
subsection explains how the SEREP is applied through been considered here. The uncoupled disc and cavity are
the PCE formulation to a large ordered stochastic FSI modelled in COMSOL with appropriate boundary
system. conditions. The disc and the cavity are discretized using
296 edge elements, 640 hexahedral (bricks) elements,
1,424 quadrilateral elements and 16 vertex elements
2.4 PCE based SEREP formulation with total dofs of 23,616 and 7, 872 respectively. The
The method of stochastic collocation can be used to dofs at each node for the disc correspond to the
obtain the spectral representation of the reduced order displacements along the Cartesian coordinates and
system as well. The SEREP formulation explained in denoted by u, v, w while for the cavity, the dofs at each
Section 2.2 has been applied to the field equations in Eq. node represents the fluid pressure and is denoted by p.
(4) at the collocation points. Retaining only a specified The meshed geometries of the cavity and the disc are
number of dofs by partitioning the state vectors at the shown in Figs. 2, 3. The radial, the circumferential and
collocation points into active dofs and deleted dofs, the the axial direction are consisting of 41, 64 and 3 nodes
transformation matrices at the collocation points can be respectively.
obtained as,
{ p(t , V )} = [F f (V )][
)][Frg (V ))]{ pr (t, V )} = [Tf (V )]{ pr (t, V )},
(15)
{u(t , V )} = [F s (V )][
][Fog (V )]{
) uo (t , V )} = [Ts (V )]{uo (t, V )}.
Using the transformation matrices the reduced
stochastic FSI model at the collocation points can be
obtained as,
[ M o (V )] [0] [0] {u o (t , V )}
-( r (V )c(V )) 2 [A (V )T ]a
ro [G r (V )]a [0] {p p r (t , V )}
) a+
( r (V )c(V )) 2 [A ro (V ) T ]b [0] [G r (V )]b {p ) b (16)
p r (t , V )} Figure 2: Meshed geometry for the upper cavity.
[ K o (V )] [A or (V )] a
-[A or (V )]
b
{u o (t , V )} {0}
a
[0] [H r (V )]a [0] {p r (t , V )} = {0} .
[0] [0] [H r (V )]b {p r (t , V )} {0}
b

Eq. (16) yields the gyroscopic eigenvalue problem of

the stochastic reduced system. In the modal domain Eq.
(16) can be rewritten as,
Figure 3: Meshed geometry for the disc.
Interfacing algorithms have been used to extract the
uncoupled deterministic system matrices [G],[ H ] and
535
[M ],[ K ] from both the FE models. The coupled FSI

system also has been modeled to extract the structural- Table 1: Comparison of coupled frequencies of the
acoustic coupling matrix of the boundary surface reduced system with the full system for the case 1.
areas [ A] . The same FE discretization of the uncoupled
models (see Figs. (2, 3)) is adopted for the coupled FSI Modes Full FSI SEREP % of
model as well and is shown in Fig. (4). Model Model Error
(Hz) (Hz)
(1, 0, 0) 408.7221 408.7360 0.0034
(2, 0, 0) 781.2173 781.5462 0.0421
(1, 0) 916.9915 918.1361 0.1248
(0, 1) 927.2655 928.8834 0.1745
(2, 0) 1052.2 1053.6 0.1331
(3, 0, 0) 1117.5 1117.6 0.0089
(4, 0, 0) 1129.6 1129.8 0.0177
(5, 0, 0) 1421.3 1421.4 0.0070
(3, 0 ) 1633.6 1636.2 0.1592
(4, 0) 2633.6 2633.6 0
Figure 4: Meshed geometry for the coupled FSI model.
As in Table 1, the agreement between the SEREP
system with the full system seems to be good. The
4. Results and Discussions computational time taken for the full system is around
As a first step deterministic eigenvalue analysis has 48 mins, whereas the time taken for the SEREP system
been carried out to get the in vacuo structural modes and is around 0.7 secs. Compared to full system, the
rigid wall acoustic modes using the uncoupled system computational time has been reduced by 99.97%.
matrices. Then the uncoupled system matrices and the
coupling coefficient matrix in the modal domain have 4.2 Case 2
been evaluated by retaining only the dominant
uncoupled modes. Further, the coupled eigenvalue
analysis of the full FSI model has been carried out in the This study has been performed by keeping first 50 in
modal domain using Eq. (6). vacuo disc modes, first 50 rigid wall acoustic modes for
Next the reduced uncoupled system matrices and each cavity for both the full and the reduced system. As
the coupling coefficient matrix have been obtained by a result, the system matrices in the modal domain for
retaining only the active dofs, along with the dominant both the systems have the size of 150 150. Here, the
modes. As in full system, the reduced uncoupled system reduced uncoupled system matrices are obtained by
matrices and the coupling coefficient matrix in the considering 50 arbitrary dofs for both the disc and the
modal domain have been evaluated by performing the cavity. The results for coupled eigenvalue analysis of
reduced uncoupled eigenvalue analysis. Further, the both the full and the reduced system are given in Table.
coupled eigenvalue analysis of the reduced FSI model 2.
has been carried out in the modal domain using Eq.
(11). In order to show the computational efficiency of Table 2: Comparison of coupled frequencies of the
the SEREP model, two case studies have been reduced system with the full system for the case 2.
performed based on the number of dominant modes.
Modes Full FSI SEREP % of
Model Model Error
4.1 Case 1
(Hz) (Hz)
In this study, for the full system, first 3000 in vacuo (1, 0, 0) 408.7452 408.4248 0.0784
disc modes, first 2000 rigid wall acoustic modes for (2, 0, 0) 781.2618 779.8770 0.1773
each cavity have been considered for the coupled (1, 0) 918.4455 918.4402 0.0006
eigenvalue analysis. As a result, the system matrices in (0, 1) 929.0226 929.0226 0
the modal domain has the size of 7000 7000. It is (2, 0) 1054.1 1054.2 0.0095
worth noting here that the full system has 39,360 dofs. (3, 0, 0) 1117.6 1117.6 0
Next for the reduced system, the uncoupled system (4, 0, 0) 1129.9 1130.3 0.0354
matrices for the disc and the cavity are obtained by (5, 0, 0) 1421.5 1421.5 0
arbitrarily choosing 100 dofs, first 100 in vacuo modes (3, 0 ) 1634.8 1634.8 0
and 80 dofs, first 80 rigid wall modes for each cavity (4, 0) 2633.3 2633.3 0
respectively. Hence, the size of the system matrices is
260 260. The results for the first five acoustic
There is an exact match between the SEREP and the
dominated modes and the disc dominated modes of both
full system frequencies for most of the modes as seen in
the full and the reduced system are given in Table. 1.
Table 2. The computational time taken for the full
536
system is around 13 secs, whereas the time taken for the Stochastic Reduced Order Modelling of a Fluid
SEREP system is around 0.4 secs. Compared to full Structure Interaction System, Procedia Engineering
system, the computational time has been reduced by 144 (2016): 1213-1219.
96.92% with very high accuracy. It is also important to [5] Nefske, D. J, Wolf, J. A and Howell, L. J,
note here that the accuracy of this case study can be Structural-acoustic finite element analysis of the
improved by increasing the number of active dofs. automobile passenger compartment: a review of
current practice, Journal of Sound and Vibration
80.2 (1982): 247-266.
Further owing to the system randomness, the [6] Namcheol Kang, and Arvind Raman, Aeroelastic
analysis will be extended to stochastic domain and the flutter mechanisms of a flexible disk rotating in an
analysis of obtaining the statistics of the modal enclosed compressible fluid, Journal of applied
characteristics is currently being studied. mechanics 71.1 (2004) 120-130.
[7] Avitabile, P, Model reduction and model expansion
and their applications: Part-1, theory, Proc. 23rd
5. Conclusions Int. Modal Analysis Conf., Orlando, FL, US. 2005.
In the present work, the PCE based SEREP

formulation has been developed for a dynamic FSI
system. By means of the interfacing algorithms, the FE
modelling of the uncoupled systems has been carried
out using COMSOL. Subsequently, the FE system
matrices of the uncoupled system have been imported
from the commercial software environment and the
modal characteristics are obtained by carrying out the
coupled eigenvalue analysis. Two case studies have
been carried out based on the number of dominant
modes used for the analysis. From these two case
studies, it is observed that the computational
complexities associated with the full eigenvalue
problem have been reduced significantly by SEREP
reduction strategy. The case study with equal number of
dominant modes in both full and the reduced system
seems to be more accurate than the other study in which
the number of dominant modes is unequal. For the
purpose of brevity, the article reports the modal
characteristics of the deterministic model only.
However using the proposed PCE based SEREP
technique, the statistics of the modal characteristics can
be obtained easily.
5. References
[1] Dowell, E. H, Gorman, G. F, Smith, D.A.,
Acoustoleasticty: General Theory, Acoustic Natural
modes and Forced Response to Sinusoidal
Excitation Including Comparisons with
Experiment, Journal of Sound and Vibration, Vol.
52, No. 4,1977, pp.519-542.
[2] Ghosh D, Ghanem R (2011), An iterative-subspace
based approach to the random eigenvalue problem
of systems with clustered spectrum. International
Journal of Numerical Methods in Engineering,
91(4), 378-396.
[3] Avitabile P, Callahan J, Pan, E R (1989), Effects of
various model reduction techniques on computed
system response. Proc of the Seventh Int Modal
Analysis Conf, Las Vegas, Nevada, 1109-1115.
[4] Remigius, W. D, Hridya P. L, Jainendra K. D,
Siddhesh M. G, Sayan Gupta, and Sunetra Sarkar,
537
A SIMPLE NURBS FINITE ELEMENT FOR 2D SLOSHING

ANALYSIS
Mrityunjoy Mandal1, Shaikh Jahangir Hossain2
1, 2
A simple and accurate Non-Uniform Rational B-Spline (NURBS) based finite element (FE) is proposed for examining
the dynamic characteristics of a partially liquid-filled rigid container. The present NURBS-FE is founded on a
variational problem that arises from small amplitude sloshing of incompressible and inviscid liquid where the flow field
is assumed to be irrotational. The superiority of Ck-NURBS based FE over conventional C0-FE in terms of accuracy and
robustness is witnessed through solving a set of numerical problems.
Keywords: Rigid container, sloshing, FE analysis, Isogeometric analysis, NURBS, degree of the basis function,
frequency, free surface.
1 Introduction difficult to accommodate the incompressibility

satisfying approximation function space in the
Liquid sloshing in a container due to external
aforementioned numerical methods. These necessitates
disturbance is of major concern in many engineering
a post processing step to approximately recover the
fields. The motion of liquid inside a partially filled
dependent fields. The violation of mass conservation in
container during sloshing creates significant changes in
velocity potential based model occurs due to such post-
the hydrodynamic forces. This abrupt change of
process step involved in recovering the velocity
hydrodynamic force often causes structural damage and
components.
may destabilize the vehicle that carries the container.
In recent days, the NURBS based finite element or the
Besides, the safety issues, moving liquid container gets
Isogeometric Analysis (IGA) has emerged as a viable
severely affected by sloshing particularly when the
alternative to the conventional C0-based FEM. In IGA,
liquid is of reactive in nature. Thus, it becomes
same function spaces are used for approximating both
important to have the comprehensive knowledge about
the geometry and the fields. However, unlike the
the slosh dynamics before the design of liquid container.
isoparametric FEM, the IGA function space is capable
Significant amount of research efforts have been made
of representing the exact geometry. Moreover, the
over last few decades comprising of analytical
enrichment of the approximation space can be made
[1,2,7,11,13], numerical [3,4,5,6,8,10], and
through h-refinement, p-refinement and k-refinement.
experimental methods [1,3,9]. These studies reveal that
In this paper, we present the IGA based analysis method
the incompressibility of liquid along with the presence
for linear slosh dynamics of a partially liquid- filled
of free surface place intricate mathematical problem,
container of various shapes. The variational problem
because the time varying position of free surface cannot
associated with the slosh dynamics is given in Section-
be known a priori. Analytical methods are mainly
2. In Section-3, we present numerical results
limited to the linearized dynamic boundary conditions
highlighting various features of IGA.
[1,2,11,13]. In few cases, the perturbation methods are
applied where the weakly nonlinear dynamic boundary
condition is considered [13]. However, in almost all 2.1 Mathematical Formulation
situations the considered container shapes are kept
The initial-boundary value problem associated with
simple. In the numerical methods, i.e., based on finite
the sloshing of liquid in a partially filled container is
difference method (FDM) [6], boundary element
presented in this section. First, we start with the
method (BEM) [8,10] and finite element method (FEM)
continuous problem where we assume the Helmholtz
[3,4,5], these limitations are partially removed. In FEM
type orthogonal split of the velocity field. Thereafter,
it is a common practice to employ the same function-
we use the incompressibility condition along with the
space for approximating both the geometry and fields,
irrotational flow constraint which in turn yields the
i.e., isoparametric elements. This isoparametric FEM
modified momentum balance involving Bernoulli
has become popular due to its simplicity. On the other
pressure, velocity potential and the potential of the
hand, the generated mesh in this way only can
existing body force. The free surface dynamic boundary
approximate the geometry and the presence of C0
condition is then identified directly from the modified
connections introduces non-smoothness in the geometry
momentum balance through which the velocity potential
which in turn affects the performance of the model, i.e.,
and the free surface displacement interact. On the other
it delays the convergence rate. Again, it is extremely
1
PhD Research Scholar, mritce@iitkgp.ac.in
2
Assistant Professor, sjh@civil.iitkgp.ernet.in
538
Mrityunjoy Mandal and S J Hossain
hand, the conservation of mass or the continuity

equation defines the governing equation as the 2j = 0 in
Laplacian of the velocity potential. These define the
nj + vns = 0 on s (5)
continuous problem which can be treated as a Neumann 1
type problem with time varying data. However, for nj = j, tt on f
present analysis we use an equivalent variational g
problem which is presented after the continuous The Variational problem
problem. Subsequently, we discuss the basic ingredients Here, we start with the following variational problem
related to NURBS based FEM. that is equivalent to Eq. (5)
We use a two dimensional bounded domain Problem(Q) Find j u ] 0, T [ H 1(W ) ] 0, T [ , such
2 with the boundary for representing the that
fluid domain. Further we assume = f s a (j,dj) = l (dj)"dj v ] 0,T [ H 1 () ] 0,T [ (6)
with f s = f where f represents the free Here a (,) and l () are the bi-linear and the linear
surface and s is the interface between the fluid and forms, respectively defined as
the rigid container. This is shown in Fig 1. The a (j , dj ) := dj j d

l (dj ) := - W f dj j, tt ds
components of velocity field at a generic 1 (7)
point (x, y ) is denoted by (u, v ) . g
It may be verified that the Euler-Lagranges equations
associated with Eq. (5) are none other than those given
in Eq. (5).
In this paper, we study the modal analysis using Eq. (5)
where we assume a product decomposition
j (x, y, t ) = exp (iw t ) (x, y ) . Using this we obtain the
following Eigen value problem:
Problem(Qh) Find u H 1 () , such that
a(,d ) = b(,d )"d v H 1 () (8)
Figure 1: Representation of fluid domain where the bi-linear form b(, d ) is defined as
w2
b (, d ) :=
d ds (9)
2.1.1 Continuous problem g Wf
For an incompressible fluid, the continuity equation and 2.1.2 NURBS based Finite Element Analysis
the momentum equation in the Eulerian description are
given by Let {Ni }1n patch
be the set of NURBS basis function
div v = 0 in (1) defined over a patch that contain n patch number of
1 1
v,t + (grad v ) + grad p + curl (curl v ) = f (2) control points. These basis functions are defined in
r Re terms of spline basis. The detail procedure for
For irrotational flow, i.e., curl v = 0 in , one obtains a constructing the NURBS basis functions are given in
Ref. [12]. The 1D B-spline basis functions on a set of
unique representation the velocity field v = -grad j in
where is the so called velocity potential. In light of
{ }
knot points x1 , x 2 ,L, x n + p +1 , are computed based on
these, the momentum balance equation Eq. (2) takes the Cox-de Boor recursive formula as
following form x - xi x -x
N i , p (x ) = N (x ) + i+ p+1 N (x ) (10)
p 1 2 xi+ p - xi i , p-1 xi+ p+1 - xi+1 i+1, p-1
grad - j, t + + grad j - gZ = 0 in (3)
r 2 for p > 0 and
The dynamic boundary condition can be identified by 1 if x i x x i +1
N i ,0 (x ) =
otherwise
applying Eq. (3) at the free surface. Neglecting the (11)
0
nonlinear term the dynamic boundary condition can be
for p = 0 .
written as
1 With the aid of the NURBS basis the velocity
n j = j, tt on f (4) potential and its variation are approximated as:
g N patch N patch
where, n j refers the partial derivative of the potential j h = N i i , and dj h = Ni di (12)
i =1 i =1
function in the normal direction and this yields the
normal velocity at the boundary. where i represents the control point velocity
Therefore, we define the continuous problem as potential and should not be confused with the nodal
velocity potential in C0 based FE.
Problem(P) Find j H 2 (W ) ] 0, T [ that satisfies
539
The discrete algebraic Eigenvalue problem is

generated upon using the approximation Eq. (12) in the
variational statement given in Eq. (8) and is written as
K = lM where, l = w 2 (13)
Where, K, M, refers to the reduced stiffness
matrix, reduced mass matrix and natural frequency
respectively.
It may be noted at this point that this stiffness
matrix is rank deficient in absence of dirichlet data. In
the present study we use the following averaged
dirichlet condition to make Eq. (13) meaningful
W f ds = 0 (14)

Numerical results are presented in this section to
evaluate the performance of developed NURBS based Figure 2: Comparison of natural frequencies using a
analysis procedure. First, we consider liquid in a 16 x 16 mesh for 2mx2m container
partially-filled rigid 2D rectangular container. Next, we
present natural slosh frequencies for trapezoidal shaped
container.
3.1 Rectangular container

A rigid container of width 'w' and water depth 'h' is
considered in this problem. The initial free surface is
assumed to be horizontal. Separate codes are developed
based on both the isoparametric FEM and NURBS
based isogeometric FEM. The geometric and material
data assumed in this example problem are given in
Table 1:
Table 1: Geometric and material parameters

Geometric data Material data
w = 2m, 2m = 1.00 kg/m3
h = 2m, 1m g = 9.81 kN/m2
Figure 3: Comparison of natural frequencies using a
The mesh sizes used for the convergence study are
16 x 16 mesh for 2mx1m container
4x4, 8x8, 16x16 and 32x32.
The computed slosh frequencies are then plotted along Convergence behavior of both the FEM(bi-
with the known analytical results Ref. [13]. Here only quadratic C0) and the IGA(bi-quadratic C1) based
16x16 mesh size is considered for the plotting. From the
analysis is shown in Figs. 4,5. For this purpose, a 2m x
Figs. 2,3 it is found that the computed slosh frequencies 2m container is considered.
are in excellent agreement with the frequencies obtained Further, it is observed from Figs 4,5 that C0 type
using analytical technique Ref. [13]. The figures also FEM results converge with a slow rate when compared
indicate that higher degree of the basis function
with those obtained from IGA. Thus, even with a coarse
produces higher convergence rate irrespective of the mesh IGA based results become meaningful.
dimension of the container. It is also noted that the Higher rate of convergence of the IGA based
numerical results for C0 basis converged with the computed slosh natural frequencies are noted. The slosh
analytical results for lower modes and the rate of
natural frequencies obtained from bi-quadratic C0 FEM
convergence decreasing for higher modes. But for are compared with those obtained from bi-quadratic C1
higher degree basis functions the numerical results are IGA and are presented in Fig. 6,7.
in good agreements with the analytical results in all the It may be worthy to note from Table 2 that IGA
modes irrespective of the container dimensions. That
based computation outperforms in terms of computation
means higher degrees of basis function provides higher time and complexity. The results reported in Table 2 are
convergence rate for a given mesh. obtained from bi-quadratic C0 FEM and bi-quadratic C1
IGA and are denoted only by FEM and IGA. Here, we
choose a 2m x 2m container.
540
Figure 4: Convergence study of natural frequencies for

Figure 7: Comparison of convergence rate of natural
various mesh sizes for FEM (bi-quadratic C0)basis
frequencies for a 2m x 1m container
Table 2: Comparison of computational cost

cpu time required
Mesh DOF
(seconds)
size
FEM IGA FEM IGA
4x4 81 36 0.109 0.109
8x8 289 100 0.172 0.125
16x16 1089 324 0.672 0.547
32x32 4225 1156 8.906 2.125
64x64 16641 4356 322.797 15.266
It is also observed from the Table 2 that for a given

mesh size the Degree Of Freedom (DOF) obtained using
FEM is higher than that of IGA. Hence, the cpu time
Figure 5: Convergence study of natural frequencies for required to solve a problem in FEM is higher than that
various mesh sizes for IGA(bi-quadratic C1) basis of IGA. It is important to note that the increase of total
DOF with the mesh refinement is negligible for the
IGA. This makes the IGA attractive when compared
with the FEM.
The convergence behavior of the slosh natural
frequencies considering higher order basis functions are
presented in Figs. 8,9,10,11. A 2m x 2m container is
considered for all the cases. Optimal rate of
convergence is observed for all IGA based results.
Insignificant increase of computation time with the
increase of polynomial degree may be observed from
Table 3. Results presented in Table 3 are generated for a
2m x 2m container.
3.2 Trapezoidal container

A trapezoidal container is considered in this
example problem and a schematic diagram is shown in
Fig. 12.
Figure 6: Comparison of convergence rate of natural

frequencies for a 2m x 2m container
541
Figure 11: Convergence rate of natural frequencies for

Figure 8: Convergence study of natural frequencies for
various mesh sizes for IGA (bi-cubic C2) basis function
various mesh sizes for IGA(bi-cubic C2)basis function
Table 3: Computational cost for IGA basis

functions
DOF cpu time required (seconds)
Mesh
size p=3 p=4 p=5 p=3 p=4 p=5
C2 C3 C4 C2 C3 C4
4x4 49 64 81 0.125 0.141 0.672
8x8 121 144 169 0.234 0.500 2.500
16x16 361 400 441 0.969 0.166 10.031
32x32 1225 1296 1369 3.906 6.625 40.052
64x64 4489 4624 4761 24.484 37.375 185.109
N.B: 'p' represents polynomial degree and it is assume
that 'p' is identical in all direction.
The used geometric data and the computed slosh
natural frequencies are reported in Table 4. From Table
Figure 9: Convergence study of natural frequencies for 4 it is observed that the slosh natural frequency of
various mesh sizes for IGA(bi-quartic C3) basis function trapezoidal container decreases with the increases of the
water depth of the container and the span of the free
surface.
Figure 10: Convergence study of natural frequencies Figure 12: Problem geometry for trapezoidal container
for various mesh sizes for IGA(bi-quintic C4) basis
function
542
Table 4: Geometric data and the corresponding analysis code. Journal of pressure vessel
slosh frequencies technology, Vol. 117(3), pp.268-272, 1995.
Geometric Natural slosh frequency (Hz)
[6] Chen, W., Haroun, M. A. and Liu, F., Large
data Mode Mode Mode Mode Mode amplitude liquid sloshing in seismically excited
1 2 3 4 5 tanks. Journal of Scientific and Industrial Research,
H = 0.04 m 1.191 1.933 2.583 3.182 3.681 Vol. 25, pp. 653-669, 1996.
a = 0.1143 m
= 300 [7] Solaas, F. and Faltinsen, O. M., Combined
numerical and analytical solution for sloshing in
H = 0.07 m 1.019 1.611 2.174 2.658 3.085
two-dimensional tanks of general shape. Journal of
a = 0.166 m
ship research, Vol. 41(2), pp.118-129, 1997.
= 300
H = 0.1 m 0.895 1.406 1.903 2.317 2.676 [8] Gedikli, A. and Ergven, M. E., Seismic analysis of
a = 0.218 m a liquid storage tank with a baffle. Journal of Sound
= 300 and Vibration, Vol. 223(1), pp. 141-155, 1999.
[9] Saeki, S., Madarame, H. and Okamoto, K., Growth
4 Conclusions Mechanism of Self-Induced Sloshing Caused by
Horizontal Plane Jet. In Proceedings of the 1999
The slosh natural frequencies of an incompressible 3rd ASME/JSME Joint Fluids Engineering
fluid in a rigid container are presented in this paper. A Conference, FEDSM , Vol. 99, pp. 18-23, 1999.
NURBS based FEM or IGA-FEM analysis procedure
has been developed for this purpose. The developed [10] Dutta, S. and Laha, M. K., Analysis of the small
NURBS based FEM is then evaluated through solving a amplitude sloshing of a liquid in a rigid container of
set of numerical example problems. Comparative study arbitrary shape using a low-order boundary element
on convergence behavior of the developed IGA method. International Journal for Numerical
elements are made. It is seen that the IGA elements Methods in Engineering, Vol. 47, pp. 1633-1648,
outperforms the conventional C0 finite elements. 2000.
The developed IGA elements are then used to study [11] Cho, J. R., Lee, H. W. and Kim, K. W., Free
the slosh dynamics of an incompressible liquid in rigid vibration analysis of baffled liquid-storage tanks by
non-rectangular containers. The developed elements the structural-acoustic finite element formulation.
show high convergence rate in computing natural slosh Journal of sound and vibration, Vol. 258, pp. 847-
frequencies when compare with the conventional C0 866, 2002.
based finite elements. Unlike the conventional FE, the
developed IGA-FE require insignificant increase of [12] Cottrell, J.A., Hughes T. J. R. and Bazilevs Y.,
computer resources, i.e., memory, for hp-refinement. Isogeometric Analysis Toward Integration of CAD
Study on slosh dynamics in a flexible container is and FEA, A John Wiley and Sons, Ltd., Publication,
under progress. United Kingdom, 2009.
[13] Ibrahim, R. A., Liquid Sloshing Dynamics Theory
References and Applications, Cambridge University Press,
New York, 2005.
[1] Aslam, M., Godden, W. G. and Scanlinell, D. T.,
Earthquake sloshing in annular and cylindrical
tanks. Journal of Engineering and Mechanics
Division, Vol. 105, pp. 371-389, 1979.
[2] Bauer, H. F., and Eidel W., Frictionless liquid
sloshing in circular cylindrical container
configurations. Journal of Aerospace Science and
Technology, Vol. 3, pp. 301-311, 1999.
[3] Okamoto, T. and Kawahara, M., Two-dimensional
sloshing analysis by Lagrangian finite element
method. International Journal for Numerical
Methods in Fluids, Vol. 11(5), pp. 453-477, 1990.
[4] Wu, G. X. and Taylor, R. E., Finite element
analysis of two dimensional nonlinear transient
water waves. Journal of Applied Ocean Research,
Vol. 16, pp. 363-372, 1994.
[5] Tokuda, N., Sakurai, T. and Teraoku, T., Sloshing
analysis method using existing FEM structural
543
A Quadrilateral Finite Element Based on Third Order Theory for

Free Vibration Analysis of Composite Beams and Plates Containing
Delaminations
Adnan Ahmed, Santosh Kapuria

Department of Applied Mechanics, IIT Delhi 110016
E-mail :amz138574@am.iitd.ac.in

CSIR-Structural Engineering Research Centre, CSIR Campus, Taramani, Chennai 600 113
E-mail: kapuria@am.iitd.ac.in, kapuria@serc.res.in
ABSTRACT
In this work, we present a four-node quadrilateral element for analysis of laminated beams and plates containing
delaminations, based on the third order theory. The element circumvents the need of satisfying C1-continuity for the
deflection variable by using discrete Kirchhoff technique. A region-wise approach is employed at the delamination front
and the continuity of inplane displacements at the delamination front is enforced using least squares technique. The free
mode model for the delamination is adopted for the free vibration analysis. Results for composite beams containing full
width-wise delaminations of two different lengths and at four locations across the thickness are presented and compared
with the experimental and other available analytical and finite element results.
Keywords: Delamination, Third order theory, Finite element, Composites
1. Introduction
In laminated structures, various damage modes are 2. Third order theory approximations
The inplane displacements, u! and u" are assumed to

possible, delamination being the most significant and
severe among them. Delaminations, which are
and the transverse displacement, w is independent of z:

essentially debonding or separation between adjacent have a third order variation in the thickness direction z,
1w&
plies, may occur during manufacturing due to, e.g.
u&' (x, y) 0 4
u! (x, y, z) 1x
incomplete wetting, air entrapment, large out-of-plane
# $=% + - z /1w 3
u" (x, y, z) u&* (x, y)
interlaminar stresses near free edges etc. or during
/ &3
service due to low velocity impact etc. Delaminations
. 1y 2
can be partial or full widthwise, and there can be
&! (x, y)
5 (z - 6z 7 :8h9 ) % +,
multiple delaminations along the thickness and/or length
&" (x, y)
of the laminated structure. Delaminations may not be
;w(x, y, z) = w& (x, y)

visible or be barely visible as they are embedded within
the laminate, but their presence may significantly alter (1)
where h is the thickness of the plate and w& is the

the vibration characteristics of the structure and/or
transverse displacement of the middle plane. u&!

reduce its strength, which may lead to a catastrophic
and;u&" ;and;&! and &" denote the translation

failure [1]. The concept of dividing the delaminated and
the integral segments into different individual
beams/plates is known as the region approach. It is components and shear rotation components of the
schematically shown in Fig. 1. The delaminated layers middle plane, respectively.
are assumed to have no mutual interaction/contact
between them during the deformation, which is called as
3. Finite element formulation
the free mode model in literature. A four-node
quadrilateral element based on the third order theory
(TOT) is employed for the analysis. The continuity of A four-node quadrilateral element with seven DOFs per
the inplane displacements and rotations at the node is developed based on the TOT. The nodal degree
delamination front is implemented using a of freedom vector is given by
?
u = <u&! ;;u&" ;;w& - w&,! - w&," ;;&!;; &" >
transformation approach and the relation between the
degrees of freedom (DOFs) of the intact and (2)
delaminated segments is obtained using the least squares
method for the third order approximation of the inplane The displacement variables;u&! ,u&", &! and &" are
displacements. In contrast to the existing method, the
delamination front conditions are satisfied without interpolated in terms of their values at the four nodes
invoking the approximate penalty method. Similarly, the using the bilinear Lagrange interpolation function as
u&! = Nu@&! , u&" = Nu@&" , &! = N@&! , ;&" = N@&" (3)

requirement of C1-continuity of transverse displacement
is satisfied without using the penalty method, ensuring
shear locking free behavior of the element.
544
Adnan Ahmed and Santosh Kapuria
;u@&! = [uA&! u9&! u7&! uB&! ]? , u@&" = CuA&" u9&" u7&" uB&" D ,
where
?
uX;! u&X;' w&,!
X X;&!
% + = % + - z % + 5 (z - 6z 7:
8h 9)
% +,
uX;" uX;&* w&,"
?
@&! = CA&! 9&! 7&! B&! D @&" = <A&" 9&" 7&" B&" > ,
? X X;&"
N = [NA N9 N7 NB ], NE = FG 5 E HFG 5 E H.
uY! uY&' w&,!
Y Y&!
% + = % + - z % + 5 Fz - 6z : 8h H Z \ (8)
(4)
7 9
u;Y
" uY&* Y
w&,"
Y Y Y Y
Y&"
(i , i) are the parametric coordinates of the nodes,
ranging between (1,1). Since in the expressions of
transverse displacement w& , it requires C1- continuity at

strains there are second order derivatives of the of
For upper delaminated segment on the delamination
coordinate transformations, ^_ = ^ - 5 _ (Fig. 1(d))

` `
the boundary of the element which is achieved by using front, we define the following functions using the
a a
IDKQ technique, w&,! and w&," are replaced by rotation
the improved discrete Kirchhoff technique [2,3]. In
bc = d`jak` (egf - eif )a _^ and ba = d`jak` (egl -

variables &! and &" which are interpolated `ja `ja
_ ja _ ja
eil )a _^
independently, but are subsequently related by imposing
(9)
the constraints &! =w&,! and &" =w&," at discrete points
on the element boundary as well as in the interior.
Employing this technique, the rotations &! and &" are
and for the lower delaminated segment on the
finally expressed in terms of w&E , w&,!

E
(= E&! ) and ^_ = ^ 5 - _
` `
delamination front using the coordinate transformations,
a a
w&"
E
(= E&" ) at the four nodes i=1,2,3,4 as
bm = dk`ja (egf - eif )a _^ bn = dk`ja (egl -

_ ` k`ja _ ` k`ja
I&! = w&,! =JK&@ I&" = w&," =LK&@ .
eil )a _^
and
(5)
(10)
w&@ =
where
Cw&A w&,M w&O w&9 w&,M w&O w&7 w&,M w&O w&B w&,M w&O D ,
A A 9 9 7 7 B B ? The conditions for displacement continuity at the
delamination front can be obtained as follows:
P = [PA P9 PA9 ],Q = [QA Q9 QA9 ]. obckn obckn obckn obckn obckn obckn
= = = = =
(6)
oeipq oeipr oKp,q
i
oKp,r
i
osipf osipl
P(, ) and Q(, ) are IDKQ interpolation functions
=p
[4]. This technique ensures complete compatibility of
the deflection field along the element sides. For the
purpose of computing the consistent mass matrix and the
load vector for the distributed transverse load,w& is
The following transformation matrix relates the nodal
DOFs of the node in the delaminated segment to the
interpolated assuming a bicubic interpolation functions DOFs of the node in the integral segment:
w& = CN R A;; N
R 9N
R 7N
R BN
R SN
R T;;;;N
R UN
R V;; N
R W;; N
R A& N
R AA N
R A9 Dw&;;
as [4].
@
(7) uD=[T]uI
;
The element stiffness matrices, mass matrices and load
0 c;;p;;p;; t - v ;;p;; { `_ 5 ` - a`_ | ;;p;; 4

m a
`_ `
vectors are obtained using Hamiltons principle.
/ a a mà m m`
3
/ p;;c;;p;;;;;p;; t - v ;;p;; { _ 5 - a`_| 3
m a
` _ ` ` `
/ m` 3
4. Continuity conditions at delamination front
a a mà m
/ p;;p;;c;;;;;p;;;;;;;;;;;p;;;;;;;;;;;;;;p;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;p;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;; 3
/ 3
T=/ p;;p;;p;;;;;c;;;;;;;;;;;p;; { à - ` | ;;;;;;;;p;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;; 3
aà a`_
To analyze a composite beam or plate with
delaminations, continuity of the displacements are to be _
/ a` 3
p;;p;;p;;;;;;p;;;;;;;;;;c;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;p;;;;;;;;;;;; { - _|3
aà
ensured at the delamination front. The delaminated and
/
_
à `
/ 3
the intact segments are modeled separately following the
/p;;p;;p;;;;;;p;;;;;;;;;;;p;;;;;;;;;;;;; à ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;p;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;3
à
region-wise approach. Due to the third order
_
/ 3
approximation of the displacement field, exact
.p;;p;;p;;;;;;p;;;;;;;;;;;p;;;;;;;;;;;;;;p;;;;;;;;;;;;;;; à ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;2
à
satisfaction of continuity of the inplane displacements
_
along the thickness is not possible. Therefore, the
continuity condition is approximately satisfied by (11)
employing the least squares method. The inplane
displacements for the integral and delaminated
segments are expressed individually as
545
Figure2 FE model of a delaminated plate with node

numbering.
@ ] and [
[} @ ] are the element stiffness and mass matrix
respectively and [@ ] is the element transformation
matrix. [@ ] is formed as
A ; ; ;
; 9 ; ;
[~ ] =
; ; 7 ;
(12)
; ; ; B
where is the nodal transformation matrix. is

obtained using Eq. (11) for the nodes which are on the
delaminated element will be an identity matrix of

delamination front only, for other nodes of a
size 7x7.
Figure 1 (a) A beam with a single through width
delamination (b) FE model of a delaminated beam (c)
FE model of a delaminated plate (d) Third order
5. Results
variation
A cantilever beam with eight plies [0o/90o]2s having
where uD and uI are the nodal DOFs of the delaminated dimensions 127 mm x 12.7 mm x 1.02 mm is considered
and intact segment on the delamination front. hd and h here. The delaminations are full width-wise and are
are the thicknesses of the upper/lower delaminated 50.8 mm and 101.6 mm long. The location of the
segments and the intact segments respectively. For the delamination across the thickness is taken at four
node on the upper delaminated segment (zc>0), + sign interfaces as shown in Figure 3. The present TOT FE
is taken and for the node on the lower delaminated results for the fundamental frequency of the beam using
segment (zc<0), sign is taken. a 20 x 1 mesh size are compared with the experimental
and other available analytical and FE results in Table 1.
The results are in very good agreement with 3D FE
At the delamination front, the nodal DOFs of the results and also with other TOT based FE results. The
elements of the intact segment are taken as the primary theoretical results match well with the experimental data
variables (Figure 2), whereas the DOFs of nodes which reported in literature for cases 1 and 3, but they show
belong to the elements of delaminated segments are significant difference for cases 2 and 4 when the
related to the primary variables of the intact segment. delamination occurs at 0o/90o interfaces, and the
Accordingly, the stiffness and mass matrices of the difference is higher for the ones nearer to the surface.
delamination front are transformed as [} ~ ] =

elements in the delaminated segments containing the This difference is obviously due to the free model
~ ][~ ] and [~ ] = [~ ] [
[~ ] [} ~ ][~ ], respectively.
assumption in the theoretical analysis, which does not
hold so well in these cases.
546
Adnan Ahmed and Santosh Kapuria
6. References
[1] Garg, A. C., 1988. Delamination damage mode in

composite structures, Engineering Fracture Mechanics,
29, pp. 557- 584.
[2] Batoz JL, Tahar MB.,1982. Evaluation of a new

quadrilateral thin plate bending element. Int J Numer
Methods Eng 18, pp. 165577.
[3] Jeyachandrabose C, Kirkhope J, Meekisho L.,1987.

An improved discrete Kirchhoff quadrilateral thin-plate
bending element. Int J Numer Methods Eng 24, pp.
63554.
[4] Kapuria S and Kulkarni S D., 2007. An improved

discrete Kirchhoff quadrilateral element based on third-
Figure 3 locations of delamination at different layer order zigzag theory for static analysis of composite and
interfaces. sandwich plates Int J Numer Methods Eng. 69, pp.
194881.
Table 1 Fundamental natural frequencies (Hz) of cantilever beams with delamination
Case Delamination Present FE TOT FE [5] FSDT anal. [6] Experimental [6] Abaqus 3D FE
length (mm)
Intact 0 82.212 81.87 82.042 80.087 81.741
Case 1 50.8 76.884 76.522 75.285 75.369 75.782
101.6 56.974 56.556 57.239 57.542 56.267
Case 2 50.8 77.273 76.889 78.103 75.126 79.112
101.6 58.127 57.687 62.121 48.335 58.654
Case 3 50.8 80.771 80.451 79.932 79.750 78.581
101.6 71.755 71.212 71.663 72.640 72.452
Case 4 50.8 80.945 80.620 80.383 68.917 80.265
101.6 73.305 72.717 73.147 55.626 72.611
[5] Hu, N., Fukunaga, H., Kameyama, M., Aramaki, Y.

5. Conclusions and Chang, F., 2002. Vibration analysis of delaminated
composite beams and plates using a higher-order finite
A four-node quadrilateral element for laminated beams element, Int J Mechanical Sciences 44, pp. 1479- 1503.
and plates containing delaminations has been developed,
based on the third order theory. The novelty of the [6] Shen, M.-H. and Grady, J., 1992. Free vibrations of
element is that it enforces the continuity of inplane delaminated beams, AIAA Journal 30, pp. 1361-1370.
displacements at the delamination front for the entire
thickness of the delaminated regions using the least
squares technique through direct transformation instead
of conventional approach of satisfying it only at their
mid-surfaces. Also, the C1-continuity for the deflection
variable is satisfied by using discrete Kirchhoff
technique, leading to locking free element. Results
obtained using the present element for composite beams
containing full width-wise delaminations of two
different lengths and at four locations across the
thickness show excellent match with those from other
available analytical and finite element results.
547
THREE DIMENSIONAL ANALYTICAL SOLUTION FOR FGM PLATE WITH

VARYING MATERIAL PROPERTIES IN INPLANE DIRECTIONS USING
EXTENDED KANTOROVICH METHOD
POONAM KUMARI1* ; AGYAPAL SINGH2
1,2
Department of Mechanical Engineering, IIT Guwahati, Guwahati-781039, Assam, India
ABSTRACT
A three-dimensional analytical solution for a functionally graded plate with longitudinally varying
material properties is developed the first time. The plate is subjected to Levy type boundary
condition. A closed-form solution is developed using extended Kantorovich method. Deflections
and stresses by taking three varying indexes ( d1 ) are studied under different boundary conditions.
Keywords: Functionally graded material, Kantorovich method, Analytical, Power series method
1. INTRODUCTION
Functionally graded materials (FGMs) are a new variation of material properties along x and z-
class of advanced composite materials in which direction. Recently, Tahouneh and Naei [4]
material properties varies gradually with respect developed 3D dynamic solution for thick two-
to the spatial coordinates. Bamboo, bones, teeth, directional functionally graded Levy-type FGM
wood are the excellent example of natural plate using two-dimensional DQM. Liu et al. [5]
occurring FGMs. Manmade designed\fabricated analyzed a Levy-type rectangular plate
FGMs are specially used in aerospace and considering power law variation of material
biomedical field. Jha et al. [1] presented the properties along the longitudinal direction.
current state of research for static and dynamic Classical plate theory (CPT) is used to develop
analysis of thermoelastic FGM plates. Very the governing equation and Runge-Kutta
recently, a comprehensive review of method is applied for a solution. Very recently,
mathematical models for FGM plate under Amirpour et al.[6] developed the analytical
bending, buckling, and dynamic analysis is solution using higher order shear deformation
presented by Swaminathan et al. [2]. In theory for all round simply supported FGM
literature, most of the research work is related to plate assuming an in-plane variation of stiffness.
modelling and analysis of FGM plates and shells Mostly numerical or semi-analytical techniques
having material property variation along the were used for three-dimensional analysis of in-
thickness direction. Very limited work is plane or multidirectional functionally graded
reported in the literature for FMG plates with a structures. As per Authors knowledge, there is
longitudinal variation of material properties. Lu no three-dimensional analytical solution exist
et al. [3] applied the di!erential quadrature for plates of in-plane stiffness variation. The
method (DQM) to solve 3-D elasticity equation powerful extended Kantrovich method (EKM)
of Levy-type multi-directional functionally originally proposed by Kerr [7] for two-
graded rectangular plates with an exponential dimensional (2D) elasticity problems is
1
Assistant Professor, kpmech@iitg.ernet.in
2
Research Scholar, agyapal@iitg.ernet.in
548
Poonam Kumari and Agyapal Singh
generalized to the three-dimensional (3D) varying constant, x1 = x / a, x 2 = y / b are non-

elasticity solution for the multilayered plate by dimensional quantities. The plate is subjected
Kapuria and Kumari [8,9]. In this paper, EKM to simply-supported boundary conditions along
is applied to develop an analytical solution for the y-axis and along x-axis any boundary
rectangular functionally graded plate conditions can be applied e.g. clamped, free,
considering a variation of material properties soft-clamped.
along the x-direction. Applying the variational
process along the inplane (x) and thickness (z)
directions, yield a system of 6n ODEs with 3. THEORETICAL FORMULATION
variable constant and 3n algebraic equation in
the direction of x and a similar set of equations By using Mixed Reissner-type variational principle
with constant coefficient in the z direction. In for a linear elastic medium, the weak form of
thickness direction, exact closed-form solutions governing equation considering material variation
are obtained using the approach given in Ref [9] along x-axis is expressed as
and in in-plane direction, the system of ordinary
differential equation has variable coefficients, [d u (t
V xz , z
+ s x , x + t xy , y ) + d v(t yz , z
which is then solved by employing the modified + t xy , x + s y , y ) + d w(s z , z + t zx , x + t yz , y )
power series method suggested by Kukla [10]. + ds x {( s11 + s11 )s x + ( s12 + s12 )s y
Numerical results are obtained for a thick FGM
+ ( s13 + s13 )s z - u, x } + ds y {( s12 + s12 )s x
plate with different boundary conditions
considering three value of variation index ( d1 ). + ( s22 )s y + ( s23 )s z - v, y } - ds z {w, z ....(2)
- ( s13 + s13 )s x - ( s23 )s y - ( s33 )s z }
- dt yz {v, z + w, y - ( s44 )t yz } - dt zx {u, z
2. BASIC ASSUMPTION
+ w, x - ( s55 )t zx } - dt xy {( s66 )t xy - v, x + u, y }]dV = 0
A rectangular FG plate of uniform thickness h,
span length a along the x-direction and length The boundary conditions at top and bottom surfaces
b along y-direction as shown in Fig.1 is of the plate are
considered for the present study. The plate is at z = - h / 2 s z = - p1 , t yz = 0, t zx = 0
made of FGM material.
at z = - h / 2 s z = - p2 , t yz = 0, t zx = 0 ....(3)
The boundary conditions at the edges x1 = 0 and 1

are set according to type of support given as
Simply Supported (S): w = 0, s x = 0, v = 0
Clamped (C): w = 0, u = 0, v = 0 ....(4)

Fig. 1 Geometry of FGM Plate Free (F): t xz = 0, s x = 0, t xy = 0
For the present case, material properties are
The boundary conditions at edges x 2 = 0 and 1 are
assumed to be vary along x-axis as
s1 mj = s1 j (1 + d1x1 ) s1 j + s1 j ....(1) assumed to be hard simply supported (SH)
for j=1,2,3 w = 0, s y = 0, u = 0
Where s is compliance properties, d i is
549
4. EKM APPROACH n
d X l = [ X lSy or X lCy ] fl i (x1 )d g li ....(7)

The field variables to be solved are in column m =1 i =1
matrix form as for l = 1, 2,......9

X = [u, v, w,s x ,s y ,s z ,t xy ,t yz ,t zx ] T
The solution is assumed in separable form as Functions gli (z ) are partitioned into a column
X l (x1 , x 2 , z ) = X lx (x1 ) X ly (x 2 ) X lz (z ) ....(5) vector G of that six variables which appear in
for l = 1, 2...9 the boundary and interface conditions and a
To obtain analytical solution in y-direction, the column vector G consisting of the remaining
y
field variables X l is expressed in term of three variable
Fourier series in y-direction as
G = [ g1 g 2 g 3 g 6 g8 g 9 ]T

G = [ g 4 g 5 g 7 ]T
(u, w,s x ,s y ,s z ,t zx ) = (u, w,s x ,s y ,s z ,t zx ) m sin mpx 2
m =1 Eq.{7} is substituted in Eq.{2} and integration is

performed over x1 direction on the known
X l (x1 , z )m X lSy (x 2 )
m =1 function of x1 . Since the variation d gli is

(v,t yz ,t xy ) = (v,t yz ,t xy ) m cos mpx 2 arbitrary, thus coefficient of d g must be zero
i
l
m =1

individually. This result in the following system
X l (x1 , z ) m X lCy (x 2 ) of 9n differential algebraic equations for d gli
m =1
Where ( ) m denotes m Fourier component

th MG,z = AmG + A mG + Q ....(8)
which is a function of x and z. KG = AmG + Q m ....(9)
The solution for the lth variable X l are where
assumed in the following form: A6mn6 n = A + Av ; A6mn3n = A + A v

X l (x1 , x 2 , z ) = X lSy (x2 ) or X lCy (x2 ) A3mn6 n = A + Av Q6mn1n = Qp + Qpv
m =1
( ), ( )v contain constant and varying components
{ n
i =1
i i
fl (x1 ) gl (z ) + d l 6 [ pa + zpd ]} } respectively. Substituting the G from Eq.{9}
into Eq.{8} gives
for l = 1, 2,......9 ....(6)
i i
Wherein fl (x1 ) and gl (z ) are the univariate G,z = AG + Qp ....(10)
function of x1 and z respectively, for the ith m K m -1 Am ]
with A = M [ A + A
-1 m
term of the n-term series solution. These

functions are to be determined iteratively, Qpm = M -1[Qpm + A m K m -1Q m ]
satisfying all homogenous boundary The general solution for the Eq.{10} is
conditions.
6n
5. FIRST ITERATION STEP G (z ) = Fi (z )Ci + U 0 + z U1 ....(11)
i =1
In this step, functions fl (x1 ) are assumed, for which
i
the variation d X i is obtained as This complete the first iteration step.
550
6. SECOND ITERATION STEP F, x = ( B0 + x1B1 + x12 B2 )F + P0 + x1P1 ....(15)

gli (x1 ) from the previous step is
1
The solution of
i
now taken as known a priori, wheres fl are Where
considered unknown. The variation d X i for this -1B);
B0 = N -1 ( B + BL
case is obtained as -1B v + B v L-1B);
B = N -1 ( B v + BL
1
n
d X l = [ X or X ] g (z )d fl ....(12) for
y
lS
y
lC
i
l
i
B2 = N -1 ( B v L-1B v );
m=1 i =1
l = 1, 2,......9 P0 = N -1 ( Pm + BL -1P );
m
Functions fl (x1 ) are partitioned into a column

i
P = N ( P + B L P );
1
-1 v
m
v -1
m
vector F consisting of that six variable that appears
in the boundary conditions along the x-direction The above Eq.{15} is set of non-homogenous
given in the Eq.4 and a column vector F of the ordinary differential equations with the variable
remaining three variable coefficients. Thus, the solution for Eq.{15} is
F = [ f1 f2 f3 f4 f7 f 9 ]T expanded in terms of a power series in the
dimensionless axial coordinate x1 (0 x1 1)
F = [ f5 f 6 f8 ]T
as
Eq.{12} is substituted in Eq.{2} and integration is
performed over z direction on the known function
n
Yix1i
F (x1 ) = ....(16)
of z . Considering that variation d f l are arbitrary,
i i =1 i!
Further above assumed solution is modified as:
the coefficient of d f l in the resulting left-hand side
i
( )

expression are equated to zero individually. This F j (x1 ) = Zi jx1i + H i jx C0 i

1
......(17)
i =1 i =1
result in the following system of differential
i Where C0 is evaluated by applying edge
algebraic equations for fl
conditions where Z i (x1 ) and H i (x1 ) are given
f f f by recursive relations which are obtained by
NF,x1 = B F + B F + Pm ....(13) substituting Eq.{17} into Eq.{15}. The infinite
power series is truncated to a finite number of
LF = B F + Pm
f f
....(14) terms such that the contribution of the first
-10
Where neglected term is less than10 .
B f = B + x1B v ; B f = B + x1B v
7. NUMERICAL RESULTS
P = P + x1P ; B = B + x1B
m
f v f v
A thick square metal FG plate with S=5 and the
Youngs modulus (66.2 Gpa) of plate varies
Pmf = Pm + x1Pmv along the length with variation index of
and d1 = 0, 0.5, 1.0 is considered for the numerical
N , B f , B f , L, B f are 6n 6n, 6n 6n, study. Poisson's ratio (n = 0.33) is assumed to
6n 3n, 3n 3n, 3n 6n matrices respectively be constant. The plate response is obtained for
following pressure load at the top of the plate.
Substituting the F from Eq.{14} for into Eq.{13}
gives
p2 = p0 sin(p y / b)
551
The results are non-dimensionalised with The longitudinal variation of deflection and
Y0 = 10.3 Gpa as follows stresses (normal and shear) for different
boundary conditions (eg. CC, SS, SF, FF) are
w = 100 wY0 / p0hS 4 ; presented in Figs.2-5 for the thick plate (S=5).
(s x ,s y ,t xz ,t yz ) = (s x ,s y , St xz , St yz ) / p0 S 2 Results are presented for different variation
index d1 =0, 0.5, 1. Fig.2 presents the
Since there is no analytical solution exist for a longitudinal variation of deflection ( w ) and
plate with longitudinal varying material properties.
inplane stress ( s x ) for SS (Simply supported-
Therefore, the present method is validated with
respect to 3D FE results. For FE analysis spatially Simply supported) and CC (Clamped-
graded property distribution (at different Gauss Clamped) boundary conditions. For
points) with the quadratic hexahedral solid comparison, 3D FE results are also plotted for
element is implemented by employing user d1 =0.5 and it is observed that as the variation
material subroutine (UMAT) in ABAQUS FE index for material properties increases, the
software. location of maximum deflection and inplane
552
stress shift toward right for both cases (SS as well as [3] Lu, C., Lim, C. W., Chen, W., Semi-analytical
CC boundary It is also observed that there is analysis for multi-directional functionally graded
significant variation in inplane stress ( s x ) for SS plates: 3-D elasticity solutions. International
and in deflection for CC boundary conditions. Journal for Numerical Methods in Engineering 79
Longitudinal variation of transverse shear stresses (1), 2544 2009.
[4] Tahouneh, V., Naei, M., A novel 2-D six-
t zx , t yz is plotted in Fig.3 and it observed that there
parameter power-law distribution for three-
is noticeable variation in t yz as compared to t zx for dimensional dynamic analysis of thick multi-
both cases. It is evident from the Fig.2 and 3 that directional functionally graded rectangular plates
present results are in good agreement with 3D FE resting on a two-parameter elastic foundation.
results. Similarly, Fig.4 and 5 present the variation Meccanica 49 (1), 91109 2014.
of deflection and stresses for SF (Simply supported- [5] Liu, D., Wang, C., Chen, W., Free vibration of
Free) and FF (Free-Free) boundary conditions. As FGM plates with in-plane material inhomogeneity.
variation index increases, the deflection ( w ) for FF Composite Structures 92 (5), 10471051, 2010.
boundary conditions decreases. While for other [6] Amirpour M, Das R, Saavedra Flores EI.,
support conditions it increases and the reverse trend Analytical solutions for elastic deformation of
functionally graded thick plates with in-plane
is followed by stress ( s x ). No significant variation
stiffness variation using higher order shear
is observed for transverse shear stress under SF and deformation theory. Compos Part B (94): 109-21,
FF boundary conditions. These results can be taken 2016.
as benchmark results for verifying 2D theories and [7] A.D. Kerr, An extension of the Kantorovich
numerical results. method Quart Appl Math, 4 pp. 219229, (1968).
[8] Kapuria S., Kumari P., Extended Kantorovich
method for three-dimensional elasticity solution of
8. CONCLUSION laminated composite structures in cylindrical
The first time a closed form 3D solution is presented bending. Journal of Applied Mechanics 78(6)
for a functionally graded plate with longitudinally 061004-061004, 2011.
varying material properties. The location of [9] S. Kapuria, P. Kumari, Multi-term extended
maximum deflection and maximum stresses in the Kantorovich method for three dimensional
case of in-plane FG plate are different than the elasticity solution of laminated plates. J Appl Mech
homogeneous plate. The significant effect of Trans ASME, 79 (6), 2012.
properties variation on a deflection and inplane [10] Kukla S., Zamorska I., Power series solution
stress is observed and boundary condition plays an of first order matrix differential equations, Journal
important role in the behavior of longitudinal of Applied Mathematics and Computational
varying FGM plate. Mechanics 13(3), 123-128, 2014.
REFERENCES-
[1] D.K. Jha, T. Kant, R.K. Singh, A critical review
of recent research on functionally graded plates.
Compos Struct, 96 pp. 833849 2013.
[2] K. Swaminathan, D.T. Naveenkumar, A.M.
Zenkour, E. Carrera, Stress, vibration and buckling
analyses of FGM plates-A state-of-the-art review.
Compos Struct, 120, pp. 1031, 2015.
553
EFFECT OF SUPPORT SETTLEMENT ON THE BEHAVIOUR OF

STONE MASONRY ARCH BRIDGE
T. P. Vijayalekshmi1, Job Thomas2
1,2
School of Engineering, Cochin University of Science and Technology, Kochi, Kerala 682022,
In this paper, the behaviour of an existing masonry stone arch bridge when subjected to
foundation settlement is evaluated. The 13 Arch Bridge, also called Kannara Bridge situated in the
Kollam-Shenkottai Ralway line is considered for this study. This bridge is originally designed for
Meter Gauge (MG) load and is now being upgraded for Broad Gauge (BG) load. CATIA V5 is
used to model the bridge in its original form and strengthened form. Transient load analysis is
carried out in ANSYS V15 to study the deformation of the bridge in different situations. The
cases, namely, when the supports are intact and when the central support sinks with respect to the
other supports were analysed for the original bridge and for the strengthened bridge. The middle
support deflection and maximum principal stresses were determined. A parametric study on the
influence of thickness of the concrete jacket on the deformation properties of the bridge was
carried out. Three thicknesses for the concrete jacket, namely, 200 mm, 450 mm and 600 mm,
were considered. It is found that the provision of concrete jacket offers high resistance against
deformation of the bridge due to settlement. The concrete jacket of 450 mm is suggested as a
feasible solution to mitigate the settlement problems.
Keywords: Stone masonry, arch bridge, support settlement, transient analysis, middle support
deflection
1 Introduction lateral load carrying capacity of stone arch bridges

Masonry arch bridges are surprisingly strong increases as a result of strengthening. Domede et
structures; most of them are constructed centuries al. [6] predicted the effects of existing cracks in
ago. These structures are still in use and have to presence of displacement of supports. It is
carry increased loads than they are actually concluded that the compressive strength of the
designed for. These bridges have a major role in masonry remains a decisive factor in the load-
transportation in many countries. There are about bearing capacity of the bridge. Kindij et al. [7] in a
19600 masonry arch bridges in Indian Railways, study observed that differential settlement of pier
which are originally designed for loads lower than foundations cause damage to the pier itself and also
that in the new code provisions. The present study cause damage of the barrel, spandrel walls, or
aims to understand the behaviour of a modified drainage system. Reccia et al. [8] analysed an
stone arch bridge situated in the Kollam-Shenkottai existing bridge under foundation settlements. It is
Ralway line when subjected to foundation found that a vertical small displacement of the pile
settlement. These structures are getting worldwide could worsen the serviceability conditions.
attention and there are certain studies on masonry
arch bridges regarding pier settlement and 2 Salient features of the Stone Masonry Arch
strengthening. Gilbert [1] modelled a twin-span Bridge
bridge subjected to central support settlement in The bridge under study is 143.22 m long and
Ring software .It is found that support settlement has thirteen arches of 9.14 m span and 3 m rise.
may lead to incremental damage to the structure. The central pier is about 19.895 m high. It is a
Luboweicka et al. [2] indicated that due to the live stone masonry arch built a hundred years ago. The
load there is local bending of the arch which causes stone arch of the original bridge is 600 mm thick.
tensile stress and foundation settlement affects the Concrete jacketing is provided for all the twelve
total stress state in the bridge structure. Farhad et piers. The intrados of the arches are provided with
al. [3] analysed three stone arch bridges of the Iran 450 mm jacketing. The original bridge is shown in
railway using SAP2000. It is suggested that Figure 1.
strengthening the arches, results in a considerable
increase in lateral capacity of stone arch bridges. 3 Geometric Model
Gonen et al. [4] found that excessive stresses at The software used for modelling is CATIA
critical points cause failure of stone arch bridges. V5. It is a solid modelling commercial tool used for
Behnamfara and Afshari [5] suggested that the modelling of complex structures like masonry arch
1
M. Tech. student, vlekshmi.tp@gmail.com
2
Associate professor, job_thomas@cusat.ac.in
554
T. P. Vijayalekshmi and Job Thomas
bridges. The central pier, two adjacent piers, two

central full spans and two half spans on either side
of the bridge were considered for the analysis. The
drawing of the original bridge and strengthened
bridge are shown in Figure 2 and Figure 3
respectively.
Figure 2: Original Bridge Drawing
Figure 1: Stone Masonry Arch Bridge under study
The parts of the railway masonry arch bridge

namely piers, arches, spandrel walls, infill and
ballast are separately modelled in the part
workbench and assembled in the assembly
workbench of CATIA V5.
Figure 3: Strengthened Bridge Drawing
4 Finite Element Model
The geometric model of the bridge is imported 4.2 Element and meshing
to the ANSYS V15 environment. The material SOLID 186 is a 3D-brick element and is used
properties are assigned to all parts of the bridge. for modelling the structure. 10-noded tetrahedral
Proper meshing is done to the geometry. Supports elements and 20-noded hexahedral elements are
are introduced so that the middle support is free to used in the meshing of various parts of the
sink. Loads are applied according to the Bridge structure. The element sizes used in the meshing of
Rules [9] the original bridge model and retrofitted bridge
model are 150 mm and 200 mm respectively. The
4.1 Material Properties finite element models of the original structure and
The geometric model of the bridge is imported the retrofitted structure are shown in Figures 5 and
to the ANSYS V15 environment. The material 6 respectively.
properties of stone masonry are assigned to the
piers and arches. Youngs modulus of masonry is 4.3 Boundary Conditions
taken as 10000 MPa, Poissons ratio as 0.2, and Supports are assigned beneath the piers at the
density as 2200 kg/m3 [10]. The nonlinear stress- ends. The settlement of the middle pier is modelled
strain response of stone masonry as suggested by with no supports beneath the central pier. Loads
Grandjean and Brhwiler [11] is considered and is based on the Bridge Rules [9] are considered in the
as given in Figure 4 (a). Youngs modulus of fill analysis. Dead load is the self-weight of the
material is taken as 5000 MPa, Poissons ratio 0.2, structure together with the permanent loads and it
density 1800 kg/m3, cohesion 0.5 kPa and angle of is applied by selecting the standard earth gravity
internal friction 30o [12]. Drucker-Prager criterion option. Live load is the Broad Gauge load plus the
is used to model the soil fill. The ballast properties dynamic effects. The BG loco load is shown in
are Youngs modulus 150 MPa, Poissons ratio Figure 7. The axle load is 245.25 kN and there are
0.35 and density 2500 kg/m3 [13]. In the case of twelve axles. The distance between the axles at the
strengthened bridge, the stress-strain response of ends is 26.688 m. The dynamic effect is accounted
concrete in compression as shown in Figure 4 (b) is for in the computation of load and the impact factor
considered [14]. is 1.11.
555
The centrifugal effect may be negligible [15]

for these types of massive structures. As
recommended in the Arch Bridge Code [16], the
tractive effort and breaking effect are not
considered.
Figure 5: Finite Element Model of Original

Structure
(a)
Figure 6: Finite Element Model of strengthened
Structure
Figure 7: Broad Gauge loco loading (all

dimensions are in mm)
7 Results
(b)
The deflection values evaluated in the various
Figure 4: Stress-Strain Curves (a) Stone Masonry cases, with settlement are given in Table 1.
(b) Concrete in Compression
Table 1 Predicted deflection in settlement
6 Finite Element Analysis Middle Support
Transient analysis is carried out and the middle Particulars Deflection
support deflection and stresses in the structural (mm)
elements of the bridge are determined. In transient Original Bridge 85.80
analysis, the position of load is varying with time.
The movement of load in the structure is Strengthened Bridge with 200
20.39
considered and it takes 8.3 seconds for the BG loco mm thick jacketing
load to cross the bridge corresponding to the train Strengthened Bridge with 450
15.23
speed of 31 km/hr as laid down in the route mm thick jacketing
specification. The middle support deflection and Strengthened Bridge with 600
maximum principal stresses at every second in the 14.95
mm thick jacketing
analysis of the original bridge is determined.
Similar analyses were carried out for the retrofitted The maximum middle support deflection was
bridge with varying thicknesses of concrete jacket found to be 85.80 mm in the original bridge. By
namely 200 mm, 450 mm and 600 mm. providing 200 mm thick concrete jacketing, the
middle support deflection is reduced to 20.39 mm
.A further reduction of 5.16 mm is seen when the
thickness of the jacket is increased to 450 mm. In
the case of retrofitted bridge with 600 mm
jacketing, the value is found to be 14.95 mm. There
is only 0.28 mm reduction even if the thickness is
556
T. P. Vijayalekshmi and Job Thomas
increased from 450 mm to 600 mm. It is found that 8 Conclusions

the 450 mm thick concrete jacket offers high In the analysis, excessive deformation is
resistance against deformation of the bridge due to observed for original masonry arch bridge. In the
settlement. Hence it can be concluded that the case of retrofitted arch bridge, the deformation is
support settlement problems can be effectively found to be reduced to a large extent. Concrete
mitigated using the jacketing. The middle support jacketing at the intrados of the arches and around
deflection plotted against time for the original the piers is found to be effective in controlling the
bridge, 200 mm, 450 mm and 600 mm thick settlement of intermediate pier. It is found that 450
retrofitted bridge is given in Figure 8. mm concrete jacket is a solution to control the
excessive deformation due to middle support
settlement. The principal tensile stresses in the
structural elements of arch bridge subjected to
support settlement are found to be considerably
reduced by introducing the concrete jacket.
References
[1] Gilbert, M., Limit analysis applied to masonry
arch bridges: state-of-the-art and recent
developments, ARCH07 5th International
Conference on Arch Bridges, 2007.
[2] Luboweicka, I., Arias, P., Reiveiro, B. and
Solla, M., Multidisciplinary approach to the
Figure 8: Middle support deflection vs. Time assessment of historic structures based on the
case of a masonry bridge in Glacia (Spain),
The deformation contour of the original bridge Computers and structures, Vol. 89, pp. 1615-
and 450 mm retrofitted bridges are shown in 627, 2011.
Figures 9 and 10 respectively.
[3] Farhad, B. and Mahmood, A., Collapse
Analysis and Strengthening of Stone Arch
Bridges against Earthquake, International
Journal of Architectural Heritage , 7(1),
2011.
[4] Gonen, H., Dogan, M., Karacasu, M.,
Ozbasaran, H. and Gokdemir, H., Structural
Failures in retrofit historical Murat masonry
arch bridge. Engineering Failure Analysis;
Figure 9: Total deformation in original bridge Vol. 35 pp. 334342, 2013.
[5] Behnamfara, F. and Afshari, M., Collapse Analysis
and Strengthening of Stone Arch Bridges Against
Earthquake, International Journal of Architectural
Heritage: Conservation, Analysis, and Restoration,
Vol. 7(1), 2013.
[6] Domede ,N.,Sellier, A. and Stablon, T.,
Structural analysis of a multi-span railway
masonry bridge combining in situ
Figure 10: Total deformation in 450 mm thick
observations, laboratory tests and damage
retrofitted bridge
modelling, Engineering Structures, Vol. 56,
pp. 837849, 2013.
The maximum principal tensile stress due to
the settlement of middle pier in the original [7] Kindij, A., Mandi Ivankovi, A. and Vasilj ,
structure was found to be 6.1248 MPa and the M.,Adjustment of small-span masonry arch
location is near the middle support. By introducing bridges to present-day demands, Graevinar
the concrete jacket of 450 mm, the maximum 1/2014, Vol. 66 (1), pp. 37-49, 2014.
principal tensile stress was found to be 0.70446 [8] Reccia, E., Milani, G., Cecchi, A. and Trali, A.,
MPa, which is significantly lower than the Full 3D homogenization approach to
magnitude in the original structure. It is found that investigate the behavior of masonry arch
jacketing is an effective solution in reducing the bridges: The Venice trans-lagoon railway
stress in the structural elements of arch bridge bridge, Construction and Building Materials,
subjected to support settlement. Vol. 66, pp. 567586, 2014.
557
[9] Bridge Rules, Research Designs and [13] Sowmiya, L.S., Shahu, J.T. and Gupta, K.K.,
Standards Organization, Lucknow Three Dimensional Finite Element Analysis
[10] Fanning, P. J. and Boothby, T. E., Three- of Railway Track, Indian Geotechnical
dimensional modelling and full-scale testing Conference, GEOtrendz, IGS Mumbai
of stone arch bridges, Computers and Chapter & IIT Bombay, 2010.
structures, Vol. 79, pp. 2645-2662, 2001. [14] Sabale, V. D., Borgave, M. D. and Joshi, P.
[11] Grandjean, A. and Brhwiler, E., Load- K., Non-Linear Finite Element Analysis of
bearing capacity of masonry arch bridges Deep Beam, International Journal of
using a plastic model, Protection of Historical Engineering Research & Technology (IJERT)
Buildings, PROHITECH 09 Mazzolani (ed) Vol. 3(5), 2014.
2009 Taylor & Francis Group, London, [15] Molins, C., Casa, J. and Roca, P., Ultimate
ISBN 978-0-415-55803-7, 2009. capacity of a curved multi-span arch bridge
[12] Raj, E. S., Srinivas, V. and Sakaria, E. P., subjected to railway loads, Book of Congress
Failure Behaviour of Masonry Arch Bridges Proceedings 5th International Conference on
using Finite Element Analysis, International Arch Bridges, pp. 593-600, 2007.
Journal of Emerging Technology and [16] Arch Bridge Code; Code of Practice for the
Advanced Engineering, Vol. 4(11), 2014. design and construction of masonry and plain
concrete, Lucknow, India
558
559
Patient-Specific Analysis of Neglected cases of Development Dysplasia of Hip
DK Agrawal1*, R Poudel2, SA Khan2, A Prasad1,3*

1
Department of Applied Mechanics, Indian Institute of Technology Delhi, New Delhi, 110016, India
2
Orthopedics Department, All India Institute of Medical Science Delhi, New Delhi 110029, India
3
South Dakota State University, USA
(*danendraagrawal01@gmail.com)
Developmental Dysplasia of the Hip (DDH) is a deformation due to misalignment of hip joint. Treatment of neglected
DDH cases can be challenging due to disease related morbidity (osteonecrosis, hip deformation, tissue remodelling) and
the need for open reduction. Here we perform computational analysis of neglected cases of DDH to quantify and
compare mechanical loads distribution on the normal and dislocated sides and identify severity of deformation. This in
turn can help doctors in improved decision-making and post-operative care.
Keywords: Developmental Dysplasia of Hip or DDH, Joint reaction force, Youngs modulus of pelvis bone, FE
simulation
1 Introduction
2 Methodology
DDH is abnormal contact between the articular
We obtained computer tomography smoothened
surface of the femoral head and that of the acetabulum.
(CT) scans of four patients undergoing treatment at All
It is common cause of childhood disability and occurs in
India Institute of Medical Science, New Delhi for
up to 28.5 cases per 1000 infants at the time of birth [1].
neglected DDH. The patient varied in age from 7 years
If diagnosed and treated within first year, bone grows
to 32 years as given in Table 1.
normally. Neglected cases of DDH can lead to uneven
walking due to shortening of one leg. On long term, 2.1 Image Segmentation
DDH can cause permanent disability due to damage to
surrounding ligaments, tendons, muscles, and nerves Based on the CT data, a three-dimensional model of
and may also result in degenerative arthritis [2]. In India hip joint was created by image segmentation (ScanIP,
as well as many developing countries, many cases of Simple ware Inc). Bones appear sharper on CT image
DDH go undiagnosed due to absence or irregular access and hence was automatically segmented based on
to well-baby check up. Hence many cases with Hounsfield number greater than 100 and noise reduction
neglected DDH come to a clinicians attention at a later via smoothening filter (Recursive Gaussian).
stage of life (> 2 year). At this stage, choice of treatment Smoothened image is eroded for proper model creation
requires detailed physical and radiological assessment and visualization. Femur cavity was segmented after
[3] and has higher failure rate [2]. bone segmentation. However, due to absence of sharp
Untreated DDH leads to progressive degeneration contrast for cartilage and soft tissues, segmentation step
of joint [1,2], in part due to mechanical effects such as involved manual drawing based on underlying CT
higher contact stresses at the joints [3]. Thus a detailed image data.
comparison of mechanical effects (contact stresses, load
transfer, joint reaction forces) between normal and Table 1: Patient cases analyzed
dislocated side can provide physicians improved
assessment of impact of neglected DDH. This in turn Cases Sex Age Weight (N)*
can help in improved treatment methodology and in (yrs.)
better assessment of long-term physical therapy routine. P1 F 7 200
The current work is a step in that direction. We perform P2 F 32 600
geometrical and computational analysis of neglected P3 M 15 700
cases of DDH to quantify and compare deformation and P4 F 9 250
load distribution on the normal side with dislocated
side, and thus identify severity of deformation.
1
M.Tech Student, danendraagrawal01@gmail.com
2
Professor
3
MS student
4
Asst Professor
560
DK Agrawal, et al.
2.2 Model Setup For case P2 that represents advanced age of DDH (32
years), there was complete loss of soft collagen of hip
Using the model generated above, detailed finite
joint on the dislocated side. Hence the femur head was
element simulation was performed (Abaqus Standard,
directly hinged on the pelvis bone. For all other cases,
Dassaults Systems Inc). The three-dimensional model
the femur head on the dislocated side was fully
was meshed using quadratic tetrahedron with optimized
dislocated with layers of soft tissue connecting it with
mesh size. A convergence study of the mesh size for the
pelvis. This layer of soft tissue was manually
models used here was performed in this study (Table3).
reconstructed during image reconstruction (Figure 2).
A fixed boundary condition was applied on semi-pelvic
Figure 3 shows the model created after thresholding.
area and at cortex of pubis [4-6]. Tied interaction was
Figure 4 shows overall stress distribution and Figure 5
considered for acetabula cup and femur head with soft
shows contact stress for the two patient cases P2. As
tissue and cartilage. For loading, the weight of the
seen from Figure 5(a), there is a symmetrical stress
person was applied on lumber spine under the
distribution on the normal side. Conversely, from Figure
assumption that due to dislocated femur, the person is
5(b), the stress distribution is non-uniform and
standing on normal side, and taking small steps for
randomly connected to the pelvic area which potentially
dislocated side of motion.
can be cause of pain during walking, impact loading and
many other activities. Contour of contact stress on
2.3 Material Properties normal side was validated against results of earlier work
(Anderson e al. 2008). Validation of stress pattern was
Estimation of the elastic modulus from CT number
validated against previous results [9,10], where similar
is a two process to (a) first estimate bone density from
to the current work femur neck was found to be the
CT number, and then (b) apply empirically derived
location of higher stress concentration and iliac crest
relationship to calculate elastic modulus from bone
was the location of minimum stresses in pelvis. In our
density [6,7]. For femur, density is obtained from
current work, stress values in the femur neck is between
equation 1 based on work done by Rho et al [6], and
4 MPa to 6 MPa which is within acceptable range and
elastic modulus is obtained by Eq. 2 [7]. For pelvic bone,
as reported by previous authors [11].
density and modulus was obtained by equation 3 and
Sacroiliac joint is also highly stressed as we have taken
equation 4 respectively [6]. Relationship for lumber
it to be rigid, but in-vivo condition there is typically soft
spine was considered same as for pelvis. Earlier it was
tissue which provide damping and cushioning effect,
done by making division on section and assigning
which is not considered here, due to lack of suitable
properties of cortical and cancellous now we have
image quality across patients. In addition, for older
introduced property based on CT number as it is site
patient groups, there was significant degradation of the
specific. For femur cavity mechanical property is taken
tissue. Another limitation of the study is unavailability
as 50 MPa and for soft tissue like cartilage is taken as 6
of patients for gating pattern which is needed for
MPa.
validation of reaction forces in both sides and also we
havent performed mesh convergence study for this
rfemur=(131+1.067*CT)*10-3 (1)
analysis.
E=6.4*rfemur1.54 (2) Result of joint reaction force from analysis is
shown in Table 2. For all cases, load on the normal side
rpelvis=(47+1.222*CT)*10-3 (3) was a larger share of the total, maximum being 75% for
patient P3, and minimum being 54% for patient P4.
E = -0.349+5.82*pelvis (4) Table 2: Reaction force distribution between the normal
where E is elastic modules in GPa, r is density in g/cm ,3 and dislocated side.
and CT is in Housefield values. Patient Weight Normal Dislocated side
(N) Side (N) (N)
P1 200 135 85
P2 600 375 225
3 Results P3 700 525 175
P4 250 135 115
Figure 2 shows CT data of four cases, while
corresponding segmented image is shown in Figure 3. Loads are unequally distributed, with normal side
For all cases, femur head on the dislocated side had sharing more than 50% of the load.
undergone modification compared to the normal side.
561
Figure 1: CT data for the patient cases with neglected DDH cases. The arrow indicates dislocated
side
Figure 2: CT image data with automatic (for bone) and manual segmentation (for soft tissue)
(a)
(b)
Figure 3: 3 D model after thresholding for (a) 7 year old patient (b) 32 year old patient
(a)
Figure 4 : FE simulation
(b) result showing stress distribution for (a) 7 year old patient (b)
32 year old patient (unit=MPa)
562
DK Agrawal, et al.
References
[1] Dezateux, C. and Rosendahl, K., 2007.
Lancet, 369(9572), pp.1541-1552.
[2] Kandemir, U., Yazici, M., Alpaslan, A.M. and
Surat, A., 2002. Morphology of the knee in adult
(a) patients with neglected developmental dysplasia of
the hip. J Bone Joint Surg Am, 84(12), pp.2249-
2257.
(a) [3] Noordin, S., Umer, M., Hafeez, K. and Nawaz, H.,
2010. Developmental dysplasia of the
hip. Orthopedic reviews, 2(2), p.19.
[4] Dalstra, M. and Huiskes, R., 1995. Load transfer
across the pelvic bone.Journal of
biomechanics, 28(6), pp.715-724.
[5] Anderson, A.E., Ellis, B.J., Maas, S.A. and Weiss,
J.A., 2010. Effects of idealized joint geometry on
finite element predictions of cartilage contact
stresses in the hip. Journal of biomechanics, 43(7),
pp.1351-1357.
[6] Rho JY, Hobatho MC, Ashman RB. Relations of
(b) mechanical properties to density and CT numbers
in human bone. Medical engineering & physics.
Figure 5: Contact surface stress for 32 year old patients 1995 Jul 31;17(5):347-55.
for (a) Normal Hip side (b) Dislocated Hip side [7] Keller TS, Mao Z, Spengler DM. Young's modulus,
bending strength, and tissue physical properties of
human compact bone. Journal of Orthopaedic
Research. 1990 Jul 1;8(4):592-603.
4 Discussion [8] Anderson, A.E., Ellis, B.J., Maas, S.A , Peters,
L.C., and Weiss, J.A., (2008) Validation of Finite
From segmented geometry and computational analysis Element Prediction of Cartilage Contact Pressure in
we deduce that unusual contact with lower load and the human Hip Joint, J Biomech Eng October:
lower stress distribution can result in improper femur 130(5) :051008
head growth compared to normal head. A convergence [9] Benzley,S.,Perry,E.,Merkley,K.,Clark,B.,&Sjaarde
study has been performed for optimal mesh size and ma,G.(1995) A comparison of all Hexagonal and
Validation of stress pattern on the assembly has been All Tetrahedral Finite Element Meshes For Elastic
done with Anderson et al., which defines uniform stress and Elasto-Plastic Analysis.Proceedings, 4th
distribution of on the contact area of femur and pelvis International Meshing RoundTable.(PP179-191).
for normal side. Contact stress pattern has been [10] Bergmann, G., Deuretzbacher, G., Heller, M.,
analysed, by this we can predict the location of higher Graichen, F., Rohlmann, A., Strauss, J., Duda,
stress and even the cause of pain during walking and G.N., (2001) Hip contact forces and gait patterns
impact loading due to any other activity. Further by from routine activities, Journal of Biomechanics
stress distribution it will help us to know the growth 34859-871
pattern of bone in dislocated bone and its orientation, as [11] Rudman KE, Aspden RM and Meakin JR(2006)
growth of bone is stress induced. As dislocated part will Compression or tension? The stress distribution in
grow in quite abnormal way as compared to normal. the proximal femur, BioMedical Engineering
Furthermore, femur on the dislocated side was attached OnLine 2006 5:12
with the hip via soft tissue and tendons, which lead to
greater load on these soft tissues and can lead to pain.
Continued work in this direction requires stress
distribution analysis under complete gait cycle during
walking and specific activities like climbing, and sitting.
Such study can provide doctors with load quantification,
which in turn can improve treatment and long-term care.
Further, such understanding can lead to design of
external mechanical support to reduce severity of
uneven contact and load distribution.
563
FREE EDGE EFFECTS IN PIEZOLAMINATED COMPOSITE

PANELS UNDER ELECTRIC POTENTIAL LOADING
N. Dhanesh1, Santosh Kapuria2
1
Department of Applied Mechanics, Indian Institute of Technology Delhi, New Delhi 110016, India
2
CSIR-Structural Engineering Research Centre, Chennai, 600113, India
A three-dimensional coupled piezoleasticity based analytical solution is developed for the free edge stress
field in piezolaminated composite panels under electric potential actuation. The governing equations are
developed using Reissner-type variational principle and the solution is obtained using the recently
developed mixed-field multiterm extended Kantorovich method (MMEKM). The presented mixed-field
approach allows for exact satisfaction of all boundary and interlaminar conditions, and also ensures the
same order of accuracy for displacement/electric potential and stress/electric displacement variables.
Numerical results are presented to study the effect of piezoelectric layer thickness on the interfacial stress
distribution near free edge under electric potential loading.
Keywords: 3D piezoelasticity, extended Kantorovich method, hybrid laminates, free edge effects
1 Introduction symmetric laminates, which satisfied traction free

condition at the free edge. But, the two-way
The smart laminated structures with integrated
electromechanical coupling through the direct
piezoelectric layers have become a popular choice in
piezoelectric effect was not considered. Also, the
many applications such as shape control, vibration
interlaminar continuity condition on displacement is not
suppression etc. Such structures are characterized by
satisfied in a point-wise sense, which questions the
sharp changes in the mechanical and electric properties
accuracy of predicted stress field. In the present work,
across the layers, leading to the development of
we employ mixed-field multiterm extended Kantorvich
interlaminar stresses at the layer interfaces near the free
method (MMEKM), developed by the author group [7]
edges, which often leads to initiation of delamination
for three-dimensional coupled piezoelasticity solution of
damage. This results in premature failure of the laminate
hybrid laminates in cylindrical bending, to study the
or loss of actuation/ sensing authority of the
free edge effects in smart laminated panels under
piezoelectric layers. Hence, an accurate estimation of
electric potential loading. The presented approach
the three dimensional (3D) stress field near the free
satisfies all the boundary and interlaminar conditions
edges is important.
exactly and pointwise, leading to an accurate solution.
Since exact analytical solutions for the 3D
piezoelasticity equations of free edge problems were not
known, approximate solutions were evolved. Initially 2 Governing Equations
Davi and Milazzo [1] employed boundary element
Consider an infinitely long composite laminated
method to obtain coupled 3D piezoleasticity solution for
panel integrated with piezoelectric layers having a span
free edge problems. Later free edge problem of a hybrid
length of a along x-direction (free edges at x=0 and
cantilever beam under actuation potential is studied
x=a), and thickness h along z-direction. The layers are
using 3D finite element (FE) method [2]. Various 2D
numbered from bottom to top (k=1,2L), and the
laminate theories such as second order shear
thickness of kth layer of the laminate is denoted by t(k).
deformation theory [3], higher order layerwise theory
The principal material axis x1 of the kth layer is at an
[4], and zigzag theory [5] has also been employed to
angle k with the x-axis, whereas the x3-axis of all layers
study the free edge effects in hybrid laminates under
being oriented along the z-direction. The bottom and top
electric potential loading. The attempts for predicting
surfaces of the laminate are prescribed with either
free edge stress field with 2D laminate theories and
electric potential ( fi ) (actuation) or electric charge (Di)
numerical solutions were found to be inaccurate, as the
free edge boundary condition are satisfied in terms of (sensing).
stress resultants only and not in terms of stresses. Since the laminate is infinitely long in y-direction,
Recently, Huang and Kim [6] proposed a stress function the laminate is considered to be under generalized plane
based approach for the free edge stress analysis of strain condition. The strain-displacement and electric
field-potential relation can be written as
1
Research Scholar, dhaneshn115@gmail.com
2
Director, kapuria@am.iitd.ac.in
564
N. Dhanesh and Santosh Kapuria
e x = u, x , e y = 0, e z = w, z , For effective actuation, the interface between

g yz = v, z , g zx = w, x + u, z , g xy = v, x , elastic and piezoelectric layers are grounded ( f =0),
(1) where Dz is discontinuous.
Ex = -f, x , E y = 0, Ez = -f, z
where Ei denotes the electric field components. The 3 MMEKM Solution

piezoelectric laminates considered here belong to
The MMEKM is an iterative method developed by
orthorhombic materials with class mm2 symmetry. The
the author group for the analytical solution of complex
3D piezolelasticity constitutive relation for such
3D elasticity/piezoelasticity problems in mechanics of
laminate with respect to the principal axis can be written
laminated composite structures. Such problems involve
as:
partial differential equations (PDEs), which are difficult
to solve analytically, satisfying all the associated
e = Ss + d T E , D = ds + E (2) boundary conditions exactly. In such situations,
approximate methods based on variational principle are
where S, d and are the matrices of elastic compliances, generally used to solve PDEs, for example, Ritz and
piezoelectric strain constants, and dielectric Galerkin methods. However, the accuracy of final
permittivities. The governing equations are obtained solution obtained in these methods is strongly affected
using Reissner-type mixed variational principle for by the initial trial functions adopted. In MMEKM, such
piezoelectric medium without body force and internal dependency of solution on initial trial functions is
charge source [7], can be written as removed, and it has shown excellent convergence
characteristics for complex multivariate problems,
d u(s x, x + t xz , z ) + d v(t xy, x + t yz , z ) including prediction of edge effects [7, 8] in hybrid
V laminates.
+d w(t zx , x + s z , z ) + df ( Dx , x + Dz , z ) In MMEKM, the primary variables includes both
+ds x (e x - u, x ) + ds z (e z - w, z ) (3) displacements/electric potential and stresses/electric
+dt yz (g yz - v, z ) + dt zx (g zx - u, z - w, x ) displacements, X=[u v w s x s z t xy t yz t zx f Dx Dz ]T and
+dt xy (g xy - v, x ) - d Dx ( Ex + f, x ) their solution is expressed as
-d Dz ( Ez + f, z )]dV = 0, "d ui , ds i , df , d Di
n
Xl (x , z ) = fl i (x )gli (z ) + d l 9 g9 (7)
where V denotes the volume of the panel per unit length. i =1
The above equation implies, all the associated surface
boundary conditions are satisfied exactly. The final form for l=1,2,..,11, where n is the number of terms in the
of variational equation is obtained after substituting Eqs. solution approximation. fl i (x ) and gli (z ) are functions
(1,2) in Eq. (3), and the same can be seen in Ref. [7].
in the in-plane and thickness directions, respectively.
The free edges can be under open (D prescribed) or
d l 9 is Kroneckers delta, g9 = f1 (1 - z ) for k=1, and
closed circuit ( f prescribed) condition, and the traction
free conditions must be satisfied exactly and pointwise. g9 = f2z for k=L. The additional term g9 is added to
The boundary conditions at the free edges x=0 and x=a the general solution, to satisfy the non-homogeneous
can be written as boundary condition of prescribed f at the bottom and
top surface of the laminate. The functions fl i (x ) and
s x = 0, t zx = 0, t xy = 0, f = 0 or Dx = 0 (4)
gli (z ) are determined iteratively. Each iteration in the
The boundary conditions at the bottom and top solution process involves the following two steps:
surfaces are
h 2.1 Solving for gli (z )

at z = - : s z = 0, t yz = 0, t zx = 0,
2 In the first step of iteration, functions fl i (x ) are
f = f1 or Dz = D1
h (5) assumed, and the functions gli (z ) are evaluated for each
at z = : s z = 0, t yz = 0, t zx = 0,
2 laminate layer. By substituting X l and its
f = f2 or Dz = D2 variation d X l in the variational Eq. (3), and equating the
At the kth interface, the following continuity coefficients of d gli individually to zero, yields the
conditions has to be satisfied, following system of 8n first order ordinary differential
and 3n algebraic equations for gli (z ) :
[(u, v, w, s z , t yz , t zx , f , Dz ) |z =1 ]( k )
(6)
= [(u, v, w, s z , t yz , t zx , f , Dz ) |z =0 ]( k +1)
MG ,z =AG+AG+Q AG
; KG=AG (8)
565
where column vector G contains those eight to number of terms in the solution approximation is
independent variables that appear in the variational Eq. assessed separately for each problem.
(3) with differentiation with respect to z, and column
vector G contains the remaining three variables of 4 Numerical Results
functions gli (z ) . The non-zero elements of the matrices
K and A are same as those presented in Ref. First, the results obtained using MMEKM are
M, A, A, compared with those of the stress function based
[7]. The load vector Q has the following non-zero solution proposed by Huang and Kim [6], where they
element: presented free edge stress field in cross-ply laminate
[PZT-5H/90/0]s having span to thickness ratio S=4,
Qi 7 = f11i f (9) under an electric field of 2x105 V/m. The thickness of
a
both elastic and piezo layers is same and their properties
1 are as given in Ref. [6]. The variation of t zx along the
where ... a
= a (...)d x , denotes the integration over piezo-elastic interface (Fig. (1)) obtained using
0 MMEKM shows excellent convergence and good
the span a. In Eq. (9), f = f1 for the first layer (k=1), agreement with those of [6]. Also, the through-thickness
f = -f2 for the last layer (k=L), and for all the other variation of s z at the free edge shows (Fig. (2))
layers, f = 0. As the functional forms of fl i (x ) are excellent match with those of [6], except at the peak
location, where its magnitude increases with the number
known, the solution of the system of equations in Eq.
of terms (n), indicating the presence of singularity.
(8) is obtained analytically, satisfying the boundary
conditions at bottom and top surfaces in Eq. (5), and
interlaminar continuity conditions in Eq. (6). The
evaluation of G and G completes the first step of
iteration.
2.2 Solving for fl i (x )
In the next step, the functions along the in-plane

direction fl i (x ) are evaluated, considering the gli (z )
obtained in the first step as known. Similar to first step,
the following system of differential-algebraic equations
are obtained for fl i (x ) :
Figure 1: Comparison of longitudinal distribution of
; LF=BF+P
NF,x =BF+BF+P BF+P (10)
t zx along PZT-5H/90 interface with those of Ref. [6]
Similar to first step, the unknown functions fl i (x )

are also grouped into two column vectors F and F . The
elements of load vectors P and P are given by
Pi1 = - p18 g 4i g9,z , Pi 2 = - p68 g 6i g9,z

h h
(11)
Pi1 = p38 g5i g9,z , Pi 3 = g11i g9,z
h h
L 1
where ... h
= t ( k ) (...)( k ) d z , denotes the integration
k =1 0
across the entire thickness of the laminate. All the
integrals in the elements of the matrices in Eq. (10) are Figure 2: Comparison of thickness distribution of s z at
obtained in closed form. The elements of other matrices
in Eq. (10) are same as those presented in Ref. [7]. The the free edge of [PZT-5H/90/0]s laminate with those of
Ref. [6]
solution of F and F is obtained analytically following
the procedure presented in Ref. [7]. This completes one Next, the effect of piezoelectric layer thickness (hp)
iteration in the solution process. The process of iteration on the variation of transverse shear stress at the
is continued until desired level of convergence is actuator-structure interface is studied. Symmetric cross-
achieved. The convergence of the solution with respect ply laminates integrated with piezoelectric fibre
566
N. Dhanesh and Santosh Kapuria
reinforced composite (PFRC) as actuators/sensor at the [4] Mannini, A. and Gaudenzi, P., Multi-layer higher-
bottom and top surfaces are considered for the purpose. order finite elements for the analysis of free-edge
The material properties of the elastic layers (Gr/Ep) and stresses in piezoelectric actuated laminates,
PFRC layers are taken from Ref. [9] and Ref. [7], Composite Structures, Vol. 63, pp 263-270, 2004.
respectively. The [PFRC/90/0]s laminate having S=4 [5] Kapuria, A. and Kumari, P., Boundary layer effects
with different actuator thickness (maintaining h as in Levy-type rectangular piezoelectric composite
constant) has been analyzed under uniform actuation plates using a coupled efficient layerwise theory ,
potential loading ( f1 = -f0 , f2 = f0 ). A constant electric European Journal of Mechanics A/Solids, Vol. 36,
field Ez0=4x104 V/m is maintained in all the cases by pp 122-140, 2012.
changing the value of f0 based on the PFRC thickness. [6] Huang B. and Kim H. S., Interlaminar stress
analysis of piezo-bonded composite laminates using
The results are normalized as t zx = t zx S 2 / Y2 d33 Ez 0 . The the extended Kantorovich method, International
variation of t zx along the actuator-substrate interface Journal of Mechanical Sciences, Vol. 90, pp 16-24,
obtained for laminates different hp/h ratio (Fig. (3)) 2015.
shows that the shear transfer takes place over a small [7] Kapuria S. and Kumari P., Extended Kantorovich
region near the free edge, and the distribution becomes method for coupled piezoelasticity solution of
sharper and spread over a smaller region as the piezolaminated plates showing edge effects, Proc.
thickness of piezoelectric actuator is reduced. of Royal Society A, 469:20120565, 2013.
[8] Kumari P., Kapuria S. and Rajapakse, R. K. N. D.,
Three-dimensional extended Kantorovich solution
for Levy-type rectangular laminated plates with
edge effects, Composite Structures, Vol. 107, pp
167-176, 2014.
Figure 3: Effect of actuator thickness on the

longitudinal distribution of t zx at the PFRC/90 interface
5 Conclusions
The 3D piezoelasticity based solution developed for
free edge stress field under actuation potential loading
using MMEKM shows excellent convergence and good
agreement with the existing solution. The solution can
capture stress singularity. Results show the shear
transfer region under actuation potential depends on the
piezo thickness.
References
[1] Davi, G. and Milazzo, A., Stress and electric fields
in piezoelectric composite laminates, Electronic
Journal of Boundary Elements, Vol. BETEQ(1), pp
43-50, 2002.
[2] Yang, Q. S., Qin, Q. H. and Liu, T., Interlayer
stress in laminate beam of piezoelectric and elastic
materials, Composite Structures, Vol. 75, pp 587-
592, 2006.
[3] Izadi, M. and Tahani, M., Analysis of interlaminar
stresses in general cross-ply laminates with
distributed piezoelectric actuators, Composite
Structures, Vol. 92, pp 757-768, 2010.
567
COMPUTATIONAL MODELING OF CEMENT HYDRATION TO

EVALUATE THE MECHANICAL AND TRANSPORT
PROPERTIES
Sindu B S1,2 , S. Radha Meenaloshini1, Saptarshi Sasmal1,2
1
CSIR-Structural Engineering Research Centre, Taramani, India
2
Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research
Concrete is heterogeneous and is not perfectly isotropic. It has many distinct phases which are not
homogenously distributed. It also contains a network of capillary pores and grains of unhydrated
(crystalline and amorphous) cement. Hydration of cement based materials is a complex phenomenon.
During hydration, many physical and chemical changes take place. The present study deals with the
computational modeling of cement hydration. CEMHYD3D has been employed in this study to investigate
the hydration behaviour of cement paste. The influence of parameters like water-cement ratio on various
transport and mechanical properties during hydration has been investigated. It is significant to mention here
that the rate of change in behaviour parameters is not consistent and it greatly depends on the reaction state
and activism during a particular time frame. The results obtained from the computational studies are verified
with the results obtained from experimental studies. The study would greatly help not only to understand
the mechanism of cement and cementitious materials at different time frame during hydration, it also
signifies the reaction kinetics and possible states of hydration.
Keywords: Micromechanics; cement hydration; reaction kinetics; transport properties.
1 Introduction parameters during the course of hydration. Computer

based simulation becomes handy in such situations. It
At macroscopic level, concrete is homogeneous and
also helps in bridging the gap between theoretical
isotropic and consists of coarse aggregates embedded in
predictions and engineering practice.
cement matrix whereas at microscopic level, concrete is
For a wise simplification of the real hydration
heterogeneous and is not perfectly isotropic. It has many
process, it necessary to deal with the complexity of
distinct phases which are not homogenously distributed.
simulating the hydration reaction. Hydration models
Apart from that, cement based materials undergo many
simulate the development of microstructure and
interrelated phenomena, some of which are well
evolution of hydration reactants and products. The results
understood and others still remain ambiguous. One such
obtained from the computer simulation can be extended
phenomenon is the hydration process. Hydration is an
to know about various parameters of cement at their
exothermic process and it is complex to be described by
microscopic level.
simple chemical equations.
Jennings and Johnson (1986) developed a
It is extremely useful, though complicated, to
understand the hydration kinetics of cement paste and the mathematical model in which the development of
mechanism during the hydration process. This microstructure of Tricalcium Silicate (C3S) when reacted
understanding would help in developing the new class of with water was demonstrated. In this model, cement
cementitious/cement based materials with desired hydration is considered as the nucleation and growth of
properties. For the structural/civil engineers, though it is spherical particles in space. In 1991, van Breugal
most important to obtain the physical and mechanical developed a model named HYMOSTRUC which can
properties of concrete after complete hydration, there is a simulate the development of microstructure of cement
pressing need to understand the science behind it to tailor, particles during hydration and predict its bulk properties.
to the possible extent, the properties of According to this model, all the hydration products
cement/mortar/concrete at different time and geometrical deposit over the cement particles and hence the hydrating
scales. cement particles are represented as growing spheres.
The properties of final hydrated product depend Maekawa et. al (1999) developed a model called
upon many influencing factors such as degree of DUrability of COncrete Model (DUCOM) which can
hydration, composition and particle size distribution of demonstrate the microstructure formation of hardening
cement, curing temperature and water-cement ratio. concrete and also evaluate the durability properties of
There are innumerable experimental and numerical concrete. Navi and Pignat (1996) developed a model to
techniques to determine the properties and the accurately represent the development of microstructure
influencing parameters of final hydrated product whereas of cement called Integrated Particle Kinetics Model
it is very difficult to experimentally determine (trace) the (IPKM). In this model, the Calcium-Silicate-Hydrate (C-
evolution of mechanical properties and the influencing
568
Sindu B S, et al.
S-H) which is hydration product deposits on C3S whereas

Portlandite (CH) is assumed to form in pore space
enabling the modelling of evolution of each particle
independently. Hence, this model is capable of
demonstrating the evolution of individual phases and also
calculating the interactions between them. But, due to the
modelling of all possible interactions, this model is very
slow and limits the simulation to be carried out only for
small number of particles. To overcome this shortcoming,
Bishnoi and Scrivener (2009) developed a model called
ic in which millions of particles can be simulated within
short time incorporating all the interactions. The main
advantage of this model is that it enables customization
of many aspects. It can be seen that all the above models
are continuum models. Bullard (2007) developed a Figure. 1 Particle size distribution of the cement
numerical model to simulate the cement hydration and powder under investigation
microstructure development at their early and later ages
called HydratiCA. HydratiCA is a stochastic reaction-
transport model that simulates the complex interactions
among the coupled nonlinear chemical reactions and
mass transport phenomena. Bentz (2005) developed a
model named CEMHYD3D which uses digital image
processing approach to simulate the cement hydration
process. This model is capable of simulating the
microstructure development of plain and blended
concrete and also measures its thermo-mechanical
properties. The main advantage of this model is that it
allows the representation of multi-size and non-spherical
particles. (a)
In this study, CEMHYD3D has been used to model
the evolution of microstructure of cement paste during
hydration. This study helps in understanding the
underlying mechanism of cement hydration and its
influencing parameters. The spatial distribution of
various reaction products and pores have also been
investigated. The influence of parameters like water-
cement ratio and hydration time on the transport and
mechanical properties have also been investigated.
2 Modeling of cement hydration

Computational volume of size 100x100x100 voxels (b)
is created at first. This computational volume is Figure 2. SEM image a) Obtained and b)
distributed with digitized spheres. The number of spheres Segmented with different phases.
and the size of spheres placed inside depend upon the
particle size distribution of the cement powder under film of carbon. Then the specimen is viewed through
investigation (shown in Fig. 1) and the desired water- SEM and analysed for backscattered electrons and X-
cement ratio of the mix. rays emitted due to the specimen-primary electron beam
The next step is to sort these spherical particles into interactions. These backscattered electron image and X-
different phases according to the phase distribution in the ray images collected for Ca, Si, S, Al, and Fe are used to
SEM image of the cement matrix. Cement powder of determine the phase distribution such as tricalcium
interest is mixed with epoxy resin and made into a dry silicate (C3S), dicalcium silicate (C2S), tricalcium
paste. The specimen is cut, polished and coated with thin aluminate (C3A), tetracalcium aluminoferrite (C4AF) and
gypsum (CSH2) in the sample. The X-ray and
backscattered electron images are obtained for the same
area of specimen. So, at one pixel location six signals are
available, the backscattered electron intensity and five x-
ray signals. From the collective information of all these
569
six signals, the phase separation is carried out using such. To shift the dissolution rate, the soluble phase is
autocorrelation function. allotted a possibilities of zero and unity. In this way
For an M N image, the autocorrelation function hydration is adjusted in such a way that C3A react faster
S(x; y), takes the form than C3S react more rapidly than C2S and C4AF.
.-/ "(#,$)"(#%&,$%')**
S(x; y)= !+-&
#01 !$01 * (1)
(+-&)(.-/)
where I(x,y) has a value of 1 if the pixel located at

(x,y) meets the user criteria and 0 otherwise.
The two point correlation function for silicates is
used for separating the cement particles into silicates and
aluminates. For this, each pixel in three dimensional
cement particle image is assigned a random number
following a normal distribution, N(x,y,z), generated
using the Box-Muller method. The random number
image is then filtered using the autocorrelation function,
F(x,y,z):
6(708(9 : %; : %< : )-6(>)6(>)
F(r) = 2(3, 4, 5) = (2) Figure. 3 Cellular Automata Algorithm applied in
[6(>)-6(>)6(>)]
CEMHYD3D for dissolution, diffusion and reaction
The silicates are further segmented into C3S and C2S (Black solid phase, Grey diffusing phase and
and aluminates to C3A and C4AF. More detailed White water phase)
information on the image processing can be found
elsewhere (Stutzman, 2004). Fig. 2 shows the obtained Diffusion:
SEM image and the segmented image showing different Likewise the probable diffusing species is formed by
phases. dissolution process that comprise of diffusing CH,
Using the point counting procedure, the area and diffusing C-S-H, diffusing C3A, diffusing gypsum and
perimeter of each phase is calculated (shown in Table 1). diffusing FH3. It can be seen in diffusion phase that the
In order to create a good representation of the cement diffusing pixel has liberty to move towards water but if it
paste, phase volume fractions, phase surface area moves towards solid pixel, it undergoes reaction to form
fractions, and phase autocorrelation structure should be another solid phase otherwise it keep on as such.
described with extreme clarity.
Table: 1 Calculated Volume fraction and Surface Area
S.No Phase Volume Surface

Fraction Area
1. C3S 0.657354787 0.708161988
2. C2S 0.097637795 0.203423923
3. C3A 0.076457834 0.047693546 Figure. 4 State transition diagram for 3-D Cement
Hydration Model
4. C4AF 0.168549583 0.040720544
Reaction:
Once the initial microstructure is created, a set of Numerous reactions are considered for modelling
rules are employed to simulate the hydration behaviour. the cement hydration. For simulating the nucleation
The phase of each voxel gets updated in the next time process, a diffusing species is allocated to certain
step through Cellular-automata (CA) algorithm (shown probability of altering to its solid form. The probability
in Fig. 3). Each voxel may undergo dissolution, diffusion (P) is made to be exponentially dependent on the number
or reaction according to the state transition rules to form of diffusing species in solution (c):
solid hydrated phase.
? = ?> (@ A B -CDCE ) (3)
Dissolution:
In the Fig. 3, the first set of pixel shows the initial Where P0 and cm are constants. This functional
states and the next three sets show possible states if the equation brings a nucleation probability that will
centre pixel moves in the direction mentioned in the deteriorate rapidly as c becomes less than cm so that few
arrows. It can be seen in the dissolution phase that if the new crystals will form late in the hydration. Fig. 4 shows
solid pixel moves towards water, it becomes a diffusing the state transition rules that are followed for modelling
pixel and if it moves towards solid pixel, it remains as
570
Sindu B S, et al.
the cement hydration. Arrow patterns denote the From the microstructure, various physical and
dissolution, nucleation and collision of two species to mechanical properties are determined.
form a hydration product. f[X] denotes that nucleation or
dissolution probability is a function of concentration or
volume fraction of phase X.
Flowchart in Fig. 5 shows the basic steps involved in
modeling of cement hydration process using
CEMHYD3D.
Cement Powder Create 3D

computational volume
1 day 3 days
Particle
Pack 3D
Size
Distributi computational
on volume with
spheres of
different sizes
SEM images and numbers
according to
(Elemental mapping)
5 days 7 days
Image Processing
Identify different
phases from image
(No. of phases
=N) Phase distribution
of the generated 14 days 28 days
spheres
Figure 6. Microstructures obtained at different
Measure Surface
hydration times.
Area and Volume i<N
fraction of each
phase, pi
Degree of hydration:
The degree of hydration denotes the quantity of
Initiate hydration cement matrix that has undergone hydration. It is
Hydration using calculated using the following relation,
under required
Cellular
conditions
Automata Degree of hydration =*(Mi A Mt )DMi ******* (4)
algorithm
Figure 5. Flowchart explaining modeling of cement Where, Mi Mass of initial clinker materials which
hydration process using CEMHYD3D. is calculated by multiplying with its specific gravity. (i.e.,
number of pixels containing each clinker material at
3 Results and Discussion initial stage is multiplied with their respective specific
gravity) and
With the above procedure, the evolved Mt - Mass of clinker materials remains unhydrated
microstructure is obtained during each time step. Fig. 6 at time t.
shows the microstructures obtained at different times.
571
Chemical Shrinkage:
The volume stoichiometry of all on-going chemical
reactions are calculated in order to determine the
chemical shrinkage. The molar volume of water left out
is deducted from the molar volume of total porosity
(including self-desiccation porosity) for calculating the
chemical shrinkage.
Chemical Shrinkage = Gmvp A mvw H I hJ (5)
where,
mvp = molar volume of porosity,
mvw = molar volume of water left out and
hf = heat conversion factor (arbitrary value to fit the
numerical value with experimental results)
Compressive Strength
The compressive strength of the hardened cement
paste is predicted using the gel-space ratio concept
developed by Powers (1962). According to this method,
the compressive strength is calculated using,
c =*KX L (6)
Where,
A Intrinsic strength of the cement paste, MPa
depending upon clinker composition,
n Constant which takes the value between 2.6 to 3
depending upon the cement being investigated and
X gel-space ratio which is defined as the ratio of
Figure 7. Comparison of experimental and
volume of hydration product to the combined volume of
numerical results.
the hydration product and capillary porosity which can be
given as,
X = *(NOPQR)D(NOSTR U VDW) (7)
Where Y is the degree of hydration on mass basis.
The values of A and n depends upon the type of
cement and the Bogue composition. For the type of
cement considered in this study, the value of A is 250
MPa and n is taken as 2.6.
Porosity:
The microstructure is distributed with different
chemical constituents. The count of number of pixels
occupied by pores (pixel value = 0) gives the porosity of
the matrix at any point of time.
The compressive strength and heat release of cement

paste obtained using the above procedure is compared (a)
with that of the experimental results (shown in Fig. 7). It
can be observed from Fig. 7 that the results obtained from
numerical simulation is well corroborated with that
obtained from experiments. Further, with the validated
computational model, other mechanical and transport
properties like degree of hydration, porosity and
chemical shrinkage are calculated. The influence of
parameters like water-cement ratio and hydration time on
various transport and mechanical properties has also been
evaluated (shown in Fig. 8). The model can be used to
evaluate the influence of addition of pozzolanic and non-
pozzolanic materials on the transport and mechanical
properties. (b)
572
Sindu B S, et al.
cellular automaton model, Journal of the American

Ceramic Society, Vol. 91(7), pp. 2088-2097, 2008.
[7] Bentz, D. P., ThreeZDimensional Computer
Simulation of Portland Cement Hydration and
Microstructure Development, Journal of the
American Ceramic Society, Vol. 80(1),pp. 3-21.
1997.
[8] Powers, T.C., Physical Properties of Cement Paste.
Proceedings of the 4th International Symposium on
the Chemistry of Cement, Washington, D.C., Vol. 2,
(c) pp. 577-613, 1962.
Figure 8. a) Degree of hydration, (b) Chemical
shrinkage and (c) Porosity
4 Conclusion
This study deals with the computational modeling of
cement hydration. CEMHYD3D has been used to
investigate the hydration behaviour of cement paste and
the influence of parameters like water-cement ratio and
hydration time on various transport and mechanical
properties. The study would greatly help not only to
understand the mechanism of cement and cementitious
materials at different time frame during hydration, it also
signifies the reaction kinetics and possible states of
hydration. For any further enhancement of
physical/chemical or mechanical properties of cement
based materials, this study would provide a tool to
estimate the reaction kinetics and particle reactions for
effective and desired performance.
References
[1] Jennings, H. M., & Johnson, S. K., Simulation of
microstructure development during the hydration of
a cement compound, Journal of the American
Ceramic Society, Vol. 69(11), pp. 790-795, 1986.
[2] Van Breugel, K., Simulation of hydration and
formation of structure in hardening cement-based
materials, 1991.
[3] Maekawa, K., Chaube, R., & Kishi, T., Modelling of
concrete performance, 1999.
[4] Navi, P., and Pignat, C., Simulation of cement
hydration and the connectivity of the capillary pore
space, Advanced Cement Based Materials, Vol. 4, pp.
58-67, 1996.
[5] Bishnoi, S., & Scrivener, K. L., ic: A new platform
for modelling the hydration of cements, Cement and
Concrete Research, Vol. 39(4), pp. 266-274, 2009.
[6] Bullard, J. W., A determination of hydration
mechanisms for tricalcium silicate using a kinetic
573
Single brace shear fuse for seismic retrofit of deficient concrete

structures Proof of concept
Saptarshi Sasmal
CSIR-Structural Engineering Research Centre, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India

E-mail: saptarshi@serc.res.in, sasmalsap@gmail.com
Abstract:
Single brace system with shear fuse can be a good candidate to re-direct the force flow without increasing the demand
on the existing structure and will be a promising strategy to qualify for the basic requirement for retrofit scheme
(adequate, easy to implement and cause minimum disruption). In the present study, the load transfer mechanism in
the beam-column sub-assemblage due to adoption of the system is established. Analytical studies are carried out to
understand the effect of geometry and disposition of the single bracing with shear fuse for the reduction of demand in
weak zones. Since, many parameters such as hysteretic behaviour, energy dissipation, material non-linearity, local
stiffness distribution etc. which are important to check the efficacy of any retrofit strategy under seismic loading,
could not be accommodation in the analytical model, further numerical studies are carried out. The study indicates
that a properly designed steel bracing can provide significant improvement in seismic performance. For example, 4
times in energy dissipation, 60-80% improvement in strength degradation with respect to the gravity load designed
structure.
Key words: Non-invasive retrofit, single steel brace, Displacement, Nonlinear Finite element modeling, Shear
transfer, Cyclic load behaviour, Energy dissipation.
1. Introduction wrap in the joint region were employed. It was brought

Earthquakes are natural events that often lead to out that the retrofit schemes increased the shear
catastrophic fatalities and economic losses. Several capacity of the joints and hinge could be successfully
studies have highlighted that seismic events represent shifted in the beam region. Karayannis et al. [2]
the most important threat to public security and safety. proposed a retrofit concept for seismically damaged
The structures built before 1970s were designed exterior beamcolumn joints using reinforced concrete
without considering seismic loads and ductile (RC) jacket. Steel reinforced (well distributed small
detailing. Existence of these only gravity load based diameter bars) concrete jacket was reported to be very
designs still dominates the structural world. effective. Di Ludovico et al. [3] had effectively used
Catastrophic failure of those structures during the the Fiber-reinforced polymer (FRP). Further, near
earthquakes highlighted the inadequate safety levels of surface mounted (NSM) FRP was also used [4-6] to
existing buildings. The understanding on nature and effectively utilize the FRP in seismic retrofitting of
consequences of earthquakes is constantly improving deficient or deteriorated structures. A noninvasive
and, therefore, the seismic demands imposed on retrofit strategy for the deficient reinforced concrete
structures are revised frequently, to meet the increased beam column joints was proposed in [7] using a
demand. Therefore, the existing structures which were haunch in form of steel bracing at both sides of beam.
analyzed, designed and detailed as per the available It was brought out that both was bracing fixed to top
knowledge and prevailing recommendations of and bottom side of the column to the beam is able to
previous codes, are to be evaluated for their seismic divert the force through the bracing, resulting in
performance. reduction in moment demand at joint face. It was also
Various techniques are being exploring used for found that the plastic hinge was successfully shifted to
retrofitting. Pre- and post- earthquake response of the the beam region, ensuring safe failure mode.
reinforced concrete beam column joints and the Mahrenholtz et al. [8] proposed a new upgrade concept
performance of the retrofitted joints was studied by exploiting the advantages of prefabricated steel
Tsonos [1]. Various types of retrofit schemes such as bracing. Favvata and Karayannis [9] investigated the
reinforced concrete jacketing, CFRP strips and CFRP hysteretic behaviour of beam column joints under
574
Saptarshi Sasmal
seismic type loading where in the computational Once shear in the beam and column at point of
model, special-purpose rotational spring element was connection of the bracing is determined, all forces
used. developed at various components of the sub-
From the review of literature on strengthening of RC assemblage can be evaluated.
structures and critical components such as beam-
Beam moment at joint face is
column joints against seismic loading, it is noticed that
many works have been reported by various researchers b1VB ( DB / 2)
using different types of materials and techniques, but M B, jt = VB ( LB / 2 + L' ) - - b1VB L' (1)
tan a
limited to their feasibility. Though several strategies
for developing suitable retrofit strategies were
b1VB
proposed in the last decade, many are limited due to M B , jt = VB ( LB / 2 + L'- b1 L' ) - ( DB / 2) (2)
numerous assumptions, complexities and uncertainties tan a
around the materials used, strategies adopted and
procedures for implementation followed, insufficient It shows that moment at joint face in the retrofitted
linkage between the behaviour of the component to system will be reduced due to propped action and
performance at the structural level, ad-hoc retrofit eccentric moment due to horizontal force. Moment in
strategies with improper conservatism, and absence of beam at a distance x from the bracing tip towards
practicality (non-invasiveness), feasibility and column is due to beam shear, bracing reaction and
acceptability of the strategies. It is opined that a retrofit constant moment due to the horizontal force caused by
strategy for desired seismic performance of the the bracing reaction, as
deficient structures should be conceived and designed bV
M B, x = VB ( LB / 2 + x - b1 x) - 1 B ( DB / 2) (3)
so that the desired seismic performance can be attained tan a
by judiciously altering the strength hierarchy of Horizontal displacement due to the stress developed in
existing structures. beam (combining bending stress and axial stress)
L' L'
s B, x sB
2. Evaluation of force flow mechanism in single
bracing haunch system in reinforced concrete
dh =
0
EB
dx - E
0 B
dx (4)
structure Vertical displacement in the bracing tip due to the

Force equilibrium and deformation compatibility were moment developed in beam
considered to arrive at the force transfer mechanism. L'
M xx
Fig. 1 depicts the effects of the haunch retrofit solution
on moment and shear force diagrams in an exterior
dv = E
0 BIB
dx (5)
beamcolumn sub-assembly subjected to lateral loads. To satisfy the deformation compatibility in the beam
at the brace tip
d h cosa + d v sin a = d brace (6)
Substituting all the deformation terms as discussed
above,
L
Column
( L D ) L'2 cosa L'3 D cosa

DB B B + B
b1VB 4 H ' 4 H '
Beam
b1VB/tana

a
L L' 3
L' 4
+ B sin a + sin a
H' 4H '
b2VC tana
b1 = 3H '
H
Steel
bracing L' DB2 L'2 D L ' 2
D L ' 2
L '3
cosa + B cosa + B cosa + sin a +
b2VC 4H ' 4 4 3
2

Fig. 1 Force transfer mechanism in the proposed I B L' cosa + EB I B lbr
A H' E A sin a
single bracing system B br br
(7)
Similarly, the shear co-efficient at column face ( b 2 )

can also be evaluated.
575
2.1 Influence of bracing on reducing the shear shortening of bracing and bending deflection of beam
demand in beam-column sub-assemblage or column plays (ignoring the buckling of bracing) a
key role in force transfer mechanism in the bracing
It is evident from the mechanics of force transfer, as system. It is found (from Fig. 2) that with the increase
discussed in preceeding section, that when b1 and b 2 in axial stiffness of bracing, the efficiency of the
are nearing 1, shear in beam and column produced due bracing system significantly improves and with the
to the seismic load will be fully carried by bracing and increase in bracing angle, the improvement of the
the shear inside the bracing zone diminishes which bracing system further improves and saturates after
provides the constant moment zone inside the bracing 450. The study on influence of ratio of elastic modulus
zone. When the coefficient exceeds 1, shear inside the of concrete (used in sub-assemblage) to the material
bracing region is reversed and it further helps to reduce used in bracing shows (as given in Fig. 3 ) that elastic
the beam and column moment, respectively. Thus, the modulus of bracing plays a very significant role in
demand on the joint region which is most vulnerable developing shear in beam and column and softer
due to shear damage, reduces drastically. It is desirable materials in bracing can not produce the desired
to design the bracing in such a way that the b1 and b 2 reaction to protect the joint zone from additional
moment (for example, elastic modulus of bracing is
are near or more than 1, but less than 2 (to avoid extra desirable to be atleast 5 times than that of the material
shear demand in the component). To clearly identify used in structural member). The observations clearly
(quantitatively) the influence of these parameters on indicates the feasible materials can be efficiently used
reduction of moment demand in beam-column sub- for concrete structures. Though the single brace as
assemblage, a study is carried out where the elastic discussed here is working very well for upward
modulus of component to bracing, and axial stiffness loading, the performance under downward loading
of bracing are the parameters, as shown in Figs. 2 to 3. causing tension in beam top is questionable as the
2
system developed undesired reaction force to the
1.8 Bracing angle = 20 beam.
Bracing angle = 30
1.6 Bracing angle = 45
1.4 Bracing angle = 60 2.2 Design of the bracing to offer shear fuse action
1.2
Shear factor (b2)
1 It is found for the proceeding section that the properly

0.8
0.6
designed bracing would be able to offer the required
0.4 resistance to the beam deflection (acting as prop) and
0.2 thus the force does not transfer through the weak
0 joints. However, it is also required to understand that
1.00E+04 1.10E+05 2.10E+05 3.10E+05 4.10E+05 5.10E+05 6.10E+05
Axial stiffness of bracing (kN)
the bracing action is desired to be active when the
beam is subjected to the upward loading for which the
Fig. 2 Variation of shear coefficient with change in required bottom steel reinforcement anchorage is not
axial stiffness of bracing available. Since the bracing is fixed to the beam and
column faces, the system will provide the undesired
2.5 reaction during the downward loading causing tension
Bracing angle = 20
Bracing angle = 30 in beam top. As the reinforced concrete structure
2 Bracing angle = 45
Bracing angle = 60 possesses proper reinforcement and anchorage to
1.5 resist gravity load, the mechanism for downward
Shear factor (b2)
loading may cause additional force to the system. To

1 address this issue, a shear key in the bracing is
0.5
designed (at middle of brace rod using separate
splicing of plate) so that the additional reaction to the
0 beam is not developed during downward loading,
0.05 0.15 0.25 0.35 0.45
Elastic modulus ratio of column to bracing
instead the excessive deformation of the bracing
would provide the required displacement of the beam.
Fig. 3 Variation of shear coefficient with change in Thus, a system is designed and proposed in this study
ratio of elastic modulus of adjoining component to where the properly designed steel bracing will provide
bracing a different force transfer mechanism to protect the
beams with no bottom reinforcement anchorage, and
During formulating the expressions to evaluate the the fuse to ensure the deformation without generating
developed amount of shear in beam and column due to reaction force during the downward loading.
introduction of the bracing, it is found that the axial
576
Saptarshi Sasmal
3. Numerical investigations on seismic Table 1 Properties of different materials

performance of proposed scheme
S. No. Material Parameter Properties
In this study, a conventional four bay three-storeyed 1 Concrete Compressive Strength

Tensile Strength
22 MPa
2.2 MPa
RC structure is considered. To represent a decade of 2 Reinforcement steel
Youngs Modulus
Tensile Strength
28000 MPa
400 MPa
structure, general practice for gravity load design is 3 Structural steel
Youngs Modulus
Ultimate Tensile Strength
200 GPa
250 MPa
adopted for analysis, design and detailing. Since, Youngs Modulus 200 GPa
exterior beam-column sub-assemblage is one of the

most critical component of RC structures subjected to 3.1 Concrete model
seismic loading, one of the exterior beam column joint Non-linear behavior of concrete in compression,
of the residential building (at first floor level) is hardening and softening effects, fracture of
considered in the present study. Height of the column concrete in tension, biaxial strength failure
was 3.80 m (floor to floor height) and length of beam criterion, reduction of compressive strength and
was 1.70 m with cross-sections of column and beam shear stiffness after cracking, tension stiffening etc.
were 300 x 300 mm and 300 x 400 mm, respectively. are included in the concrete material
Length of the beam is decided so that the beam tip load CC3DNonLinCementitious2 available in ATENA
applied during experimental investigations would able and is based on non-linear fracture mechanics. In
to produce the similar amount of column shear that is ATENA, a fictitious crack model based on a crack-
evaluated in numerical analysis of the global structure opening law and fracture energy is used for tension
(detailed discussion can be found in [10]). after cracking. It is used in combination with the
crack band. The exponential crack opening law is
To model the GLD beam-column sub-assemblage, applied. Fracture energy of concrete GF is the most
first the macro-elements are defined with concrete useful material parameter in the analysis of cracked
being modeled as quadratic brick and the concrete structures. In normal concrete, fracture
reinforcements are modeled as discrete truss elements energy primarily depends on the water-cement ratio,
embedded in the concrete. Steel plates for the bracing the maximum aggregate size and the age of
system, steel rod for bracing and at supports, are concrete. Fracture energy for the concrete material
modeled as tetrahedral solid elements. The FE model model CC3DNonLinCimentitious2, can be
of the beam-column joint sub-assemblage with the calculated as
reinforcement in the specimens is shown in Fig. 5. It f
is to mention that the bracing system is assumed to be GF = GF 0 . ln 1 + c (16)
f cmo
in full contact with the beam and column elements.
The material properties used in the finite element Where GF0 = 0.065 N/mm for concrete with river
software ATENA are made as realistic as possible gravel aggregate, GF0 = 0.106 N/mm for concrete
with some reasonable assumptions to get the with crushed basalt aggregate and, fcmo = 10 MPa.
behaviour close to the actual. Material properties of
different materials, namely, concrete, reinforcement The behavior of tension stiffening is incorporated in
steel and structural steel used in the present study are concrete model CC3DNonLinCementitious2 by
presented in Table 1. For the non-linear analysis specifying a factor (denoted as cts) with a value of
performed using ATENA, adopted material behaviour 0.4. For the ascending branch of concrete stress-
(available in ATENA Theory manual [11]) is briefly strain behaviour, the value of wdmax = 0.5 mm for
presented. normal concrete was proposed by van Mier [12]. It
is found from the previous study on numerical
analysis of exterior beam-column sub-assemblages
([13-16]) that a value as recommended in [17] and
linear variation for descending part are reasonably
fine. In the present study, plasticity model of
concrete, Mentrey-Willams [18] three parameter
failure surface is used.
(a) Macro-elements modeling (b) Reinforcement modeling
Fig. 5 Details of the finite element models, boundary 3.2 Steel reinforcement and bond model
condition and reinforcement elements used in the The steel reinforcements are modeled as discrete
present study reinforcing bars in the form of truss elements. In
ATENA, Bauschingers effect for reinforcement
under cyclic loading is incorporated by using
Menegotto-Pinto model [19]. CEB-FIB model code
577
[17] proposes a bond-slip relationship for 100
reinforcement bars and the same is adopted in the 50
present study. Quality of construction is assumed to be Displacement (mm)

0
-70 -60 -50 -40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
poor with confinement less concrete is considered and -50
are described in Table 2 where the values -100 GLD
Load (kN)
corresponding to confined concrete can be used for -150
SP-R
structural components with adequate concrete cover -200
and closer bar spacing, and for all other cases where Fig. 6 Load-displacement hysteresis for deficient and
the above mentioned criteria is not satisfied, it can be retrofit specimens using the proposed bracing
assumed as unconfined.
Strength and stiffness degradation
Table 2 Values for the prediction equation according The strength and stiffness degradation of upgraded
to CEB-FIP [17] for good bond condition specimens GLD, SP-D25%, SP-D50%, SP-D75%,
Parameters Confined concrete Unconfined concrete SP-U45, SP-U125% and SP-U150%, obtained for drift
s1 1.0 mm 0.6 mm levels are presented in Fig 7. As discussed in load-
s2 3.0 mm 0.6 mm
s3 Distance between ribs 1.0 mm
displacement behavior that the axial stiffness does not
a 0.4 0.4 play significant role provided the bracing is not too
t1 2.5 f c 2.0 f c
stiff to provide excessive shear to the beam or column
t2 0.4 t1 0.15 t1
member nor it should be too soft which is unable to
transfer the force or suffers from local deformation.
3.3 Analysis procedure adopted
In FE analysis, total column axial load of 300 kN was 100
gradually applied in the numerical models in few steps 50
Displacement (mm)
and subsequently, the displacement cycles were 0
-80 -60 -40 -20 0 20 40 60
applied at beam tip. Axial loading phase of the -50
GLD
SP-U45
simulated model was solved by arc-length method and SP-D25%
Load (kN)
-100 SP-D50%
then the solver was changed to Newton-Raphson SP-D75%
SP-U150%
-150
method during displacement cycles. Initially, a SP-U125%
-200
convergence study was carried out with different
displacement steps and finally, a displacement
increment of 1 mm in each step was chosen by
maintaining the accuracy of results and total number
of steps required to simulate the experimental
investigations of the specimens subjected to cyclic
loading.
4. Behaviour of the beam-column sub-assemblages

retrofitted with steel bracings Fig. 7. (a) Load displacement envelop, and (b)
stiffness degradation (stiffness of the bracing is a
The previous section on the analytical study brings parameter)
that the bracing with 45 degree angle performs better
than 30 degree or 60 degree and therefore, for the 5. Conclusions
further study, the bracing is considered with 45 degree
to evaluate the influence of axial stiffness on the The present study focuses on development of retrofit
structural performance as many crucial parameters method for poorly designed or inadequately detailed
(such as load-deformation hysteresis behavior, reinforced concrete structures situated in seismic
strength and stiffness deterioration, energy dissipation, prone zones. It is opined that the efficient retrofit for
etc.) could not be incorporated in the analytical study. structures, specifically building should be simple, fast
Therefore, in this study, the angle of bracing to the to implement and non-invasive, besides their obvious
beam was kept constant as 45 degree and the axial effectiveness in reducing seismic vulnerability. It is
stiffness was varied from 25% to 150% to that of the found that the bracing system in form of haunch
bracing with the reference dimension. The study has connecting beam to column with a certain angle is a
been carried out with varied axial stiffness of the good proposition. The incorporation of shear fuge in
bracing members (with reference of size of the bracing the bracing has drastically reduced the load demand in
as 100%). The typical load-deformation hysteresis the beam during downward loading. It is noted that
obtained from the numerical studies is shown in Fig. almost 4 times energy dissipation with 60% to 80%
6. lower strength- and stiffness- degradation and
578
Saptarshi Sasmal
desirable post crack behavior in GLD specimens can assemblages under cyclic loading, PhD Thesis,
be achieved using the steel bracing system with University of Stuttgart, Germany.
appropriate distribution of geometric and mechanical 11. ATENA (2014). ATENA program documentation
properties. However, to arrive at the dimension and the (Part 1): Theory. Prague: Cervenka Consulting,
configuration of the shear fuge, further investigations 207 pp.
need to be carried out. 12. Van Mier JGM. Multiaxial strain-softening of
concrete. Materials and Structures 1986;19:179
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579
FLUTTER RELIABILITY STUDIES OF A SWEPT BACK PLATE

Shanthini. G1, Pankaj. A. C2, Manjuprasad. M3
Structural Technologies Division, CSIR-National Aerospace Laboratories, Bangalore, 560017, India
In the present paper an attempt has been made to calculate the flutter reliability of a swept back plate
taking uncertainties in material and aero properties into consideration. As flutter analysis for computing
flutter speed involves finite element analysis followed by an extensive interpolation process, a regular
Monte Carlo Simulation (MCS) is infeasible. Hence, in the present work a novel approach involving
Response Surface Method (RSM) of simulation followed by MCS has been used for the study. The
variation in flutter speeds due to uncertainties in the material properties such as Youngs Modulus and
mass density and aero parameters such as air density and Mach No. are studied and the reliability has
been computed for different failure conditions.
Keywords: Flutter, Reliability, Response Surface Method, Monte Carlo Simulations.
1 Introduction A major advantage of this method is that the

implicit limit state function is represented by the
Aeroelastic analysis is very important in the aircraft
explicit form, and the existing reliability analysis
design. Flutter analysis, a typical aeroelastic problem in
methods can be readily implemented. So the RSM has
aircraft design, is carried out as a deterministic analysis
been widely applied to the reliability analysis of
assuming complete determinacy of structural parameters.
structures. However, the selection of experimental
However, there are uncertainties of geometric properties,
points and the form of response surface function are two
material properties, load distributions, working
unsolved problems for the reliability analysis of
environment, etc. So, the deterministic analysis cannot
complex structure with highly nonlinear limit state
provide complete information about the flutter
function, and sometimes the RSM may be not
boundaries required for defining the flight envelope. A
converged.
robust solution for any analysis should take into account
Monte Carlo Simulation (MCS) is a traditional
all the model uncertainties possible. In the present work,
method for the probabilistic analysis. The main
probabilistic methods are used to compute the flutter
advantage of this method is that engineers with only a
reliability [1-5] of a swept back plate considering
basic knowledge of probability and statistics will be
uncertainties in material and aero properties. A RSM [6-
able to use it and it always provides correct results when
7] combined MCS method has been used for the study
very large times of simulations are performed.
reported in this paper.
However, its computational cost is very high. A direct
Monte Carlo Simulation for flutter reliability studies is
2 Methodology infeasible as human intervention and logical reasoning
is needed in certain conditions of interpolation process.
Flutter analysis of aircraft structures is a complex
Because of the above mentioned drawbacks, a
problem involving finite element analysis followed by
hybrid method has been adopted for flutter reliability
extensive interpolation process. A closed form solution
studies. Response Surface Method has been used to
of flutter response is not available due to its complexity.
establish explicit limit state function based on the basic
Therefore, first order reliability method and its
variables considered and a Monte Carlo Simulation is
corresponding improved methods for the explicit limit
run on the explicit limit state function to obtain flutter
state function will be impracticable due to the
reliability.
inaccuracy and excessive computational cost.
Response Surface Method (RSM) is one such
method which can be used for reliability analysis of 3 Structural Model
structures with implicit limit state functions.
A Swept back aluminum cantilever plate is
considered as test specimen to represent the wing like
structure (Fig. 1). The plate has a thickness of 3 mm,
1 length of 300 mm and chord varying from 130 mm to
Scientist, shanthini@nal.res.in
2 70 mm and has a sweep angle of 23.80 at the leading
Principal Scientist, acpankaj@nal.res.in
3 edge. The candidate structure has Youngs modulus of
Chief Scientist, manjuprasad@nal.res.in 71GPa, Poissons ratio of 0.3 and density of 2722.77
kg/m3. The natural frequencies of the plate are tabulated
580
Shanthini. G, et al.
in Table 1. The first three mode shapes of the plate are

shown in Figs 2-4.
Figure 4: Torsional Mode of the Swept Back Plate

Figure 1: FE Model of the Swept Back Plate
Table 1: Natural Frequencies of the plate FE Model 4 Aerodynamic Model

S.no Mode Despcription Frequency(Hz) The aerodynamic model for the plate is a mesh
1. st
1 bending 30.395 consisting of flat panels based on doublet lattice method
2. Coupled bending torsion 161.899 for the lifting surface of the plate model, idealized by
205.118 means of trapezoidal boxes lying parallel to the flow
3. Torsion
rd
direction. Surface spline functions are used to generate
4. 3 bending 427.332
the necessary interpolation matrix to estimate the
displacement of aerodynamic grids based upon the
displacement of structural grids.
5 Analysis
For the probabilistic flutter studies, three cases
were considered. 1. Structural parameters considered as
random variables. 2. Structural and Aero parameters
considered as random variables. 3. Critical parameters
as random variables. Flutter analysis has been carried
out using Doublet Lattice aerodynamics and PK method
of NASTRAN [8] for the limited samples considered.
Typical V-g V-f plots for the plate are shown in Fig. 5.
Based on the concept of Design of Experiments
(DoE), in order to minimize the number of simulation
Figure 2: 1st Bending Mode of the Swept Back Plate runs, the upper and lower bounds of flutter are
computed considering the possible combinations of
extreme and mean values of the design variables. A
Response Surface is fitted based on the DoE results. A
response surface fit is obtained using different methods
like Least Square Regression Model, Moving Least
Squares Regression Model, Hyper Kriging Regression
Model and Radial Basis Function. As the Radial Basis
Function response surface fit resulted in minimum error,
stochastic studies were carried out using this model.
MCS was run using the Radial Basis Function response
fit assuming uniform distribution of the design variables.
Failure probability is defined as the probability of the
flutter velocity being lesser than the limiting flutter
velocity. Therefore, reliability represents the probability
of the flutter velocity being greater than the limiting
Figure 3: Coupled Bending Torsion Mode of the Swept flutter velocity. Reliability has been computed as a
Back Plate complement of the failure probability for different
limiting flutter velocities for all the cases.
581
V-f Table 2: Design of Experiments results

450
DEN_MAT Flutter Speed
E (Gpa)
S.no (kg/m3) (m/s)
400 (DV1)
(DV2) (Response)
350
1. 78.1 2995.05 361.588
2. 78.1 2722.77 361.956
300 3. 78.1 2450.49 362.431
Frequency (Hz)
Mode 1 4. 71.0 2995.05 344.416

250 Mode 2 5. 71.0 2722.77 344.847
Mode 3
Mode 4 6. 71.0 2450.49 345.395
200 7. 63.9 2995.05 326.847
8. 63.9 2722.77 327.316
150
9. 63.9 2450.49 327.91
100
Table 3: Flutter Reliability Analysis results
Flutter
50 Probability
S.no Limit Reliability
of Failure
0
(m/s)
50 100 150 200 250
Velocity (m/s)
300 350 400 1. 330 0.11 0.89
2. 335 0.27 0.73
V-g
3. 340 0.38 0.62
4. 345 0.53 0.47
0.04
5. 350 0.61 0.39
6. 355 0.76 0.24
0.02
5.2 Structural and Aero Parameters as Random
0
Variables
Aerodynamic Damping (g)
50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400

In order to study the effect of variations in aero
-0.02 parameters on flutter boundaries, two parameters in
addition to the above mentioned structural parameters
namely Mach no. and Density of air were considered as
-0.04
design variables, with a variation of 40% and 22%
respectively. The Mach no. varies from 0.3 to 0.7 and
Mode 1
-0.06
Mode 2 Density of Air varies between 0.774 kg/m3 and 1.226
Mode 3 kg/m3. Based on the concept of Design of Experiments
Mode 4
-0.08 (DoE), the possible combinations of extreme and mean
values of all the design variables and the results are
-0.1
tabulated in Table 4.
Velocity (m/s)
Table 4: Design of Experiments results

Figure 5: Flutter Plots of the Swept Back Plate DEN_ DEN_ Flutter
E Mach
S. MAT AIR Speed
(Gpa) No.
5.1 Structural Parameters as Random Variables no (kg/m3) (kg/m3) (m/s)
(DV1) (DV4)
(DV2) (DV3)
For the flutter reliability studies, two parameters 1 78.1 2995.05 1.226 0.7 326.463
namely Youngs modulus and Mass Density are 2 78.1 2995.05 1.226 0.5 326.655
considered as design variables with a variation of 10%. 3 78.1 2995.05 1.226 0.3 324.263
The Youngs modulus varies between 63.9Gpa and 78.1
4 78.1 2995.05 1 0.7 361.326
Gpa and Density of the material varies between 2450.49
5 78.1 2995.05 1 0.5 361.588
kg/m3 and 2995.05 kg/m3. Density of Air is considered
6 78.1 2995.05 1 0.3 359.485
as 1.0 kg/m3 and flutter analysis is carried out at Mach
0.5. Based on the concept of Design of Experiments 7 78.1 2995.05 0.774 0.7 410.446
(DoE), the possible combinations of extreme and mean 8 78.1 2995.05 0.774 0.5 410.952
values of the two design variables and the flutter 9 78.1 2995.05 0.774 0.3 408.38
response results are tabulated in Table 2. 10 78.1 2722.77 1.226 0.7 327.061
11 78.1 2722.77 1.226 0.5 327.099
MCS was run using the Radial Basis Function 12 78.1 2722.77 1.226 0.3 324.6
response fit assuming uniform distribution of both the 13 78.1 2722.77 1 0.7 361.742
design variables. Reliability has been computed for 14 78.1 2722.77 1 0.5 361.956
different flutter margins and is presented in Table. 3. 15 78.1 2722.77 1 0.3 359.968
582
16 78.1 2722.77 0.774 0.7 410.815 74 63.9 2450.49 1.226 0.5 296.126
17 78.1 2722.77 0.774 0.5 411.323 75 63.9 2450.49 1.226 0.3 293.938
18 78.1 2722.77 0.774 0.3 408.879 76 63.9 2450.49 1 0.7 327.635
19 78.1 2450.49 1.226 0.7 327.889 77 63.9 2450.49 1 0.5 327.91
20 78.1 2450.49 1.226 0.5 327.74 78 63.9 2450.49 1 0.3 325.419
21 78.1 2450.49 1.226 0.3 325.1 79 63.9 2450.49 0.774 0.7 371.774
22 78.1 2450.49 1 0.7 362.279 80 63.9 2450.49 0.774 0.5 372.28
23 78.1 2450.49 1 0.5 362.431 81 63.9 2450.49 0.774 0.3 370.36
24 78.1 2450.49 1 0.3 360.364
25 78.1 2450.49 0.774 0.7 411.297 MCS was run using the Radial Basis Function
26 78.1 2450.49 0.774 0.5 411.79 response fit assuming uniform distribution of all the
27 78.1 2450.49 0.774 0.3 409.491 design variables and the reliability values are tabulated
28 71.0 2995.05 1.226 0.7 311.555 in Table 5. The effect of variation in Youngs Modulus,
29 71.0 2995.05 1.226 0.5 311.552 Density of Material, Density of Air and Mach No. on
30 71.0 2995.05 1.226 0.3 309.735 Flutter speeds is shown in Figs. 6-9. It has been seen
that Youngs Modulus and Density of Air have major
31 71.0 2995.05 1 0.7 343.895
influence on flutter speeds whereas Density of Material
32 71.0 2995.05 1 0.5 344.416
and Mach No. has little influence.
33 71.0 2995.05 1 0.3 342.344
34 71.0 2995.05 0.774 0.7 391.048 Young's Modulus vs Flutter Speed
35 71.0 2995.05 0.774 0.5 391.632
36 71.0 2995.05 0.774 0.3 389.543 410
37 71.0 2722.77 1.226 0.7 311.928
38 71.0 2722.77 1.226 0.5 311.855
390
39 71.0 2722.77 1.226 0.3 310.081
40 71.0 2722.77 1 0.7 344.417
41 71.0 2722.77 1 0.5 344.847 370
Flutter Speed (m/s)
42 71.0 2722.77 1 0.3 342.683

43 71.0 2722.77 0.774 0.7 391.426 350
44 71.0 2722.77 0.774 0.5 391.994
45 71.0 2722.77 0.774 0.3 390.011
330
46 71.0 2450.49 1.226 0.7 312.456
47 71.0 2450.49 1.226 0.5 312.299
48 71.0 2450.49 1.226 0.3 310.433 310
49 71.0 2450.49 1 0.7 345.079

50 71.0 2450.49 1 0.5 345.395 290
51 71.0 2450.49 1 0.3 343.119 60 65 70 75 80
Young's Modulus (GPa)
52 71.0 2450.49 0.774 0.7 391.191
53 71.0 2450.49 0.774 0.5 392.46 Figure 6: Effect of Youngs Modulus on Flutter Speed
54 71.0 2450.49 0.774 0.3 390.396 DEN_MAT vs Flutter Speed
55 63.9 2995.05 1.226 0.7 294.958
56 63.9 2995.05 1.226 0.5 295.198 410
57 63.9 2995.05 1.226 0.3 293.22
58 63.9 2995.05 1 0.7 326.269
390
59 63.9 2995.05 1 0.5 326.847
60 63.9 2995.05 1 0.3 324.586
61 63.9 2995.05 0.774 0.7 370.966 370
Flutter Speed (m/s)
62 63.9 2995.05 0.774 0.5 371.508

63 63.9 2995.05 0.774 0.3 369.545 350
64 63.9 2722.77 1.226 0.7 295.46
65 63.9 2722.77 1.226 0.5 295.578
330
66 63.9 2722.77 1.226 0.3 293.509
67 63.9 2722.77 1 0.7 326.875
68 63.9 2722.77 1 0.5 327.316 310
69 63.9 2722.77 1 0.3 324.951

70 63.9 2722.77 0.774 0.7 371.317 290
71 63.9 2722.77 0.774 0.5 371.846 2400 2500 2600 2700 2800 2900 3000
DEN_MAT (kg/m3)
72 63.9 2722.77 0.774 0.3 370
73 63.9 2450.49 1.226 0.7 296.154 Figure 7: Effect of Density of Material on Flutter Speed
583
DEN_AIR vs Flutter Speed Density of Air as design variables with a variation of

10% and 22% respectively. Density of Material is
410 considered as 2722.77 kg/m3 and flutter analysis is
carried out at Mach 0.5. Based on the concept of Design
390
of Experiments (DoE), in order to minimize the number
of simulation runs, the upper and lower bounds of
flutter are computed considering the possible
370
combinations of extreme and mean values of the two
Flutter Speed (m/s)
design variables and the results are tabulated in Table 6.

350
Table 6: Design of Experiments results
DEN_AIR Flutter Speed
330 E (Gpa)
S.no (kg/m3) (m/s)
(DV1)
(DV2) (Response)
310 1. 78.1 1.226 327.099
2. 78.1 1.0 361.956
290
3. 78.1 0.774 411.323
0.75 0.85 0.95 1.05 1.15 1.25 4. 71.0 1.226 311.855
DEN_AIR (kg/m3) 5. 71.0 1.0 344.847
Figure 8: Effect of Density of Air on Flutter Speed 6. 71.0 0.774 391.994
7. 63.9 1.226 295.578
Mach No. vs Flutter Speed
8. 63.9 1.0 327.316
9. 63.9 0.774 371.846
410
MCS was run using the Radial Basis Function

390 response fit assuming uniform distribution of both the
design variables. Reliability has been computed for
370
different flutter margins and is presented in Table. 7.
Flutter Speed (m/s)

350 Flutter
Probability
of Failure
330
(m/s)
1. 330 0.29 0.71
2. 335 0.36 0.64
310
3. 340 0.43 0.57
4. 345 0.48 0.52
290 5. 350 0.56 0.45
0.25 0.35 0.45 0.55 0.65 0.75
6. 355 0.60 0.40
Mach No.
Figure 9: Effect of Mach No. on Flutter Speed
Flutter The flutter reliability results of all the cases are
Probability summarized in Table 8. The maximum and minimum
of Failure flutter speeds for the three cases are given in Table 9.
(m/s)
1. 330 0.27 0.73 The variation of Reliability with respect to flutter limits
2. 335 0.33 0.67 is shown in Fig 10.
3. 340 0.40 0.60
4. 345 0.47 0.53
5. 350 0.53 0.47 Case 1 Case 2 Case 3
6. 355 0.59 0.41 Flutter
S.no 4DV
Limit 2DV 2DV
(structural
(structural) (Critical)
5.3 Critical Parameters as Random Variables and aero)
1 330 0.89 0.73 0.71
From the above studies it has been observed that
2 335 0.73 0.67 0.64
Youngs modulus and Density of air have maximum
3 340 0.62 0.60 0.57
effect on flutter boundaries whereas Density of material
4 345 0.47 0.53 0.52
and Mach no. have least effect. So a flutter reliability
5 350 0.39 0.47 0.45
analysis has been carried out considering the two
6 355 0.24 0.41 0.40
critical parameters namely Youngs modulus and
584
Table 9: Statistics of Flutter Speeds Acknowledgments

Max Min
The authors would like to thank the Head,
Flutter Flutter
S.no Mean Range Structural Technologies Division, NAL and the Director,
Speed Speed
NAL for their constant encouragement and support
(m/s) (m/s)
given to carry out the work reported in this paper.
Case 1 362.43 326.85 344.64 35.58
Case 2 411.79 293.22 352.51 118.57
Case 3 411.32 295.58 353.45 115.74 References
[1] Ueda, T., Aeroelastic Analysis Considering
Flutter Limit vs Reliability Structural Uncertainty, Aviation, Vol. 9(1), pp. 3
1
7, 2005.
0.9 [2] Song Shufang., Lu Zhenzhou., Zhang Weiwei., Ye
Zhengyin., Reliability and Sensitivity Analysis of
0.8 Transonic Flutter Using Improved Line Sampling
Technique, Chinese Journal Of Aeronautics, Vol.
0.7
22(5), pp. 513-519, October 2009.
0.6 Case 1 [3] Cheng, J., Cai, C. S., Xiao, R. C., et al., Flutter
Case 2 reliability analysis of suspension bridges, Journal
Reliability
Case 3
0.5 of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics,
Vol. 93(10), pp. 757-775, October 2005.
0.4
[4] Samy, Missoum., Christoph, Dribusch., Reliability-
0.3 Based Design Optimization of Nonlinear
Aeroelasticity Problems, Journal of Aircraft, Vol.
0.2 47( 3), pp. 992-998, MayJune 2010
[5] Xiaojun, Wang., Zhiping, Qiu., Nonprobabilistic
0.1
Interval Reliability Analysis of Wing Flutter, AIAA
0 JOURNAL, Vol. 47(3), pp. 743-748, March 2009.
325 330 335 340 345 350 355 360 [6] Henri, P. Gavin., Siu, Chang, Yau., High Order
Flutter Limit (m/s)
Limit State Functions in the Response Surface
Figure 10: Effect of Flutter Limit on Reliability
Method for Structural Reliability Analyis,
It can be seen that in all the cases reliability comes Structural Safety, Vol 30(2), pp. 162-179, March
down as the flutter limit increases. When compared to 2008.
the case with structural parameters as design variables [7] Jian, Deng., Structural reliability analysis for
(Case 1) the case with structural and aero parameters as implicit performance function using radial basis
design variables (Case 2) and case with critical function network, International Journal of Solids
parameters as design variables (Case 3) have lower and Structures, Vol 43(11-12), pp. 3255-3291, June
reliability. But as the flutter limit reaches 345 m/s the 2006.
Case 2 and Case 3 has higher reliability when compared [8] MSC NASTRAN Documentation (MSC Software
to Case 1. This is because Case 2 and Case 3 have Corporation, USA), 2008.
higher flutter range when compared to Case 1 and so
number of flutter points above the flutter limit for these
cases are high resulting in higher reliability. When
compared to Case 2, Case 3 has slightly lower reliability
as the flutter range is slightly low for Case 3. The more
the number of design variables the greater is the
accuracy of reliability. Case 2 here is more reliable
when compared to other two cases as it considers all the
possible uncertainties. When there is a constraint on
time and cost, it is necessary to select critical
parameters affecting the phenomenon to get reasonably
accurate results which in here happens to be Case 3.
Case 3 considers critical parameters affecting flutter as
design variables and so the reliability results are
comparable to that of Case 2. Though Case 2 has four
design variables it predicts higher reliability values
when compared to Case 3 which may be because
remaining parameters ignored in Case 3 might have a
positive effect on flutter speeds.
585
NUMERICAL STUDY ON CYCLIC RESPONSE OF SELF-

CENTERING STEEL BUCKLING-RESTRAINED BRACES
Ahmad Fayeq Ghowsi1, Amanollah Faqiri2, Dipti Ranjan Sahoo3
1,3
Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Delhi, New Delhi-110016, India
2
Department of Civil Engineering, Herat University, Herat-3001, Afghanistan
A self-centering buckling-restrained brace (SC-BRB) is capable of dissipating the seismic energy through
metallic hysteresis under cyclic axial loading without any instability. The use of shape memory alloy
(SMA) rods along with steel BRB core helps in controlling the residual drift response of the braced
frames under seismic loading. This paper is focused on the evaluation the optimum length of SMA rods
required to achieve the desired energy dissipation with the effectively controlling the residual deformation.
A numerical study has been conducted for a SC-BRB by varying the SMA length in the range of 0-125%
of the BRB core lengths. The SC-BRB has been modelled and analysed using a computer software
Opensees to assess the self-centering ability, hysteretic response, energy dissipation, and ductility capacity.
Results shows that SC-BRBs with the higher SMA length ratio exhibited more stable energy dissipation.
Keywords: Buckling-restrained braces; Self-Centering system; Hysteretic energy; Numerical modelling; Shape
memory alloy
1. Introduction the length and strength ratio of the BRB cores and the
SMA rods [6-7].
Steel buckling-restrained braces (BRBs) are
capable of nearly-symmetric hysteretic response due to The present study is focused on predicting the
the yielding in both tension and compression without hysteretic response of SC-BRBs by varying the
any premature instability under the cyclic axial loading parameters of BRB core segments and SMA rods for a
[1]. A BRB consists of two basic components: (i) a steel constant yielding cross sectional area. The SC-BRBs are
core element that carries the brace axial force, and (ii) modelled and analysed under the reversed cyclic
an external restraining element that prevents the core loading using computer software Opensees [8]. The
from buckling in compression. The restraining element main parameters investigated are the hysteretic response,
is typically a concrete (or mortar) filled steel tube backbone curves, and hysteretic energy factors.
without any bonding with the steel core. The excellent
energy dissipation potential of BRBs help the buckling- 2. Numerical modelling
restrained braced frames (BRBFs) to resist the seismic
A SC-BRB specimen tested by Mliller et al. [7] has
loading with limited damages in the frame members.
been considered for the numerical investigation in this
However, BRBFs show the relatively higher post-
study. Figure 1 shows the longitudinal and cross-
earthquake residual drift response resulting in the costly
sectional views of the SC-BRB assembly. The end
repair and high downtime [2-3].
segments of BRB are intentionally made stronger to
A self-centering BRB (SC-BRB) has the ability to remain elastic under the expected range of cyclic
dissipate energy and also return to their original position loading. For SC-BRB, the size of BRB end segments at
after ground shaking [4-5]. SC-BRBs exhibited the both ends may be different. This is because of the
excellent hysteretic performance resulting in the connection requirements of the inner and outer tubes.
significant reduction in residual drift response under the The arrangements of these tubes and SMA rods are
seismic loading. The length of SMA rods in SC-BRBs made in such a way that the SMA rods are subjected to
play an important role in exhibiting the self-centering tension forces in either directions of cyclic loading.
capability. One of the possible way to enhance the high Both these tubes are attached to the BRB end segments
ductility and hysteretic energy dissipation of SC-BRBs only at one end alternatively, whereas the other ends are
with the minimum residual drift response is to optimize supported by the movable plates through bearing action.
1
Ph.D Research Scholar, faieq.ghowsi@gmail.com
2
Lecturer, amanollahfaqiri@gmail.com
3
Assistant Professor, drsahoo@civil.iitd.ac.in
586
Ahmad Fayeq Ghowsi, et al.
SMA rods are connected to these movable plates these tubes and hence, the load-resisting capacity of
through bolted connections. BRBs are not altered.
Figure 2 shows the numerical modelling of SC- The link 17-14 has been provided as rigid link to
BRB assembly in computer software Opensees [8]. limit the length of SMA within SC-BRB. The rigid link
Various elements of SCBRB are modelled as link is modelled by assuming their axial stiffness
elements. The element connecting nodes 1-10 represent significantly higher than SMA rods. The pre-stress in
BRB, with total length of 3.2m. The element connecting SMA rods should also be considered in rigid links. The
nodes 1-5 and 6-10 represent the elastic portion of BRB links 13-15, 13-11, 14-12, and 14-16 in Figure 2
including the transition zones with total length of 0.93m represent the gap elements to consider the translations
and 0.48m, respectively. The element of 5-6 represent of movable plates under axial loading. While the SC-
the BRB core with total length of 1.83m. BRB is at zero position under no loading, the inner and
outer tubes are in contact to the movable plates on both
The elements connecting 11-12 and 15-16 represent
sides. Any cyclic loading on BRB cores results in a gap
with the same total length of 2.58m inner and outer tube,
at one end with bearing contact at the other. The gap
respectively. The outer and inner tubes are connected to
elements chosen in this numerical modelling are capable
the BRBs elastic portion using the multi-point
of resisting the compression loads without providing
constraint-rigid links of 8-12 and 3-15. The outer and
any resistance to tension forces.
inner tubes connected to the elastic portion of BRB only
from one end of tubes. The other ends of tubes are The rigid links 8-12 and 3-15 are provided to
supported on each other. represent the inter-dependency of inner and outer tubes
in transferring the cyclic loading to the SMA rods. This
The SMA rod be link 13-17 represent the four
means that, if the inner tube is connected to the right
numbers of SMA rods of 22 mm diameter and total
side of elastic portion of node 8 and the other end of the
length of 1.07 m and placed between the outer and inner
tube should be free and not connected to any other
tubes. These tubes connected to two elastic movable
elements. The outer tube has to be connected to left end
plates over the elastic zones of BRB ends (Figure 2).
of the elastic portion of BRB at node 3 and not to be
The SMA bar is under pretension while the SC-BRB is
connected in the other end.
under zero load. The SMA wire is expected to be under
tension when BRB core under some shortening or
elongation. The pre-loading in SMA rods carried by
Figure 1. Longitudinal and cross-sectional views of SC-BRB specimen
587
Figure 2. Numerical modelling of SC-BRB assembly
Since the elements representing the force-

displacement behaviour of SMA rods do not exist in 3. Validation of Numerical Model
Opensees [8] library, a UMAT code has been written in
C++ following the recommendations of Taftali [9] and Figure 5a shows the comparison of predicted stress-
is implemented in the numerical models in this study. strain and force-deformation response of SMA coupons
The parameters of force-displacement characteristics are with test results. SMA coupons are of 21.6 mm in
modified suitably to match the experiment result [7]. diameter and of 122 mm in gage length. The numerical
Two main parameters considered are the residual models successfully predicted the material response of
strength and the change in slope in the unloading SMA rods.
segments of hysteretic response in martensitic phase of Figure 5b shows the comparison of force-strain
SMA. This slope changes in every cycles with the response of SMA rods used in SC-BRB specimen. The
increasing strain demand on SMA rods. outer and inner tubes have been used over the BRB to
Figure 3 shows the material model used by Taftali keep the SMA rod under pre-tension and preventing the
[9] with the inputs as Youngs Modulus (ESMA), yield BRB from SMA pretension demand. The movable
stress (FSAS), austenite slope (RS), ultimate slope in plates kept in contact on both ends of outer and inner
austenite (Rm) and similar variables for negative loading tubes. The SMA connecting from one to another end, in
regions. The same slope in martensitic has been between outer and inner tubes. The material for outer
considered under plastic reverse displacement. However, and inner tubes selected as in HSS standard section. The
cyclic tests have shown that the unloading slope of same properties of SMAs used in experiment [7] are
SMA keeps changing with the plastic deformations [7]. also considered in this numerical study. The properties
As shown in Figure 4, the force-deformation of ESMA, FsAs, Rs and Rm for SMA are assumed as 28,650
characteristics of SMA rod are modified in this study MPa, 308 MPa, 3.3%ESMA, and 20%ESMA, respectively.
that represent the residual displacements and varying The results of the numerical study for SMA rods of SC-
slope of martensite unloading branch. Thus, the BRB specimen also matched very well with the
influence of residual strain is considered in this study to experimental results.
compare the numerical results with the past
experimental studies.
Rm

Rm
RS
FsAS
RS
FsAS ESMA
ESMA FfSA
SA FeSA
Ff
residual dfAS
Figure 4. Modified material model used in this study
dfAS
Figure 3. Material model used by Taftali [9] The size of BRB core plate in SC-BRB specimen is
12 mm thickness and 36.6 mm width, same as used in
the past experiemnttal study [7]. The BRB core plate is
588
modelled as fibre sections using uniaxial material strengths at different plastic deformations and cyclic
Steel02 elements in Opensees[8] platform. The material hardening behaviour in tension.
yield stress and Modulus of elasticity of BRB are 305
Since the movable plates of SC-BRB remain in the
MPa and 200 GPa, respectively. To prevent the buckling
elastic range as modelled by using gap elements with
of BRB core plates under the axial loading, the moment
compression and no tension, there compression
of inertia of fibre sections are increased keeping the
hardening parameters of BRB of SC-BRB assembly are
same cross-section area. A small value of eccentricity
noted to be different from the conventional BRB as
has been used in the numerical models to consider the
shown in Figure 5c. Further, the friction at the interface
imperfections in BRB core plates. The beam column
of the movable plates and the BRB plates, which is not
element has been selected from Opensees library for
considered in the model, may be another reason of
modelling of BRB end segments. The force-
discrepancy noted in the hysteretic response of BRB.
displacement response of BRB of SC-BRB specimen
obtained from the numerical models has been compared Finally, the combined assembly result of SC-BRB
with the experimental results as shown in Figure 5c. The showing well matching of complete assembly with
numerical model successfully predicted the axial symmetric hysteresis curve in Figure 5d with less
residual strain and good energy dissipation.
a 500 b 600
Expriment
500
SMA Force (kN)

400 Computational
Stress (MPa)
400
300
300
200
200
100
100 Experiment
0 Opensees
0 2 4 6 0
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
Strain (%)
Strain (%)
c d 1000
300 Expriment 800 Expriment
Opensees
Brace Force (kN)
Computational 600
Axial Load (kN)
200
400
100 200
0 0
-200
-100
-400
-200 -600
-300 -800
-1000
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 -60 -40 -20 0 20 40 60
Strain (%) Brace Deformation (mm)
Figure 5. Validation of numerical models with experimental results (a) SMA coupons, (b) SC-BRB specimens
pu - SC - BRB = f p yBRB + f pi - SMA (2)

4. Preliminary Design of SC-BRB pu - SC - BRB = 0.9 Fysc Acore + 0.9 Fi - SMA ASMA (3)
The design procedure for SC-BRB has been carried Where, Fysc = yield strength of steel BRB core, Fi-
out as per the current practice for design of BRBs [9-10]. SMA = initial pre-stress in the SMA, Acore = area of BRB
The design parameters, i.e., the response modification steel core, ASMA = area of SMA bar. The initial pre-stress
coefficient R, the deflection amplification factor Cd, and in the SMA should able to overcome the BRB core yield
the system overstrength factor 0 for BRBFs are stress. The following condition has to be met for the
considered from the past study [6]. Elastic properties of adjacent brace strengths based on AISC seismic
SC-BRBs are assumed to similar as the BRBs with the provision [11].
corresponding material strengths. The axial strength of
SC-BRB is a combination of a BRB core strength and
padj- BRB = b w Fysc Asc Fi - SMA ASMA (4)
pretension in SMA wire. The design axial strength of Where, = compression strength factor, and =
BRB can be expressed as follows: the hardening adjustment factor. Since the material yield
pu - BRB = f p yBRB (1) stress is assumed to be obtained from the coupon tests,
the material overstrength factor (Ry) factor is omitted
Where, PyBRB = yield strength of BRB core. The from the adjusted brace strength equations. The cross-
ultimate strength of SC-BRB is given by
589
sectional area of BRB can be calculated using the 5. Results and Discussions
following expression.
Numerical model is validated by comparing the
Pu brace force-deformation response and SMA force-strain
ASC = (5)
f Fysc (1 + bw) response measured in the past experiment. In this study,
Similarly, the area of SMA area can be found as the length of SMA rods is varied in the range of 0-125%
follows: of BRB core lengths. Figure 6 shows the comparison of
hysteretic response of SC-BRB models. It can be seen
bwFysc A sc
ASMA = (6) that the martensitic effect of SMA is more pronounced
Fi - SMA if the length of SMA rods is 25% of BRB core length.
The above equations can be used for the However, this results in the less energy dissipation
preliminary design. Hence, a detailed study is required though the residual drift response can be controlled
to optimize the design procedure for SC-BRB effectively. The energy dissipation and equivalent
considering the various values of design parameters and damping potential of all SC-BRB models are also
relative length/area ratio of BRB and SMA rods. computed for the hysteretic response. The results
concluded that the SMA length ratios can significantly
influence the hysteretic behaviour of SC-BRBs.
1200
1800
2000 0% SMA 25% SMA 50% SMA
800
Brace Force (kN)
Brace Force (kN)

Brace Force (kN)
1200
1000 400
600
0 0 0
-600 -400
-1000
-1200 -800
-2000
-1800
-1200
-60 -40 -20 0 20 40 60 -60 -40 -20 0 20 40 60 -60 -40 -20 0 20 40 60
Brace Deformation (mm) Brace Deformation (mm) Brace Deformation (mm)
800 75% SMA 800 100% SMA 800 125% SMA

Brace Force (kN)
Brace Force (kN)

Brace Force (kN)
400 400 400
0 0 0
-400 -400
-400
-800 -800
-800
-60 -40 -20 0 20 40 60 -60 -40 -20 0 20 40 60
-60 -40 -20 0 20 40 60 Brace Deformation (mm)
Brace Deformation (mm) Brace Deformation (mm)
Figure 6. Hysteretic response of SC-BRB with varying SMA length ratio
2500
0%
25%
2000
50%
Hysterisis Energy (kN m)
75%
100%
125%
1500
1000
500
0
0 50 100 150 200
Strain %
Figure 7. Hysteretic energy dissipation
590
Figure 7 shows the variation of energy dissipation frames. ASCE Journal of Structural Engineering,
with different values of SMA-to-BRB core ratio. The 139(6), 1019-1032, 2013.
increase in the SMA length resulted in less energy [4] Christopoulos, C., Tremblay, R., Kim, H-J., Lacerte,
dissipation. The SC-BRB with 0% of SMA shows the M., Self-centering energy dissipative bracing
higher energy dissipation because of the rigid link used system for the seismic resistance of structures:
along with BRB. The higher energy dissipation is noted development and validation. ASCE Journal of
in SC-BRB with the smaller lengths of SMA rods. Structural Engineering, 134(1):96107, 2008.
Table 1 shows the maximum ductility values of SC- [5] Dolce, M. and Cardone, D., Theoretical and
BRB under varying SMA ratios. The result showed the experimental studies for the application of shape
higher ductility in SC-BRB with 0% of SMA ratio, but memory alloys in Civil Engineering. ASME
no changes in ductility for SMA ratios varying in the Journal of Engineering Materials Technology,
range of 25-125%. 128(3), 302-311, 2006.
[6] Eatherton, M. R., Fahnestock, L. A. and Miller, D.
Table 1. Variation of maximum displacement ductility J., Computational study of self-centering buckling-
with SMA ratio in SC-BRBs restrained braced frame seismic performance.
SMA ratio m Earthquake Engineering & Structural Dynamics,
43:18971914, 2014.
0% 21.32
[7] Miller, D. J., Fahnestock, L. A., Eatherton, M. R.,
25% 20.35 Development and experimental validation of a
50% 20.35 nickel-titanium shape memory alloy self-centering
buckling-restrained brace. Engineering Structures,
75% 20.35 40:288298, 2012.
100% 20.35 [8] Mazzoni, S., McKenna, F., Scott, M. H., Fenves, G.
125% 20.35 L., Open system for earthquake engineering
simulation user command language manual.
OpenSees Version 2.5, 2015.
6. Conclusions [9] Taftali, B., Probabilistic seismic demand
Based on this numerical study, the following assessment of steel frames with shape memory
conclusions can be drawn from this study. alloy connections Ph.D. dissertation, Georgia
The length of SMA rods should not exceed the Institute of Technology, USA, 2007.
50% of BRB core length in order to control the [10] IBC structural seismic design manual., Structural
residual drift effectively. Engineers Association of California, and
The optimum range of length ratio can be International Code Council. Structural Engineers
considered to be in the range of 50-75% for the Association of California, Sacramento, CA, 2012.
better energy dissipation and desired residual
[11] American Institute of Steel Construction., Seismic
drift reduction.
provisions for structural steel buildings. American
More detailed optimum design is required for
Institute of Steel Construction, Inc., Chicago, IL,
cross-section area ratio as well as modification 2010.
factor, amplification, and overstrength factor to
be used in the design of SC-BRBs.
References
[1] Clark, P., Kasai, K., Aiken, ID., Kimura, I.,
Evaluation of design methodologies for structures
incorporating steel unbonded braces for energy
dissipation. Proceedings, 12th World Conference
on Earthquake Engineering, Upper Hut, New
Zealand, 2000.
[2] Ghowsi, A. F. and Sahoo, D. R., Fragility
assessment of buckling-restrained braced frames
under near-field earthquakes. Steel and Composite
Structures, 19(1), 173-190, 2015.
[3] Chao, S. H., Karki, N. B. and Sahoo, D. R., Seismic
behavior of steel buildings with hybrid braced
591
STATIC AND
VIBRATION TESTING
OF STRUCTURES
EXPERIMENTAL ESTIMATION OF TIME VARIANT STRUCTURAL

RELIABILITY VIA INTELLIGENT SAMPLING
Sonal Dhanvijay1, C S Manohar2
1,2
We present, in this paper; a testing protocol developed using the idea of subset simulation, for estimating
time variant reliability of dynamical systems. The testing protocols developed do not require any prior
information about the mathematical model of the test structure, and, hence, can be employed in a wide
class of problems. This method is shown to be well suited for treating both linear and nonlinear problems.
Illustrative example consists of reliability estimation of an earthquake driven, two-story steel frame, using
subset simulations. This frame is tested on a reaction wall based system under excitations specified via
random process models.
Keywords: subset simulation, variance reduction, structural dynamic testing, importance sampling,
1 Introduction MX ( t ) + CX ( t ) + KX ( t ) = -Mx g ( t )
(1)
Estimation of time variant reliability of a structure X ( 0) = X 0 ; X ( 0) = X 0
with very low probability of failure is a challenging
problem due to the large number of samples needed for where, M,C and K are the mass, stiffness and damping
acceptable estimation of such failure probability.
matrices of the system and xg ( t ) is the ground
Strategies for sampling variance reduction in Monte
Carlo simulation based reliability estimation are well acceleration modeled as zero mean, stationary Gaussian
developed [1,2]. In problems of laboratory testing of random process with Kanai-Tajimi-Clough-Penzein
reliability of structural systems, the idea of variance power spectrum. We define a performance
reduction to develop efficient testing protocols has been metric, G { X (t ),, X (t ), X (t ), t} such that the system is
explored only to a limited extent. In a series of recent considered to be safe if the quantity
studies [3-5], a time variant reliability testing method,
which employs ideas from the Girsanovs {
max G X (t ), X (t ), X (t ),t
0t T
}
), t stays less than a specified
transformation [2], has been proposed. The testing value g over a specified time interval [0,T ] . It is
*
protocols thus developed do not require any prior

information about the mathematical model of the test assumed in this study that one could experimentally
structure, and, hence, can be employed in a wide class infer the metric G { X (t ),, X (t ), X (t ),
),tt} . The probability
of problems. Following on this idea, we develop, in this of failure can thus be obtained as
paper, a test protocol based on the idea of subset
simulations, for estimating time variant reliability of
dynamical systems. In contrast with earlier studies [3- (
PF = P g * - max G { X (t ), X (t )), X (t ), t} 0
0t T
) (2)
5], this method is shown to be better suited for treating
both linear and nonlinear problems. Illustrative example The evaluation of PF requires the knowledge about
consists of reliability estimation of an earthquake driven, the probability density function of the quantity
two-story steel frame, by testing it on a reaction wall
based system under excitations specified as stationary {
max G X (t ), X (t ), X (t ),
0t T
}
),tt , which most often cannot be
Gaussian random process. estimated analytically. Monte Carlo simulations (MCS)
are used for the approximate estimation of PF and the
2 Problem statement estimator for the probability of failure is given by
We seek the solution to the problem of time variant 1 N
( )
G { X (i ) (t ), X (i ) (t ),, X (i ) (t ), t} 0 (3)
^
reliability of a dynamic system PF = I g * - max
N i =1 0t T
where I ( ) is the indicator function.
1
PhD student, sonalsd@civil.iisc.ernet.in
2
Professor, manohar@civil.iisc.ernet.in
592
Sonal Dhanvijay and C S Manohar
For highly reliable systems, the acceptable 4. The random process model
estimation of PF using MCS requires very large number
The Kanai-Tajimi-Clough-Penzein model [6] for the
of samples. Subset simulation method [1], a variance power spectral density function (PSD) of a random
reduction strategy for the acceptable evaluation of this process is used for modeling the ground acceleration.
failure probability with relatively lesser number of The model for the power spectral density function is
samples, is discussed below. given by,
3 The subset simulation method S XX (w ) = I

(w 4
g + 2h g2w g2w 2 )(w w 4f ) (5)
The basic idea behind the subset simulation method, ( (w 2 2
)

2 2

2
- w g2 ) + 4h g2w g2w 2 1 - (w w f ) + 4h 2f (w w f )

is to divide the failure region into number of
intermediate failure regions with higher probabilities, where, I is the intensity of the white noise process,
each of which can be estimated with lesser number of h f , w f ,h g and w g are the properties of the high pass
samples. Thus, if F is the failure region, it can be
filter and the soil layer respectively, h represents the
divided into a number of subsets F1 , F2 , , Fm , such
m damping ration and w represents the natural frequency.
that F1 F2 Fm = F and Fi = Fm . The For this study, we take I = 1 , w f = 1.6 rad / s , n f = 0.6 ,
i =1
probability of failure is given by wg = 3 rad / s and h g = 0.4 . Fig. 2 shows the PSD
function used for this study.
m -1
m
PF = P ( Fm ) = P Fi = P ( F1 ) P ( Fi +1 | Fi )
i=
i =1 i =1
(4)
m
= P1 Pi
i =2
The probability p1 can be evaluated using brute

force MCS whereas the conditional failure probabilities
are evaluated using the modified metropolis algorithm
[1]. Consider a problem of reliability estimation of a
system with performance function g (U ) . The subset Figure 2: PSD function for the ground acceleration
simulation algorithm implemented for this problem is
given in Fig. 1. We intend to develop a methodology to The ground acceleration is modeled to represent the
implement this algorithm to estimate the time variant above function. We adopt a Fourier series representation
reliability of dynamic structures using experimental of the random process [6].
Np
testing.
xg (t ) = an cos wn t + bn sin wn t (6)
n =1
where an N (0,, s n ) , bn N (0,, s n ) an ak = 0 " n k ,

bnbk = 0 " n k , anbk = 0 " n, k = 1, 2, , N p and
S (wn ) Dwn
s n2 = . The notation an N (0,, s n ) means the
2p
random variable an is sampled from a normal
distribution with mean 0 and standard deviation s n . Fig.
3 shows a realization of the random process based on
the above representation.
Figure 3: A realization of the ground acceleration

Figure 1: Subset simulation algorithm
593
5. Illustrative examples 5.1 Computational studies on the two story frame

modeled using Abaqus (6.12-3)
The objective here, is to estimate the reliability of
an earthquake driven, two-story steel frame, using The two story frame is modeled using the Abaqus
subset simulation method by testing it on a reaction wall software to mimic the experimental testing. The beams
based system under excitations specified as stationary and the columns are modeled as beam elements while
Gaussian random process. The geometrical details of the the concrete slabs are modeled as shell elements. The
steel frame are shown in Fig. 4. The performance properties of steel section are taken
function is defined in terms of the inter-story drift as E = 2.110 N / m , r = 7800 kg / m and m = 0.3 .
11 2 3
between the first and the second floor displacements. If The density of concrete slabs is taken
x1 (t ) and x2 (t ) are the displacements at the first and the
as r = 2400 kg / m3 .
second floor levels respectively, then the inert-story drift
For the brute force MCS, for a single run of the
is given by xd ( t ) = x1 ( t ) - x2 (t ) . We define simulation, the random variables an s and bn s are passed
U f ( an , bn ) , n = 1, 2, , Np and the performance through the random process model Eq. (6), to generate a
{
function as g (U ) = g * - max x1 ( t ) - x2 ( t )
0 t T
} . The
realization for the ground acceleration. The FE model is
then subjected to this ground acceleration to yield the
probability of failure is given by displacements at the two floor levels x1 ( t ) and
x2 ( t ) respectively. This procedure is repeated desired
( {
PF = P g * - max x1 (t ) - x2 (t ) 0
0t T
} ) (7)
number of times and the probability of failure is
estimated using Eq. (3). The outline for the subset
The intermediate failure events here are defined simulation method is shown in Fig. 5. As we can see
by Fi = { g (U ) gi } , where g1 > g2 > gm = 0 . after each realization of the random process, there is a
need for the interaction between the FE model and the
master code developed on the Matlab platform. The
failure region is divided into several intermediate failure
regions and the probability of failure is estimated using
the Eq. (4). For brute force MCS, the FE frame model
is tested 104 times. Using the subset simulation method
1000 samples are needed for estimating the probability
of failure as low as 10-5 . The results from the brute
force MCS and the subset simulation method are
compared in Fig. 6.
Figure 4: Geometrical details of the test structure Figure 6: Results for the reliability analysis of the
frame modeled in Abaqus
During the experimental testing, there will be a
transfer of data between the master code (written on the The subset simulation results coincide with the
Matlab platform) and the software controlling the brute force MCS results up to the probability of failure
hydraulic actuators. To try out the details of this of approximately 0.001. Note that for estimating
procedure, the frame is first modeled on an FE platform probability of failure of 10-5 using brute force MCS
[Abaqus (6.12-3)]. The master code is written on the approximately 107 samples are needed. The subset
Matlab platform and is interfaced with the Abaqus simulation results follow the trend of the brute force
solver to simulate the transfer of data during the MCS results and hence it can be seen that the
experimental testing. Note that the methodology methodology has been verified.
presented here does not require knowledge about the
mathematical model of the structure.
594
Figure 5: Implementation of Subset simulation algorithm for Reliability estimation of FE model
5.2 The test setup

The experimental setup used for the test is the
strong floor and the reaction wall system. The details of
the system are shown in Fig. 7. The test structure (two
story frame) is shown in Fig. 8. It is assumed that the
frame can be modeled as a two dof shear frame model
given by
x x x m 0
M 1 (t ) + C 1 (t ) + K 1 (t ) = - 1 xg (t )
x2 x2 x2 0 m2 (8)
m f (t )
= - 1 xg ( t ) = 1
m2 f2 ( t )
For testing a structure on the reaction wall test

system, we require the knowledge about the mass of the
structure. Note that this is the only quantity being
modeled and modeling of mass of the structure is a
fairly simple exercise as compared to modeling the Figure 7: Strong floor and reaction wall system [7]
stiffness, material properties, joints, etc. The quantities
m1 and m2 are taken as mass of the slabs plus half the
mass of the columns and are given by m1 = 932 kg and
595
m2 = 845 kg . The forces f 1 (t ) and f 2 (t ) are applied at hydraulic actuators are given by f1 (t ) = -m1 xg (t ) and
the two slab levels with the help of the two hydraulic f 2 (t ) = -m2 xg (t ) . The forces are generated on the
actuators mounted on the reaction wall. The connections
of the actuators with the slabs are shown in Fig. 9. A Matlab platform and then, there is a series of interaction
few details of the test hardware are shown in Table 1. between the application & control software, the
controller and the actuators, to apply the specified
forces to the structure (Fig. 10). The sensors sense the
resulting displacements and store them in a file which is
read by the master code on the Matlab platform. Fig. 11
shows a sample of displacements x1 ( t ) and
x2 ( t ) measured by the two sensors.
Figure 8: Test structure

Figure 11: Measured displacements at the two floor
levels
This exercise is repeated a desired number of times

and the probability failure is estimated using Eq. (3).
For the subset simulation method, after each cycle is
completed, the set of random variables for the next
cycle is sampled, depending upon the response of the
structure subjected to acceleration generated from the
set of random variables of the previous cycle. Fig. 10
shows the details of the algorithm and the flow of data
during the test.
Figure 9: Hydraulic actuators connected to (a) floor 1

(b) floor 2
Table 1: Details of the hardware

Figure 12: Experimental results
Strong floor and reaction wall system
Load cell 50kN For testing the structure using the brute force MCS,
LVDT 50mm 5000 sets of random variables are generated and the
structure is tested 5000 times to trace the curve shown
Controller 2370MS 32 bit
in Fig. 12. For implementing the subset simulation
Control software MTL32 algorithm for a threshold value of 3mm, the frame is
Application software Test builder tested 1000 times. The failure region is divided into 5
subsets and 200 samples of random variables are used in
For the estimation of reliability of the structure each subset. As seen from Fig. 10, subset simulation
using brute force MCS, for a single run of the results follow the trend of brute force MCS. The subset
experiment, the random variables pass through the simulation method is able to evaluate probabilities of
random process model, Eq. (6), to generate the ground failure as low as 10-5 with lesser number of samples as
acceleration xg ( t ) . The forces to be applied by the compared to Brute force MCS.
596
Figure 10: Implementation of Subset simulation algorithm for experimental testing
[2] Macke, M. and Bucher, C., Importance sampling

for randomly excited dynamical systems. Journal of
6 Discussion and conclusions
Sound and Vibration, Vol. 268(2), pp.269-290,
The subset simulation method has been successfully 2003.
implemented for the experimental estimation of
[3] Nayek, R. and Manohar, C.S., Girsanov
reliability of a two story building frame under random
TransformationBased Reliability Modeling and
earthquake loads. The methodology does not require the
Testing of Actively Controlled Structures, Journal
knowledge about the mathematical model of the
of Engineering Mechanics, Vol. 141(6), pp.
structure and can be applied to a wide class of problems.
04014168, 2014.
The probability of failure, as low as 10-5 has been
evaluated using about 1000 samples based on the subset [4] Sundar, V.S. and Manohar, C.S., Random vibration
simulation method, while for the estimation of this testing with controlled samples, Structural Control
probability using the brute force MCS method around and Health Monitoring, Vol. 21(10), pp. 1269-1283,
107 samples will be needed. The methodology 2014.
developed is seen to be effective in reducing the testing [5] Sundar, V.S., Ammanagi, S. and Manohar, C.S.,
time. System reliability of randomly vibrating structures:
Computational modeling and laboratory
testing, Journal of Sound and Vibration, Vol. 351,
Acknowledgments
pp. 189-205, 2015.
The authors thank Dr. Somayya Ammanagi for his
valuable assistance in carrying out this work. [6] Nigam Nariu, C. and Sadagopan
Narayanan., Applications of random vibrations,
Springer-Verlag, 1994.
7 References
[7] Somayya Ammanagi., Vibration testing of
[1] Au SK. and Beck JL., Estimation of small failure structures under random support excitations
probabilities in high dimensions by subset (Thesis), Indian Institute of Science, 2015.
simulation, Probabilistic Engineering Mechanics,
Vol. 16(1), pp. 263-277, 2011.
597
DYNAMIC BEHAVIOUR OF TURBO MACHINERY

FOUNDATION SUBJECTED TO KATHAMANDU
EARTHQUAKE LOADING
Mrs. Sungyani Tripathy1, Dr. Atul K Desai2
1,2
Applied Mechanics Department, SVNIT Surat, Gujarat-395007, India
Vibration is the major problem in the industrial turbo machineries leading to reduced efficiency and
frequent failure. In most of the cases, the main culprit for the vibration is improper foundation design.
Hence it is necessary to do a thorough check in foundation design with respect to soil conditions and
harmonic loading generated due to the rotating part. Earthquake resistant checks are equally important
owing to higher capital investments for the critical turbo machineries. In the present work, dynamic
analysis of turbo generator foundation with raft, barrettes, batter pile and barrettes with batter pile are
carried out on poor soil conditions. The dynamic analysis is performed numerically by applying sine
loading at top deck and Kathmandu earthquake at bottom soil using software, SAP: 2000 V18. From the
analysis it is found that raft showed largest displacement value at top deck, which is reduced by addition
of barrettes and batter piles.
Keywords: Dynamic loading, turbo machinery, foundation, Barrettes, Batter pile
1 Introduction The machine foundations should be designed that

the dynamic forces of machine are transmitted to the
Machine foundations are the building block of
soil through the foundation in such a way that all kinds
industrial turbo machineries. Vibrations of small
of harmful effects are eliminated. In the past, simple
magnitude in the machines can induce cracks in the
methods of calculation were used, most often involving
structural member, loosening of joints, and reduced
the multiplication of static loads by an estimated
efficiency in operations. The analysis and design of
dynamic factor and the result being treated as an
foundation subjected to vibratory loads is a complicated
increased static load without any factor of safety. Due
problem because of the interaction of geotechnical
to uncertainties the value adopted dynamic factor is too
engineering, structural engineering and vibration theory.
high, but during practice showed that harmful
The most important parameters for the design of
deformations result in spite of using excessive factors.
machine foundations are the natural frequency and the
Hence, a more detailed and deeper scientific
amplitude of machine foundation at its operating
investigation is required for dynamic loading and higher
frequency. Industrial facilities like power plants, steel
capacity of machine foundation. In Ref. [1], new
plants, petrochemical complexes, fertilizer plants etc.
theoretical and computational procedures were
consist of a number of centrifugal and reciprocating
described for calculating dynamic response of machine
machines. If any of this equipments starts
foundations. Framed-foundations supported either on
malfunctioning or breaks down due to excessive
raft/pile foundations are the suitable solution for such
vibration or settlement of foundation, it affects the
problems, which can prevent vibrations. The option of
overall performance. Identical machines having
raft or pile foundation depends largely on type of soil
identical foundations have been observed behaving
conditions and at the site having poor soil conditions,
differently under different soil conditions. Hence, soil
pile-supported framed-foundations is very common. In
structure interaction study becomes very important for
Ref. [2], the importance of superstructure-foundation
the proper design of the foundation. The performance,
soil interaction in the design of machine foundation was
safety and stability of machine depend largely on their
elaborated.
design, manufacturing and interaction with environment.
________________________________
1
Ph.D Student, sugyani16@gmail.com
2
Professor, akd@amd.svnit.ac.in
Different methods for analysis of framed
foundation were explained in Ref. [3]. In Ref. [4],
design guidelines and charts for limits of amplitude of
vibration were presented. Reference [5], proposed the
stiffness and damping of pile group under the steady-
598
Sungyani Tripathy and Atul K Desai
state vertical vibrations may be obtained by frequency- direction change of harmonic dynamic loads, sine
independent expressions. In Ref. [6], the effects of and functions are added in perpendicular axes.
transmission of vertical vibrations from machine 5. Response spectra analysis: Similar to harmonic
foundations to adjacent building foundations were dynamic load, seismic response analysis is analyzed
studied. Reference [7], explained different methods for by using the time history of design option in SAP.
analysis of framed foundation and the limits of vibration 6. Earthquake loading: Earthquake loading has
amplitudes. In Ref. [8] design and construction of assigned to model from time history function of
machine foundation supporting low frequency rotary SAP; 2000. Figure 2 shows the real time history for
type machines was mentioned. The effect of springs Kathmandu Earthquake.
placed between the machine and foundation in Ref. [9].
The foundation and soil system was modelled as mass-
spring-dashpot model having multi-degrees of freedom
in Ref. [10]. It is recommended in Ref. [11] that the
foundation supporting rotary machine has to be stiff
enough to avoid interaction between fundamental
frequencies of machine foundation and substructure.
Batter piles offer large stiffness and bearing capacity
compared to vertical piles on soft soils because of its
inclined installation, Ref. [12]. Batter piles resist lateral
load from earthquake, soil pressure, and transmit the
applied lateral load in axial direction. The strength of
the batter pile constructed in medium or dense sand
increases with the increase of batter angle, attains
maximum value at 20o and then decreases, Ref. [13]. (a) Turbo machinery foundation with raft
In the current work, soil structure interaction with
rafts, barrettes, batter piles have been studied in SAP:
2000 software. Following cases have been considered
for the turbo generator foundation supported by (i) raft,
(ii) raft with barrettes, (iii) raft with batter pile (iv) raft
with barrettes and batter pile.
2 Numerical Model
SAP: 2000V18 has been used in this study for
numerical analysis. This version has the properties like
finite element method, static and dynamic analysis,
linear and nonlinear analysis, geometric nonlinearity,
soil parameters, soil structure interaction, stress contour,
including earthquake lateral forces. Figure 1 (a, b, c and (b) Turbo Machinery Foundation raft with Batter
d) shows the detailed model of a turbo generator Pile
foundation in SAP: 2000. Following methodology has
been used for the numerical analysis of the turbo
generator model.
1. Different element models: Shell (plate) and solid
elements were also be used to represent the table
top, columns, footing and Barrettes.
2. Soil Springs: soil spring constant (Stiffness &
Damping) is calculated from the Lysmer and
Richarts method. The values have been assigned as
link elements with three stiffness and three
damping values.
3. Rigid links has been used to model rotor and to
transfer the harmonic load and axial load. To give a (c) Turbo machinery foundation raft with Barrettes
better visional view of model, a very weak link
element is used to replace rotor axes, which wont
change the result.
4. Forced vibration analysis: Foundation vibrates
under harmonic dynamic loads from machine. For
each bearing, unbalanced forces are based on
weight of rotors and operating speeds. To model
599
the stiffness of the structure and the mass which

participates with the structure (including self-weight). It
is not dependent on the load function. It is useful to
know the modal frequencies of a structure as it allows
you to ensure that the frequency of any applied periodic
loading will not coincide with a modal frequency. In
case coincides, it will cause resonance leading to
large oscillations.
Dynamic behaviors of the foundation was first
verified by modal analysis to estimate the free vibration.
All modes with frequencies up to 1.2 f = 60Hz were
extracted. Usually 30 to 40 modes are enough. First 2 to
4 modes present rigid body translational (in horizontal
plane) or translational-rotational modes. Vertical
translational mode is usually combined with flexural
(d) Turbo machinery foundation raft with Barrettes
modes. Figure 3 shows the mode number vs. frequency
and Batter pile
(Hz) relationship for turbo-generator foundation. It can
Figure 1: Complete model of Turbo Machinery be seen from the figure that the natural frequency of the
Foundation. machine foundation increases by providing
barrettes/batter piles compared to raft foundations.
Highest natural frequency is seen for the foundations
which uses combination of barrette and batter piles
which signifies highest stiffness in the foundation.
(a) Time history in north east direction
Figure 3: Comparison of Modal Numbers with

corresponding Frequency
3.2 Vibrations at top-deck

Imbalance in rotating machinery is the common
source of harmonic excitation. The cause of this defect
(b) Time history in south west direction may be due to material imperfection, tolerances etc. of
the rotor leading to centrifugal force in the system
Figure 2: Real time history for Kathmandu Earthquake
which consequently impart the vibration force to the
bearings. Due to unsatisfactory balancing of rotating
parts in practice the mass centroid of rotating part does
not coincide with center of rotation. In the course of
operation the initial defective balancing may be
3.1 Modal value
increased at an alarming rate in consequence of the
Modal analysis is the study of the dynamic loosening, corrosion or breakage of the turbine blades.
properties of structures under vibrational excitation. Uneven warming up of the rotor, a little displacement of
A modal analysis calculates the frequency modes or the coils or variation in the rotor material further upset
natural frequencies of a given system, but not the balance. Also the defects of the lubrication system,
necessarily its full-time history response to a given input. deficiency of the packing may cause expansion resulting
The natural frequency of a system is dependent only on in vibrations which undergo complicated changes. For
600
the computation of dynamic effect the weight of rotating

parts & their point of application data are necessary.
The displacement values at different points of top
deck has been shown in Fig. 4 for raft, batter piles,
barrettes and barrettes with batter piles. Figure 5 shows
the displacement values of turbo machinery with
Kathmandu loading. It has been observed that
displacement value is highest for raft foundation and it
has been reduced by providing barrettes with batter pile.
Table 1. Shows the displacement values at top deck for
both sine and seismic loading.
Table 1: Displacement Values at Top Deck

Types of Foundation Displacement value(m)
Sine loading Earthquake (c) Turbo Machinery foundation raft with barrettes.
loading
Raft Foundation 60x10-6m 12 x10-3m
-6
Batter pile 32 x10 m 9 x10-3m
Barrettes 26 x10-6m 7 x10-3m
Barrettes with Batter 17 x10-6m 4.3 x10-3m
pile
(d) Turbo Machinery foundation raft with barrettes with

batter piles.
Figure 4: Displacement values at top-deck near sine

loading for 12000 rpm
(a) Turbo Machinery foundation with raft
(a) Turbo Machinery foundation with raft
(b) Turbo Machinery foundation raft with batter piles
601
are forced into motion by the vibration. The response

spectra acceleration for Turbo Machinery foundation
with raft, barrette, batter pile, and barrette with batter
pile has been shown in Fig. 7. From the figure it can be
observed that the combination of barrette and batter pile
exhibit least spectral acceleration making the foundation
more stable.
(b) Turbo Machinery foundation raft with batter

piles
Figure 6: Horizontal Displacement of barrette, batter

Pile, barrettes with batter pile under earthquake loading
(c) Turbo Machinery foundation raft with barrettes
(d) Turbo Machinery foundation raft with barrettes with

batter piles.
Figure 7: Response Spectra curve taken at bottom of
Figure 5: Displacement values at top-deck near seismic the raft for turbo machinery foundation
loading after Kathmandu earthquake turbo machinery
foundation with raft with barrette with batter pile. 3.5 Base Shear
Base shear is an estimate of the maximum expected
3.3 Horizontal Displacement of Barrettes/Batter piles lateral force that will occur due to seismic ground
Figure 6 shows the horizontal displacement of motion at the base of a structure. Calculations of base
barrettes/ batter piles under different seismic excitations. shear depends on soil conditions at the site. Figure 8
From the figure it can be observed that the combination shows the base shear of turbo machinery foundation
of barrettes with batter piles have low displacement with raft. Batter piles, barrettes and barrettes with batter
values under the entire earthquake excitations. piles. From the figure it can be seen that least base shear
has been observed for the foundation with combination
3.4 Response Spectra of barrette and batter pile which makes the foundation
to withstand high seismic forces without causing
Response spectra are the plot of peak or steady- structural failure.
state response (displacement, velocity or acceleration)
varying against natural frequency or time period, that
602
3.6 Rotation Angle References

The rotational angle has been calculated by
dividing the difference of vertical displacement of raft at [1] Bhatia, K.G., Foundations for industrial machines-a
two ends with the length of raft. The rotation angle for handbook for practicing engineers, D-CAD
raft, barrette, batter and combination of barrette and Publishers, New Delhi, 2008.
batter piles are given in Table 2. It can be observed that
[2] Mayerhof, G., Some Recent Foundation Research
rotation angle of batter pile is more than the barrettes
and its Application to Design, Struct. Eng., 31(6),
due to which more strain exists at the piles. So, chances
151-167, 1953.
of overturning of the foundation is higher for batter
piled foundations. However batter piles can be used in [3] Barkan, D.D., Dynamics of bases and foundations,
combination with barrette piles for getting maximum McGraw-Hill, New York, 1962.
benefit.
[4] Richart, F.E., Hall, J.R., and Woods, R.D.,
Vibrations of soils and foundations. Prentice Hall.
Englewood Cliffs, 1970.
[5] Novak, M., and Grigg, R.F., Dynamic experiments
with small pile foundation. Can Geotech J, 13(4),
372395, 1976.
[6] Lapin, S.K., Transmission of vertical oscillations
from machine foundations to adjacent building
foundations. Soil Mech Found Eng, 35:7477, 1998.
[7] Arya, S.C., ONeill, M.W., and Pincus, G., Design
of structures and foundations for vibrating
machines. Gulf publishing company, Houston, 1979.
[8] BIS 2974 (Part IV) Code of practice for design and
Figure 8: Base shear for turbo generator foundation construction of machine foundations. Foundations
with raft, barrette, batter Pile and barrettes with batter for rotary type machines of low frequency (1st
pile obtained from computational analysis in SAP: 2000 revision). Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi,
1979.
[9] Kumar, J., and Reddy, C.O., Dynamics response of
Table.2: Maximum Rotation Angle of the Raft footing and machine with spring mounting base,
Foundation Geotech Geol Eng 24:1527, 2006.
Types of foundation Rotation Angle [10] Prakash, S., and Puri, K.V., Foundations for
Raft 26o vibrating machines, of the J Struct Eng (SERC,
Barrette 14o Madras, special issue), 2006.
Batter 22o [11] Fleischer, P.S., and Trombik, P.G., Turbo generator
Barrette with Batter 11o machine foundations subjected to earthquake
loadings. In: 14th world conference on earthquake
4 Conclusions engineering, China, 2006.
Batter pile reduces the displacement at top deck; [12] Ramaswamy, S.D. and Pertusier, E.M.,
but it exhibits higher bending moment and displacement Construction of barrettes for high-rise foundations,
at the piles section. However the shortcomings of batter J. Constr. Eng. Manage., 112(4), 455-462, 1986.
pile can be avoided if it is used in combination with [13] Giannakou, A., Gerolymos,N., Gazetas, G., Tazoh,
barrettes. Barrettes reduce the dynamic forces and T., and Anastasopoulos, I., Seismic behavior of
increase the modal frequency of the structure. By batter Piles: elastic response, J. Geotech.
adding batter pile along with barrettes, there is further Geoenviron. Eng., 136(9), 1187-1199, 2010.
decrease in displacement at top deck making the turbo
machinery operation more stable. Additionally, barrettes
with batter piles have negligible effect on horizontal
displacement of foundation.
Hence frame-foundation supported on combination
of barrettes and batter piles with raft are the suitable
solution for poor soil conditions, which can support
heavy machinery loads and prevent vibrations even
under high seismic loading like Kathmandu earthquake.
603
FREE VIBRATION ANALYSIS OF FUNCTIONALLY GRADED PLATES

UNDER THERMAL ENVIRONMENT USING FOUR NODE
QUADRILATERAL ELEMENT.
G.A.Deshpande1, S.D.Kulkarni2
1
Department of Civil Engineering, College of Engineering Pune, India
2
Department of Civil Engineering, College of Engineering Pune, India
In this work the four node quadrilateral element having seven degrees of freedom per node, developed
earlier by the second author and his coworkers is modified for free vibration analysis of functionally
graded plates under thermal environment. The performance of the modified element is assessed by
comparing the present results of non-dimensionalised natural frequencies with the available analytical as
well as the finite element results. It is observed that the performance of the present element is quite
satisfactory for the isotopic FGM plates under thermal environment considered in this study with all edges
simply supported as well as with all edges clamped boundary conditions.
Keywords: functionally graded material,

finite, discrete, quadrilateral
1 Introduction In the present work the element developed by the
second author and his co-workers Ref. [1]; for the
In many engineering fields now a days analysis of single layer functionally graded plate is
functionally graded materials are used for structural modified for the free vibration analysis of isotropic
applications. Functionally graded materials normally functionally graded plate under thermal environment.
consist of two phases namely the metal phase and the The element presented in Ref. [1] has seven degrees of
ceramic phase. The ceramic phase can resist the freedom per node and is based on Reddys third order
severe thermal loading and the metal phase prevents theory. The C1 continuity problem posed by Reddys
fracture caused by stresses due to high temperature. third order theory is circumvented by using the
Due to the special manufacturing process, these improved Kirchhoff interpolation functions of
materials are macroscopically homogeneous in spite Jeychandrabose et al. Ref.[2].The performance of the
of being microscopically inhomogeneous. Since modified element is assessed for the free vibration
functionally graded structures are most commonly analysis of two types of isotropic FGM plates under
used in high temperature environment, changes in thermal environment in comparison with the available
expected. The material properties ! that are
mechanical properties of constituent materials are analytical as well as finite element results for the non-
dimensionalised natural frequencies. It is observed
temperature dependent can be written as that for all the cases of FGM plates considered in this
! = !" (!#$ % #$ + 1 + !$ % + !& % & + !' % ' )

study, performance of the modified four node
(1) quadrilateral element based on Reddys theory is quite
Where !" , !#$ , !$ , !& and !' are the coefficients

satisfactory.
of temperature %(*) and are unique to the constituent

materials. The effective material property through the 2 Formulation
thickness is normally assumed to be according to the
3- + 4 6
following power law, 2.1 Temperature Field Approximation
(!
!(-, %) = !. (%) + / (%) 0 !. (%)) 2 5
34 (2) Temperature field is assumed to be uniform over
the plate surface and varies only in the thickness
Where n is the volume fraction index, !. and7!/ direction. The temperature distribution along the
are the material properties at the bottom and the top thickness direction can be obtained by solving a
surface of the plate respectively and 4 is the total steady-state heat transfer equation
8 8%
thickness of the plate. Poissons ratio depends weakly
0 2*(-) 5 = 9,
8- 8-
on temperature change and is assumed to be constant. (3)
__________________________________
1
Reserch Scholar,girijakaranjikar@yahoo.co.uk
2
Associate Professor,sdk.civil@coep.ac.in
604
G.A.Deshpande and S.D.Kulkarni
_ = àbc [d 0 de/ ]
(10)
% = %: at7- = < 7% = %> at - = 04?3@
;
&
Where7de/7 is thermal strain.

Where TuandTL are the temperatures at the top
Stiffness coefficients7`f bc are defined as:
and the bottom surface of the plate respectively. The
f $$ = 7`
7` f && = g(Z,h) f f
^ ; 7`$& = 7`&$ = ^ <
ig(Z,h)
solution of this equation, by means of polynomial
$#i $#i
series,
7` f &j = 9; 7`
f $j = 7` f LL = 7`
f NN = 7`
f jj = g(Z,h) (11)
&($Ji)
T (Z) = Tu+ (TLTu)(Z, h) (4)
3A + 4
Where, 2.3 Finite Element Formulation
=B
34
Principle of virtual work is used for obtaining
stiffness matrix and mass matrix. Details regarding the
1 FGH
C(A, 4) = 7 EB 0 (B)6J$
interpolation functions are given in Ref.[1].
D (I + 1)FH 3 Numerical results
FGH &
+ (B)&6J$
Square FGM plates with two types of material
(3I + 1)FH &
mixture are considered. The top surface of the plate is
FGH '
ceramic rich while the bottom surface contains metal.
0 (B)'6J$
Type 1: The top surface of the plate is silicon
(KI + 1)FH '
(5) nitride (Si3N4) while the bottom surface contains
FGH L
+ (B)L6J$
stainless steel (SUS304), referred to as Si3N4/SUS304.
(MI + 1)FH L
Type 2: The top surface of the plate is zirconium
FGH N
oxide (ZrO2) while the bottom surface contains
0 (B)N6J$ P
titanium alloy (Ti-6Al-4V), referred to as ZrO2/Ti-
(OI + 1)FH N
6Al-4V.
Temperature dependent coefficients for metal and
FGH FGH &

ceramic are listed in Table 1 as given in Ref. [3]. Where
D =10 +
E is Youngs modulus, is thermal expansion
(I + 1)FH (3I + 1)FH & coefficient, is density and k is thermal conductivity.
FGH '
Poissons ratio is assumed to be 0.28 and 0.3 for Type 1
0
(KI + 1)FH '
plate and Type 2 plate respectively.
Numerical results presented in Table 2 and Table 3
FGH L
(6)
+
is obtained by using following non dimensional
(MI + 1)FH L
frequency formula:
FGH N k
f=
lm^
or Where,777s" = 4t,7u" = $&($#i^)
p g;\
0
q
n^
(OI + 1)FH N
q
The material properties t and Q7are chosen to be

FGH = FG 0 FH
%" = K99*.
(7) the values of stainless steel at reference temperature
Q(-, %) = [QG (%) 0 QH (%)]B6 + QH (%) (8)

Rests of the numerical results are obtained by
using non dimensionalised frequency formula given
below:
2.2 Displacement Field Approximation
kv& t"($#i^ )
k
f= w
4 Q"
The four node quadrilateral element formulation is
based on Reddys third order theory for which the
The material properties t" and Q" are chosen to be the
displacement field approximation is,
R(S, T, -, U) = R" (S, T, U)
V(S, T, -, U) = V" (S, T, U) 0 -R"W %" = K99*
values of stainless steel at reference temperature
+ X(-)Y" (S, T, U)
(9)
LZ \
Where X(-) = - 0
3.1 All Round Simply Supported (SSSS) and All
';^
Round Clamped (CCCC) Type 1 FGM plate
The constitutive relations can be expressed as
605
The numerical results of non-dimensional that the present results are in close agreement with
frequencies for the first seven modes for all round 3D results.
simply supported and all round clamped type 1 FGM The temperature effects on non-
square plates with span to thickness ratio of S = 10 are dimensionalised frequencies of clamped plates are
compared with the 3D results presented by Q.Li et al. greater than those of simply supported plates.
Ref .[4] in Table 2 and Table 3 respectively. Though
present results are based on two dimensional theories,
they are quite comparable with the 3D results
presented by Li et al. Ref. [4]. It is also observed
Table 1: Temperature dependent coefficient for ceramic and metal
Material !" !#$ !$ !& !'
xy' zL - Silicon nitride
Q(!v) 348.43 109 0.0 3.070 10-4 2.160 10-7 8.94610-11
{(1/K) 5.8723 10-6 0.0 9.095 10-4 0.0 0.0
(kg/B' ) 2370 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0

F 9.19 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
x|xK9M-StainlessSteel
Q(!v) 201.04 109 0.0 3.076 10-4 -6.534 10-7 0.0
{(1/K) 12.330 10-6 0.0 8.086 10-4 0.0 0.0
(kg/B' ) 8166 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0

F 12.04 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
A}~& -Zirconia
Q(!v) 244.27 109 0.0 -1.371 10-3 1.214 10-6 -3.681 10-10
{(1/K) 12.766 10-6 0.0 -1.491 10-3 1.006 10-5 -6.778 10-11
(kg/B' ) 3000 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
F 1.80 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
%y 0 0 M-Titanium Alloy
Q(!v) 122.56 109 0.0 -4.5681 10-4 0.0 0.0
{(1/K) 7.5788 10-6 0.0 6.638 10-4 -3.1476 10-6 0.0
(kg/B' ) 8166 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0

F 7.82 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
3.2 All Round Simply Supported (SSSS) Type 2 for T = 0K and T = 100K respectively in Table 4
Square FGM plate with S = 8 and Table 5. Where Tc is the temperature at the top
surface and Tm at the bottom surface of the plate .It is
Table 4 and Table 5 give results of non-
observed from both the tables that the results obtained
dimensional frequencies for type 2 (ZrO2/Ti-6Al-4V)
using present elements even with a coarser mesh are
FGM plate with zero and 100K temperature rise
matching with those given by Huang and Shen Ref.
respectively. The comparison of results for all-round
[5]. It is also observed that as the volume fraction
simply supported plate obtained with a mesh size of
increases non-dimensionalised fundamental frequency
8 8 with different volume fractions with 2D
decreases.
analytical results presented by Huang and Shen Ref.
[5] based on higher order shear deformation theory
606
f for Type 1 FGM plate subjected to nonlinear temperature rise T = 300K with SSSS boundary
Table 27
condition
k
f$ k
f& k
f' k
fL k
fN k
fj k
f
volume
fraction Mesh size
88 2.6496 6.3146 6.3146 9.2189 9.2189 9.6139 11.8343
16 16 2.6575 6.3408 6.3408 9.1747 9.1747 9.7134 11.8678
1
20 2 0 2.6584 6.3442 6.3442 9.1694 9.1694 9.7267 11.8738
Q.Li Ref. [4] 2.6576 6.3764 6.3764 8.9707 8.9707 9.7992 11.9555
88 2.3788 5.6646 5.6646 8.1652 8.1652 8.6182 10.6051
16 16 2.3858 5.6881 5.6881 8.1261 8.1261 8.7077 10.6350
2
20 2 0 2.3866 5.6912 5.6912 8.1214 8.1214 8.7196 10.6404
Q.Li Ref. [4] 2.3727 5.6933 5.6933 7.9300 7.9300 8.7468 10.6709
88 2.1603 5.1392 5.1392 7.2991 7.2991 7.8126 9.6076
16 16 2.1668 5.1611 5.1611 7.2641 7.2641 7.8948 9.6374
5
20 2 0 2.1676 5.1640 5.1640 7.2599 7.2599 7.9058 9.6427
Q.Li Ref. [4] 2.1424 5.1419 5.1419 7.0806 7.0806 7.8970 9.6331
f for Type 1 FGM plate subjected to nonlinear temperature rise T = 300K with CCCC boundary
Table 3:7
condition
k
f$ k
f& k
f' k
fL k
fN k
fj k
f
volume
fraction Mesh size
88 4.5913 8.8613 8.8613 12.4557 14.9302 15.0255 17.4949
16 16 4.5753 8.7832 8.7832 12.3509 14.6288 14.7473 17.3649
1
20 2 0 4.5713 8.7674 8.7674 12.3263 14.5809 14.7033 17.3484
Q.Li Ref. [4] 4.4904 8.6443 8.6443 12.1559 14.3412 14.4836 17.0433
88 4.1145 7.9341 7.9341 11.1479 13.3580 13.4423 15.5025
16 16 4.0990 7.8600 7.8600 11.0467 13.0775 13.1833 15.3884
2
20 2 0 4.0952 7.8452 7.8452 11.0234 13.0331 13.1424 15.3743
Q.Li Ref. [4] 3.9965 7.6961 7.6961 10.8220 12.7653 12.8934 15.1611
88 3.7283 7.1808 7.1808 10.0846 12.0759 12.1507 13.8749
16 16 3.7136 7.1120 7.1120 9.9891 11.8183 11.9131 13.7728
5
20 2 0 3.7101 7.0981 7.0981 9.9672 11.7772 11.8755 13.7603
Q.Li Ref. [4] 3.5941 6.9264 6.9264 9.7400 11.4873 11.6043 13.6331
f for Type 2 square FGM plate with Tc =300K and Tm = 300K (T=0) with SSSS boundary condition
Table 47k
Mode
volume fraction Results (1,1) (1,2) (2,2) (1,3) (2,3)
Huang and Shen Ref. [5] 8.273 19.216 28.962 34.873 43.07
0
Present 8.247 19.232 28.802 35.118 43.046
0.5
Present 7.086 16.540 24.789 30.244 37.089
Huang and Shen Ref .[5] 6.657 15.514 23.345 28.12 34.747
1
Present 6.632 15.473 23.178 28.278 34.665
2
Present 6.264 14.588 21.822 26.606 32.583
607
3.3 All Round Simply Supported (SSSS) Type 1 obtained using present elements even with a coarser
Square FGM plate with S = 8 mesh of size 8 8, are in close agreement with those
given by Huang and Shen Ref. [5]. Percentage
Table 6 gives comparison of non dimensionalised
difference in present results and results presented in
frequencies of type 1 square FGM plate with the results
Ref. [5] are less than 1%.
presented by Huang and Shen Ref. [5]. For this case
thermal loading condition, Tc = 300K and Tm = 300K is
considered. It is observed from table 6 that results
Table 5: k
f for Type 2 square FGM plate with Tc = 400K and Tm = 300K (T = 100) with SSSS boundary condition
Mode
0 Present 8.039 18.746 28.074 34.231 41.959
0.5 Present 6.934 16.191 24.270 29.611 36.319
1 p 6.499 15.168 22.727 27.727 33.996
2 Present 6.145 14.317 21.423 26.119 31.995
Table 6: k
f for Type 1 square FGM plate with Tc = 300K and Tm = 300K (T = 0)
Mode
0
Present 12.457 29.085 43.599 53.186 65.236
0.5
Present 8.576 20.022 30.014 36.625 44.924
1
p 7.515 17.542 26.289 32.082 39.341
2
Present 6.744 15.725 23.545 28.721 35.195
3.4 All Round Simply Supported (SSSS) Type 1 Sundararaian et al. Ref. [6] by using 8 node C0
Square FGM plate with other finite element results continuous shear flexible element with 5 degrees of
with S = 8 freedom per node based on FSDT are also given along
with the results presented by Huang and Shen Ref. [5].
The results for four different volume fractions for
The superiority of the present element is clearly
all round simply supported type 1 square FGM plate
indicated from the fact that the number of degrees of
with a mesh size of 8 8 are given in Table 7.
freedom required for almost the same accuracy is much
Temperature change T = 100K is considered for the
less than that required for the element of Ref. [6].
analysis. For comparison, the finite element results of
fundamental natural frequencies presented by
Table 7: Comparison of non-dimensionalised frequencies for Type 1square FGM plate SSSS boundary condition under
Volume fraction
I7= 0 I = 0.5 I7 = 1 I7 = 2
Reference Mode
1 12.397 8.615 7.474 6.639

Huang and Shen Ref. [5]
2 29.083 20.212 17.607 15.762
1 12.311 8.276 7.302 6.572
Sundararaian et al. Ref. [6]
2 29.016 19.772 17.369 15.599
1 12.392 8.535 7.481 6.715
Present
2 28.933 19.928 17.463 15.659
608
3.5 Additional Results Structural Engineering. Springer India

Publications 15-24,2015
In Figure 1a and 1b the first three mode
shapes are plotted for Type 2 and Type 1 FGM [2] Jeychandrabose C., Kirkhope J. and
plates with all-round simply supported boundary Meekioshi L.,An improved discrete Kirchhoff
conditions with volume fraction n = 5 with S = 8. quadrilateral thin plate bending element,
Temperature at the top is 400K and that at bottom International Journal of Numerical Methods
in Engineering, Vol.24,pp.635-654, 1987
is 300K. These results can be used as benchmark
for further research. [3] Reddy J.N., Chin C., Thermomechanical
analysis of functionally graded cylinders and
plates, Journal of Thermal Stress,
Vol.212(6),pp.593-626,1998.
[4] Li Q., Iu V.P., Kou K.P., Three dimensional

vibration analysis of functionally graded
material plates in thermal environment,
k
f& = O@KM k
f& = 1K@O k
f' = 1K@O
International Journal of Sound and
Vibration,Vol. 324,pp.733-750,2009
a: All-round simply supported
Type 2 FGM plate for n = 5 and S = 8 [5] Huang X.L. and Shen H.S. ,Nonlinear
vibration anddynamic response of
functionally graded plates in thermal
environments, International Journal of Solids
and Structures, Vol.41,pp. 2403-2427,2004
k
f$ = @11O k
f& = 1M@3O3 k
f' = 1M@3O3
[6] Sundarrarajan N., Prakash T. and Ganapathi
M. , Nonlinear free flexural vibration of
b: All-round simply supported funcationally graded rectangular and skew
Type 1 FGM plate for n = 5 and S = 8 plates under thermal environments, Finite
Figure 1: First three mode shapes for FGM Element in Analysis and
plate under thermal environment Design,Vol.42,pp.152-168,2005.
4 Conclusions
The present element based on Reddys

third order theory observed to give quite
satisfactory results for all the cases of FGM
plates under thermal environment considered
in this study. It is also observed that even the
results obtained with a coarser mesh size are
also close to the 3D results reported in the
literature. This establishes the suitability of
the present element for the free vibration
analysis of functionally graded plates under
thermal environment and its use is
recommended for the further research.
References
[1] Kulkarni S.D., Trivedi C.J. and Ishi R.G.,
Static and free vibration analysis of
functionally graded skew plates using a four
node quadrilateral element, Advances in
609
FREE VIBRATION ANALYSIS OF ISOTROPIC CYLINDRICAL

SKEW SHELL PANELS USING A FOUR NODE DISCRETE
KIRCHHOFF FLAT SHELL ELEMENT
V.A. Dagade 1, S.D. Kulkarni 2
1
Department of Civil Engineering, College of Engineering Pune, 411005, India.
2
Department of Civil Engineering, College of Engineering Pune, 411005, India
In this paper the four node discrete Kirchhoffs quadrilateral flat shell element based on Reddys third order
shear deformation theory developed earlier by the authors for isotropic moderately thick cylindrical shell
panels of rectangular planform is assessed for its potential for the free vibration analysis of moderately
thick skew cylindrical shell panels. This element has nine degrees of freedom per node namely; three
displacements, three bending rotations and three shear rotations. It is observed in the study that the present
element gives quite satisfactory performance for moderately thick skew cylindrical shell panels.
Keywords: free vibration, quadrilateral, isotropic, skew cylindrical shell.

1 Introduction nine degrees of freedom (DOF) per node namely; three
displacements, three bending rotations and three shear
Skew cylindrical shell panel is one of the important and
rotations and gives quite satisfactory results for skew
commonly used structural elements in many engineering
shell panels.
applications such as aircrafts, missiles, rockets,
submarines etc. Free vibration response of these type of
structures has been extensively studied by many 2 Finite Element Formulation
researchers. Exact 3D elasticity solutions or 2D
The four node quadrilateral element is shown in
analytical solutions for the free vibration analysis of skew
cylindrical shell panels are not available for panels with Figure 1. where, x, y, z are the local axes and x, y, z are
complicated boundary conditions or with complex the global axes.
geometries which necessitates the use of finite element
technique for the solution. Many researchers have
investigated the dynamic behavior of skew isotropic shell
using experimental, analytical as well as finite element
models based on different deformation theories. Kumar
Ref. [1] presented higher order shear deformation theory
for free vibration analysis of laminated composite skew
shell. Srinivasa Ref. [2] presented the experimental and
finite element studies on free vibration of cylindrical
skew panels. In the present work the four node Figure 1: Geometry of the element
quadrilateral flat shell element developed earlier by
present authors Ref. [3] for the free vibration analysis of The element initially has seven local DOF per node but
isotropic moderately thick cylindrical shell panels with in order to transform it globally, two additional fictitious
rectangular plan form is assessed for its performance for DOF need to be added per node as mentioned in
the free vibration analysis of moderately thick isotropic Zienkiewicz and Taylor Ref. [6]. After the
skew cylindrical shell panels. The element is based on considerations of these two additional fictitious DOF
third order shear deformation theory (TOT) as given by namely ozi and ozi. The nodal displacement vector is
Reddy Ref. [4] which does not require the use of shear
correction factor like the first order shear deformation U e' = [u '0 xi u '0 yi w '0i q '0 xi q '0 yi q '0 zi y '0 xi y '0 yi y '0 zi ]T (1)
theory. But the finite element model based on the TOT
requires C1 continuity of transverse displacement. In the The prime indicates that the displacements are with
1
present element the C continuity problem is successfully reference to the local axes. It is necessary to convert
circumvented by imposing the Kirchhoff's hypothesis actions and displacements from local directions (primed)
only at certain discrete points in the element as given by to global directions (unprimed). This is achieved by
Jeychandrabose et al. Ref. [5]. The present element has following expression.
1
Research Scholar, vaishali.dagade@gmail.com
2
Associate Professor, sdk.civil@coep.ac.in
610
V.A. Dagade and S.D. Kulkarni
Ui e ' =Ti eU i e coefficient corresponding to the degrees of freedom ozi

; i = 1, 2, 3, 4 and ozi equal to an arbitrary number in the local stiffness
Where, matrix of size 36 36, where the arbitrary number can be
e'
U taken equal to minimum value of stiffness coefficient in
= local displacement vector for ith node as in
i
the diagonal of local stiffness matrix 10-2. The same
Equation (1),
e treatment is given to mass matrix.
U
= global displacement vector for ith node as in
i
Equation (2), The global element stiffness matrix Ke of size 36 36,

global element mass matrix Me of size 36 36 and global
T element load vector Pe of size 36 1 are given in
U i e = u0 xi u0 yi w0i q0 xi q0 yi q0 z i y 0 xi y 0 yi y 0 z i (2) Equation (4).

Tie = the transformation matrix for ith node given as K e = T T K e 'T , M e = T T M e 'T , Pe = T T Pe ' (4)
Where,
l11 l12 l13 0 0 0 0 0 0
l l l K e ' = element local stiffness matrix of size 36 36,
21 22 23 0 0 0 0 0 0
l31 l32 l33 0 0 0 0 0 0 M e' =
element local mass matrix of size 36 36,
'
0 0 0 l22 l21 l23 0 0 0
e
P = element local load vector of size 36 1,
Ti = 0 0 0 l12 l11 l13 0 0 0 (3) T = transformation matrix of size 36 36 as given in

0 0 0 l32 l31 l33 0 0 0 Equation (5)
0 0 0 0 0 0 l l l
22 21 23
T1 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 l12 l11 l13
0 0 0 0 0 0 l l l
32 31 33 0 T2 0 0
T = (5)
Where 11, 12 etc. are the direction cosines of the local 0 0 T3 0
(primed) axes with respect to the global (unprimed) axes. 0 0 0 T
4
These direction cosines can be obtained as follows: Let
co-ordinates of nodes 1 and 2 be (x1, y1, z1) and (x2, y2,
z2) respectively. Then the direction cosines of unit vector Summing up the contributions of all elements we get
ex in the direction x are
MU + KU = P (6)
x12 y z
l11 = , l12 = 12 , l13 = 12
L12 L12 L12 Where, K , M and P are the assembled counterparts of
e e e
matrices K , M and P respectively. For free vibration
Where x12 = x2 -x1, y12 = y2-y1, z12 = z2-z1 and L12 is analysis right hand side is made equal to zero and natural
the length of line 1-2 frequencies are obtained using subspace iteration technic.
By knowing the co-ordinates of joint 1 and 4 we can find

3 Numerical Results and Discussion
the direction cosines of unit vector e14 as
The geometry of the Skew cylindrical shell panel
x y z considered in the study is given in Figure 2.
Cx14 = 14 , Cy14 = 14 , Cz14 = 14
L14 L14 L14
Where, x14 = x4-x1, y14 = y4-y1, z14 = z4-z1 and L14 is

the length of line 1-4
Now the components of a unit vector ez i.e. 31, 32, and

33 can be obtained by taking the vector product
ex ' e14
ez ' =
sin q
Figure 2: Geometry of Skew Cylindrical Shell Panel
Vector product ey = ez x ex, finally gives the components
of a unit vector ey i.e. 21, 22, and 23 in the direction y. Full shell panel is considered for the free vibration
analysis. is skew angle which varies from 150 to 450.
Due to zero stiffness corresponding to ozi and ozi, Panel angle is kept constant equal to 600 and chord
stiffness matrix becomes singular. This problem of length to radius ratio (a/R) is taken as 1. h is the
singularity is overcome by placing a small stiffness
611
thickness of the skew shell. The material properties Mesh sizes used for obtaining results for b/a = 2.5 and
considered in this study are, b/a = 3.75 are 20 50 and 20 75 respectively.
()
!!" = 200!#$%,!!!!& = 0.3,!! ' = 7850! 3.1 All Round Clamped (CCCC) Panel
*+
The non-dimensionalisation of the natural frequency is Non-dimensionalised frequencies for first six modes for
carried out as follows: all round clamped skew rectangular cylindrical shell
' panels are compared with 3D finite element results of
-
/ = -%1
"
ANSYS Ref. [7] obtained using 20 node solid element
are presented in table 1.
Table 1: Non-dimensionlised frequencies all round clamped (CCCC) skew cylindrical shell panel
b/a h/a Skew Results Mode 1 Mode 2 Mode 3 Mode 4 Mode 5 Mode 6
Angle
15 Present 0.2364 0.3104 0.3527 0.3588 0.4224 0.4613
3D ANSYS 0.2365 0.3112 0.3535 0.3587 0.4231 0.4616
30 Present 0.2406 0.3116 0.3591 0.3653 0.4340 0.4701
0.01
3D ANSYS 0.2407 0.3127 0.3599 0.3651 0.4343 0.4700
45 Present 0.2502 0.3159 0.3758 0.3801 0.4584 0.4905
3D ANSYS 0.2499 0.3167 0.3757 0.3786 0.4570 0.4875
15 Present 1.0462 1.1192 1.2704 1.4627 1.5103 1.5993
3D ANSYS 1.0513 1.1251 1.2774 1.4720 1.5185 1.6111
30 Present 1.0487 1.1295 1.2922 1.4651 1.5413 1.6162
0.1
2.5 3D ANSYS 1.0537 1.1352 1.2988 1.4746 1.5494 1.6282
45 Present 1.0558 1.1574 1.3443 1.4781 1.5994 1.6721
3D ANSYS 1.0606 1.1621 1.3496 1.4877 1.6071 1.6832
15 Present 1.3489 1.4975 1.7822 2.1820 2.2276 2.2604
3D ANSYS 1.3642 1.5118 1.7945 2.1896 2.2317 2.2635
30 Present 1.3537 1.5167 1.8189 2.1932 2.2589 2.2811
0.2
3D ANSYS 1.3692 1.5311 1.8313 2.1982 2.2645 2.2854
45 Present 1.3674 1.5674 1.9036 2.2124 2.3168 2.3442
3D ANSYS 1.3828 1.5816 1.9155 2.2152 2.3188 2.3526
15 Present 0.1970 0.2722 0.3018 0.3180 0.3484 0.3534
3D ANSYS 0.1973 0.2722 0.3027 0.3189 0.3492 0.3533
30 Present 0.1985 0.2757 0.3020 0.3194 0.3523 0.3576
0.01
3D ANSYS 0.1988 0.2756 0.3031 0.3204 0.3530 0.3574
45 Present 0.2020 0.2832 0.3030 0.3234 0.3623 0.3670
3D ANSYS 0.2022 0.2826 0.3041 0.3242 0.3622 0.3657
15 Present 1.0330 1.0575 1.1076 1.1904 1.3108 1.4366
3D ANSYS 1.0379 1.0627 1.1134 1.1968 1.3178 1.4455
30 Present 1.0336 1.0599 1.1137 1.2014 1.3267 1.4371
0.1
3.75 3D ANSYS 1.0385 1.0650 1.1191 1.2073 1.3331 1.4463
45 Present 1.0351 1.0665 1.1293 1.2287 1.3631 1.4405
3D ANSYS 1.0398 1.0710 1.1336 1.2327 1.3673 1.4500
15 Present FE 1.3216 1.3729 1.4749 1.6365 1.8591 2.0450
3D ANSYS 1.3370 1.3880 1.4893 1.6498 1.8712 2.0458
30 Present 1.3226 1.3776 1.4861 1.6559 1.8851 2.0497
0.2 3D ANSYS 1.3381 1.3927 1.5005 1.6692 1.8972 2.0501
45 Present 1.3255 1.3897 1.5145 1.7026 1.9434 2.0627
3D ANSYS 1.3410 1.4045 1.5283 1.7151 1.9545 2.0628
612
Mesh sizes for 3D FE results of ANSYS for b/a = 2.5 3.2 Two edges clamped and two edges free (CFCF)
are 20501, 20502 and 20504 for thickness to panel
chord length ratio h/a = 0.01, 0.1 and 0.2 respectively.
The results of non-dimensionalised frequencies for first
Mesh sizes for 3D FE results of ANSYS for b/a = 3.75
six modes obtained using the present element for two
are 20751, 20752, 20754 for h/a = 0.01, 0.1
opposite short edges clamped and two long edges free
and 0.2 respectively.
(CFCF) skew rectangular cylindrical shell panels are
It is observed from Table 1 that, though Present results presented in Table 2 and comparison is made with 3D FE
are based on two dimensional theory they are quite results of ANSYS.
comparable with 3D FE results of ANSYS.
Table 2: Non-dimensionlised frequencies for (CFCF) skew cylindrical shell panel

b/a h/a Skew Results Mode 1 Mode 2 Mode 3 Mode 4 Mode 5 Mode 6
Angle
15 Present 0.0438 0.0601 0.0941 0.0972 0.1406 0.1470
3D ANSYS 0.0435 0.0599 0.0935 0.0963 0.1395 0.1462
30 Present 0.0467 0.0604 0.0970 0.0980 0.1482 0.1501
0.01
3D ANSYS 0.0463 0.06 0.0956 0.0968 0.1461 0.1475
45 Present 0.0539 0.0623 0.1005 0.1064 0.1563 0.1623
3D ANSYS 0.0527 0.0611 0.0974 0.1031 0.1504 0.1563
15 Present 0.1588 0.1879 0.3834 0.4155 0.6183 0.6569
3D ANSYS 0.1588 0.1916 0.3840 0.4221 0.6160 0.6614
2.5 30 Present 0.1738 0.1985 0.4028 0.4263 0.6600 0.6704
0.1
3D ANSYS 0.1741 0.2019 0.4046 0.4311 0.6580 0.6743
45 Present 0.2115 0.2239 0.4487 0.4491 0.6923 0.7026
3D ANSYS 0.2118 0.2262 0.4508 0.4537 0.6922 0.7062
15 Present 0.2336 0.3382 0.5799 0.6337 0.7277 1.0599
3D ANSYS 0.2341 0.3458 0.5802 0.6278 0.7397 1.0618
30 Present 0.2568 0.3504 0.6100 0.7010 0.7320 1.1340
0.2
3D ANSYS 0.2584 0.3564 0.6122 0.6958 0.7403 1.1415
45 Present 0.3165 0.3832 0.6997 0.7512 0.8441 1.1449
3D ANSYS 0.3201 0.3863 0.7059 0.7559 0.8374 1.1496
15 Present 0.0221 0.0457 0.0542 0.0661 0.0808 0.0893
3D ANSYS 0.0219 0.0455 0.0539 0.0659 0.0805 0.0888
0.01
30 Present 0.0234 0.0446 0.0578 0.0662 0.0839 0.0913
3D ANSYS 0.0232 0.0441 0.0573 0.0657 0.0834 0.0901
45 Present 0.0270 0.0442 0.0637 0.0672 0.0929 0.0946
3D ANSYS 0.0263 0.0432 0.0625 0.0655 0.0913 0.0917
15 Present 0.0752 0.1118 0.1913 0.2375 0.3470 0.3470
3D ANSYS 0.0749 0.1140 0.1909 0.2416 0.3456 0.3468
0.1
3.75 30 Present 0.0808 0.1157 0.2009 0.2435 0.3633 0.3648
3D ANSYS 0.0804 0.1178 0.2007 0.2469 0.3618 0.3655
45 Present 0.0949 0.1252 0.2232 0.2576 0.3967 0.4025
3D ANSYS 0.0941 0.1269 0.2234 0.2594 0.3952 0.4053
15 Present 0.1084 0.2045 0.2822 0.3540 0.4276 0.5273
3D ANSYS 0.1078 0.2096 0.2820 0.3490 0.4360 0.5282
0.2
30 Present 0.1165 0.2086 0.2995 0.3765 0.4285 0.5679
3D ANSYS 0.1163 0.2128 0.3007 0.3714 0.4344 0.5723
45 Present 0.1368 0.2205 0.3398 0.4332 0.4405 0.6534
3D ANSYS 0.1369 0.2234 0.3435 0.4263 0.4438 0.6626
613
The first three modes for rectangular panel of size

It is observed from table 2 that the percentage difference
b/a'=2.5 with a skew angle of 300, for h/a = 0.1, for
in present results and results obtained by ANSYS is less
all round clamped boundary condition are compared
than 1.5%. The superiority of the present element is
with 20 node solid elements of ANSYS obtained using
clearly indicated from the fact that though the
a mesh size of 20 50 1 in Figure 3. In Figure 4 first
formulation is with 2D theories for moderately thick and
3 mode shapes with two opposite short edges clamped
thick shells results are almost of the same accuracy as
and two long edges free (CFCF) skew rectangular
that of ANSYS, like the previous case.
cylindrical shell panel are compared with 3D ANSYS
results obtained with the same mesh size. It is observed
3.3 Comparison of mode shapes for different from figure 3 and 4 that modes are correctly captured
boundary condition. and matching with those obtained by ANSYS for both
the boundary condition.
-
/4 = 6.0987 -
/: = 6.62;5 -
/< = 6.2;22
-
/4 = 6.0537 -
/: = 6.6352 -
/< = 6.2;88
Figure 3: Mode shapes for panels with (CCCC) boundary conditions with b/a=2.5
-
/4 = 0.6738 -
/: = 0.6;85 -
/< = 0.9028
-
/4 = 0.6796 -
/: = 0.206; -
/< = 0.909>
Figure 4: Mode shapes for panels with (CFCF) boundary conditions with b/a=2.5
condition but higher than that for CFCF boundary

3.4 All Round Simply Supported (SSSS) Panel with
condition.
b/a = 2.5
It is observed from the results of all tables that natural
In Table 3, the developed element is assessed for all frequencies increase with an increase in the skew angle
round simply supported rectangular skew cylindrical of the panel. It is further noticed that as the thickness of
shell panels by comparing the results of non- the cylindrical shell panel increases frequencies increases
dimensionlised natural frequencies with the 3D FE owing to increased stiffness for the given a/R ratio.
results of ANSYS. For the nodes on the simply-supported
edge the necessary transformation of global
displacements to local displacements is carried out at
element level in order to apply the boundary conditions.
It is observed that for this case the non-dimensionlised

frequencies are lower than that for CCCC boundary
614
Table 3: Non-dimensionlised frequencies for all round simply supported (SSSS) skew cylindrical shell panel
h/a Skew Results Mode 1 Mode 2 Mode 3 Mode 4 Mode 5 Mode 6

Angle
15 Present 0.3991 0.6103 0.7475 0.9148 1.1033 1.1451
3D ANSYS 0.4024 0.6117 0.7513 0.8753 1.1060 1.1462
0.1 30 Present 0.4154 0.6275 0.7967 0.9157 1.1085 1.1700
3D ANSYS 0.4197 0.6337 0.8054 0.9131 1.1081 1.1709
45 Present 0.4512 0.6716 0.9175 0.9722 1.1314 1.2141
3D ANSYS 0.4593 0.6837 0.9187 0.9743 1.1395 1.2459
15 Present 0.7499 0.7650 0.9868 1.4019 1.5117 1.8573
3D ANSYS 0.7599 0.7722 1.0434 1.4385 1.5221 1.9077
0.2 30 Present 0.7525 0.8084 1.0678 1.4639 1.6035 1.8392
3D ANSYS 0.7617 0.8053 1.0564 1.4297 1.6022 1.8361
45 Present 0.8135 0.9147 1.1983 1.5677 1.7724 1.7965
3D ANSYS 0.7996 0.9060 1.1726 1.5357 1.7631 1.7928
[5] Jeychandrabose C., Kirkhope J., Meekisho L., An

4 Conclusion improved discrete Kirchhoff quadrilateral thin-plate
bending element. International Journal for
The quadrilateral flat shell element developed earlier Numerical Methods in Engineering, 1987 Vol. 24
by the Authors for the analysis of cylindrical shell is pp.635-654.
assessed for its performance for the free vibration
[6] Zienkiewicz OC, Taylor R.L., 2005, The Finite
analysis of skew cylindrical shell panels. The comparison
Element Method For Solid and Structural
of the present results with those obtained using
Mechanics, Elsevier Butterworth-Heinemann,
commercial software ANSYS establishes the correctness
Burlington MA, 426-450.
of the present element and thus its use is recommended
for the free vibration analysis of moderately thick skew [7] ANSYS Mechanical APDL; ANSYS User Manual
cylindrical shell panels. 13.
References
[1] Kumar A., Chakrabarti A., Ketkar M., Analysis of
laminated composite skew shells using higher order
shear deformation theory, Latin American journal of
solids and structures Vol. 10(2013) pp. 891 919.
[2] Srinivasa C.V., Yalaburgi J. S., Wooday P.P.,
Experimental and finite element studies on free
vibration of cylindrical skew panels. Int. J. of
Applied Mechanics and Engineering, 2014, vol.19,
(1), pp.165-180.
[3] Kulkarni S. D., Walunjkar S. S., Karkeli K. M,

Dagade V. A., Static and free vibration analysis of
isotropic cylindrical shell panels, Proceedings of
Indian National Conference on Applied Mechanics
2015(INCAM) pp. 494-500.
[4] Reddy J N. A Simple higher order theory for
laminated composite plates. Journal of Applied
Mechanics, 1984, Vol.51 pp.745-752.
615
EXPERIMENTAL ASSESSMENT OF MASONRY WALLS UNDER

SEISMIC OUT-OF-PLANE ACTION
P. Pravin Kumar Venkat Rao1, Yogendra Singh2, Sreekanta Das3
1, 2
Department of Earthquake Engineering, IIT Roorkee, Roorkee, 247 667, India
3
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Windsor, Ontario N9B 3P4, Canada
The paper presents a state of the art review on different experimental test-setup and techniques used for
assessing the seismic behaviour of unreinforced and reinforced masonry walls under out-of-plane action.
Different types of test methods viz. shake table testing, pseudo-dynamic testing, quasi-static testing, and
in-situ testing to simulate the earthquake effect on buildings or individual components, are presented in
detail. This paper also presents a new test-setup designed for testing large-scale masonry walls in out-of-
plane direction using airbags, which can simulate the earthquake effect in form of uniformly distributed
load. The test-setup is designed in such a way that it can consider several variables, e.g. aspect ratio,
effect of a rigid diaphragm, level of axial compression, reinforcement, interaction of orthogonal walls in a
three-dimensional configuration, and simulation of realistic boundary conditions, which influence the out-
of-plane behaviour of the walls in two-way bending.
Keywords: state-of-art, out-of-plane test-setup, masonry walls, laboratory test, in-situ test
1 Introduction walls collapse in out-of-plane direction, they bring

down the roof along with them. This is the main reason
The masonry buildings are often subjected to lateral
for large scale loss of lives during earthquakes.
loads in zones of moderate or high seismicity, from
Experimental studies are required in order to better
seismic actions. Being a brittle material, masonry
understand the factors that influence the out-of-plane
structures require special attention to safeguard them
response of masonry walls.
against earthquake actions. Past earthquakes have
repeatedly highlighted the high seismic vulnerability of
unreinforced masonry (URM) buildings leading to 2 Experimental Studies on Masonry under Out-of-
massive economic losses and casualties in different Plane Action
parts of the world. In masonry buildings, walls are the
To generate the earthquake effects on buildings or
main structural elements that carry earthquake loads.
individual components, several testing methods have
Due to the cyclic random nature of these actions, any
been used in the past. Among these shake table testing
wall in a building can be subjected to in-plane and out-
and pseudo-dynamic testing methods are well developed
of-plane loads. Besides lateral loads, the walls are also
for buildings in recent years. Flexure tests are
subjected to vertical load due to self-weight and
commonly performed to analyze the out-of-plane
transferred by the floor or roof slabs, which leads to the
seismic behaviour of URM / reinforced walls. A variety
development of complex stresses.
of test methods and experiment setups have been
Masonry materials are intrinsically strong when
evolved by past researchers for out-of-plane testing of
compressed, but they are equally weak in resisting
masonry walls. These methods differ in application
lateral forces due to earthquake. When shaken along
(concentrated / distributed / multiple-point / inertial) and
their length in in-plane direction, a wall offers much
nature (monotonic / cyclic / random) of load. Selection
greater resistance, because of its large depth in the plane
of suitable method is depending on the type of output
of bending; whereas, when shaken along their thickness,
needed, type of structure (either full scale or small
the masonry wall simply collapses as seismic resistance
scale) etc.
of the wall by virtue of its weight and the tensile
The experimental testing of materials, components
strength of masonry is very less. In the out-of-plane
and structures are needed to get the material properties,
direction, masonry walls are not even capable of
to prove the accuracy of predictions or hypotheses
resisting the bending moment, which results from their
regarding structural behaviour, and also to get input for
own inertia force, and hence the out-of-plane action is
analytical or numerical modelling. Several experimental
considered as the weakest mode of failure. When the
works have been made in the past regarding the out-of-
1
Research Scholar, ppkvr49@gmail.com
2
Professor, yogendra.eq@gmail.com
3
Professor, sdas@uwindsor.ca
616
plane seismic behaviour of masonry elements by indicator of the ultimate performance of the wall.
making use of experimental laboratory or in-situ tests. The out-of-plane behaviour of brick veneer walls
Performing out-of-plane tests on masonry walls is a on wood frame construction under dynamic lateral
difficult task, since it requires special care as the loading was performed by [5] using shaking table tests.
stability conditions of the specimen during the test A full-scale one-story wall was designed to represent a
become a critical issue when the wall begins to be portion of the wall system. The test results showed that
damaged. Hence, [1] carried out an out-of-plane test on brick veneer enhances the out-of-plane stiffness of the
horizontal specimens have been preferred in relation to wall system compared to bare wood frame wall panel.
the vertical specimens [2]. They also pointed out that brick veneer rotated as a rigid
Another important issue with experimental testing body about its base when subjected to dynamic output.
is the application of out-of-plane loading. A simple Later, shake table tests on a single tuff masonry
manner of applying the out-of-plane loading is through faade with two returning walls (U-shaped
one or two lines of force simulated by a set of steel configuration) was performed by [6] and [7]. They
profiles [1], [2]. However, this type of loading does not observed in the experimental work, that one-sided
allow the evaluation of the out-of-plane behaviour of rocking occurs before collapse and finally overturning
walls in its two directions. Hence, a uniformly happened. As a final remark, they concluded that in
distributed force would be a more real loading, but its shaking table tests, although the out-of-plane behaviour
application is rather difficult, because it involves special of a masonry faade may be assumed as a rigid body
arrangement like use of airbags or waterbags. A brief rotation around a certain pivot axis, for multiple leaf
review of the experimental test-setups and techniques masonry structures, the instability is governed by the
used for structural masonry behaviour under out-of- outer leaf as well as the masonry assemblage [7].
plane loading is given in the next section. Shake table testing of two 1:2 scale masonry
buildings were performed by [8]. In this study, a new
construction system was proposed. In this system,
2.1 Laboratory Tests
masonry bonds consisting of continuing vertical joints
Following types of test methods are available to and connections were established using steel truss
simulate the effect of earthquake on structure: reinforcement and frogged ends of concrete blocks. Out-
of-plane behaviour of masonry walls in terms of crack
a) Shake Table Testing
initiation, lateral drifts and failure modes were reported.
This type of testing provides much sophisticated Shaking table test was carried out by [9] on three I
dynamic loading. The dynamic shake-table tests are the shaped masonry walls with and without glass fibre
most realistic way of subjecting a structural model to reinforced polymer (GFRP) sheets to investigate the
any particular base motion. These tests simulate the effect of retrofitting with composite materials on the
seismic action with more accuracy, because test out-of-plane behaviour of masonry walls. The behaviour
structure is subjected to real earthquake acceleration of the walls was studied in terms of displacement
records. It consists of sti! platform on which structure is capacity, damage state, and base shear. A rocking
mounted. The base motion is applied to this platform so mechanism is observed with the difference, that the
as to generate required ground motion. High capacity URM wall damage was occurring through the height of
servo hydraulic equipment is needed to drive the table. the wall and the major crack line in the reinforced
The majority of the dynamic tests on masonry structures specimen was observed at the base, while the other parts
performed on shake tables are mainly carried out on of masonry wall remained undamaged. In retrofitted
reduced scale specimens, because of the limitation on walls, the dominant failure mode was found to be
size and capacity, which strongly influence the rocking mode. The dissipated energy of FRP
importance of particular issues for seismic resistance of strengthened wall was extremely higher than
full scale specimen [3]. The main advantage of shake unreinforced one due to the retrofitting material
table testing is that high quality dynamic input can be contribution on the dynamic out-of-plane performance
applied, but on the other hand local modes of failure of masonry walls.
cannot be observed.
b) Pseudo Dynamic Testing
A single-degree-of-freedom (SDOF) macro model
was developed by [4] in order to investigate the seismic In this method, load is applied in large scale of
performance of URM walls in vertical one-way bending extended time in number of small steps, and dynamic
subject to out-of-plane inertial loading. In the scope of properties of structures are simulated computationally.
their research, dynamic tests were carried out, where In this method, structure displacements are calculated
two types of input motions were used: simple pulse using stepwise integration methods and quasi-statically
motion and earthquake ground motion. The study applied to the structure. The feedback required for
pointed out some useful conclusions in the walls computational model as an input for next calculation
ultimate response and the importance of using step is provided in terms of resulting resistance forces.
displacement as performance criteria. Their Displacement history is created in parallel to the loading
investigations showed the fact that response spectral by solving related equations of motion. This type of
displacement as opposed to acceleration is a much better testing is more useful to generate hysteresis data of
617
structure, performance evaluation, and local behaviour The first in-situ experimental campaign aiming at
of structure can be observed. Very limited research had characterizing the out-of-plane behaviour of masonry
been done especially for masonry walls using this type structure was carried out by [26]. In this work, the
of testing methods. Pseudo-dynamic tests on a full-scale author implemented a loading apparatus composed by
one-story unreinforced brick masonry specimen was steel lattice frames attached to the walls, through which
carried out by [10], where the masonry walls are horizontal forces and bending moments in the normal
subjected to a real earthquake excitation at a relatively direction to the wall plane were induced. Loads were
slow speed, which enabled the observation of the made up of a metal reservoir, filled with sand, and
evolution of damage. The dynamic characteristics of the suspended from the steel frame by a steel cable. The
structure, equivalent mass, and damping, were weight of the sand was controlled during the various
numerically simulated on a computer model, while the phases of the loading process and an opening at the
characteristics of the restoring force were directly bottom of the bucket permitted the sand discharge.
measured in the tested specimen. An in-situ experimental campaign carried out by
[27] on traditional masonry houses, where a novel test-
c) Quasi Static Testing
setup was proposed and validated. In this experimental
The quasi-static monotonic / cyclic tests are the program, 5 specimens were tested aiming at
most common technique used to evaluate the behaviour characterizing the out-of-plane behaviour of stone
of masonry walls, as they are simple, and relatively masonry walls and some of the strengthening solutions
inexpensive. Static tests are generally carried out in recommended for post-earthquake interventions. The
single elements or simple sub-assemblages. In this type loading system was composed by hydraulic devices
of testing, loading applied to the structure is in the form placed at the top of the walls and connected to them
of predetermined displacement history. The test is through hinged links.
performed by controlling the displacement due to the Later in the year 2009, an in-situ testing program
larger uncertainties in predicting the restoring forces in under which airbag tests were performed by [28] on 2
the non-linear regime. These tests are not dynamic in non-load bearing partition walls. One wall was tested in
nature. In this method of testing, rate of application of the as-built condition and the second wall was
loading is very low. Hence the influence of material retrofitted with Carbon Fibre Reinforced Polymers
strain-rate on structure is negligible. The method is (CFRP) using the Near Surface Mounting (NSM)
advantageous for acquiring data on capacity of technique. The pseudo-static tests were performed on
structure, to make hysteretic model of structure and also the surface of the 1-leaf clay brick terracotta masonry
the local mode of failures can be observed effectively. walls by applying uniform pressure with vinyl airbags.
The quasi-static tests are performed by employing a A comprehensive quasi-static in-situ testing
system of airbags to apply uniform forces, which [11] programme was performed by [29], where a set of full-
suggested to be a realistic representation of the out-of- scale, two-leaf, and three-leaf URM walls were
plane seismic forces applied to URM walls. Other subjected to out-of-plane uniform forces. The main
loading methods used in research elsewhere are point / objective of this experimental campaign was to develop
line loads or three-point / line loads [12], [13] which are an idealized predictive model for the out-of-plane
all considered to be less satisfactory substitutes for wall behaviour of URM walls, by accounting for the effects
inertial loads when compared to a uniform pressure of different mortar mixes, multi-leaf construction and
either through airbags or waterbags. Airbag testing is overburden loads.
recommended in ASTM standards [14] for out-of-plane Recently, [30] carried out a field experimental
testing of URM panels, and has frequently been used by campaign on an existing one-story stone masonry
several researchers [15] to [23]. Some of the researchers building, for characterizing the out-of-plane behaviour
had also tried waterbags to apply uniform pressure on of walls. A bi-directional test-setup based on a self-
masonry wall [24], [25]. equilibrated airbag system was developed and used on
three similar masonry walls under distinct conditions:
original, retrofitted, and strengthened. The developed
2.2 In-Situ Tests
test-setup, allows the bi-directional and uni-directional
Despite more commons, laboratory tests of out-of-plane cyclic tests to be run and providing a
masonry constructions deals with some common comprehensive assessment of the out-of-plane
limitations and difficulties, namely regarding the correct behaviour of Sacco stone masonry walls (giving
reproduction of the existing materials, real actions, and estimates of the maximum strength, ultimate
boundary conditions of structure. Hence, several works displacement, and energy dissipation).
have been made to date concerning the out-of-plane
seismic behaviour of URM elements aiming at
3 Development of Proposed Test-Setup
characterizing their behaviour under horizontal loads by
making use of experimental in-situ tests. Few It has been observed from the literature review that
experimental works under in-situ conditions have been the majority of past experimental research dealing with
presented. seismic out-of-plane response has been focused on
vertically spanning masonry walls subjected to one-way
618
bending [13], [15] to [18], [21], [23], [24], [30]. By The test-setup is designed for H-shape masonry
contrast, testing of walls in two-way bending condition wall having a size of 3m x 3m as shown in Figs. (1) and
have received a very limited attention even though they (2). The reaction frames shown in Fig. (3) are designed
are most commonly encountered in practice [4], [19], to apply a lateral pressure of 20 kPa on H-shaped wall
[20], [25], [28], [31]. The most common specimens against the estimated capacity of URM wall of 2.026
tested under out-of-plane loading have the boundary kN/m2, in order to consider the variability of test results
conditions as simply supported at top and bottom and for URM and reinforced masonry wall. The variability
the side-walls do not have any restraint condition for considered is based on the experimental investigation
specimens tested under one-way bending. Most of the performed by [31].
researchers [15] to [18] have used roller support to
allow friction free out-of-plane movement. Pre-
compression bar or steel angles used by [20] and [31]
which is connected to overburden assembly for allowing
the wall to rotate freely at top. Very few researchers like
[20], [25], and [31] restrained the vertical edges of main
wall by constructing a return wall adjacent to it in form
of C and L-shape. Most of the researchers, had used
actuators for application of pre-compression (vertical or
gravity) load on the wall.
4 Test-Setup and Instrumentation
The designed test-setup will be useful in testing the
full scale masonry wall in two-way bending under out-
Figure 1: H-shape masonry wall specimen
of-plane action. The setup used to test the walls
consisted of an assemblage of steel framing, plywood
backing frame, and airbags to apply uniform reversed
cyclic face pressure. The two-way bending capacity of
masonry wall, wc is found to be 2.026 kN/m2 using
analytical expression shown in Eq. (1), suggested by
[32]. The expression for horizontal and diagonal
moment capacity, Mh & Md of URM wall are shown in
Eqs. (2) and (3) respectively.
2a f (1)
wc = 2 ( k1M h + k2 M d )
ld
1 tu 2 1 (2)
Mh = ( fut -n f d )hu ; t u kb 0.5(lu + t j )tu 2
2(hu + t j ) 6 (hu + t j )
Figure 2: Plan of out-of-plane test-setup

sin q 0.5(lu + t j )tu 2 (3)
Md = f (sin q ) t u kb 0.5(lu + t j )tu + (cosq ) ( fmt + fd )
3 2 3

hu + t j 6 To apply the vertical load, RCC slab is constructed
on the top of masonry wall, so that a realistic boundary
where, af is the aspect factor; ld is the design length; condition can be achieved (refer Fig. (3)). The pre-
k1 and k2 are the coefficients for horizontal and diagonal compression force of 280 kN was choosen to reproduce
bending; lu, tu, and hu are respectively, the length, a vertical load of 3-story masonry building. The vertical
thickness and height of the brick unit; tj is the mortar load will be applied using hydraulic actuators as shown
joint thickness; f is the capacity reduction factor for in Fig. (3). The RCC slab and bottom floor provides a
bending; q is the slope of a diagonal crack line which lateral restraint at top and bottom, whereas the vertical
can be determined from unit geometry; v is the edges of a wall is restrained through return walls which
poissons ratio of the masonry typically taken as 0.2; fmt represents the real boundary condition. The walls will
is the flexural tensile strength of the masonry; fut is the be cyclically loaded using a system of airbags placed
flexural tensile strength of the brick unit; u is the between the wall and a backing frame. Gradually
ultimate shear bond stress of a bed joint given as, u = increasing displacement controlled cyclic loading will
1.6fmt + 0.9fd ; and kb is a numerical factor used to be applied by alternatively inflating and deflating the
calculate the shear stress due to torque acting on a airbags as shown in Figs. (3) and (4).
rectangular cross section and is equal to 0.214 for the The applied load will be transferred from the
half overlap stretcher bonded masonry used in walls. airbags to the backing frame and to the reaction frame
The term fd represents the vertical compressive stress in using S-type load cells of 100 kN capacity as shown in
the wall at its mid-height which includes the vertical Fig. (3). The load cells are attached between the backing
pre-compression, v, applied at the top of a wall. frame and reaction frame and provides horizontal
stability to the plywood backing. The masonry wall
619
response will be monitored with LVDTs positioned to 5 Conclusion

measure the out-of-plane displacements and also the
From the review, it has been observed that
deflected wall profile (refer Fig. (3)). To accommodate
experimental methods present an obvious advantage of
the airbags, a gap of 50 mm is left between the wall and
dealing with real structures. Nevertheless, this
the plywood backing.
advantage is also the worst limitation of this kind of
methods, since reproduction of realistic and
representative loading and boundary conditions is often
difficult. Moreover, the laboratory tests also have a
common limitation regarding the correct reproduction of
existing material properties and real in-situ conditions.
The proposed experimental test-setup has been designed
to test full scale masonry walls in out-of-plane action
with realistic loading and boundary conditions. The
capacity of the proposed system has been estimated
considering the observed variability in the previous
studies. The deigned test-setup has following salient
features:
a) Investigation of structural performance of
unreinforced / reinforced masonry wall.
b) Provision for application of pre-compression load.
c) Application of out-of-plane pressure in two-way
bending condition.
d) Provision of reversed cyclic loading using airbags.
Figure 3: Section of out-of-plane test-setup e) Testing of masonry wall upto a length of 5 m and a
height of 3 m.
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621
DYNAMIC BEHAVIOUR OF FREESTANDING SPENT FUEL

TRAYS-STACK WITHOUT BASE LOCATOR DURING
EARTHQUAKE EVENT
Binu Kumar1, O.P. Singh2, Dr. G.R. Reddy3, K.M. Singh4, K. Agarwal5, Dr. N.
Gopalakrishnan6
1,2,3,4,5
Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, Trombay, Mumbai, 400085, India
6
CSIR-Structural Engineering Research Centre, Chennai, 600113, India
Structural stability of freestanding stacks of trays containing spent fuel bundles submerged in spent fuel
water pool during earthquake is of greater concern for safe storing and handling for further reprocessing
of spent fuels. In the spent fuel water pool, spent fuel bundles are stacked in 25-30 trays and kept on floor
without base locators or guide. Analytical procedures are not well developed to analyze the complex
phenomena accounting sliding, rocking, impact of these freestanding trays stack along with
hydrodynamic effects of water mass. An experimental setup was made and a series of shake table
experiment has been performed with 25 and 30 trays stacks submerged in spent fuel water tank. Design
ground earthquake excitation of 0.1g and 0.156g PGA (Peak Ground Acceleration) has been used in the
experiment. The dynamic responses of trays-stack and tank namely displacement and acceleration of
stacked trays and tank wall at different elevation are recorded in the shake table test are analyzed and
compared with numerical method.
Keywords: Spent fuel pool, Sloshing, Shake table test, Seismic
1 Introduction Spent fuels received from reactor are kept in trays

stacks submerged in water pool for removal of thermal
The seismic response of liquid storage tank/pool
heat and radiation shielding. In a spent fuel storage
system has been studied extensively in the past several
pool of a nuclear power plant or reprocessing plant, the
decades. However, studies are limited to sloshing
hydrodynamic pressure of spent fuel pool with stacks of
behavior analysis of water contained in the tank/pool
tray are different from those in case of spent fuel pool
with or without submerged rigid block system. Liu and
without stacks of trays.
Choun [1] has presented method for 2D analysis of a
The stacks of trays are free standing over pool floor
rectangular tank with an internal rigid block to
without bottom locators. Under the seismic event, stack
determine sloshing characteristics of contained liquid
of trays may slide and collide with neighboring stacks
using linear potential wave theory. Subsequently Mitra
or may topple. However, there is no literature on three
and Sinhamahapatra [2] extended the study for different
dimensional nonlinear analysis of submerged multi
rigid block size using pressure wave theory without
trays-stack incorporating gap, friction and sliding
detailed analysis of impulsive and convective pressure
between tray and floor and among trays including slosh
effect on the submerged block. Koh [3] presented finite
dynamic effect of water.
element procedures for slosh dynamics analysis of water
In this paper, tri-axial nonlinear dynamic behavior
tank without any submerged block. Chen [4] explained
of 25 and 30 spent fuel trays stack without bottom
finite difference technique for non-linear sloshing
locators submerged in Spent Fuel Water Storage Tank
analysis of two dimensional rectangular water tank
(SFWST) during shake table experiments are analyzed
system under random excitation.
and discussed in details. Simplified finite element
methodology developed in Binu [5,6] is used for
numerical analysis of trays stack with hydrodynamic
pressure of sloshing water mass. Gap, contact and
friction elements were modeled to simulate sliding and
1
Scientific Officer, binu@barc.gov.in
2
Scientific Officer, opsingh@barc.gov.in
3
Head SSES, rssred@barc.gov.in
4
GM FRWMD, kmsingh@barc.gov.in
5
GM NRPSED, kagar@barc.gov.in
6
Scientist, ng@sercm.org
622
Binu Kumar, et al.
uplifting/ impacting of freestanding trays-stacks during two stacks of dummy fuel bundles submerged in water
seismic excitation. mounted on shake table is shown in Fig.2.
The tri-axial shake table testing and finite element Instrumentations like displacement sensor,
analysis is performed for Design Basis Peak Ground accelerometer and underwater pressure transducer have
Acceleration (DBPGA) [7] of 0.1g and 0.156g along x, been mounted at different elevations to capture
y and z axis. The response spectra along vertical displacement, acceleration and hydrodynamic pressure
direction (z axis) is 2/3 of horizontal spectra (x and y respectively. The location and arrangements of sensors
axis). The design, target and achieved spectra along x and gauges in the experiments are shown in Fig.3.
axis used in the shake table test are shown in Fig.1.
Various response parameters such as slosh height,
acceleration and displacement of trays, response
frequency of the system etc. were measured and details
of the same are discussed below.
0.5
achived
0.4 target
DGRS
0.3
Sa/g
0.2
Figure 3: Details of gauges in experiment

0.1
Displacement sensors are used to capture the
dynamic displacements of stack of trays at different
0.0 elevations and relative displacement between two stacks.
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
This strain gauge based displacement sensor is
Frequency (Sec)
calibrated using standard calibration rig. Laser
displacement sensor is also used to measure
Figure 1: Comparison of TRS and ARS with
displacement of 30 trays stack and movement between
DGRS along x axis
two stacks during experiment.
PW-500 KPA type dynamic pressure transducer of
2 Shake Table Testing Tokyo Sokki Kenkyuio Co., ltd make were used to
Shake table test has been performed considering measure hydrodynamic pressure typically at bottom and
two stacks of 25 and 30 trays containing dummy fuel top location. Pressure transducer is strain gauge based
bundles submerged in water in Spent Fuel Storage hydrodynamic pressure sensor. Two ICP type
Water Tank (SFSWT) mounted on shake table at accelerometer having 941mv/g Sensitivity are fixed on
Advanced Seismic Testing and Research Laboratory of the SFWST wall to record the response of the tank in X
Structural Engineering Research Centre SERC, Chennai. and Y-direction at top location.
60 0.1g PGA
0156g PGA
40
Stack Displacement (mm)
20
-20
-40
-60
0 5 10 15 20
Time (Sec)
Figure 2: Shake table set-up for 30 trays stack system
Figure 4: Displacement of trays at 30th trays height
The servo controlled shake table of size 4mX 4m
has payload capacity of 50 tons. The Spent Fuel Storage The test was performed for stack trays without
Water Tank (SFSWT) of 22,500 litre full capacity with locators between bottom most tray and floor. Table.1
623
shows the maximum displacement and acceleration of Figs.6 shows the acceleration time histories of tank
trays stack and tank wall at different stacks height wall at top location for 0.1g and 0.156g PGA seismic
observed during shake table testing for 0.1g and 0.156g excitation. During shake table testing maximum 2.24
PGA. m/sec2 and 2.95 m/sec2 acceleration are recorded at top
tank wall location for 0.1g and 0.156g PGA seismic
Table 1: Maximum responses of 30 trays stack and tank excitation respectively.
Earthquake Earthquake
excitation of Peak excitation of Peak 0.1PGA
Acceleration 0.1g Acceleration 0.156 PGA
0.156g 2
Location
Tank top acceleration (m/sec )

Displac Acceler Displac Accelera
2
ement ation ement tion
(mm) (m/sec2) (mm) (m/sec2)
18thTray 30.03 N.R. 39.08 N.R. 0
30thTray 47.14 4.54 67.77 4.98

Tank top N.R. 2.24 N.R. 2.95
*N.R.= Not Recorded
-2
Fig.4 shows the displacement time history for 30
trays stack system submerged in water without locator
at bottom respectively for 0.1g and 0.156g PGA seismic 0 5 10 15 20
excitation. The maximum displacement of 30th tray is Time (Sec)
47.14 and 67.77 for 0.1g and 0.156g PGA seismic
excitation respectively. Whereas, maximum 4.54 m/sec2
and 4.98 m/sec2 acceleration are recorded at top tray Figure 6: Acceleration time history of tank
location for 0.1g and 0.156g PGA seismic excitation at top wall location
respectively.
Fig.5 shows Fast Fourier Transformation (FFT) of Fig.7 shows the FFT of displacement time histories
displacement time histories of trays stack recorded of 25 and 30 trays stack recorded during the shake table
during the shake table testing. The dominant response testing. The dominant response frequency of the 30 and
frequency of the 30th and 18th trays are 0.56 Hz and 25 trays are 0.56 Hz and 0.67 Hz respectively.
0.53 Hz respectively. Hence, it can be inferred that the
top 30th tray containing spent fuel bundles is under the
influence of convective pressure of the sloshing water. 8
However the 18th tray is under the influence of 25 Trays Stack
convective and impulsive sloshing pressure. 30 Trays Stack
Absolute Amplitude
6
11
10 18th Tray Location

30th tray location
9 4
8
Absolute Response
7
2
6
5
0
4
0 1 2 3 4 5
3 Frequency (Hz)
2
1 Figure 7: FFT of displacement time histories for

0 25 and 30 trays stack system
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Frequency (Hz)
The FFT of acceleration time histories of tank top
wall is shown in Fig.8. The resonance frequency of the
Figure 5: FFT of displacement time histories at 18th and tank wall is 7.93Hz.
30th trays height for 30 trays stack system
624
Binu Kumar, et al.
0.15
0.1g PGA
0.156g PGA
Absolute Amplitude
0.10
0.05
0.00
0 10 20 30
Frequency (Hz)
Figure 8: FFT of acceleration time history of tank top
During shake table testing no slipping or permanent

movement of the tank trays at the bottom was observed.
Only displacement of stacks is observed due to
convective water mass and seismic excitation. During Figure 9: Simplified methodology for fluid
experiment both stacks move in phase with each other. structure interaction analysis, Binu [5,6]
Hence gap of minimum 150mm is maintained during
test and collision or impact of two stacks of trays is not Fig. 10 represents the finite element model of
found. Hydrodynamic pressure at different elevations on SFSWT with submerged trays stack used in the non-
spent fuel water tank wall is also measured. At 0.51 m linear numerical analysis. The numerical results
above bottom maximum pressure recorded is 15523 Pa obtained are compared and validated with experimental
whereas at 2.71m from bottom of tank maximum results. The free standing stack of 25 and 30 trays have
pressure 10392.12 Pa is observed at 2.5 m wide tank been analyzed for 0.1 value friction coefficient () using
side wall. hydrodynamic pressure time history and seismic base
excitation.
3 Numerical Analysis The general finite element equation solved in the
The simplified decoupled methodology developed analysis is show in Eq. (1). Newmark method [8] has
in Binu[5,6] has been formulated to analyze the trays been used for the time integration. Newton- Rapson
stack submerged in water tank. The flowchart of the iterative scheme [9] has been used at each time step.
developed simplified decoupled methodology is shown
in Fig. 9. As shown in the Fig. 9 the analysis was
carried out in three steps. First step comprises the
dynamic analysis of trays stack without considering
hydrodynamic effects. In the second step hydrodynamic
pressure on the stack is estimated considering rigid
stack submerged in tank. In third step the stacks have
been analyzed for pressure time histories obtained in
second step. The results obtained in these steps were
combined to get final results which are compared with
experiments.
The contained water in SFSWT is modelled using
in-house Finite Element Acoustic Field Analysis Code
(FEAFAC) as given in Binu [5,6]. The discretized
structural dynamics equation is formulated using
standard structural elements i.e. beam, contact, gap and
sliding elements. The water mass is modeled using
acoustic wave equation. The acoustic wave equation is
derived from fluid momentum (Navier-Stokes) and
continuity equations. In acoustic formulation it is
assumed that the fluid is compressible, inviscid and
non-flowing medium. Also, the mean density and Figure 10: Finite element model of SFSWT with
pressure is assumed to be uniform throughout the fluid. submerged trays stacks
625
[M ] { } [ ]{ } [ ]{ }
..
X + C
.
X + K X = {FEQ } + {Fhydrodynamic } (1)
4
0.1 sec
1 sec
20 sec
FFT of free surface displacement time history of 25 3
trays stack system is shown in Fig. 10. The slosh
frequency of the water is 0.56 Hz. A typical mode shape
Stack Height (m)

of the free surface is shown in Fig. 11. The slosh 2
frequency computed from the present code matches
agreeable with experiment.
1
800
700
0
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000
600
Hydrodynamic Pressure (Pa)
Absolute Amplitude
500
Figure 13: Pressure variation along Tank left wall
400
300 3 Results and conclusion

200 Table.2 shows that maximum displacement and
acceleration of 25 and 30 trays stack systems recorded
100 in tri-axial shake table test and obtained in numerical
analysis for 0.1g and0.156g Peak Ground Acceleration
0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0
(PGA).
Frequency (Hz) Table2: Maximum displacement of trays in Test and
Finite Element (FE) analysis
Figure 11: Slosh frequency of free surface Sr. Maximum 0.1g PGA 0.156g PGA
no. Response Test FE Test FE
Fig.13 shows the hydrodynamic pressure variation
along tank left wall at different time. Maximum 1 Displacement 41.88 40.09 60.10 58.23
hydrodynamic pressure is observed at 20 sec. time. This (mm) of 25
is due to seismic excitation which is maximum around trays stacks
20 sec., that induces more convective and impulsive system
pressure on tank wall. 2 Displacement 47.14 44.12 67.77 63.77
(mm) of 30
trays stacks
system
3 Acceleration 4.18 4.20 4.59 4.30
(m/sec2) of 25
trays stacks
system
2 4 Acceleration 4.54 3.96 4.98 4.67
(m/sec2) of 30
0
trays stacks
system
-2
-4 0
In the shake table experiment and numerical
0.2 analysis impact of adjacent tray stack is not observed.
0.4
-6 0.6 Also no significant slipping of the tray stacks at the
3
2.5 1
0.8
bottom was observed during the tests and finite element
2 1.2 analysis.
1.5 1.4
1 1.6
Displacements of stacks generally increase with
0.5 1.8 increase in base accelerations. In phase motion of trays
0 2 width
stack is observed during the experiment and also
length observed in numerical analysis. Hence, relative
Figure 12: Typical slosh mode shape of free surface displacement between two stacks at top location is
626
Binu Kumar, et al.
approximately 15010 mm in shake table testing and [7] Envelope of Spectra for 540 MWe Plant on rocky
numerical analysis. Maximum 11800.10 Pa and 9097.18 site at NPP, Department of earth quake engineering,
Pa hydrodynamic pressure was recorded at bottom and EQ 86.6, 1986.
top locations respectively for 30 trays stack for 0.156g
[8] Newmark, N.M., A method of computation for
PGA. During shake table experiment and numerical
structural dynamics, ASCE Journal of Engineering
simulation, the 25 and 30 trays stack system submerged
Mechanics Division, vol. 85, pp. 67-194, 1959.
in water tank/pool are found safe and displacements are
within safe limit. Slosh frequency and mode shapes [9] Cook R.D., Malkus D.S. and Plesha M. E.,
computed from developed code are in good comparison Concepts and Applications of Finite Element
with the shake table experiment results. It is observed Analysis, 3rd Ed., John Wiley and Sons, 1989.
from Table 2 that the maximum 12% difference is
estimated between shake table test and present code
analysis for displacement of 25 trays stacks system. It is
also observed that here stacks lies in the region of
convective waves, hence the hydrodynamic pressure on
the stacks will induce more displacement of stack than
in the case of without water.
The developed finite element code is capable of
finding various essential parameters like convective and
impulsive frequencies, mode shape, hydrodynamic
pressure and stack displacement. The developed
simplified method is able to predict the complex
behavior of submerged stacks. Hence the procedure
evolved is quiet useful. Analysis gives reasonably
acceptable results of displacement and pressure.
References
[1] Liu, W. K., Finite Element Procedures for Fluid-
Structure Interactions and Applications to Liquid
Storage Tanks, Journal of Nuclear Engineering and
Design, Vol. 65, No. 2, pp. 221-238, 1981.
[2] Mitra and Sinhamahapatra, Slosh dynamics of
liquid-filled containers with submerged
components using pressure-based finite element
method, Journal of Sound and Vibration, Vol. 304,
pp. 361381, 2007.
[3] Koh, H. M., Kim, J. K., and Park ,J. H., Fluid-
structure interaction analysis of 3-D rectangular
tanks by a variationally coupled BEM-FEM and
comparison with test results, Journal of Earthquake
Engineering and Structural Dynamics, Vol. 27,
pp.109-124, 1998.
[4] Chen, W., Large amplitude liquid sloshing in
seismically excited tanks, Journal of Earthquake
Engineering and Structural Dynamics, Vol. 25, pp.
653-669, 1996.
[5] Binu Kumar, Singh O. P., Reddy G. R. and Nair K.
N. S., Experimental and numerical analysis of
stacked spent fuel trays submerged in water pool
subjected to earthquake loading, SMiRT 21, 240, 1-
8, 2011.
[6] Binu Kumar, O. P. Singh, G. R. Reddy, K. N. S.
Nair, N. G. Krishnan and K. Muthumani,
Hydrodynamic effect on stability of tray stacks
incoorporating simplified fluid structure analysis,
ICCMS, 2012.
627
NEW BUILDING
MATERIALS FOR
SUSTAINABLE
CONSTRUCTION
EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES ON PHYSICAL PROPERTIES AND

STRENGTH RESPONSE OF
CONSTRUCTION AND DEMOLITION WASTES
4
Ashok Kumar Suluguru 1, Arkamitra Kar 2, Anasua GuhaRay 3, Naveen James
1,2,3
Department of Civil Engineering, BITS-Pilani Hyderabad Campus, Hyderabad 500078, India
4
Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Ropar, Punjab 140001, India
There is increasing inclination towards the reuse of construction and demolition wastes, primarily containing building
derived materials (BDM) in engineering practices such as ground improvement. Currently BDMs are used in the form
of recycled aggregates that incur extra cost due to refinements. The present study, thereby, emphasizes on the use of
virgin BDM. No previous studies related to its characterization and utilization in ground improvement, have been
reported till now. Hence this study focuses on the characterization of BDM and its durability aspects through physical,
chemical, and microscopic studies to test their compatibility when used in conjunction with local soil contaminated with
aggressive chemicals. Soil composition varies based on the vicinity of a chemical plant, waste processing plant, or a
coastal area. Results from this study can be used to encourage the practical use of BDM especially in chemically
contaminated soil and developing relevant standard codes.
Keywords: construction and demolition wastes,

characterizations This paper is specifically aimed at working upon
the analysis of BDM characteristics, so that they can be
used for practical purposes such as ground
1 Introduction
improvement. Due to a critical shortage of natural
Due to rapid urbanization and development of aggregates, the availability of demolished concrete for
infrastructure, huge volume of construction waste is use as BDM is rapidly increasing [2]. Presently BDMs
generated. Additionally, periodic renovation and are used in the form of recycled concrete aggregates,
modification of these structures produce large quantities but this refinement incurs extra cost due to chemical and
of demolition waste. Further, natural calamities like mechanical processes associated with it [3, 4, 5].
earthquake may also lead to destruction of structures, Considering the Indian scenario, Over the last five
creating a significant amount of solid demolition years, Indias first and only recycling plant for
waste [1]. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency construction and demolition waste has saved the
(USEPA) defines construction and demolition waste already-polluted Yamuna and the overflowing landfills
(CDW) as waste materials consisting of the debris of Delhi from 15.4 lakh tonnes of debris. A Ministry of
generated during the construction, renovation, and Urban Development circular on June 28, 2012, directed
demolition of buildings, roads, and bridges. As the States to set-up such facilities in all cities with a
construction industry greatly contributes to the present population of over 10 lakhs. But, till now the existing
environmental unbalances, it is necessary to facility at Burari is the only one. [6]. Hence the present
i) drastically reduce the consumption of non-renewable study emphasizes on the use of virgin BDM to conserve
natural resources and ii) limit the dumping of waste natural aggregate, reduce the impact on landfills, and
from CDW that takes up ever more limited space. provide cost and energy benefits. If BDM are to be used
Possible solutions to overcome these challenges are for ground improvement, knowledge of its load carrying
investigated in the present study. The primary and durability characteristics are of utmost importance.
component of CDW is building derived materials The present study investigates the durability
(BDM). characteristics BDM on exposure to aggressive
chemical environment. The results obtained from these
tests are compared with the standard natural aggregate
1 Doctoral Scholar, Civil Engineering, values for concrete pavement, owing to the lack of
p2015406@hyderabad.bits-pilani.ac.in available data for BDM. The results obtained from Los
2 Assistant Professor, Civil Engineering, Angeles abrasion test, specific gravity test, water
arkamitra.kar@hyderabad.bits-pilani.ac.in
3 Assistant Professor, Civil Engineering, absorption test and aggregate impact value test comply
guharay@hyderabad.bits-pilani.ac.in with standard results for natural aggregates. Since the
4 Assistant Professor, Civil Engineering, chemical composition of soil varies with location, the
naveen.james@iitrpr.ac.in responses of BDM to aggressive chemicals are assessed.
The BDM are immersed in separate solutions of
seawater, sulfuric acid (5% v/v), nitric acid (5% v/v),
628
Ashok Kumar Suluguru, et al.
and hydrochloric acid (5% v/v) for 7 days. The investigate the dimensions of the different
aforementioned aggregate tests are repeated for these particles comprising the crushed BDM having
BDM to identify the effect of these chemicals on BDM maximum size of 10mm (Fig. 2). The
performance. According to ASCE, there are no global minimum dimension that can be identified by
standards for recycled BDM in geotechnical applications this microscope is 20 microns. Stereo
[7, 8]. Hence, the results obtained from the proposed microscopy was also used to identify any
study can be used to establish a basis for the practical characteristic surface features of the BDM for
use of BDM in geotechnical applications and provide future comparison with BDM exposed to
recommendations which can be used to prepare standard aggressive chemicals.
codes of practice for these materials. Aggregate Impact Value Test according to
IS-2386 Part 3 (1963) to identify the resistance
of the BDM to degradation when subjected to
2 Materials
impact. The values from this test were then
The BDM used for this study are procured from compared with those from BDM exposed to
local construction sites. The Hyderabad campus of the aggressive chemical attacks (Table 1).
Birla Institute of Science and Technology (BITS)-Pilani Specific gravity and aggregate water
is undergoing extension, and thus producing huge absorption according to IS 2386 - Part 3 (1963)
amounts of construction as well as demolition wastes. were also determined for BDM to evaluate
The primary sources of these wastes are the demolition their compatibility when included in soil.
of some existing structural elements that are no longer
serviceable, and the concrete cubes, cylinders, and prism The BDM samples were then tested after exposure
specimens which are rejected from the concrete of 7 days to each of the following chemicals:
technology laboratory after preliminary testing for the Sea water
new phase of construction. Sulfuric acid
The BDM used in the present study are thus Hydrochloric acid
predominantly concrete wastes. The compositions of Nitric acid
cement, sand, and coarse aggregates used for the
preparation of the relevant concrete mixes are available 5% v/v solutions of sulfuric acid, hydrochloric acid
from the supplier. The procured concrete wastes were and nitric acid were prepared for checking sulfate,
crushed to particles having sizes of 10 mm or less, based chloride and nitrate attack respectively. To study the
on suggestions from existing literature for inclusion of extent of the attack the samples were tested for the
foreign materials in soil. The crushed BDM were then following after seven days of immersion in the agents
graded through sieve analysis and the results are mentioned above:
Study of surface under stereo microscope:
furnished in section 4. Seawater used for immersion of
After immersing the BDM in different
BDM is procured from the coastal regions in the vicinity
aggressive chemicals for seven days, they were
of the Bay of Bengal. Commercially available observed under a stereo microscope to check
laboratory grade sulfuric acid, hydrochloric acid, and for changes in surface characteristics (Figs. 3
nitric acid are procured and necessary amounts of through 6).
deionized water added to prepare the respective 5%v/v Study of loss of impact value due to attack: An
solutions. The experimental techniques are detailed in indirect idea about the bearing strength of
the following section. aggregates can be measured by conducting the
aggregate impact value test. After immersing
3 Experimental Methodologies the BDM in chemicals for seven days, they
were tested for impact value (as per IS: 2386
Before exposure to the aggressive chemical (Part IV) 1963). The difference in impact
environmental conditions, some preliminary tests were values due to these immersions are presented
carried out in order to identify the mineralogical in Table 1.
composition of the available BDM. These include: Check for change of weight due to attack:
X-ray diffraction (XRD) to identify the Depending on the compositions of the BDM
minerals present in the BDM. Bruker D8 their immersions in different chemicals can
Discover was the model used. The CuK X- produce different outcomes. Reactions may
rays were generated at 40 mA and 40 kV. lead to either an increase in weight of the BDM
Scans were performed over 20 to 80 2 range or a decrease. This was being determined by
at 0.02 2 steps and integrated at the rate of 2 measuring the BDM weight prior to immersion
seconds step-1. The results are presented in the chemicals; and comparing these weights
in Fig. 1. with those after seven days of immersion. The
Particle Size analysis (following IS 2720 Part differences were expressed in percentages
4:1985 and Stereo microscopic imaging). w.r.t. the weight of BDM before immersion.
Olympus SXZ7 stereo microscope was used to The results are provided in section 4.5.
629
XRD for BDM immersed in different chemicals: areas are most likely to indicate the limestone aggregate
To identify possible chemical changes upon components. The images were captured at magnification
comparison with the XRD patterns from virgin of 2.5. The dimensions of the area covered in each
BDM. The results are provided in section 4.6 image for that magnification, is 3.376 mm (length) by
(Figs. 7 through 10). 1.894 mm (height), which is the total area visible in
each image (Figs. 2 through 6). Knowledge of these
dimesnions provides a perspective on the respective
4 Results and Discussions sizes of the particles visible in the images. Section 4.5
presents the images taken on separate BDM specimens
4.1 X-ray Diffraction (XRD) after immersion in different chemicals for seven days.
X-ray diffraction patterns for powdered BDM

showed the predominance of calcium silicates and
quartz, as expected from portland cement concrete. The
sharp peaks corresponding to 2-theta values near 21,
26, and 51 represent crystalline quartz or silica. The
smaller peaks between 2-theta values of 30 to 40
represent the tricalcium silicate and dicalcium silicate
component of Portland cement, whereas the peaks near
2-theta values of 36 and 45 represent the calcium
hydroxide component due to hydration of portland
cement. The flatter portions of the diffractogram
containing small humps represent amorphous hydrated
cementitious paste component. These conclusions were
drawn through comparisons with existing research [9,
10, 11]. Figure 2: Stereo microscopic image for virgin
BDM particle at 2.5 magnification.
Meas. data:CaO+SiO2
Calc. data:CaO+SiO2
2000
4.3 Aggregate impact value (AIV) test
1500 This section presents the results of the AIV test

(Table 1) for BDM specimens, before and after
Intensity (counts)
immersion in different chemicals. The duration of

1000
immersion was 7 days. The impact value test on the
virgin BDM (max. size of 10 mm) resulted in the value
500
of 35%. This is equal to the maximum permissible AIV
for natural aggregates according to IS-2386:
Part 3 (1963) for cement concrete pavements. Sulfuric
0 acid and hydrochloric acid immersions did not affect
20 30 40 50 60 70 80 much of its AIV (36.7% compared to 35% before the
2-theta (deg)
immersion). But as the limiting value is 35%, the use of
Figure 1: X-ray diffractogram for virgin BDM BDM in sulfuric acid or sulfate-prone zones and in the
powder presence of chlorides are discouraged. In case of nitric
acid attack, the impact value is found to be 40%
4.2 Stereo microscopy (relatively high in comparison to the prior value) much
higher than the limiting value and thus this kind of
As mentioned earlier, the virgin BDM particles attack results in adverse effects. The impact value is
having maximum size of 10mm were invetigated under very high (43.3%) in case of a seawater immersion.
the stereo microscope. The regions of interest were
selected at random. The advantage of a stereo Table 1: Comparison of AIV for BDM, before and after
microscope over an optical microscope is identification exposure to aggressive chemical attacks
of surface undulations or unevenness. If two regions on
the same image have difference in focus or clarity, it Prevailing condition AIV
indicates that they are different elevations. Before Before any chemical attack 35%
exposure to aggressive chemicals, visual insepction of After sea water attack 43.3%
the images (Fig. 2) showed the BDM consisted of After sulfuric acid attack 36.7%
hardened cementitious paste, cement-mortar, and After hydrochloric attack 36.7%
aggregates. Greyish areas on the image indicate the After nitric acid attack 40%
hardened cementitious and cement mortar. The brownish
regions may indicate sand particles and the blackish
630
4.4 Specific gravity and water absorption the BDM and also reduces its impact value, as
mentioned in Table 1.
The average specific gravity for the BDM was
determined to be 2.48 after taking means of three
samples. The specific gravity of aggregates used for
road construction lies in the range of 2.5 3.0 with an
average value of 2.68 as a preferred value. The BDM
used for the present study was thus almost complying
with the lower limit of the standard coarse aggregate
values.
The water absorption for the same BDM was found
to be 1.182%, which is less than the maximum
permissible limit of 2% for aggregates used in cement
concrete pavements. These two tests serve as a metric to
evaluate the quality of BDM obtained from various Figure 4: Stereo microscopic image for BDM
sources. particle after 7-day immersion in sulfuric acid
(5% v/v) solution at 2.5 magnification.
4.5 Stereo microscopy on BDM in aggressive
chemicals 4.5.3 Hydrochloric acid
4.5.1 Seawater Fig. 5 presents the stereo microscopic image for

BDM particle after 7-day immersion in hydrochloric
Fig. 3 presents the stereo microscopic image for acid, at 2.5 magnification. The dimensions of this
BDM particle after 7-day immersion in seawater, at 2.5 image are identical to Fig. 2. Visual comparison of
magnification. The dimensions of this image are BDM before exposure to hydrochloric acid solution (5%
identical to Fig. 2. Visual comparison of BDM before v/v) shows light brown to yellowish white deposition on
exposure to seawater shows whitish deposition on the the surface. These deposits could be precipitation of
surface. These deposits are the effect of dissolved salts chloride salts on the BDM surface. The resulting change
present in seawater. The resulting change in weight of in weight of BDM was determined and found to be less
BDM was determined and found to be less than 1%, than 1%. This deposition distorts the physical
hence negligible. However, this deposition distorts the appearance of the BDM and also reduces its impact
physical appearance of the BDM and also reduces its value, as mentioned in Table 1.
impact value, as mentioned in Table 1.
Figure 5: Stereo microscopic image for BDM

Figure 3: Stereo microscopic image for BDM particle after 7-day immersion in hydrochloric
particle after 7-day immersion in seawater at 2.5 acid (5% v/v) solution at 2.5 magnification.
magnification.
4.5.2 Sulfuric acid 4.5.4 Nitric acid
Fig. 4 presents the stereo microscopic image for Fig. 6 presents the stereo microscopic image for
BDM particle after 7-day immersion in sulfuric acid, at BDM particle after 7-day immersion in nitric acid, at
2.5 magnification. The dimensions of this image are 2.5 magnification. The dimensions of this image are
identical to Fig. 2. Visual comparison of BDM before identical to Fig. 2. Visual comparison of BDM before
exposure to sulfuric acid solution (5% v/v) shows exposure to nitric acid solution (5% v/v) shows yellow
yellowish white deposition on the surface. These to brown deposition on the surface. These deposits
deposits could be precipitation of sulfate salts on the could be precipitation of nitrate salts on the BDM
BDM surface. The resulting change in weight of BDM surface. The resulting change in weight of BDM was
was determined and found to be 6.67%. This significant determined and found to be less than 1%. This
amount of deposition distorts the physical appearance of deposition distorts the physical appearance of the BDM
631
and also reduces its impact value, as mentioned in

Table 1. Meas. data:SULPHATE
Calc. data:SULPHATE
2.0e+004
1.5e+004
Intensity (cps)
1.0e+004
5.0e+003
0.0e+000
20 30 40 50 60 70 80
2-theta (deg)
Figure 6: Stereo microscopic image for BDM
particle after 7-day immersion in nitric acid (5% Figure 8: X-ray diffractogram for powdered
v/v) solution at 2.5 magnification. sample of BDM immersed in sulfuric acid for 7
days
4.6 XRD for BDM immersed in chemicals
4.6.3 BDM in hydrochloric acid
X-ray diffraction patterns for powdered BDM
showed the predominance of calcium silicates and On comparison with Fig. 1, additional peaks were
quartz, as expected from portland cement concrete. observed for gypsum, CaCl2 (29, 43, 61) [14]. This is
expected due to the high chloride content in sulfuric
4.6.1 BDM in seawater acid. Presence of KCl was also observed (26, 68, 74).
This explains the change in appearance of the BDM
On comparison with Fig. 1, additional peaks were when investigated through stereo microscope and also
observed for KCl (26, 28, 42, 68, 74), NaCl (32, the possible reason for the decrease in AIV and change
44, 66, 77), CaCl2 (29, 31, 42, 43, 61) [12, 13]. in weight.
These results are consistent with the fact that seawater
contains these dissolved salts. This also explains the Meas. data:Chloride
Calc. data:Chloride
change in appearance of the BDM when investigated
through stereo microscope and the possible reason for
the decrease in AIV. 1.0e+004
Intensity (cps)
Meas. data:Sea Water

Calc. data:Sea Water
6.0e+003
5.0e+003
Intensity (cps)
4.0e+003
0.0e+000
20 30 40 50 60 70 80
2-theta (deg)
2.0e+003 Figure 9: X-ray diffractogram for powdered

sample of BDM immersed in hydrochloric acid
for 7 days
0.0e+000
20 30 40 50
2-theta (deg)
60 70 80
4.6.4 BDM in nitric acid
Figure 7: X-ray diffractogram for powdered On comparison with Fig. 1, additional peaks were
sample of BDM immersed in seawater for 7 days observed for potassium nitrate, KNO3 (27, 29, 68)
4.6.2 BDM in sulfuric acid [15]. This showed presence of potassium in the BDM
and the corresponding deposition on its surface. This
On comparison with Fig. 1, additional peaks were can be the possible reason for the decrease in AIV.
observed for gypsum, CaSO4.0.5H2O (21, 23, 29)
[14]. This is expected due to the high sulfate content in
sulfuric acid. This explains the change in appearance of
the BDM when investigated through stereo microscope
and also the possible reason for the decrease in AIV.
632
Meas. data:Nitrate
[3] Sustainability Victoria, Annual survey of Victorian
Calc. data:Nitrate
recycling industries 20042005, 2005, 1-28.
[4] Arulrajah, A., Piratheepan, J., Ali, Y.M.M., and Bo,
1.0e+004 M.W., Geotechnical properties of recycled concrete
aggregate in pavement sub-base applications,
Intensity (cps)
Geotechnical Testing Journal, 2012 , 35(5), 19.

[5] Poon, C. S. and Chan, D., Feasible Use of Recycled
5.0e+003 Concrete Aggregates and Crushed Clay Brick as
Unbound Road Sub-Base, Construction and Building
Materials, 2006, 20, 578585.
[6] The Hindu, Indias first plant that recycles
0.0e+000
20 30 40 50 60 70 80
construction waste, 2014, Available at:
2-theta (deg)
http://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Delhi/indias-first-
Figure 10: X-ray diffractogram for powdered plant-that-recycles-construction-
sample of BDM immersed in nitric acid for 7 days waste/article6362727.ece; Last accessed on 12/02/2016.
[7] Melton, J. S., Recycled Base Aggregates in
It was observed that weight of the sample increased Pavement Applications Part III of VI (AWI051611),
by 6.67% after sulfuric acid attack. But, there was no Sustainable Geotechnical Applications: Webinar hosted
notable change in weight of the BDM due to any of the by ASCE, July 24, 2015.
other attacks. [8] Edil, T.B., Tire Derived Aggregate in Geotechnical
and Environmental Applications- Part V of VI
5 Conclusions (AWI062811), Sustainable Geotechnical Applications:
Webinar hosted by ASCE, July 24, 2015.
From the aggregate impact values, it is clearly [9] Kupwade-Patil, K and Allouche, E., Effect of Alkali
visible that the BDM get strongly influenced by the Silica Reaction (ASR) in Geopolymer Concrete, World
presence of aggressive chemicals. The decrease in AIV of Coal Ash (WOCA) Conference, May 912, 2011,
results clearly suggests that durability of BDM in such Devnver, CO, USA.
chemical environment is significantly less. Change in [10] Kar, A., Ray, I., Halabe, U. B., Unnikrishnan, A.
weight of BDM due to sulfuric acid immersion indicates and Dawson-Andoh, B., Characterizations and
the possibility of expansion if they are exposed to a soil Estimation of Alkali Activated Binder Paste from
containing sulfates. Thus, further studies are required to Microstructures, International Journal of Concrete
improve the durability characteristics of BDM if it to be Structures and Materials, 2014,8(3), 213228.
used as an inclusion material in soils containing such [11] Mindess, S., Young, J. F., and Darwin, D.,
chemical contaminant. As a follow up to the present Concrete, Prentice Hall, Pearson Education, Inc., New
study, soil-BDM mixtures will be tested in the future, Jersey, 2003.
for bearing capacity and shear strength through plate [12]Bontempi, E., Zacco, A.,Borgese, L.,
load tests and shear box tests. This will help to evaluate Gianoncelli, A., Ardesi, R., and Deper, L. E., A new
the utility of BDM in ground improvement. method for municipal solid waste incinerator (MSWI)
fly ash inertization, based on colloidal silica, J. Environ.
Acknowledgments Monit., 2010, 12, 2093 2099.
[13] Lim, M., Han, G. C., Ahn, J. W., You, K. S.,
The authors would like to thank the Science and
Environmental remediation and conversion of carbon
Engineering Research Board (SERB), Govt. of India for
dioxide (CO(2)) into useful green products by
supporting the present study through the Early Career
accelerated carbonation technology, Int. J. Environ. Res.
Research Award. The authors are grateful to BITS-
Public Health, 2010, 7(1), 203228.
Pilani, Hyderabad campus for providing the materials
[14] U. S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 01-041,
and the laboratory setup required to conduct the
A Laboratory Manual for X-Ray Powder Diffraction,
experiments. The authors would also like thank Ms.
Available at: http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2001/of01-
Stuti Mondal, Mr. P. Hemanth Kumar, and Mr. Kaushal
041/htmldocs/links.htm; Last accessed: September 7,
Raut for their assistance with the experimental work.
2016.
[15] Yildirim, M., Kipcak, A. S., Senberber, F. T.,
References
Asensio, M. O., Derun, E. M., Piskin, S., The
Determination of the Potassium Nitrate, Sodium
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Hydroxide and Boric Acid Molar Ratio in the Synthesis
New Ideas to Reduce Construction and Demolition
of Potassium Borates via Hydrothermal Method, World
Debris, 2015.
Academy of Science, Engineering and Technology
http://www3.epa.gov/region9/waste/solid/construction/
International Journal of Chemical, Molecular, Nuclear,
Last accessed on 11/02/2016.
Materials and Metallurgical Engineering, 2015, 9 (5),
[2] Meyer, C., Concrete Materials and Sustainable
597 600.
Development in the United States, Structural
Engineering International, August 2004, 10 pps.
633
COMBINED EFFECT OF STEEL FIBERS WITH FERROCHROME

SLAG ON HARDENED CONCRETE
Rohit Shah1, Tribikram Mohanty2
1
Department of Civil Engineering, KIIT University, Bhubaneswar-751024, Odisha
2
Department of Civil Engineering, KIIT University, Bhubaneswar-751024, Odisha
Research on concrete technology is of vital importance in present world as concrete is used in a variety of
environments, many of them being aggressive in nature. As such, new explorations are being done in an
everyday basis, to increase the mechanical properties of concrete, as well as making them cost-efficient.
But significant research has not been done in the combined effects of steel fiber along with ferrochrome
ash, and hence not much is known about the effects imposed by the combination on the properties of
concrete. Ferrochrome ash is a by-product of industrial wastes, which has been seen to have considerable
resistive strength. This, in combination with steel fiber, which is known for its strength-increasing property
in concrete was used. The results of the experiment were found to be satisfactory, as the use of small
proportions in ferrochrome ash along with steel fiber was seen to considerably improve the mechanical
properties. Compressive strength was seen to develop at a great rate in the different combinations, however
for the combination of 10% ferrochrome + 2% steel fiber, all the properties were seen to get the highest
influence. Strength started depreciating however, on increasing the steel fiber beyond 2%, as it resulted in
lower workability. Thus through this study, properties of ferrochrome ash as well as steel fiber, and their
effects on concrete strengths, was presented.
Keywords: ferrochrome slag, steel fibres, fibre reinforced concrete.
Effectiveness of fiber is maintained by the resistance to

1. INTRODUCTION pull out which generally depends on bond at interface of
As we all know concrete is weak in tension and strong in fiber matrix. Pull out resistance improves with length of
compression. Hence, ordinary concrete is used with steel the fiber which is directly proportional to inter-facial
reinforcement. Now a days concrete is reinforced with area. It has been found that with decrease in diameter of
fibers which are distributed in a random way. Along with fiber, inter-facial area available is large enough for
toughness and energy absorption ability, tensile strength bonding. The bond is comparatively more effective for
and flexural strength are also improved [1]. Micro cracks small area of a given length of a fiber. This effect is
which are present in mortar aggregate interface are expressed by aspect ratio. Ratio of length of fiber to
responsible for inborn weakness of ordinary concrete. diameter of fiber is known as aspect ratio. Higher aspect
This can be reduced by the addition of fiber in concrete ratio improves the efficiency of fiber. The preparations
mixture [2]. Toughness and resistant to crack growth can of FRC are done by using lower water/cement ration and
be improved by adding various type of fibers in ordinary higher cement content [6].
concrete. When the load is distributed to micro crack by Ferrochrome, is considered as a relatively non-hazardous
the help of fibers in concrete, the concrete is known as industrial waste material in the form of powder is
fiber reinforced concrete [1] [3].Fibers of different size prepared from the ferrochromium industry. Now a days
and shape are obtained from steel, glass, natural the requirement of concrete is increased rapidly with the
materials and carbon. Generally, steel fibers are preferred growing population. Major component of concrete is
for both non-structural and structural purpose. At failure, cement. Manufacture of cement is a highly energy taking
mechanical properties of concrete are affected by the process [4]. Huge amount of CO2 (Carbon di-oxide) and
addition of fiber in concrete. The strong mechanism of other greenhouse gases are released from cement
fibers contains the distribution of stress from the matrix industries, causing global warming. To reduce global
to fibers by the bond between the matrix and fibers [5]. warming and conserve natural resources, we have to
Behavior of fiber reinforced concrete in strength is reduce the generation and utilization of cement. Thus the
controlled by fiber content and its efficiency. replacement of cement has become necessary to reduce
634
Rohit Shah and Tribikram Mohanty
global warming. Number of researches have been done 0.465. They used the hooked end steel fiber of aspect
on how to use industrial wastes as a replacement material ratio of 71. They used the fiber at 0.5 to 1.5% by volume
in concrete constitute. From the researches the results
which were obtained, shows that replacing substituent
materials not only increases the concrete properties but
also leads to development in the concrete strength
economically [4].
It is well known fact that ferrochrome is produced at a
quantity of 6.5 to 9.5 million tons worldwide. The
increment in the rate of production is 2.8% to 3% per
annum. From approximately 1.2 metric ton of solid
waste, 1 metric ton of ferrochrome powder is obtained.
Another application of ferrochrome powder is utilization
as dumping waste in landfills [4].
Few researches have been carried out to use ferrochrome
slag aggregates by partially replacing normal aggregates
along with partially lime replacement by cement in Figure 1: Steel fiber
concrete, without sacrificing or even improving strength
and durability properties of concrete. of concrete and fly ash from 10 to 30% by weight of
In this present experimental study, ferrochrome powder cement. They compared the result with standard concrete
has been used as an alternative construction material and from the results it was seen that compressive
instead of OPC along with application steel fiber by the strength was more for fly ash 10% and 20% for 1% and
replacement of weight of concrete. 2% steel fiber in it. From Patro and Acharya (2015) [4],
study it was found that they replaced the ferrochrome ash
2. Literature Review with cement from 10% to 40% along with 7% of lime.
Shende et. al. [1], they investigated compressive, They investigated the properties of concrete like
flexural, split tensile strength of SFRC, containing 0, 1, 2 compressive, flexural, and split tensile strengths along
and 3% hooked end steel fiber by volume fiber for M-40 with water permeability of concrete. The results showed
grade of concrete with water cement ratio 0.35. Steel that there was improvement in early strength. For 40%
fiber with aspect ratio of 50, 60 and 67 were used. The ferrochrome ash and 7% lime replacement in concrete
data obtained has been studied and compared with with cement shows nearly equal properties to that of
standard concrete sample (0% fiber). From the result data ordinary concrete for 28 days. Durability of concrete was
it was observed that properties of SFRC are on higher improved for later age in concrete. From there study it
side for 50 aspect ratio in comparison to 60 and 67 aspect was found that there was maximum improvement in
ratio. With the addition fiber it was seen that durability properties and strengths for mix having 10%
compressive, flexural and split tensile strength was ferrochrome and 7% lime. It was also found that bonding
increased by 10 to 30 %. Falah (2011) [2], investigated was improved between cement paste and aggregates due
that the structural behavior of steel fiber reinforced fly to addition of ferrochrome and lime.
ash concrete under compression and flexure by
conducting tests on standard control specimens. Addition 3. Materials and Its Properties
of steel fiber and fly ash in concrete improves the 3.1 Cement
structural properties, mainly its flexural strength. It was For this present study OPC- 43 grade of cement was used
found that for upto 1.5% of steel fiber and upto 30% of which was tested as per IS: 8112-1989.
fly ash in concrete compressive and flexural strength 3.2 Aggregates
both gets improved. Research showed that SFRC shows For preparing cement mix fine aggregate (sand) has been
better resisting ability to flexural stress whereas fly ash collected from local river bed conforming to Zone-III.
concrete shows better resisting ability to compressive The maximum size of sand particles was 4.5mm tested as
stress. 1 - 1.5% of steel fibers by volume of concrete per IS: 383-1970. Fresh coarse aggregate of 10mm to
along 15 25 % of fly ash which was replaced by 20mm size was taken for experimental purpose as per IS:
cement and it was considered as the optimum percentage. 383-1970.
By inclusion of fly ash, the workability of concrete was
improved which was necessary for higher quantity of 3.3 Steel Fiber
FRC is defined as a composite material mixed with
steel fibers. Khadake and Konapure (2012) [3], studied
ordinary Portland cement, aggregate, and adding discrete
the properties of SFRC for M-25 grade of concrete
discontinuous fibers. It is well known in improving the
having mix proportion 1:1:5:3.17 and water/cement ratio
structural durability of the concrete. In terms of shape
635
and size, there are various steel fiber available in the 2. Required weight of aggregate was taken in tray and
market such as straight, crimped, hooked end, deformed, put in the pan mixer.
and irregular steel fiber. Their cross section varies from 3. Sand of required weight was taken in tray and put in
0.25 mm to 0.75 mm. For this experimental study the pan mixer.
crimped from of steel fiber was used. Its diameter was 4. Ferrochrome powder of required weight is taken and it
0.6 mm and 30 mm long with aspect ratio (l/d) 50. was also putted in the pan mixer and all the three
materials were dry mixed for 1-2 minutes.
5. After that steel fiber of required weight was taken in
tray and putted in the pan mixer. Now, water of required
weight was taken in bucket and mixed in dry mixture in
small quantities gradually so that the mix is uniformly
gauged and workability is proper. Now, run the mixer for
2-3 minutes and check the mix quality.
5. Results
Table:1 Compressive strength of SFFCA Concrete
Age Steel Fiber and FeCr Ash
Mix Test
in Concrete
Type Details
Days C-1 C-2 C-3 Avg.
Wt. in
9.13 9.17 9.07 9.12
Figure 2: Types of Steel fiber Kg.
3.5 FERROCHROME POWDER Load

7 697.95 707.18 692.55 699.3
Ferrochrome (FeCr) known as Charge Chrome is a in KN
corrosion resistant alloy of Chrome and Iron containing
between 50% and 65% Chrome. Ferrochromium is Stress
31.02 31.43 30.78 31.08
extracted from the chromium ore to produce the final in Mpa
product. The metal and primary slags are tapped from the R-
furnaces approximately at every 2 hour. The chrome is 201 Wt. in
tapped through a furnace tap hole into a ladle and is then 9.09 9.14 9.2 9.14
Kg.
cast into silica and ferrochromium fines moulds. Primary
slag (also termed untreated), a semi-solid waste still Load
28 1195.88 1206.68 1171.58 1191.3
containing ferrochromium and 2% moisture, is tapped in KN
into a slag bell (a big round pot-like container) and
processed through a metal-recovery processing (MRP) Stress
plant where the slag is crushed, screened and separated 53.15 53.63 52.07 52.95
in Mpa
from the residual metal through a hydro-jigging process.
The metal and slag (now termed final, treated or Wt. in
weathered slag) are separated during this process as a 9.18 9.12 9.06 9.12
Kg.
result of their differences in density and the final slag is
dumped on site. So ferrochrome slag is a by-product Load
from the production of ferrochrome, an essential 7 696.38 702.68 682.2 693.9
in KN
component in stainless steel. Extensive tests have been
carried out on the physical properties of the ferrochrome Stress
slag from different organization and it was found to be 30.95 31.23 30.32 30.84
highly suitable as construction material. [4] in Mpa
R-
202 Wt. in
4. Experimental Program 9.03 9.12 9.09 9.08
For concrete with steel fiber and ferrochrome powder Kg.
replacement:- Load
In this mix steel fiber was replaced with by various (1%, 28 1136.7 1156.5 1133.78 1142.3
2% and 3%) weights of concrete and ferrochrome in KN
powder was replaced with by weight of cement (10%, Stress
20% and 30%) 50.52 51.4 50.39 50.77
1. Firstly dry tray and bucket were taken. in Mpa
636
Rohit Shah and Tribikram Mohanty
Table:2 Flexural strength of SFFCA Concrete Table:3 Split tensile strength of SFFCA Concrete
Steel Fiber and FeCr Steel Fiber and FeCr

Age Age
Mix Ash Concrete Mix Test Ash Concrete
in Test Details in
Type Type Details
Days P-1 P-2 Average Days CY- CY- Average
1 2
Load in KN 13 13.5 13.25
7 Load in KN 232.0 238.0 235.0
Days Stress in MPa 5.2 5.4 5.3 7 Stress in
R-101 Days 3.28 3.37 3.33
Load in KN 17 18 17.5 Mpa
28 R-
Days 6.8 7.2 7.0 101 Load in KN 293.5 296.5 294.0
Stress in Ma
28 Stress in
Load in KN 13.8 14 13.9 Days 4.15 4.19 4.17
7 Mpa
Days Stress in Mpa 5.5 5.6 5.55
Load in KN 265.0 270.0 267.5
R-102
Load in KN 18 19 18.5 7 Stress in
28 Days 3.75 3.82 3.79
Days Stress in Mpa 7.2 7.6 7.4 Mpa
R-
Load in KN 15.5 15.0 15.75 102 Load in KN 306.5 311.0 308.75
7
28 Stress in
Days Stress in Mpa 6.2 6.0 6.3
Days 4.34 4.40 4.37
R-103 Load in KN 17.5 17.0 17.25 Mpa
28 Load in KN 236.5 240.5 238.5
Days Stress in Mpa 7.0 6.8 6.9 7 Stress in
Days 3.35 3.40 3.38
Mpa
R-
Steel Fiber and FeCr 103 Load in KN 277.0 282.0 279.5
Age
Mix
in Test Details Ash Concrete 28 Stress in
Type
Days Days 3.92 3.99 3.96
P-1 P-2 Average Mpa
Load in KN 15.5 16.5 16.0
7 Stress in
Days 6.2 6.6 6.4
Mpa
R-201
Load in KN 17.5 18.5 18.0 28 Days Compressive Strength
28 Stress in 60 54.01 52.95
50.92 50.46 50.77
49.99 R-0
Days 7.0 7.4 7.2
Compressive
Mpa 50 44.07
Strength
R-101
Load in KN 15.5 15.0 15.25 40
R-102
7 30
Stress in R-103
Days 6.2 6.0 6.1 20
Mpa R-201
10
R-202
Load in KN 18.0 18.5 18.25 0 R-202
28 Stress in
Days 7.2 7.4 7.3 Figure 3: 28 Days Compressive Strength
Mpa
637
6. Substitution of 2% steel fiber + 10% ferrochrome ash

and 2% steel fiber + 20% ferrochrome ash proved to be
28 Days Flexural Strength best combination for flexural and split tensile strength.
7.4
7.5 7.2 7.3 R-0
References
Flexural Strength
7 6.9 6.9 1. Shende A.M., Pande A.M., Pathan M. Gulfam,

7 R-101 Experimental Study on Steel Fiber Reinforced Concrete
6.5 6.3 R-102 for M-40 Grade, International Refereed Journal of
Engineering and Science (IRJES) Volume 1, Issue 1
6 R-103 2012; PP. 043-048.
R-201 2. Almottiri Falah A., Physical Properties of Steel
5.5 Fiber Reinforced Cement Composites Made with Fly
Ash, Jordan Journal of Civil Engineering, Volume 5, No.
Figure 4: 28 Days Flexural Strength 2 2011; PP 281-286.
3. Khadake S.N. , Konapure C.G., An
Investigation of Steel Fiber Reinforced Concrete with
Fly Ash, IOSR Journal of Mechanical and Civil
Engineering (IOSR-JMCE), ISSN: 2278-1684 Volume 4,
Issue 5, 2012; PP. 01-05.
28 Days Split Tensile Strength 4. Prasanna K. Acharya, Sanjaya K. Patro, Effect
of lime and ferrochrome ash (FA) as partial replacement
4.6
Split Tensile Strength
4.37 R-0 of cement on strength, ultrasonic pulse velocity and

4.4 permeability of concrete, ScienceDirect, Construction
4.17 4.16 4.2 R-101
4.2 and Building Materials 94, 2015; PP. 448457.
3.96 R-102 5. Sakthieswaran N. and Ganesan K., Compressive
4 3.92
3.76 R-103 Strength of Concrete containing Fly Ash, Copper Slag,
3.8 Silica Fume and Fibres Prediction, International
R-201
3.6 Journal Of Engineering And Computer Science,
3.4 R-202 ISSN:2319-7242, Volume 3 Issue 2, 2014; PP.3891-
3896.
Figure 5: 28 Split Tensile Strength
6. Conclusions
In this present experimental study the combined effect
of steel fiber and ferrochrome ash have been discussed
in a detailed manner. Considering the behavior of
additive added in concrete mixes, some of the important
observation can be noted -
1. Results show that concrete mix containing steel fiber
+ ferrochrome ash, proved to be effective in increasing
the compressive strength of hardened concrete.
2. Observation from graphs reveal that approximately
10 - 25% increment in compressive strength can be
achieved.
3. Substitution of 2% steel fiber + 10% ferrochrome ash
and 1% steel fiber + 20% ferrochrome ash proved to be
the best combination for compressive strength.
4. It is observed from graph that there is 10 to 15%
increment in flexural strength of concrete mix containing
steel fiber + ferrochrome ash.
5. Observation from graph show that approx. 5 to 10% of
increment in split tensile strength can be achieved.
638
639
RELATION BETWEEN CANTABRO LOSS AND FLEXURAL

STRENGTH OF FLY ASH ROLLER COMPACTED
CONCRETE PAVEMENT
S.Krishna Rao1, P.Sravana 2, T.Chandrasekhara Rao3
1. Associate Professor, Civil Engineering, V.R. Siddhartha Engineering College, Vijayawada, AP, India-
520007, 09948035265, snkrishnarao@gmail.com, corresponding author
2. Professor, Civil Engineering, JNTUH, Hyderabad, Telangana, India-500085
3. Professor, Civil Engineering, Bapatla Engineering College, Bapatla, AP-522101
Roller compacted concrete (RCC) is relatively stiffer mix than conventional concrete mix in fresh or
green state. The ingredients are similar to conventional concrete like mixture of fine and coarse aggregate,
cement and water. The method of construction of RCC allows early opening to traffic in a short period of
time after placement. RCC is utilizing the combination of quality of concrete material and construction
procedure of the bituminous pavements. The low water-cement ratio varying between 0.30 and 0.40
assists in providing very high strengths. In this paper the Cantabro loss of high volume fly ash roller
compacted concrete pavement (FRCCP) made with fly ash was assessed in terms of its relation to flexural
strength. The laboratory conditions of abrasion resistance tests (ASTM C 944) do not simulate the field
conditions of pavement surface resistance against impact and abrasion. Therefore the applicability of
Cantabro Loss method has been investigated to measure the abrasion resistance of Roller Compacted
Concrete. Roller Compacted Concrete Pavement (RCCP) mix was proportioned for a Flexural Strength of
5.0 N/mm2 by using ACI 211.3R specifications. Seven RCCP mixes containing 0, 10, 20,30,40,50 and
60% Fly ash as Cement replacement by weight were prepared. The fine aggregate used in all seven mixes
was Manufactured Sand. The abrasion resistance was measured in terms of Cantabro Loss for all seven
mixes at the ages of 3,7,28 and 90 days of curing. Investigation results have shown that the Cantabro Loss
decreased as flexural strength increased.
Keywords: RCC, Fly ash, Cantabro Loss, Flexural Strength, M-Sand
1 Introduction one test procedure is satisfactory to evaluate the

resistance of concrete to the conditions of wear. (Neville
The increasing shortage and price rise of the natural
AM et al.,1987)[2]
river sand has become imperative to look for possible
alternatives to natural sand. The manufactured sand (M-
Roller compacted concrete pavement (RCC) has
Sand) is available in large quantity in various stone
zero slump and it is placed without any form work and
quarries and is one of the major alternative materials
its construction is similar to traditional asphalt
that can be used as a replacement for natural sand in
pavements (ACI 325.10R-95,2000)[3].The performance
concrete. The M-Sand is a by-product of the stone
of RCC is greatly influenced by flexural strength and its
crushing units. Based on the International Center of
elastic modulus, however for pavement applications the
Aggregates Research (ICAR) project work, concrete can
abrasive resistance is an essential parameter due to the
successfully be made using unwashed M-sand without
vehicular traffic. (Shi ZQ et al.,1997)[4].
modifying the sand. With the use of manufactured sand
in concrete there was increase in flexural strength,
Gaedicke, C., et al.,[5] In the investigation they
improved abrasion resistance, increased unit weight and
used two different methods of abrasion resistance
lowered permeability.(Ahn NS et al.,2001)[1]
namely surface abrasion and impact abrasion resistance
test. The abrasion of pervious cement concrete mix was
The vehicular movement on pavements results in
studied. They concluded that impact abrasion resistance
wear and tear and abrasion on its surface due to the
method was able to distinguish the results between other
sliding and scraping action of wheels of the vehicles.
mixes. Shu, X., et al.,[6] conducted tests to compare the
Therefore abrasion resistance of concrete is essential
performance of filed cut concrete cores with the
parameters when the concrete pavement is subjected to
laboratory made concrete specimens of pervious
such abrasive forces on it. It is difficult to assess the
concrete. For the investigation the Cantabro Loss Test
damage caused by different forces of abrasion and no
640
S. Krishna Rao, et al.
was used to measure the abrasion resistance. Test results 2.1.3 Fine Aggregate: Fine aggregate used in the
revealed that field concrete cores are showed higher investigation is M-sand collected from VNS Ready Mix
abrasion resistance than the laboratory made concrete Plant, Vijayawada, India. It was as per IS 2386[13]. The
specimens. fine aggregate conforms to standard specifications of IS
383[14].
Dong, Q., et al.,[7] conducted detailed research
work to develop a method for evaluating the abrasion 2.1.4 Coarse Aggregate: Coarse aggregate from nearby
resistance of pervious concrete. For this purpose, three crusher was collected. The aggregate sizes are 20,12 and
methods of measuring abrasion resistance of concrete 6mm and are hard broken granite and machine crushed.
were employed. The methods are Cantabro loss test,
loaded wheel test, surface abrasion resistance test. They 2.1.5 Water: The locally available potable water is used
discussed the applicability of each test based on the in the experimental investigation.
repeatability and reproducibility. Takada, Y., et al.,[8]
had conducted the experiments to study the effect mix
proportion changes on the performance like strength and Table 1 Physical properties of Portland cement
abrasion behavior of Pervious concrete pavement mixes. S. Test Property Result IS
The test methods employed are Cantabro loss test and No. 12269
abrasion wear test. The test results revealed that 1. Blaine Fineness 285 225
changing the water to cement (W/C) ratio has not
influenced the Cantabro loss. Bonicelli, A., et al.,[9]. (m2/kg)
They investigated the influence of fine sand addition on 2. Normal Consistency 30.0% -
pervious concrete mixes. They concluded that with 5%
sand addition to the total coarse aggregate in the mix 3. Specific Gravity 3.15 -
improved the abrasion resistance. However the 4. Initial setting
105 >30
Cantabro loss of the mix reduced with addition of 5% time(minutes)
sand
5. Final setting time
1.1 Objectives of the experimental Work 285 <600
(minutes)
The main objectives of this experimental research work
are: 6. Compressive
i. To study the effect of fly ash and M-sand on strength(N/mm2)
the flexural strength properties of RCC for
specified flexural strength of 5 MPa. 3days 29 >27
ii. To study the influence of M-sand on flexural 7days 40 >37
strength and Cantabro Loss of FRCCP mixes
28days 58 >53
iii. To develop a correlation between Cantabro
loss and flexural strength of FRCCP.
Table 2 Chemical Composition of Cement and Fly
2 Experimental Investigations ash
2.1 Materials Compone

Cement Fly Ash
nt (%)
2.1.1 Cement: Ordinary Portland cement of 53 grade 1.8
(OPC 53) was used in the experimental investigation. Loss Ignition 0.73
The cement was tested for its physical properties for its 20.4
SiO2 62.84
requirements as per Indian Standard Code of Practice
IS: 12269-1987[10]. The chemical requirements are 3.2
Fe2O3 4.74
tested as per the standard IS: 4032-1977[11]. The test
results are given in Table 1 and 2. 3.9
Al2O3 23.94
2.1.2 Fly Ash: The Fly Ash collected from the 63

CaO 3.43
nearby source i.e. Narla Tata Rao Thermal Power
2.4
Station, Ibrahimpatnam, Andhra Pradesh. The fly ash is MgO 0.97
satisfying the requirements of the IS 3812-1981[12]. -
The experimental test results of fly ash are presented in Na2O 0.4
Table 2. The specific Gravity is 2.5 and Blaine fineness -
is 359 m2/kg K2O 0.71
3
SO3 0.77
641
3 Mix Proportioning Cantabro Loss, %= (Eq. 1)

Mix proportioning of RCCP was done using ACI 211 Where ,
3R-02-2002[22] specifications. The RCCP mix was w1= Average initial weight of the test specimen( three),
proportioned for specified target flexural strengths of grams
5.0N/mm2, [15-19].The cement content of control mix w2= Average final weight of the test specimen(three) at
of RCC was 295kg/m3. In seven FRCCP mixes 0%, each revolution level, grams
10%, 20%, 30%, 40%, 50% and 60% by weight of
cement were replaced with Fly Ash. The identification The test set up is shown in Fig.1
of mix proportions and quantity of material are given in
Table 3.
Table 3 Quantities of materials per one m3

Mix Proportion (Kg/m3)
Mix
Fly M-
Cement CA Water
Ash Sand
FRCCP-0 295 0 1209 801 114
FRCCP-10 265.5 29.5 1209 801 118
FRCCP-20 236 59 1209 801 123.9
FRCCP-30 206.5 88.5 1209 801 129.8
FRCCP-40 177 118 1209 801 141.6 Fig. 1 Test set up of Cantabro Loss Test
FRCCP-50 147.5 147.5 1209 801 144.55 4 Results and Discussions

4.1 Effect of Fly ash on Flexural Strength FRCCP
FRCCP-60 118 177 1209 801 147.5 mixes
The flexural strength of FRCCP mixes were presented
3.1 Preparation, casting and Testing of specimens in the Table 4. Cement when partially replaced with Fly
ash (0% to 60%) flexural strength values decreased at
3.1.1 Flexural Strength Test : Beam specimens of all ages. The reason for decline in strength is attributed
size 100 x 100 x 500 mm are cast for fly ash roller to the fact that the initial gain in strength in case of fly
compacted concrete pavement (FRCCP) and tested by ash concrete is very less as seen from the results. The
applying third point loading as per IS 516[20]. variation of flexural strength and fly ash content is
Universal testing machine of 400 kN capacity is used shown in Figure 2.
for determining the flexural strength of concrete beams.
The load was applied perpendicular to the face of the
specimen and applied without eccentricity.
3.1.2 Cantabro Abrasion Test: The Cantabro Loss test

is an abrasion resistance test which can be used to
measure the abrasion weight loss of concrete. This test
is conducted in accordance with ASTM C 1747-
2011[21] using a Los Angeles abrasion testing machine
(Usually employed for measuring the Aggregate
Abrasion Value), but without placing the abrasive
charges like steel balls. The standard size of concrete
specimens used in this test is 100mm height and 300mm Fig. 2 Variation of Flexural Strength with Fly ash
length cylindrical specimens of three numbers. Average
4.2 Effect of M-sand and Fly Ash on Cantabro Loss
initial weight of three specimen (w1) is recorded before
In the Cantabro test to simulate the abrasion effect and
start of the test. Then this machine was allowed to rotate
impact effect, the cylindrical specimens were tested at
at the rate of 30-33 revolutions per minute. The average
50, 100, 150, 200, 250 and 300 revolutions in LA
abraded weight of three specimens is recorded at 50,
machine for all mixes of FRCCP. The test results were
100, 150, 200, 250 and 300 revolutions. At each level
shown in Tables 5, at ages of 3d, 7d, 28d and 90 days.
the abraded specimens were removed from the machine
During the test it was seen that the edges were slightly
and cleaned and weighed accurately to measure w2.
destroyed during initial 50 revolutions and 100
Finally the percentage loss i.e. Cantabro Loss was
revolutions. However, with the increase in number of
calculated as per the expression:
642
revolutions, the shape of cylindrical (150mmX100mm)

became more and more rounded. The test is done for
300 revolutions as specified in the standard test
procedure.
As seen from these Figure 3a, 3b and 3c, the
Cantabro loss was increasing with the increasing in
number of revolution for all three series at 3, 7 and 28
days respectively. However the loss rate slightly
decreased for control mix concrete when compared to
other mixes of 10%, 20%, 30%, 40%, 50% and 60% Fly
Ash content. This indicates that, M-sand has significant
contribution in improving the abrasion resistance( i.e. in (b) at 7 days
terms of Cantabro loss) of FRCCP mixes at all ages.
However, it was also seen that with increase in fly ash
content from 0% to 60% the Cantabro loss was
increasing at all ages, even at 90 days. This reason is
due to fly ash has slow pozzolanic reaction and attained
low strength at the ages from 3d,7d,28d and 90days.
Table 5 Average Cantabro Loss of FRCCP
Mix % of Cantabro Loss at 300 revolutions
3 days 7 days 28 days 90 days

FRCCP-0 15.32 13.54 10.38 7.69 (c) at 28 days
FRCCP-10 17.11 14.25 11.05 8.78 Fig.3 Percentage of Cantabro Loss Vs Fly ash
Content at different revolutions
FRCCP-20 18.66 15.39 11.81 9.86
4.3 Empirical Relation of Flexural Strength and
FRCCP-30 20.11 16.81 12.68 10.1 Cantabro Loss of FRCCP mixes
FRCCP-40 22.38 18.62 14.11 10.33 The Cantabro loss and Flexural strength of FRCCP at
0%,10%,20%,30%,40%,50% and 60% replacement
FRCCP-50 23.67 19.15 15.36 11.37 levels of Fly ash were investigated .Figure 4 show a
relationship between the Cantabro loss and Flexural
FRCCP-60 24.81 20.13 17.64 12.41 strength of FRCCP. From Figure 4 it was clearly
observed that the Cantabro loss decreased with increase
in flexural Strength. Also Figure 4 illustrate that a strong
correlation existed between flexural strength and
Cantabro loss for FRCCP mixes. The correlation
equations are as follows:
, R2= 0.925 Eq. 2

Where, Cbl = Cantabro loss in %;
fc = Flexural Strength of FRCCP, MPa
(a) at 3 days
643
higher contents of aggregate microfines in Portland

cement concrete (No. Research Report).
International Center for Aggregates Research,
University of Texas at Austin
http://www.engr.utexas.edu/icar/publications/102_1
F/102_1cvr.pdf
[2] Neville, A. M., & Brooks, J. J. (1987). Concrete
technology. Harlow: Longman Scientific &
Technical. http://worldcat.org/isbn/0582988594
[3] ACI 325.10R-95(2000), State-of-the-art report on
roller-compacted concrete pavements, ACI Manual
of Concrete Practice, ACI, USA. 32 pp.
[4] Shi, Z. Q., & Chung, D. D. L. (1997). Improving
the abrasion resistance of mortar by adding latex
Fig. 4 Relation between Flexural Strength and % of
and carbon fibers. Cement and Concrete
Cantabro Loss of FRCCP Mixes
Research,27(8), 1149-1153. doi:10.1016/S0008-
8846(97)00097-5
5. Conclusions: [5] Gaedicke, C., Marines, A., & Miankodila, F. (2014).
From the experimental work carried out on FRCCP Assessing the abrasion resistance of cores in virgin
mixes, following conclusions were drawn: and recycled aggregate pervious concrete.
Construction and Building Materials, 68, 701-708.
1. In FRCCP mixes, flexural strength values
[6] Shu, X., Huang, B., Wu, H., Dong, Q., & Burdette,
decreased with increase in fly ash percentage
from 0% to 60%. E. G. (2011). Performance comparison of
2. The Cantabro loss of FRCCP mixes is laboratory and field produced pervious concrete
strongly influenced the flexural strength mixes. Construction and Building Materials, 25(8),
irrespective of fly ash content and amount of 3187-3192.
M-sand. [7] Dong, Q., Wu, H., Huang, B., Shu, X., & Wang, K.
3. The Cantabro loss of FRCCP mixes was found (2010). Development of a Simple and Fast Test
to increase with increase in curing age. Method for Measuring the Durability of Portland
4. The Cantabro test has clearly demarcated the
Cement Pervious Concrete.
FRCCP mixes having M-sand at all ages and at
all replacement levels of fly ash in terms of [8] Takada, Y., Nakayama, E., Sasaki, K., Suzuki, T.,
abrasion resistance values. Hence this test may Mori, S., & Kamada, O. (2015). Study of Mix
be recommended as one of the methods to Proportion and Quality Control of Porous Concrete
measure abrasion resistance of Roller Pavement Used on Urban Expressway Tunnel
Compacted Concrete Pavements. (Japanese Title:
). Journal of Japan
Society of Civil Engineers, Ser. E1 (Pavement
Engineering), 71, 19-35. doi: 10.2208/jscejpe.71.19
[9] Bonicelli, A., Giustozzi, F., & Crispino, M. (2015).
Paper Length Experimental study on the effects of fine sand
addition on differentially compacted pervious
The paper, including the title page, figures, tables
should be exactly 6 pages (not more and not less) and concrete. Construction and Building Materials, 91,
should be submitted online at the Sec-2016 website. 102-110. doi:10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2015.05.012
[10] IS 12269-1989 Specification for 53 grade OPC
Acknowledgments [11] IS: 4032-1977 Method of chemical analysis of
These and the Reference headings are in bold but hydraulic cement
have no numbers. Text below continues as normal. [12] IS 3812-1981 Indian Standard specification for fly
ash for use as pozzolana and admixture.
4 References
[13] IS 2386-1963 Methods of tests for aggregates for
[1] Ahn, N. S., & Fowler, D. W. (2001). An concrete
experimental study on the guidelines for using
644
[14] BIS:383 (1970), Specification for Coarse

aggregate and Fine aggregate from Natural Sources
for Concrete, Bureau of Indian Standard, New
Delhi
[15] Rao, S.K., P.Sravana, Rao,T.C.,(2015) Design and
analysis of Roller Compacted Concrete pavements
in low volume roads in India, i-Manager Journal
on Civil Engineering, Vol.5 No.2,
http://search.proquest.com/openview/40906774480
50e258c128b2f0432463b/1?pq- origsite=gscholar
[16] Rao, S.K., P.Sravana, Rao,T.C.,
(2015)Experimental Investigation on Pozzolanic
effect of fly ash in Roller compacted concrete
pavement using Manufactured Sand as fine
Aggregate ,Research India Publications
International Journal of Applied Engineering
Research, Vol.10 No.8,pp.20669-20682.
http://www.ripublication.com/ijaer10/ijaerv10n8_1
42.pdf
[17] Rao, S.K., P.Sravana, Rao,T.C.,(2015)
Investigation on pozzolanic effect of Fly ash in
Roller Compacted Concrete pavement, IRACST-
Engineering Science and Technology: An
International Journal (ESTIJ), Vol.5 No.2 , pp.202-
206.http://www.estij.org/papers/vol5no22015/1vol5
no2.pdf
[18] Rao, S. K., Sravana, P., & Rao, T. C. (2015).
Analysis on Strength and Fly Ash Effect of Roller
Compacted Concrete Pavement Using M-Sand. i-
Manager's Journal on Structural Engineering,
4(1),1,http://search.proquest.com/openview/c71338
3b6391b67fbee4212878b74dea/1?pq-
origsite=gscholar
[19] Rao, S. K., Sravana, P., & Rao, T. C. (2015).
Strength and Compaction Characteristics of Fly
Ash Roller Compacted Concrete. International
Journal of Scientific Research in Knowledge, 3(10),
260-269.
[20] BIS:516(1959), Methods of tests for strength of
concrete, Bureau of Indian Standard, New Delhi
[21] ASTM C1747/C1747M (2011)Standard Test
Method for Determining Potential Resistance to
Degradation of Pervious Concrete by Impact and
Abrasion, American Society of Testing and
Materials International.
[22] ACI 211 3R-02(2002), Guide for Selecting
Proportions for No Slump Concrete
645
AN EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION TO DETERMINE THE

PROPERTIES OF FLY ASH BASED GEOPOLYMERS AS PER
INDIAN STANDARDS
Suman Saha1, Rajasekaran C.2
1
Department of Civil Engineering, National Institute of Technology Karnataka, Surathkal, Mangalore-
575025, India
2
Department of Civil Engineering, National Institute of Technology Karnataka, Surathkal, Mangalore-
575025, India
Production of Ordinary Portland Cement requires huge quantity of natural resources and also releases
huge quantity of carbon - di -oxide into the atmosphere. Research efforts have been continuing to
establish geopolymer as an alternative cementitious material for the replacement of ordinary Portland
cement. This paper presents the study to find out the properties of fly ash based geopolymer paste and 28
days compressive strength of geopolymer mortar. Standard consistency, setting time of geopolymer paste
has been determined using Vicats apparatus (according to Indian Standards), which is followed for
cement paste, varying the concentration of sodium hydroxide solution from 6M to 16M. Results indicate
higher standard consistency, more time required for setting for fly ash based geopolymer than that of
cement paste. Compressive strength of the geopolymer paste and mortar specimen are increasing with the
increase of the concentration of sodium hydroxide solution and decreasing beyond 14M.
Keywords: Geopolymer, Standard consistency, Setting time, compressive strength, Paste, Mortar.
1 Introduction
Concrete is the most used construction material a broad range of materials characterized by chains or
next to water. Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) is main networks of inorganic molecules (Geopolymer Institute
ingredient of the concrete. At present scenario, usage of 2010). Geopolymer does not form calcium-silicate-
ordinary Portland cement becomes very high due to the hydrates (C-S-Hs) for matrix formation and strength,
huge demand of concrete as construction industry is but utilize the poly-condensation of silica and alumina
growing rapidly. The huge demand for concrete using precursors to attain structural strength. Two main
OPC has resulted in high volume of carbon-dioxide constituents of geopolymer are: source materials and
(CO2) emission, and leads to environmental problems alkaline liquids. The source materials should be rich in
continuously and also results huge depletion of natural silicon (Si) and aluminium (Al). They can be by-product
resources. The production process of OPC emits huge materials such as fly ash, silica fume, slag, rice husk
quantity of CO2 into the atmosphere. The cement ash, red mud, etc. Geopolymers are also unique in
manufacturing industries release approximately 1 tonne comparison to other alumino-silicate materials (e.g.
of carbon-di-oxide into the atmosphere to produce 1 alumino-silicate gels, glasses, and zeolites). The
tonne of OPC. This is approximately 5% to 7% CO2 mechanism of geopolymerization has been divided into
emissions of the global CO2 emissions [14]. Research three main stages: (i) Dissolution of oxide minerals
efforts are continuing throughout the world to find from the source materials (usually silica and alumina)
alternative binder materials for the production of under highly alkaline condition; (ii)
concrete. Geopolymer, results from the reaction transportation/orientation of dissolved oxide minerals
between materials, which are rich in Si or Al (e.g. fly followed by coagulation/gelation; (iii) poly-
ash, slag etc.) and alkali solutions (sodium hydroxide condensation to form 3-D network of silico-aluminates
and sodium silicate), is trying to consider as structures [14]. Based on the types of resultant chemical
replacement of cement in concrete. Geopolymer was bonding, three types of structures can be derived from
first introduced by Prof. Davidovits in 1978 to represent the 3-D alumino-silicate network: poly (sialate) (SiO
1
Research Scholar, sumansaha.civil@gmail.com
2
Assistant Professor, bcrajasekaran@nitk.ac.in
646
Suman Saha and Rajasekaran C
AlO), poly (sialate-siloxo) (SiOAlOSiO) and concentration of sodium hydroxide solution and
poly (sialate-disiloxo) (SiOAlOSiOSiO) [18]. concluded that the optimal concentration of NaOH
The schematic formation of geopolymer material is solution was 6M and observed that an increase in the
described as shown below [1]. curing temperature increased the compressive strength
[5]. Different curing conditions on the properties of high
calcium fly ash based geopolymer were investigated and
observed high early compressive strength for
temperature curing [15].
In this paper, an attempt has been made to
study the properties of fly ash based geopolymers by
varying the concentration of sodium hydroxide solution
and the ratio of sodium silicate solutions to the
A brief description of conceptual model of hydroxide solutions. To determine the properties of
geopolymerization was described as shown in the Fig. 1 geopolymer, casting of samples, test procedures etc has
[4]. been done as described in Indian Standards (IS - 4031),
which is followed to determine the properties of
ordinary Portland cement.
2 Experimental
2.1 Materials
In the present investigation, fly ash, locally
available sand, Alkali Solutions (combination of sodium
hydroxide solution and sodium silicate solution), and
water were used as materials for the preparation of
samples.
2.1.1 Fly Ash
Fly ash (FA) is a by - product waste material of
thermal power plants resulting from the combustion of
pulverized coal in the coal-fired furnaces. There are two
types of fly ash. For this research work, class F type of
fly ash was used.
2.1.2 Sand
The aggregate material which passes through
4.75 mm IS sieve and retained on 75 micron IS sieve is
termed as fine aggregate [19]. The sand used for the
experimental works is locally procured and conformed
Figure 1: Conceptual Model of Geopolymerization to grading zone II (IS: 383-1970) [6]. Table 1 represents
(Duxson et al., 2007) the properties of fine aggregates used in this study. Fig.
Investigation on the effect of silica and alumina contents 2 shows the particle size distribution of sand used for
on setting, phase development, and physical properties this experimental work.
of high calcium fly ash (Class C) based geopolymers
reveals that setting of geopolymer was accelerated with
the increase of both alumina and silica [16]. Whereas
setting time of fly ash based geopolymer with use of
potassium hydroxide (KOH) for different fly ash to
alkaline solution ratio reported that as the ratio
increases, the setting time decreases [18]. Study on the
mechanical and physical properties of fly ash based
geopolymer by varying solid to liquid ratio using
sodium hydroxide as the only activator was carried out
and reported optimum solid/ liquid ratio of 4 for getting
highest compressive strength [17]. Two different
temperatures (65C and 85C) as curing temperature
and three different durations (2 hrs, 5 hrs and 24 hrs) of
heat curing were used to determine the properties of Figure 2: Particle Size Distribution of Sand
class F type of fly ash based geopolymer varying the
647
Table 1: Properties of Fine Aggregates required to get penetration 5 mm to 7 mm from the

bottom of the vicat mould by the above said plunger. In
Characteristics Value this experimental investigation, the procedure to
Type Sand conduct the test was followed as mentioned at IS- 4031
Specific Gravity 2.67 (part 4) 1988 [8].
Fineness Modulus 2.78
Grading Zone II 2.2.2 Setting time
Initial setting time of cement paste is required
2.1.3 Alkali Solutions to delay the process of hydration or hardening.
A combination of sodium silicate solution and Final setting time of cement paste is the duration when
sodium hydroxide solution was chosen as the alkaline the cement paste completely loses its plasticity. It is
liquid. The Sodium Silicate (Na2SiO3) is available the duration taken for the cement paste to harden
commercially in solution form. The chemical sufficiently and gain the shape of the mould in which it
composition of sodium silicate is Na2O - 8.5%, SiO2 - is cast. Therefore, determination of initial and final
28.0% and Water - 63.5% by mass. The Sodium setting time of geopolymer paste is essential to use
Hydroxide (NaOH) is available commercially in flakes geopolymer concrete in real practices properly. Initial
or pellets form. For the present study, NaOH flakes with setting time should not be too less to allow time for
98% purity were used for the preparation of alkaline mixing, transporting and placing concrete. For
solution. In this study, ratio of sodium silicate solution determining setting times, quantity of alkaline solution
to sodium hydroxide solution was also varied and taken was taken as 0.85 times of standard consistency for the
as 1.0, 1.5 and 2.0. Alkali solution i.e. mixture of preparation of geopolymer paste sample. Vicat
sodium silicate and sodium hydroxide solution was apparatus was used again to find out the setting time.
prepared before 24 hours prior to use in mixes. For finding initial setting time, vicat apparatus with 1
mm diameter needle and for final setting time, vicat
2.1.4 Water apparatus with a needle having circular cutting edge 5
In the present investigation, distilled water was
mm in diameter and set of 0.5 mm behind the tip of the
used for the preparation of NaOH solution.
needle were used. In this study, the procedure to
2.1.5 Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) conduct the test was followed as mentioned at IS- 4031
Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) was used for (part 5) 1988 [9].
the purpose of comparison of the properties with
2.2.3 Compressive Strength
geopolymer paste and mortar. Ordinary Portland cement
Compressive Strength is one of the most
of grade 43 (UltraTech Cement) conforming to Indian important properties and it is determined to check
standard IS: 8112 - 1989 has been used [12]. The results whether the geopolymer mortar will be able to develop
of the various tests on cement properties are given in
required compressive strength of concrete. To determine
Table 2.
compressive strength of geopolymer paste, cubes having
dimension of 50 mm 50 mm 50 mm were cast and
Table 2: Properties of Ordinary Portland Cement
for mortar sample, cubes having 50 cm2 surface area
Characteristics Value were cast. Geopolymer mortar was produced by mixing
Normal Consistency 31% fly ash and sand at ratio 1:3. After de-moulding, cubes
Initial Setting Time 75 mins with paste and mortar were kept at room temperature for
Final Setting Time 190 mins curing. Cast samples were tested after 28 days of curing.
Fineness 1.43 % Tests to determine compressive strength was conducted
Compressive Strength at 28 Days according to IS- 4031 (part 6) 1988 [10].
Paste 51.6 MPa
Mortar 45.5 MPa
The results of experimental tests, which have
2.2 Methods been mentioned in the previous sections, are discussed
In this section, procedures to perform the test in the followings. All the above mentioned tests to find
to determine the properties of geopolymer paste and out the properties of geopolymer paste and mortar were
mortar have been discussed. conducted according to the specifications given in
Indian Standards, which are followed to find the
2.2.1 Standard Consistency properties of cement. Effects of the concentration of
The standard consistency of a binder paste i.e. sodium hydroxide solution and the ratio of sodium
cement paste is defined as that consistency which will silicate solution to sodium hydroxide solution have been
permit the vicat plunger of having dimension of 10 mm discussed.
diameter and 50 mm length to penetrate to a point 5 mm
to 7 mm from the bottom of the vicat mould. Here
standard consistency of geopolymer paste was
determined as the amount of alkaline solution
(expressed as the percentage by mass of dry fly ash)
648
3.1 Standard Consistency

Experimental results show higher value of
standard consistency of the geopolymer paste compared
to that of cement paste. Fig. 3 shows the values of
standard consistency of geopolymer paste produced
with the different concentration of sodium hydroxide
solutions and different ratios of sodium silicate solution
to sodium hydroxide solutions. From the experiment, it
has been seen that the range of the value of standard
consistency of geopolymer paste varies from 38% to
42% whereas standard consistency of cement paste is
31%. Therefore, to get geopolymer paste with normal
consistence, high amount of alkaline solution is Figure 4: Initial Setting Time of Geopolymer Paste
required. Setting of ordinary Portland cement is
associated with the formation of calcium silicate hydrate
gel (C-S-H). Like that geopolymer paste is typically
dependent on the formation of sodium aluminate silicate
hydrate gel (N-A-S-H) [19]. From the experiments, it is
clear that formation of sodium aluminate silicate
hydrate gel will be occurred when the quantity of
sodium silicate solution in alkaline solutions is high. As
a result, geopolymer paste produced with alkaline
solutions having high ratio of sodium silicate solution to
sodium hydroxide solution (in this study it is 2.0) shows
less durations for initial setting and final setting.
Figure 3: Standard Consistency of Geopolymer Paste
3.2 Setting Time

It has been observed from this experimental
investigation that initial and final setting time of
geopolymer paste both reduced with the increment of
the ratio of sodium silicate solution to sodium hydroxide
solution (SS/SH ratio). Fig. 4 shows the variation of
initial setting time (IST) and Fig. 5 represents the final
setting time (FST) of the geopolymer paste for different
concentration of sodium hydroxide solution and Figure 5: Final Setting Time of Geopolymer Paste
different ratio of sodium silicate to sodium hydroxide
solution. Initial setting time of geopolymer paste was
found to be in the range of 260 minutes to 480 minutes 3.3 Compressive Strength
and final setting time to be in the range of 1000 minutes Compressive strength of geopolymer paste
to 1600 minutes in this study. Therefore, with respect to (samples cured at ambient temperatures) was found to
the initial and final setting time of ordinary Portland be increasing trend while the concentration of sodium
cement paste, geopolymer paste requires more time for hydroxide solution was increased upto 14M.
initial set and final set. Most of the researchers Geopolymer paste samples, which were prepared with
concluded that geopolymer paste will show less 14M sodium hydroxide solution and the ratio of sodium
duration for setting and high strength with the heat silicate to sodium hydroxide solution 1.5, showed the
curing. highest compressive strength at 28 days. The variation
of compressive strength at 28 days of geopolymer paste
has been shown in Fig. 6.
649
Figure 8(a): Paste cubes Figure 8(b): Mortar

after compression test cubes after compression
test
Figure 6: Compressive Strength of Geopolymer Paste 4 Conclusions

at 28 days In this paper, experimental investigation to determine
Experimental results show increasing trend of the properties of fly ash based geopolymers are
compressive strength of geopolymer mortar (50 cm2 presented and discussed. From this investigation, the
cube samples cured at ambient temperatures) with the following conclusions can be drawn:
increment of the concentration of sodium hydroxide Standard consistency of geopolymer paste is
solution upto 14M. Geopolymer mortar samples, which higher than that of OPC paste. The range of
were prepared with 14M sodium hydroxide solution and standard consistency value of geopolymer paste
the ratio of sodium silicate to sodium hydroxide solution was found to be 38% to 42%.
1.5, showed the highest compressive strength at 28
days. Fig. 7 represents the compressive strength of Geopolymer paste requires more time to set.
geopolymer mortar for the different concentration of But geopolymer paste produced with high ratio
sodium hydroxide solutions and different ratios of of sodium silicate solution to sodium hydroxide
sodium silicate solution to sodium hydroxide solutions. solution took less time to be set. With
compared to OPC paste, geopolymer paste
needs more time for final set. In this study,
Initial setting time of geopolymer paste was
found to be in the range of 260 minutes to 480
minutes and final setting time to be in the range
of 1000 minutes to 1600 minutes. This time
range does not satisfy the limits given in Indian
Standards for OPC paste.
Highest compressive strength of 50.4 MPa after
28 days ambient curing has been observed for
geopolymer paste produced with sodium
hydroxide solution having concentration 14M
and ratio of sodium silicate solution to sodium
Figure 7: Compressive Strength of Geopolymer Mortar hydroxide solution as 1.5. Geopolymer mortar
at 28 days produced with sodium hydroxide solution
having concentration 14M and ratio of sodium
Compressive strength of geopolymer is silicate solution to sodium hydroxide solution
attributed by the formation of sodium aluminate silicate as 1.5 shows highest compressive strength of
hydrate gel (N-A-S-H) and poly-condensation to form 33.8 MPa after 28 days ambient curing.
3-D network of silico-aluminates structures. Therefore,
from this study it can be stated that with ambient curing, Increase in compressive strength of fly ash
combination of 14M sodium hydroxide solution with based geopolymer paste and mortar has been
the ratio of sodium silicate solution to sodium hydroxide observed with the increase of the concentration
solution of value 1.5 helps to form sufficient sodium of sodium hydroxide solution upto 14M. But,
aluminate silicate hydrate gel (N-A-S-H) and leads to compressive strength is found to be in
poly-condensation. As a result, stable 3-D network of decreasing trend while the concentration of
silico-aluminates is produced to provide high strength to sodium hydroxide solution is beyond 14M.
the fly ash based geopolymer. Cube samples of Using fly ash (a by-product of thermal power station) to
geopolymer paste and geopolymer mortar after produce geopolymer, will help to control the usage of
compression test are shown in Fig. 8 (a) & Fig. 8 (b) OPC, solve the dumping problems of by product
respectively. materials, reduce environmental problems etc. But,
650
there is an immense need to study how to reduce the [11] IS: 456 - 2000. Code of practice for plain and
setting time of geopolymer with ambient curing. reinforced concrete. Bureau of Indian Standards,
New Delhi.
Acknowledgments [12] IS: 8112 - 1989. 43 grade ordinary Portland

cement - Specification. Bureau of Indian
The authors would like to thank Mr. Shivaprasad K. Standards, New Delhi.
N. for his help to do work in laboratory and Department
of Civil Engineering of National Institute of Technology [13] Neville A. M., Properties of concrete, 4th edition,
John Wiley & Sons Inc., New York,1997
Karnataka, Surathkal for the support to conduct this
research. [14] P. De Silva, K. Sagoe-Crenstil, V. Sirivivatnanon.
Kinetics of geopolymerization: Role of Al2O3 and
SiO2. Cement and Concrete Research, vol. 37, pp.
References
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[1] Davidovits J. Properties of geopolymer cements
[15] Pattanapong, T., Chindaprasirt, P., and Sata, V.
alkaline cements and concretes. Kiev, Ukraine;
Setting Time, Strength, and Bond of High-Calcium
1994.
Fly Ash Geopolymer Concrete. Journal of
[2] Davidovits, J. Geopolymers: inorganic Polymeric Materials in Civil Engineering, vol. 27(7):
New Materials. Journal of Thermal Analysis, vol. 04014198, 2015.
37, pp. 1633 1656, 1991.
[16] Prinya Chindaprasirt, Pre De Silva, Kwesi Sagoe-
[3] Davidovits, J. 30 Years of Successes and Failures Crentsil, Sakonwan Hanjitsuwan. Effect of SiO2
in Geopolymer Applications. Market Trends and and Al2O3 on the setting and hardening of high
Potential Breakthroughs. Geopolymer 2002 calcium fly ash-based geopolymer systems. Journal
Conference, October 28-29, 2002, Melbourne, of Material Sciencs, vol. 47, pp. 48764883, 2012.
Australia.
[17] Rahim, A., Rosniza H., Khairun A. A., Zakaria M.,
[4] Duxson, P., Fernandez-Jimenez, A., Provis, J. L., T. Rahmiati, and Lukman I. Effect of Solid to
Lukey, G. C., Palomo, A., and van Deventer, J. S. J. Liquid Ratio on the Mechanical and Physical
Geopolymer technology: the current state of the art. Properties of Fly Ash Geopolymer without Sodium
Journal of Materials Science. vol. 42, pp. 2917 Silicate. In Applied Mechanics and Materials, vol.
2933, 2007. 625, pp. 46-49, 2014.
[5] Gorhan, G., and Kurklu, G. The influence of the [18] Rahmiati, T., Khairun A. A., Zakaria M., Lukman I.,
NaOH solution on the properties of the fly ash- and Muhd F. N. Effect of Solid/liquid ratio during
based geopolymer mortar cured at different curing time fly ash based geopolymer on
temperatures. Composites: Part B, vol. 58, pp. 371 mechanical property. In Materials Science Forum,
377, 2014. vol. 803, 2014.
[6] IS: 383-1970. Specifications for coarse and fine [19] Shetty MS. Concrete Technology - Theory and
aggregates from natural sources of concrete. Bureau Practice. Ram Nagar, New Delhi, India: S. Chand
of Indian Standards, New Delhi. & Company Ltd.; 2003.
[7] IS: 4031 (Part 1) 1996. Method of Physical Tests [20] Worldwide increase in geopolymer research.
for Hydraulic Cements (Part 1: Determination of http://www.geopolymer.org/. Date accessed: 05 /
fineness of cement by dry sieving). Bureau of 12 / 2015.
Indian Standards, New Delhi.
[8] IS: 4031 (Part 4) 1988. Method of Physical Tests
for Hydraulic Cements (Part 1: Determination of of
Consistency of Standard Cement Paste). Bureau of
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for Hydraulic Cements (Part 1: Determination of
Initial and Final Setting Times). Bureau of Indian
for Hydraulic Cements (Part 1: Determination of
Compressive Strength of Hydraulic Cement other
than Masonry Cement). Bureau of Indian Standards,
New Delhi.
651
DEVELOPMENT OF BIO-DEGRADABLE ACOUSTIC

PANELS FROM WATER HYACINTH FIBER
B.Dhayalini1, Dr.R.Senthil 2
1
Structural Engineering Division, Dept. of Civil Engineering, Anna University, Chennai 600025, India
2
Structural Engineering Division, Dept. of Civil Engineering, Anna University, Chennai 600025, India
Now-a-days noise pollution has created various discomforts among people. The demand for better and pleasing
environment has led to the development of sound insulation and noise control technology. The acoustic panels which
are widely used made out of foam, rock wool and glass wool are known for its efficient sound absorption property. But
those products are not only highly expensive but also highly toxic and affect human health and environment. This has
let many researchers to find better sustainable substitute for the synthetic fibers in the view of sound absorption. The
aim of this paper is to analyse the sound absorption property of the water hyacinth fiber composite panels. Composites
of thickness of 15mm and 25mm with fiber content 20%, 30%, 40% and 50% were tested separately for its sound
absorption co-efficient to graph the influence sample thickness and fiber content in sound absorption property.
Keywords: Composites, Water hyacinth, Sound absorption co-efficient, acoustic panels
1
Student, dhaya_civil@yahoo.in
2
Professor, senthilr@annauniv.edu
652
B.Dhayalini and R. Senthil
1 Introduction and 25mm thick are prepared. Six such samples were
prepared with varying percentage of rice husk amount
In developing countries like India, the widespread
i.e., 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 25% and 30%. It was
use of acoustic panels made out of glass fibers has a
observed that higher value of absorption co-efficient in
tendency to decline because of their high-initial costs,
most of the samples at 2.5 kHz. The highest sound
their use in non-efficient structural forms and most
absorption coefficient number was obtained for 25%
importantly their adverse environmental impact. It has
rice husk and the lowest sound absorption coefficient
therefore become necessary to find new paths and
was obtained for 15% of rice husk. From this result it is
methods of development that will not have adverse
evident that mere increase in the percentage of fiber
impact on environment. On the other hand, the increase
content will not result in good sound absorption. From
interest in using natural fibers as substitute to
this study it can be noted that the panel thickness, fiber
conventional synthetic fibers in sound absorption
to binder ratio influence the sound absorption in large
applications has become very popular. This sets our aim
extent.
to find alternative sound absorption materials, such as
substitutes for synthetic materials which have
comparable quality and are biodegradable and 2.2 Sugar Bagasse Fibers
renewable.
In Ref. [5] they have studied the performance of
Agricultural fibers like bamboo fibers, jute fibers,
sugarcane waste fibers in the building acoustics. The
banana fibers, coir fibers, kenaf fibers, hemp etc., have
sugarcane waste fiber used in this research was 11-
been proved that it can be used as good sound absorber.
23m. The fiber was cut into 5 to 10mm length and
However, when the demand for these fibers increase,
made into round samples of diameter 33mm and
their cultivation may compete with the water and land
thickness half inch by hot pressing. The binder used was
resources which should be used for food production.
polyurethane and polyester. The various ratio of weight
This may be reduced by concentrating on agricultural
of the fiber to binder taken were 90:10, 80:20, 70:30 and
waste fibers and other non-agricultural fibers like water
60:40. The weight of the fiber used was 1 gram and 3
hyacinth fibers.
gram. The samples of 0.5 inch thick with fiber weight
In Ref. [1], the author has stated that water hyacinth
1gm were tested for its absorption co-efficient for the
has been labeled as the worlds worst water weed and
sound of frequency range 500 Hz to 4500 Hz. The
has garnered increasing international attention as an
results show that the composition of binder (up to 40%)
invasive species. In Ref. [2] it was stated that large
does not significantly affect the performance of sound
water hyacinth mats prevent the transfer of oxygen from
absorption. Good performance of sound absorption co-
the air to the water surface, or decrease oxygen
efficient that is more than 0.5 is shown for frequency
production by other plants and algae. In spite of
above 3.5 kHz. The absorption coefficient increases
prevailing so many mechanical techniques to remove
until it reaches the value of 0.78 at 4.5 kHz. This applies
this plant, this weed spreads very rapidly. Chemical
for both types of binders polyurethane and polyester. To
control of this weed not only depletes this but also
increase the fiber density, the thickness was kept
affects the other biodiversities of the water body. Hence,
constant as 0.5 inch while the fiber weight is increased
research into the utilization and related technologies for
to 3 grams. It is found that composition of 70:30 gives
the control of water hyacinth have been tested over the
the best acoustic performance with absorption co-
last few decades [Ref. [3]]. Effective use of this water
efficient more than 0.5 for frequency 1000 to 4500 Hz.
hyacinth fiber in the polymer composite is been studied
by so my researchers in recent days. Here in this paper
the sound absorption property of this water hyacinth 2.3 Kenaf Fibers
fiber composite has been focused in particular. This
In Ref. [6] they have studied the sound absorption
helps not only in finding better bio-degradable
behaviour of novel sustainable fibrous materials Sound
substitute for glass fiber in acoustic panels but also
absorbing layers made of natural fibers and of recycled
helps to control water hyacinth weed.
raw materials have been tested in the reverberation
room of the Acoustics Laboratory of the University of
2 Literature Review Perugia according to ISO 354 standard, in order to
quantify their sound absorption properties and to make a
comparison with traditional fibrous sound absorbers.
2.1 Rice Husk
They have also analysed the parameters affecting the
In Ref. [4], they have investigated the performance sound diffusivity. From the experiment they concluded
of rice husk waste in sound absorption. To analyse how room shape and sample disposition are the main
the rice husk density in polymer composite influence parameters affecting the sound diffusivity. Two different
the sound absorption, six samples with different novel fibrous materials were tested in reverberation
percentage of rice husk in polyurethane binder were room. The first ones were sound absorbing blankets of
tested and it is found that the sample with 25% rice husk kenaf fibers assembled in semi-rigid panels without
waste performed well in absorbing sound efficiently. using adhesives. Small percentages of polyester (8-
The samples of 100mm diameter and 28mm diameter 10 %) and of a fireproof additive have been added and
653
then the components have been thermo-bonded. The In ref. [8] they have studied the factors of the coir
second tested samples were sound absorbing blankets of fiber composite which will have adverse effect on the
recycled polyester (PET) fibers. These are made of sound absorption behaviour. In elaborate they have
100% polyester fibers obtained from a recycling process studied various parameters which will have positive and
of PET bottles. The thickness and density of the samples negative effect on the sound absorption. They have
were 50mm and 30kg/m3. The kenaf samples show an stated from their research that coir fiber diameter and
averaged absorption coefficient equal to 0.85 in the 500- layer thickness of the composite have notable effect on
5000 Hz range and equal to 0.65 in the 100 5000 Hz the acoustic behaviour whereas bulk density has very
range, while for the recycled polyester blankets the minor influence in sound absorption. This paper has
measured mean values are respectively 0.91 and 0.71. proved strongly that choosing the fiber properly and
fixing prompt physical parameter will increase the
sound absorption efficiency of the fiber composite.
2.4 Bamboo Fibers
They have considered both the fresh coir fiber and
In Ref. [7] it is shown that they developed a sound industrially made coir fibers for their research. Fresh
absorbing material using natural bamboo fibers. In this coir fiber in the sense the natural coir fiber is collected
paper, normal incidence sound absorption coefficient of directly sun dried and not processed. This means the
bamboo fiber material was measured at the influences of sample contains even matrix granular part. Industrial
thickness, air space depth, apparent density and the coir fiber means it was industrially manufactured using
bamboo fiber diameter. They have also attempted to find binder and collected in rectangular forms and cut into
the best combination of samples of different densities to circular disc for impedance tube testing. Also the effect
improve the sound absorption. A fiberboard was made of factors like fiber layer thickness, bulk density, fiber
using the bamboo fiber to create the surface material of diameter were studied. To analyse in detail the effect of
the bamboo fiber material, and was compared with layer thickness, samples of different thickness like
plywood of the same density. The bamboo fiber of 90- 20mm, 30mm and 45mm were taken for testing. The
125 m, 12.5210 m, and 210-425 m fiber diameters nature fiber showed an absorption co-efficient of 0.8 for
was taken. The sound absorption coefficient for 25 mm, the sample thickness 20mm at the sound frequency
50 mm, and 75 mm thick material is 0.9, 0.98 and 0.99 greater than 1360 Hz, for 30mm at frequency greater
respectively. The sound absorption co-efficient of the than 940 Hz and for 45mm thick sample a frequency
material found to be increased with increase in thickness greater than 578 Hz. But the industrial fiber showed an
of the sample. By the experiments conducted, they have average absorption co-efficient of 0.65 to 0.8 for
proved that, by providing air gap inside and behind the samples of all thickness. From the result it is well
board have showed that maximum sound absorption observed that with the increase in layer thickness
value moves from high to low frequency range. As they increase the sound absorption in lower frequency. That
measured the absorption co-efficient for samples with it with increase in sample layer thickness there is
different thickness, they have even varied the density of considerable shift of the peak absorption co-efficient
the bamboo fibers and measured the absorption co- value towards lower frequency of sound. They have also
efficient to validate the influence of the fiber density in concluded that long dissipative process of viscosity and
the performance of the sound absorbing material. The thermal conduction in the fluid inside the material are
sound absorption coefficient for the material with the reasons for good sound absorption in samples of
apparent densities of 80 kg/m3, 120 kg/m3, and 160 larger thickness. Also it was noticed that the fresh coir
kg/m3 are 0.7, 0.98 and 0.99 respectively for sound of sample behaved well than the industrial coir sample for
frequency 2000 Hz. From the resultant graph they have same layer thickness.
provided, it was found that the peak absorption co-
efficient found to drops for the frequency range 2kHz to
2.6 Paddy Straw Fibers
3kHz and again reaches maximum peak value for
frequency 4kHz. It is clear from this the absorption co- In Ref. [9] they have done research on utilization of
efficient decreases in high frequency range. This will natural waste fibers from paddy as acoustic material.
clearly explain because of reducing the air gap the They found that, the paddy fibers are found to have
performance was not good in high frequency range. To good acoustic performance with normal incidence
find the influence of the diameter of the bamboo fiber, absorption coefficient greater than 0.5 from 1000 Hz
samples with diameters 90-125m, 125-210m and and can reach the average value of 0.8 above 2500 Hz.
210-425m were tested for sound absorption. It was This result is comparable against that of the commercial
found that, the absorption co-efficient increases with synthetic glass wool. They found that attachment of a
decrease in diameter. For validating the result, the single layer of polyester fabric is shown to further
absorption co-efficient of bamboo fiber with increase the absorption coefficient. The samples for
density120kg/m3 was compared with the glass fiber impedance tube test were made out of paddy panicle
with density 32kg/m3. It was found that the bamboo fibers and polyurethane as binder. The ratio by weight
fibers performed equivalent to the glass fibers. of fiber and binder was set 9:1 and hot pressed to form
the sample of diameter 33mm and thickness of 10mm
and 12mm. The experiment for measurement of sound
2.5 Coir Fibers
654
absorption co-efficient was done according to ISO 3.3 Fabrication of Water Hyacinth Fiber Composite
10534-2:2001. Impedance tube test result showed the
The binder used here is Urea Formaldehyde. We
absorption co-efficient of 10mm thick sample with 3
used the resin in powder form so that the moisture
gram fiber was good (i.e. >0.5) for sound frequency 3
content can be maintained in minimum level. The
kHz. They found that this good sound absorption in
prepared water hyacinth fiber and resin were mixed
higher frequency behaviour is similar to the coir fiber
thoroughly in blender with addition of 10% water. The
behaviour in high frequency sound. They found that
well mixed mixture was placed the hot compressing
doubling the thickness of the sample with same quantity
machine dye and pressed with the pressure of 20kg/cm2
of fiber that is increasing the volume of the sample, the
simultaneously heating to a temperature of about 1350C.
absorption co-efficient was increased for frequency of
Both the pressure and heat was maintained for 1 hour
sound below 3500Hz. This shows that the pores play an
and the sample was removed. Sample set (1) size was
important role in the sound energy loss. This paper
200mmx200mmx15mm and sample set (2) size was
showed the importance of taking into account the
200mmx200mmx25mm. The fabrication process was
thickness and fiber density of the sample for sound
shown in the Fig. 1, Fig. 2, Fig. 3, Fig. 4 and Fig. 5.
absorption in higher and lower frequency. They showed
that there is no linear relationship between fiber density
and absorption co-efficient. Increasing the fiber amount
eventually create more close pores which increase the
flow resistivity but decrease the absorption co-efficient.
They found there was an improvement in the sound
absorption phenomena when air layer is introduced
between rigid wall and the panel.
With the limited review of prevailing literature, we
found that many factors like moisture content, fiber
diameter, composite density, fiber density, sample
thickness etc., influence the sound absorption property.
Here in this paper we have considered the factors fiber Figure 1: Placing the Mixture in the Dye
content and sample thickness and their influence over
the acoustic behavior of the composite.
3 Materials and Methods

In this study we have used water hyacinth fiber as
filler material and Urea formaldehyde resin as binder.
3.1 Preparation of the Fiber

The fresh water hyacinth plants were collected from
Adyar river near Ramapuram, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, Figure 2: Placing the Dye in Machine
India. Only the stems were used for the research. The
collected stems of the water hyacinth plant were washed
thoroughly and sun dried for 10 days. Then the dried
stems were cut into small pieces of approximately
50mm length and oven dried at 800C for about 12 hours.
Finally the dried water hyacinth stems were grinder in
variable rotor to get fine fibers of length approximately
15mm
3.2 Sample Details

Two sets of samples were prepared. Sample set (1)
with thickness 15mm and sample set (2) with thickness Figure 3: Fixing the Pressure and Temperature
25mm. In sample set (1) the thickness was fixed as
15mm and four samples sample (1.1), sample (1.2),
sample (1.3), sample (1.4) were made with fiber content 3.5 Measurement of Sound Absorption
20%, 30%, 40% and 50% respectively. In sample (2) the The sound absorption is measured in terms of
thickness was fixed as 25mm and four samples sample sound absorption co-efficient (). Sound absorption co-
(2.1), sample (2.2), sample (2.3), sample (2.4) were efficient it the fraction of Sound Energy absorbed by a
made with fiber content 20%, 30%, 40% and 50% material. It is expressed as a value between 0 and 1.
respectively. Absorption co-efficient 0 represents no absorption that
655
is total reflection and absorption co-efficient 1 0.8

represents perfect absorption that is no reflection.
Sound Absorption Co-efficient

0.7
The sound absorption co-efficient was measured 0.6
using impedance tube. For ease to use in impedance 0.5

tube two circles were cut from each sample with
0.4
diameter 99.5mm and 29.5mm
0.3
Sample 2.1 (20%)

0.2
sample 2.2 (30%)
4 Results and Discussion 0.1 Sample 2.3 (40%)
Sample 2.4 (50%)
0
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000
Frequency of Sound in Hz
0.7
Figure 5: Comparison of Sound Absorption Co-
0.6
efficient of Sample Set (II) (Sample thickness 25mm)
Sound Absorption Co-efficient
0.5
Figure 5 clearly shows that increase in thickness
0.4 increases the sound absorption co-efficient. But the
0.3
graph pattern was very similar to that of sample set (I).
That is with the increase in fiber content the peak
0.2 Sample 1.1 (20%) absorption co-efficient moves towards lower sound
sample 1.2 (30%)
0.1 Sample 1.3 (40%) frequency range. But the increase in sample thickness
Sample 1.4 (50%) that is 25mm has resulted in high sound absorption c-
0
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000
Frequency of Sound in Hz
6000 7000 efficient. Here also the peak sound absorption co-
efficient value 0.74 was observed in sample (2.3) with
Figure 4: Comparison of Sound Absorption Co-
fiber content 40%. for sound frequency 2000Hz. Also in
efficient of Sample Set (I) (Sample thickness 15mm)
this set of samples the sound insulation behavior was
not so good in lower sound frequency
Fig 4 demonstrates the comparison of sound
absorption of the sample (1.1), sample (1.2), sample
(1.3) and sample (1.4) with varying fiber content of 5 Conclusion
20%, 30%, 40% and 50%. Here the sample thickness is
15mm. It is clear from the graph that with the increase Water hyacinth fiber will be a good substitute
in fiber content the peak absorption co-efficient moves for the synthetic fibers in acoustic panels. This
towards lower sound frequency range. This may be due will also be a good alternative technique to
to the fact that more the fiber the sound absorption will reduce this water weed.
be good even in low frequency range. Also from the With the thickness 25mm, the composite with
graph it can be inferred that mere increase in fiber 40% fiber content behaved appreciably in
content will not show increase in sound absorption. sound insulation measuring sound absorption
Because the samples with 40% fiber content showed co-efficient of 0.74 for sound frequency
good sound absorption than that of the sample with 50% 2000Hz. This is a good comparable value with
fiber content. This shows that sound absorption co- the prevailing glass fiber acoustic panels.
efficient does not vary linearly with increase in fiber It is also observed that its behavior in lower
content. As found in other bio-fiber composite, in water frequency range i.e.,100Hz to 500hz is not
hyacinth fiber composite too the pores in the composite comparable with the glass fiber acoustic panels
structure plays vital role in the mechanism of sound Mere increase in fiber content does not
absorption. It is due to the fact that in the sample with increase the sound absorption co-efficient.
50% fiber content, the fibers will be more close The composite structure also influences the
removing the prevailing pores it does not show better sound absorption property. The porous
sound insulation than the sample with 40% fiber structure holds good sound absorbing property.
content. In the sample set (I), peak absorption co-
efficient value 0.62 was measure in sample (1.3) i.e., 6 Future Thrust
sample with 40% fiber content for sound frequency Any improvement techniques tike introducing
2000Hz. But from the Figure 1, it can be observed that air gap between the composite layers, covering
the sample behaved good in sound insulation only from the composite by fabric, making perforations
the sound frequency 1000Hz. That is its sound on the composite surface etc can be tried to
insulation was much appreciable for low frequency improve the sound absorption in lower sound
sound (100 to 500Hz). frequency range.
Usage of urea formaldehyde has some
limitation like emission of formaldehyde
vapor. So alternative binders can be tried.
656
Even bio resins like soya resins can be used as [9] Putra, A., Abdullah, Y., Efendy, H., Mohamad, W.
alternative binders. M. F. W. and Salleh, N.L., Biomass from Paddy
Other factors like fiber density, fiber diameter, Waste Fibers as Sustainable Acoustic Material,
fiber length can be varied and their influence Advances in Acoustics and Vibration, 2013
in sound absorption can be studied.
Further research can be done to estimated
probable life of the panel. Also the research
may be extended to find protective coatings
and treatment which will increase the lifespan
of the panel without affecting the sound
absorption property.
References
[1] Yuan-Ye Zhang, Da-Yong zhang and Spencer, C.

H., Barrett, Genetic uniformity characterizes the
invasive spread of water hyacinth (Eichhornia
crassipes), a clonal aquatic plant, Molecular
Ecology , pp. 17741786, 2010.
[2] Villamagna, A. M., Murphy, B. R., Ecological and
socio-economic impacts of invasive water hyacinth
(Eichhornia crassipes): a review, Freshwater
Biology, Volume 55, Issue 2, pp. 282298,
February 2010.
[3] Ndimele, P., Kumolu-Johnson, C. and Anetekhai,

M. 2011. The invasive aquatic macrophyte, water
hyacinth {Eichhornia crassipes (Mart.) Solm-
Laubach: Pontedericeae}: problems and prospects.
Research Journal of Environmental Science, ISSN
1819-3412, pp. 509 520, 2011.
[4] Mahzan, S., Ahmad Zaidi1, A.M., Ghazali, M.I.,
Yahya, M.N. and Ismail, M., Investigation on
Sound Absorption of Rice-Husk Reinforced
Composite, Proceedings of MUCEET2009
Malaysian Technical Universities Conference on
Engineering and Technology, June 20-22, 2009.
[5] Putra, A., Abdullah, Y., Efendy, H., Farid, W.M.,
Ayob, M.R. and Muhammad Sajidin Py, Utilizing
sugarcane wasted fibers as a sustainable acoustic
absorber. Procedia Engineering, pp.632-638, 2013.
[6] Francesco DAlessandro and Giulio Pispola, Sound
Absorption Properties of Sustainable Porous
Materials in an Enhanced Reverberation Room, The
2005 Congress and Exposition on Noise Control
Engineering, Brazil, 2005.
[7] Koizumi, T., Tsujiuchi, N and Adachi, A., The
development of sound absorbing materials using
natural bamboo fibers, High Performance Structure
and Composites, 2002.
[8] Mohd Jailani Mohd Nor, Nordin Jamaludin and
Fadzlita Mohd Tamiri, A preliminary study of
sound absorption using multi-layer coconut coir
fibers Technical Acoustics,
657
EFFECT OF ADDITION OF FLYASH AND SUPERPLASTICIZER

ON ULTRA-FINE SLAG BASED GEOPOLYMER MORTAR
Sulaem Musaddiq Laskar1, Sudip Talukdar2

1,2
Geopolymer is a promising sustainable supplementary cementitious material in construction industry.

Researchers have found it to have strong potential for replacing the Portland cement in mortar and
concrete. The present study reports experimental works performed on geopolymer mortar prepared from
ultra-fine ground granulated blast furnace slag. Geopolymer mixes were prepared with alkali activator
composed of sodium hydroxide solution and addition of certain admixtures such as flyash and
superplasticizer. The mixes were tested to study properties such as setting time, workability and strength.
Addition of flyash to slag based geopolymer was advantageous in terms of setting time and workability
performance. However, very high amount of flyash in the mix caused significant reduction in strength.
Superplasticizer also modified the properties of geopolymer mixes at fresh and hardened state. High
dosage of superplasticizer caused deterioration of performance of geopolymer mix.
Keywords: Ultra-fine ground granulated blast furnace slag, flyash, superplasticizer, setting time,
workability, compressive strength.
1. Introduction addition of lignosulphonate admixture to geopolymer

improved workability however, it retarded strength
Geopolymer is an emerging sustainable
development.
supplementary cementitious material in construction
Activators of various types have been used for
industry. Till date, numerous research works have been
geopolymerisation process in both isolated and
carried out to understand the behaviour of geopolymeric
combined form [1, 2, 4, 19-22]. Researchers found
systems in terms of workability, strength, durability, etc.
alkali metal silicates and/or hydroxides to be the most
[1-8]. Geopolymers have capacity of sustaining strength
suitable. However, alkali silicates are expensive, they
when exposed to high temperature of order 800 C [9].
cause shortening of setting time and reduce workability
The compressive and bond strength; and abrasion
[22]. Hence, to get rid of such disadvantages alkali
resistance of geopolymeric systems are superior to
metal hydroxides can be better alternative. Sodium
Portland cement (PC) based ones [10]. While some of
hydroxide (SH) activated geopolymer can attain higher
the geopolymers have to be cured at elevated
strength compared to sodium silicate (SS) activated
temperature for attaining strength, slag based
geopolymer when cured at ambient temperature [11].
geopolymer can gain strength even when cured at
Carbon footprint of alkali metal hydroxide based
ambient temperature [11, 12].
geopolymer is lower than alkali metal silicate based
Ultra-fine slag have been successfully employed to
ones [23].
produce geopolymeric systems of superior performance.
Till date, inadequate investigations were performed
Such geopolymer can gain sufficient strength at early
on SH activated ultra-fine ground granulated blast
ages [2, 13]. Ultra-fine materials also help to exhibit
furnace slag (UGGBS) based geopolymer. Such
better durability performance [2, 14]. However, mortar
geopolymeric systems have very low setting time and
or concrete prepared by ultra-fine material exhibit lower
workability. Therefore, an attempt has been made in this
setting time and workability compared to the mortar or
study to investigate the setting time, workability and
concrete prepared with same binder of lower fineness
strength behaviour of UGGBS based geopolymer.
[15].
Effect of addition of FA and SP on fresh and hardened
To modify the setting behaviour and workability of
state properties of geopolymer mortar have been
geopolymer mixes, researchers have performed series of
investigated through series of laboratory experiments.
experiments by adding various types of chemical
admixtures to geopolymer mixes [16]. Douglas and
Brandstetr [17] added very high amount of 2. Materials and method
superplasticizer (SP) to slag based geopolymer and
UGGBS available indigenously was used as primary
found that workability improved, but the strength
binding agent in the geopolymer mixes. Class F FA
reduced when compared to the strength of geopolymer
obtained from thermal power plant at Farakka, India
consisting no SP. Bakharev et al. [18] found that
1
PhD Scholar, Email: sulaem@iitg.ernet.in
2
Professor, Email: s.taluk@iitg.ernet.in
658
Sulaem Musaddiq Laskar and Sudip Talukdar
was used as an additive. Physical and chemical Prior to casting of geopolymer mortar specimens,
properties of UGGBS and FA are given in Table 1. alkali activator was prepared. SH solution was prepared
Physical properties such as median particle size and by mixing SH pellets with distilled water as per desired
specific surface area have been evaluated by Laser molarity 24 hours before the casting of specimens and
particle size analyzer and specific gravity by laboratory then allowed to cool. Before addition of alkali activator
experiment as per Indian Standard (IS) [24]. Chemical to the mortar mixes, UGGBS, FA and fine aggregates
property i.e. oxide composition has been determined by were manually mixed dry thoroughly for 2 minutes.
X-ray Fluorescence Spectrometer (XRF). Later, to this dry mix, alkali activator was added and
further mixed for 3 minutes. SP was added to the mix
Table 1: Chemical and physical properties of binder after addition of alkali activator. For geopolymer pastes
Chemical composition UGGBS FA preparation for conducting setting time tests, similar
(% mass) procedure and mix proportions were maintained as that
Silicon dioxide (SiO2) 33.6 55.47 of corresponding geopolymer mortar excluding fine
Aluminium oxide (Al2O3) 22.5 25.37 aggregate addition.
Ferric oxide (Fe2O3) 1.3 6.2 Cube specimens of size 50 mm 50 mm 50 mm
Calcium oxide (CaO) 34.0 6.24 were used to perform compressive strength test of
Magnesium oxide (MgO) 6.8 1.55 geopolymer mortar. Fresh geopolymer mortars were
Sulphur oxide (SO3) 0.15 0.9 placed into cubes in two layers, each layer being tamped
Physical properties 25 times by tamping rod. Later, these were placed under
Specific gravity 2.84 2.42 ambient temperature of 20 2 C. After 24 hours of
Median particle sized d50(m) 3.579 26.33 casting, the cubes were demolded and completely
Specific surface area (cm2/g) 30100 8940 submerged inside water tank maintaining temperature of
20 2 C and stored till the arrival of test day.
In this paper, UGGBS and FA are together referred The provisions mentioned in IS [24] were adopted
as total binding agent. Commercially available SH for performing setting time tests of geopolymer pastes
pellets were used to prepare the alkali activator. SH using Vicat apparatus, workability test and compressive
solution of required concentration was prepared by strength tests of geopolymer mortar. For assessing
mixing SH pellets having 97-98% purity with distilled workability property of fresh geopolymer mortars, flow
water. Alluvial sand conforming to zone III of IS [25] table test was conducted immediately after mixing the
having specific gravity of 2.69 and water absorption of mortar ingredients. The results are indicated in terms of
1.7% was used as fine aggregate. Polycarboxylate ether flow index as given below:
based SP were used in the study.
FD - ID
Table 2 presents the mix proportion of geopolymer FI = 100 (1)
mortar mixes prepared as per IS [24] to study the effect ID
of addition of FA of varying amounts of 20, 30, 40 and
50% by weight of total binding agent in the mortar; and where, FI is the flow index in percent. FD is the average
addition of SP of varying amounts of 0.5, 1.5 and 3% by final base diameter of mortar mass measured on four
weight of total binding agent in the mortar. The ratio of diameters after jolting as per the codal provisions, ID is
total binding agent to fine aggregate was 1:3 [24]. the original base diameter, which is 100 mm.
Alkali activator to binding agent ratios (a/b) of 0.6 was Compressive strength tests were conducted on the cube
selected for preparing the mixes. Concentration of SH specimens at 7, 28 and 91 days to assess the strength of
solution was 10 molar (M). Mixes M1 to M5 were the geopolymer mortars at both early and later ages.
tested to observe the effect of addition of FA of varying Field emission scanning electron microscopic
amounts to the UGGBS based geopolymer. M3, M6, (FESEM) images of UGGBS, FA, combination of 80%
M7 and M8 were tested for finding the effect of addition UGGBS and 20% FA; and 50% UGGBS and 50% FA
of SP of varying amounts to the UGGBS based were obtained.
geopolymer.
3. Results and discussions
Table 2: Mix proportion (kg)
Addition of FA to the mixes retarded the setting
Mix UGGBS FA SP dosage (%)
time (see Table 3). Gradual increase in setting time
M1 100 0 0 occurred with the increase in FA content. This
M2 80 20 0 phenomenon is due to the fact that unlike UGGBS, FA
M3 70 30 0 cannot form geopolymerisation products instantly at
M4 60 40 0 early stages when subjected to curing at ambient
M5 50 50 0 temperature [12, 26], thereby delaying the setting of the
M6 70 30 0.5 mixes. Moreover, since FA particles are spherical
M7 70 30 1.5 shaped as seen in Fig. 1, its addition allowed better
M8 70 30 3 mobility of particles in the mixes which eventually
contributed to delay of setting time. However, the
increase was more pronounced in mixes with FA
659
content of 30% and above, compared to those with FA trapped in flocs by dispersing the solid particles. Higher
content of 20%. dosage of SP (>1.5%) led to segregation in the mix. At
SP dosage of 3%, solid particles in the mixes got highly
Table 3: Results from setting time test (mins)
dispersed causing separation of semiliquid phase from
Mix Initial setting time Final setting time the solid phase. Such behaviour of mixes with SP have
M1 13 24 also been observed by Laskar and Bhattacharjee [27] in
M2 20 51 their work on FA based geopolymeric mixes consisting
M3 35 60 of SP. Criado et al. [28] observed similar changes due to
M4 37 69 addition of SP in the geopolymeric mixes.
M5 44 71
M6 37 68
M7 58 88
M8 53 80
Figure 2: Effect of FA content on workability of mixes
Figure 1: FESEM images of (a) UGGBS, (b) FA, (c)

80% UGGBS and 20% FA; and (d) 50% UGGBS and
50% FA
Addition of SP to the mixes at constant FA content

contributed to the retardation of early setting by
preventing the geopolymerisation products from
formation of bonds at early period. The reason for this is
similar to that of addition of FA in the mixes which
provide better mobility to particles by producing less
viscous mixes and thus retarding the setting times. In
fact, the accelerating capacity of SP which is otherwise
shown in decreasing the setting times of PC based
systems is not shown in these geopolymeric mixes. Figure 3: Effect of SP content on workability of mixes
Retarding effect deteriorated at dosage higher than
1.5%. Fig. 2 shows that by increasing the content of FA Though addition of FA in the mixes retarded setting
in the mixes, higher workability can be attained. The time and improved workability as seen in Table 3 and
steep rise of FI curve beyond 20% FA content point Fig. 3. However, it reduced strength of mixes at early
indicated that increase in FI with increasing FA content age (see Fig. 4). The reduction in the strength was more
was more for mixes with FA content higher than 20%. significant in mixes with FA content 40 and 50%.
Increase in addition of FA increases the availability of Strengths of these mixes at later ages i.e. 28 days and
smooth and spherical particles in the mixes which beyond were notably higher than those at early age
contribute to better sliding among the particles and indicating the contribution of FA in long term strength
reduction of friction which is otherwise caused due to when cured at ambient temperature. However, such
presence of angular UGGBS particles. FESEM images contribution could not help the mixes with FA content
in Fig. 1 show the particle shape and distribution in 40 and 50% to attain strengths similar to that of the
mixes. As FA content in the mixes increases, reduction other mixes.
of total friction among the particles occurs leading to The main product in UGGBS based geopolymer is
better workability. calcium silicate hydrate (C-S-H) when activated with
SP contributed towards increasing workability of the alkaline solution [29]. The formation of C-S-H takes
mixes with constant FA content of 30% (see Fig. 3). It place even at ambient temperature. FA on the other
helped in releasing the liquid component in the mixes
660
Sulaem Musaddiq Laskar and Sudip Talukdar
hand is rich in SiO2 and Al2O3. In alkaline medium, 1. Addition of FA in the mixes retarded the early
polymerisation occurs to transform aluminosilicates setting property and improved the workability of the
minerals to three dimensional polymeric chains [30]. mixes. Significant improvement of properties of mixes
However, FA can contribute to the strength in fresh state was observed when FA content was 30%
development in geopolymer at early days only if cured and higher.
at elevated temperature [26, 31]. In this study, 2. Amount of FA higher than 30% of total binder
geopolymer mortars were cured at ambient temperature. content resulted in reduction in strength of the mixes at
Thus, contribution of FA in the strength development is early age. It also causes reduction in the strength at later
insignificant at early age. ages.
In the mixes, angular UGGBS particles contributed 3. SP retarded the early setting property and
to early strength gain by enhanced rate of improved the workability of the mixes. Change in the
geopolymerisation due to availability of higher particle trend of the influence of SP was observed at higher
surface areas. But, the angular shape and higher particle dosage i.e. beyond 1.5% SP dosage. SP showed better
surface area reduced workability and accelerated setting performance upto dosage 1.5%.
of the mixes rendering it unsuitable for use as building 4. Strength of mixes improved with the addition SP.
material. On the other hand, though the smooth and However, SP dosage higher than 0.5% of total binder
spherical FA particles led to lower rate of content led to significant reduction strength of the
geopolymerisation, but they balanced the workability mixes.
loss and retarded the setting.
The amount of SP significantly affected the strength
Acknowledgement
of the mixes. Huge variation in strength at various days
was observed in mixes with various amount of SP (see The authors are grateful to Counto Microfine
Fig. 4). Compared to 28 days strength, more than about Products Private Limited, India and Fosroc Chemicals
80% strength was attained at 7 days by the mixes India Private Limited, India for providing materials
containing SP. Mix with 0.5% SP exhibited highest required for laboratory tests in the current research at
strength at each selected day. Higher dosage (> 0.5% IIT Guwahati.
SP) led to reduction of strength. Though in mixes with
1.5% SP dosage, the strength drop compared to mixes
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662
663
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF PVA AND POLYESTER

FIBERS BASED ENGINEERED CEMENTITIOUS
COMPOSITES
S. B. Singh1, Pankaj Munjal2
1,2
Department of Civil Engineering, BITS Pilani, Pilani 333031, Rajasthan, India
Engineered cementitious composite (ECC) is a mortar based composite reinforced with polymeric fibers
and exhibits strain-hardening characteristic through the process of multiple micro-cracking. In this study,
two types of polymeric fibers (i.e., polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) fibers and polyester (Poly) fibers) were used
for making of ECC. The uniaxial compressive, uniaxial tensile, and four point bending test were carried
out to characterize the mechanical behavior of PVA-ECC and Poly-ECC with same mix proportions. The
compressive, tensile and flexural stress-strain responses of ECC are plotted. The ratio of compressive
strengths of cylinder (150 300 mm), and small cube (70.7 70.7 70.7 mm) to the compressive
strength of standard cube (150 150 150 mm) is determined. The experimental results show that PVA-
ECC exhibits higher compressive, tensile and flexural strength in comparison to the Poly-ECC.
Keywords: Compressive strength, ECC,

Polyester fiber, PVA fiber, Stress-strain
response, Tensile stress
1 Introduction
As a result, it is difficult to put ECC into large scale
Engineered cementitious composite (ECC) is practical applications. It is worth studying on the low-
cement based composite which contain discontinuous cost ECC. Polyester fiber is the another alternative
short polymeric fibers featuring high ductility and strain which can be used for producing ECC and its cost is
hardening behavior based upon micromechanics. ECC relatively lower, about 1/4th that of PVA fibers.
can be developed with a variety of polymeric fibers Polyester fibers are hydrophobic and hydrophilic in
such as polyvinyl alcohol (PVA), polyethylene fiber nature which develop the very good bond strength
(PE), and polyester fibers [1]. Most investigations so between fiber and cementitious matrix [10].
far, have been carried out on polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) Some researcher [10-13] have been conducted on
and polyethylene (PE) fibers for making of ECC. There the use of polyester fibers for making ECC. Rathod and
is a difference in basic micromechanics of these two Patodi [10], conducted the experimental study on
fibers. The PE fibers are hydrophobic and do not make interface tailoring of polyester fiber in ECC matrix
any bond with cement matrix but PVA fibers are against pullout and have concluded that polyester fibers
hydrophilic and makes bond with cement matrix [2]. Li do not require any extra treatment such as oiling agent or
et al. [1] initially used the high modulus PE fiber to plasma treatment to enhance the performance of ECC.
produce the ECC, then, Kanda et al. [3] studied the Ahamed et al. [11] studied the flexural behavior of ECC
behavior of PVA-ECC which has shown good beam made up of polyester fibers and have investigated
agreement. Since the cost of high modulus of PE fibers material properties of polyester-ECC. Singh et al. [12]
is 6 to 7 times higher than PVA fibers, researchers studied the flexural response of masonry beams with
started using PVA fibers instead of PE fibers to produce polyester-ECC as bed joint in place of cement mortar
ECC. Most of the researchers [4-8] had used oiled PVA and concluded that masonry beam with ECC as bed joint
fiber (oil coating to the surface of fiber) because unoiled could be used as a structural beam. Singh et al. [13] have
PVA fiber may be ruptured in a cementitious matrix due shown the comparative response of masonry beams with
to the strong chemical bonding to cement hydrates [9]. PVA-ECC and Poly-ECC as bed joints. Authors [13]
The oiled PVA fiber is mainly supplied by Kuraray Co. concluded that masonry beams with PVA-ECC as bed
Ltd. Japan and its cost is very high. joints exhibit better performance, and the load carrying
capacity is found to be 1.5 times of that of masonry
1 beam with Poly-ECC as bed joint.
Professor, sbsinghbits@gmail.com Most of these past studies indicate that there are
2
Research Scholar, pankaj710munjal@gmail.com limited studies on the use of polyester fiber for making
of ECC. The aim of the present paper is to determine the
664
S. B. Singh and Pankaj Munjal
mechanical properties such as compressive strength, Step 2: Silica sand is then added and is mixed for around
tensile strength, split tensile strength, and flexural 2 minutes. Then Fly-ash is added and the mixing process
strength of Poly-ECC. Moreover, the mechanical is continued.
properties of Poly-ECC is compared with the PVA-ECC
of the same mix proportion. Furthermore, compressive, Step 3: Further cement is added and mixed about 5
tensile, and flexural stress-strain responses of ECC minutes. Fibers are then added slowly. The entire
made up of PVA and polyester fibers are presented. process takes around 20-25 minutes. In this mixing
method, cement is added in the step 3 because entire
2 Experimental details process will take around 20-25 minutes, since cement
2.1 Materials and mix design would attain its initial setting time in this period.
ECC generally consists of mixtures of cement, After mixing the ECC, cubes of size 150 150 150
silica-sand, Fly-ash, water, super-plasticizer, and mm and 70.7 70.7 70.7 mm, cylinders of size 150
polymeric fibers to reinforce the mix. In this study, 300 mm and 100 200 mm, tensile coupons of size 310
Portland pozzolana cement (PPC) as binder, micro 75 13 mm, and rectangular prisms of size 100 100
silica sand with an average grain size of 100 m, and 500 mm were cast. A thin layer of release agent was
class F fly-ash (pozzocrete-63) was used to prepare the spread on the interiors of the moulds using a clean brush
ECC. The material properties of Portland pozzolana and then a paste of ECC was poured into the mould.
cement explained by Singh et al. [14] is used and
Specimens were left in the mould inside the moist room
briefly presented Table 1. Glenium Sky 8777 provided
(temperature 27 3 C and relative humidity 65%) for a
by BASF India Ltd. was used as the super plasticizer.
The present study used two types of polymeric fibers period of 24 hours. The specimens were removed from
such as polyester fibers of triangular shape and the mould and placed inside the curing tank at
polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) fibers. The material properties temperature of 27 3 C for 28 days. ECC specimens
of polymeric fibers are given in Table 2. The mix were divided into two categories i.e., PVA-ECC and
proportion of ECC has been presented in Table 3. Poly-ECC as differentiated with type of the fibers
inclusion.
Table 1: Physical properties of PPC
PPC properties Test Results 3 Experimental method and test procedure
Blaine Fineness (m2/kg) 375 3.1 Compressive strength
Specific Gravity 3.15
% Flyash addition 30 Five cylindrical specimens (150 300 mm) and ten
Normal Consistency (%) 30.8 cube (150 150 150 mm and 70.7 70.7 70.7 mm)
specimens, were tested in Compression Testing Machine
Table 2: Materials properties of polymeric fibers (CTM) of capacity 2000 kN after 28 days. Cylindrical
Properties Polyester PVA fiber and cube specimens were tested as per ASTM C39 [15]
fiber and IS 516:1959 [16], respectively. Compressive
Fiber diameter (mm) 0.025-0.035 0.04 strength was measured by placing the specimens in the
Fiber length (mm) 12 8 contact of bearing surface of the CTM and the load was
Tensile Strength (MPa) 480 1600 applied at the rate of 2-5 N/mm2 per minute until failure
Elongation (%) 30 - occurs. The compressive strength was calculated by
Rupture strain (%) - 7 dividing the maximum load applied to the specimen
Manufacturer by Reliance, Kuraray & during the test by cross sectional area. The modulus of
India Co., Japan elasticity and Poissons ratio of cylindrical specimens
were calculated using equations 1 and 2 [17],
Table 3: Mix proportion of ECC in kg/m3 respectively. The strain was measured by the
Cement Silica Fly- Water Super Fiber extensometer attached with the CTM as shown in Figure
Sand ash Plasti 3.
cizer
Ec =
(S 2 - S1 ) (1)
620 620 620 290 8.5 26 (e 2 - e1 )
(e - e )
m = t 2 t1 (2)
2.2 Mixing process and specimen preparations
(e 2 - e 1 )
Hobart mixer was used to prepare the ECC. The mixing
where,
process is completed in the three steps.
Ec = chord modulus of elasticity, MPa
Step 1: Water and super plasticizer are added and S2 = stress corresponding to 40 % of ultimate load, MPa
thoroughly mixed using Hobart mortar mixer. S1 = stress corresponding to a longitudinal strain (1),
MPa
2 = longitudinal strain produced by stress S2, mm/mm
665
1 = 3.45E-7 (longitudinal strain in mm/mm) deflection curve, N/mm

= Poissons ratio
t2 = transvers strain at mid-height of the specimens
4 Experimental results and discussions
produced by stress S2, mm/mm
t1 = transvers strain at mid-height of the specimens 4.1 Compressive strength
produced by stress S1, mm/mm
The results of compressive strength, strain at peak
3.2 Split tensile strength stress, failure strain, and modulus of elasticity are
presented in Table 4. The failure strain is defined
The split tensile strength of ECC was measured
through testing of five cylindrical specimens (100 200 throughout this paper as the strain corresponding to
mm) of each category as per IS 5816-1999 [18] and BS stress equal to 80 % of the peak stress in the post peak
1881-part 117 [19]. The split tensile strength can be region. This definition of the failure strain is arbitrary in
calculated using Equation 3. In this equation, fct is split the sense that after reaching the peak stress, a sudden
tensile strength, P is the load applied to the specimen,
drop in stress value is observed with small increment in
and l, d are length and diameter of the specimen,
respectively. the strain. Thereafter, strain is increasing with higher
rate due to crushing of ECC. The average compressive
2P strength of cube (150 mm), cylinder, and small cube
f ct = (3) (70.7 mm) specimens is observed to be 54.05, 45.12, and
pdl
3.3 Tensile strength 61.74 MPa, respectively for PVA-ECC whereas it is
Five specimens of ECC coupons of each category found to be 46.25, 38.55, 50.88 MPa, respectively for
were tested in automated deformation controlled Poly-ECC. The compressive strengths of cylinder (150
hydraulic Universal Testing Machine (UTM) of 300 mm), and small cube (70.7 70.7 70.7 mm) are
capacity 100 kN and the load was applied at observed to be 0.83 and 1.14 times of compressive
displacement control rate of 0.5 mm/min. The size of strength of standard cube (150 150 150 mm),
coupons was 310 75 13 mm and gauge length was
respectively for PVA-ECC whereas they are observed to
maintained as 200 mm. The tensile stress-strain
response of ECC coupons were measured by the UTM. be 0.83 and 1.10 times of compressive strength for Poly-
ECC. The compressive strength of PVA-ECC is found
3.4 Bending test 1.17 times of the compressive strength of Poly-ECC.
Four point bending tests were performed on the The compressive axial stress-strain response of the
five rectangular prism specimens of each category on cylindrical specimens of ECC (PVA-ECC and Poly-
servo hydraulic actuator of capacity 200 kN as per ECC) is shown in the Figure 1. It is seen that, initially
ASTM D790 [20]. The load was applied on the prisms
both the curves are linear up to about half of the peak
at the displacement control rate of 0.5 mm/min. The
flexural stress, strain and modulus were calculated stress after which it becomes nonlinear accompanied by
using Equations 4-6, respectively. a sudden drop in the stress is observed after peak load.
PL The failure patterns of cubes and cylindrical specimens
sf = (4)
are shown in Figures 2 & 3, respectively. It has been
bd 2
6 Dd observed that vertical axial cracks develop in the most of
ef = 2 (5) the specimens (Fig. 2). In case of cylinder specimens
L
under compression test, initial cracks developed at top
L3 m and propagated to the bottom with increase in load and
Eb = (6)
4bd 3 then the cracks got widened at failure along the top of
the specimen as shown in Figure 3.
where,
f = flexural stress, MPa,
4.2 Split tensile strength
P = load at a given point on the load-deflection curve
L = support span, mm The results of split tensile strength of ECC are
b = width of the beam, mm presented in Table 4. Failure modes of split tensile
d = depth of beam, mm strength test of cylindrical specimens are shown in
f = flexural strain in the outer surface, mm/mm Figure 4. It is observed that, cylinder specimens got split
D = maximum deflection of the axis of the beam, mm into two pieces as shown in Figure 4.
Eb = modulus of elasticity in bending, MPa
m = slope of the tangent to the initial portion of the load
666
Table 4: Experimental results of compressive strength and split tensile strength tests
ECC types Cubea Cubeb Cylinder, 150 300 mm Cylinder,

100 200 mm
Comp. Comp. Comp. Peak Comp. Failure Comp. Poissons Split tensile
Strength, Strength, Strength, Strain, Strainc, Modulus, Ratio strength, MPa
MPa MPa MPa mm/mm mm/mm GPa
Poly-ECC 46.25 50.88 38.55 0.0030 0.0031 16.85 0.164 3.81

PVA-ECC 54.05 61.74 45.12 0.0032 0.0033 22.24 0.172 4.24
Cubea = size of cube is 150 150 150 mm
Cubeb = size of cube is 70.7 70.7 70.7 mm
Failure Strainc = strain corresponding to stress equal to 80 % of the peak stress in the post peak region.
Figure 3: Failure pattern of cylindrical specimen

Figure 1: Compressive stress-strain response of ECC
cylinder specimens
Figure 4: Failure pattern of cylindrical specimen after

split tensile strength test
Figure 2: Failure pattern of cube specimen
After the first crack, load is continued to rise without
4.3 Tensile strength of ECC coupons
fracture. Subsequently, parallel cracks developed and
The results of tensile strength of ECC coupons are
increase the crack width with increasing stress. The
presented in Table 5. The failure pattern of Poly-ECC
average tensile stress-strain response of the ECC
coupon during the tensile strength test is shown in
coupons is presented in Figure 6. It is seen that PVA-
Figure 5. All the coupons have shown multiple cracking
ECC has higher tensile strength in comparison to the
and pseudo strain hardening behavior.
667
Poly-ECC. The tensile strength of PVA-ECC is about 2 4.3 Flexural strength

times of tensile strength of Poly-ECC. After the first The results of the four point bending test of ECC
crack, the tensile stress is increased in PVA-ECC due to prisms are presented in Table 6. The average flexural
strength of PVA-ECC and Poly-ECC is observed to be
bridging action of cement and fibers bonding whereas in
9.49 and 8.52 MPa, respectively. The average peak
Poly-ECC, small drop in stress is observed after the first compressive strain of PVA-ECC is 0.017 whereas it is
crack and then, stress increases due to strain hardening. found to be 0.016 for Poly-ECC. The flexural stress-
The reason behind this significant strength in PVA-ECC strain response of the ECC prism is presented in Figure
7. PVA-ECC prism has shown more flexural stress in
i.e., PVA fiber which has higher tensile strength and
comparison to Poly-ECC. The flexural strength of PVA-
stronger bonding with cement matrix in comparison to ECC prism is found to be 1.11 times of the flexural
Polyester fibers. strength of Poly-ECC prism. The failure pattern of ECC
prism during four point bending test is shown in Figure
Table 5: Experimental results of tensile strength of 8. The vertical flexural cracks developed in the tension
ECC coupons zone and propagated towards the compression zone as
Properties Poly-ECC PVA-ECC shown in Figure 8.
Tensile Strength, MPa 2.42 4.78
Peak Strain, % 0.04 0.20 Table 6: Experimental results of bending test of ECC
Rupture Strain, % 3.20 4.60 prism
Youngs Modulus, GPa 16.42 21.82 Properties Poly-ECC PVA-ECC
Flexural Strength, MPa 8.52 9.49
Peak Strain, % 1.59 1.68
Failure Strain, % 1.60 1.73
Flexural Modulus, MPa 98.74 83.15
Figure 5: Failure pattern of Poly-ECC coupon during

tensile strength test Figure 7: Flexural stress-strain response of ECC prism
Figure 8: Failure of ECC prism during four point

bending test
Conclusions
The experimental study was conducted on the
mechanical properties of ECC using two types of
polymeric fibers. The following conclusions are drawn
Figure 6: Tensile stress-strain response of ECC coupon from this study.
668
The compressive strengths of cylinder ash, Construction and Building Materials, Vol.
specimens and small cube specimens are found 52(2), pp. 17-23, 2014.
[8] Zhou, J., Pan, J. and Leung, C. K. Y., Mechanical
to be 0.833 and 1.20 times of the compressive behavior of fiber-reinforced engineered
strength of standard cube (150 mm size). cementitious composites in uniaxial compression,
The compressive, tensile, and flexural strength Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering, Vol.
of PVA-ECC are respectively found to be 1.14, 27(1), pp. 04014111-11, 2014.
[9] Pan, Z., Wu, C., Liu, J., Wang, W. and Liu, J.,
2, and 1.11 times of compressive, tensile and
Study on mechanical properties of cost-effective
flexural strength of Poly-ECC. polyvinyl alcohol engineered cementitious
The Compressive, tensile, and flexural composites (PVA-ECC). Construction and Building
modulus of PVA-ECC are found to be 22.24, Materials, Vol. 78, pp.397-404, 2015.
9.58, and 0.98 GPa, respectively whereas for [10] Rathod, J. D. and Patodi, S. C., Interface tailoring of
polyester-type fiber in engineered cementitious
Poly-ECC, they are 16.85, 7.50, and 0.83 GPa,
composite matrix against pullout, ACI materials
respectively. journal, Vol. 107(2), pp.114-122, 2010.
[11] Ahamed, A., Sunitha, S., Vinod, P. and Bindhu, K.
Acknowledgments R., A comparative study on the flexural behaviour
The authors would like to acknowledge the support of RCC and R/ECC beams, International
of the Department of Science and Technology (DST), conference on green technologies (ICGT), IEEE,
Trivandrum, Kerala, India, pp. 223-227, 2012.
New Delhi [Grant# SR/S3/MERC/051/2012] and
[12] Singh, S. B., Munjal, P. and Thammishetti, N.,
Aditya Birla Group.
Strengthening of masonry beam with ECC as bed
joint, Journal of Engineering Science and
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16, 2011. compressive strength of cylindrical concrete
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Engineering, Vol. 10(1), pp. 5-13, 1998. concrete, Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi,
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2008. [18] IS 5816-1999, Splitting tensile strength of concrete-
[5] Pan, J. L., Yuan, F., Luo, M., and Leung, C. K. Y. method of test, Bureau of Indian Standards, New
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Technological Sciences, Vol. 55(12), pp. 3425-33, determination of tensile splitting strength, British
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mechanical properties and self-healing behavior of
micro-cracked ECC with different volume of fly
669
EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION OF COMPRESSION AND

CYCLIC BEHAVIOUR OF PARTIALLY REPLACED MICROSILICA
CONCRETE
Ponmalar V1, Janardhan Y 2, Hemachandar N3
1
Division of Structural Engineering, Department of Civil Engineering, Anna University, Chennai 600025, India
2,3
Department of Civil Engineering, Anna University, Chennai 600025, India
Silica composites like silica fume, microsilica are some of the specialized pozzolans that can be used for
certain additional benefits. Concrete of M50 grade was designed by replacing different proportions of
microsilica concrete of 5%, 10% and 15%. The optimum micro silica concrete was tested under compression.
Increase in strength carrying capacity of 20% for the microsilica concrete than that of control concrete at 56
days. The optimum percentage of replacement was used to prepare beam-column joint. The beam-column
joint is subjected to cyclic loading. The cyclic behaivour of micro silica concrete was good and improvement
in first cracking load, ultimate load and deflection, energy dissipation capacity.
Keywords : microsilica, concrete, workability, compressive strength, cyclic loading
1 Introduction 2 Literature
Microsilica is a mineral admixture composed of In reference [9], the mechanical testing of

very fine solid glassy spheres of silicon dioxide (SiO). samples for analyzing the microstructure of concrete as a
Most microsilica particles are less than 1 micron result of phase formation, mostly affects mechanical
(0.00004 inch) in diameter, generally 50 to 100 times strength. Based on the results it was suggested that the 10
finer than average cement or fly ash particles[3]. % microsilica addition [4,2] is optimum amount for
Microsilica is a by-product of industrial manufacture of improving the properties of concretes made with OPC.
ferrosilicon and metallic silicon in high temperature From 15% there is a decrease in compressive strength for
electric arc furnaces. The ferrosilicon or silicon product 3, 7, 14 and 28 days curing period. In reference [1], it
is drawn off as a liquid from the bottom of the furnace. was suggested that the useful practical guidelines on the
Vapor rising from the 20000C furnace bed is oxidized use of microsilica in high strength and high
and as it cools condenses into particles which are trapped performance concrete. The gain in strength of microsilica
in huge cloth bags. Processing the condensed fume to concrete with age is much more compared to that of
remove impurities and control particle size yields ordinary concrete. In reference [11,7],compressive
microsilica. By adding microsilica in the concrete, the strength of microsilica concrete and its strength gaining
overall weight of the concrete increases up to 15 percent, characteristics were studied. Microsilica increases the
where else the normal proposition should be 7 to 10 strength of concrete by 25%. Microsilica also decrease
percent. By adding microsilica, the potential of the the voids in concrete. Addition of Microsilica reduces
cement becomes high in quality as the cement becomes capillary.
more strong and brittle[10]. It also increases the water The present paper concentrates the strength
demand in a concrete mix; however, dosage rates of less characteristics of mircosilica concrete exceeding 28 days
than 5 percent will not particularly require a water and cyclic behaviour of mirco silica added concrete.
reducer. High replacement rates will require the use of Based on the findings of previous research in the field,
high range of water reducer. Function of adding this study aims to propose practical suggestions in
microsilica is that it increases the durability of the overcoming limitations if any.
concrete[8]. It also reduces sponginess in the cement,
making it robust. Along with this, it also improves the
resistance to corrosion giving the concrete resilient life.
1
Associate Professor, ponmalar_v@annauniv.edu
670
Ponmalar V, et al.
3 Materials used specific gravity given by the manufacturer is 1.21 at 30

3.1 Cement degree Celsius with no chloride content and 1 % of air
Ordinary Portland cement produced by entrainment. The dosage recommended varies from 50
VISHNU CHAKRA was used in this study. The cement ml to 1000ml per 100 kg of cement.
used has been tested for various properties as per IS
4031-1988 and found to be conforming to various
4 Mix Proportioning
specifications of IS 12269-1987. The specific gravity is
3.15. The control concrete was designed for M50 and
3.2 Coarse aggregate the mix proportions are presented in Table 2. Mix
Coarse aggregate of 20 mm from a local source proportioning by weight was used and the cement dried
was used. The specific gravity is 2.8.The coarse total aggregates ratio was 1: 1.59:2.84[5,6]. Microsilica
aggregate used were mainly material retained on a were used to replace OPC at the percentages of 5%, 10%
4.75mm complying to Indian Standards. and 15% by weight of the cement. The water cement
3.3 Fine aggregate ratio was maintained constant for all the mixes, by
River sand was used as fine aggregate. The varying the super plasiticzer dosages from 0.5 to 1% by
specific gravity is 2.56. weight of cement.
3.4 Microsilica
Commercially available Microsilica from Astra
4.1 Workability of Concrete
Chemicals, India Ltd. Chennai was used. The comparison
between properties of microsilica and OPC 53-grade Workability is defined as the properties of
cement is shown in Table 1. freshly mixed concrete or mortar which determines the
homogeneity with which it can be mixed, placed,
Table 1: Physical and Chemical Composition of consolidated and finished. In general terms, workability
Microsilica and Cement represents the amount of work which is to be done to
compact the concrete in a given mould. A workable mix
Property Microsilica Cement should not segregate. In this study workability was
measured by conducting slump cone test. Figure 1 shows
Standard - 30 the variation of slump value for control and microsilica
consistency(%) concrete. By increasing the percentage of microsilica, the
Initial setting time - 104 slump was getting lowered. The finer micro silica
(min) particles absorbs more water content was the reason for
Final setting time (min) - 220 80

Slump flow
Slump flow (mm)
Physical form Powder form - 60 (mm)
Bulk density (kg/m3) 550-650 40

Specific Gravity 2200 3150 20
(kg/m3)
0
SiO2(%) 90-98 19.6
0% 5% 10% 15%
CaO (%) 0.2 -0.7% 61.5 % Replacement of Microsilica
Al2O3 (%) 0.4-0.9 5.65 decreasing the slump value.
Fe2O3(%) 1-2 5.40

MgO(%) 0.5-1.5 0.91 Figure 1: Slump Value of Control and Mircosilica
Concrete
3.5 Water
Available potable water free from impurities is used.
3.6 Super plasticizer
The superplasticizer conforming to IS 9103-
1999 was used in the present studies. The
superplasticizer was used as a high range water reducing
agent with chemical base as polycarboxylate. The
671
Table 2: Mix Proportions of control and microsilica concrete

MATERIALS MIX PROPORTION (kg/m3)
control ms 5% ms 10% ms 15%
Cement (kg/m3) 420 399 378 357
3
Microsilica (kg/m ) 0 21 42 63
3
Fine Aggregate (kg/m ) 669 669 669 669
3
Coarse Aggregate (kg/m ) 1193 1193 1193 1193
w/C ratio 0.42 0.42 0.42 0.42
4.2 Experimental investigation increasing microsilica from 5% to 15%. The finer

particles lead to more water demand, lead to increase in
4.2.1 Compressive strength test on control and
unhydrated particle, further reduction in strength.
microsilica concrete
Concrete specimens of 150mm x 150mm x 150
mm dimension of cube moulds were used to study the 4.2.2 Cyclic loading study on control and mircosilica
compressive behavior plain concrete.Three layers of the specimens
mixture is poured in the moulds with each layer being Effect of mirco silica in plain concrete was studied
tamped by 25 blows each using a tamping rod. The micro effectively by compression study. Similarly, the study of
silica concrete cubes were prepared for the percentage of micro silica in reinforced member under cyclic behavior
replacement of 5, 10 and 15% of replacement of cement was studied. In this study, a total number of twelve beam
with that of microsilica. There were 36 number of cubes column joints of column dimension
prepared for the compression study. The cubes are kept 750mmx100mmx100mm and beam dimension of 500mm
for setting for 24 hours. The spceimens were cured x 100mm x 100mm were prepared. For each beam
under water for 28 days for curing. The test was carried column joint 10 stirrups of 6mm diameter and 6 rods of
out to obtain compressive strength of M50 grade of 8mm diameter were provided for reinforcement. Spacing
concrete. The compressive strength of high strength of 120mm was given between each stirrup. The
concrete with OPC and microsilica concrete at the age of reinforcement was carefully placed in the wooden
7, 28 and 56 days was tested. The procedure consisted of cast.Three layers of the mixture is poured in the cast with
the application of uniaxial compressive load on the cube each layer being tamped by 25 blows each using a metal
until failure of the cube. Prior to testing, the weight of rod.The beam column joints were kept for setting for 24
each cube was determined. It was noticed that the hours. A cover of 25mm was provided. All freshly cast
addition of microsilica shows improvement increased in specimens were left in the moulds for 24 hours after
weight of concrete and improvement of strength varies being demoulded and then submerged in water for
from 59 N/mm2 to 69.7 N/mm2 at 28 days for 5% of curing until the time of testing.
replacement level. The percentage of strength
improvement was 18% for 28 days and 20% for 56 days 100
for 5% micro silica concrete. However, improvement in 90
strength was good in 5 % than that of 10 and 15 % of
Compressive Strength (MPa)
80
replacement. For 15% of replacement level shows the
improvement was similar to that of control concrete at 28 70
days, after 28days the strength starts decreasing than that 60
control
of control concrete. The maximum compressive 50 MS5C
strength of concrete with silica depends on three 40 MS10C
parameters, namely the replacement level, water cement MS15C
ratio and chemical admixture. The super-plasticiser 30
admixture dosage plays a vital role in concrete to achieve 20
the given workability at lower w/c ratio. Cement 10
replacement up to 5% with microsilica leads to increase 0
in compressive strength. By increasing the percentage of
0 50 100
replacement shows, there is a decrease of compressive No. of days of Testing
strength. The water/binder ratio decreases by adding 10%
and 15% microsilica. This can be managed by addition of Figure 2: Compressive strength of control and
superplasticizer. However, the slump flow decreases by microsilica concrete
672
Ponmalar V, et al.
Each beam column joint specimen was tested under

cyclic loading in the predetermined load sequence. The
column was centered accurately using plumb bob to
avoid eccentricity. An axial load of 0.1 x fck strength of
the column was applied on the column by means of a 50
tones hydraulic jack. Screw jacks of 20 tones capacity
were used to apply the forward and reverse loading over
the beam portion. Dial gauges were used to measure the
downward and upward displacements in the beam and
fixed at two places one at a distance of 490mm clear of
the column (free end) and another one near the joint
(fixed end) as shown in Fig. 3. The exterior beam column
joint specimen was subjected to quasi-static cyclic
loading simulating earthquake loads. Specimens were
tested in a loading frame of 100 tonne or 1000kN
capacity. A constant load of 50kN, which is about 20% Figure 3: Cyclic loading test setup
of the axial capacity of the column, was applied to the
column for holding the specimens in position. A
hydraulic jack of 50 tonne or 500kN capacity was used to
apply load at the beam. A load cell of 50 tonne capacity
was used to measure the applied load accurately. Cyclic
load with an increment of 0.2 tonne was applied to the 10 1.96 kN
end of the beam. Testing of the microsilica replaced 3.92 kN
beam column joint.
5 5.88 kN
LOAD (kN)
The load- deflection behavior of control and microsilica 7.84 kN

replaced concretes was shown in Fig. 4 (a) and (b). It 0
was noticed that the addition microsilica lead to an -10 0 10 20
increase in ultimate load and deflection in both
-5
forwardand reverse cyclic loading. The maximum
forward cycle deflection of control concrete was 7.32 kN
-10 DEFLECTION (mm)
and the corresponding deflection was 23.7mm.
However, microsilica concrete shows the increase in 10 1.96kN
strength and deflection and the values are 9.5 kN for the
deflection of 37.76mm. In addition, energy absorption 5 3.92kN
capacity of micro silica replaced concrete joint shows 5.88 kN
66.6% improvement than the control joint. The micro 0
LOAD (kN)
silica is a finer material; contribute effectively for cement 7.84 kN

-10 -5 0 5 10 15
hydration and lead to dense and thick protective cover for -5
concrete reinforcement. This was the reason for increase
in cyclic behavior of micro silica concrete than the -10
control concrete. In addition to this, the micro silica of 5
-15 DEFLECTION (mm)
% replaced concrete the better ultimate, first crack and
breaking load than the conventforced member. The
difference in behavior of all the reinforced joints of
control and micro silica concretes are shown in Fig. 5. Figure 4: (a) and (b). Cyclic behavior of beam column
joint of control and microsilica concrete
673
10
9
8
Deflection (mm)
7 0% MS
6
5% MS
5
4 10% MS
3 15% MS
2
1
0
First Crack load Ultimate Load Failure Load
Load (kN)
Figure 5: Comparison of first crack ultimate and failure load of control and microsilica concrete
The microsilica is an effective alternate
5 Conclusion materials maximum upto 5% for static and
cyclic loading, by increasing the micro silica of
upto 15 % lead to decrease in strength carrying
Cement replacement up to 5% with microsilica
capacity.
leads to increase in compressive strength, for
M50 grade of concrete.
The compressive strength of M50 grade of
concrete is increased 20% more than the control
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675
STRENGTH AND ELASTIC PROPERTIES OF BLOCK MASONRY

MADE WITH SUBSTITUES TO RIVER SAND IN MORTAR
Pavan J1, Mangala Keshava2, Shrinath3
1,3
Former M. Tech student, Dept. of Civil Engineering, BMSCE, Bengaluru, Affiliated to VTU, Belgavi, India
2
Associate Professor, Dept. of Civil Engineering, BMSCE, Bengaluru, Affiliated to VTU, Belgavi, India
pavanj.0291@gmail.com1 mk.civ@bmsce.ac.in2 shrinath.bmsce@gmail.com3
Abstract: Cement, sand and aggregates are the three essential needs for any construction industry. Sand is one
material that is used in masonry, plastering and concreting and hence its demand has increased multi-fold. In the
present study different alternatives to river sand were identified; namely M sand (Manufactured sand), fine
aggregates from C and D waste and Slag sand. The study included 25%, 50%, 75% and 100% replacement of
alternative materials to river sand for a mortar mix proportion of 1:6 with constant mortar flow of 110-115%. The
compressive, tensile and flexural strengths of the mortar mixes have been determined as per the relevant standard
codes. Further the behavior of hollow concrete block masonry made with mortar from alternative materials has been
investigated. It was found that the block masonry made with alternatives exhibited good bond strengths both in
flexure and shear. This study clearly indicates the suitability of using alternatives to fine aggregates in masonry
mortar used for block masonry construction.
Key words: Alternatives to sand, Hollow Concrete Block (HCB) masonry, strength and elastic properties
1. Introduction sand obtained from various sources have been

identified. M-sand was procured from a local
Natural sand is the most preferred choice as a fine aggregate manufacturing plant on the outskirts of
aggregate material for its various applications. Due to Bangalore and Slag sand was bought from JSW Steel
illegal and uncontrollable mining, river sand is plant Hospet. The construction waste from a locally
becoming a scarce commodity. Hence there is a need demolished building was collected. Demolition waste
for an urgent and sustainable solution to protect the was crushed and rolled manually with the help of a
affected rivers and communities. This paper puts roller to obtain the required grain size. Hence through
forward the application of different alternative this study an attempt was made by reusing some of
materials to river sand as an attempt towards the waste materials from different sources as a
sustainable development. It will help to find a replacement to natural sand in masonry mortar which
solution to the declining availability of natural sand helps in turning the waste materials from landfills to
to strike an eco-balance. useful products.
Sustainable construction mainly aims at reduction of

negative impact on environment by the construction
industry, which is the largest consumer of natural 2. Literature review
resources. Over a period of time, waste management
has become one of the most complex and challenging Mohammed Nadeem and A. D. Pofale[1] have studied
problem in the world which is affecting the the feasibility of utilization of granular slag as a
environment. Hence the negative impact on replacement to natural fine aggregate in two
environment and also waste management can be construction applications, namely masonry and
handled simultaneously by adopting 3Rs principle of plastering. In their investigation, cement mortar
sustainability in the construction industry. That is mixes of proportion 1:3, 1:4, 1:5 and 1:6 by volume
reducing the waste generation; reusing the wastes were considered for 0, 25, 50, 75 and 100%
from industries and recycling of the waste materials. replacements of natural sand with granular slag for
w/c ratios of 0.60, 0.65, 0.70 and 0.72 respectively.
In the present study three alternatives ( namely, The study gave comparative results for mortar flow
Manufactured Sand, slag sand and fine aggregates properties, compressive and split tensile strengths.
from Construction and Demolition Waste) to river The replacement of sand by granular slag from 50 to
676
Pavan J, et al.
75% has shown improved mortar flow properties by Initially the physical properties of alternatives to river
7%. sand were examined as per IS: 2386-1963[5] and
physical properties of Hollow Concrete Block (HCB)
B V Venkatarama Reddy [2] has performed various were also tested as per (IS: 2185-1979) [6]. The tests
tests on mortar using M-sand as well as natural river conducted are as given below.
sand. Two mortar mixes of 1:6 and 1:4 by volume Tests on Alternatives [5]
were prepared and tested for grain size distribution, Fineness modulus
pH and chemical composition, compressive strength Specific gravity
of mortar, flow/workability, water retentivity, brick- Water absorption
mortar bond strength, compressive strength and Bulking
stress-strain relationship for masonry. Compressive Bulk density
strength, modulus of elasticity and flexural bond Tests on HCB[6]
strength test of masonry using M Sand mortar was Dimensionality test
significantly higher when compared with mortar
Block density
made with river sand.
Initial rate of absorption
Water absorption
Preethi R K[3] studied the properties of mortar and
concrete with recycled aggregate as fine aggregate. Compressive strength
Recycled aggregates were collected from four Modulus of elasticity (MOE)
different sources and mortar mixes of 1:3 and 1:6 In the second step, the physical properties of mortar
were prepared for recycled aggregate from each mixes were examined. The alternatives to river sand
source. One more trial was conducted by mixing the are used in mortar mix (1:6) by replacing river sand
recycled aggregates from different sources i.e., mixed at 25, 50, 75 and 100% replacement. The mortar mix
recycled fine aggregate (MRFA). The mortar mix of was prepared and tested to ascertain its fresh and
1:3 proportion has shown compressive strength in the hardened properties as follows.
range of 16.87 N/mm2 to 22.66 N/mm2 for recycled Tests on fresh mortar was conducted as per (IS:
aggregates from different source. The mortar mix 2250-1981) [7]
made with MRFA resulted with a compressive Consistency test (Flow table test)
strength of 22.03 N/mm2 which was slightly less than Hardened properties of mortar are as follows
that of natural sand mortar mix which showed 22.57 Compressive strength (IS: 2250-1981)
N/mm2. Tensile strength (ASTM: C-307)[8]
The compressive strength of recycled aggregate Flexural strength (IS: 10078-1982) [9]
mortar mixes were in the range of 5.48 N/mm2 to In the third stage of investigation, HCB prisms of
10.73 N/mm2. The compressive strength of mortar size 401.7 x 150 x 600 mm were cast and cured for a
mix made with MRFA and natural sand was 7.66 period of 28days prior to testing. The optimum
N/mm2 and 11.06 N/mm2 respectively. percentage replacement of alternatives based on the
compressive strength criteria was used in the mortar
Mohamad Gihad et.al [4] worked with an aim to mixes to cast the masonry prisms. Mortar mix made
critically assess a stress-strain model using with 50% replacement of slag sand, 100% in case of
experimental masonry prisms constructed from M sand and 75% for C and D waste hence obtained
different blocks and mortar. From the work carried from earlier tests was adopted to cast the prisms.
out it can be concluded that mortar is mostly Typical masonry prisms cast are shown in figure 1.
responsible for the non-linear behavior of masonry.
The initial tangent modulus provides a strongly non-
linear relationship between the elasticity modulus and
compressive strength when the compressive strength
is taken into account.
3. Experimental programme
The main objective of the work was to investigate the

suitability of alternatives for replacement of natural
aggregates in mortar mixes used in block masonry.
The present work is divided in to three stages which
are explained below. Figure 1: Masonry prisms cast
677
frame by applying the shearing load with the help of

a manually operated hydraulic jack and a proving
ring (figure 4). The mid-block of the triplet specimen
was subjected to a horizontal transverse load. A
constant normal stress of 0.40 N/mm2 was
maintained throughout the experiment. The shear
bond strength was hence obtained.
Figure 2: Test setup of compression test
A constant load of 14N/mm2 per minute was applied

until the failure of specimen and the failure load was
noted. Three specimens for each type of mortar made
with the alternative were tested. The test setup for the
compression test of prism is shown in figure 2.
A gauge length of 150mm was marked on the vertical

axis of the specimen. Two metal grooves were fixed
at the two points of the gauge length with the help of Figure 3: Test setup for flexural strength of HCB
metal paste. A strain gauge was fixed to the metal Prism
grooves to record the change in length of the
specimen. Then the specimen was placed under
universal testing machine and a constant load of
14N/mm2 was applied. For every 10KN load interval
corresponding strain gauge reading was noted. The
strain gauge was removed as soon as the cracks were
observed to avoid any damages to the strain gauge.
The specimens were subjected to load up to failure.
Three specimens were tested for each alternative. The
load and deformation readings were noted and a
graph of stress v/s strain was plotted. The best fit
curve was drawn and hence the MOE was
determined.
Figure 4: Test setup for shear strength of HCB Prism
Later the flexural strength test for the hollow
concrete block prisms was conducted by applying 4. Test results and discussion
two-point loading under a loading frame. The lateral
load was applied with the help of a manually The physical properties and other test results are
operated hydraulic jack (figure 3). The test set up is compiled and shown in Table 1.The compressive
as per BS: 5628-1992. The specimen was cast using strength and tensile strength of hardened mortar have
concrete blocks stack bonded with the mortar made exhibited better results for 50% replacement of slag
from alternatives in the respective proportions. The sand, 75% replacement of C and D waste and 100%
specimen was placed between hinged plates to ensure replacement of M sand, whereas the flexural strength
a hinged-hinged boundary condition, thus facilitating for 50% replacement for the three alternative
a pure bending condition. With the help of another materials has shown good results.
proving ring, a constant normal stress of 0.40 N/mm2
was maintained throughout the experiment. Hence The compressive strength of HCB prisms made from
under the influence of constant normal load, the M sand mortar mix showed higher strength of 10.23
flexural bond strength of the HCB prism was N/mm2 than that of prisms made with natural sand.
determined using the classical bending equation. Masonry prisms made with mortar from the other two
The shear strength test for the hollow concrete block alternatives slag sand and fine aggregates from C and
prisms (triplet) was conducted under the loading
678
Pavan J, et al.
D waste, the compressive strengths recorded was strength of (100%) (50%) (75%)
8.52 N/mm2 and 8.70 N/mm2 respectively. mortar
(N/mm2)
The prisms made with mortar from M sand and slag Flexural 2.09 4.21 2.26 3.02
sand have shown higher flexural strengths of 1.64 strength of (50%) (50%) (50%)
N/mm2 and 1.72 N/mm2 respectively, whereas mortar
prisms with mortar from C and D waste gave (N/mm2)
satisfactory result of 1.39 N/mm2. Compressive 9.72 10.23 8.53 8.70
strength of (100%) (50%) (75%)
Shear strength of triplets exhibited higher results for HCB prisms
all the three alternatives when compared to triplets (N/mm2)
made with mortar from natural sand. Slag sand Efficiency of 82.35 86.66 72.32 73.65
mortar triplets gave 0.35 N/mm2, triplets with C and HCB Prism (100%) (50%) (75%)
D waste showed strength of 0.40 N/mm2 and M sand (%)
mortar triplets exhibited 0.54 N/mm2. MOE of 14689 12417 12598 10518
HCB Prism (100%) (50%) (75%)
Figures 5 to 11 indicate the respective test results (N/mm2)
schematically. The variation in the compressive Flexural 1.48 1.64 1.39 1.72
strength exhibited by the four specimens made with strength of (100%) (50%) (75%)
river sand and alternate mortars are shown in fig 5. HCB prism
Three specimens for each mortar type were tested to (N/mm2)
obtain the stress-strain relationship. Figures 6 to 9 Shear 0.32 0.54 0.35 0.40
present the graphs depicting the relationship along strength of (100%) (50%) (75%)
with the best fit curve drawn to obtain the MOE for HCB prism
each type of the specimen. From the second order (N/mm2)
equations indicated, MOE was thus obtained. Figures
10 and 11 present the flexural and shear bond
strengths obtained from the experimental
investigations on masonry prisms and triplets.
Table 1: Compiled test results (Bracket values

indicate the respective percentage of replacements)
Properties Natu M Sand Slag C and

ral Sand D
Sand Waste
Specific 2.63 2.52 2.47 2.31
gravity
Fineness 2.55 2.64 2.42 2.41
modulus Fig 5: Compressive strength of HCB Prisms
Water 3.80 2.70 2.08 6.28
absorption
(%)
Loose Bulk 1446 1693 1284 1398
density
(Kg/m3)
Rodded Bulk 1620 1878 1392 1490
density
(Kg/m3)
Bulking (%) 40 63.33 40 51.66
Compressive 7.69 20.09 6.85 10.53
strength of (100%) (50%) (75%)
mortar
(N/mm2)
Tensile 0.98 2.73 1.33 1.57 Fig 6: MOE of HCB prism made with 100% Natural
sand in mortar
679
Fig 7: MOE of HCB prism made with 50% Slag sand Fig 10: Flexural strength of HCB Prisms
in mortar
Fig 11: Shear strength of HCB Prisms

Fig 8: MOE of HCB prism made with 75% of fine
aggregates of C and D waste in mortar
The result of sieve analysis shows that the particle

grain distribution of the three alternative materials
lies within Zone-II as per IS: 383-1970.
The various physical properties of alternative
materials gave comparable results with that of natural
sand. The C and D waste has high water absorption
probably due to the presence of composite materials.
The compressive, tensile and flexural strengths of
natural sand mortar mix of 1:6 proportion of 28-days
strength was found to be 7.69 N/mm2, 0.98 N/mm2
and 2.09 N/mm2.
The compressive, tensile and flexural strengths of
Slag sand mortar mix with 50% replacement showed
Fig 9: MOE of HCB prism made with 100% M-sand 28day strength of 6.85 N/mm2, 1.57 N/mm2 and 3.02
in mortar N/mm2 respectively.
The compressive and tensile strengths of M sand
mortar mix with 100% replacement exhibited 28day
strength of 20.09 N/mm2 and 1.33 N/mm2
respectively, whereas the flexural strength with 50%
replacement showed 2.26 N/mm2.
The compressive and tensile strengths for mortar
mix made from C and D waste gave higher results for
75% replacement with 28day strength of 10.53
N/mm2 and 2.73 N/mm2 respectively, whereas the
680
Pavan J, et al.
flexural strength at 50% replacement showed the 6. References

highest result of 4.21 N/mm2.
Based on the compressive strength of mortar mixes,
the optimum percentage replacement of each [1] Mohammed Nadeem, Arun D. Pofale,
alternative was found to be 50% for slag sand, 100% Visvesvaraya National Institute of Technology,
for M sand and 75% for C and D waste. Nagpur, India Experimental Investigation of Using
The masonry prisms of hollow concrete blocks Slag as an Alternative to Normal Aggregates (Coarse
were cast with the optimum percentage replacement and Fine) in Concrete,
of alternative materials. The prisms made with C & D International Journal of Civil and Structural
waste in mortar mix have shown the highest Engineering, Volume 3, No 1, 2012, ISSN 0976
compressive strength (10.23MPa). Prisms cast with 4399.
mortar mixes from slag sand and M sand exhibited
compressive strengths of 8.76MPa and 8.52MPa [2] B. V. Venkatarama Reddy, Department of Civil
respectively. Engineering IISc., Bangalore, India Suitability of
Manufactured Sand as Fine Aggregate in Mortars and
Masonry efficiency of the prisms made with the Concrete, CSIC Project: CP6597/0505/11-330 dated
mortar from alternative materials was above 70%. 5th July 2011.
This is acceptable as it is generally between 50% and
90% for block masonry. The modulus of elasticity [3] Preethi R K, Study on Recycled Aggregates and
obtained for all the three types of masonry prisms its Application in Masonry
have followed the same trend as expected in case of Mortar and Cement Concrete, M.Tech Thesis,
block masonry prisms. Department of Civil Engineering, BMSCE,
Bangalore, India, 2013
5. Conclusions
Based on the experimental work carried out, the [4] Mohamad Gihad et.al , Structural Department,
following conclusions are drawn. Sao Paulo University, Stress-Strain Behavior of
Concrete Block Masonry Prisms Under
Flexural strength of hollow concrete block prisms Compression, 15th International Brick and Block
made from mortar mixes comprising M sand C & D Masonry Conference Florianopolis, Brazil, 2012.
waste resulted in higher strengths when compared
with the results of masonry prisms made from natural [5] IS: 2386-1963, Indian standard methods of test
sand. for aggregates for concrete, Bureau of Indian
standards, New Delhi.
However the shear strength of all hollow concrete
triplets has shown higher results when compared to [6] IS: 2185-1979, Indian standard specification for
the triplets made from natural sand mortar. concrete masonry units, Bureau of Indian standards,
New Delhi.
From the experimental investigation it can be clearly
observed that the three alternatives taken up for the [7] IS: 2250-1981, Indian standard code of practice
study have exhibited satisfactory results. The results for preparation and use of masonry mortars, Bureau
are pronounced when the optimum percentage of of Indian standards, New Delhi.
replacement is adopted for the respective mortar
mixes. It was found that the block masonry made [8] ASTM: C-307, Standard test Method for Tensile
with alternatives exhibited good bond strengths both strength of chemical resistant mortar, grouts and
in flexure and shear. This study clearly indicates the monolithic surfacing, ASTM international, West
suitability of using alternatives to fine aggregates in Conshohocken, PA, 2012.
masonry mortar used for block masonry construction.
[9] IS: 10078-1982, Indian standard specification for

jolting apparatus used for testing cement, Bureau of
Indian standards, New Delhi
681
SMART BUILDING MATERIAL FOR CONSTRUCTION
Harish C1, Sreelakshmi G2, Asha M N 3, I C Lekshmi 4, Manikandan R5
1
Jai Narain Vyas University, Jodhpur
2-3
Department of Civil Engineering,4Department of Chemistry,CMR Institute of Technology,
Visvesvaraya Technological University, Bangalore
5
ACC Limited, Bangalore, India
Tremendous growth in population has led to dense concrete jungles accompanied with dark interiors, and leading to
higher energy consumption within buildings through artificial lighting.Development of new and innovative materials to
meet the ever increasing demand of construction industry without compromising sustainability has always been a
challenge for civil or construction engineers. This paper presents the results of experimental studies carried to
investigate light transmitting potential of masonry blocks embedded with plastic optical fibres. The self-cleansing
potential of TiO2 to enhance the longevity of construction is also investigated.
Keywords: Light transmitting concrete, Optical fibres , Self-cleansing action
1 Introduction Ref. [2] presented an approach to measure, characterize

and simulate photometric performances of light
transmission efficiency of an innovative transparent
Infrastructure development and growth indicates the
concrete panel for faades. In the first part of the paper
progress of the nation and this is the key interest of the
integrating sphere measurements were collected to derive
major entrepreneurs. In a time, when large-scale city and
spectral optical properties of the panel. The optical
town planning is occurring throughout the country,
properties of a specimen were measured for incidence
relevance of energy efficient structures that are eco-
angles between normal and 60 and the spectral results
friendly is a business that runs in several billions of
were reported. The data collected during the measures
rupees. The projected estimate for building sector in
were used to create and validate a simplified Radiance
India is an increase of 80 billion square fts in next 17
model of the panel and to optimize simulation
years. This huge demand in construction industry
parameters to estimate properly the total internal
necessitates the development of new and innovative
reflections effects thought the PMMA resin insertions.
materials which are energy efficient, cost effective and
Ref. [3] discussed the development of Smart transparent
sustainable.
concrete based on its excellent properties of transparent
According to (IGBC) Indian Green Building
and smart sensing. With its usage in the field of smart
Council, 50% day lighting is a mandatory requirement in
construction, we find that it can reduce the power
a green building. Engineers all over the world are
consumption of illumination and use the optical fiber to
experimenting on different construction materials which
sense the stress of structures and also use this concrete as
are energy efficient and cost effective. At present, green
an architectural purpose for good aesthetical view of the
structures focus greatly on saving energy with promising
building. Ref. [4] discussed about the development of a
technology for field applications in civil infrastructure.
light transmitting masonry blocks using plastic optical
Due to economic development and space utilization
fibre, which will help to reduce the consumption of
requirements, high rise buildings and skyscrapers are
electric energy. They concluded that an optical fibre can
mostly built downtown in metropolitan areas around the
be easily combined with masonry blocks and that the
world, especially those countries with great populations.
POF could provide a steady light transmitting ratio. The
Those buildings are isolated biosphere only based on
smart transparent masonry blocks can be regarded as a
man-made lights to maintain peoples optical activities.
green energy saving construction material. Titanium
For example, China consumes 25% of global indoor
dioxide (TiO2) is one of the most commonly used
thermal systems. However, in the area of illumination
building materials. Photo catalysis is the process by
fields, there is very little research offering relevant
which TiO2 oxides the dirt on the surface and prolongs
solutions.
its life time. Heterogeneous photo - catalysis includes a
large variety of reactions. It is thought as one of the new
In Ref. [1] experimental studies using plastic advanced nano-oxidation technologies. Ref. [5] carried
optical fiber (POF) were carried out in masonry blocks out studies on TiO2, and stated that when used in
and its light transmitting and mechanical properties were masonry blocks pavements, it decreases NO
investigated. He stated that POF-based masonry blocks concentration coming out of the vehicle. This self-
use sunlight for illumination, which will provide some cleansing property of TiO2 has made it an ingredient in
relief in the case of daytime power usage for skyscrapers. paints. Ref. [6] assessed the effectiveness of Titanium
682
Harish C, et al.
dioxide as a photocatalytic material for pollutant 3. Laboratory experimental studies

degradation on masonry blocks surface. It also studied
Pilot studies were carried out in 2 stages. In the
the effects of ZnO nano particles on physical and
nascent stage, experimental studies were carried out on
mechanical properties of normal masonry blocks. The
masonry blocks of dimensions 10cmx 10cm x 2 cm
results indicated that TiO2 and ZnO nano particles
using cement and sand in 1:3 proportions. Optical fibers
decreased the compressive strength and permeability.
of 1 mm diameter were used for this purpose in 4
However it increases the long-term properties of
different percentages ranging from 1- 4% of the surface
hydrated cement. Ref. [7] reported that nano coating
area. Preparation of light transmitting blocks is shown in
based on titanium di oxide can be used for architectural
Fig.1. The prepared blocks were then tested for its
stone faces by virtue of its photocatalytic effect.The
transparent properties and compressive strengths.
technology proposed here involves development of smart
Compressive strengths of the blocks were tested in a
masonry blocks having light transmitting capability and
compression testing machine and results are represented
self-cleaning function that render the walling materials a
in Table 1. From the tabulated results, it is observed that
major shift in their functionality. The self-cleaning
the compressive strength of masonry block reduces with
function enable the masonry blocks to retain its colour
the increase in the percentage of fibers. This infers that
for long duration on structures, while light transmitting
the light transmitting masonry blocks can be considered
blocks reduce artificial lighting requirement for the
as a good substitute for non-load bearing walls wherein
interiors built using them. These masonry blocks will
strength is not the major concern.
even enhance the aesthetics of construction and appear
suitable for a developing country like India.
Table 1: Compressive strength for different percentages

of optical fibres.
Optical 3 7 days 28 days

fibre (%) days
by area
0% 25.176 34.256 47.208 Figure 1: Preparation of 10cmx 10cm x 2 cm light
transmitting masonry block
1% 22.991 32.289 43.752
The intensity of light passing through the block is
2% 21.783 31.275 42.731
measured in terms of voltage. The instrument setup
3% 19.208 29.230 40.701 consisted of a solar panel which receives the light. The
4% 17.417 28.012 38.894 volt-meter is connected to the solar panel which shows
the intensity of light in terms of voltage. Fig 2 shows the
2. Characterisation of materials experimental set up for measuring the light intensity.
2.1. Physical characterization

For the experimental studies commercially available
43 grade - ordinary Portland cement was used. The
cement used was characterized with respect to different
parameters such as specific gravity, consistency, initial
and final setting time of cement and grade of cement. In
the experimental studies instead of conventional river
sand, M sand passing 4.75mm IS sieve was used for the
experimental studies. M-sand had a specific gravity of
2.54 and with a fineness modulus of 2.6.
2.2. Titanium di-oxide and optical fibers

For the present experimental studies the TiO2 Figure 2: Experimental set up to quantify the light
powder was purchased from local chemical vendors. transmitted through block
Optical fibers are commercially available of different Firstly, the light is allowed to fall on the solar panel
diameters such as 0.75 mm, 1 mm, 1.5 mm and 2 mm. without the block and the voltage reading is measured as
For the present studies, plastic optical fiber of 0.38 mm 3.25 volts. Then the light passing through the light
was used. transmitting brick is allowed to fall on the surface of
solar and the reading is observed for the different surface
area of the block. Table 2 shows the voltage recorded on
different areas of block.
683
Table 2: Voltages recorded on solar panels Figure 4: (i) and (ii) Optical fibres embedded in
concrete
In the case of light transmitting masonry block,

light gets transmitted through the block and fall on the
solar panel by virtue of total internal reflection. For
different surface areas of the block, an average voltage of
0.6 V was recorded. Experimental results positively
revealed that the addition of fibres increased the light
Figure 5: Top view of plastic optical fibers embedded in
transmittance of the building blocks without
thermocole
compromising on their compressive strengths.
In the later stages, masonry blocks of size 200 mm
100 mm 100 mm were prepared, which are of the same To determine the light transmitted through optical
size as the conventional masonry blocks. The studies fibre modified masonry blocks in terms of lux, luximeter
were carried out with different water-cement ratio such an android based app was used for the experimental
as 0.43, 0.5, 0.55 and different percentage of fibers such studies. Under natural ventilation, light intensity inside a
as 0.02%, 0.03%, 0.04%. Fig 3. Shows the variation of room ranges from 20,000 to 40,000 lux. Similarly, within
compressive strength with fibres. a dark room, a light intensity of 4000-6000 lux was
measured for experimental requirements. A small
percentage (0.04%) of plastic optical fibres when
incorporated, transmitted a light intensity of 1400 lux
near the brick surface, which is further reduced to 300
lumens at a distance of 15 cm from the masonry block as
presented in Fig. 6. The percentage of plastic optical
fibres incorporated in the masonry blocks in the present
study, is very small as against normal percentages of 4-5
% suggested by the researchers in the field.
Figure 3 Variation of compressive strength with fibre

percentage
From the pilot studies it is observed that the

placement of mortar within the block could be done in
ease when the water content is increased. However,
increase in water content has affected the compressive
strength. Accordingly, an optimum water content of 0.55
was selected. Among the two different configurations
presented in Fig 4, the intensity of light transmitted
remained the same for both the configurations. However,
to have a uniform distribution of fibers within the
Figure 6: Variation of light intensity with respect to
masonry block, a configuration corresponding to Figure
distance for200 mm 100 mm 100 mm size bricks
5(ii) was selected. Fig 5 shows the top view of the plastic
optical fibers embedded in thermocole.
Self-cleansing property for the blocks was investigated
by coating titanium dioxide on their surface using doctor
blade method. The sensitivity of TiO2 in removing the
stains created by a natural dye is investigated. Methyl red
solution whose pH ranges from 4.5 6.2 is taken as a
dye and the drops were put on the TiO2 coated
surface.The experiments performed in presence of sun
light showed visible changes in the discoloration of this
organic dye a shown in Fig. 7. Time taken for complete
discoloration of methyl red solution put on the building
684
Harish C, et al.
blocks was noted to illustrate the photo catalytic effect of optical fibres is a promising material for the upcoming
titanium dioxide that neutralizes the acids present in dye years. They also reshape concrete with novel features,
solution and bleaches the drop. thereby transforming the materials for a building.
The potential applications of advanced concrete
materials can be limitless, and it is expected that
commercial production of specialty concrete products
will have a major impact on the economics of India.
Acknowledgments
We extend our acknowledgement to ACC cements Pvt

Figure 7: Reactions showing the discoloration of Methyl Ltd. for the materialization of the idea and
Red acidic solution (diluted) within an hour commercialization of the product.
4. Discussions References
From the experimental studies it is observed that a [1] Zhou, Z., Ou, G., Hang, Y., Chen, G. and Ou, J., ,
very small percentage of optical fibers of 0.04% of March. Research and development of plastic optical
surface area, transmits a light intensity worth 2 lumens at fiber based smart transparent masonry blocks. In
a distance of 15 cm from the face of a wall. But the use SPIE Smart Structures and Materials+ Non
of cement masonry blocks for external walls cause global destructive Evaluation and Health Monitoring (pp.
warming. Hence it is necessary to investigate the 72930F-72930F). International Society for Optics
development of masonry blocks by reducing cement and Photonics, 2009.
content and increasing other sustainable construction
materials such as lime, flyash or stabilised mud. [2] Andrea Giovanni Maininia, Tiziana Polia, Michele
The photo-catalytic activity of the pure TiO2 on the Zinzib, Stefano Cangianoc, Spectral light
surface of the grout was observed through oxidation of transmission measure and radiance model validation
an organic dye (methy red). After keeping the prepared of an innovative transparent concrete panel for
block in sun light, the drops of red wine containing acids faades , Energy procedia, 30 ,1184 1194, 2012.
were added and it was seen that the color of red wine [3] Basma F. Bashbash,Basics of light Transmitting
drops started degrading. Relative humidity plays a vital Concrete,GARJE, Vol. 2(3), pp.076-083,pp 079-
role in these experiments. The reason of that can be seen 083,2013.
in the reaction mechanism. The water vapor in air gives
hydroxyl groups for oxidation. When relative humidity is [4] Juan Shen, Zhi Zhou Some Progress on Smart
zero, the water content inside the catalyst and oxygen Transparent Concrete, Pacific Science Review, vol.
molecules in the air is the determining parameter for 15, no 1, pp. 51-55, 2013.
oxidation. While the water content increase, the photo- [5] Dr. Daniel H. Chen &Kuyen Li, Photocatalytic
catalytic activity of the catalyst is improved. Coating on Road Pavements/Structures for NOx
Abatement, Annual Project Report, Houston
Advanced Research Center and Office of Air
5. Conclusions Quality Planning and Standards, 2007.
The following conclusions can be made from the [6] K. Behfarnia , A. Keivan and A. Keivan The
experimental studies: effects of TiO2 and ZnO nanoparticles on physical
(i) The inclusion of optical fibres did not had any and mechanical properties of normal masonry
detrimental effect in the compressive strength of the blocks , Asian journal of civil engineering (bhrc)
transparent masonry block. vol. 14, no. 4, 517-53, 2013.
(ii) From the experimental studies it is observed that a [7] Jun Chen, Chi-Sun Poon. Photocatalytic activity of
very small percentage of optical fibers , say 0.04% titanium dioxide modified masonry blocks materials
of surface area, transmits a light intensity worth 2 Influence of utilizing recycled glass cullets as
lumens at a distance of 15 cm from the face of a aggregates, Journal of Environmental Management,
wall. 34363442, 2009.
(iii) Application of 1 to 1.5 mm thick TiO2 on the
surface of masonry block render them a self-
cleansing effect by virtue of its photo-catalytic
property.
The smart buildings have great importance in order

to provide a better and healthy environment to the
community Development of masonry blocks using
685
FLEXURAL BEHAVIOUR OF GEOGRID CONFINED CONCRETE WITH

POLYPROPYLENE FIBER
Sherry Rose Jose1 ,Bindu S2
1 TKM College of Engineering, Kollam, Kerala, India

2 TKM College of Engineering, Kollam, Kerala, India
Flexure is the failure mechanism recommended in a beam than shear. This can be achieved by increasing shear strength
capacity by providing confined shear reinforcement in beams in the form of stirrups. Closely spaced stirrups may create
problems related to construction such as congestion of reinforcement, difficulty in concreting and time consuming. The
use of randomly distributed fibers in reinforced concrete is an alternative way to avoid closer stirrups. The fibers act as
crack arresters in the concrete matrix prohibiting the propagation of cracks in plastic state and propagation of cracks in
hardened state. The present study intends to investigate the effect of geogrid confinement in polypropylene reinforced
concrete. Addition of polypropylene fibres alone does not bring improvement in flexural strength and hence geogrid
can be used as confinement to improve the flexural behaviour. Geogrid have high tensile strength and this property can
be used in concrete for confinement, replacing shear reinforcement. Only few studies were conducted in the past to
examine the feasibility of geogrid as flexural reinforcement in concrete beams. Investigation includes casting and
testing of geogrid confined RC beams. Three sets of beam specimens were cast by varying stirrup spacing and tested as
simply supported with two point loading. Geogrid confinement increases the load carrying capacity and improves the
post yield behaviour of beams. The test results prove that geogrid can be used as a partial replacement for shear
reinforcement and thus making the construction works economic and less laborious.
Keywords: Geogrid, Polypropylene fibers, Confinement
1. Introduction
Flexure is the failure mechanism recommended in thus to improve the flexural behaviour of concrete
the beam than shear. This can be achieved by structures, geogrid can be used as confinement.
increasing shear strength capacity. Providing confined Geogrids are strong in tension and this property can be
shear reinforcement in beams is the conventional way used in concrete for confinement, replacing shear
to increase the shear capacity. This increases the shear reinforcement.
capacity up to a certain extent. But it creates a number Geogrids are commonly made
of problems related to construction including of polymer materials, such as polyester, polyethylene
congestion of reinforcement, difficulty in concreting or polypropylene. They may be woven or knitted from
and time consuming. The use of randomly distributed yarns, heat-welded from strips of material or produced
fibers in reinforced concrete is alternative way to avoid by punching a regular pattern of holes in sheets of
closer stirrups [1].Fibers are usually used in concrete to material, then stretched into a grid. In considering rib
control cracking due to plastic shrinkage and due to direction and aperture shape there are three varieties of
drying shrinkage. They also reduce the permeability of geogrid used for reinforcement: Uniaxial, Biaxial and
concrete and thus reduce bleeding of water. Some Triaxial. Uniaxial geogrids possess great tensile
types of fibers produce greater impact, abrasion, and strength in their unidirectional ribs, where as biaxial
shatter resistance in concrete. Higher dosage rates geogrid ribs own tensile strength in both the directions.
however decrease the strength of concrete due to Biaxial geogrid has two ribs, machine direction (MD)
higher volumes of fibers interfering with the ribs and cross machine direction (CMD) ribs and based
cohesiveness of the concrete matrix [2]. Steel fibers are on this criterion they are classified as bi-directional
found to be expensive and higher volume of steel fiber (BD) and uni-directional (UD) geogrid. The strength of
is not recommended because of fiber segregation, fiber geogrid is represented by its tensile strength in
balling and poor dispersion. An alternative fiber is to machine/main direction and is expressed in terms of
be thought of and thus comes the use of polypropylene kN/m. The strength of both the ribs is same in BD
fibers. grids, whereas, the strength of grids in both the
Geogrid is a geosynthetic material used to directions differs in UD [3]. The principal application
reinforce soil and similar materials. Geogrids are of geogrid is to reinforce the loose soil to provide
commonly used to reinforce retaining walls, as well as adequate tensile strength and deformation properties. It
sub bases or sub soil below roads or structures. The also helps to bridge the voids below the load bearing
addition of polypropylene fibers alone into concrete granular layers and in landfill applications. The present
does not bring improvement in flexural strength and study is focused on the use of geogrid as a confining
1
PG student, sherryrosejose@gmail.com
2
Professor, bindusrajagopalan@gmail.com
686
Sherry Rose Jose and Bindu S
reinforcement along with polypropylene fibers in 2.3 RC Beam Specimens

reinforced concrete beam specimens.
Reinforced concrete beams are cast with
2. Experimental Program dimension 150mm x 200 mm x 1650 mm. Beams were
tested after 28 days of water curing. Flexural test is
2.1 Methodology performed under two point loading. Load deflection
pattern, Crack initiation, Crack pattern, Stiffness
The main investigation of present project is to degradation and Ultimate load were determined. The
develop geogrid confined concrete with polypropylene selection criterion of beams is shown in Table 1. Three
fiber. Reinforced concrete beams with varying stirrup sets of beams were cast and it includes:
spacing were cast and tested with two point loading. Conventional reinforced concrete beam
Reinforced concrete beam containing the
2.2 Material Specification optimum percentage of fiber
Reinforced concrete beam containing
From the test results of material properties, mix optimum percentage of fiber and confined
design was done according to IS 10262: 2009 and the with geogrid as shown in Fig. 1
ratio obtained for cement: fine aggregate : coarse
aggregate is 1:1.98:3.85. Conventional concrete was
made in the above proportion with w/c of 0.45 and
0. 6% super plasticizer by weight of cement. Fine
aggregate conforming to zone II and 20mm coarse
aggregate was used. Polypropylene fibers (RECRON
3S) at optimum percentage of 0.15% weight of cement Figure 1: Geogrid confinement in beam reinforcement
and biaxial geogrid with a tensile strength of 120kN/m
in both cross and machine direction were used for the
present study.
Table 1: Selection of beams
Serial Specification Representation
no
1 Conventional beam with stirrup spacing of 120mm c/c S1N
2 Beam with stirrup spacing of 120mm c/c and with optimum percentage of fiber S1F
3 Beam with stirrup spacing of 120mm c/c with optimum percentage of fiber and S1G
confined with geogrid
The beams were designed as under reinforced and two numbers of 8mm diameter HYSD bars of 415
sections as per IS: 456-2000 stipulations. All the beams grade were stirrup holders. Two legged 8mm diameter
have the same dimensions of overall length 1.65m with stirrups at required spacing were provided as shear
effective span of 1.5m, width 150mm and height reinforcement. The spacing of stirrups was varied in
200mm. Two numbers of 10mm diameter HYSD bars each set of beams. The reinforcement details of beams
of 415 grade were provided as tension reinforcement are shown in Fig. 2 to Fig. 5.
Figure 2: Reinforcement details of set 1 beam Figure 3: Reinforcement details of geogrid confined
beams of set 1 beam
687
Figure 4: Reinforcement details of geogrid confined Figure 5: Reinforcement details of geogrid confined
beam of set 2 beams beam of set 3 beams
3.1 Load Deflection Characteristics
Deflection corresponding to each load increment deflection obtained at mid span and at 1/3rd points
at mid span and load point were noted and the load from supports for various series of beams were noted
deflection graphs were plotted. Pre-cracking and Post- down. Based on the observation the load Vs deflection
cracking stiffness were also calculated. The values of graphs were plotted and are shown in Fig. 6 to Fig. 8.
The test results show that there is significant
improvement in the load carrying capacity of beam due
to geogrid confinement. The post yield behaviour has
also improved. Improvement in ductility is negligible
for set1 beam when compared to
set 2 and set 3 beams. The specimen S2G and S3G
allows the formation of cracks but sustains the load for
larger deflection. This property may have achieved
through the geogrid confinement and fiber addition.
This represents the improvement in the ductile
behaviour.
Figure 6: Load deflection curve of set 1 beam
3.2 Pre cracking and Post cracking stiffness
Pre-cracking stiffness is defined as the slope of

load deflection curve drawn up to the point of first
crack appearance and post-cracking stiffness is defined
as the slope of load deflection after first crack. The best
fit line is used to determine the slope. The observed
values of post and pre cracking stiffness are shown in
Table 2.
Table 2: Observed Pre and Post cracking stiffness of

beams
Figure 7: Load deflection curve of set 2 beams
Specimen Pre cracking Post cracking
stiffness(kN/mm) stiffness(kN/mm)
S1N 9.20 2.02
S1F 10.00 5.00
S1G 12.50 5.00
S2N 8.33 2.39
S2F 10.52 5.00
S2G 20.00 5.00
S3N 7.90 2.45
S3F 10.00 5.00
S3G 10.00 4.98
There is an increase of 35.86% in stiffness value

Figure 8: Load deflection curve of set 3 beams due to addition of both fiber and geogrid and 25%
688
increase due to confinement of geogrid alone in set 1 dissipated. In set 2 beams, there is an increase of
beam. There is 140% increase in stiffness due to the 93.84% in energy dissipation due to addition of fiber
presence of both fiber and geogrid and 90.11% and further increase of 153.84% due to the
increase due the confinement of geogrid alone in set 2 confinement by geogrid. In set 3 beams addition of
beams. In set 3 beams, addition of fiber has caused an fiber has caused 35.71% increase in energy dissipation
increase of 26.5%. and 5.26% further increase due to confinement by
Higher the pre-cracking stiffness higher will be geogrid. The best arrangement of geogrid and
the ductility of beam. Pre-cracking stiffness is found to transverse reinforcement for higher energy dissipation
be higher for S2G beam and thus the ductility of S2G is for S2G beam.
beam is higher than other set of beams. Stiffness is
found to be decreasing as the spacing of stirrups 3.4 Ductility Index
increases. This may be due to the reduced amount of Ductility is defined as the ability of deformation
reinforcement in beam. beyond the initial yield deformation without significant
Post-cracking stiffness is comparatively less than loss in strength. Ductility factor () is defined as the
pre-cracking stiffness and this is because of the ratio of ultimate deflection ( u) to the yield deflection
presence of cracks which reduces the stiffness of ( y).
beams. Post-cracking stiffness is found to be increasing = u y (1)
on addition of fiber and this is because of the presence
Ultimate deflection is the deflection
of fiber which prevents the formation of micro cracks
corresponding to ultimate load and yield deflection is
which ultimately lead to macro cracks. The
the deflection corresponding to 0.75 times ultimate
confinement of geogrid does not cause an increase in
load. Ductile behaviour of beam depends upon the post
post cracking stiffness when compared to fiber added
yield behaviour. Energy dissipation and ductility factor
beams and from this we can infer that geogrid does not
represents the post yield behaviour of beam. The
have the property of bridging micro cracks.
ductility index or factor for each beam is shown in Fig.
10.
3.3 Energy Absorption
Energy absorption or Energy dissipation by

beams is considered to be a measure of ductility of
beams. The energy dissipation capacity is also a
significant parameter for the measurement post yield
response of a component. Energy dissipated is found
out by calculating the area enclosed by the load
deflection curve [3]. Energy dissipated in each beam is
shown in Fig. 9.
Figure 10: Variation in ductility index for each beam

The ductility factor is found to be increasing as
fiber is added and further increased by the confinement
by geogrid and this trend may be due to the increased
load sustaining effect of fiber and geogrid. Ductility
factor is higher for S3G beam and S2G beam also have
almost similar value. In set 2 beams, fiber addition has
increased the factor by 17.74% and confinement of
geogrid caused an increase of 36.29%. This increase
may be due to the increased confinement effect due to
Figure 9: Variation in energy dissipation for each beam presence of geogrid. Similar trend is seen in set 3
Energy dissipation is found to be increased on the beams.
addition of fibers and further increased by the 3.5 Ultimate failure load
confinement of geogrid. This trend is seen in all three
sets of beam. In set 1 beams addition of fiber has Ultimate failure load of each beam was noted
caused an increase of 3.82% of energy dissipation and down during experimental test and is shown in Fig. 11.
19.14% further increase due to confinement of geogrid.
The energy dissipation for normal concrete is found to
be decreasing as the stirrup spacing is increased. The
increase in stirrup spacing causes reduction in load
carrying capacity and thus reduction in energy
689
confinement. But when the beams were confined with

geogrid the crack width decreased.
3.7 Crack pattern and failure analysis
The formation of cracks and its pattern were

observed during the testing of beams and were marked
on the surface of beam. The observed crack pattern and
mode of failure is shown Fig. 13 to Fig. 21.
Figure 11: Ultimate failure load borne by each beam. Figure 13: Crack pattern of S1N specimen
Addition of fiber increased the failure load and
confinement by geogrid further increases the same. The
confinement of beam by geogrid helps the beam to
sustain higher loads. On loading the beam, the push
created by concrete is borne by geogrid. In S1G beam, Figure 14: Crack pattern of S1F specimen
geogrid was provided only at the supports and in S2G
beam geogrid was provided completely filling the
space between the stirrups. This property of S2G beam
may have helped it to take up more loads.
In set 1 beam, addition of fiber caused 8.3% Figure 15: Crack pattern of S1G specimen
increase in load and confinement by geogrid at the
support section has increased the load up to 25%.
Similarly in set 2 beams, addition of fiber increased the
load up to 27.27% and 45.45% by geogrid
confinement. In set 3 beams, an increase of 22.67% by
fiber addition and 32.11% by geogrid confinement. Figure 16: Crack pattern of S2N specimen
S2G beam has 6.67% increase in load than S1G beam
and 14.28% than S3G beam.
3.6 Crack width

Figure 17: Crack pattern of S2F specimen
The portions between the middle third points of
beams are subjected to pure bending failure and thus
the crack pattern in the middle-third region is of
importance. The number of cracks formed in each type
of beam is noted. Micrometer having an accuracy of Figure 18: Crack pattern of S2G specimen
0.1 mm is used to measure the crack width of the beam
specimens. The crack width was taken from the first
crack observed till the ultimate load is reached. The
crack width at ultimate load for each beam is shown in
Fig. 12. Figure 19: Crack pattern of S3N specimen
Figure 20: Crack pattern of S3F specimen
Figure 21: Crack pattern of S3G specimen
The amount of shear reinforcement governs the

Figure 12: Maximum crack width for each beam crack formation in conventional control beam
Crack width increases as the stirrup spacing is specimens. The formation of cracks in beam specimens
increased and this is due to the decreased amount of confined with geogrid and polypropylene fibers differ
690
with the level of geogrid confinement. Normally in all Load at first crack is found to be increasing by the
specimens, the first crack initiated at mid span region addition of polypropylene fiber and further
and as the load increases, vertical cracks develop increased by geogrid confinement.
throughout the span till the failure occurs. At final Addition of fiber increases the ultimate load and
stage, multiple micro cracks are also noticed along confinement by geogrid further increases the same.
with the major cracks in geogrid confined specimen. The confinement of beam by geogrid helps the
This nature is intense in S3G specimen, geogrid beam to sustain higher loads.
confined beam in third set as seen in Fig. 20. In S2N In set 2 beams, addition of fiber increased the load
specimen, adequate shear reinforcement is not up to 27.27% and 45.45% by geogrid confinement.
provided and thus shear cracks are formed during In S1G, geogrid was provided only at the supports
loading. The shear cracks are found to be converted to and in S2G geogrid was provided completely
flexure shear cracks on addition of polypropylene fiber filling the space between the stirrups. This
as seen in Fig. 16. It is noteworthy to mention here that property of S2G may have helped it to take up
in beam specimen S2G, the dominance of dense more loads.
flexural cracks is noticed till failure without the Crack width increases as the stirrup spacing is
development of any inclined shear crack. The increased and this is due to the decreased amount
relationship between the stirrups and geogrid of confinement. But as the beams were confined
confinement under flexure can be clearly observed with geogrid the crack width has decreased.
from the failure pattern of beam specimens S3N to Geogrid confinement increases the load carrying
S3G. Due to inadequate amount of shear reinforcement capacity and ductility of beams. The post yield
provided in S3N specimen, shear cracks are dominant behaviour of beams is also improved by the
and these make the specimen brittle. But on addition of presence of geogrid confinement.
fiber and confinement by geogrid, shear cracks are
converted to flexure cracks. The flexure cracks which From the test results it is clear that almost all
have been formed in the earlier stages got diverted on flexural properties are improved by the geogrid
additional loading due to the geogrid confinement and confinement. While comparing the three sets of beam,
thus sustain higher loads. This leads to the inference almost all the flexural properties show a good
that geogrid confinement improves the post yield improvement for S2G beam. S2G beam is the one in
behaviour along with stirrups and polypropylene fibers. which the stirrup spacing was 220mm c/c and
completely confined with geogrid in the space between
4. Conclusions stirrups. Results prove that geogrid can be used as a
partial replacement for shear reinforcement or stirrups.
Flexural behaviour of polypropylene fiber added
geogrid confined RC beam was studied. Reinforced 5. References
concrete beams with optimum fiber ratio and varied
geogrid confinement were tested and the following [1] Dharani, N., Ashwini A., Pavitha G. and Prince
conclusions are made: Arulraj G., Experimental investigation on mechanical
properties of Recron 3s fiber reinforced hyposludge
Pre cracking stiffness is found to be higher for concrete, International Journal of Civil Engineering
S2G and thus the ductility of S2G beam is higher and Technology, Vol 4, pp. 182-189, 2013.
than other set of beams. Stiffness is found to be [2] Meski F.El. and G.R. Chehab, Flexural behavior of
decreasing as the spacing of stirrups increases. concrete beams reinforced with different types of
This may be due to the reduced amount of geogrids, ASCE Journal, Vol 9,pp. 121-126, 2014.
reinforcement in beam. [3] Siva Chidambaram R and Pankaj Agarwal, Flexural
Post cracking stiffness is found to be increasing on and shear behavior of geo-grid confined RC beams
addition of fiber and this is because of the with steel fiber reinforced concrete, Construction and
presence of fiber which prevents the propagation Building Materials, Vol 78, pp. 271280, 2015.
of micro cracks.
The best arrangement of geogrid and transverse
reinforcement for higher energy dissipation is for
S2G beam. In set 2 beams, there is an increase of
93.84% in energy dissipation due to addition of
fiber and further increase of 153.84% due to the
confinement by geogrid.
The ductility factor is found to be increasing as
fiber is added and further increased by the
confinement by geogrid and this trend may be due
to the increased load sustaining effect of fiber and
geogrid. Ductility factor is higher for S3G beam
and S2G also have almost similar value.
691
INFLUENCE OF SILICA FUME ON DURABILITY PROPERTIES OF

CONCRETE WITH FLY ASH
Seshasayee.V1, B.H.Bharatkumar2, P.Gajalakshmi3
1,3
Department of Civil Engineering, B.S Abdur Rahman University, Chennai, 600048, India
2
Advanced Materials Laboratory, CSIR- Structural Engineering Research Centre, Chennai, 600113,
India
The present study aims at evaluating mechanical and durability properties of fly ash concrete and
improving the early age strength using silica fume. The mechanical properties such as compressive
strength (7th, 28th and 56th day), tensile strength (28th day) and flexural strength (28th day) were
determined. The durability properties such as rapid chloride permeability, sorptivity, water permeability
(Germann) and surface resistivity (Wenner probe) were determined at 28 and 56 days. The strength and
durability performance of fly ash (15%) and silica fume (5%) replacement with OPC show significant
improvement at early as well as later ages when compared to fly ash replacement of 20% and 30%. The
increase in the performance by the addition of fly ash and silica fume mixes improves the pore refinement
and triggers the early strength improvement due to higher specific surface area of silica fume.
Keywords: concrete, fly ash, silica fume, durability, chloride permeability
1 Introduction in concrete which increases the porosity of the hardened

cement paste at early agess results in high permeable
The use of mineral admixtures such as fly ash,
paste. Inorder to improve the early age strength, silica
ground granulated blast - furnace slag, silica fume, etc
fume is incorporated in fly ash concrete. This is due to
as part of binders for concrete has been increasing
silica fume has extremely fine particle size compared to
throughout the world, particularly in the production of
average particle size of fly ash. Hence the rate of
high strength and high performance concrete [1-3]. This
hydration of silica fume is higher than those of fly ash
is due to the potential ability of these materials to
[8]. This can be also attributed to the combined
enhance the properties and performance of concrete
influence of acceleration in OPC hydration and the
through their filler effect, as well as pozzolanic reaction
microfiller effect as part of the cement was replaced by
[4]. Most of mineral admixtures are by-product
silica fume, densifying the transition zone, thus
materials; hence, their inclusion in concrete could serve
enhancing the matrix-aggregate bond and increasing the
as an effective means of disposal. Furthermore, their
concrete strength. This significant increase in strength
utilization as mineral admixtures to partially replace
could be due to the pozzolanic reaction between silica
cement could somehow preserve the non-renewable
fume and calcium hydroxide to produce C-S-H. As
resources required for the production of cement, and
more calcium hydroxide is converted to C-S-H, the
hence could somehow contribute to sustainable concrete
strength of the concrete will continue to increase [7].
construction. The inclusion of different mineral
The fly ash particles on reacting with calcium
admixtures, can improve either or both the strength and
hydroxide, produces hydration products that decrease
durability properties of concrete. The resistance to
concrete porosity. Fly ash is used as fine granulates and
chloride, water and air permeation is some of the
upon hydration, becomes suitable for partially
simplest measures to determine the durability of
obstructing voids and pores [9, 10]. At later ages, the
concrete. The penetration of water, chloride and other
concrete mix which is replaced with fly ash exhibit
aggressive ions into concrete primarily governs the
greater strength development than control mix as the
physical and chemical process of deterioration [3, 4].
relative strength continues to increase with curing times
The microstructure of concrete mainly controls the
[7]. There is a significant reduction in relative strength,
physical/chemical phenomena associated with water
with greater and consistent reduction at higher
movements and transport of ions in concrete.
replacement levels of fly ash content [11]. At later ages,
Fly ash normally improves the workability of
the concrete mix replaced with fly ash leads to decrease
concrete, but the early-age strength was reported to be
in coulombs charge passed, due to higher amount of
reduced [5, 6, 7]. This may be due to unhydrated fly ash
pozzolano and proper particle size distribution resulting
1
Student, seshasayee1992@gmail.com
2
Chief Principal Scientist, bharat@serc.res.in
3
Associate Professor, gajalakshmi@bsauniv.ac.in
692
Seshasayee.V, et al.
in lower permeability [11, 12]. At later ages, the high performance concrete where the highest durability
concrete mix replaced with fly ash leads to decrease in and performance is required. This super plasticizer is
capillary ingress of water than control mix [13]. At later free of chloride (i.e.) less than 0.2% and low alkali. It is
ages, the concrete mix replaced with fly ash leads to a light brown liquid with relative density of 1.08 0.01
decrease in the rate of water permeability than control at 25C and possesses pH content 6. In this
mix. At later ages, the concrete mix replaced with fly experimental work, maximum amount of 0.5% of total
ash leads to increase in surface resistivity than control weight of cementitious material is added to attain
mix [11]. The fly ash concrete incorporated with silica desirable workability.
fume shows better performance in strength as well as
durability properties when compared to only fly ash
2.2 Mix Proportions
concrete [7, 8, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15].
It is seen from the literature that the mechanical and The materials were characterized and mix
durability properties of silica fume incorporated in fly proportions was arrived following guidelines given by
ash concrete depends on both the source and type of fly IS 10262:2009 [21] for M40 grade concrete. The final
ash and silica fume. Hence studies were taken upto mix proportions were arrived at after having done many
investigated Class F fly ash and silica fume obtained trials so as to have as slump between 50 to 75 mm at a
from Ennore thermal power plant and ELKEM INDIA constant water-binder ratio of 0.4. For the higher slump
(P) LTD, Mumbai respectively as partial replacement of requirement the dosages of super plasticizer was varied.
cement. M40 grade concrete with replacement of Class The mix design calculations were performed and mix
F fly ash at 15%, 20%, 25% and 30% levels and silica proportions were given in Table 1. The specimens were
fume with a constant replacement of 5% are casted and tested to study the possibility of using fly ash
investigated for their strength, permeation properties, and silica fume as substitute materials for cement in
capillary ingress, surface resistivity and chloride concrete.
penetration resistance. Details of experimental
investigation carried out and the results are discussed in Table 1: Mix proportion used for the concrete
this paper. Mix Cement/Fly Fine Coarse SP
designation ash/Silica agg agg dosage
2 Experimental Work fume for
(Kg/m3) (Kg/m3) (Kg/m3) slump
2.1 Materials 50 to
All the materials used during this experimental 75 mm
programme comply with standard specifications.
Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) 53 grade (Zuari (% of
Cement) conforming to IS 12269:1987 [16] has been binder)
used in this investigation. The cement of specific
gravity 3.15 is determined as per IS 4031 (part 11) 1988 CC 395/0/0 798 1122 0.5
[17] using Le-chatelier apparatus. Standard consistency
of cement was found to be 31% which is determined as FA 20 315/80/0 782 1100 0.2
per IS 4031 (part 4) 1998 [18] using vicat apparatus.
Initial and final setting time for cement was found to be FA 30 275/120/0 774 1089 0.3
160 minutes and 345 minutes respectively which is
FA 15 SF 5 315/60/20 782 1100 0.2
determined as per IS 4031 (part 5) 1998 [19]. Sand finer
than 4.75 mm with specific gravity of 2.67 and fineness FA 20 SF 5 235/140/20 760 1069 0.33
modulus 2.85 conforming to IS 383-1970 [20] was used
as fine aggregate. The coarse aggregate of size 20 mm FA 25 SF 5 275/100/20 771 1085 0.4
and 10 mm with specific gravity of 2.7 conforming to IS
383-1970 was used in this study. Fly ash is finely FA 30 SF 5 255/120/20 771 1085 0.5
divided residue resulting from the combustion of
powdered coal and transported by flue gas and collected
by electrostatic precipitation. ASTM Class F fly ash Water for all mixes = 158 kg/m3
with high silica content of specific gravity 2.05 obtained
from Ennore thermal power plant was used in this Where,
experimental work. Silica fume of specific gravity 2.1 CC Control Concrete
obtained from ELKEM INDIA (P) LTD, Mumbai was FA 20 20% replacement of fly ash
used in this study. Super plasticizers conforming to FA 30 30% replacement of fly ash
ASTM C 494 Type F as a high range of water reducing FA15 SF 5 15% fly ash with 5% silica fume
admixture (Master Glenium Sky 8233) was used. FA20 SF5 20% fly ash with 5% silica fume
Master Glenium Sky 8233 is an admixture of a new FA25 SF5 25% fly ash with 5% silica fume
generation based on modified polycarboxylic ether. The FA30 SF5 30% fly ash with 5% silica fume
product has been primarily developed for applications in
693
2.3 Preparation Of Specimens The compressive strength results at various

replacement of fly ash and silica fume content are
The control mix, mixes with fly ash and silica fume
tabulated in Table 3.
replaced as the cement were made and specimens were
cast. The details of specimens cast are tabulated in
Table 3: Concrete compression test results at 7th, 28th
Table 2. The specimens were kept in mould for 24
and 56th day
hours at room temperature. After 24 hours, the
Mix 7 DAY 28thDAY 56thDAY
th
specimens were demoulded and the water cured for 7
Designation (MPa) (MPa) (MPa)
days, 28 days and 56 days respectively before testing.
CC 43.94 55.80 59.17
After 28 days and 56 days of curing, the concrete
FA 20 36.50 56.60 62.40
cylinders were removed from the curing tank and sawed
using water cooled diamond saw concrete cutter shown FA 30 33.29 51.75 59.87
FA15 SF5 45.05 58.10 64.60
in Figure 1. The cylinder of 100mm diameter x 200mm
FA20 SF5 42.21 54.55 63.00
height was sawed to 100mm diameter x 50mm height.
FA25 SF5 37.54 54.00 62.00
From the cast cylinder, the top 15mm and bottom 35mm
was removed and the remaining portion of cylinder was FA30 SF5 36.06 49.55 53.18
sawed to the specimens of 50mm thick, which is used
for conducting rapid chloride ion penetration test and The compressive strength result of FA 20 was
water sorptivity test. found to be decreased at the age of 7th day than CC.
This can be attributed to the slower rate of pozzolanic
Table 2: Specimen details reaction generated by the OPC hydration. At later ages,
Specimen Size (mm) Test carried out FA 20 exhibit greater strength development than CC as
Cube 100x100x100 Compression the relative strength continues to increase with curing
strength [22] times. This is in aggrement with the finding of Megat
Cylinder 100x200 Split tensile Johari et al [7].
strength [23] The compressive strength result of FA 30 was
Beam 500x100x100 Flexural strength found to be decreased at the age of 7th day and 28th day
[22] than CC. There is a significant reduction in relative
Cylinder disc 100x50 RCPT [24] and strength, with greater and consistent reduction at higher
water sorptivity replacement levels of fly ash content. Similar findings
[25] were observed in Prabakar et al [11].
Cube 150x150x150 Germann water The compressive strength results of FA15 SF5 and
permeability FA25 SF5 shows better strength than FA 20 and FA30
(GWT) [26] respectively. This is due to silica fume has extremely
Cylinder 150x300 Wenner probe fine particle size compared to average particle size of
resistivity [27] fly ash. Hence the rate of hydration of silica fume is
considerably higher than those of fly ash. Similar
RCPT Rapid Chloride Permeability Test findings were reported in Khatri et al [8]. This can also
GWT - Germann Water Permeability Test be attributed to the combined influence of acceleration
in OPC hydration and the microfiller effect as part of
the cement was replaced by silica fume, densifying the
transition zone, thus enhancing the matrix-aggregate
bond and increasing the concrete strength. This
significant increase in strength could be due to the
pozzolanic reaction between SF and calcium hydroxide
to produce C-S-H. As more calcium hydroxide is
converted to C-S-H, the strength of concrete will
continue to increase. Similar inferences were made in
Megat Johari et al [7].
3.2 Split Tensile Strength

Figure 1: Diamond saw cutter
The split tensile test results for seven concrete
mixtures at various replacement levels of mineral
admixtures are tabulated in Table 4.
Table 4: Split tensile test results at 28th day

Mix Designation 28th DAY (MPa)
3 Results and Discussion CC 3.88
FA 20 4.00
694
FA 30 4.10 Table 6: RCPT test results

FA15 SF5 4.71 Mix Charge passed Charge passed
FA20 SF5 5.00 Designation (Coulombs) (Coulombs)
FA25 SF5 4.50 At 28th DAY At 56th DAY
FA30 SF5 4.80 CC 1110 1000
FA 20 600 360
The split tensile strength result of FA 20 was found FA 30 490 430
to be increased than CC, whereas the tensile strength of FA15 SF5 480 270
FA 30 was found to be decreased than CC, which shows FA20 SF5 370 200
similar behavior as compressive strength at 28 days of FA25 SF5 570 290
age. FA30 SF5 320 180
The split tensile strength results of FA15 SF5 and
FA25 SF5 shows better tensile strength than FA 20 and FA 20 and FA 30 leads to decrease in coulombs
FA 30 respectively. The results implore that fly ash and charge passed through the standard sample at 28 days as
silica fume have pronounced effect on the tensile well as at 56 days. With increasing amounts of fly ash in
strength of concrete. In addition, the tensile strength of concrete as partial replacement of cement, RCPT values
pozzolano concretes seemed to be higher than that of were observed to be reduced. This is due to higher
CC, since the grain and pore refinement of concretes amount of pozzolano and proper particle size
resulted from the very high fineness of particles and distribution resulting in lower permeability. Similar
pozzolanic reaction of ashes. This is in aggrement with findings were reported in Prabakar et al [11] and Yatin
the findings of Magudeaswaran et al [14]. H Patel [12].
FA15 SF5 and FA25 SF5 shows that while 5%
3.3 Flexural Strength silica fume replacement leads to a decrease in the
coulombs charge passed than FA 20 and FA 30 at both
The flexural strength test results for seven concrete 28 days and 56 days of age.
mixtures at various replacement levels of mineral
admixtures are furnished in Table 5. 3.5 Water Sorptivity Test
Table 5: Flexural strength test results The sorptivity test results for seven concrete for
Mix Designation 28th DAY (MPa) seven concrete mixtures at various replacement levels of
CC 5.69 mineral admixtures are furnished in Table 7.
FA 20 5.72
FA 30 5.96 Table 7: Sorptivity test results
FA15 SF5 6.40 Mix Initial rate of Initial rate of
FA20 SF5 6.15 Designation absorption absorption
FA25 SF5 6.63 (x10-3 mm/s) (x10-3 mm/s)
FA30 SF5 6.00 At 28th day At 56th day
CC 5.13 2.38
The flexural strength result of FA 20 and FA 30 FA 20 4.90 2.10
was found to be increased than CC, which follows FA 30 3.72 1.77
similar trend as that of compression and split tensile FA15 SF5 2.52 1.36
strength test results at 28 days of age. FA20 SF5 4.14 1.11
The flexural strength results for FA15 SF5 and FA25 SF5 2.40 1.30
FA25 SF5 shows better flexural strength than FA 20 FA30 SF5 4.00 1.10
and FA 30. The flexural strength is found to increase by
the addition of fine grained particle due to increase in Considering the effect of FA 20 and FA 30 when
bond strength as they form a rigid structure. The theory compared with CC on the sorptivity of the samples, it is
behind this is that when these pozzolanos are added to evident that for FA 20 and FA 30 the sorptivity of the
the cement, they react with them and forms a uniform sample decreases than CC at both 28 and 56 days of
paste of concrete and increase the binding capacity of age. This is in aggrement with the findings of Elahi et al
concrete. Similar findings were observed in [13].
Magudeaswaran et al [14] and Khatri et al [8]. FA15 SF5 and FA25 SF5 shows that incorporation
of silica fume leads to decrease in sorptivity at 28 days
and 56 days than FA 20 and FA 30 respectively. This is
3.4 Rapid Chloride Permeability Test due to decrease in capillary rise due to incorporation of
finer silica fume. This enhanced performance could be
The RCPT test results for seven concrete mixtures attributed to better hydration and pozzolanic reaction
at various replacement levels of mineral admixtures are with time. Similar findings were observed in Elahi et al
furnished in Table 6. [13].
695
3.6 GWT Test Results FA 30 68.00

FA15 SF5 69.17
The Germann Water Permeability Test (GWT) FA20 SF5 68.83
results for seven concrete mixtures at various FA25 SF5 89.83
replacement levels of mineral admixtures are furnished FA30 SF5 90.50
in Table 8.
FA15 SF5 and FA20 SF5 gives even better surface
Table 8: GWT test results resistivity than FA 20 and FA 30. This could be due to
Mix Quality of Quality of densification of microstructure and pozzolanic reaction
Designation concrete at 1 concrete at 1 leading to the formation of secondary C-S-H. Both these
bar pressure bar pressure could lead to increase in resistivity. Similar findings
Flow q Flow q were reported in Elahi et al [13] and Fereshteh Alsadat
(x10-4 mm/s) (x10-4 mm/s) et al [15].
at 28th day at 56th day
CC 1.67 1.39 5 Conclusions
FA 20 2.72 1.80
FA 30 3.24 2.39 Based on the limited studies carried out, following
FA15 SF5 1.67 0.98 conclusions can be made:
FA20 SF5 5.65 1.50 1. The specimen with only 20% replacement of
FA25 SF5 1.53 1.14 fly ash shows good results in compressive
FA30 SF5 4.30 1.70 strength at 28 and 56 days than CC. However
the 7 days strength was found to be decreased
The water permeability of concrete decreases with at both 20% and 30% fly ash replacements
the replacement of fly ash content at 28 and 56 days of compared to control mix.
age. This is due to the pozzolanic reactivity of fly ash at 2. The replacement of OPC by 15% fly ash and
later ages. 5% silica fume, strength and durability
Incorporation of silica fume of about 5% with 15% properties of the concrete were improved.
replacement of fly ash content shows lower water 3. The results of durability test such as sorptivity,
permeability results than other combinations of mineral chloride permeability, water permeability and
admixture. It is clearly visible that all the concrete surface resistivity showed that incorporation of
mixes lies in the range of average permeability at 28 silica fume with fly ash has greater effect on
days of age when pressure is applied to 1 bar. improving the durability properties of concrete,
When dealing with the compactness of silica fume which is due to the reactiveness of silica fume.
with fly ash, incorporation of silica fume with fly ash 4. From this study it is inferred that the fly ash
proves to be more compatible combination of mineral and silica fume can be used as sustainable
admixture which improves the durability of concrete. construction material when replaced at
optimum levels as it shows better strength and
3.7 Wenner Probe Resistivity Test Results durability properties.
The wenner probe resistivity test results for seven Acknowledgments

concrete mixtures at various replacement levels of
mineral admixtures are furnished in Table 9. The author would like to thank the Director, CSIR-
FA 20 and FA 30 shows that replacement with fly SERC, Chennai for providing experimental
ash leads to increase in surface resistivity as compared infrastructure for carrying out the research work. The
to CC, which indicates excellent protection against authors would like to thank the staff members of
corrosion. This shows that incorporation of fly ash gives Advanced Materials Laboratory, CSIR-Structural
better durability especially at later ages, since Engineering Research Centre for the support rendered
pozzolanic reaction occurs in a slower rate. The during the experimental works.
resistivity values were observed to be increasing with
increasing amounts of fly ash in concrete as partial References
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697
EFFECTS OF STEEL FIBRE ON SELF COMPACTING CONCRETE WITH

FLY ASH
Gaurav Udgata1, Ashoke Kumar Rath2
1
Faculty Associate, School of Civil Engineering, KIIT University, Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India
2
Senior Professor, School of Civil Engineering. KIIT University, Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India
This era of constructions demands easily usable construction materials which are cost effective and durable.
Self Compacting Concrete (SCC) is also known as Self Consolidated Concrete and is considered as high
strength modified concrete material. The objective of the present work is to study the effects of steel fibres
on the strength and workability of the SCC. A rational method was used for design mix with fly ash.VMA
was used to control the flow properties. The fresh properties were determined for various fractions of steel
fibre by volume. It was observed that steel fibres reduced the flowability of the specimens. Hardened tests
on fibre reinforced SCC were also determined and it was found that the flexural strength and the split-
tensile strength were directly proportional with addition of fibres but the compressive strength reduced after
reaching a peak value. Thus this combination of steel fibres and SCC along with fly ash can become very
innovative for modern constructions.
Keywords: flexural, split-tensile, compressive, flowability, VMA
1 Introduction Advantages of SCC are as follows:-

The initiation of the self-compacting 1. Quicker Construction
concrete (SCC) made a huge step towards 2. Limiting site man power
improvement of efficiency and working conditions on 3. Improved surface finish
construction sites .A low degree of automation of the 4. Comfortable and smooth placing
concrete industry, the durability problems of concrete 5. Enhanced durability
and shortage of laborers forced Japanese researchers to 6. Better freedom in design
think for the future; as a result, SCC was developed 7. Decreased noise level
[Okamura al., 1993]. SCC spreads homogenously,
without any external applied energy, and spreads Since many years SCC has come to practical
without air getting entrapped. The. vibration of applications in major construction areas with different
concrete is eliminated and also other improvements mix proportions as per the requirement. Since the SCC
are gained, e.g. shorter periods of casting, a more is not given any compaction special admixtures are
esthetical appearance of concrete surface and improved added to improve the durability and strength of SCC,
characteristics in the hardened state. Filling capability, which could be achieved when the mix was added with
resistance to segregation and ability of passing are the some Pozzolonas. Pozzolanic material like Fly Ash
key characteristics of SCC. Dense reinforcement was used for this purpose. It was observed that
configurations, architectural concrete and remote compared to the Normal SCC when Pozzolona like fly
casting are applications tailored for SCC. The concrete ash was added to it, the hardened properties of
that is placed successfully without manual compaction concrete was enhanced according to Mahure
or vibration and without segregation of its constituents et.Al(2014).
and also has enough mobility to flow under its own This continued up to few years then research
weight without settlement of its constituents is known was done to increase the strength of concrete with the
as Self Compacting Concrete (SCC). It happens to be a tensile and flexural properties of SCC. Thus fibres
high performance, more reliable and uniform quality came into the action. The bridging nature of fibres
concrete. It flows under its own weight in plastic state helped in the improvement of tensile and flexural
& homogeneity is maintained without having properties of SCC. But the problem arose when the
segregation when dropped from a certain height while fibres reduced the workability of concrete. Since the
filling the formwork and flowing inside the major characteristics of SCC is flowability. These
reinforcement. The following are the types of SCC fibres affected the flowable properties of SCC
mixes:- negatively. The strength was increased when the fibres
1. Powder type SCC were added to the SCC up to a extent and then the
2. VMA type SCC reduction of strength was observed. Hence a optimum
3. Combined type SCC (when the VMA type SCC and quantity of fibres was found from researches which
Powder type SCC are combined) gave the maximum tensile and flexural strength and
also maintaining the compressive strengths of concrete.
698
Gaurav Udgata and Ashoke Kumar Rath
The steel fibre maintains the stress developed due to Pozzolanic reactions were low in early ages when the
dry shrinkage. It restricts the cracks developed in the fly ash volume was high in the composite, but
concrete. considerable effect have been seen in strength when
the specimen age became more than 56 days. Fibres
Applications of Steel Fibre reinforced SCC like Steel fibre and Pozzolonas like fly ash, can
Structural improve the mechanical properties of specimens. The
1. By the use of steel fibre the dry shrinkage can workability characteristics of SCC was enhanced when
be controlled which may be caused due to the volume of fly ash was increased.
high cement to aggregate fraction. Admixture is an important part for fresh and hardened
2. Repairs and patch the concrete structures properties of concrete. The viscosity properties and
where tensile strength is to be enhanced. flowability of admixture increases the fresh properties
3. The span between the columns can be of steel fibre reinforced SCC without much increase of
increased because the buckling strength w/c ratio in concrete. A gain in strength of concrete
increases. was depicted when the w/c ratio was reduced.
4. In concrete by use of steel fibres the ductility
ratio can be increased. 2.1 European Federation of National Associations
Construction Representing for Concrete (EFNARC).
Pile foundations, concrete used for, retaining wall, They define SCC and also provide information on
pump concrete, congested reinforcement member and standards related to testing and to associated
long column constituent materials used in the production of SCC.
The admixture should bring about the required water
2 Literature Review reduction and fluidity but should also maintain its
A study done by Kamran,M. and Mishra,M.(2014) dispersing effect during the time required for transport
gives idea on the type of the cement better for casting and application. Admixtures are an essential
SCC. Three mixes were made for each of component of SCC because they provide it with the
OPC(Ordinary Portland Cement) and PPC(Pozzolona basic nature, the flowabilty and resistance to
Portland Cement) specimens and the fly ash was segregation when dropped from a certain height water
varied at 15%,25% and 35% as replacement. Fresh reduction. The admixtures that are responsible for
properties were looked and the strength consideration modification of the cohesion of the SCC without
was also observed. It was found that OPC had better significantly altering its fluidity are called viscosity
strength and flow properties compared to PPC .25% fly modifying (VMA). There is no standard method for
ash addition to OPC gave the best flowability. SCC mix design and many academic institutions,
Compressive strength and fly ash addition were admixture, ready-mixed, precast and contracting
inversely proportional.15 % fly ash content for the 28 companies have developed their own mix
days compressive strength for OPC mix was 34.12 proportioning methods. These mix proportion are not
MPa and PPC mix was 27.7 MPa. fixed. Some SCC mixes may also be different than this
A research by Mahure et. Al (2014) showed that the range.
SCC mix prepared with 20% replacement of fly ash Table 2.1: EFNARC Guidelines for mix proportion
using OPC grade cement confirming to IS: 8112-1989 Range of Range of
gave an optimum strength for M30 grade concrete. The Constituent Mass Volume
3 3
fly ash added to the concrete helped to reduce the (kg/m ) (liters/m )
micro cracks formed in the structure found by Water/Powder ratio
Bhalchandra, S.A. and Bajirao, P.A.(2012). This may 0.85 1.10
by Volume
be the reason of enhancement of compressive strength.
The rise in compressive strength at over normal SCC at Water 150 210 150 210
7 days is 21.35% and 28 days is 53.49% respectively Coarse aggregate 750 1000 270 360
for 3 % fiber content by volume fraction. There was a
increase from 3.48% to 41.76% at 7 days and from Powder
380-600
4.91% to 34.97% at 28 days in the flexural strength of (Cement &Fly ash)
concrete.
. Fibre gives high strength to the concrete but at Fine aggregate Typically 48 55% of total
the same time also becomes an obstacle for the SCC to (sand) aggregate weight.
achieve its flowability properties. Fibres are generally
parallel to the direction of flow and only few fibres are
perpendicular as suggested by Ponikiewski and
Golaszewski (2013) .The aspect ratio and optimum As per EFNARC some acceptance criteria for SCC
volume fraction of fibre for giving best results in terms have been made with the maximum aggregate size up
of strength was found to be 25 and 1% respectively by to 20mm.However these values are not fixed, future
Rao.B.K,Ravindra,(2010). developments may lead to different requirements being
699
adopted. Some of the typical requirements are shown improved workability retention and allows a large
in the table based on current knowledge and practice. reduction in water content.
Dosage: Optimum dosage of Sika ViscoCrete 2004
Table 2.2: Acceptance criterias for SCC should be determined by lab trials for achieving the
best flowability properties. Recommended dosage: 0.2
Methods Unit Min. Max.
2% by weight of powder i.e. cement and fly ash.
1 Slump flow (D) mm 650 800 Dispensing: Sika ViscoCrete 2004 NS can be
added into the mixing water or directly into the
2 L-box h2/h1 0.8 1 concrete mixer.
3 U-box (h2-h1)mm 0 30
4. Experimental procedures
4 V-funnel sec 6 12
4.1 Mix Proportions
A slump flow diameter of range 500 to 700 mm is
Rational method was used for the design mix of M30
considered as the slump required for a concrete to be
Grade concrete. There is no codal provision of SCC for
accepted as SCC investigated by Fujiwara and
mix proportions. After performing the entire test
Nagataki ( 1995).
following mix proportion was used for the present
study.
3. Materials used in SCC and their properties
Table 4.1: Mix proportions of SCC used
3.1 Cement Proportions by Weight in
Cement used in this project was Ramco Cement. This Materials
weight kg/m3
cement is confirmed to IS8112 and 43 grade. The Cement 1 450
grade is based on the 28-day compressive strength of
the cement mortar (tested as per IS 4031), which is Fine aggregates
1.15 517
atleast more than 43 MPa. (Sand)
Coarse aggregates
2.09 940
3.2 Water (<16mm)
Water used in concrete is required to hydrate cement Fly ash 0.2 90
and other cementitious materials as well as to produce Water/Cement ratio 0.45 202
workability of the mixture.
With different designations according to amount of
3.3 Aggregates Steel Fiber used the mix proportions was finalized. The
Aggregates of size 10mm to 20mm are desirable for mix M0 corresponds to normal SCC without any fibres
structures having congested reinforcement. The added to it. Similarly M1, M2, M3 corresponds to the
maximum size of aggregates is generally limited to mix with 1%, 2%, 3% steel fibres added by volume
20mm. Well-graded cubical or rounded aggregates are fraction.
desirable in SCC because they increase the workability
and do not provide unnecessary frictional forces to the 4.2 Fresh tests on concrete
mobility of concrete. The fresh concrete was prepared according to the
above designated design mix.VMA content was varied
3.4 Admixtures so that the mix comes in the range of acceptance
criteria of SCC. Slump flow test was conducted on the
There are two types of admixtures: mix to check its acceptance criteria for SCC. The
1)Mineral admixtures: distance between the cone and the spread concrete was
Fly ash measured for slump test, but in slump flow test the
Silica fume diameter of the spread was determined. The slumpflow
Stone powder test was carried out for all the four mixes i.e. M0,
Ground granulated blast furnace slag M1,M2,M3 and the values were tabulated.
(GGBFS)
Fibers 4.3 Hardened tests on concrete
2) Chemical admixture: The concrete was prepared according to the above
Shrinkage Reducing Admixtures (SRA) designated design mix. Dry mix should be proper to
Poly-Carboxylate Ethers (PEC) ensure homogenous distribution of steel fibres in the
Air Entering Admixture (AEA) mix and to avoid formation of balls. The admixture
should be added with water and then mixed to dry mix.
Viscosity Modifying Admixtures (VMA)
It should not be vibrated or tamped while putting
inside the mould.
3.5 Admixtures Used
Mixes each for M0, M1, M2, and M3 were
Sika ViscoCrete2004 NS is the admixture that was
casted in 150x150x150 mm cube, 100x100x500 mm
used in Self compacting concrete to enhance the
prism and 150 mm diameter and length of 300 mm
flowable properties .It Imparts very high workability,
700
Gaurav Udgata and Ashoke Kumar Rath
cylinders. Then these moulds were kept in curing

chamber and were taken out for compressive strength, 7 28 7 28 7 28
split tensile strength and flexural strength tests at 7days Days Days Days Days Days Days
and 28 days.
5. Results M0 36.8 56.44 7.15 8.25 4.1 4.26
M1 41.7 60.07 5.1 7 4.36 5.105

5.1 Fresh SCC test results
The slump flow test was carried out and the test results M2 50.2 63.61 7.6 12.05 6.39 6.53
was determined.
Table 5.2: Slump flow test results in mm M3 46.1 57.36 9.55 12.65 7.06 7.24
Mix Slump flow(mm)
M0 700 6. Conclusions
M1 610 The slump flow test results for mixes M0,M1 and
M2 can be accepted as SCC under the criteria
M2 540 mentioned but mix M3 may not pass the
M3 460 acceptance criteria successfully.
The increase in compressive strength was 36.43%
5.2 Hardened SCC test results in 7 days and 12.7% in 28 days over normal SCC
Two specimens each for 7 days and 28 days for all the till 2% fibre addition by volume fraction. A
mixes were subjected to compressive, flexural and split compressive strength of 63.61 MPa was obtained at
tensile strength test. The test results were calculated 28 days at this fibre content. But when fibres more
and the average value was determined. than this fibre content was added a reduction in
compressive strength was observed. The self
compacting properties of concrete at 3% fibre
content did not allow the concrete to get compacted
under its own weight. Excess fibre addition
reduced the workability of the SCC developing
voids inside the specimen and hence the
compressive strength was reduced.
The flexural strength and split tensile strength
increased with the additions of fibres
proportionally. The increase in flexural strength
was 33.5% in 7 days and 53.33% in 28 days over
normal SCC. Increase in split tensile strength was
72.1% in 7 days and 70% in 28 days over normal
SCC.
Fly ash did not much help with the flowability but
it helped in setting of SCC without external
vibration or tamping.
There was not much difference in peak split tensile
strengths of 7 days and 28 days. But the strength
was increased by around 70% compared to normal
SCC due to addition of fibres at 3% by volume
fraction.
Addition of fibres helped to bridge the cracks in the
structures preventing it from cracking. Thus when
the normal SCC was given two point Load of 8.25
MPa during flexural test the prism collapsed into
two parts but when it was reinforced with fibers the
prism got just deflected but didnt collapse at a
Figure 5.1 : Effects of Steel fibre on flexural higher load of 12.65 MPa. Fibres helped to reduce
strength of the beam. deflections.(Shown in Figure)
Table 5.1: 7 and 28 Days Strength results in MPa 3% by volume fraction of fibres firstly did not
Compressive Flexural Split Tensile qualify the SCC acceptance criteria also it was not
Mix much good for practical applications because
Strength Strength Strength
addition of fibres increased the dead load of the
structure which was not considered safe and
701
economical The flexural strength 12.65 MPa (28 European Federation for Specialist
days) and split tensile strength 7.24 MPa (28 days) Construction Chemicals and Concrete
developed at this fibre content was nearly same to systems. Norfolk, UK February 2002.
the strength developed at 2% fibre volume fraction 9) The European Guidelines for Self
i.e. 12.05 MPa as flexural strength and 6.53MPa as Compacting Concrete, Specification,
split tensile strength for 28 days. Already from the Production and Use. May 2005.
results we found that 2% fibre content gives
maximum compressive strength .It has 11% more
strength than strength at 3% fibre content. Hence it
can be concluded that 2% of steel fibre addition by
volume is the optimum content to achieve the best
mechanical properties of fibre reinforced SCC
which will be safe for the structure in practical
application and economical delivering a high
strength.
Future Work
The properties of Fibre reinforced SCC can be studied
by varying different types of fibres like propylene,
glass fibre, hybrid fibre, etc
References
1) Nagataki S, Fujiwara H. In; Malhotra VM,
editor. Self-compacting property of highly
flowable concrete, Vol. Sp 154.American
Concrete Institute: 1995. P. 301-14.
2) Bhalchandra, S.A. and Bajirao,P.A.(2012),
Performance of Steel Fiber Reinforced Self
Compacting Concrete, International Journal
Of Computational Engineering Research 2(4)
. 1042-1046
3) Rao.B.K,Ravindra,(2010) Steel Fiber
Reinforced Self Compacting Concrete
Incorporating Class F Fly Ash International
Journal of Engineering Science and
Technology 2(9), 4936-4943
4) Kamran,M. and Mishra,M.(2014) Behaviour
of SCC Using PPC and OPC with different
composition of fly ash. IJRET: International
Journal of Research in Engineering and
Technology,3(9) 342-345
5) Mahure, J.K., Mohitkar, V.M., Ravi.K (2014)
Effect of Fly Ash on Fresh and Hardened
Properties of Self Compacting Concrete. I
JESRT International journal of engineering
sciences & research technology 3(2) 944-948
6) Elangovan G. and Kumaravel V.K.A(2013)
Evaluation of Self Consolidating Steel Fibre
Concrete (SCSFRC) & Its Fresh Properties
IOSR Journal of Mechanical and Civil
Engineering (IOSR-JMCE) 10(02) 06-10
7) Ponikiewski,T. and Golaszewski,J.(2013]),
Steel Fiber reinforced Self compacting
concrete for Optimal rheological and
Mechanical Properties on the precast beams.,
Concrete and Concrete Structure 2013
Conference., 290- 296
8) EFNARC. Specification and guidelines for
self-compacting concrete, English edition.
702
703
Investigation on characteristics of Spinacia oleracea as an Innovative Internal

curing agent in combination with Self-Compacting admixtures.
Rampradheep G.S1., Dr.Sivaraja M2., Dr.Geetha M3., Saranya R4., Sathish R4., VigneshV4., Kavin G4.,
Gayathiri K4., Balaji M4., Divya R4
1
Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, Kongu Engineering College, Erode, Tamil
Nadu, India - 638 052. gsramcivil34@gmail.com
2
Principal, N.S.N. College of Engineering and Technology, Karur, Tamil Nadu, India- 639603.
m.shivaraj2006@gmail.com
3
Principal, CSI Polytechnic College, Salem, Tamil Nadu, India- 636007.
geethacsi@yahoo.co.in
4
Students, Department of Civil Engineering, Kongu Engineering College, Erode, Tamil Nadu, India
1
- 638 052.
Abstract
Exploratory study made on Spinach also termed as SpinaciaOleracea, a Self-Curing agent in Self-Compacting Concrete
is unveiled in this paper. Here, the study was made for natural self-curing agent in-built with water reducing and
viscosity based admixtures like Super Plasticizers and Viscosity Modifying agent in the brand name Master Glenium
Sky (MGS) 8233. Fixed 2% based on cement weight was used throughout the study incorporated with self-curing
admixtures. The main notion behind the usage of Spinach as a Self-Curing agent is the presence of bond water in and its
effective presence of hydroxyl and ether group in a chemical structure of Spinach family. The design grade of concrete
was fixed as M40 and its manufacturing procedure for such modern concrete was entirely based on trial and error and
its end results were compared with the EFNARC specifications. Outcome from other commonly used curing agent such
as Poly-Ethylene Glycol (PEG) [1,2] and conventional methods are collated with the payoff from Spinach[3,4]. The
sample test results have been given which splash the behaviour of internal curing agent under a designed laboratory
conditions. Initially the agent used for robotic curing purpose was studied to examine its water holding capacity
analysis. Here for the special case, explanatory results were appraised using Fourier Transform Infra Red (FTIR)
spectrum analyzer. Different tests were conducted to determine the workability properties, mechanical properties,
microstructural properties and durability properties of the concrete. Test such as compression test, split tensile test and
flexural test were conducted to determine the mechanical properties of concrete. Tests on bond of Spinach with concrete
matrix, Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) Analysis, Water Sorptivity and shrinkage were carried out. Results show
that alike Poly-Ethylene Glycol (PEG),Spinach is also an effective curing agent and improves the cement hydration,
compressive strength, diminishes shrinkage and accelerates the durability of concrete whereas the conventional methods
need improvement. Their outcomes are found to be satisfactory as per IS standards, EFNARC specifications and ASTM
codal provisions.
Keywords
Spinach, Poly-Ethylene Glycol (PEG), Viscosity, Sorptivity, Shrinkage.
1. Introduction problems with these mixtures is their tendency to

Over the last few decades, a great deal of interest has undergo early age cracking. While this cracking may or
been shown in the study of making concrete better by may not compromise the compressive strengths of
the process of incorporating specifically engineered these concretes, it likely does compromise their long
ingredients and simulating the methods of batching and term durability. The phenomenon of early age cracking
mixing. Compared to traditional concrete, modern is complex and depends on thermal effects, autogenous
types of concrete are highly advantageous in as much strains and stresses, drying stress relaxation. Structural
as they provide good workability in the fresh state, detailing and execution was dealt at length by Lura et
possess high strength and low permeability. However al (2001), Shah et al (1998).
these types of concrete have also shown to be more Concrete with internal curing may also have evolved
sensitive to early age cracking than traditional concrete. from the concept of self-curing concrete, which is
High performance concrete, falling into the category of based on the introduction of a chemical admixture that
the so-called modern concrete, is essentially is able to reduce water evaporation by a retaining
characterized by a cement matrix with low function. The addition of a self-cure chemical based on
water/cement ratio (w/c), often including mineral a water-soluble polymeric glycol lead to improved
additions like silica fume and the use of admixtures as durability of concrete cured in air, which was pointed
super plasticizers, Bentz et al (1999). One of the major out by Dhir et al (1995). However, the performance of
such admixture does not attain the efficiency of the use of water retaining agents should not be seen as
water film curing as discussed by Hewlett (1998). The internal curing, since it is conceptually based in the
704
Rampradheep G.S, et al.
internal sealing rather than internal curing. The latter The spinach leaves were obtained naturally from the
consists of a water curing agent capable of enhancing agriculture land and it was cleaned well using normal
cement hydration maintaining optimal curing water. The chemical extract and the molecular structure
conditions. Moreover, the selection of a specific curing of spinach were shown in figure 2. The presence of OH
method is highly dependent on the actual design ions observed using FTIR analyzer for spinach extract
constraints as stated by Taylor (1997). In either case, was shown in figure 3.
there are many examples that require other form of
curing procedures rather than the traditional or external
curing methods, e. g. high strength concrete applied in
submerged pipe systems within oil platform structures.
In high performance concrete, capillary discontinuity
may significantly delay and even limit the water
movement throughout the system. This makes the use
of water ponding or other external curing methods
inefficient in assuring the continuous internal moisture
of the material. In this case, the use of internal curing
methods may be required to counteract autogenous
deformation. As there is only little experience on the a. Chemical Extract
practical use of internal curing methods to improve
early-age properties of high performance concrete, the
subject constitutes great challenge to technicians and
industrialists of the modern age.
2. Experimental Investigation
b. Molecular structure
2.1 Materials used
The concrete was cast with basic ingredients of OPC Figure 2.SpinaciaOleracea
53 grade confirms to IS: 12269-2013, Class F Fly ash
based on ASTM C 618 and aggregates that confirm to
IS: 383-1970. Potable water free from salts was
adopted to mix the concrete ingredients for the design
mix. Spinach was used as a natural curing agent and
the outcomes were compared with Poly-Ethylene
Glycol (PEG), the existing curing agent and the
conventional cured concrete which involves Full /
Immersion Curing (FC) and Sprinkler Curing (SPRC).
Figure 1 shows the hydroxyl ion presence for PEG
under FTIR.
a. Extract separation
Figure 1.OH ion presence for PEG

b. FTIR output
2.2 SpinaciaOleracea Figure 3. Presence of OH ion for SpinaciaOleracea

per EFNARC identification [11] to gain medium strength
Self-Compacting concrete of grade M40. In this work,
2.3 Mix Proportion contrary percentage of fly ash content was achieved for
each trail. The divergent percentage of fine aggregate
The mix constitution was designed to convince all with regard to total weight of aggregate was believed
performance norms of the concrete in both fresh and for each trail mix. The percentage of MGS impelled to
hardened stages. Here, the four trails were acquired as all mix proportions was kept 2% as static. The collation
705
of materials used for each trail mix is designed in the

Table-1. Each divergent percentage of two Self-curing
agents was impelled to all four trail mix to survey the
best trail mix constitution. So, totally twenty four trail
mix constitutions were tried out in this study. For each
four trails, conventional concrete was cast without
impelling self-curing agent and cured by conventional
method. PEG and SpinaciaOleracea (SO) were
impelled to the concrete mix as a percentage of weight
of cement. For a basic trial, the percentage of each
curing agents in the order were assumed at 0.2%, 0.5%
and 0.7% for PEG and SO, and its individual effects
under each mix has been observed with conventional
concrete under full / immersion cured and sprinkler
a. Full / Immersion curing
cured concrete.
Table 1. Mix proportion
Trial Cement Fly Fine Coarse Water

Mix kg/m3 Ash Aggregate Aggregate kg/m3
kg/m3 kg/m3 kg/m3
1 435 145 720 760 180
2 445 155 740 810 180
3 470 130 730 760 180
4 460 140 790 720 180
2.4 Casting, Curing and Testing of Specimens

For verifying the ability of concrete on horizontal flow,
filling and to assess the extent to which concrete is b. Sprinkler curing
subject to blocking slump flow and T50, V funnel, L
box and U box tests were conducted based on the
guidelines for self- compacting concrete given in
EFNARC specification. Concrete specimens were cast
to perform significant tests such as Compressive
strength for cube of size 150 mm, Split Tensile
Strength for cylinder of size 150 mm diameter and 300
mm height and Flexural strength of prism of size 500
mm x 100 mm x 100 mm. All the specimens were
tested at the age of 28 days. PEG (Polyethylene
Glycol) and (SO) Spinacia oleracea were used as
internal curing agents and the specimens were left free
to the atmospheric temperature after casting without
curing. (FC) Full curing or Normal conventional curing
and (SPRC) Sprinkler curing were used for comparison
of the results and the curing was continued for 28 days. c. Self-curing
In sprinkler curing method the water was sprinkled on
the cubes at a time interval of 3 hours. Figure 4 Figure 4. Different profiles of curing
indicates the different conditions of curing made at a
constant temperature of 30 !C.
Figure 5 shows the durability tests such as water
sorptivity for concrete specimen of size 50 mm
diameter and 100 mm height and tested as per ASTMC
1585 O4e1. The test was made upto 3 hours at a time
interval of 30 minutes. Here, the side faces of the
specimen was coated with epoxy to protect the ingress
of moisture to inside and out from the specimen.
Drying shrinkage was carried out based on ASTM C
596 O9e1. Figure 6 shows the shrinkage tests.
706
curing concrete possess 22% increase in workability

behaviour than conventional concrete under full curing
and 36% under sprinkler curing averagely. But all the
values from various concrete types gets satisfied as per
EFNARC specifications. Even though the conventional
concrete under both curing types falls within the range,
the ultimate sustainability depends on the internal
matrix of the ingredients as it based on the moisture
holding capacity by the curing agents.
3.2 Outcomes from Mechanical and Durability Test
Table 3. Mechanical and Durability Results

Figure 5. Water Sorptivity Test
Mechanical properties at 28 Days Durability Properties
Compression Split Flexural Water Drying

Concrete Strength Tensile Strength Sorptivity Shrinkage
Type (N/mm2) Strength (N/mm2) at 180 at 240 Days
(N/mm2) mins. (mm)
(g /
sq.mm ) x
0.0001
PEG 44.5 3.68 5.62 9.9 0.20
SO 43.8 3.45 5.48 10.2 0.20
FC 45.2 3.98 6.26 19.2 0.68
SPRC 39.6 3.22 3.98 22.7 1.20
Figure 6. Drying shrinkage Test From Table 3, it was cleared that concrete with internal
curing agents behaves superior mechanical properties
than conventional concrete under sprinkler curing. It
was noticed that internal curing concrete possess
10.31% increase in strength behaviour than sprinkler
3.0 Results and Discussions cured concrete and a very slight reduction in strength
percentage of 2.3% was observed for self-cured
The optimized percentage was found from trial mix 4 concrete than full cured concrete. In concern with
and the test results for workability, mechanical, durability properties on water sorptivity, the self-cured
durability and microstructure properties were given in concrete possesses greater reduction in bottom
Table 2 and Table 3. All the self-cured specimens were permeation than conventionally cured specimens. It was
compared with conventional cured specimens. examined that nearly 56.38% permeability increase was
occurred for sprinkler cured specimen which was a
3.1 Outcomes from Workability Test major drawback in the view of concrete sustainability.
The shrinkage value was 83.33% less for self-cured
Table 2. Workability Results specimen than sprinkler cured specimen which shows
the first-string performance of natural curing regime in
Concrete Slump T50 cm V L Box U
Type Flow Slump Funnel (H2/H1) Box the conventional concrete.
(mm) Flow (secs) (H2-
(secs) H1) 3.3Micro structural Properties
mm
PEG 720 3 7.2 0.82 10 The internal arrangement of the structure of concrete
SO 710 3 8.5 0.84 9 for Self-cured and Conventional cured specimens was
shown in figure 8. The perfect bond between the
FC 690 4 10.4 0.94 15 ingredients was obtained for the concrete with self-
SPRC 700 4 10.6 0.92 17 curing agents and the weakest bond could be observed
for the concrete without curing agents. ITZ (Interfacial
Transition Zone) was well protected by the
incorporation of automatic curing agents, the presence
From Table 2, it was cleared that concrete with internal of OH ions make the concrete to prevent from self-
curing agents behaves appreciable workability than desiccation.
conventional concrete. It was noticed that internal
707
But the condition is reverse for the conventional References

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709
A STUDY ON PROPERTIES OF COPPER SLAG AS PARTIAL

REPLACEMENT OF FINE AGGREGATE WITH DIFFERENT
PERCENTAGES IN CONCRETE
J.USHAKRANTI1, DR.K.SRINIVASU2 AND A.NAGASAI3
1,2. Department of Civil Engineering, R.V.R.&J.C. College of Engineering, Guntur, A.P., India.
3. Department of Civil Engineering, Aditya College of Engineering, Kakinada, A.P., India.
ABSRACT
In this paper, an experimental work was conducted to study the effect of using copper slag as a fine aggregate on the
properties of concrete. For this work, Copper slag, a byproduct of copper production, contains large amounts of iron oxide
and silicate and it is chemically stable. In this present study, an experimental work was conducted on M30 grade of concrete
has been used for the entire study and several concrete mixtures were made with fine aggregate is replaced by Copper Slag
from 0 to 100% (0%, 10%, 20%, 30%, 40%, 50%., 60%, 80%,&100%). On the hardened concrete, mechanical properties
such as compressive strength (7& 28 days), split tensile strength (28 days) and flexural strength (28 days) were determined.
Also the assessment of water absorption test was conducted. Moreover, Non-Destructive Test (NDT) methods such as
Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity (UPV) and Digital Schmidt Rebound Hammer (RH) tests are also determined. Based on the
experimental results, both mechanical properties and NDT techniques, the results are favorable for concrete with industrial
wastes and the obtained results were compared with those of control concrete made with ordinary Portland cement and
sand.
The results obtained for concrete given that replacement of copper slag increases the self weight of concrete
specimens to the maximum of 15-18%. The results given that surface water absorption increased at 40% copper slag
replacement. Based on the experimental results, for the NDT techniques, the results are favorable for concrete with
industrial waste like copper Slag and also superior to control concrete. Hence, it is recommended that copper slag can be
used as a sand replacement in order to get a concrete with good strength and durability requirements.
Key words: Copper Slag, Compressive strength, Flexural strength, split tensile strength, non destructive tests, water
absorption test.
1. Introduction billion tons of sand and gravel every year. The amount of
Concrete is a very strong and versatile sand being mined is increasing exponentially, but
mouldable construction material. It consists of cement, overuse of the material has led to environmental
sand and aggregate (e.g., gravel or crushed rock) mixed concerns, the depleting of river sand deposits and an
with water. The cement and water form a paste or gel increase in the price of the material. The developing
which coats the sand and aggregate. country like India facing shortage of good quality natural
sand.
Utilization of industrial waste materials in
concrete compensates the lack of natural resources,
1. Asst.Professor (research scholar),
solving the disposal problem of waste and to find
usha.jujjuri@gmail.com alternative technique to safeguard the nature. There are
2. Professor, kota.srinivasu@gmail.com number of industrial wastes used as fully or partial
3. Asst.Professor, replacement of coarse aggregate or fine
ayinala.nagasai.civil113@gmail.com aggregate. Bureau of Indian Standards, the National
On its own, concrete has excellent resistance to Standards Body of the country, considering the scarcity
compression (crushing). Most of Structural concrete of sand from natural sources, has evolved number of
elements can be formed into a variety of shapes and sizes alternatives which are ultimately aimed at conservation
and resistance to high temperatures. Apart from water of natural resources apart from promoting use of various
and air, humble sand is the natural resource most waste materials without compromising in quality. use of
consumed by human beings. People use more than 40 these alternative materials such as fly ash, slag, not only
710
J. Ushakranti, et al.
help in conserving our precious natural resources but also grade concrete was used and different percentage
improve the durability of structures made using these. replacement of sand by granulated copper slag were 0%,
Copper slag is one of the materials that is considered as a 10%, 20%, 30%, 40%, 50% and 60%.The results of
waste material which could have a promising future in compression & split-tensile test indicated that the
construction industry as partial or full substitute of either strength of concrete increases with respect to the
cement or aggregates. Copper slag is mainly used for percentage of slag added by weight of fine aggregate
surface blast-cleaning. Copper slag is just one of many upto 40% of additions. The recommended percentage
different materials that may be used as abrasive grit. replacement of sand by copper slag is 40% but when
used beyond 50% results in decrease in strengths. Daniel
1.1Literature review: C, Joel Shelton J etal [7] studied on Investigation on
strength properties of self compacting concrete with
Bose Christy Arun and Preethi Ramaswamy [1] studied copper slag as fine aggregate for M25 grade concrete,
on Properties of concrete partially replaced with copper from the experimental results, it was observed that the
slag as fine aggregate and ceramic tile waste as coarse compressive strength, split tensile strength and flexure
aggregate & concluded that, concrete with 40% Copper strength of concrete can be improved by partial
Slag content as fine aggregate and 10% Ceramic tile replacement of fine aggregate with copper slag and was
waste yielded best results both in strength and found that 60% replacement gives optimum results. J.
durability.(40% Copper Slag-0% Ceramic Tiles) had the Ramesh Kumar, K. V. Ramana [8] studied on Use of
highest chloride penetration indicating high durability. copper slag and fly ash in high strength concrete, given
S.Kalaiyarasi, A. Krishna Moorthy [2] worked on that Concrete mixes were tested for workability, density,
Experimental investigation on copper slag concrete compressive strength, tensile strength, flexural strength.
observed that by partially replacing sand with copper slag The workability of concrete increases with the increase
up to 40%, the compressive strength of concrete of copper slag content in concrete mixes. This increase in
increased. The compressive strength was compared with the workability with the increase of copper slag quantity
control concrete. Compare the strength in 40% is due to the low water absorption characteristics of
replacement of copper slag at 7, 28, and 60 days. M. V. copper slag the density of high strength concrete with the
Patil, Y.D.Patil [3] investigated on Effects of copper slag increase of copper slag quantity. The density of concrete
as sand replacement in concrete, for this research work, was increased by almost 6%. It is recommended that 50
M30 grade concrete was used and tests were conducted % of copper slag can be used as replacement of sand and
for various proportions of copper slag replacement with 18% fly ash can be used as replacement of cement in
sand of 0 to 100% in concrete. Mr. Neel, P.Patel etal [4] order to obtain HSC with good fresh and mechanical
Effect of copper slag replaced with fine aggregate on properties. Kiran Kumar M S, Raghavendra Naik[9]
durability properties of concrete, Test results shows that worked on Experimental study on utilization of industrial
the durability properties of concrete has improved in wastes (red mud and copper slag) in mortar, The
sorptivity and water absorption but it should not able to experimental work includes the following 2 parts: Part I:
resist in RCPT and Accelerated corrosion test and result Investigating the effect of replacing a part of the cement
of acid attack and Sodium chlorine attack concrete mix binder with red mud in Mortar. Blended cement samples,
shows weaken strength and considerable weight loss six in number are prepared with replacement of cement
which having copper slag as a partial replacement of by RM with increment of 5 percent (i.e. 5%, 10%, 15%,
sand (up to 40%) in concrete. When copper slag replaced 20%, 25%&30%). Part II: To study the effect of Red
with sand 40% it shows considerable high compressive mud & Copper Slag (Replacement to Fine Aggregate) on
strength than Conventional Concrete mix (CC). compressive strength of mortar. In the second part of
M.Velumani, Dr.K.Nirmal Kumar[5]studied on their investigation, fix the Copper Slag waste as constant
Investigation on the Mechanical and Durability (10%) replacement to fine aggregate and vary the Red
Properties of Concrete using Fly Ash and Copper Slag Mud ( 5, 10, 15, 20,25 and 30%) replacement to cement,
and observed that In durability studies, Rapid Chloride for the mix proportion 1:3 and tested for compressive
Penetration test, Water Sorptivity Test and Water strength in the compression testing machine at different
Absorption test showed significant resistance to chloride ages: 3, 7 and 28 days. Copper slag is replaced by 20 %,
penetration, Sorptivity and water absorption. The reason 40 %, 60 %, 80 % and 100 % of sand simultaneously
for significant improvement in compressive strength and with mineral admixture i.e., 5% to 30% of cement in the
durability could be attributed to pozzolanic activity and increment of 5 percent to study compressive strength,
filler effect over the cementitious matrix effectively. density, split tensile strength and corrosion properties. It
Momin Aaquib, Jha Nilesh, Tanveer Ahmed etal is noticed that compressive strength of the concrete
[6]studied on effect of copper slag as a sand replacement produced by replacing 10% cement by silica fume and
on the properties of concrete, this study reports the 20% natural sand by copper slag shown the higher value
potential use of granulated copper slag. In this work M40 as compared to other replacements. The concrete which
711
was subjected to chloride attack/accelerated corrosion M30 grade concrete was used and the tests were
had shown 32.67% increase in the compressive strength conducted for different replacement of fine aggregate
for the above said replacements as compared to reference using copper slag as 0% , 10%, 20%, 30%, 40%, 50%,
mix. The concrete which was subjected to accelerated 60%, 80%, and 100% in concrete. The obtained results
corrosion has shown 22.22% increase in the split tensile are compared with the control concrete made with fine
strength for the above said replacements observed by aggregate.
Vishwa B Tipashetti, Shreepad Desai [10] in their studies Tables 1, 2 &3 shows the physical, chemical properties
on Evaluation on accelerated corrosion properties of the and specific gravities of copper slag.
concrete produced by replacing sand by copper slag.
Table1: Physical properties of copper slag
1.2. MATERIALS USED
Cement: Property Typical Values
Generally Portland cement, Ordinary Portland Cement Colour Black, glassy
(OPC) is by far the most important type of cement and Grain Shape Angular,
other cementitious materials such as fly ash and slag Mutifaceted
cement, serve as a binder for the aggregate. The cement Hardness 7Moh
used in this study is of OPC 53 grade conforming to code Specific Gravity at 3.61
IS: 12269. 25C
Water: Bulk Density at 1.75tonnes/m3
Water is mixed with this dry composite, which produces 250C
a semi-liquid that workers can shape (typically by pH 7.0
pouring it into a form). The concrete solidifies and Conductivity at 4Ms/m
hardens to rock-hard strength through a chemical 25C
process called hydration. The water reacts with the Weight raise on 4%
cement, which bonds the other components together, ignition
creating a robust stone-like material. The good quality Moisture content <0.1%
water is used in this study.
Coarse Aggregate: Table2: Chemical properties of copper slag
The aggregate size bigger than 4.75 mm, is considered as
coarse aggregate. It can be found from original bed Constituent Percentage
rocks. Coarse aggregate are available in different shape
Silica 25-35%
like rounded, Irregular or partly rounded, Angular, Flaky
etc. It should be free from any organic impurities and the Free Silica <0.5%
dirt content was negligible. Alumina (Al) 2-9%
Fine Aggregate: Iron Oxide 45.55%
The aggregate size is lesser than 4.75 mm is considered Calcium Oxide 2-9%
as fine aggregate. The sand particles should be free from (CaO)
any clay or inorganic materials and found to be hard and Magnesium Oxide 1-5%
durable. (MgO)
Copper slag: Copper Oxide 0.7%
Copper slag, which is produced during pyrometallurgical (CuO)
production of copper from copper ores, contains Sulphates 0.2%
materials like iron, alumina, calcium oxide, silica etc.
Chlorides 0.003%
Copper slag is a by-product of copper
extraction by smelting. Slag that is quenched in water Table3: Specific gravities of copper slag
produces angular granules which are disposed of as waste
or utilized. In this project, Copper slag used is brought Percentage of copper Specific
from Sterile Industries India Ltd, Hyderabad. The slag gravity
chemical traces such as copper, sulphate and alumina 0 2.620
present in the slag are not harmful. 10 2.583
20 2.777
1.3. Objective of this study: 30 2.780
The objective was to investigate the effect of partial and 40 2.845
full replacement of fine aggregate with copper slag on 50 3.065
the strength and behavior. In this experimental study, 60 3.092
712
70 3.290 9.070 8.810 2.951

80 3.410 5 80% 9.270 9.140 1.422 1.347
100 3.610 9.130 9.040 0.995
9.290 9.205 0.923
2. Experimental Procedure: 9.700 9.505 2.051
6 100 9.560 9.310 2.685 2.612
2.1: Mix Proportions: % 9.630 9.345 3.049
Mix proportions were adopted as per IS-10262-2009. For 9.370 9.270 1.078
test specimens 53 grade port land cement, natural river 9.890 9.543 3.636
sand and coarse aggregate, copper slags from plant are
being used. The experimental work was done for the From table.4, it was observed that the slag admixed
concrete showed lesser water absorption value than
study of destructive and non destructive tests of concrete
control concrete, when copper slag replace with sand
with partial replacement of fine aggregate by the copper up to 40%. Beyond 40%, the segregation and bleeding
slag for M30 grade of concrete. effect of copper slag concrete increases there by
increasing the value of water absorption.
2.2: Compressive Strength
The compressive strength of concrete was determined by 2.4: Non-destructive test methods:
conducting tests on 150 mm x 150 mm x 150 mm cube In the hardened concrete, the Nondestructive tests like
specimens were casted and cured for 7 and 28 days. The Rebound hammer test & Ultrasonic pulse velocity test
test was carried out in the compression testing machine were carried out as per IS: 13311.
of 2000kN capacity. The cubes were placed in the
compression testing machine and the load was applied 2.4.1 Rebound hammer test:
until the failure of the specimen. The average values of A Schmidt hammer, also known as Swiss hammer or a
three samples were taken as strength. rebound hammer, is a device to measure the elastic
The compressive strength of the cubes after replacing the properties or strength of concrete or rock, mainly surface
fine aggregate by 0%, 10%, 20%, 30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, hardness and penetration resistance. The hammer
80% and 100% with copper slag was studied for 7 & measures the rebound of a spring-loaded mass impacting
28days. Similarly Split Tensile Strength of Cylinders and against the surface of the sample. The rebound values can
Flexural Strength of Prism were studied for 28days. be used to determine the compressive strength.
2.3: Water absorption test:
Table4: Results for Water absorption test
S.No Mix saturated weight of Saturated

ID specimen Oven dried water
Table 5: Results for Rebound hammer test
s(Kg) specimens absorption test
(Kg) at 28 Days (%)
Copper Rebound Rebound Compression
1 CC 8.390 8.093 3.678 3.620
Slag Strength Value Strength
8.470 8.175 3.608
added
8.430 8.115 3.881 0% 59 34 53.7 45.2 780 700
8.260 7.995 3.314 20% 41.5 73.5 48.2 57.2 1400 1420
2 20% 8.830 8.612 2.531 2.897 40% 38 90 46.8 60.3 1080 1200
8.570 8.208 3.153 60% 65.5 63 55.4 54.7 1380 1000
8.440 8.170 3.304 80% 31 43 43.7 48.7 1050 1000
8.640 8.421 2.600 100% 44.5 56.5 49.4 53 1020 1240
3 40% 9.190 8.830 4.077 4.343
9.190 8.815 4.254 2.4.2 Ultrasonic pulse velocity measurement:
8.980 8.580 4.662 The ultrasonic pulse velocity measurement is the
measure of quality of concrete. It is mainly related to its
8.700 8.335 4.381
density and modulus of elasticity which in turn, depends
4 60% 9.130 8.930 2.246 2.410
upon the materials and mix proportions used in making
9.200 8.915 3.196
concrete as well as the method of placing, compaction
8.930 8.820 1.247 and curing of concrete.
713
REFERENCES:
1. Bose Christy Arun and Preethi Ramaswamy,

Table 6: Results for Ultrasonic Pulse wave Velocity Properties of concrete partially replaced with copper slag
test as fine aggregate and ceramic tile waste as coarse
aggregate, Indian Journal of Science and Technology,
Copper Distanc Tim Pulse Average Quality ISSN (Online):0974-5645 Vol 9(5), DOI:
Slag e mm e ( wave Pulse of
10.17485/ijst/2016/v9i5/87198, February 2016.
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60% 150 31.9 4.702 4.739 Excellent replacement in concrete, international journal of
150 31.4 4.777 Engineering and technology (ijet), e-ISSN : 0975-4024,
80% 150 33.2 4.518 4.588 Excellent
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100% 150 29.9 5.017 6.673 Excellent
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and Research Development, e-ISSN : 2348-4470 p-ISSN
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the Mechanical and Durability Properties of Concrete
The replacement of fine aggregate using copper slag in
concrete increases the density of concrete thereby using Fly Ash and Copper Slag, Asian Journal of
increases the self weight of the concrete. Research in Social Sciences and Humanities Vol. 6, No.
8, August 2016, pp. 1009-1025. ISSN 2249-7315 A
The workability of concrete increased with the increase
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6. Momin Aaquib, Jha Nilesh, Tanveer Ahmed, Bhavsar
The highest compressive strength was achieved at R.S., Effect of copper slag as a sand replacement on the
28days by 10% replacement of copper slag. The highest
properties of concrete, International conference on
split tensile strength was achieved at 28days by 40%
replacement of copper slag compared with nominal mix emerging trends in Engineering and management
and the highest flexural strength was achieved at 28days research ISBN: 978-81-932074-7-5, 23rdMarch,2016
by 20% replacement of copper slag compared with
nominal mix. 7.Daniel C, Joel Shelton J, Vincent Sam Jebadurai S.
investigation on strength properties of self compacting
Saturated water absorption at 28 days is 4.343 by concrete with copper slag as fine aggregate for M25
replacement of 40% copper slag grade concrete, International Journal of Engineering
The rebound hammer test revealed the uniformity of Research and General Science ISSN 2091-2730 Volume
concrete and their compressive strength. 4, Issue 1, January-February, 2016.
The ultrasonic pulse velocity test indicated the excellent 8. J. Ramesh Kumar, K. V. Ramana, Use of copper slag
quality of concrete at 20% replacement level. and fly ash in high strength concrete, International
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2319-7064, Volume 4 Issue 10, October 2015.
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9. Vishwa B Tipashetti, Shreepad Desai, studied on Concrete Mix Design, Bureau of Indian Standards, New
Evaluation on accelerated corrosion properties of the Delhi, India.
concrete produced by replacing sand by copper slag,
International Journal of Engineering Research & Science 19. IS: 13311 (Pat 2) - 1992, Methods of non-destructive
(IJOER) [Vol-1, Issue-4, July- 2015]
testing of concrete Rebound Hammer.
10. Kiran Kumar M S, Raghavendra Naik[9],
20.Pranshu Saxena, studied on experimental study on
Experimental study on utilization of industrial wastes
(red mud and copper slag) in mortar, International mechanical properties of M30 concrete with partial
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Vol.3., Issue.4., 2015 (July-Aug). fume and copper slag volume: 04 issue: 05 May-2015
11.J.Swathi, Ms.V.Gnanadevi, An experimental 21. Dharani.N, PrinceArulraj.G, Goutham.J, Mechanical

investigation on concrete by partial replacement of properties of concrete with industrial wastes, IJRET:
copper slag for fine aggregate and ceramic waste with International Journal of Research in Engineering and
coarse aggregate International Journal of Emerging Technology eISSN: 2319-1163 pISSN: 2321-7308,
Technology in Computer Science & Electronics
(IJETCSE) ISSN: 0976-1353 Volume 13 Issue 4 Volume: 04 Issue: 03 Mar-2015.
MARCH 2015.
12. Er. Harpreet Singh, Er. Gurprit Singh Bath,

Influence of copper slag as fine aggregate on the
workability and compressive strength of concrete,
International Journal of Advanced Research in ISSN:
2278-6252 Engineering and Applied Sciences Vol. 4 |
No. 5 | May 2015.
13. T.Ch.Madhavi, P.V.R.Pavan Kumar, Jothilingam.M,

Effect of copper slag on the mechanical strengths of
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containing waste copper slag as a fine aggregate
replacement, 14th International Conference on
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3-5 September 2015.
15. M.Venkateswarlu, GS Harish Kumar, Strength and

durability characteristics of conventional concrete by
partial replacement of copper slag as fine aggregate
16.Binaya Patnaik, Seshadri Sekhar, Srinivasa Rao

Strength and durability properties of concrete having
copper slag as a partial replacement of sand (fine
aggregate), IJRET: International Journal of Research in
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2321-7308- 2015.
17. Shetty M.S., Concrete Technology Theory and

Practice, S. Chand & Company, New Delhi.
18. IS: 383-1970, Specification for coarse and fine

aggregates from natural sources for concrete
715
PREDICTION OF STRENGTH OF 3D SANDWICH WALLS UNDER GENERAL

LOADING: A REVIEW
P Poluraju1, G Appa Rao2
1,2
3D sandwich precast concrete walls are often used in building construction due to their superior
performance, thermal efficiency, and speed of construction. In this paper the axial compressive and in-
plane lateral strengths of 3D sandwich panels predicted by models by different codes and other
researchers have been reviewed. The Indian and ACI code provisions along with other empirical
expressions developed for estimating the axial load carrying capacity of solid walls are compared for
their suitability. The behaviour of slender cantilever walls is well understood, and the codes of practice
provide clear steps for practicing engineers. On RC squat walls, only limited investigations are
reported despite their promising behavior under seismic loading. The current design practices for in-
plane lateral strength prediction in Euro code 8, ACI 318, Euro code 2, and Corley and Hanson (1973)
guidelines established for solid walls have been discussed. Influence of axial load on the in-plane
lateral strength of walls has been reported along with the shortcomings of various codes and other
available equations to predict the axial compressive and in-plane lateral strength of walls.
Keywords: 3D sandwich walls, squat walls, slender walls, axial compressive load, in-plane lateral load
1 Introduction
Sandwich wall panels are accepted as building elements This system comprises of galvanized steel mesh
worldwide for accomplishing speedy and intensive incorporated with an expanded polystyrene (EP) insulation
building construction. These wall panels are formed by layer in between. The skeleton of the above system is
two concrete layers on either of the face with embedded positioned vertically, and layers of concrete cover
steel welded mesh, separated by an interior layer of shotcreted on either of the vertical faces. These walls gain
expanded polystyrene (EP). 3D steel wires (i.e. steel strength and stiffness by steel connectors in the third
connectors) enable transfer of vertical interface shear by direction stitched and welded to the galvanized steel mesh
improving the composite behaviour [7]. 3D action is on either side. This arrangement ensures a tie-up action,
achieved by piercing the steel wires through EP for better which offers stiffness with a perfect composite action [13].
strength and integrity. The diameter () of steel wire used Numerous construction techniques adopted for achieving
in the fabrication of welded mesh is 2.0 mm or 2.5 mm low cost, limited installation time, adequate flexibility and
with an ultimate tensile strength of 650-880 N/mm2. 3D high energy/acoustic efficiency have been attempted over
panel is a good alternate element for building walls [6]. the years for accomplishing large-scale intensive
Acceptance of such 3D sandwich walls as load-bearing programmes for low-rise residential buildings worldwide
elements is gaining momentum recently due to more [8,14]. The structural systems comprised of 3D sandwich
viable products from the manufacturers. Architects and squat walls, which utilize substantial material (e.g. EP) as
engineers are comfortable with the superior performance filler, instead of void in structural concrete. Indeed, these
as structural and energy absorbing elements using 3D systems permit attaining outstanding structural, thermal
sandwich panels [12]. The structural behavior of 3D and acoustic effectiveness. Since the conventional
panels is governed by substantial strength and stiffness of concrete ensures the load resisting capacity, whereas the
steel diagonals whereas the thermal resistance of the layer weightless material to ensure thermal and acoustic
regulates the insulation capacity of walls (Benayoune protection. Squat 3D sandwich walls deserve specific
2003). 3D Sandwich panels are used for external and investigations not only due to their global geometrical
internal load bearing and non-load bearing walls and for squat configuration and also due to essential
building floor constructions. characteristics (i.e. cross-sectional depth, reinforcement
_______________________________________________ ratio, practical aspects, etc.), which entirely differ from
1
Research Scholar, rajupolup@gmail.com those of the conventional ones. 3D Sandwich panels are
2
Professor, garao@iitm.ac.in used in the construction of external and internal load
716
P Poluraju and G Appa Rao
carrying and non-load bearing walls and building floors of 3D sandwich walls, the geometrical properties of few
all types of construction. This system comprises of a walls has been adopted and given in Table 4. The total
galvanised steel mesh incorporated with an EP insulation. thickness of concrete is considered as equal to either of
The walls are positioned vertically and wythe of concrete wythes of 3D sandwich wall. The walls are designated as
is prepared on either side. Extensive theoretical and WP1 and WP2 for unstiffened squat and slender walls
experimental investigations have been accompanied on the respectively, SWP1 and SWP2 for stiffened squat and
strength and displacement capacity of reinforced concrete slender walls respectively, NR represents no longitudinal
shear walls since the 1960s [8]. reinforcement, WR refers to the walls with longitudinal
reinforcement, AC stands for axial compression, Mo
2 Research significance stands for Monotonic load, Cy stands for Cyclic load,
H represents wall height, B represents width, t stands
Applications of 3D sandwich walls have been gradually for total thickness, t1 represents thickness of each
increasing in civil engineering construction due to their concrete layer, t2 represents EP thickness, c represents
efficient structural and environmental advantages. Despite concrete cover, and represents % of longitudinal
the fact that these elements are being extensively in reinforcement. As longitudinal and transverse
practice, characterization of such material is lacking reinforcement in both wythes, square welded zinc coated
through experimental research. This study attempts to galvanised steel mesh of 2.5 mm diameter wire with 50
predict the ultimate capacity of 3D sandwich squat and 50 mm (currently in use) openings were used. The steel
slender walls under axial compression, monotonic and diagonals provided along full height of the wall were used
cyclic loading using existing models. As far as RC squat to connect the internal and the external concrete layers, so
walls are concerned; only limited and latest investigations that wall behaves as a composite structure. The steel
are available regardless of their promising seismic diagonals are composed of 2.5 mm diameter zinc coated
response. The slender structural wall system is capable of galvanized steel wires twisted to an inclination of 450.
resisting lateral loads. Its seismic behaviour is not known, Lightweight expanded polystyrene (EP) was used as
as there are no provisions for seismic resistance. The insulation material in the core as it is inexpensive and
present study facilitates comparison of existing code easily available. The EP sheet broke into parts and
provisions like ACI, IS, EC 2 and EC8 and proposed introduced among internal, external layers and steel
design equations for RC solid walls to verify their diagonal. M20 grade of concrete was considered.
applicability for sandwich walls.
3.1 Axial load effect
3 Strength prediction-Code Provisions
Constant axial load influences the behaviour of wall by
Not many theoretical models have yet been developed to delaying the initial cracking and yielding of reinforcement.
predict the axial, shear and flexural capacity of 3D Tests conducted by [15] showed the importance of the
sandwich walls due to complexity of several mechanisms intensity of axial loads on the response of single story
and their interactions involved. Various empirical shear walls under in-plane lateral loads. The occurrence of
expressions developed by researchers and provisions of an axial load of 1200 kN, which results in a compressive
various national codes of practice on RC walls are stress about 20% of prism compressive strength, changed
explained in Tables 1, 2, 3. The main aim of comparison the failure mode from ductile flexure to brittle shear mode
of equations is to verify the applicability of these empirical with much degraded brittle deformation in the post-peak
formulae for 3D sandwich walls. region. In the experimental investigation by [16], three
In case of axial strength, the chosen expressions can be masonry walls that had the same dimensions and
utilized to estimate the axial strength of walls, with some reinforcement details were subjected to varying axial
modifications, considering slenderness function from ACI compressive stress. As far as the 3D sandwich walls are
(Eq. 3), and removing factors of safety on concrete and concerned, the above described effect can be adopted.
steel in IS 456 (Eq. 5). The main idea of gathering the Failure under in-plane flexure is due to crushing of
shear and flexural strengths equations is to verify the concrete at the compressed toe. The width of compressed
applicalility of these empirical formulae for sandwich zone is less for small axial forces, resulting in increased
walls. opening of flexural cracks and wall tends to develop a
Further more, for comparison and verification of mechanism of rigid body rotation.
existing models on axial, shear and flexural strengths of
717
Table 1: Summary of axial strength prediction models
Codes Equations Remarks Equation

Number
Saheb and Desayi kH 2 H
Aspect ratio H/L (1)
(1989 and 1990) Pu = 0.55f Ac f cu + ( f y - f cu ) Asc 1 - 1.2 - <2.0
32t (10 L )
kH
2 Aspect ratio H/L (2)
Pu = 0.55f A f
c cu + ( f y - f cu ) A
sc 1 - 2.0

32t
ACI 318-89 Slender function (3)
klc
2
Pu = 0.55f f c' Ag 1 - klc 2

32h
1 -
lc Effective height 32h
k 0.8 for fixed end condition
1.0 for hinged end condition
Benayoune et al. kH
2 (4)
(2007) Pu = 0.4 f cu Ac 1 - + 0.67 f y Asc

40t
IS 456-2000 kH
2 (5)
(clause 39.3) Pu = 0.6 f ck Ac 1 - + 0.77 f y Asc

32t
Table 2: Summary of shear strength prediction models
Codes Equation Remarks Equation

Number
EC 8 (6)
Vcu = 0.06 f c ' (1.2 + 40 )bw z
1
Vsu = [ (as - 0.3) + v (1.3 - as )] f bw z
h yd (7)
1 Ratio of tension reinforcement A
r1 = s =
bw
not more than 0.02
z 0.8 lw Lever arm
h and v lateral and longitudinal reinforcement ratios
fc cylinder compressive strength
fyd yield stress of rebar
ACI 318-08 (8)
Vn = Ac (a c fc' + fy)
h
c 3.0 for hw /lw 1.5, 2.0 for hw /lw 2.0 and varies linearly
between 3.0 and 2.0 for hw /lw between 1.5 and 2.0
Corley and Vu = (Vc + Vs )lw h (9)

Hanson (1973)
Nu
Vc = 3.3 f c' + (10)
4lw h
Vs = r h f y
(11)
Nu Axial load
h Thickness of the wall
718
Table 3: Summary of flexure strength prediction models
Codes Equation Remarks Equation Number

EC 2 (12)
Vu = 0.18* k (100 r1 f ck ) + s a bw d
1
3
(13)
Vmin = 0.035k
3 1
2
f ck2
k 200
k = 1+ 2.00
d
M = 0.3 f ck( 3 ) M 50 / M 60
2 (14)
f
M = 2.12 ln 1 + cm > M 50 / M 60 (15)
10
f cm = f ck + 8(Mpa)
1 Ratio of tension reinforcement As
r1 = =
bw
not more than
0.02
fc Concrete cylinder strength (16)
Corley and Hanson Vu = (Vc + Vs )lw h
(1973)
Nu
Vc = 3.3 f c' + (17)
4lw h
Vs = r h f y
(18)
Nu c
= 0.5 As f y lw 1 + 1-

Mu
A
s fy l w (19)
Nu Axial load
h Thickness of the wall
Table 4: Details of 3D sandwich walls
H B t t1 t2 c
Groups Wall H/B H/t (%)
(mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm)
WP1-NR-AC 1250 1250 150 1 8.33 50 50 35 0.17
Group I
WP1-WR-AC 1250 1250 150 1 8.33 50 50 35 0.97
WP2-NR-AC 3750 1250 150 3 25 50 50 35 0.17
Group II
WP2-WR-AC 3750 1250 150 3 25 50 50 35 0.97
SWP1-NR-AC 1250 1425 150 0.87 8.33 50 50 35 0.23
Group III
SWP1-WR-AC 1250 1425 150 0.87 8.33 50 50 35 0.92
SWP2-NR-AC 3750 1425 150 2.63 25 50 50 35 0.23
Group IV
SWP2-WR-AC 3750 1425 150 2.63 25 50 50 35 0.92
WP1-NR-Mo 1250 1250 150 1 8.33 50 50 35 0.17
Group V
WP1-WR-Mo 1250 1250 150 1 8.33 50 50 35 0.97
WP1-NR-Cy 1250 1250 150 1 8.33 50 50 35 0.17
Group VI
WP1-WR-Cy 1250 1250 150 1 8.33 50 50 35 0.97
WP2-NR-Mo 3750 1250 150 3 25 50 50 35 0.17
Group VII
WP2-WR-Mo 3750 1250 150 3 25 50 50 35 0.97
WP2-NR-Cy 3750 1250 150 3 25 50 50 35 0.17
Group VIII
WP2-WR-Cy 3750 1250 150 3 25 50 50 35 0.97
SWP1-NR-Mo 1250 1425 150 0.87 8.33 50 50 35 0.23
Group IX
SWP1-WR-Mo 1250 1425 150 0.87 8.33 50 50 35 0.92
SWP1-NR-Cy 1250 1425 150 0.87 8.33 50 50 35 0.23
Group X
SWP1-WR-Cy 1250 1425 150 0.87 8.33 50 50 35 0.92
SWP2-NR-Mo 3750 1425 150 2.63 25 50 50 35 0.23
Group XI
SWP2-WR-Mo 3750 1425 150 2.63 25 50 50 35 0.92
SWP2-NR-Cy 3750 1425 150 2.63 25 50 50 35 0.23
Group XII
SWP2-WR-Cy 3750 1425 150 2.63 25 50 50 35 0.92
719
600
Vn+Vu,axial (ACI 318)
Predicted shear strength (kN)

4 Comparison of models
500 Vu,Corley and Hanson
In case of axial strength, comparison has been made with Vu,cal (EC8)
the axial strength models such as Saheb and Desayi (Eqs. 400
1,2), ACI (Eq. 3), Benayoune (Eqs. 4) and IS code (Eqs. 5).
In ACI equation, steel contribution is not taken in to the 300
account. IS equation is sufficient to estimate the axial
strengths of 3D sandwich wall among all other equations, 200
because this equation is formed with combination of both 100
concrete and steel contribution as well as incorporaed
slender function adopted from ACI equation. The 0
comparison of axial design strengths shown in Figure 1.
From Figure 1, compared to ACI, proposed equation Saheb
(Eq. 1.2) gives conservative ultimate strengths as it
incorporated (H/L) in ACI equation. Underestimation of
shear strength by Saheb and Desayi is 31-43%, by ACI is Wall panel designation
39-49% and by Benayoune is 29-32% when compared to Figure 2: Comparison of shear design strengths
IS code equation for all walls subjected to axial does not indicate the presence of axial tensile loading on
compressive loading. The ACI equation underestimates the the wall (although not clearly stated in EC 8, Vcu = 0 should
strength by 3-21% when compared to Saheb and Desayi
equation, where as 10-28% underestimation of strength also be taken for zero axial load). As typical values of 1
compared to Benayoune prediction equation for all wall range from 0.01 to 0.02, it was clear that EC8 (Eq. 6) shear
strength Vu is more conservative than ACI value for total
4000 960
Predicted Flexural strength (kN-m)
Pu,Saheb
3500 Mu,cal (EC2)
Pu,ACI 800
Predicted axial strength
Pu,Benayoune Mu,corley
3000
Pu,IS 456 640
2500
2000 480
1500 320
1000 160
500 0
0
Wall panel designation Wall panel designation

Figure 1: Comparison of axial design strengths Figure 3: Comparison of flexural design strengths
subjected to axial compressive loading. shear strength, calculated by ACI equation (Eq. 8). Note
that, in contrast with ACI (Table 2), the concrete
In the case of shear strength prediction, comparison contribution in EC 8 (concrete contribution part) is
has been made with shear strength models. EC 8 equation independent of the aspect ratio. Outside the potential plastic
(steel contribution part) implies that for as (aspect ratio) = hinge, an additional concrete contribution proportional to
1.3, only horizontal web reinforcement was contributing to the stress equal to 15% of axial compressive loading can be
the shear strength, whereas for as 0.3, only the vertical added to EC 8 equation (concrete contribution part). No
reinforcement was resisting the shear; both types of web such increase is provided in the ACI code procedure.
reinforcement are effective for 0.3 < as <1.3. In The American design procedure depends on the shear
comparison, ACI 318-08 [Eq. 8] simply requires that for strength of concrete beams [3], developed by two
aspect ratios hw/lw < 2.0, the vertical reinforcement ratio contributions. One portion was the shear resisted by
should not be less than that of the horizontal. EC 8 equation concrete, and another portion was the shear resisted by web
(concrete contribution part) applies only when analysis rebar ratio. Web rebar ratio was required only for that
region of total shear that crosses the limit of shear resisted
720
by concrete. The shear stress, Vc, attributed to concrete in a References

wall of thickness, h, may be taken as equation given in
1. ACI 318-89, Building code requirements for reinforced
Table 2. The contribution of reinforcement ratio to shear
concrete, 1989.
capacity of concrete beams based on the truss analogy.
2. Benayoune, A., Precast concrete sandwich panel as a
Applied to shear walls, this contribution is taken in nominal
building system, Ph.D. thesis, Department of Civil
shear stress, Vs, and the horizontal shear reinforcement
Engineering, University of Putra, Malaysia, 2003.
ratio, h.
3. Corley, W.G. and Hanson, J.M. Design of Earthquake-
Among all above models, EC 2 code equation (Eq.
resistant structural walls. Fifth World Conference on
12,13) is more appropriate to estimate the shear capacity of
Earthquake Engineering, Rome, 933-936, 1973.
3D sandwich walls. In Corley and Hanson equation, the
4. European Committee for Standardization (CEN)
aspect ratio has not been taken in to account. The
Eurocode 2: design of concrete structures: part 1:
comparison of shear strength prediction is shown in Figure
general rules and rules for buildings. European
2. From Figure 2, it is observed that the overestimation of
Committee for Standardization, 2002.
shear strength by ACI equation is 3-37% and Corleys
5. European Committee for Standardization (CEN)
equation, is 21-39% when compared to EC 8 for all squat
Eurocode 8: Design of structures for earthquake
walls subjected to in-plane lateral load. The ACI and
resistance-Part 1: General rules, seismic actions and
Corleys equations estimate the shear strength for 3D
rules for buildings, 2004.
sandwich walls more or less same.
6. EVG Report, A Brief Introduction into the EVG-3D
In the case of flexural strength, the comparison has
Panel Constrcuction System (Changing Construction
been made with the flexural strength models. Among all
Methods Worldwide)-Report on 3D panel, 2010.
above models, EC 2 code equation is more appropriate to
7. Gara, F., Rangi, L., Roia, D. and Dezi, L. Experimental
estimate the flexural strength. EC 2 and Corleys equations
tests and numerical modelling of wall sandwich panels,
estimate the flexural strength of 3D sandwich walls more or
Engineering Structures 37, 193204, 2012.
less same (Figure 3).
8. Hidalgo, P.A., Ledezma, C.A. and Jordan, R.M.
Seismic behaviour of squat reinforced concrete shear
5 Conclusions walls. Earthquake Spectra, Vol. 18(2), 287308, 2002.
9. IS 456:2000, Plain and Reinforced concrete - codes of
A careful interpretations of predicted results using different
practice, 2000.
models leads to specific conclusions which are summarized
in a rather qualitative manner as below: 10. Madina Sahed, S. and Prakash, D., Ultimate strength of
1. The predicted ultimate axial strength of 3D sandwich RC wall panels in one-way in-plane action, Journal of
walls using ACI, and Saheb and Desayi, and Benayoune Structural Engineering ASCE, Vol. 115, p. 2617-2630,
proposed equations underestimate the strength when 1989.
compared to IS equation. 11. Madina Sahed, S. and Prakash, D. Ultimate Strength f
2. Predicted lateral load carrying capacity of 3D sandwich RC Wall Panels With Openings. Journal of Structural
walls using ACI 318 and Corleys equation overestimate Engineering ASCE, Vol. 116, p. 1565-1577, 1990.
the strength when compared to EC 8 equation in all 12. PCI Committee Report, Precast Concrete Sandwich
categories of walls except squat stiffened walls with Wall Panels, State of the Art of Precast/prestresses
longitudinal reinforcement. This is may be due to Sandwich Wall Panels, PCI Journal 42(2), 92-133,
provision of additional longitudinal reinforcement. 1997.
3. Lateral load carrying capacities of 3D sandwich walls 13. Salmon, D.C. Full scale testing of precast concrete
predicted using EC 8 and Corleys predictive equations sandwich panels, ACI Structural Journal, Vol. 94, 354-
and considering axial load effect are more or less same. 362, 1997.
4. The lateral load carrying capacities of 3D sandwich walls 14. Salonikios, T., Tegos, I., Kappos, A. and Penelis, G.
predicted using Corley and Hansons equation are very Squat RC Walls under Inelastic Shear Reversals.
less conservative when compared to experimental results. Eleventh World Conference on Earthquake
5. Lateral load carrying capacities of 3D sandwich walls Engineering, ISBN: 0 08 042822 3, 1996
predicted using EC 2 equation and considering axial load 15. Shing, P., Schuller, M. and Hoskere, V. In-Plane
effect and lateral resistance due to shear diagonals are Resistance of Reinforced Masonry Shear Walls,
more or less close to the Corleys equation. However, Journal of Structural Engineering, Vol. 116:3(619),
Corleys equation did not consider aspect ratio effect like 619-640, 1990.
in EC 2 equation. 16. Voon, K. C. and Ingham, J.M. Experimental shear
strength investigation of reinforced concrete masonry
wall. Journal of Structural Engineering @ ASCE, Vol.
132(3), 400-408, 2006.
721
RECYCLED AGGREGATE CONCRETE: PARTICLE PACKING

METHOD (PPM) OF MIX DESIGN APPROACH
Subhasis Pradhan1, Shailendra Kumar2, Sudhirkumar V Barai3
1, 3
2
Department of Civil Engineering, Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya (A Central University), Bilaspur 495009, India
The reuse of old concrete as a source of aggregate is a reliable alternative to Natural Aggregate (NA) in
concrete construction. Because of poor quality of Recycled Aggregate (RA) the performance of Recycled
Aggregate Concrete (RAC) is not up to the mark in fresh stage and hardened stage as compared to Natural
Aggregate Concrete (NAC). In this work Recycled Coarse Aggregate (RCA) is replaced 100% to produce
RAC. The Particle Packing Method (PPM) is proposed for the mix proportioning of concrete. In PPM the
smaller particles are selected to fill up the voids between large particles and so on. PPM is found out to be
cost effective than IS code method of mix design because of requirement of lesser quantity of cement. The
7 days and 28 days compressive strength of conventional concrete and RAC using PPM design mix are
very similar. But, the increment in compressive strength from 28 days to 90 days curing is higher for NAC
than RAC.
Keywords Recycled Coarse Aggregate (RCA), Recycled Aggregate Concrete (RAC), Natural Aggregate
Concrete (NAC), Particle Packing Method (PPM), Compressive Strength
compressive strength of RAC is up to 30% at 100%
1. Introduction
replacement of NA [5,10,11].
The rapid growth in population and economy in
India leads to the unavoidable process of The techniques approached by different researchers
industrialization and urbanization. It requires a huge to improve the performance of RAC are incorporation
amount of construction works and also produces large of mineral admixture, using different mix design
quantities of construction and demolition (C&D) wastes. methods, modifying the mixing process. The addition of
According to Ministry of Environment and Forests mineral admixtures to RAC improves the workability in
(MoEF) India generates nearly 530 million tonnes of C&D fresh stage [12]. The use of fly ash or GGBS as partial
waste annually. In this C&D debris waste concrete replacement of cement reduces the compressive strength
percentage is very high. The reuse of old concrete as a of RAC [12,13]. However, using fly ash as the addition
source of aggregate is a reliable alternative to Natural of cement increases the compressive strength [13].
Aggregate (NA) mined from nature in concrete
construction. Demolished building, rejected precast Direct Weight Replacement (DWR) Method,
concrete member, concrete road beds, unused concrete Equivalent Mortar Replacement (EMR) Method [14]
in ready mix concrete plant and tested specimens from and Direct Volume Replacement (DVR) Method are
different laboratories are the sources of waste concrete. three different aggregate replacement methods
employed by different researchers. In DWR method, the
Recycled aggregate (RA) is yielded by crushing the weight of coarse aggregate (natural coarse aggregate
waste concrete procured from C&D debris. NA and plus RCA), cement and water content are kept constant
adhered hardened mortar are the constituents of RA. The for any replacement ratio. In order to produce same
concrete in which NA is replaced partially or fully by volumetric yields the fine aggregate amount is reduced.
RA is known as recycled aggregate concrete (RAC). The In Ref. [14] the EMR method was proposed and in this
adhered mortar layer and its quantity are the main method RCA was considered as a two phase material
reasons for having inferior physical and mechanical rather than a single coarse aggregate. In EMR method
properties of RA as compared to NA and also for the the total volume of mortar (residual and fresh mortar)
poor performance of RAC. Fresh RAC has the lower content in RAC remains same as the fresh mortar
workability than conventional concrete as the water content of target natural aggregate concrete. The direct
absorption capacity of RA is on the higher side due to volume replacement (DVR) method considers RCA as a
its structure [1-8]. Compressive strength of RAC is single phase coarse aggregate. In this method the
primarily influenced by replacement ratio of natural volume of replacing RCA is same as the volume of
aggregate and w/c ratio. The reduction in compressive natural aggregate. The amount of fine aggregate, cement
strength of RAC is not very significant when the and water are unaffected as the total volume of coarse
replacement of RCA is up to 30% [9-11]. It has been aggregate remains constant. In EMR method
observed by many researchers that the reduction in workability reduces significantly and replacement ratio
1
Research Scholar, subhasisiitg@gmail.com
2
Professor, shailendrakmr@yahoo.co.in
3
Professor, skbarai@civil.iitkgp.ernet.in
722
Subhasis Pradhan, et al.
more than 20% needs changes in mix proportions and 3.1. Materials
high dose of water reducing admixture. The The concrete mixtures were prepared using
compressive strength is not influenced significantly by Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) of 53 Grade
any of these mix design methods at any replacement conforming to Bureau of Indian Standard Specifications
ratio [15]. (BIS) (IS: 8112-1989), Natural Coarse Aggregate
(NCA), Recycled Coarse Aggregate (RCA), clean river
There are some modified mixing approaches, such sand conforming to grading Zone II (IS: 383-1970) and
as Double Mixing Method, Two Stage Mixing potable water. The specific gravity and 28 days
Approach (TSMA) and Triple Mixing Method (TM) compressive strength of the cement used was found out
have been employed by different authors to enhance the to be 3.13 and 60.59 MPa respectively. The NCA used
performance of RAC. Tam et al. [11] have proposed a to produce conventional concrete was collected from
TSMA and basically this method divides the mixing locally available quarries with maximum size of 20 mm
process in two parts and water is added in two steps at and satisfying the grading requirements of BIS (IS: 383-
different times. The TSMA helps in developing a 1970). The processed RCA was collected from the
stronger ITZ by effectively filling the voids and cracks IL&FS Environmental Infrastructure and Services Ltd.
present in RCA. The compressive strength of RAC is Plant (New Delhi). The physical and mechanical
increased up to 21% and TSMA is also effective in properties of NCA, RCA and fine aggregate are shown
enhancing durability [11]. The TM contributes in Table 1 and Table 2 by following the procedure given
significantly in improving workability, compressive in BIS (IS: 2386 (Part I)-1963, IS: 2386 (Part III)-1963
strength and flexural strength in comparison to double and IS: 2386 (Part IV)-1963).
mixing method.
3.2. Aggregate Fractions and Packing Density
2. Research Importance In this study 20 12.5 mm, 12.5 10 mm, 10 6.3
Review of literature shows that the poor mm and 6.3 4.75 mm sized RCA and 20 12.5 mm,
performance of RAC both in fresh stage and hardened 12.5 10 mm and 10 4.75 mm sized NCA were used
stage is related to the inferior quality of RA. The DWR along with Zone II fine aggregate to optimize the
and DVR methods are not very useful in improving the packing density. Compacted bulk density and specific
performance of RAC, whereas the performance of RAC gravity for each size of aggregates were determined.
using EMR method of mix design is quite encouraging. First 20 12.5 mm and 12.5 10 mm aggregates were
But, the major drawback of EMR method is that 100% mixed in different proportions by mass, such as 90:10,
replacement of RCA is never achievable. There is no 80:20, 70:30 etc., and the bulk density of each mixture
specific code or guidelines available for mix design of was determined. The Packing Density (PD) and Voids
RAC as per BIS. So, most of the researchers follow the Content (VC) of the aggregate mixture were determined
mix design procedure used for conventional concrete to at each proportion using Equation 1 and 2 respectively.
produce RAC. Therefore, in the present study an attempt As the smaller sized aggregate fraction increases, the
is made to use Particle Packing Method (PPM) of design bulk density of the mixture increases. But, after a certain
mix to improve the performance of RAC and to proportion of the mixture the bulk density starts
overcome the disadvantages of different mix design decreasing.
methods.
Bulk Density Weight Fraction
PD = ! (1)
3. Proposed Mix Design Method Specific Gravity
The basic concept of Particle Packing Method Bulk Density
(PPM) of mix design is to minimize the voids content VC = 1 - ! (2)
Specific Gravity
[16-18]. This is a process of optimization where the The proportion at which maximum PD obtained was
smaller particles are selected to fill up the voids between determined. This particular weight fraction of first two
large particles and so on. In PPM the aim is to obtain different sized aggregate mixture was used while
maximum possible packing density using coarse and preparing mixture along with 10 6.3 mm aggregate
fine aggregates. In this regard it involves the proper size. So, the mixture of 20 12.5 mm, 12.5 10 mm
determination of proportions of different size of coarse sized aggregates was blended with 10 6.3 mm sized
aggregates and fine aggregate and packing density of the aggregates was blended with 10 6.3 mm sized RCA to
mixture of coarse and fine aggregate. The increase in prepare mixtures of different proportions. The PD of the
packing density leads to the minimization of voids and mixture of three different sized RCA was calculated for
hence the requirement of binder and water will be less. each weight fraction. The maximum PD of the mixture
and its corresponding weight fraction were determined.
Table 1: Physical properties of NCA, RCA and fine aggregate
Coarse Aggregate Types and Sizes

Properties of Aggregates Sand
20 mm 12.5 mm 10 mm 6.3 mm
723
NCA RCA NCA RCA NCA RCA NCA RCA

Specific Gravity 2.93 2.54 2.88 2.53 2.8 2.43 - 2.29 2.66
Water Absorption (%) 1.59 3.63 1.67 3.4 1.06 4.2 - 5.09 0.24
Bulk Density Loose 1447.02 1303.9 1435.8 1230.9 1414.74 1191.6 - 1146.5 1443.74
(kg/m3) Compacted 1647.72 1374 1598.6 1315.1 1594.4 1271.6 - 1288 1578.2
Table 2: Mechanical properties of NCA and RCA
Properties of Aggregate NCA RCA BIS Limits (Upper)

Los Angeles Abrasion Value (%) 14.34 34.08 50
Impact Value (%) 13.87 24.23 45
Crushing Value (%) 17.66 23.32 45
0.73
0.72
Packing Density
Packing Density
0.71 0.72
0.70
0.71
0.69
0.70
0.68
0.67 0.69
0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8
Weight Fraction ((20+12.5+10+6.3):Sand)
Weight Fraction ((20+12.5+10):Sand)
Figure 1: Packing density of (NCA (20 mm + 12.5 mm Figure 2: Packing density of (RCA (20 mm + 12.5 mm
+ 10 mm):Sand) + 10 mm + 6.3 mm):Sand)
Then 6.3 4.75 mm RCA was added to the mixture of 3.3. Determination of Paste Content
20 12.5 mm, 12.5 10 mm and 10 6.3 mm sized In PPM the higher degree of packing density leads
aggregates in different proportions and the proportion at to minimum voids, maximum density and minimum
which maximum PD obtained was determined. Finally requirement of binder. The total packing density (PD)
fine aggregate was added to the mixture of four different obtained by mixing 20 12.5 mm, 12.5 10 mm, 10
sized RCA in different proportions by mass. For each 6.3 mm, 6.3 4.75 mm RCA and natural fine aggregate
weight fraction PD was calculated and the maximum PD is 0.728.
and its corresponding weight fraction were determined.
Hence, Voids Content (VC)"="1""PD
By conducting the whole exercise maximum
packing density for the RCA and fine aggregate mixture The total paste content in this method is the sum of the
was found out to be 0.728. The corresponding voids content found in the aggregate mixture and excess
proportion of 20 12.5 mm, 12.5 10 mm, 10 6.3 mm, quantity of paste required to coat the aggregate particle
6.3 4.75 mm sized RCA and fine aggregate to achieve and to obtain desirable workability of the concrete. From
maximum packing density was 31.92:13.68:11.4:3:40. multiple trials, it was found out that 16% excess paste
For conventional concrete production 20 12.5, 12.5 content is required for M30 grade of concrete and
10, 10 6.3 size of natural coarse aggregate and fine desired workable condition. Hence,
aggregate has been used. The maximum packing density
Total Voids Content = VC + Excess Paste Content VC
was found out to be 0.713 in the aggregate proportion of
38.4:9.6:12:40 for 20 12.5, 12.5 10, 10 6.3 sized Now, Volume of aggregates ="1"-"Total Voids Content
NCA and fine aggregate. In Figure 1 and Figure 2 the
packing density at different weight fractions, for the Total!solid!volume!of!aggregates
mixture of NCA with sand and RCA with sand are Weight!fraction!of!aggregates
shown respectively. =!
Specific!Gravity
Table 3: Mix proportions for different types of concrete
Coarse Aggregate (kg/m3)
724
Type of Mix Design w/c Water Cement Sand

20 mm 12.5 mm 10 mm 6.3 mm
Concrete Method Ratio (kg/m3) (kg/m3) (kg/m3)
NAC IS 10262 : 2009 0.45 215.85 438.13 610.19 755.77 485.63
NAC PPM 0.45 203.51 410.04 762.12 666.85 247.69 228.64
RAC IS 10262 : 2009 0.45 234.18 422.22 621.24 671.45 416.73
RAC PPM 0.45 225.79 410.04 702.03 560.22 240.09 200.1 52.65
Figure 3: Schematic diagram of Two Stage Mixing Approach
Weight!of!the!aggregate 5.1. Fresh Concrete

Volume"of"aggregates The property of fresh concrete was examined by its
=
Total"solid"volume"of"aggregates workability in terms of slump value. In this study 75
Weight"fraction 1000 100 mm slump was kept constant for both conventional
concrete and RAC. In conventional concrete desired
The water-cement ratio for M30 grade of concrete is workability was obtained without addition of any
determined by conducting the trials at w/c ratio 0.4, admixture. But for RAC, Master Glanium ACE 30
0.43, 0.45 and 0.47 and finally it is fixed at 0.45 to (BASF) admixture was added 0.32% by weight of
achieve the target mean strength specified for M30. cement to achieve the required slump.
w#c ratio = 0.45; w = 0.45c 5.2. Hardened Concrete

The hardened concrete performance can be studied
Total"paste"content = c + w as its short term and long term behaviour. The short term
c
= properties of hardened concrete include compressive
Specific"Gravity$%&%'* strength, tensile strength and modulus of elasticity. The
0.45c
+ compressive strength of concrete was measured using
Specific"gravity,/*%2 standard cubes and cylinders in accordance with BIS
(IS: 516 - 1959).
Total voids content
Cement content"=" ""1000
Total paste content 5.2.1. Compressive Strength
The 7 days compressive strength shows negligible
Water content"="w/c ratio""Cement content difference for NAC and RAC using PPM design at
different w/c ratio. For w/c ratio 0.4, 0.43 and 0.47, the
4. Mixing Process 7 days compressive strength of RAC are 2.57 3.3%
The Two Stage Mixing Approach (TSMA) higher than that of NAC. Whereas for w/c ratio 0.45 the
proposed by Tam et al. [13] is adopted for the current 7 days compressive strength of NAC is 0.84% higher
study, as the process helps in improving the performance than RAC. In PPM mix proportioning except w/c ratio
of the concrete by improving its quality at 0.4 the 28 days compressive strength of RAC are 0.16
microstructure level. This may be attributed to the effect 11.26% higher in comparison to NAC and the 28 days
of internal curing. In this method, water is added in two compressive strength obtained at w/c ratio 0.4 for NAC
stages of mixing. The steps involved in TSMA are is 3.93% higher than that of RAC. So, the 7 days and 28
shown in Figure 3. days compressive strength of RAC are slightly on the
higher side than NAC. But, interestingly the 90 days
5. Performance Evaluation of Concrete curing compressive strength of RAC at different w/c
In order to verify the performance of hardened ratio are 9.58 17.74% lower than NAC. There is an
concrete, both NAC and RAC (100% replacement) were increase of 27 37% observed in compressive strength
prepared using PPM design mix, TSMA and established at different w/c ratio of NAC from 28 days to 90 days;
method as per IS: 10262 2009, normal mixing method. whereas for RAC only 11 14% increment is observed
So, four types of concrete were produced using w/c ratio for the same time period.
of 0.45.
725
Table 4: Compressive strength of different types of concrete
Type of 7 Days Strength 28 Days 90 Days

Mix Design Method w/c Ratio
Concrete (MPa) Strength (MPa) Strength (MPa)
0.40 30.87 51.27 65.49
0.43 28.74 44.29 58.87
NAC PPM
0.45 25.35 42.75 56.15
0.47 23.69 38.18 52.52
NAC IS: 10262 (2009) 0.45 29.69 47.68 64.85
0.40 31.71 49.33 56.34
0.43 29.48 48.09 53.72
RAC PPM
0.45 25.14 42.82 47.69
0.47 24.48 42.48 47.59
RAC IS: 10262 (2009) 0.45 35.99 45.23 54.46
80 60
60
40
(MPa)
(MPa)
40
20
20 7 Days 28 Days
7 Days 28 Days
90 Days 90 Days
0 0
0.38 0.4 0.42 0.44 0.46 0.48 0.38 0.4 0.42 0.44 0.46 0.48
w/c Ratio w/c Ratio
Figure 4: Compressive strength of NAC vs w/c ratio at Figure 5: Compressive strength of RAC vs w/c ratio at
different ages different ages
70 60
60 50
50 40
(MPa )
(MPa)
40
30
30 w/c = 0.45 w/c = 0.4
w/c = 0.4 20 w/c = 0.43
20
w/c = 0.43 w/c = 0.45
10 10 w/c = 0.47
w/c = 0.47
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 50 100
Time (Days) Time (Days)
Figure 6: Compressive strength of NAC vs curing age Figure 7: Compressive strength of RAC vs curing age
for different w/c ratio for different w/c ratio
60 6. Conclusions
NAC RAC
In this study the physical and mechanical properties

of the materials used are verified. The Particle Packing
40 Method is proposed for the mix proportioning of
(MPa)
concrete and the compressive strength of both NAC and

20 RAC are experimentally analysed.
The bulk density and specific gravity are lower and
0 water absorption is on higher side for RCA because
7 28 90 of the adhering mortar layer. The mechanical
Time (Days) properties of RCA are relatively inferior to NCA,
Figure 8: Comparison of compressive strength vs but the values are within the permissible limits of
curing time (days) of NAC and RAC BIS.
The proposed PPM design mix requires lesser
quantity of cement, but more fine aggregate in
726
comparison to IS: 10262 (2009) method of mix [7] Manzi, S., Mazzotti, C. and Bignozzi, M., 2013.
proportioning without affecting the properties of Short and long-term behavior of structural concrete
fresh and hardened concrete. The lesser demand for with recycled concrete aggregate. Cement and
cement in the PPM design mix indicates the cost Concrete Composites, 37(1), pp. 312-318.
effectiveness of the method.
The RAC is having lower workability than NAC. [8] McNeil, K. and Kang, T. H., 2013. Recycled
The PPM mix proportioning has no significant Concrete Aggregates: A Review. International
effect in improving the workability of the fresh Journal of Concrete Structures and Materials, 7(1),
concrete for both NAC and RAC. pp. 61-69.
The 28 days curing compressive strength of RAC is [9] Rao, M. C., Bhattacharyya, S. and Barai, S., 2011.
found out to be very close to that of NAC in PPM Influence of field recycled coarse aggregate on
design mix at w/c ratio 0.45. But, the gain in properties. Materials and Structures, 44(1), pp.
strength from 28 days to 90 days is less for RAC 205-220.
than NAC. It is very difficult to separate PPM and
IS code mix proportioning on compressive strength [10] Xiao, J., Li, J. and Zhang, C., 2005. Mechanical
parameter of the concrete. properties of recycled aggregate concrete under
uniaxial loading. Cement and Concrete Research,
Further study for other performance parameters are 35(6), pp. 1187-1194.
under investigation.
[11] Tam, V. W., Gao, X. and Tam, C., 2005.
Acknowledgments Microstructural analysis of recycled aggregate
First author gratefully acknowledges the financial concrete produced from two-stage mixing
support provided for the project on Sustainable and approach. Cement and Concrete Research, 35(6),
Cost Effective Housing using Recycled Aggregate pp. 1195-1203.
Based Concrete under the mega project on Future of
Cities by MHRD, Government of India. Authors [12] Limbachiya, M., Meddah, M. S. and Ouchagour,
gratefully acknowledge the support extended by IL&FS Y., 2012. Use of recycled concrete aggregate in fly-
Environmental Infrastructure and Services Ltd. Plant ash concrete. Construction and Building Materials,
(New Delhi) for providing recycled aggregate. 27(1), pp. 439-449.
[13] Kou, S. C., Poon, C. S. and Chan, D., 2008.
References Influence of fly ash as a cement addition on the
[1] Rahal, K., 2007. Mechanical properties of concrete hardened properties of recycled aggregate concrete.
with recycled coarse aggregate. Building and Materials and Structures, 41(7), pp. 1191-1201.
Environment, 42(1), pp. 407-415.
[14] Fathifazl, G., Abbas, A., Razaqpur, A.G., Isgor,
[2] Abdulla, N.A., 2014. Effect of Recycled Coarse O.B., Fournier, B. and Foo, S., 2009. New mixture
Aggregate Type on Concrete. Journal of Materials proportioning method for concrete made with
in Civil Engineering, 27(10), p.04014273. coarse recycled concrete aggregate. Journal of
materials in civil engineering, 21(10), pp.601-611.
[3] Behera, M., Bhattacharyya, S.K., Minocha, A.K.,
Deoliya, R. and Maiti, S., 2014. Recycled aggregate [15] Knaack, A. M. and Kurama, Y. C., 2013. Design of
from C&D waste & its use in concreteA Concrete Mixtures with Recycled Concrete
breakthrough towards sustainability in construction Aggregates. ACI Materials Journal, 110(5), pp.
sector: A review. Construction and building 483-492.
materials, 68, pp.501-516.
[16] Glavind, M., Olsen, G. S. and Munch-Petersen, C.,
[4] Yang, K.-H., Chung, H.-S. and Ashour, A. F., 2008. 1993. Packing calculation and concrete mix design.
Influence of type and replacement level of recycled The Nordic Concrete Federation, Volume 2, pp. 21-
aggregates on concrete properties. ACI Materials 34.
Journal, 105(3), pp. 289-296.
[17] De Larrard, F. & Sedran, T., 2002. Mixture-
[5] Butler, L., West, J. S. and Tighe, S. L., 2013. Effect proportioning of high-performance concrete.
of recycled concrete coarse aggregate from multiple Cement and Concrete Research, 32(11), pp. 1699-
sources on the hardened properties of concrete with 1704.
equivalent compressive strength. Construction and
Building Materials, Volume 47, pp. 1292-1301. [18] De Larrard, F., 1999. Concrete mixture
proportioning: a scientific approach. CRC Press.
[6] Ho, N.Y., Lee, Y.P.K., Lim, W.F., Zayed, T.,
Chew, K.C., Low, G.L. and Ting, S.K., 2013.
Efficient utilization of recycled concrete aggregate
in structural concrete. Journal of Materials in Civil
Engineering, 25(3), pp.318-327.
727
ROLE OF SELF CURING COMPOUNDS IN SELF

COMPACTING CONCRETE
M Sri Rama Chand1, P Rathish Kumar2, P Swamy Naga Ratna Giri3, G Rajesh Kumar4
1,2,3,4
Department of Civil Engineering, National Institute of Technology Warangal, Telangana, India
Compaction and curing are the most important factors that affect the performance behaviour of concrete during
fresh and hardened states. Addition of self curing compounds in Self Compacting Concrete (SCC) is necessitated
in overcoming the issues being faced in construction industry. The present study investigates the efficiency of
hydrophilic (Polyethylene Glycol-4000) and hydrophobic (Liquid Paraffin Wax-Light) chemicals as self curing
compounds in SCC. The parameters of the study include curing compound and its dosage, curing regime and age
of curing. Macro-level studies (water retention capacity, compressive strength tests, Accelerated Corrosion
Permeability test) and micro-level studies (X-Ray Diffraction analysis) were conducted to ascertain the most
suitable self curing compound and its optimum dosage for Self Compacting Concrete of compressive strength
70MPa. Both micro and macro studies confirmed the advantage of adding self curing compounds in SCC to
attain superior hydrated products (C-S-H gel) and thus improved strengths than no cured concrete specimens.
Keywords: Self Compacting Concrete; Hydrophilic chemical; Hydrophobic Chemical; Compressive Strength
test; X-Ray Diffraction; Scanning Electron Microscopy;
1 Introduction elements are not getting the deserving share of water

required for curing to take place.
Concrete being a complex material contains
Against this backdrop, it is felt that if the embedded
random features at different length scales, i.e. millimeter
water added while concreting can be retained to
to nanometer and also at physical and mechanical states.
continue the hydration process (Bentz et al., 2005;
These features mainly depend on the constitutive
Kovler and Jensen, 2005). This can only be possible by
materials added during mixing time. It is well known
using light weight aggregates (LWA), super absorbent
that concrete requires sufficient curing during the
polymers (SAP), hydrophilic and hydrophobic
hydration process, particularly in the initial days,
chemicals (Bentz and Weiss, 2011). Use of LWA / SAP
because the rate and heat of hydration will be very high
in concrete reduces the mechanical strength of concrete.
and if the concretes are not cured during this time, the
In the above circumstances, internal curing can be
performance of the concrete will be significantly
efficiently accomplished using water sealing materials
affected. Another major hurdle in acquiring superior
viz., Polyethylene Glycol, Liquid Paraffin Wax, Poly
concrete is improper compaction during construction.
Acrylic acid, etc. (Dhir et al., 1994; Al-Dieb, 2007; Jau,
This problem is all the more predominant in the case of
2008; Kumar, 2011, El-Dieb et al., 2012). These
high strength or low water-cement ratio concretes,
polymers can be used as self curing agents and are
where vibration becomes involved. All these hurdles can
likely to reduce the evaporation of water from concrete
be overcome with the possible usage of Self
surface and thus increase the water retention capacity of
Compacting Concrete in the construction industry
concrete, required for hydration. The use of self curing
(Okamura and Ozawa, 1994; Okamura et al., 2000).
chemicals is necessitated in SCC to restrict the self-
There are many justifiable benefits with SCC which
desiccation and also enhance hydration of cementitious
makes it the first concrete with its superior properties
particles. Hence, developing Self Compacting Concrete
regarding flowability, passing ability and resistance to
with different self curing chemicals could be beneficial
segregation (Okamura and Ouchi, 2003). Also, it
(Chand et al., 2014; 2016).
contributes to sustainability due to the use of mineral
admixtures replacing a right amount of cement
(Bouzoubaa and Lachemi, 2001; Gesolu and zbay, 2 Experimental Program
2007). SCC, however, also requires the sufficient
The present work deals with studying the suitability
amount of water for hydration of cementitious particles.
of hydrophilic and hydrophobic chemicals as self curing
It is also a matter of consideration that due to either
agents in Self Compacting Concrete. The parameters
non-availability of water or inaccessibility, concrete
considered for this study are the type of curing agent
(hydrophilic chemical-Polyethylene Glycol 4000,
1
Research Scholar, maddurusriram@gmail.com
2
Associate Professor, rateeshp@gmail.com
3
Research Scholar, psnrgiri24@gmail.com
4
Professor, garjesri@gmail.com
728
M Sri Rama Chand, et al.
hydrophobic chemical- Liquid Paraffin Wax-Light), the specimens at the end of 1, 3, 7 and 28 days was then
dosage of curing agent (0%, 0.1%, 0.5% and 1.0%), plotted against the age of curing.
type of curing regime (water curing, no curing, self Figs 1 depict the average mass loss in SCC specimens
curing). Macro-structural tests conducted on self curing cured by PEG 4000. It is clearly understood that the
self-compacting concrete include water retention concrete specimens cured with self curing agents have
capacity, compressive strength test and accelerated less mass loss compared to no cured specimens. The
corrosion permeability test (ACPT). Microstructural hydrophilic compound, i.e. PEG 4000 with 0.1% dosage
studies using X-ray Diffraction (XRD) were conducted has exhibited less moisture loss than other dosages. In
to understand the internal structure of concrete. The mix the case of LPW Light, the optimum dosage is 0.1% for
proportions of 70MPa (Mix A) SCC is tabulated in the mix A (i.e. average compressive strength of SCC is
Table 1. The final selection of mix design was based 70MPa at 28days). Self curing compounds have helped
mainly on their relation to the fundamental properties of in forming polymer bonds and decreased the
SCC (filling ability, passing ability, and resistance to evaporation of moisture from the inside of concrete
segregation) as well as on reproducibility and specimen.
repeatability. The cube specimens of size 150mm
150mm 150mm were cast and periodically the weight
loss in the cubes was measured. After 28 days of the
curing period, the cubes were tested for compression as
per IS 516 (1999).
2.1 Materials
Cement used in the investigation was 53 Grade
Ordinary Portland Cement conforming to IS: 12269
(1987). The specific gravity of cement was 3.10 and
specific surface area of 225 m2/g having initial and final
setting time of 45 min and 540 min respectively. River
sand conforming to Zone-2 according to IS: 383 (1970)
was used as the fine aggregate (FA). Crushed granite of
nominal size 20mm well-graded aggregate according to
IS: 383 (1970) was used as coarse aggregate. In the Fig 1: Average weight loss Vs Age of Curing in Mix-
present investigation, polycarboxylic ether based water- A with PEG 4000
reducing admixture conforming ASTM C494 (2005)
was used as a super plasticiser for improving
workability. Polyethylene glycol of 4000 molecular
weight and Liquid Paraffin Wax Light were added as
self curing agents along with water during mixing time.
Table 1 Mix Proportions of Concrete Mix A

Quantity in kg/m3
Material
Mix A
Cement 500
Fine Aggregate 800
Coarse Aggregate 775
Water 190
Fly ash 110 Fig 2: Average weight loss Vs Age of Curing in Mix-
A with LPW-Light
Micro Silica 40
Note: N- No curing H- Polyethylene Glycol 4000
V- Liquid Paraffin Wax Light
3.2 Compressive strength
3.1 Water Retention Test Fig 3 shows the average 28-day compressive strength
Loss of moisture due to evaporation from the surface of results of Mix A-SCC specimens, self cured by PEG
concrete can be indirectly measured through water 4000 and LPW Light. Though, the compressive strength
retention test by periodically evaluating the mass of is maximum for water cured samples, the self cured
concrete cubes on an electronic balance with an specimens with optimum dosages (AH-0.1% & AV-
accuracy of 0.1 grams. Taking the initial mass of each 0.1%) have attained on par strength results at room
specimen as a reference, the mass loss in SCC temperature. It is evident that the 28-day strength of
specimens was estimated. The average mass loss of specimens cured by PEG 4000 and LPW Light was
729
about 90 percent of those compared to water cured recording the corrosion current of the circuit. The
specimens. It indicates that the self curing compounds accelerated corrosion test is terminated after cracking of
in SCC have sealed the internal pores of concrete, thus the specimen when the rate of increase of corrosion
helped in preventing the escape of moisture. This finally current with time was negligible.
resulted in improved strengths even at the absence of Figs 5 and 6 illustrate the generalized nature of current
water curing. variations in self cured self compacting concrete
specimens with the variation of age. Initially, it can be
seen that some relatively small amplitude variations are
encountered; but after that at the later stage, a large
increase in current occurs. It is considered that this
corresponds to growth of a crack within the concrete
and to a corresponding decrease in electrical resistance.
Crack growth is subsequent incremental and is
comprised of successive stages of propagation, which
relieves tensile stresses, and arrestment, which gives
rise to additional solid corrosion products accumulation.
For conventional water cured specimens, the failure was
observed at 11th day from the start of experiment and
crack was observed on the 14th day from the start of
experiment. In case of no curing, the failure of specimen
was observed at 7th day itself and the crack was
Fig 3: 28D- Compressive Strength results of Mix-A observed on 9th day only. The optimum dosage of PEG
with self curing compounds 4000 is observed as 0.1%, for which the failure time
Note: W- Water curing S.C. - Self curing compound was 11 days and the crack was observed on 14th day. In
N- No curing H- Polyethylene Glycol 4000 case of LPW Light, the optimum dosage is 0.1% and the
V- Liquid Paraffin Wax Light failure time and crack observed durations were 11 and
14 days respectively.
3.3 Accelerated Corrosion Permeability Test:
The setup for accelerated corrosion test (also known as
impressed voltage test) is shown in Fig 4. It consists of a
DC power supply, two stainless steel plates, a data
logger, test specimen and the container containing the
required dosage of NaCl solution (3%).
Fig 5: Corrosion Current (mA) Vs Time (D) - PEG

4000
Fig 4: ACPT Apparatus

Concrete specimens of 100 mm diameter and 200 mm
height embedded with 10 mm diameter steel bar were
cast and tested at the required age after preparation. The
steel bar (anode/ working electrode) of the beam
specimen is connected to the positive terminal and the
stainless steel plates (cathode/ counter electrode) are
connected to the negative terminal of the DC power Fig 6: Corrosion Current (mA) Vs Time (D) - LPW
source. The corrosion process is initiated by applying a Light
constant voltage (10V) to the system. The current
response is continuously monitored and recorded by the From the observation of results, it is understood that the
data logger. In addition, the specimens are daily water cured specimens failed at longer durations and the
inspected visually for the onset of cracks. The data current passed is less, which is the result of progressive
logger is set at a sampling frequency of 10min for hydration of concrete. But in no cured specimens, the
730
lack of sufficient hydration caused failure and initiation gismondine mineral peak is observed at 12.06 (2
of crack at early ages. The addition of self curing agents 12/06, d 7.32[]). Similarly, at 29.43 (2 29/43, d
(both hydrophilic and hydrophobic chemicals) provided 3.04[]), 32.56 (2 32/56, d 2.75[]), the major
proper hydration, thus helped in delay in failure time peaks of the hatrurite-synthetic mineral are identified.
and crack observation time. The larnite mineral major peaks are observed at 37.05
(2 37/05, d 2.42[]), 39.27 (2 39/27, d
3.4 X-ray Diffraction analysis 2.29[]). The large quantities of hatrurite and larnite
The mineral analysis of concrete after 28 days was minerals, fewer quantities of gismondine and portlandite
investigated using PANalytical X-Ray diffraction minerals indicate the productive formation of C-S-H
instrument equipped with X'Celerator ultra-fast gel, moderate amounts of Ca(OH)2 and aluminate-ferrite
detector. The sample preparation technique described by compounds. This finally resulted to attain maximum
Buhrke et al. (1998) was adopted and was scanned by compressive strength, which is well depicted in
the X-Ray diffractometer using Cu-K radiation at compressive strength results (Fig 3).
60kV/ 55mA, CPS = 1k, width 2.5, speed 2/ min and Figs 8 and 9 show the XRD diffractograms for Mix-A
scanned with an angle of 2 q from 6 - 70 with a step SCC specimens subjected to self curing (28days) at
size of 0.02. The scans were analysed using X-pert room temperature by PEG 4000-0.1% and LPW Light-
High Score software, and the compounds present in the 0.1%. In PEG 4000-0.1%, the mineral quantites
sample were determined by matching the peak estimated are Quartz-20.2% (SiO2), Portlandite-8.1%
intensities with PCPDFWIN database. (Ca(OH)2), Hatrurite-synthetic-29.3% (Ca3SiO5),
Figs 7-10 illustrate the XRD diffractograms typically Larnite-32.3% (Ca2SiO4) and Gismondine-10.1%
for Mix-A SCC specimens cured up to specified curing (CaAl2Si2O8). In LPW Light- 0.1%, the mineral
period (i.e. 28days) under different curing regimes. X- quantites estimated are Quartz-17% (SiO2), Portlandite-
ray diffraction analysis of water cured, no cured and self 9% (Ca(OH)2), Hatrurite-synthetic-33% (Ca3SiO5),
cured samples indicated the quantitative estimate of Larnite-32% (Ca2SiO4) and Brownmillerite, syn- 9%
mineral phases. It is observed from Fig 7 that SCC (Ca2(Al,Fe)2O5). Fig 10 depicts the X-ray diffraction
cured by conventional water curing contains Quartz- peaks of Mix-A SCC specimens subjected to no curing
21% (SiO2), Portlandite-11% (Ca(OH)2), Hatrurite- at room temperature. The mineral quantites observed in
synthetic-35% (Ca3SiO5), Larnite-30% (Ca2SiO4) and no cured specimen are Quartz-29% (SiO2), Portlandite-
Gismondine-3% (CaAl2Si2O8). The major peaks of 18% (Ca(OH)2), Hatrurite-synthetic-26% (Ca3SiO5),
quartz are appeared at 20.83 (2 20/83, d 4.21[]), Larnite-9% (Ca2SiO4) and Ettringite, syn-18%
26.63 (2 26/63, d 3.34[]) while, the major peaks (Ca6Al2(SO4)3(OH )12 26H2O).
appeared at 18.01 (2 18/01, d 4.92[]), 34.10
(2 34/10, d 2.63[]) belong to portlandite. The
Fig 7: X-ray diffraction peaks of SCC cured by conventional water curing
731
Fig 5: X-ray diffraction peaks of SCC cured with PEG 4000-0.1%
Fig 6: X-ray diffraction peaks of SCC cured with LPW Light-0.1%
Fig 7: X-ray diffraction peaks of SCC without curing (no cured specimens)
In comparison of Figs 7-10, the following points are The high amounts of Portlandite deposits are
evident: observed in no cured samples compared to self curing
The presence of Ettringite mineral is only observed in and conventional water curing. The portlandite
no cured specimens, while in other specimens either crystals in cement concrete are converted to minute
gismondine or brownmillerite mineral is identified. crystals of calcite (CaCO3) leading to carbonation and
The major effects of Ettringite formation are visible lime leaching effects in concrete. The observation of
displacement and cracking. It can also increase the excessive carbonation in concrete, in association with
risk of secondary forms of deterioration such as microcracking extending inwards from the surface, is
freeze/thaw attack or reinforcement corrosion.
732
important in the diagnosis of the cause of steel Bouzoubaa, N. and Lachemi, M., 2001. Self-compacting
corrosion in concrete. concrete incorporating high volumes of class F fly
Gismondine is a zeolite-type phase or hydrated ash: Preliminary results. Cement and Concrete
aluminosilicate and it has orthorhombic and Research, 31(3), pp.413-420
dipyramidal structure. The presence of gismondine Buhrke, V.E., Jenkins, R. and Smith, D.K., 1998. Practical
increases the strength of concrete. However, it is not guide for the preparation of specimens for x-ray
as much high as Hautrite or larnite mineral. fluorescence and x-ray diffraction analysis. Wiley-
VCH
Brownmillerite mineral is present in SCC specimen
Chand, M.S.R., Giri, P.S.N.R., Kumar, G.R. and Kumar,
cured by LPW Light-0.1%. The presence of P.R., 2014. Paraffin wax as an internal curing agent in
Brownmillerite doesn't influence the strength of ordinary concrete. Magazine of Concrete
concrete. Research, 67(2), pp.82-88
4 Conclusions Chand, M.S.R., Kumar, P.R., Giri, P.S.N.R., Kumar, G.R.
The series of experiments conducted on Self and Rao, M.V.K., 2016. Influence of paraffin wax as a
Compacting Concrete with self curing agents concludes self-curing compound in self-compacting
the following points: concretes. Advances in Cement Research, 28(2),
1. The hydrophilic and hydrophobic chemicals can be pp.110-120
effectively used as self curing agents in Self Chand, M.S.R., Giri, P.S.N.R., Kumar, P.R., Kumar, G.R.
Compacting Concrete. and Raveena, C., 2016. Effect of self curing chemicals
2. Both hydrophilic and hydrophobic chemicals with in self compacting mortars. Construction and Building
optimum dosages prevented the moisture loss. Materials, 107, pp.356-364
However, the loss of moisture is more for no cured Dhir, R.K., Hewlett, P.C., Lota, J.S. and Dyer, T.D., 1994.
specimens. An investigation into the feasibility of formulating
3. It is evident from the compressive strength results that self-cureconcrete. Materials and Structures, 27(10),
the 28-D strengths of specimens cured by PEG4000 pp.606-615
EFNARC Specifications., 2005. The European Guidelines
and LPW Light were about 90 percent of that cured
for Self-Compacting Concrete Specification,
by conventional water curing.
Production and Use, The European Federation of
4. The X-ray diffraction analysis confirmed dense
Specialist Construction Chemicals and Concrete
microstructure in self cured self compacting concrete Systems, May
specimens with optimum dosages of PEG 4000 and El-Dieb, A.S., 2007. Self-curing concrete: Water retention,
LPW Light. In the case of no cured samples, ettringite hydration and moisture transport. Construction and
formation was observed which further deteriorates the Building Materials, 21(6), pp.1282-1287
concrete during its performance. However, the El-Dieb, A.S., El-Maaddawy, T.A. and Mahmoud, A.A.,
microstructure is superior to conventional water cured 2012. Water-soluble polymers as self-curing agents in
samples. cement mixes. Advances in Cement Research, 24(5),
pp.291-299
5 References Gesolu, M. and zbay, E., 2007. Effects of mineral
ASTM C494 / C494M., 2016. Standard Specification for admixtures on fresh and hardened properties of self-
Chemical Admixtures for Concrete, ASTM compacting concretes: binary, ternary and quaternary
International, West Conshohocken, PA, systems. Materials and Structures, 40(9), pp.923-937
2016, www.astm.org Jau, W.C., 2011. Self-curing concrete. U.S. Patent
Bentz, D.P. and Stutzman, P.E., 1994. SEM analysis and 8,016,939
computer modelling of hydration of Portland cement Kovler, K. and Jensen, O.M., 2005. Novel techniques for
particles. In Petrography of Cementitious Materials. concrete curing.Concrete International, 27(9), pp.39-
ASTM International 42
Bentz, D.P., Lura, P. and Roberts, J.W., 2005. Mixture Kumar, G.R., 2011. Self curing concrete. In C. Leung and
proportioning for internal curing. Concrete K. WAN eds.,, International RILEM Conference on
International, 27(2), pp.35-40 Advances in Construction Materials Through Science
Bentz, D.P. and Weiss, W.J., 2011. Internal curing: a 2010 and Engineering (pp. 116-123). RILEM Publications
state-of-the-art review. US Department of Commerce, SARL
National Institute of Standards and Technology Okamura, H. and Ouchi, M., 2003. Self-compacting
Bureau of Indian Standards., 1987. IS: 12269-1987 concrete. Journal of advanced concrete
Specifications for 53 grade ordinary Portland cement, technology, 1(1), pp.5-15
Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi, India Okamura, H., Ozawa, K. and Ouchi, M., 2000. Self-
Bureau of Indian Standards., 1970. IS: 383-1970 compacting concrete. Structural Concrete, 1(1), pp.3-
Specification for coarse and fine aggregates from 17
natural sources for concrete, Bureau of Indian Okamura, H. and Ozawa, K., 1994. Mix design method for
Standards, New Delhi, India self-compactable concrete. Doboku Gakkai
Bureau of Indian Standards., 1956. IS: 516 -1956 Ronbunshu, 1994(496), pp.1-8
(Reaffirmed 1999) Indian Standard Methods of Tests
for Strength of Concrete, Bureau of Indian Standards,
New Delhi, India
733
A STUDY ON COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH AND CORROSION

BEHAVIOUR OF REINFORCING STEEL IN CHLORIDE
CONTAMINATED FLY ASH BASED GEOPOLYMER CONCRETE
Sathishraj Mani1 and Bulu Pradhan2
1
Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati, Department of Civil Engineering, Guwahati, 781039, Assam, India
This paper investigates the effect of alkali concentration on compressive strength and corrosion behaviour
of reinforcing steel in chloride contaminated geopolymer concrete (GPC) mixes. In this work, fly ash based
GPC mixes were prepared with different concentrations of NaOH solution i.e. 8 M and 10 M. Chloride was
admixed to GPC mixes at the time of preparation in the form of sodium chloride. Sodium chloride
concentrations used were 0%, 1.5% and 3% by mass of geopolymer solids content. Cube specimens and
prismatic reinforced concrete specimens were prepared from GPC mixes for determining 7-days
compressive strength and corrosion parameters respectively. Potential measurement and corrosion current
density by linear polarization resistance (LPR) measurement were carried out on prismatic reinforced
concrete specimens at different testing ages. From the results, it is observed that the compressive strength
of GPC specimens increased with increase in molarity of NaOH solution. The potential values of steel
reinforcement in chloride contaminated GPC specimens were more negative than -270 mV (SCE) for both
molarity of NaOH solution, indicating greater probability of occurrence of steel reinforcement corrosion.
Further the corrosion density of steel reinforcement increased with increase in admixed sodium chloride
concentration for both concentrations of NaOH solution. There was an increase in corrosion current density
with increase in molarity of NaOH solution i.e. from 8 M to 10 M at all testing ages till 180 days.
Keywords: Geopolymer concrete (GPC); fly ash; Admixed chloride; alkaline solution; corrosion.
1. Introduction production of geopolymer concrete [6]. In the

geopolymerization process, the reaction of Al-Si source
Portland cement (OPC) has become the dominant
material like fly ash with the alkaline activator produces
binder in the production of concrete, since its
N-A-S-H gel (sodium alumino silicate Hydrate) that is
development over 175 years ago [1]. However,
responsible for strength development in GPC [7,8].
manufacturing of Portland cement consumes huge
amount of energy. Further production of each tonne of
From the review of literature, it is observed that
Portland cement generates approximately 0.87 tonne of
different researchers have carried out studies on
CO2 [1]. The cement manufacturing contributes about 8
geopolymer concrete made from combinations of fly ash
to 10% of total world CO2 emissions, which is one of the
and alkaline activators such as (NaOH + Na2SiO3)
major causes of global climate change [2]. In the context
[5,9,10] or (KOH + K2SiO3) [11,12,13]. In the reported
of sustainability, many studies are now focused on
literature, the studies on durability of geopolymer
searching alternative binders associated with lesser
concrete in terms of chloride induced steel reinforcement
energy consumption and low CO2 emission [2]. The
corrosion are little. Thus in the present work, an
disposal of industrial wastes has become a huge problem
experimental investigation has been carried out to
[3], due to rapid industrialization. To reduce the problems
evaluate the effect of admixed chloride on compressive
of higher energy consumption, higher CO2 emission and
strength and corrosion of steel reinforcement in fly ash
disposal of industrial wastes, these waste materials can
based geopolymer concrete. The geopolymer concrete
be used in the production of useful products such as
mixes were admixed with different concentrations of
geopolymer concrete (GPC). Among various alternative
NaCl at the time of preparation and compressive strength
binders, geopolymer binders are widely considered as the
test and corrosion tests were performed on the GPC
promising substitute for Portland cement binders [4]. The
specimens.
term Geopolmer was coined by Prof. J. Davidovits in
the year 1978 [5]. The concept behind geopolymer is the
polymerization of Si-O-Al-O bond that develops when 2. Experimental work
the alumino-silicate (Al-Si) source material reacts with
2.1 Materials
alkaline activators [5]. The different alumino-silicate
(Al-Si) source materials such as fly ash, slag etc. and the In this study, fly ash was used as geopolymer
alkaline activators such as combinations of sodium precursor. Locally available river sand was used as fine
hydroxide (NaOH) solution or potassium hydroxide aggregate. Coarse aggregates of size 10 mm MSA
(KOH) solution with sodium silicate (Na2SiO3) solution (Maximum size of aggregate) and 20 mm MSA were
or potassium silicate (K2SiO3) solution are used in the used in the preparation of GPC mixes.
734
Sathishraj Mani and Bulu Pradhan
2.2 Alkaline activators geopolymer concrete specimen are shown in Fig. 1 and
Fig. 2 respectively.
For preparing geopolymer concrete mixes,
combination of sodium hydroxide (NaOH) solution and
sodium silicate (Na2SiO3) solution was used as the
alkaline activator. Sodium hydroxide solution of
different concentrations i.e. 8 M and 10 M was prepared
by dissolving sodium hydroxide pellets in water. For the
preparation of alkaline activator, NaOH solution was
mixed with readily available sodium silicate solution 24
hours prior to the preparation of concrete mixes.
2.3 Mix proportioning of geopolymer concrete mixes

The geopolymer concrete mix was prepared with a
total aggregate content of 74% of total weight of the mix.
The proportion of coarse aggregate and fine aggregate Fig. 1: Schematic diagram of steel bar of diameter
was 65% and 35% respectively of the mass of total
12mm
aggregate. The proportion of 10 mm MSA and 20 mm
MSA aggregates was 38% and 62% respectively of the
total mass of coarse aggregate. The alkaline liquid (sum
of NaOH solution and Na2SiO3 solution) to fly ash ratio
by weight was fixed at 0.49 for all the mixes. The mass
ratio of sodium silicate solution to sodium hydroxide
solution (for both 8 M and 10 M) was kept at 1.75. The
mix proportion of GPC is shown in Table.1.
Table.1: Mix proportion of GPC
NaOH Na2SiO3 Fine Coarse

Fly ash
solution solution aggregate aggregate
(kg/m3)
(kg/m3) (kg/m3) (kg/m3) (kg/m3)
425 76.36 133.64 622 1155
2.4 Preparation of GPC specimens

After 24 hours of preparation of alkaline solution,
the geopolymer concrete mix was prepared in a concrete
mixer by adding all the ingredients. In order to evaluate
the effect of chloride content on steel reinforcement
corrosion in geopolymer concrete, different Fig. 2: Schematic diagram of prismatic reinforced
concentrations of sodium chloride such as 0%, 1.5%, and geopolymer concrete specimen
3% by mass of geopolymer solids (fly ash plus mass of
NaOH solids and mass of Na2SiO3 solids) were added in 2.5 Curing of GPC specimens
alkaline liquid at the time of preparation of GPC mix. After casting, the GPC specimens were kept in the
laboratory condition for a rest period of 48 hours. After
Cube specimens of size 150 mm 150 mm 150 that, the specimens were subjected to oven curing at
mm and prismatic specimens of size 72 mm 72 mm temperature of 80C for a period of 48 hours. After oven
300 mm with a centrally embedded steel bar were curing, all GPC cube specimens and prismatic specimens
prepared from the GPC mixes. Tempcore TMT steel bar were demoulded from the respective moulds and were
of diameter 12 mm and length 330 mm was used as the kept in the laboratory condition till the period of testing.
steel reinforcement in prismatic specimens. In order to
prevent crevice corrosion, insulating tape followed by
epoxy coating was applied over the steel bar at the 3. Tests on geopolymer concrete mix
location where there is a discontinuity of the steel bar 3.1 Workability test
with surrounding concrete. The concrete cover to steel
bar was 30 mm both at the bottom and at all sides in the To evaluate the fresh property, slump test was
prismatic reinforced geopolymer concrete specimen. The conducted on fresh GPC mixes.
schematic diagram of steel bar and prismatic reinforced
735
3.2 Compressive strength test

Cube specimens prepared from geopolymer concrete
mixes were tested in a compression testing machine for
determining the compressive strength at the age of 7 days
from the day of casting. For each mix, four replicate cube
specimens were tested and the average value was
reported as the compressive strength of a given mix.
3.3 Corrosion tests

To evaluate the durability property of hardened
geopolymer concrete, half-cell potential and linear
polarization resistance (LPR) measurements were carried
out on prismatic reinforced geopolymer concrete
specimens at the ages of 60, 120 and 180 days from the
day of casting. The experimental setup used in this study
for corrosion tests consists of a plastic container filled
with test solution, reference electrode (saturated calomel
electrode), stainless steel plates as auxiliary electrode,
embedded steel bar in prismatic specimen as working Fig. 3: Schematic diagram for half-cell potential and
electrode and the potentiostat. During corrosion testing, linear polarization resistance measurements
the prismatic specimen was immersed partially in the test
solution in the container. The test solution was prepared
by adding sodium chloride in water at the same 4. Results and Discussion
concentration (%) that was added during preparation of 4.1 Slump value
GPC mixes. During testing on control specimens (i.e.
without admixed NaCl), normal water was used as the The measured slump values of GPC mixes varied
test solution. The embedded steel bar in the prismatic from 100 mm to 120 mm; and 70 mm to 90 mm for 8 M
(working electrode), stainless steel plates (auxiliary and 10 M NaOH solutions respectively for different
electrode) and reference electrode (saturated calomel concentrations of admixed sodium chloride. The
electrode) were connected to the potentiostat (make: decrease in slump value of GPC mix with increase in
ACM, Gill AC serial no. 1542-sequencer). The potential molarity of NaOH solution may be attributed to the
of the embedded steel bar was measured with reference increased solid content of NaOH solution at higher
to saturated calomel electrode. In the LPR test, the molarity.
embedded steel bar was polarized to 20 mV from
equilibrium potential at a scan rate of 6 mV/min. The 4.2 Compressive strength
schematic diagram of test setup for half-cell potential and
The 7-day compressive strength of geopolymer
linear polarization resistance measurements is shown in
concrete made with different dosages of NaCl at 425
Fig. 3. The corrosion current density of steel
kg/m3 fly ash content for 8 M and 10 M NaOH solutions
reinforcement was calculated using the Stern-Geary
are shown in Fig. 4.
equation [14] and is as follows:
50
%
!"#$$ = & --------------------- (1) 8M 10M
'
Compressive strength (MPa)
40
Where, Icorr is corrosion current density, Rp is

30
polarization resistance of steel and B is Stern-Geary
constant. The expression for Stern-Geary constant B is
20
given by:
* *, 10
+
( = ) -./)0* --------------- (2)
+ 1*, 2
0
0% 1.5% 3%
Where, )34 and 3" ) are anodic and cathodic Tafel
Admixed NaCl content
constants respectively. Generally, the values of B equal
to 52 mV for steel in passive condition and 26 mV for
steel in active condition are used [15]. In this work, the Fig. 4: Compressive strength of geopolymer concrete at
value of B is taken as 26 mV, considering steel 8 M and 10 M NaOH solution
reinforcement in active condition [14].
From Fig. 4, it is observed that the compressive of
GPC mix made with 10 M NaOH solution is higher than
736
that made with 8 M NaOH solution. The increase in 10 M at all testing ages. As per ASTM C876 [16], the
compressive strength of GPC mix with increase in potential values more negative than -270 mV (SCE) /-350
molarity NaOH solution is attributed to the fact that mV (Cu/CuSO4 electrode) correspond to greater than
higher molarity of NaOH solution results in more 90% probability of occurrence of steel reinforcement
leaching of silica and alumina from fly ash that leads to corrosion. Therefore, the obtained potential results
improved polycondensation process and responsible for indicate greater probability of occurrence of steel
better strength development [9]. Further there is less reinforcement corrosion in chloride contaminated GPC
variation in compressive strength with admixed NaCl specimens. However, in control GPC specimens (i.e.
concentration in the GPC mixes made with 8 M NaOH without admixed NaCl), the potential values were less
solution. However, the compressive strength decreased negative than -270 mV (SCE) for both molarity of NaOH
with increase in admixed NaCl dosage in GPC mixes solution at all testing ages as observed from Fig. 5 and
made with 10 M NaOH solution. Fig. 6.
4.3 Half-cell potential and corrosion current density The corrosion current density values of steel
reinforcement in GPC mixes made with 8 M NaOH and
The half-cell potential values of steel reinforcement 10 M NaOH solutions are shown in Fig. 7 and Fig. 8
embedded in geopolymer concrete and admixed with respectively. The corrosion current density values shown
different concentrations of NaCl for 8 M NaOH solution in these figures are the average values of three replicate
and 10 M NaOH solution are shown in Fig. 5 and Fig. 6 specimens. From these figures, it is observed that the
respectively. corrosion current density of steel reinforcement in GPC
mixes increased with increase in concentration of
0% NaCl admixed NaCl i.e. from 1.5% to 3% for both molarity of
1.5% NaCl NaOH solution i.e. 8 M and 10 M at all testing ages. The
Half-cell potential in mV (SCE)
-600 3% NaCl increase in corrosion current density of steel

reinforcement with increase in NaCl concentration may
-500 be attributed to increase in conductivity of geopolymer
concrete in the presence of higher concentration of
-400
chloride ions. In addition, as observed from Fig. 7 and
-300 -270 mV
Fig. 8, the corrosion current density of steel
reinforcement was lower in control GPC (without
-200 admixed NaCl) specimens as compared to that in chloride
contaminated GPC specimens. Further, the corrosion
0 60 120 180 current density values increased with increase in molarity
Age of testing (days) of NaOH solution i.e. from 8 M to 10 M at all testing ages
till 180 days and this may be due to the increase in
Fig. 5: Half-cell potential of steel reinforcement in conductivity of geopolymer concrete made with higher
geopolymer concrete specimen at 8 M NaOH solution molarity of NaOH solution (i.e. 10 M).
-600 5 0% NaCl
Corrosion current density (A/cm)
Half-cell potential in mV (SCE)
1.5% NaCl
-500 3% NaCl
4
-400
3
-300 -270 mV
2
-200
1
0% NaCl
-100 1.5% NaCl
3% NaCl 0
0 60 120 180
0 60 120 180 Age of testing (days)
Age of testing (days)
Fig. 7: Corrosion current density of steel reinforcement

Fig. 6: Half-cell potential of steel reinforcement in in geopolymer concrete specimen at 8 M NaOH solution
geopolymer concrete specimen at 10 M NaOH solution
Each potential value shown in these figures is the
average value of three replicate specimens. From these
figures, it is observed that the potential values of steel
reinforcement in chloride contaminated (1.5% and 3%
NaCl) GPC specimens were more negative than -270 mV
(SCE) for both molarity of NaOH solution i.e. 8 M and
737
6 [3] Pavithra, P., Reddy, M.S., Dinakar, P., Rao, B.H.,

0% NaCl
1.5% NaCl
Satpathy, B.K. and Mohanty, A.N., A mix design
5 procedure for geopolymer concrete with fly ash, Journal
3% NaCl
Corrosion current density
of Cleaner Production, vol. 133, pp. 117-125, 2016.

4
(A/cm)
3
[4] Babaee, M. and Castel, A., Chloride-induced
corrosion of reinforcement in low-calcium fly ash-based
2 geopolymer concrete, Cement and Concrete Research,
vol. 88, pp. 96-107, 2016.
1
[5] Aliabdo, A.A., Elmoaty, A.E.M.A. and Salem, H.A.,
0
60 120 180
Effect of water addition, plasticizer and alkaline solution
Age of testing (days)
constitution on fly ash based geopolymer concrete
performance, Construction and Building Materials, vol.
121, pp. 694-703, 2016.
Fig. 8: Corrosion current density of steel in geopolymer
concrete specimen at 10 M NaOH solution [6] Singh, B., Ishwarya, G., Gupta, M. and
Bhattacharyya, S.K., Geopolymer concrete: A review of
5. Conclusions some recent developments, Construction and Building
Materials, vol. 85, pp. 78-90, 2015.
From this study, the following conclusions were drawn.
[7] Torres-Carrasco, M. and Puertas, F., Waste glass in
The 7-day compressive strength of GPC the geopolymer preparation, Mechanical and
specimens increased with increase in molarity microstructural characterisation, Journal of Cleaner
of NaOH solution. Production, vol. 90, pp. 397-408, 2015.
The potential values of steel reinforcement in [8] Kupwade-Patil, K., Soto, F., Kunjumon, A.,
chloride contaminated GPC specimens were Allouche, E.N. and Mainardi, D.S., Multi-scale
more negative than -270 mV (SCE) for both modelling and experimental investigations of polymeric
molarity of NaOH solution at all testing ages, gels at elevated temperatures, Computers and Structures,
thereby indicating greater probability of vol. 122, pp. 164-177, 2013.
occurrence of steel reinforcement corrosion.
[9] Chindaprasirt, P. and Chalee, W., Effect of sodium
However, control GPC specimens showed
hydroxide concentration on Chloride penetration and
potential values less negative than -270 mV
steel corrosion of fly ash-based geopolymer concrete
(SCE) for both molarity of NaOH solution at all
under marine site, Construction and Building Materials,
testing ages.
vol. 63, pp. 303-310, 2014.
The corrosion current density of steel [10] Reddy, D.V., Edouard, J. and Sobhan, K., Durability
reinforcement in chloride contaminated GPC of fly ashbased geopolymer structural concrete in the
mixes increased with increase in admixed NaCl marine environment, Journal of Materials in Civil
concentration for both molarity of NaOH Engineering (ASCE), vol. 25, no. 6, pp. 781-787, 2013.
solution at all testing ages. Control GPC
specimens exhibited lower corrosion current [11] Al-Majidi, M.H., Lampropoulos, A., Cundy, A. and
density as compared to chloride contaminated Meikle, S., Development of geopolymer mortar under
GPC specimens for both molarity of NaOH ambient temperature for in situ applications,
solution. Further, the specimens made with Construction and Building Materials, vol. 120, pp. 198-
10 M NaOH solution showed higher corrosion 211, 2016.
current density as compared to those made with
8 M NaOH solution at all testing ages till 180 [12] Tippayasam, C., Balyore, P., Thavorniti, P.,
days. Kamseu, E., Leonelli, C., Chindaprasirt, P. and
Chaysuwan, D., Potassium alkali concentration and heat
References treatment affected metakaolin-based geopolymer,
Construction and Building Materials, vol. 104, pp. 293-
[1] Juenger, M.C.G., Winnefeld, F., Provis, J.L. and 297, 2016.
Ideker, J.H., Advances in alternative cementitious
binders, Cement and Concrete Research, vol. 41, pp. [13] Shaikh, F.U.A. and Hosan, A., Mechanical
1232-1243, 2011. properties of steel fibre reinforced geopolymer concretes
at elevated temperatures, Construction and Building
[2] Suhendro, B., Toward green concrete for better Materials, vol. 114, pp. 15-28, 2016.
sustainable environment, Procedia Engineering, vol. 95,
pp. 305-320, 2014.
738
[14] Pradhan, B., Corrosion behaviour of steel Cement and Concrete Research, vol. 23, pp. 139-146,
reinforcement in concrete exposed to composite chloride- 1993.
sulfate environment, Construction and Building
Materials, vol. 72, pp. 398-410, 2014. [16] ASTM C876-09, Standard test method for corrosion
potentials of uncoated reinforcing steel in concrete,
[15] Al-Amoudi O.S.B. and Maslehuddin M., The effect ASTM International, West Conshohocken (PA), 2009.
of chloride and sulfate ions on reinforcement corrosion,
739
EVALUATION OF MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF GGBS

INCORPORATED ULTRA HIGH STRENGTH STEEL FIBRE
REINFORCED CONCRETE
P Ganesh1, Smitha Gopinath2, A Ramachandra Murthy3
1
Engineering of Structures - AcSIR, CSIR- Structural Engineering Research Centre, Chennai 600113, India
2
Computational Structural Mechanics Group, CSIR- Structural Engineering Research Centre, Chennai 600113, India
3
Computational Structural Mechanics Group, CSIR- Structural Engineering Research Centre, Chennai 600113, India
In general, uni axial tensile (UAT) test which comes under direct tensile test gives the appropriate tensile
strength of concrete, but the execution of UAT in quasi-brittle material like concrete is an tedious task. In
the present study, mechanical properties namely compressive strength, split tensile strength, modulus of
elasticity and uni axial tensile behaviour for the four mixes of ultra high strength concrete (UHSC) with
and without ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBS), with and without steel fibers were evaluated
under accelerated curing condition. The basic ingredients of UHSC include cement, silica fume, quartz
sand, quartz powder, superplasticizer and water. The addition of GGBS and steel fibers exhibited
superior mechanical properties with reference to the control mixture. The strain capacity and the elastic
deformation capability of the concrete matrix are increased considerably with the inclusion of GGBS and
steel fibers. Dog bone shaped specimens were tested in tension where in UHSC specimens with GGBS
and steel fibers observed to sustain more energy absorption due to ductile behavior and high fracture
toughness.
Key words: UHSC, GGBS, Steel fiber, Compressive strength, Split tensile strength, Compressive stress-strain, Uni-
axial tensile strength.
1. Introduction Concrete (UHSC). The UHSC mix generally consists

of very fine powders (cement, sand, quartz powder
During the last two decades, significant progress and silica fume), steel fibers (optional) and
has been made in the concrete technology field. The superplasticizer. UHSC is the main reason behind the
development of concrete material can be marked and development of dense microstructure which promotes
divided into several stages. The first is the traditional the homogeneity of concrete, better packing density,
normal strength concrete (NSC). Usually, there are reduced porosity and make the concrete durable
only four kinds of constituents for NSC namely one[1].
cement, water, fine aggregates and coarse aggregates.
With the increasing development of physical With the use of UHSC, the mechanical
infrastructure, such as high-rise buildings and long- properties have been drastically improved the
span bridges, higher compressive strength concrete is compressive strength about 200 MPa and high
needed. When the compressive strength of concrete is flexural strength about 30 MPa with the addition of
higher than 50 MPa, it is usually defined as high steel fibers. Due to this superior performance of
strength concrete (HSC). At the very beginning, the UHSC, it can be widely adopted in the construction
easiest way to reach high compressive strength was industries for various structures covering various
to reduce the watercement ratio. Therefore, in HSC, aspects like strength and durability. However, UHSC
the fifth ingredient, a water reducing agent or have numerous advantages, the cost of production
superplasticizer, is indispensable. When the make it as an uneconomical one. The use of
compressive strength of concrete is more than Supplementary Cementitious Materials (SCMs) other
120MPa, then it is termed as Ultra High Strength than silica fume such as GGBS, Fly ash, metakaolin
______________________________ etc.,in binary and ternary basis can be used
effectively to replace the high dosage cement content
1
PhD Research Scholar, ganesh@acsir.res.in in UHSC (nearly 800-1000 kg/m3) which results in
2
Scientist, smithag@serc.res.in cost savings and efficiently using the waste materials
3
Principalscientist, murthyarc@serc.res.in or by-product of the industry production. Also due to
the superior mechanical performance of UHSC, the
dimensions to the structural elements can be reduced
740
P Ganesh, et al.
thus results in saving of materials and economy. In A maximum silicon dioxide (SiO2) content is the
addition, mineral admixture like GGBS is both property most frequently specified. According to that
cementitious and pozzolanic properties which plays a silica fume is used as powder form with 95% SiO2, a
key role in achieving superior mechanical properties particle size range of 0.2 to 25m. GGBFS with very
and efficiently reducing the problems like heat of less quantity of impurities having particle size range
hydration and shrinkage due to high amount of of 31m to 50m produced from coal industry
cement in UHSC[2,3]. Also, implication of steel (highly refined). The chemical and physical
fibers improves the energy absorption of the elements properties of GGBFS are presented in Table 1.
by making it as a ductile one[4].
Table 1: Chemical and physical properties of OPC
Generally, tensile strength of concrete are and GGBFS
evaluated by two methods, one is a direct tensile test Properties Cement GGBS
and another one is a in-direct tensile test. The in- SiO2 5.80 12.53
direst tensile tests are splitting tensile test on
Al2O3 3.30 1.55
cylindrical specimen and flexural test on prism
CaO 64.10 35.42
specimen which is widely used for the conventional
concrete. The direct tensile test is rarely performed in MgO 1.75 6.92
concrete because it is more complicated and requires K 2O 0.75 1.38
very fine preparation for its arrangement to grip and SO3 1.80 0.80
place the specimen. Also, non-uniform state of stress Na2O 0.20 0.20
is superimposed over the local stress fluctuations that Cl- 0.03 -
are caused by the material structure itself. Because of Specific 3.15 2.85
this, these methods have disadvantages. However, the Gravity
tensile strength obtained from the uniaxial tensile test SSA (m2/g) 0.32 0.396
is more reliable than that of other test methods. But
this test method requires much more care compared By the addition of SCMs with less water to
to indirect test methods. Another difficulty in cement ratio, a demand for flowability or workability
uniaxial tensile tests is that the test specimen is under is increased due to larger specific surface area. Hence
the influence of moment effects due to the superplasticizer (SP) is used to decrease the water
eccentricity of specimen causes unexpected crushing demand while improving the workability of concrete.
which fails to determine uni-axial tensile strength.In A polycarboxylate-ether based superplasticiser
spite of these difficulties of UAT, a dog bone shaped manufactured by BASF (Master Glenium Sky 8233)
specimen with appropriate arrangement is developed is used in all mixes. The SP content is adjusted for
and results in arriving accurate tensile strength of the each mix to ensure that no segregation would occur.
specimen by forming uni-axial stress field over the Brass coated steel fibers of length 13 mm and
central section of the specimen[5-7]. diameter 0.18 mm having yield strength about 1500
MPa is used.
In this study, four mixes of UHSC with and
without GGBS, with and without steel fibers were 2.2 Mix Proportion
prepared to evaluate the various mechanical
properties such as compressive strength, split tensile In the absence of well established
strength, compressive stress-strain and uniaxial comprehensive methods for the mix design of UHSC,
tensile behaviour. mixes are arrived at based on several trials to get the
desired strength. Information on UHSC regarding
2 Materials and Experimental Program mix design to obtain the required target strength is
scarce in literature (Richard and Cheyrezy,
2.1 Materials and Properties 1994;1995). Therefore, several trials had been made
before the final mix design. The basic ingredients of
Cementitious materials used are Ordinary
UHSC includes cement, silica fume, quartz sand,
Portland cement (OPC), silica fume powder (SF),
quartz powder, superplasticizer and water. The final
Groung Granulated Blast furnace Slag (GGBS). OPC
mix proportions for four mixes of UHSC with and
conforming to IS 12269 (2013) standard is used as
without GGBS, with and without steel fibers are
received. The chemical and physical properties of the
given in Table 2.
cement are shown in Table 1. In addition,
supplementary cementitious materials, silica fume is
used as an additive.
741
Table 2: Mix proportion for UHSC longitudinal strain. It is known that the stress
obtained by breaking a specimen which is subjected
Mix ID/ WOG WG WOGS WGS to uniaxial loading, shows the real tensile strength of
Mix concrete. A typical specimen tested uni axially is
Ingredients shown in Figure 1.
Cement 802.68 704.66 802.68 747.66
(Kg/m3)
Silica Fume 200.67 186.92 200.67 186.92
(Kg/m3)
Quartz 890.97 829.91 890.97 829.91
Sand
(Kg/m3)
Quartz 321.07 299.06 321.07 299.06
Powder
(Kg/m3)
Water 184.62 171.96 184.62 171.96
(Kg/m3)
Super- 3.4% 3.4% 3.4% 3.4%
plasticizer
GGBS - 164.49 - 164.49
Steel Fiber - - 2% 2%
* SP - Superplasticizer (% weight of binder content
in mix)
*Steel Fiber - (% volume of concrete)
2.3 Test Procedure
From the prepared mixture of UHSC under

accelerated curing condition, the compressive
strength test has been conducted for the cube of size
70.7 mm and for the cylinder of size 75 150mm in
room temperature. The test has been conducted using
UTM of capacity 2000kN. Three specimens for each
mixture have been cast and tested and the average
compressive strength has been taken for the analysis Figure 1: UAT Test Setup
and interpretation. Similarly, the split tension test has 3. Result and Discussion
been conducted for the cylinderss of size 150mm 3.1Compression Strength Test Result:
height and 75mm diameter. The stress-strain curve
test is conducted for the cylinders of size 150mm The variation of compressive strength shows that
height and 75mm diameter for both with and without the inclusion of GGBS and steel fiber is higher than
GGBS, with and without steel fibers. The top surface the plain UHSC. Figure 2 shows compression
is smoothened by grinding and by placing plaster of strength results for four UHSC mixture. The
paris to avoid application of concentrated load. Two compressive strength of mixtures WOG, WG, WOGS
strain gauges were fixed at the center of the specimen and WGS are 100.43, 107.79, 110.93 and 119.34
to measure the strain. Dial gauges are also placed at MPa respectively. It can be noticed that, the addition
appropriate position to measure the deflection. of GGBS in control mix (WG) slightly increases the
compressive strength of about 7%. Similarly, the
The uniaxial tensile specimen of size 500 mm x addition of steel fiber (WOGS) also increases
60 mm x 12 mm were prepared for four mixes compressive strength to certain extent about 10% and
namely WOG, WG, WOGS and WGS. Both ends of the addition of both GGBS and steel fibers in the
the specimens were wrapped with fibers for the control mix (WGS) resulted in significant increase in
length of 12mm using glue for the purpose of compressive strength (about 19%). From the
strengthening the grip. Two Strain gauges are fixed at inference, it is essential to add both GGBS and steel
the center of the specimen to measure the fibers to obtain superior mechanical properties.
742
P Ganesh, et al.
3.3 Stress-Strain Curve Test Result:
Figures 4(a) and 4(b) show the load vs deflection

behavior for typical UHSC mixes. From Figure 4(a),
it can be observed that the load at which the crack
begins to propagate in plain UHSC (WOG) is 345kN
and with an incorporation of GGBS in UHSC (WG)
is 396kN. The addition of fibers in plain UHSC
(WOGS) increased the load carrying capacity to
401kN and incorporation of fibers and GGBS in
UHSC (WGS) increased the load carrying capacity to
436kN compared to plain UHSC mix (WOG). The
stress-strain curve was further used to evaluate the
Young's modulus and Poisson's ratio. The strain
capacity and the elastic deformation capability of the
concrete matrix are increased considerably with the
inclusion of steel fibers. From Figure 4(b) it can be
seen that the ultra-high strength concrete has Youngs
modulus in the range of 38000MPa.
Figure 2: Compression Test Result
3.2 Split Tensile Strength Test Result WOG WG

Figure 3 shows split tensile strength results WOGS WGS
for four UHSC mixture. The split tensile strength of 500
mixtures WOG, WG, WOGS and WGS are 6.79, 450
7.51, 11.49 and 13.49 MPa respectively. It can be 400
noted that plain UHSC had tensile strength in the
350
range of 6 - 7 MPa and by the addition of fibers,
Load, kN
tensile strength had drastically increased to 13 to 14 300

MPa. Hence with the incorporation of fibers, there is 250
considerable enhancement in tensile strength (about 200
70%) and also with the incorporation of GGBS, there
is 11% increase in the tensile strength with respect to 150
the control mix(WOG). 100
50
0
0 0.5 1 1.5
Displacement, mm
Figure 4(a): Load vs Displacement Curve
Figure 3: Split Tensile Strength Test Result
743
WOG WG WOG WG
WOGS WGS WOGS WGS
120 12
100 10
Stress (MPa)
80
Stress, MPa
60 6
40 4
20 2
0 0
0 2000 4000 6000 0.000 0.005 0.010
Strain (m/m) Strain (m/m)
Figure 4(b): Stress-Strain curve Figure 5(b): Stress-Strain cuvre
3.4 Uniaxial Tensile Test Result: 4. Conclusions
The Figures 5(a) and 5(b) show that the typical The following conclusion can be drawn
UAT results. In the case of mix with fibers subjected from the studies carried out towards development
to uniaxial tensile loads exhibited a strain hardening of UHSC mixture
behavior after the formation of the first crack. Under
uniaxial tensile loads, UHSC showed very ductile The percentage increase in compressive
behavior and high fracture toughness. From this, It is strength due to incorporation of GGBS in
clearly seen that the brittle failure has not occurred UHSC is about 7%.
and energy absorption is increased due to the addition The percentage increase in compressive
of fibers in the concrete. The strain corresponding to strength due to incorporation of GGBS and
the peak stress, the strain capacity and the elastic steel fiber in UHSC is found to be 19%
deformation capability of the concrete matrix are The target compressive strength of above
found considerably high with the inclusion of steel 110MPa has been achieved in UHSC by the
fiber. addition of both GGBS and steel fiber.
Split tensile strength has been found to be
WOG WG 13.49MPa with steel fiber which shows an
WOGS WGS increase in strength than the plain UHSC mix.
8000 Hence with the incorporation of steel fiber,
there is a considerable enhancement in split
7000 tensile strength of these four mixtures.
6000 By analyzing the stress-strain behavior of
UHSC, the tremendous improvement in the
5000
Load, kN
ductility value is observed by incorporation of

4000 steel fibers and GGBS.
The Youngs modulus value for the mix in
3000 compression is in the range of 38000 MPa
2000 which is high compared to the normal concrete
mix.
1000 The ultimate tensile strength is obtained in
0 UAT specimen, the tremendous improvement
0 1 2 3 4 in the tensile strength is achieved by the
incorporation of steel fiber.
Displacement, mm
Figure 5(a): Load vs Displacement Curve
744
P Ganesh, et al.
5. Acknowledgements: (UHPC), International symposium on Ultra high

The authors thank the staff of the Computational performance concrete, Vol. 13, pp.213-225.
Structural Mechanics Group of CSIR-SERC for the 4. P S Song, S Hwang (2004), Mechanical properties
co-operation and suggestions provided during the of high strength steel fiber reinforced concrete,
investigations. This paper is being published with the Construction and Building Materials, Vol. 18(9),
kind permission of the Director of CSIR-SERC. pp:669-673.
5. A.M.T. Hassan, S.W. Jones, G.H. Mahmud (2012),
References Experimental test methods to determine the
1. Richard. P and Cheyrezy M. H. (1995), uniaxial tensile and compressive behaviour of ultra
Composition of Reactive Powder Concretes, high performance fibre reinforced concrete
Cement and Concrete Research, Vol. 25 (7), pp: (UHPFRC), Construction and Building
1501-1511. Materials,Vol.37,pp:874-882.
2. S Teng, T Y D Lim, B S Divsholi (2013), 6. Mallat A, Alliche A (2011). A modified tensile test
Durability and mechanical properties of high to study the behaviour of cementitious materials.
strength concrete incorporating untra fine Groung Strain, Vol. 47(6), pp: 499-504.
Granulated Blast-furnace Slag, Construction and 7. Benson SDP, Karihaloo BL (2005), CARDIFRC1 -
Building Materials, Vol. 40, pp: 875-881. development and mechanical properties. Part III:
3. Rougeau P and Borys B (2004), Ultra High Uniaxial tensile response and other mechanical
Performance concrete with ultrafine particles other properties, Magazine of Concrete Research, Vol,
than silica fume, Ultra high performance concrete 57(8), pp: 433-443.
745
STUDY ON STRENGTH REDUCTION FACTOR OF BLENDED

CONCRETE EXPOSED TO SEA WATER
T. Jena1, K. C. Panda2
1, 2
Department of Civil Engineering, SOA University Bhubaneswar, Odisha 751030, India
This article reports the mechanical properties of blended concrete containing fly ash (FA) and silpozz exposed to
sea water. The reduction in strength is evaluated between normal water curing (NWC) and sea water curing (SWC)
samples by strength reduction factor (SRF) in percentage. The micro structural analysis is done by scanning
electron microscopy (SEM). It reveals from the test results that the SRF for compressive strength is 4% for 10% FA
and 20% silpozz replaced with ordinary Portland cement (OPC) for 6 months exposure to sea water. The SRF for
flexural strength and split tensile strength is 1% and 0.80% at 90 days exposure. The minimum slip is 1mm after 28
days of testing bond strength for NWC samples. The SRF in bond strength is also evaluated and found 10.35% for
28 days SWC samples. The dense and compact micro structure was observed in 28 days NWC samples.
Keywords: Blended concrete, Bond strength, Fly ash, Sea water, Silpozz
1 Introduction containing OPC, FA and SF in artificial sea water

Long-term durability of structures has become vital and resist against environmental deterioration. Jena
to the economics of all nations. Concrete for the and Panda [5-6] studied the development of
twenty-first century can be much stronger, more mechanical properties in blended concrete made
durable and at the same time cost and energy with silpozz to improve the durability of marine
efficient. Failure of concrete in a period less than its structures. Shen et al. [7] found that the slip
design life may be caused by external factors such as corresponding to bond strength decreases with
the environment to which it has been exposed or by increase in compressive strength at early age.
a variety of internal causes. External factors may be Aggrawal and Siddique [8-9] studied the micro
physical or chemical in nature, such as weathering, structural properties of concrete using waste foundry
extreme variation of temperatures, abrasion and sand and bottom ash as a partial replacement of fine
exposure to aggressive chemicals. Internal causes aggregates.
may lie in the choice of materials or inappropriate The objective of the present article is to study
combination of materials. Some of the researchers the strength reduction factor (SRF) of mechanical
have reported the deterioration mechanism in marine properties of blended concrete such as compressive,
exposure condition such as Sunil [1] studied the flexural, split and bond strength exposed to sea
percentage decrease in compressive strength for the water as well as micro structural analysis by
period of one year of exposure both in fresh water scanning electron microscopy (SEM).
and sea water curing and the effect of marine 2 Experimental study
environment on concrete is to decrease its
compressive strength and this loss increases with 2.1 properties of materials used
age of exposure. Menon et al. [2] studied the effect In this study the materials used are OPC 43
of mineral admixtures such as fly ash (FA), silica grade, course aggregates, fine aggregates, normal
fume (SF) and ground granulated blast furnace slag water, sea water and high end super plasticizer (SP).
with super plasticizer on high strength concrete in The tested physical properties of OPC as per IS
development of compressive strength under severe 8112-1989 [10] is presented in Table 1. The
exposure sea water tidal zone and found that the experimental value of aggregates as per IS 383-1970
high strength concrete would withstand severe sea [11] is given in Table 2. FA is a fine material and
water exposure without serious deterioration. possesses good pozzolanic activity. Silpozz is an
Wegian [3] reported all forms of deterioration can effective mineral admixture and specially mixed in
be controlled by using higher cement content in sea marine concrete to improve mechanical and
water. Anwar and Roushdi [4] showed the durability properties. Silpozz is a commercial name
improvement of mechanical properties of concrete for micro silica produced from rice husk ash. FA
and silpozz sample is shown in Fig.1. Physical
properties FA and silpozz is given in Table 3 and
1
Research scholar, trilochanjena@soauniversity.ac.in chemical composition of cementitius materials is
2
Associate Professor, kishoriit@gmail.com presented in Table 4.
746
T. Jena1 and K. C. Panda
The mix design is targeted for M30 as it is the

marine exposure condition as per IS 10262-2009
[12]. The obtained material ratio was (1:1.44:2.91),
W/B ratio 0.43. The control specimen made 0%
replacement of FA and silpozz with cement and
without SP. The blended concrete samples made 0%
FA and 10%, 20% and 30% replacement of silpozz
with cement and doses of SP. Another blended
cement concrete samples also made with 10%
replacement of FA and 10%, 20% and 30%
Figure 1: FA and Silpozz replacement of silpozz with cement. The controlled
specimen is prepared with 100% OPC without SP
Table 1: Physical properties of OPC and there is no change of quantity of materials. As
Characteristics Experimental Value SP is used in blended concrete mixes, the amount of
value specified by IS water was reduced by 20% based upon the several
8112:1989
trial mixes in order to maintain the slump in between
Setting Time, (minutes)
Initial setting time 165 30 (min)
25-50 mm. Two set of samples (cube, cylinder and
Final setting time 360 600 (max) prism) have been prepared. One set of sample cured
Standard Consistency (%) 34 NA normal water and the other set of samples have been
Specific gravity 3.15 3.15 cured in sea water for 7, 28, 90 and 180 days and
Compressive strength ( MPa) their strength reduction factor (SRF) in percentage
(a) 3 days 28 MPa 23 MPa studied after getting the results of compressive
(b) 7 days 42 MPa 33 MPa
(c) 28 days 48 MPa 43 MPa
strength. The split tensile strength and flexural
Fineness (m2 / kg) 333 225 (min) strength was studied upto 90 days and their SRF (%)
evaluated. The bond strength of the sea water curing
(SWC) and normal water curing (NWC) samples is
Table 2: Properties of aggregates tested at 28 days and the slips are observed. The mix
Specifications Experimental value as per IS : 383-1970
identity MC100F0S0 means OPC 100%, FA 0% and
Coarse aggregates Fine
aggregates silpozz 0% without SP. Similarly the mix
Fineness modulus 7.0 3.03 (Zone-3) M1C90F0S10 means OPC 90%, FA 0% and silpozz
Specific gravity 2.86 2.67 10% with SP 0.2% and so on. The details of mix
Water absorption 0.2 0.4 identity along with their percentage of cementitius
(%)
Bulk density (kg/m3) 1424 1568 materials with SP are presented in Table 5.
Abrasion value (%) 34.78 -
Impact value (%) 24 - Table 5: Details of cementitius materials with SP
Crushing value (%) 23.3 -
Mix Identity OPC (%) FA Silpozz (%) SP (%)
(%)
MC100F0S0 100 0 0 -
Table 3: Physical properties of FA and silpozz
Physical properties FA Silpozz M1C90F0S10 90 0 10 0.20
Specific gravity 2.12 2.3 M1C80F0S20 80 0 20 0.29
Bulk Density (gm/cc) 1.2 0.23
Specific surface, m2/g 33 17 M1C70F0S30 70 0 30 0.40
Particle size (Micron) 34 25 M1C80F10S10 80 10 10 0.22
Color Gray Gray black M1C70F10S20 70 10 20 0.33
Physical state - Solid Non-hazardous
M1C60F10S30 60 10 30 0.47
Table 4: Chemical composition of cementitius

materials 2.3 Specimen preparation and exposure conditions
Oxides (%) Cement (OPC) Silpozz FA Standard concrete cubes of size 150 150
SiO2 20.99 88.18 58.13
150 mm were used for measuring the compressive
Al2O3 6.05 1.61 31.00 strength. For the split tensile strength the concrete
Fe2O3 6.01 0.56 4.10 cylinders of size 100 mm diameter and 200 mm
Carbon - 2.67 - height were taken and concrete beams of size 100
CaO 62.74 1.59 0.60
MgO 1.33 1.63 0.10
100 500 mm were employed for determination of
K2O 0.40 1.67 0.90 flexural strength. The specimen size for pull out test
Na2O 0.04 - 0.05 is 150 mm x150 mm x150 mm with a reinforcing tor
SO3 1.82 - 0.12 bar of 12 mm diameter. Total length of the bar is
TiO2 .025 - 1.63
Others - 2.09 0.011
120 mm with a bond length of 60 mm. The
Moisture content (%) - 0.79 3.0 compressive strength was determined for cube
Loss on ignition (%) 1.14 0.04 0.29 samples after 7, 28, 90 and 180 days of NWC and
2.2 Mix proportions and Identifications SWC. The flexural and split tensile strength was
747
tested at the age of 7, 28 and 90 days of NWC and evaluated by their SRF in percentage for
SWC for the samples of prism and cylinder compressive strength upto 180 days curing period.
respectively. The bond strength was tested for 28 For flexural strength and split tensile strength the
days of NWC and SWC samples. The materials were SRF (%) evaluated upto 90 days and for bond
batched into the mixer according to the following strength 28 days of NWC and SWC. The SRF is
sequence: coarse aggregate followed by sand, and defined as SRF = (1- s) / n 100, Where s =
then cementitious materials (OPC, FA, and Silpozz strength of cubes after exposed to sea water for a
were well mixed outside the mixer). The total mixing period oft days, n = strength of cubes in normal
time was three minutes divided into two stages, water curing aftert days, t = curing period in days.
starting with 60 s dry mixing, followed by the
addition of the required water within 30 s, then the
mixer continued for the next 1.5 min of wet mixing
and after adding SP the mixture continued for extra
1.5 to 2 min for wet mixing. The doses of SP were
added to the silpozz based samples of 10-40%
replaced with OPC. After casting, the concrete
moulds were compacted by a vibrator. The samples
were finished, stripped from their moulds the day
after casting. The specimens were cured in water
until testing. The compressive test, flexural test, split
tensile test and bond test set up is shown in Figs.2-5.
Figure 4: Split tensile test set up for cylinder
Figure 2: Compressive test set up for cube
Figure 5: Bond test set up

The SRF(%) versus age in days in compressive
strength is shown in Fig.6. The SRF is limited to 7%
for 6 months study but the sample having 10% FA
and 20% silpozz replaced with OPC gives minimum
4% SRF than the other samples. It is observed from
Fig. 6 that the normal mix shows higher SRF at all
ages of curing. The sodium chloride and some
amount of CO2 present in sea water reacts with
Figure 3: Flexural test set up for prism Ca(OH)2 and the formation of hydrochloric acid and
CaCO3 may reduce the strength gain in sea water.
3 Experimental results and discussions But FA and silpozz with proper doses of SP
restricted the intrusion of chloride and CO2, thus
3.1 Properties of fresh concrete SRF is decreasing. The compressive strength of
The workability of fresh concrete was measured NWC and SWC is given in Table 6 -7.
by slump value and compaction factor. The dose of
SP was added only to maintain the slump in between 3.4 Flexural strength
25- 50 mm and the experimented slump ranged from The SRF (%) versus age in days in flexural
34 to 42 mm was observed. The compaction factor strength is shown in Fig. 7. The higher value of SRF
ranges from 86.20 to 96.20% which shows good is 2% at 90 days and 0.8% at 7 days for 10% FA and
workable concrete at all levels. 30% silpozz replaced with OPC.
3.2 Properties of hardened concrete Table 6: Compressive strength of NWC (MPa)
The properties of hardened concrete is Compressive strength of NWC (MPa)
748
Concrete mix 7 28 90 180 and M1C70F10S20 sample at 90 days age. The

MC100F0S0 36.95 51.15 62.50 65.80 combained sample with FA and silpozz performed
M1C90F0S10 44.50 56.85 66.50 69.85
M1C80F0S20 47.20 58.25 67.80 71.40 better SRF as compared to control specimen upto 90
M1C70F0S30 41.50 55.40 66.10 69.50 days.
M1C80F10S10 43.00 55.00 65.00 68.50
M1C70F10S20 44.00 56.00 66.80 69.80
M1C60F10S30 41.00 54.00 64.50 67.30
Table 7: Compressive strength of SWC (MPa)

Compressive strength of SWC (MPa)
Concrete mix 7 28 90 180
MC100F0S0 36.9 51 61 62
M1C90F0S10 44.45 56.7 65 66
M1C80F0S20 47.15 58.1 66.5 68
M1C70F0S30 41.4 55.1 64.5 65.5
M1C80F10S10 42.9 54.85 64 65.2
M1C70F10S20 43.95 55.85 66 67
M1C60F10S30 40.5 53.2 62.8 63
Figure 7: SRF (%) vs. Age in days

3.6 Bond strength
The minimum value of SRF is 0.37%, 0.67% and The specimen size for pull out test is 150 mm
1% at 7, 28 and 90 days age for 10% FA and 20% x150 mm x150 mm with a reinforcing tor bar of 12
silpozz replaced with OPC respectively. The SRF is mm diameter. Total length of the bar is 120 mm
limited to 1% at 7 days age for all samples and it is with a bond length of 60 mm. For all specimens the
increased only after 28 days to 90 days. The SRF is load rate was 0.1 KN / s. The types of failure were
directly proportional to the exposure conditions. The identified for each test by recording the bond
SRF of sample containing 10% FA and 30% silpozz strength slip results measured at the free end with a
is 0.8% at 7 days which is almost al equal to the dial micrometer an accuracy of 0.0025 mm. The
SRF of other samples except M1C70F10S20 but the ultimate bond strength was calculated from b =
SRF increased upto 2% at 90 days which is the Fmax / L, Where b is the bond strength, Fmax is
highest value in this study. As silpozz was replaced the maximum pull out force, is the diameter of the
by 30% with OPC as a result of which early strength tor bar and L is the bond length. The bond strength
gains may be the reason of reducing the SRF at 7 set up is shown in Fig. 5.The SRF in bond strength
days age. The highest value of SRF in flexural versus types of mix is shown in Fig.9. It observed
strength is limited to 2% at 90 days. from Fig. 9 that the lowest value of SRF is 10.35%
for sample of 10% FA and 20% silpozz replaced
3.5 Split tensile strength with OPC. The highest value of SRF is 14.11% for
The SRF (%) versus age in days for split tensile control specimen at 28 days of curing. The
tensile strength is shown in Fig. 8. It is observed combined samples having FA and silpozz performed
from the Fig. 8 that some of the intermediate better in sea water. The slip in mm versus types of
samples having al most al equal SRF at all ages. But mix is shown in Figs. 10-11. It is observed from Fig.
the sample containing 10% FA and 20% silpozz 10 that slip is limited to 1.40 mm for normal
showing 0.54%, 0.64% and 0.78% SRF at 7, 28 and concrete and minimum slip is 1mm for silpozz based
90 days age which is the minimum value than the concrete. Slip is mainly depends upon the bond
control specimen. The maximum value is 1.65% for between cement concrete matrix and steel
10% FA and 30% silpozz sample at 90 days age and reinforcement. It was noted at the time of maximum
it is equal to the value of control specimen for same applied load. When FA is added with silpozz the slip
curing periods. The SRF is same for M1C80F0S20 is controlled and less than the control specimen. It
749
was observed that slip corresponding to bond Internal construction of cement concretes and
strength decreases as the compressive increases. The properties within concretes are essential elements for a
sample 10% FA and 20% silpozz gives higher bond structural designer who deals with concrete properties
strength and compressive strength with minimum and behaviour in service. SEM studies are essential for
slip of 1mm. developing mathematical models and durability of
concrete. SEM for the sample M1C70F10S20 is given
in Figs. 12-13 both in NWC and SWC. The phases of
different SEM images are studied as per the literature
available [8-9]. It is observed from Fig.12 that the
bright and dark matter stands for calcium silicate
hydrate (C-S-H) gel present inner aggregates during
subsequent curing process and acting as a binder in the
paste thus improving mechanical properties. Some
places the voids and pores are also visible along with
salt accumulation marked by white spots. In due
process C-S-H gels are formed during hardening
process and voids are eliminated therefore strength
gains. In SWC samples, the formation of C-S-H gels
are hardly visible and salt accumulation is observed in
some places by white spots along with voids thus
deterioration takes place at later age which are shown
Figure 9: SRF (%) vs. Types of mix in Fig. 13. Furthermore deterioration takes place by
various chemical and physical attacks in marine
environment which can change their inner structures as
well as their characteristics.
Figure 10: Slip in mm vs. Types of mix
Figure 12: SEM of NWC sample (M1C70F10S20)
Figure 11: Slip in mm vs. Types of mix

It is observed from Fig. 11 that the maximum slip is
limited to 1.462 mm for control specimen and 1.12
mm for M1C80F0S20 in SWC samples at 28 days.
3.7 Micro structural analysis Figure 13: SEM of SWC sample (M1C70F10S20)
4 Concluding remarks
750
The following conclusions may be drawn from the [2] Menon, A.H., Radin, S.S., Zain, M.F.M.
present study: Trottier, J.F., Effect of mineral and chemical
It is observed that 10% replacement of FA and admixtures on high strength concrete in sea
upto 20% silpozz with cement, the SRF in water, Cement and Concrete Research, Vol. 32,
compressive strength is found to be less than 4% at pp. 373-377, 2002.
180 days of exposure.
[3] Wegian, M.F., Effect of sea water for mixing
The SRF in flexural strength for the sample 0%
and curing on structural concrete, The IES
FA and 20% silpozz replaced with OPC was found
journal part A, Civil and Structural
1.22% at 90 days and 1% for sample 10% FA and
Engineering, Vol. 3(4), pp. 235-243, 2010.
20% silpozz replaced with OPC. It seems to be
negligible but in long term, this may leads the [4] Anwar, M., Roushdi, M., Improved concrete
vulnerability for coastal structures. properties to resist saline water using
The SRF in split tensile strength for sample 0% environmental by-product, Water Science
FA and 20% silpozz replaced with OPC was found Journal, Vol. 27, pp. 30-38, 2014.
0.3%. 0.45% and 0.8% at 7, 28 and 90 days age
[5] Jena, T., Panda, K.C., Effect of fly ash and
which is less than the SRF value for sample 10% FA
silpozz on strength and durability properties of
and 20% silpozz.
concrete in sea water, Indian Journal of Science
The lowest value of SRF in bond strength is
and Technology, Vol. 8(29), pp.1-7, 2015.
10.35% for sample of 10% FA and 20% silpozz
replaced with OPC. The highest value of SRF is [6] Jena, T., Panda, K.C., Influence of sea water on
14.11% for control specimen at 28 days of curing. strength and durability properties of concrete,
The maximum and minimum slip is 1.40 mm and 1 Advances in Structural Engineering. Vol. 03,
mm for control specimen and M1C70F10S20 Springer India, pp. 1863-1873, 2015.
sample respectively in 28 days NWC. But the slip
[7] Shen, D., Shi, X., Zhang, H., Duan, X., Jiang,
was observed 1.146 mm and 1.19 mm for control
G., Experimental study of early-age bond
specimen and M1C70F10S20 respectively in 28
behavior between high strength concrete and
days SWC.
steel bars using a pull out test, Construction and
In the present study of SEM, the sample
Building materials, Vol. 113, pp. 653-663,
M1C70F10S20 with SP showed large formation of
2016.
C-S-H gel needs for development of dense
microstructures. [8] Aggrawal, Y., Siddique, R., Microstructure and
The addition of SCM such as FA and silpozz properties of concrete using bottom ash and
with SP enhances the homogeneity of cement paste waste foundry sand as partially replacement of
and densifies the microstructure of the cement fine aggregates, Construction and Building
considerably as well as improves the mechanical Materials, Vol. 54, pp. 210-223, 2014.
properties of marine concrete.
[9] Weiting, X., Tommy, Y.L., Shazim, A. M.,
It is concluded that Silpozz is having average
Microstructure and reactivity of rice husk ash,
particles size of 25 microns and below, so that it fills
Construction and Building Materials, Vol. 29,
the interstices in between the cement in the
pp. 541-547, 2012.
aggregate as fine filler with the help of SP which
gives better strength and resistance to sea water [10] IS: 8112-1989, 43 grade OPC specifications
attack. (first revision), Bureau of Indian Standards,
New Delhi, India.
Acknowledgments [11] IS: 383-1970, Indian Standard Specification for
course and fine aggregates from natural sources
Authors would like to thanks IIMT and SOA for concrete, (second revision), Bureau of
University, Bhubaneswar, Odisha, to conduct Indian Standards, New Delhi, India.
experimental work.
[12] IS: 10262-2009, Guide lines for concrete mix
References design proportioning, Bureau of Indian
[1] Kumar, S., Influence of water quality on the Standards, New Delhi, India.
strength of plain and blended cement concretes
in marine environments, Cement and Concrete
Research, Vol. 30, pp. 345-350, 2000.
751
INFLUENCE OF FLY ASH AND SILPOZZ ON THE CONCRETE

CONTAINING CRUSHER DUST AS SAND REPLACEMENT
MATERIAL
1 2
S. Jena , K. C. Panda
1
Department of Civil Engineering, SOA University, Bhubaneswar, Odisha, 751030, India
2
This paper is aimed at finding out any other alternate materials to be used in concrete without
compromising its desired quality and durability. The mix design is targeted for M30 grade concrete with
w/b ratio 0.43. The investigation comprises of twelve numbers of concrete mixes. First two mixes were
made by replacing 0 and 50% of natural fine aggregate (NFA) with crusher dust (CD). Then at each
replacement level of NFA, Cement is replaced partially with both fly ash (FA) and silpozz. The studied
parameters include the workability, compressive, split tensile and flexural strength of concrete samples
after 7, 14, and 28 days of curing period. Workability decreases with increase in CD and silpozz content
and increases with FA. The hardened concrete test results indicate that CD based concrete increases the
compressive, split tensile and flexural strength. Use of FA and silpozz increases the strength and
maximum strength is achieved at 20% replacement of cement with silpozz.
Keywords: Crusher dust (CD), fly ash (FA), silpozz, compressive strength, flexural strength, split tensile
strength.
1 Introduction
In this era of rapid industrialization, there is CD is successfully being used in road projects in place
exponential growth in infrastructure sector. To sustain of river sand. Similarly, use of cement is increasing
this infrastructural growth, raw materials and related exponentially. Production of cement is energy
requisites are to be fetched in abundance. Since natural consuming and expensive. Environmental pollution is
resources are depleting by the day, time has come for us its another drawback. During production of 1 MT of
to look for alternative to these resources that can be Portland cement, nearly 1 MT of CO2 is released in to
used efficiently. Concrete is used extensively in the atmosphere, contributing to the Global warming,
developing the infrastructure of any kind. Cement and which has reached a severe stage. On the other hand,
sand being its two important ingredients, scarcity of disposal and stock piling of industrial by products such
good quality natural sand is hindering the progress of as Blast Furnace Slag, fly ash (FA) and Silpozz etc. are
many infrastructure projects. Extensive sand quarrying becoming difficult day by day. The only solution to
has also its own adverse environmental impact. these problems is to explore ways for replacement of
Therefore, it is high time we explored possibility for Portland cement with these by-products so that
replacement of sand in concrete. There are so many consumption of cement will be less at the same time
materials available as industrial or agricultural by- these by-products will be disposed of efficiently.
products that can be recycled as construction material. FA is recognized as a cementitious material.
When rocks are processed in crusher to produce Workability of concrete can be improved if cement is
aggregates of various sizes, the residue is called crusher suitably substituted with FA. Water requirement of the
dust (CD). Disposal of these CD is a difficult concrete shall also be reduced. Similarly, Silica fume
proposition as huge area of land is required for this can efficiently be replaced with eco-friendly and low
purpose. There is always risk of pollution if these fine cost Silpozz to enhance the strength and workability of
particles mingle with air/water. To overcome these concrete.
problems and to find an economically viable alternative According to Pofale and Quadri [1], at all
to river sand, we can use CD in concrete. replacement levels of natural fine aggregates (NFA)
with CD, there is reduction of 1-6% in workability.
They further concluded that compressive strength of
concrete is increased upto 5-22% when NFA is
1
substituted with CD. They also mentioned that when
M. Tech. Student, sjena4203@gmail.com percentage replacement level of NFA with CD is 40%,
2
Associate Professor, kishoriit@gmail.com maximum compressive strength was achieved. With
increase in percentage of dust content, Slump value
752
S. Jena and K. C. Panda
decreases according to Celik and Marar [2]. According NFA and CD is shown in Figure 2.
to Eren and Marar [3] Water permeability is reduced
with increasing content of CD.
Utmost compressive, tensile and flexural strength
are achieved when NFA is replaced by 50% CD
according to Balamurugan and Perumal [4]. They
further concluded that CD can be put to use in place of
NFA when replaced by 50%, with giving additional
strength. Compressive strength of concrete is increased
considerably with the addition of FA and but tensile
strength is not that much affected by FA according to
Sama et al. [5]. They further concluded that utilization
of FA in concrete as the partial replacement of cement
leads to a cost effective and environmental friendly
product. According to Pitroda et al. [6] Coal and
thermal industry disposal cost can be saved with
utilization of FA. It also leads to construction with
greener concrete. But it is noticed that with the Figure 1: Residues of crusher dust passing through
addition of FA, percentage change in compressive as different Sieves
well as tensile strength decreases. According to Jatale et
al. [7], workability of concrete increases with increasing Table 1: Physical properties of cement (OPC-43 grade)
FA content. They further concluded that as compared to Characteristics Test value Value as per
OPC concrete, FA concrete is more durable. Pradhan IS:8112-1989
and Panda [8] concluded that addition of silpozz in Normal consistency, 32.5 NA
concrete, as partial replacement of cement enhances the percent
strength remarkably. At all age of curing, the strength of Specific gravity 3.15 3.15
all concrete mixes prepared with the different Setting time,
combination of silpozz and RHA is higher than control minutes
mix as per Panda and Prusty [9]. Initial setting time 121 30 (min)
Aim of this study is to investigate on the effect of Final setting time 410 600 (max)
FA and silpozz on the properties of concrete containing Compressive
CD. To evaluate the fresh concrete properties slump test strength, Mpa
and hardened concrete properties were known from 3 days 30 23 (min)
compressive, split tensile and flexural strength tests. 7 days 43 33 (min)
28 days 51 43 (min)
2 Experimental Details
2.1 Material Table 2: Chemical composition of OPC, FA and

Silpozz
In this study, Ordinary Portland Cement, NFA, Oxide OPC FA Silpozz
NCA, CD, FA, Silpozz and potable water were used. SiO2 20.50 60.69 91.86
OPC 43-grade is used in the present study having Al2O3 5.05 22.55 1.98
specific gravity 3.15. The physical properties of cement Fe2O3 2.99 3.52 0.58
are obtained experimentally and the value specified by CaO 62.00 0.007 1.03
IS 8112:1989 [10] is presented in Table 1. Silpozz was MgO 2.07 0.005 0.67
supplied by N.K. Enterprises, Jharsuguda. Colour grey, SO3 2.40 0.012 -
particle size 25 microns-mean, specific gravity 2.3, LOI 3.10 3.27 1.99
surface area 17.1 m2/gm. FA of class F was supplied Carbon - - 0.79
from Nava Bharat Ventures Ltd., Dhenkanal, Odisha. Na2O - - 0.14
The chemical composition of OPC, FA and average K 2O - - 0.87
batch analysis report of silpozz is given in Table 2. Sand Others - - 0.87
is used as NFA which is passing through IS 4.75 mm Moisture - - 0.74
sieve. It is having specific gravity 2.68 and conforming
to zone II, was used in the present study. NCA were of Table 3: Physical properties of Aggregates and CD
20 mm downgraded and its specific gravity is 2.77. CD
Characteristics Test value (as Per IS:383-1970)
used was from a local crusher of zone I, with specific
gravity 2.80. The physical properties of NFA, NCA and NFA NCA CD
CD as per IS: 383-1970 [11] obtained experimentally is Fineness modulus 2.76 6.93 3.37
presented in Table 3. The residues obtained from (zone II) (zone I)
different CD particles passing through different sieves Specific gravity 2.68 2.77 2.80
are shown in Figure 1. Particle size gradation curve of Water absorption 0.80 0.22 0.80
753
ingredients. Then total ten different mixes of concrete (5

in each percentage interval of replacement of NFA)
were made. The sample MCD0F10S0 represents 0%
replacement of NFA with CD, 10% replacement of
cement with FA, and 0% replacement of cement with
silpozzz. Similarly, MCD50F10S0 represents 50%
replacement of NFA with CD, 10% replacement of
cement with FA, and 0% replacement of cement with
silpozz.
2.3 Casting and Testing of Specimen
After the cementitious materials such as OPC, FA,

silpozz along with NCA, NFA and CD were weighed in
Figure 2: Particle size gradation curve of NFA and CD different proportions as per test sampling to
homogeneous mixture by placing them in the concrete
2.2 Mixture Proportion mixer, specified quantity water as per w/b respective
ratio was weighed and added to this mix and further
To acquire target mean strength, design mix of M30 mixed in the mixer till a uniform homogeneous mix is
grade of concrete was done as per IS: 10262-2009 [12]. obtained. The mixing procedure is same for all the test
The target mean strength was found to be 38.25 MPa for samples. The workability of the mixed concrete was
a tolerance factor of 1.65. Here the mix proportion carried out immediately by the slump test. Test
1:1.535:2.746 were taken in this experiment. Two specimens were placed in moulds of specified size. 40
different mixes of concrete mixtures were made by mm size needle vibrator was used for in compacting the
replacing 0 and 50% of NFA with CD. The same mixes concrete specimens. The specimens were kept in the
have been tested in a constant w/b ratio i.e. 0.43 for mould for 24 hours. After removal from moulds, the
cement concrete. In this study, total twelve mixes were specimens were placed in curing tank using potable
prepared for CD Concrete. MCD indicate concrete mix water for 7, 14, and 28 days. The objective of the curing
with 0 and 50% replacement of NFA with CD, with w/b is to provide an appropriate environmental condition
ratio 0.43. MCD0 indicates 0% CD, 100% cement, within a concrete structure (temperature and humidity)
100% NFA, and 100% NCA, MCD50 indicates 50% to ensure smooth progression of hydration reactions.
CD, 100% cement, 50% NFA and 100% NCA.
Designation of mix proportion for their identification is
done as per degree of replacement of different
Table 1: Concrete mixture proportions

Mix Identity Filler Cementious materials per m3 of NFA NCA CD Water
concrete (Kg) (Kg) (Kg) (Kg)
Cement Fly ash Silpozz
(Kg) (Kg) (Kg)
MCD0 0% 432.55 0 0 663.96 1187.78 0 185.99
MCD50 50% 432.55 0 0 331.84 1187.78 331.84 185.99
MCD0F10S0 0% 389.29 43.25 0 663.96 1187.78 0 185.99
MCD0F20S0 0% 346.04 86.51 0 663.96 1187.78 0 185.99
MCD0F0S10 0% 389.29 0 43.25 663.96 1187.78 0 185.99
MCD0F0S20 0% 346.04 0 86.51 663.96 1187.78 0 185.99
MCD0F10S10 0% 346.04 43.25 43.25 663.96 1187.78 0 185.99
MCD50F10S0 50% 389.29 43.25 0 331.84 1187.78 331.84 185.99
MCD50F20S0 50% 346.04 86.51 0 331.84 1187.78 331.84 185.99
MCD50F0S10 50% 389.29 0 43.25 331.84 1187.78 331.84 185.99
MCD50F0S20 50% 346.04 0 86.51 331.84 1187.78 331.84 185.99
MCD50F10S10 50% 346.04 43.25 43.25 331.84 1187.78 331.84 185.99
754
In this study, cubes of size 150 mm 150 mm replaced with 50% of CD and cement is replaced with
150 mm, cylinders of size 100 mm diameter and 200 10% and 20% FA, the slump values were 19 mm and
mm height and prisms of size 100 mm 100 mm 500 21mm respectively. So, it is concluded that presence of
mm is used. The hardened concrete properties such as FA increases workability. In the absence of CD, when
compressive strength for cubes, flexural strength for the cement is replaced with 10% and 20% silpozz, the
prisms and split tensile strength for cylinders were slump values were 12 mm and 6 mm respectively. But
tested in the laboratory. when sand is replaced with 50% of CD and cement is
Workability of fresh concrete mixture was replaced with 10% and 20% of silpozz, the slump values
measured by slump test. Fresh concrete mix was were zero. So, it is concluded that presence of silpozz
prepared and then slump test was conducted decreases workability. In the absence of CD, when
immediately after the mixing. The slump values of cement is replaced with combination of 10% FA and
concrete mixtures were obtained experimentally where 10% of silpozz, the slump value was 35 mm. But when
w/b ratio is 0.43. Characteristics of the hardened sand is replaced with 50% of CD and cement is replaced
concrete specimens were obtained by testing the with combination of 10% FA and 10% of silpozz, the
specimens after specified curing time i.e. 7 days, 14 slump value was 16 mm. So, it is concluded that with
days and 28 days. The compressive strength, split combination of FA and silpozz, the workability is not so
tensile strength test and flexural strength test were significant.
conducted to know hardened concrete properties of the
specimens. 3.2 Hardened Concrete Test Results
The compressive strength was computed by using
the equation: 3.2.1 Compressive Strength
fck = P/ B2 (1)
Nine numbers of cubes were cast for each mix and
Where, fck = Compressive strength, MPa
each three cubes were tested after 7, 14 and 28 days of
P = maximum applied load in Newton
curing. Figures 3-4 show the plot between the
B = Size of the cube specimen in mm
compressive strength in MPa and age in days for
concrete without CD and with CD.
The split tensile strength was computed by the
equation:
fsp=2P/Ld (2)
Where, fsp = Split tensile strength, MPa
P = maximum compressive load on the
cylinder in Newton
L = length of the cylinder in mm
d = diameter of the cylinder in mm
The flexural strength was computed using the

equation:
fb = PL/ BD2 (3)
Where, fb = Flexural strength, MPa,
P = maximum applied load in Newton,
L = Span length in mm, Figure 3: Compressive Strength vs. Age in Days for
B = width of the specimen in mm concrete without CD
D = depth of the specimen in mm.
The test results are presented along with their

graphical plots and discussions.
3.1 Fresh Concrete Test Results

The concrete mixes were prepared in different
proportion and the fresh concrete test is conducted after
the mixing. It is observed that in the control specimen
i.e. MCD0, the slump value was 35 mm. But when sand
is replaced with 50% 0f CD, the slump was 15 mm. So,
it is concluded that workability decreases with increase
in CD content. In the absence of CD, when cement is Figure 4: Compressive Strength vs. Age in Days for
replaced with 10% and 20% FA, the slump values were concrete with 50% CD
38 mm and 39 mm respectively. But when sand is
755
It is observed that the compressive strength of It is observed that the split tensile strength of
concrete mix with 50% replacement of NFA with CD concrete mix with 50% replacement of NFA with CD
increases upto 30.80%, 25.63% and 19.13% at 7, 14 increases upto 35.45%, 47.26% and 35.14% at 7, 14
and 28 days respectively as compared to control and 28 days respectively as compared to control
specimen. Whereas in concrete mix with 50% CD and specimen. Whereas in concrete mix with 50% CD and
with 20% replacement of cement with FA, the with 20% replacement of cement with FA, the split
compressive strength increases upto 34%, 28.19%, tensile strength increases upto 74%, 55.61% and
20.71% at 7, 14 and 28 days respectively. In concrete 43.81% at 7, 14 and 28 days respectively. In presence
mix with 50% CD and with 20% replacement of cement of 50% CD with 20% replacement of cement with
with silpozz, the compressive strength increases upto silpozz, the split tensile strength increases upto 77.92%,
44.66%, 43.73%, 27.58% at 7, 14 and 28 days 78.96% and 63.61% at 7, 14 and 28 days respectively.
respectively. In presence of 50% CD and with 20% In presence of 50% CD with 20% replacement of
replacement of cement with combination of 10% FA cement with combination of 10% FA and 10% silpozz,
and 10% silpozz, the compressive strength increases the split tensile strength increases upto 73.57%, 70.31%
upto 42.06%, 41.29%, 25.41% at 7, 14 and 28 days and 61.63% at 7, 14 and 28 days respectively as
respectively as compared to control specimen. The compared to control specimen. The split tensile strength
compressive strength of all concrete mixes with and of all concrete mixes with and without CD and with
without CD and with cementitious material is giving cementitious material is giving higher value as
higher value as compared to control specimen. compared to control specimen.
3.2.3 Flexural Strength
3.2.2 Split Tensile Strength
Nine numbers of prisms were cast for each mix and
Nine numbers of cylinders were cast for each mix each three prisms were tested after 7, 14 and 28 days.
and each three cylinders were tested after 7, 14 and 28 Figures 7-8 show the plot between the flexural strength
days of curing. Figures 5-6 show the plot between the in MPa and age in days for concrete without CD and
split tensile strength in MPa and age in days for with CD respectively.
concrete without CD and with CD.
Figure 5: Split Tensile Strength vs. Age in Days Figure 7: Flexural Strength vs. Age in Days for
for concrete without CD concrete without CD
Figure 6: Split Tensile Strength vs. Age in Days for

Figure 8: Flexural Strength vs. Age in Days for
concrete with 50% CD
concrete with 50% CD
756
It is observed that in comparison to control mix, 5 Acknowledgments

with 50% replacement of NFA with CD, the flexural
The authors wish to thank S O A
strength increases upto 28.78%, 25% and 24.19% at 7,
University, ITER for the support of conducting the
14 and 28 days respectively. Whereas the concrete mix,
experimental work. Also, thankful to the N K
in presence of 50% CD with 20% replacement of
Enterprises, Jharsuguda and Nava Bharat Ventures
cement with FA, the flexural strength increases upto
Ltd., Dhenkanal for supplying the materials.
48.48%, 36.53% and 30.06% at 7, 14 and 28 days
respectively. In presence of 50% CD, with 20% References
replacement of cement with silpozz, the flexural
strength increases upto 78.78%, 59.61% and 50% at 7, [1] Pofale, A. D., Quadri, S. R., Effective Utilization of
Crusher Dust in Concrete Using Portland Pozzolana
14 and 28 days respectively. In presence of 50% CD
Cement, International Journal of Scientific and
with 20% replacement of cement with combination of
Research Publications, Vol. 3, pp. 2250-3153,
10% FA and 10% silpozz, the flexural strength
2013.
increases upto 42.06%, 41.29% and 25.41% at 7, 14 and
28 days respectively as compared to control specimen. [2] Celik, T. and Marar, K.., Effects of Crushed Stone
The flexural strength of all concrete mixes with and Dust on Some Properties of Concrete, Cement and
Concrete Research, Vol. 26, pp. 1121-1130, 1996.
without CD and with cementitious material is giving
[3] Eren, O. and Marar, K.., Effects of limestone
higher value as compared to control specimen.
crusher dust and steel fibers on concrete,
Construction and Building Materials, Vol. 23, pp.
4 Conclusions
625633, 2009.
Based on the above studies or results the [4] Balamurugan, G., Perumal, P., Behaviour of
following conclusion may be drawn. concrete on the use of Quarry dust to replace sand
Workability of concrete samples decreases with an Experimental study, Engineering Science and
increase in CD content. Technology: An International Journal, Vol. 3(6),
With respect to control specimen, at all replacement pp. 776-781, 2013.
levels of NFA (0 and 50%), when the cement is [5] Sama, T., Lalwani, D., Shukla, A. and Sofi A.,
Effect of Strength of Concrete by Partial
replaced with FA starting from 10% upto 20%, the
workability increases. Replacement of Cement with Fly ash and addition
of Steel Fibres, Journal of Civil Engineering and
At all replacement levels of NFA with CD, when
Environmental Technology, Vol. 1, pp. 5-9, 2014.
the cement is replaced with silpozz starting from
[6] Pitroda, J., Zala, L. B., Umrigar, F. S.,
10% upto 20%, the workability of concrete
Experimental investigations on partial replacement
decreases with respect to control specimen.
of cement with fly ash in design Mix concrete,
With respect to control specimen, when cement is
International Journal of Advanced Engineering
replaced with the combination of 10% of FA and
Technology, Vol. 3, pp. 126-129, 2012.
10% of silpozz, the rate of increase in workability is
[7] Jalal, M., Pouladkhan, A., Harandi, O. F. and Jafari,
not so significant.
D., Comparative study on effects of Class F fly ash,
At all replacement levels of NFA with (0 and 50%) nano silica and silica fume on properties of high
CD, when the cement is replaced with FA starting performance self-compacting concrete,
from 10% upto 20% the compressive strength, split Construction and Building Materials, Vol. 94, pp.
tensile strength and flexural strength increases with 90-104, 2015.
respect to control specimen. [8] Pradhan, S. S. and Panda, K. C., Effect of silpozz
With respect to control specimen, at all replacement and LSP on fresh and hardened properties of SCC,
levels of sand with CD, when the cement is Journal of Civil Engineering and Environmental
replaced with silpozz starting from 10% upto 20% Technology, Vol. 1, pp. 84 90, 2014.
the compressive strength, split tensile strength and [9] Panda, K. C. and Prusty, S. D., Influence of silpozz
flexural strength increases remarkably. With and rice husk ash on enhancement of concrete
increase in silpozz, the strength of concrete strength, Advances in Concrete Construction, Vol.
increases, due to its higher pozzolanic effect. 3, pp. 203-221, 2015.
With respect to control specimen, when cement is [10] IS: 8112-:1989, Indian Standard, 43 Grade
replaced with the combination of 10% of FA and Ordinary Portland Cement Specification, (First
10% of silpozz, the increase in compressive, split Revision). Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi.
tensile and flexural strength is not so significant. [11] IS: 383-1970. Indian standard specification for
It is noticed that at all replacement level of FA and coarse and fine aggregates from natural sources for
silpozz in presence of CD, the percentage of concrete (second revision), Bureau of Indian
increase in early strength i.e. at 7 days is higher Standards, New Delhi, India.
than 28 days strength. It may be due to the early [12] IS: 10262-1982, Recommended Guidelines for
hydration process of cement. Concrete Mix Design. Bureau of Indian Standards,
NFA can be replaced with CD upto 50% resulting NewDelhi, India.
in increasing strength.
757
BEHAVIOUR OF RC STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS WITH LACED

REINFORCEMENT
V. Sai venkata ramanjaneyulu1, G. Papa Rao2
1
Department of Civil Engineering, G.V.P College of Engineering (A), Visakhapatnam-530 048, India
2
Department of Civil Engineering, G.V.P College of Engineering (A), Visakhapatnam-530 048, India
ABSTRACT
This study investigates the performance of RC elements, and the benefits accruing to them with Laced
Reinforced Concrete (LRC). Investigations are carried out on four beams specimens. The variations in the
four beam specimens were in the arrangement of shear reinforcement such as, first beam without shear
reinforcement (B1), second beam (B2) is provided with conventional double legged stirrups as shear
reinforcement. Third and fourth beams B3 & B4 are fabricated with inclined continuous laced shear
reinforcement, of 4 mm and 6mm dia. which are inclined at an angle of 500 with longitudinal reinforcement
arranged on both the faces of the beam respectively. All the four beams were designed and tested, to compare
the strength and performance of beams with conventional two legged stirrups as shear reinforcement and
laced reinforcement used as continuous shear reinforcement. LRC beams and slabs are widely used to resist
the lateral forces and the sudden loads. Lacing is a form of continuous shear reinforcement which is placed on
both the faces of the beam. With the help of transverse bars, the laced reinforcement is anchored and it is
placed in the plane of principal bending. The concentric load is applied at half the span of the specimen. The
experimental results demonstrate that, as the LRC arrangement adapted to the specimens, achieved greater
ultimate loads and decreases the deformation characteristics like deflection and crack widths. The structural
integrity and ductility of the elements improves more in LRC elements. In this study, the comparison is done
between the performance of the specimens with conventional and laced reinforcement as shear reinforcement
under the monotonic loading. The beneficial aspect of using LRC makes the elements to resist the sudden
impact and blast loads, which also reduces the spalling of the concrete.
Keywords: Laced Reinforced Concrete; Monotonic loading; ductility; crack width; deflection.
INTRODUCTION centre of the specimens, deflections and the crack widths
are measured and the graphs are plotted between load vs.
The main aim of the current investigation is to deflection and moment vs. crack width. Ductility is the
characterize the magnitude of the ductility in terms of important parameter for the structural elements and the
deflections and crack widths between the beams with ductility of the structural elements has shown improved by
conventional shear reinforcement and laced reinforcement adopting LRC. LRC structures have been advocated,
arrangement of different varieties. The structural elements where high intensity non uniform loads like blast and
without shear reinforcement lose their structural integrity earthquake loads.
at 20 support rotation due to lack of confinement of
concrete. The structural members with conventional two RESEARCH SIGNIFICANCE
legged closed stirrups lose their structural integrity at 40
support rotation and the structural members arranged with According to investigations carried out by Srinivasa
laced reinforcement due to their truss action, the Rao et al., (1996) indicate that ductile failure of R.C
reinforcement in the structural member will restrain beams with conventional stirrups is not possible when
through its complete strain hardening region until the shear span to depth ratio is < 2.5 due to influence of
tension failure of reinforcement occurs at 120 support severe diagonal cracking. After conducting tests on 20
rotation. Here the static monotonic loading is applied on LRC specimens under monotonic and cyclic loading, the
test results indicated that LRC beams even with large
______________________________ tension steel reinforcement can effectively eliminate
1 brittle failure thus ensuring large ductility and sustained
P.G. Student, sai.vetapalem5915@gmail.com
over large yield plateau. Tegos et al., (1988) have
2 conducted experimental studies on low slender structural
Professor, gprao_74@gvpce.ac.in
758
V. Sai venkata Ramanjaneyulu and G. Papa Rao
elements having shear span to depth ratio varying between applied by a hydraulic jack of 1000kN capacity. The load
1.0 and 2.0. The plastic rotations obtained using rhombic applied on the specimen was controlled by manual
reinforcements were compared to be large with operation. To measure the deflection, a dial gauge of
conventional reinforced specimens under combined 20mm run was utilized at mid span having least count of
flexure and shear influence. Thus it shows that inclined 0.01mm. The crack widths are measured using hand held
reinforcement is found to be one of the most effective micro scope with least count of 0.02mm. After each load
ways to improve the seismic resistance of reinforced short application, the applied load, transverse deflection and
columns and beams, specially under predominant shear maximum crack width were recorded. The crack patterns
influence. Akshaya et al., (2006) investigates that LSCC was observed on the beam sides and noted. As initial
(laced steel concrete composites) is having specified cracking and ultimate loads were approached, load
increase in load carrying capacity as well as ductile intensity was reduced. About 10 to 12 load increments
property as compared to conventional R.C due to lacing were needed to reach ultimate loads. At the termination of
in flexural members gives confining to concrete and avoid the test, the beams were photographed to depict the failure
sudden failure in the element. Experimental investigations and crack patterns. From the measured deflections and the
on laced and R.C beams are carried out under monotonic crack widths, graphs are plotted between load vs.
and reverse cyclic load and the ductility of LSCC beam deflection and moment vs. crack width.
with 600 lacing is found more than that of RC beam.
Paulay (1971) introduced the concept of diagonal
arrangement of main reinforcements to prevent concrete
spandrel beams from brittle failure under shear.
EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAMME
The experimental programme involves in evaluating

the ductility, flexural strength and crack widths between
the specimens provided with conventional and laced
reinforcement. Here the specimens are designed for
100kN concentrated load and tested for monotonic
loading applied at the center of the specimen. All the
specimens were cast using M25 grade concrete. The
lacing bars were 4mm diameter for beam B3 and 6mm
diameter for beam B4 fabricated on both sides of beam.
The angle of inclination with respect to principle
reinforcement is kept 500 for beams. In beam specimens, 3
nos of 16mm diameter bars were used as tension
reinforcement and 2 nos of 12mm diameter bars are used Fig. 1 Schematic Diagram of the Load test set up for the
as holder bars. The spacing between the conventional two Test specimens.
legged shear reinforcement in B2 is 200mm. In beam B3
and B4 with laced reinforcement used as shear TEST RESULTS
reinforcement, the lacing nodes are kept at a distance of
200 mm. The concrete used in the study was M25 grade. All the specimens which are tested under the loading
The fine aggregate was river sand and coarse aggregate frame, the measured deflections and crack widths at the
was locally available granite stone sieved to 20mm working and ultimate load are provided in Table 1. For the
maximum size. The details of the test specimens used are purpose of comparison of test specimens deflection and
shown in fig. 2. All the specimens were under curing till crack width at service load of B2 i.e., (2/3*(170) =112kN)
testing. It took 30 days before testing could be started. are tabulated in Table 2. The deflections are measured
using dial gauge of 20mm run and the crack widths are
TEST PROCEDURE measured at every load increment using hand held
microscope which has a measuring capacity up to 1.8mm.
All the test specimens were tested in a 100T capacity For the measurement of crack widths more than 1.8mm,
steel load frame shown in fig. 1. The specimens were refined measuring scale was used. The failure patterns of
tested on a simply supported span of 1300mm with a the specimens after testing are shown from Figs.3, 4, 5, 6.
concentrated load at half of the span. The load was
759
Fig. 2 Longitudinal and cross sectional configurations of test specimens
760
Table 1. Principal test results of beam specimens
Deflection in mm at Crack Width in mm at

Design Load Ultimate Load Design Ultimate Design Ultimate
Specimen Identity
(kN) (kN) Load Load Load Load
B1 100 110 3.99 4.55 0.36 0.4
B2 100 170 2.59 5.7 0.22 0.8
B3 100 160 2.95 6.10 0.2 1.24
B4 100 200 2.19 6.10 0.06 1.12
Table 2. Deflection and Crack width at Service load
S. No Specimen Deflection (mm) Crack Width (mm)
1 B1 4.45 0.4
2 B2 2.98 0.28
3 B3 3.25 0.4
4 B4 2.35 0.075
Service load of B2, B3 & B4 were taken as service load of B2 i.e., (2/3*(170) = 112kN)
Failure patterns of beam specimens:
Fig.3 Failure pattern of B1 Fig.4 Failure pattern of B2
Fig.5 Failure pattern of B3 Fig.6 Failure pattern of B4
761
Fig 7. Load Deflection curves of B1, B2, B3 & B4 Fig 8. Moment Crack width curves of B1, B2, B3 & B4
DISCUSSION OF TEST RESULTS: 112kN) the deflection was 2.98mm at same load the
deflection of B3 and B4 are 3.25 and 2.35mm which is
All the test specimens in this investigations are 9% more and 20.3% less than the companion specimen
designed for a working load of 100kN. The flexural B2. At failure load the deflection of B2 is 5.7 mm at that
reinforcement is kept same for all beams with the load B4 has deflection of 4.05 mm which is 30% less
variation in the pattern of shear reinforcement. The compared to B2.
beam B1 without shear reinforcement failed suddenly at
an ultimate load of 110kN. With the provision of For B1 without shear reinforcement the first crack of
conventional vertical two legged 8mm dia. stirrups as 0.16mm started at 80kN, at that load B2, B3 and B4 has
shear reinforcement the load carrying capacity is a crack widths of 0.14mm, 0.09mm and no crack
increased to an ultimate load of 170kN. By adopting observed respectively. At design load the crack width
inclined continuous laced reinforcement of 4mm dia. in for B1, B2 are 0.36mm, 0.22mm and for B3 and B4 are
B3 as shear reinforcement in lieu of conventional shear 0.2mm and 0.06mm which is 10% and 72.7% less by
reinforcement it failed at an ultimate load of 160kN. the companion specimen B2 respectively. At Service
The reduction of load carrying capacity in B3 is due to load of B2 i.e., (2/3*(170) = 112kN) the crack width
less percentage of shear steel which is about 58% of was 0.28mm at same load the crack width of B3 and
shear steel used in B2. By adopting inclined continuous B4 are 0.4 and 0.075mm which is 42% more and
laced reinforcement of 6mm dia. in B4 as shear 73.21% less than the companion specimen B2.
reinforcement in lieu of conventional shear
reinforcement the load carrying capacity is increased to CONCLUSIONS:
an ultimate load of 200kN which is 17.5% more than
the companion specimen B2. In beam B4 the percentage Following conclusions are drawn from present study
of shear steel used in nearly equal to percentage of shear
steel provided in B2. 1. The laced reinforced beams with equal percentage of
shear steel used in conventional stirrups have shown
The design load deflections of beams specimens, B1 greater ultimate load carrying capacity which is 17.5%
without shear reinforcement is 3.99mm, B2 with more than their companion specimens.
conventional two legged shear reinforcement is 2. At design load and ultimate loads, the deflections of
2.59mm, B3 with 4mm dia. inclined continuous laced reinforced beams reduced by 15.5% and 30% to
reinforcement is 2.95mm which has 13.9% more their companion specimens respectively.
deflection than B2 and for B4 with 6mm dia. inclined 3. At design load and ultimate loads, the crack widths of
continuous reinforcement is 2.19mm which is 15.5% laced reinforced beams reduced by 72% to their
less than B2. At Service load of B2 i.e., (2/3*(170) = companion specimens respectively.
762
4. The specimens with laced reinforcements showed [2] Akshaya, S. G., Ananthakrishnan, R., Vishnupriya.
more ductility than the conventional vertical two legged B., Arunprasadh, Manikandan. G., Sanjeevi. R.,
stirrups. Experimental Studies on Laced Steel Concrete
5. From the experimental investigation laced Composite Elements Extreme Loading Condition.
reinforcement with lacing angle of 500 for beams with ISOR journal of Mechanical and civil engineering, e-
respect to principal reinforcement achieved the ISSN: 2278-1684, p-ISSN: 2320-334X, August 2006,
improved ductility, lesser deflections and control in pp. 54 61.
crack width than their companion specimens, so these [3] Madheswaran, C. K., Gnanasundar, G., Gopala
are preferable lacing angles to RC elements. Krishnan, N., Performance of Laced Reinforced
6. From this investigation we can conclude by using Geopolymer Concrete (LRGPC) Beams Under
same amount of reinforcement and by altering the Monotonic Loading. Advances in Structural
pattern of shear reinforcement the load carrying Engineering, 2015, pp. 355 367.
capacity has been increased, deflection and crack widths [4] Srinivasa Rao, P., Sarma, B.S., Lakshmanan, N.,
have been greatly reduced which proved laced Stangenberg, F., Seismic Behavior of Laced
reinforcement had achieved greater structural integrity. Reinforced Concrete Beams. Eleventh World
Conference on Earthquake Engineering, 1996, PP. No.
REFERENCES 1740.
[5] SP 34: 1987, Handbook on Reinforced Concrete
[1] Anandavalli, N., Lakshmanan, N., Nagesh R. Iyer, and Detailing, Bureau of Indian Standards, March
Amar Prakash, Ramanjaneyulu, K., Rajasankar, J., and 1999.
Chitra Rajagopal Behavior of Blast Loaded Laced [6] IS 456: 2000, Plain and Reinforced Concrete
Reinforced Concrete Structure. Defense Science Code of Practice, New Delhi, India: Bureau of Indian
Journal, volume .62, NO. 5, September 2012, pp. 284 Standards, July 2000.
289.
763
INFLUENCE OF METAKAOLIN AND SILPOZZ ON

DEVELOPMENT OF HIGH STRENGTH CONCRETE
2
P. Sarangi1, K. C. Panda
1
2
Supplementary cementitious materials (SCM) have converted a fundamental part of high strength and high
performance concrete. Using mineral admixtures as the replacement substance of cement in concrete has an
affinity to increase by the future in order to provide greater sustainability in construction fields. This study
investigates the coupled substitution of 20% of metakaolin (MK) and silpozz in ordinary Portland cement. This
paper presents the influence of MK and silpozz on mechanical properties of concrete. Cement was partially
replaced with upto 20% MK and silpozz with two types of w/b i.e. 0.35 and 0.30. The test results revealed that
substitution of MK and silpozz had significant effects on mechanical properties of high strength concrete. For
w/b 0.35, the concrete mix with 15% silpozz and 5% MK gave higher strength as compared to other mixes and
exactly opposite combination gave increased strength for w/b 0.30. The strength of concrete appreciably
increased in its early ages and also long term strength can be achieved.
Keywords: Metakaolin (MK), Silpozz, Super-plasticizer (SP), Compressive strength, Split tensile
strength, Flexural strength
1 Introduction
In recent decades, the construction sector has faced It was observed that the hydration heat of SF is greater
many challenges. The positive attitude of construction than that of MK. Study showed that SF exhibits higher
industry towards innovations will work as a catalyst for pozzolanic activities than MK [2]. The appropriate
the development of durable, cheap and new construction amount of super-plasticizer was required to obtain the
materials compared to the conventional ones, resulting desired slump flow in MK and SF mortars.
low cost and energy efficient structure. The worldwide Poon et al. (2006) [3], the mechanical properties of
demand of cement based materials has increased for the MK and SF concrete was investigated and
high-strength and high performance concrete. demonstrated that MK concrete had relatively higher
Substitution of usual construction materials fully or strength development than control specimen depending
partially with the industrial by product (e.g. fly ash, rice on the replacement level of MK and w/b ratio. MK and
husk ash, blast furnace slag and silica fume) and natural SF are the most popular mineral admixtures used in
product (limestone, calcined clay and pozzolan) to production of high strength concrete. However, the
improve the strength, durability, workability, toughness improvement of construction materials which provides
and to make it cost effective. Some of the researchers technical and environmental reimbursement is the
have improved the strength of concrete using foremost challenge of the new millennium. Wild et al.
supplementary cementitious materials (SCM) and (1996) [4] studied that the manner in which highly
conducted experiment on the enhancement of strength reactive pozzolans condensed silica fume (CSF) and
using silpozz and rice hask ash such as Panda and MK influence the rate of strength improvement of
Prusty (2015) [1]. The total percentage of replacement concrete is highly complex. When MK and CSF
was done 20%. Three different water-binder ratios (w/b) replaced then they rapidly remove calcium hydroxide
were used i.e. 0.375, 0.325 and 0.275. The study reveals (CH) from mix and accelerate the hydration of cement.
that the percentage increase in strength at early age is The present study aims to reveal the comparative
more as compared to later ages. Kadri et al. (2011) effectiveness of utilization of MK and silpozz on the
investigated the use of SCM in cement based systems. mechanical properties of high strength concrete using
The metakaolin (MK) and silica fume (SF) was replaced two different types of w/b i.e. 0.35 and 0.30 with
10% with cement. required amount of super-plasticizer to attain desired
workability.
1
M. Tech. Student, pratikshasarangi@gmail.com
2
Associate Professor, kishoriit@gmail.com
764
P. Sarangi and K. C. Panda
2 Experimental Investigation The enhancement of concrete strength is carried out

using two water-binder ratios. Both MK and silpozz are
2.1 Materials
replaced combinely by 20% and five set of concrete
mixes are prepared for each w/b (i.e. M0S20, M5S15,
Ordinary Portland Cement 43 grade (OPC), zone II M10S10, M15S5 and M20S0) and compared the value
fine aggregate, natural coarse aggregate (20 mm with control specimen (M0S0). HC1 indicate high
passing), MK, Silpozz and Super-plasticizer (SP) - strength concrete for w/b 0.35 and HC2 indicate high
(CONXL PCE DM - 360) in an adequate amount in strength concrete for w/b 0.30. M and S used for MK
the mixes to achieve desired slump value of 25-50 mm and silpozz respectively.
and potable water are used. The physical properties of
these materials are given in Table 1. The properties of
Table 3: Details of concrete mix (HC1) proportion
aggregates obtained experimentally as per IS: 383-1970
along with identification
[5] is presented in Table 2. The cementitious materials
used in high strength concrete mixes were ordinary Concrete mix proportions Mix Identity
Portland cement (OPC), MK and silpozz. MK is highly
C 100% + MK 0% + S 0% + w/b 0.35 + SP 0.40% HC1M0S0
pure kaolinitic clays can be calcined at comparatively
low temperature 600-700C to keep silica and alumina C 80% + MK 20% + S 0% + w/b 0.35 + SP 0.44% HC1M20S0
in amorphous state. Silpozz is an organic micro-silica C 80% + MK 0% + S 20% + w/b 0.35 + SP 0.80% HC1M0S20
otherwise can be known as amorphous silica, with silica C 80% + MK 5% + S 15% + w/b 0.35 + SP 0.51% HC1M5S15
content of above 90% having particle size of 25 microns C 80% + MK 10% + S 10% + w/b 0.35 + SP 0.65% HC1M10S10
mostly.
C 80% + MK 15% + S 5% + w/b 0.35 + SP 0.50% HC1M15S5
Table 1: Physical properties of OPC, MK and Silpozz
Physical properties OPC MK Silpozz
Specific gravity 3.15 20.1 2.3 Table 4: Details of concrete mix (HC2) proportion
Compressive strength along with identification
30 ---- ----
3days (MPa) Concrete mix proportions Mix Identity
7 days (MPa) 43 ---- ----
C 100% + MK 0% + S 0% + w/b 0.30 + SP 0.50% HC2M0S0
28 days (Mpa) 51 ---- ----
Initial setting time (Min) 121 ---- ---- C 80% + MK 20% + S 0% + w/b 0.30+ SP 0.51% HC2M20S0
Final setting time (Min) 410 ---- ---- C 80% + MK 0% + S 20% + w/b 0.30+ SP 0.95% HC2M0S20
C 80% + MK 5% + S 15% + w/b 0.30+ SP 0.65% HC2M5S15

Table 2: Properties of aggregates
C 80% + MK 10% + S 10% + w/b 0.30 + SP 0.70% HC2M10S10
Value obtained experimentally
as per IS:383-1970 C 80% + MK 15% + S 5% + w/b 0.30+ SP 0.55% HC2M15S5
Properties
Coarse Fine
aggregate aggregate
Specific gravity 2.78 2.68 2.3 Mixing, Casting and Curing details
Abrasion value, % 47.46 -
Flakiness index,% 21.18 -
The batching, mixing and casting of concrete were
Crushing value, % 24.50 - accomplished properly. For curing, the specimens as
Impact value, % 29.63 - shown in Figure 1, were removed from the moulds after
Water absorption,% 0.22 0.80 24 hour of casting and placed in water tank at normal
Fineness modulus 6.93 2.76 (Zone-II) temperature (27C- 30C) for 7, 28 and 90 days.
2.2 Mix proportions and Identification
The details of mix proportions found out according

to IS: 10262-2009 [6] and mix identifications and
quantities of this research was presented in Tables 3-6
respectively. Two mix proportions for two different
types of w/b are prepared i.e. 1:1.576:3.035 and
1:1.268:2.552 for the w/b 0.35 and 0.30 respectively.
M40 grade concrete is designed as per standard
specification IS: 10262-2009 to achieve the target mean
strength 48.25 MPa for both the w/b (0.35 and 0.30). Figure 1: After 24 hours of casting
Total 12 mixes are prepared. Six mixes are prepared for
each w/b.
765
Table 5: Details of mix proportion (HC1) quantity per m3 of concrete

SCM replacement Cementitious materials per m3 of concrete Water
Mix Identity NFA (Kg) NCA (Kg) SP (Kg)
(%) (Kg)
Cement (Kg) MK (Kg) SF (Kg)
HC1M0S0 0% 425 0 0 670 1290 1.70 148.8
HC1M20S0 20% 340 85 0 670 1290 1.87 148.8
HC1M0S20 20% 340 0 85 670 1290 3.40 148.8
HC1M5S15 20% 340 21.25 63.75 670 1290 2.17 148.8
HC1M10S10 20% 340 42.5 42.5 670 1290 2.76 148.8
HC1M15S5 20% 340 63.75 21.25 670 1290 2.12 148.8
Table 6: Details of mix proportion (HC2) quantity per m3 of concrete
SCM replacement Cementitious materials per m3 of concrete Water

Mix Identity NFA (Kg) NCA (Kg) SP (Kg)
(%) (Kg)
Cement (Kg) MK (Kg) SF (Kg)
HC2M0S0 0% 496 0 629 1266 2.48 148.8

0
HC2M20S0 20% 396.8 99.20 0 629 1266 2.52 148.8
HC2M0S20 20% 396.8 0 99.20 629 1266 4.72 148.8
HC2M5S15 20% 396.8 24.80 74.40 629 1266 3.22 148.8
HC2M10S10 20% 396.8 49.60 49.60 629 1266 3.47 148.8
HC2M15S5 20% 396.8 74.40 24.80 629 1266 2.72 148.8
Split tensile strength tests were carried out using

2.4. Testing
cylindrcal mould of size 100 mm dia 200 mm length.
Slump cone test was performed for each mix to Three samples per mix were tested using compressive
measure the desire slump value as Figure 2. testing machine (CTM), and the average value was
Compressive strength tests were performed using 150 measured. Flexural strength tests were performed with
mm cubic moulds. Three samples per batch were tested Prism mould of dimension 500 mm 100 mm 100
using compressive testing machine (CTM) with mm using flexural testing machine with capacity of 100
capacity of 3000 KN as shown in Figure 3. KN as shown in Figure 3. The samples were tested and
the average value was taken into consideration.
Figure 3: Compression, split and flexural strength test

3.1 Fresh Concrete Test Results
To achieve the desired workability, required amount
Figure 2: Slump test of SP was added to the mixes. For w/b 0.30, the amount
766
of SP was required slightly higher than that of w/b 0.35.

For HC1 mixes, the slump values obtained in the range
of 16-46 mm, whereas for HC2 mixes the values were
25-35 mm.
3.2 Hardened Concrete Test Results

3.2.1. Compressive strength
The effect of MK and silpozz can be observed from

the Figures 4-5. The data concerning the compressive
strength development with both the w/b i.e. 0.35 and 0.30
and the ages of curing for the concrete incorporating MK
and silpozz are presented in Figure 6. The silpozz and
MK based concretes had consistently higher compressive
strength than that of control specimen.
From Figure 4, it may be observed that, for w/b 0.35,
the concrete mix with 15% MK and 5% silpozz gives Figure 4: Compressive strength vs. HC1 concrete mix
higher compressive strength. The percentage increase in
compressive strength of HC1M15S5 is 60.32% in its
early stage i.e. at 7 days, 47.56 % at 28 days and 30.29%
at 90 days. The 28 days compressive strength of concrete
with w/b 0.35 is observed as 90.60 MPa for specimen
HC1M15S5.
From Figure 5, it may be observed that, for w/b 0.30,
the concrete mix with 5% MK and 15% silpozz
combination gives higher compressive strength than all
other specimens. The percentage increase in compressive
strength of HC2M5S15 is 34.88% at its early stage i.e. at
7 days, 34.49% at 28 days, and 26.07% at 90 days. The
28 days compressive strength of concrete with w/b 0.30
is observed as 102.15 MPa for specimen HC2M5S15.
In the figure, it may be observed that HC2 has more
compressive strength than HC1 due to the addition of
more amount of SP. Because of the low w/b of HC2 as
compared to HC1 and the amount of SP added to the
mixture is more. Addition of MK and silpozz improve Figure 5: Compressive strength vs. HC2 concrete mix
the bond between the cement paste and aggregate
particles which in turn significantly improves the
strength of concrete.
3.2.2. Split tensile strength
Neville [7] reported that there is a direct

proportionality between split tensile strength and
compressive strength of concrete i.e. while the
compressive strength increased, the tensile strength also
increased at a lower rate. From Figure 7 and 8, it may be
observed that the split tensile strength of the concrete
mix with 10% of replacement of MK and silpozz, is
higher as compared to other specimen. The maximum
strength observed in HC1M10S10 is 5.40 MPa at 28 days
and the percentage increase in split tensile strength is
44.12% at 7 days, 22.73% at 28 days and 26.32% at 90 Figure 6: Comparison of compressive strength for HC1
days. and HC2
767
From Figure 8, it may be observed that the

maximum split tensile strength of concrete specimen
HC2M10S10 is 5.85 MPa at 28 days which is 27.17%
more as compared to control specimen. Due to more
amount of SP addition in HC2 concrete, the strength is
higher as compared to HC1 concrete.
Figure 9 illustrates the split tensile strength
development pattern of HC1 and HC2 mixes. The
maximum split tensile strength observed in HC2M10S10
mix.
3.2.3. Flexural strength
Figures 10-11, show the flexural strength with the

different curing ages of concrete mix with combination
of MK and silpozz replacement. Figure 10 illustrates that,
HC1M20S0 has maximum flexural strength and the
Figure 7: Split tensile strength vs. HC1 concrete mix increase in flexural tensile strength is 33.33% at 7 days
whereas in HC1M10S10, the maximum increased
flexural tensile strength is 23.94% and 25% at 28 and 90
days respectively. The rate of flexural strength
development in MK is higher, investigated by Yerramala
et al. (2013) [8].
Figure 8: Split tensile strength vs. HC2 concrete mix
Figure 10: Flexural strength vs. HC1 concrete mix
Figure 11 represents that the percentage change in

flexural strength is maximum in concrete when cement is
replaced with silpozz in 10% and MK in 10% i.e.
HC2M10S10. The increase in flexural strength of
HC2M10S10 is 25.73% at 7 days, 22.97% at 28 days,
and 25.61% at 90 days as compared to control specimen.
It is seen in Figure 12 that the relative strength of
HC2M15S5 is greater than that of HC1M15S5 i.e.
23.26% at 7 days, 20.83% at 28 days and 14.12% at 90
days. The results suggest that the replacement between
10%-20% is advantageous for long term rate of strength
Figure 9: Comparison of split tensile strength for HC1 gain.
and HC2
768
HC2 specimens have higher strength than that

of HC1 because of the reduction of water
amount in HC2 and addition of more SP than
HC1.
The bond between cement paste and aggregate
particles increases due to combined effect of
MK and SP.
5 Acknowledgments
The authors would like to thank S O A University,

ITER for the support of conducting the experimental
work. Also thank to Golden Micro Chemicals
(Maharastra), CHEMCON tecsys (Chennai) and N K
enterprises (Jharsuguda), Aditya Enterprises
Figure 11: Flexural strength vs. HC2 concrete mix (Bhubaneswar) for supplying the materials.
6 References
[1] Panda, K.C., Pusty, S. D., Influence of

silpozz and rice hask ash on enhancement of
concrete strength, Advances on concrete
construction, Vol. 3, 203-221, 2015.
[2] Kadri, E. H., Kenai, S., Ezziane, K., Siddique, R.
and Schutter, G. D., Influence of metakaolin and
silica fume on the heat of hydration and
compressive strength development of mortar,
Applied Clay Science, Vol. 53, 704708, 2011.
[3] Poon, C. S., Kou, S.C., Lam, L., Compressive
strength, Chloride diffusivity and pore structure
Figure 12: Comparison of Flexural strength for HC1 and of high performance metakaolin and silica fume
HC2 concrete, Construction and Building Materials,
4 Conclusions Vol. 23, 858-865, 2006.
[4] Wild, S., Khatib, M. R. and Jones, A., Relative
Based on the studies, the following conclusions may strength, Pozzolanic activity and Cement
be drawn: Hydration in super plasticised Metakaolin
As water-binder ratio decrease the compressive Concrete, Cement and Concrete Research, Vol.
strength, split tensile strength and flexural 26, 1537-1544, 1996.
strength of HSC increases.
The improvement of strength in early age is [5] IS: 383-1970. Indian standard specification for
higher as compared to the later age due to the coarse and fine aggregates from natural sources
presence of SP and micro silica effect of Silopzz for concrete (second revision), Bureau of Indian
and MK. Standards, New Delhi, India.
Requirement of SP for MK based concrete was [6] IS: 10262:2009, Concrete Mix Proportioning-
lesser than that of Silpozz based concrete. Guidelines, Bureau of Indian Standards, New
For HC1, the concrete mix with 15% silpozz Delhi, India.
and 5% MK gives higher compressive strength
whereas for HC2 5% silpozz and 15% MK gives [7] Neville, A. M., Properties of concrete, 4th and final
higher compressive strength as compared to ed. England, Addison Wesley Logman, 1996.
other mixes. [8] Yerramala, A., Ramachandurdu, C. and Bhaskar
For flexural and split tensile strength, the Desai, V., Flexural strength of metakaolin
concrete mix with 10% silpozz and 10% MK ferrocement, Composites: Part B, Vol. 55, 176
gives higher strength than other mixes for both 183, 2013.
HC1 and HC2.
769
EFFECT OF SILPOZZ ON FRESH AND HARDENED PROPERTIES

OF RECYCLED AGGREGATE CONCRETE
K C Panda-11
1Department of Civil Engineering, ITER, SOA University, Bhubaneswar 751030, Odisha, India
Silpozz is a super pozzolanic material with silica content of above 90% and can be used as a substitute
material for Silica fume (SF). This paper investigates the influence of silpozz and different amounts of
recycled coarse aggregates (RCA) obtained from demolished building on the properties of recycled
aggregate concrete (RAC). A concrete mix of 1:1.44:2.91 was used in this study for experimental
purpose. The investigation was done by conducting fresh concrete test, hardened concrete test, of
vibrated concrete. Three batches of concrete mixes were prepared. The first batch of concrete mix was
prepared by replacing 0%, 10%, 20% of natural coarse aggregate (NCA) with RCA. The second batch of
concrete mix was prepared by replacing 10% of cement with silpozz and 0%, 10%, 20% of NCA with
RCA and 0.25% of super-plasticizer. The third batch of mix was prepared by replacing 20% of cement
with silpozz and 0%, 10%, 20% of NCA with RCA and 0.50% of super-plasticizer. The test result
indicates that the workability of concrete considerably reduced as the amount of RCA increased. For
strength characteristics, the results showed that a gradually decreasing in strength as the percentage of
RCA used in the specimens increased and the strength increased as the percentage of silpozz in the
specimens increased.
Keywords: Silpozz, Compressive strength, Flexural strength, Split tensile strength, Recycled coarse
aggregates (RCA)
1 Introduction The addition of RHBA in RAC gave higher compressive

Recycled aggregates (RA) are comprised of strength than that the RAC without ground RHBA even
crushed, graded inorganic particles processed from the though it increased the slump loss of concrete. The
materials that have been used in the constructions and splitting tensile strength of RAC was 8.15% of the
demolition debris. RAs are the materials for future. compressive strength and modulus of elasticity of RAC
Use of RA in concrete can be useful for environmental was lower than that of the conventional concrete. [5]
protection and economical terms. Silpozz used in this studied the use of recycled concrete aggregate in fly-ash
study as a substitute material of Silica fume (SF) and concrete. The approach taken by them included a large
is very effective in design and development of high substitution of NCA by recycled concrete aggregates
strength and high performance concrete [1]. [2] obtained from crushed concrete debris, as well as the use
conducted a study on the performance of natural of 30% FA as a partial substitute of Portland cement for
aggregate concrete (NAC) and recycled aggregate FA concrete production. They studied the effect of both
concrete (RAC) prepared with the incorporation of partial and full replacement of NCA by coarse RCA in a
different mineral admixtures including SF, metakaolin FA concrete. Concrete designed with various industrial
(MK), y ash (FA) and Ground granulated blast slag sub-products and recycled concrete aggregate using a
(GGBS). The compressive and splitting tensile proper binder type and w/c could significantly promote
strength, drying shrinkage, chloride ion penetration sustainability and enhance durability in concrete industry.
and ultrasonic pulse velocity (UPV) of the concrete This paper presents the influence of silpozz and different
mixtures were determined. [3] proposed that bagasse amounts of RCA obtained from demolished building on
ash, which is a large disposal landfill waste from sugar the properties of RAC.
mill industries, is utilized as a pozzolanic material to
improve the mechanical properties and durability of
RAC. [4] studied on ground rice husk-bark ash 2 Experimental Study
(RHBA) used as a pozzolanic material in concrete A concrete mix of 1:1.44:2.91 was used in this
containing high amount of RA. Results revealed that study for experimental purpose. The materials used in
RAC had lower compressive strength than that of the this study was OPC 43 grade, NCA, RCA, Natural fine
conventional concrete. aggregate (NFA), silpozz and CERA HYPERPLAST
XR-W40 high end super-plasticizers. The physical
properties of OPC are presented in Table 1.
1 Associate Professor, kishoriit@gmail.com
770
K C Panda
Table 1: Physical properties of Ordinary Portland Table 2: Properties of Natural Fine Aggregates
Cement Characteristics Value obtained
Characteristics Experimental Value specified experimentally as per IS
value by IS 8112:1989 383-1970 [7]
[6] Fineness modulus 3.03 (Zone-3) Sand type
Normal consistency 34 NA Specific gravity 2.67
(%) Water absorption 0.40
Fineness (m2/kg) 333 225 (min) Bulk density (kg/m3) 1568
Initial setting time 165 30 (min)
(min) 2.2 Recycled coarse aggregate
Final setting time 360 600 (max)
(min) Recycled coarse aggregates are comprised of
Specific gravity 3.15 3.15 crushed, graded inorganic particles processed from the
Compressive materials that have been used in the construction and
strength (MPa) demolition debris. RCA used in this project was
3 days 28 23 (min) brought from a demolished temple of city Cuttack. The
7 days 36 33 (min) aggregates were separated by crushing the demolished
28 days 47 43 (min) debris and were then cleaned. The aggregates used in
this project were passing through 20 mm sieve size. The
location or source of recycled aggregate is shown in
2.1 Natural aggregate Figure 2. RCA after manual breaking down of
demolition debris is shown in Figure 3. The different
Sand is a naturally occurring granular material properties of the NCA and RCA value obtained
composed of finely divided rock and mineral particles. experimentally are listed in Table 3. The comparison of
The composition of sand is highly variable, depending particle size gradation curve of NCA and RCA is shown
on the local rock sources and conditions, but the most in Figure 4.
common constituent of sand is inland continental
settings and non-tropical coastal settings is silica
(SiO2), usually in the form of quartz. Sand is used as
fine aggregate which is passing through IS 4.75 mm
sieve. The sand used in the present study was supplied
from Trisulia, situated on the river base of
Kathajodi and its tributary Kuakhia. The particle
size gradation curve of sand is as shown in Figure 1.
The properties of fine aggregate are listed in Table 2.
Natural coarse aggregate consists of rock fragments
that are used in their natural state, or are used after
mechanical processing such as crushing, washing and
sizing. The size of aggregate used is the present study,
is passing through 20 mm sieve. The properties of
NCA are presented in Table 3.
Figure 2: Location of recycled aggregate
Figure 3: RCA after manual breaking
Figure 1: Particle size gradation curve of sand
771
Table 3: Properties of natural and recycled coarse

aggregates
Characteristics Value obtained experimentally
as per IS 383-1970
NCA RCA
Specific gravity 2.86 2.55
Abrasion value (%) 34.78 55.42
Impact value (%) 24.00 29.46
Crushing value (%) 23.30 32.90
Water absorption (%) 0.20 0.10
Fineness Modulus 7.00 6.87
Figure 5: Silpozz samples

Table 4: Chemical composition of silpozz samples
Oxides (%) Average
SiO2 88.18
Al2O3 1.61
Fe2O3 0.56
Carbon 2.67
CaO 1.59
MgO 1.63
K2O 1.67
Others 2.09
Moisture 0.79
Figure 4: Particle size gradation curve for NCA and Table 5: Physical properties of silpozz samples
RCA Characteristics Physical properties
Bulk Density 0.23 grams/cc
2.3 Silpozz LOI < 6.0%
Physical state Solid-Non Hazardous
The production of silpozz is obtained by Appearance Powder
burning of rice husk in specially designed furnace in Colour Grey
between 600c-700c. The furnace temperature is Odor Odorless
controlled by the air volume let inside the furnace.
The furnace is also designed not to exceed
2.4 Superplasticizers
temperatures above 700c. Rice Husk is burnt in
controlled temperatures which are below 700c. This In this study CERA HYPERPLAST XR-W40 high
ash generated is amorphous in nature and is called end super-plasticizers are used. The property of super-
amorphous silica. The trade name of the amorphous plasticizer is new generation polycarboxylate base
silica is known as silpozz. Silpozz is a super- water reducing admixture helps in the production of
pozzolan, with silica content of above 90% having self-compacting concretes, retains slump for extended
particle size of 25 microns mostly. Silpozz can be periods of time, aids in cement savings and ensures high
used as an admixture in a big way to make special early and ultimate strength. Such type of
concrete mixes. Silpozz is a carbon neutral green superplastisizers is used for concrete using large
product and has the potential to be used as a amounts of supplementary cementitious materials such
substitute of silica fumes or micro silica as a much as FA, GGBS and SF.
lower cost, without compromising on the quality
aspect. Adding silpozz to the concrete mixture even 2.5 Mix Proportions
in low replacement will dramatically enhance the
strength and impermeability of concrete mixtures, A concrete mix of M30 was designed without
while making the concrete durable to chemical recycled aggregates as per standard specification IS:
attacks, abrasion and reinforcement corrosion, 10262-2009 [8] to achieve the target mean strength of
increasing the compressive strength by 10% to 20%. 38.25 MPa. There are three batches of concrete mix
The chemical composition and physical properties of prepared. First batch is prepared by replacing 0%, 10%,
silpozz are presented in Tables 4-5. Figure 5 shows 20% of NCA with RCA. The second batch is prepared
the sample of silpozz. by replacing 10% of cement with silpozz and 0%, 10%,
20% of NCA with RCA and 0.25% of super-plasticizer.
772
K C Panda
The third batch is prepared by replacing 20% of required quantity of super-plasticizer has been added
cement with silpozz and 0%, 10%, 20% of NCA with to the concrete mix with RAC and silpozz to increase
RCA and 0.50% of super-plasticizer. Mix proportion the workability of concrete and at the same time to
along with their identification is designated according improve its strength.
to their replacement as per Table 6. The details of
concrete mix quantity are presented in the Table 7.
Table 6: Details of concrete mix along with

identification
Concrete Mix Proportion Mix
Identification
M30 Concrete without replacement MS0R0
(100% NCA, 0% RCA and 0% Silpozz)
M30 Concrete with replacement (10% MS0R10
RCA and 0% Silpozz)
RCA and 0% Silpozz)
M30 Concrete without replacement of MS10R0
RCA and 10% Silpozz + 0.25% SP
RCA and 10% Silpozz) + 0.25% SP
M30 Concrete with replacement (20% MS10R20 Figure 5: Slump value for types of concrete mix
RCA and 10% Silpozz) + 0.25% SP
M30 Concrete without replacement of MS20R0 3.2 Hardened Concrete Properties
RCA and 20% Silpozz + 0.5% SP
M30 Concrete with replacement (10% MS20R10 The characteristics of the hardened concrete are
RCA and 20% Silpozz) + 0.5% SP obtained by testing the specimens at the specified time.
M30 Concrete with replacement (20% MS20R20 Before testing, the wet curing is done properly to
RCA and 20% Silpozz) + 0.5% SP achieve the target mean strength. Compressive strength,
flexural strength and split tensile strength test are
conducted to know the hardened concrete properties of
Table 7: Details of mix proportion (kg/m3) of concrete the specimen.
Mix quantity of different constituents (kg/m3) of
Mix 3.2.1 Compressive Strength
concrete
Identificati The variation of compressive strength for
Cement Sand NCA RCA Silpozz SP
on different concrete mix for 7 and 28 days is shown in
(kg) (kg) (kg) (kg) (kg) (kg)
Figure 6.
MS0R0 434.32 624.77 1264.97 - - -
MS0R10 434.32 624.77 1138.47 126.5 - -
MS0R20 434.32 624.77 1011.97 253.0 - -
MS10R0 390.90 624.77 1264.97 - 43.43 1.08
MS10R10 390.90 624.77 1138.47 126.5 43.43 1.08
MS10R20 390.90 624.77 1011.97 253.0 43.43 1.08
MS20R0 347.46 624.77 1264.97 - 86.86 2.16
MS20R10 347.46 624.77 1138.47 126.5 86.86 2.16
MS20R20 347.46 624.77 1011.97 253.0 86.86 2.16

3.1 Fresh Concrete Properties
The workability of fresh concrete is measured
by slump test. Fresh concrete mix was prepared and
then slump test was done immediately after the
mixing. Figure 5 shows the slump value
corresponding to different concrete mix. It is
observed that the slump value of RAC with silpozz
was remaining between 18 and 30, whereas the
slump value of RAC without silpozz was remaining
Figure 6: Variation in compressive strength for
between 20 and 40. The workability of RAC
different concrete mix
prepared with silpozz is found less. Therefore, a
773
The compressive strength of NAC (MS0R0) (MS0R0) after 28 days is 5.05 MPa, whereas the
after 28 days is 51.15 MPa, whereas the compressive flexural strength of concrete containing 10% RCA and
strength of 10% RAC (MS0R10) is 48.41 MPa 10% silpozz (MS10R10) is 5.35 MPa and 20% RCA
(94.64% of MS0R0) and compressive strength of and 10% sipozz (MS10R20) is 5.00 MPa. The flexural
20% RAC (MS0R20) is 44.35 MPa (86.70% of strength is nearly equals to that of NAC. This might be
MS0R0). The compressive strength of 10% silpozz due to the addition of silpozz and super-plasticizer in
based NAC (MS10R0) is 53.50 MPa and RAC enhances the flexural strength.
compressive strength of 20% silpozz based NAC
(MS20R0) is 58.96 MPa. The compressive strength 3.2.3 Split Tensile Strength
with respect to MS0R0 increases due to the addition The variation of split tensile strength for different
of 0.25% and 0.50% of super-plasticizer in 10% concrete mix for 7 and 28 days is presented in Figure 8.
silpozz and 20% silpozz based NAC respectively.
When silpozz is added to the RAC, improves the
compressive strength performance. The compressive
strength of NAC (MS0R0) after 28 days is 51.15
MPa, whereas the compressive strength of 10% RCA
and 10% silpozz based concrete (MS10R10) is 51.54
MPa and compressive strength of 20% RCA and
10% silpozz based concrete (MS10R20) is 50.49
MPa. The compressive strength is nearly equals to
that of NAC. Further the addition of silpozz with
super-plasticizer in RAC enhances the compressive
strength.
3.2.2 Flexural Strength

The Variation of flexural strength for different
concrete mix for 7 and 28 days is shown in Figure 7.
Figure 8: Variation in split tensile strength for different

concrete mix
The split tensile strength of NAC (MS0R0) after 28

days is 3.85 MPa, whereas the split tensile strength of
MS0R10 is 3.62 MPa (94.02% of MS0R0) and split
tensile strength of MS0R20 is 3.45 MPa (89.61% of
MS0R0). The split tensile strength of MS10R0 is 4.50
MPa and split tensile strength of MS20R0 is 4.85 MPa.
The split tensile strength w.r.t MS0R0 increases due to
the addition of 0.25% and 0.50% of super-plasticizer in
10% silpozz and 20% silpozz based NAC respectively.
When silpozz is added to the RAC, improves the split
tensile strength performance. The split tensile strength
of NAC (MS0R0) after 28 days is 3.85 MPa, whereas
Figure 7: Variation in flexural strength for different the split tensile strength of MS10R10 is 3.95 MPa and
concrete mix split tensile strength of MS10R20 is 3.75 MPa. The
split tensile strength is nearly equals to that of NAC.
The flexural strength of NAC (MS0R0) after 28 The addition of silpozz and super-plasticizer enhances
days is 5.05 MPa, whereas the flexural strength of the split tensile strength in RAC.
MS0R10 is 4.88 MPa (96.63% of MS0R0) and
flexural strength of MS0R20 is 4.75 MPa (94.05% of 4 Concluding Remarks
MS0R0). The flexural strength of MS10R0 is 5.75 The following conclusions may be drawn from the
MPa and flexural strength of MS20R0 is 5.98 MPa. present study:
The flexural strength w.r.t MS0R0 increases due to the Workability of NAC with silpozz is less than
addition of 0.25% and 0.50% of super-plasticizer in NAC without silpozz. With increase in RCA,
10% and 20% silpozz based NAC respectively. When workability of concrete decreases for both types of
silpozz is added to the RAC, improves the flexural mixes i.e. RAC with silpozz and RAC without silpozz.
strength performance. The flexural strength of NAC
774
K C Panda
Workability of RAC with silpozz is less than [6] IS: 8112:1989. Indian standard 43 grade
RAC without silpozz. ordinary portland cement specification, Bureau
As RCA increases, the compressive strength, of Indian Standards, New Delhi, India.
flexural strength, and split tensile strength decreases.
[7] IS: 383-1970. Indian standard specification for
As amount of silpozz increases in RAC, the
coarse and fine aggregates from natural sources
compressive strength, flexural strength and split
for concrete (second revision), Bureau of Indian
tensile strength increases.
Standards, New Delhi, India.
The compressive strength performance of RAC
with silpozz is better than RAC without silpozz. [8] IS: 10262:2009. Concrete mix proportioning-
The compressive strength of concrete mix with guidelines, Bureau of Indian Standards, New
10% silpozz and RCA upto 10% gives higher value Delhi, India.
than conventional concrete mix (MS0R0).
The compressive strength of concrete mix with
20% silpozz and RCA upto 20% gives higher value
than conventional concrete mix (MS0R0).
The performance of flexural strength and split
tensile strength of RAC with silpozz increases with
respect to RAC without silpozz.
At 10% of silpozz, the strength of RAC
increases upto 10% replacement of RCA, thereafter
the strength decreases.
At 20% of silpozz, the strength of RAC
increases upto 20% replacement of RCA.
Acknowledgments
The author wish to acknowledge to ITER,
SikshaOAnusandhan University, Bhubaneswar,
Odisha for the support of conducting the experiment.
Also thankful to Cera-Chem Private Ltd, Chennai
and N. K. Enterprises, Singhania House, Jharsuguda,
Odisha for the supplying of super-plasticizer and
silpozz for the experimental works.
References
[1] Panda, K.C. and Prusty, S.D., Influence of
silpozz and rice husk ash on enhancement of
concrete strength, Advances in Concrete
Construction, Vol. 03 (03), pp. 203-221, 2015.
[2] Kou, S.C., Poon, C.S. and Agrela, F.,
Comparisons of natural and recycled aggregate
concretes prepared with addition of different
mineral admixtures, Cement and Concrete
Composites, Vol. 33, pp. 788-95, 2011.
[3] Somna, R., Jaturapitakkul, C., Rattalachu, P. and
Chalee, W., Effect of ground bagasse ash on
mechanical and durability properties of recycled
aggregate concrete, Materials and Design, Vol.
36, pp. 597-603, 2012.
[4] Tangchirapat, W., Buranasing, R.,
Jaturapitakkul, C. and Chindaprasirt, P.
Influence of rice husk-bark ash on mechanical
properties of concrete containing high amount of
recycled aggregates. Construction and Building
Materials, Vol. 22, pp.1812-1819, 2008.
[5] Limbachiya M., Meddah M.S. and Ouchagour
Y., Use of recycled concrete aggregate in fly ash
concrete. Construction and Building Materials,
Vol. 27, pp. 439-449, 2012.
775
Influence of Particle Packing Method on Sustainable Concrete Using

Fly Ash and Recycled Aggregates
Sushree Sunayana, Sudhirkumar V Barai
Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur, Kharagpur, West Bengal
721302, India
The construction industry, using concrete most widely, is not sustainable as (i) it consumes large
quantities of natural resources (for aggregates), (ii) The principal binder in concrete is cement whose
production is a major contributor to greenhouse gas emissions (iii) Performance of concrete structures
relies on rapid strength gain rather than durability and long term effects. So, use of fly ash and recycled
aggregates (RA) in concrete production may become a sustainable construction material with less
environmental and economic impact if the performance of concrete structures is satisfied. Effect of RA
and fly ash on compressive strength (CS) of concrete is addressed in present context by adopting particle
packing method of mix design and modifying mixing techniques. Theoretical and experimental packing
density is obtained and compared. A comparison of PPM and Indian standard (IS) code method of mix
design is being done for the observed CS. Results concluded that PPM is suitable in terms of compressive
strength for RAC with fly ash.
Keywords: Recycled aggregates, packing density, compressive strength, particle packing method
Pulverized fly ash at 30% recovered the reduction in

1 Introduction compressive strength of concrete containing recycled
Achieving sustainability in construction practices is a aggregate at 7, 28, 90 and 180 days observed in Ref. [3].
major concern nowadays. Rapid industrialization and Use of ground fly ash up to 35% by weight of cement
urbanization result in the generation of huge quantities can increase the compressive strength for w/b of 0.45
of construction and demolished wastes. Concrete, the and up to 20% part replacement can increase the CS at
most common construction material uses large w/b of 0.55 and 0.65 as studied in Ref. [4]. For RAC
quantities of non-renewable resources in the form of various mix design methods have been used such as
aggregates (75%). Concrete construction also requires direct weight replacement method, equivalent mortar
large quantities of cement, the production of which volume method (Ref. [5])and direct volume replacement
results in release of green house gas emissions there by method. Particle packing method (PPM) of mix design
affecting the environment adversely. So, there is an has been studied for natural aggregate concrete through
urgent need to address the issue of natural resources various theoretical models such as Toufar model, Dewar
depletion and waste disposal problem. Use of recycled model, De Larrard Linear Packing Model (LPM), De
aggregates (RA) in concrete producing recycled Larrard Compressible Packing Model (CPM) and
aggregate concrete (RAC) has been evolved as one of Modified Compressible Packing Model Ref.[6]and also
the emerging solutions for present scenario. Flyash has experimentally as in Refs. [7,8]. Two stage mixing
been used to replace cement partly in conventional approach (TSMA) was developed in Ref. [9] and triple
concrete as in Ref. [1]. mixing method was proposed in Ref. [10] for concrete
The use of fly ash in recycled aggregate with the use of mineral admixture.
concrete has been studied in literatures. Fly ash at 0, 25,
and 35% by weight replacements of cement reduced the 2 Research Significance
compressive strength (CS), tensile strength, and static The behavior of RAC with fly ash is not well
modulus of elasticity values of the concrete at all ages. understood from the limited study as mentioned in the
However, the use of fly ash as a substitute for cement literature. In this paper, the effect of fly ash on behavior
improved resistance to chloride ion penetration and of concrete produced using 100% replacement of
decreased the drying shrinkage and creep of the RAC natural coarse aggregates with recycled coarse
Ref. [2]. aggregates using PPM mix design is studied. Concrete
with only natural aggregates without addition of fly ash
is used as control concrete.
Research scholar, sushree111@gmail.com
Professor, skbarai@civil.iitkgp.ernet.in
776
Sushree Sunayana and Sudhirkumar V Barai
3 Materials found out as per trials based on total cementitious

The behavior of concrete primarily depends on the materials content.
properties of its constituents such as aggregates, cement Table 3: Physical properties of coarse (NA and RA)
and the interface characteristics etc. and fine aggregates
3.1 Cement and Fly ash
Ordinary Portland cement (OPC) 43 Grade cement is Coarse Size of
Specific Water
used and its characterization is done according to IS: aggregate aggregate
gravity absorption
4031-1988 as shown in Table 1. Fly ash characterization type (mm)
as per IS: 3812-2003 (part II) and chemical analysis for 20 2.9 1.59
cement and fly ash as per IS: 4032:1985 is performed as NCA 12.5 2.88 1.67
presented in Table 2. 10 2.8 1.06
. 20 2.54 3.63
Table 1: Properties of cement and fly ash 12.5 2.53 3.4
RCA 10 2.43 4.2
Property Values 6.3 2.29 5.09
Consistency (%) 29
Fineness modulus 2.65
Specific gravity(cement) 3.13 Table 4: Mechanical properties of coarse (NA and
Specific gravity(Fly ash) 2.29 RA) and fine aggregates
Specific surface area 306 Property NCA RCA
Initial 75 Flakiness index (%) 19.14 15.17
Setting time(min)
final 295 Elongation index (%) 49.42 18.24
3 days 30.46 Los Angeles abrasion value (%) 14.4 34.08
Compressive strength
7 days 44.4 Impact value 13.87 24.23
28 days 55.06 Crushing value 17.66 23.32
Table 2: Chemical composition of cement and fly ash
4 Concrete Mix Design
Compounds Cement (%) Fly ash (%) The mix design procedure of concrete mix using PPM
SiO2 22.48 55.805 and details of quantities of materials is calculated in the
Al2O3 7.12 35.17 following section.
Fe2O3 3.01 4.61
4.1 Calculation of Packing Density
CaO 59.03 1.546
MgO 1.77 0.574 There is no specific mix design process for RAC. Here
K2O 1.33 1.821 mix design is done using particle packing method
Na2O 0.36 0.094 (PPM) and the results are compared with Indian
TiO2 0.37 1.907 Standard (IS) method. To calculate theoretical packing
MnO2 0.05 0.069 density (PD), the theoretical volumetric proportion of
SO3 4.20 0.255 aggregates to obtain maximum PD is obtained from
L.O.I (1000 oC) 3.846 2.50 EMMA mix analyser by using modified Andreassen
Moisture content 0.127 0.062 curve. Distribution coefficient is varied within the range
to get the gradation curve that matches with Anderson
curve which is as shown below in Fig 1.
3.2 Aggregates RAC with fly ash mix
91.63
Crushed dolerite was used as the natural aggregate and 69.42
recycled aggregate collected from a recycling facility in 52.00

38.33
New Delhi was used. The nominal sizes of the natural 23.10
and recycled coarse aggregates are 20 mm and their 17.35

12.56
particle size distributions is done as per particle packing 9.82
7.39
method (PPM) The physical and mechanical properties 5.24
of the coarse aggregate obtained as per BIS 3.33

2.46
(IS:2386(Part3)-1963) are shown in Table 3 and Table 1.64
4. Locally available river sand confirming to zone II

0.87 1 10 100 1000 10000
specification of BIS (IS 383-1970) is used as the fine Particle Size (Micron)
aggregate in the concrete mixtures. b

c
d
e
f
g Modified Andreassen: q=0.35 g
b
c
d
e
f Particle Size Distribution
3.3 Water Reducing Admixture (WRA)

To maintain a slump of 120mm20mm, this chemical Figure 1: Comparison between theoretical and
admixture is added. The dosage of WRA percentage is modified Andreassen curve
777
4.2 Theoretical Packing Density using CPM

1.880
Then the theoretical PD is obtained using compressible
1.860
packing model (CPM).
Bulk density
Virtual packing density of a mixture containing n size 1.840
classes with category i being dominant is expressed as: 1.820
"#
!! =
1.800
$ "# (1)
$%&#65 2
*35'$%"# ()#* "# +$% ,"* -./* %&*3#45'$%0#* 1"* ./* 1.780
1.760
For mono sized particle class j, experimentally
0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8
calculated PD
:
Weight fraction ((20+12.5+10+6.3)mm:sand)
7777777777777789 = 91 $ (2)
;< > @ 0.730
?
Coefficient representing loosening effect
Packing density
0.720
D
7A!9 = B< C ;< C 91D @$EFG (3)
! 0.710
Coefficient representing wall effect
D
H!9 = < C ;< C !1D @$EI (4)
9 0.700
Compaction index
0.690
/#
,"
J = & K! = &N!O$ # 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8
; ,LM %$," @
$ (5)
M#
Weight fraction ((20+12.5+10+6.3)mm:sand)
Using the proportions of aggregates obtained from
the theoretical gradation curve from EMMA, maximum Figure 2: Experimental bulk density and corresponding
theoretical packing density is obtained as 0.758 in CPM packing density curve
model. The virtual packing density physically represents
the maximum PD achieved if the aggregates are placed The experimental packing density obtained as per
one by one and packed accordingly. methods given above and the bulk density and
corresponding PD obtained for different proportions of
4.3 Experimental Packing Density aggregates to select the proportions for maximum PD is
Experimental packing density is obtained as shown in Fig 2. There is a good match observed
following which is used further for the mix design steps between theoretical and experimental PD. By knowing
given in Ref. [8]. the aggregate proportions of different coarse aggregate
sizes (20mm,12.5mm,10mm and 6.3mm) for which
Bulk density of coarse aggregate (20mm and maximum packing density is achieved and using the
12.5mm) is determined for different proportions by value of maximum packing density as 0.728, mix design
mass (90:10, 80:20, 70:30 and so on). is done as per PPM mentioned in Ref. [8].
Packing density is determined for different mixture Water- to-binder (w/b) ratio of 0.45 is
combination and the proportion at which maximum maintained for all the mixes as obtained from trials
packing density achieved was found out. mixes. Fly ash is used as 20% and 30% of total
With this proportion of bigger size aggregates, cementitious content for RAC mixes. RAC mixes
smaller size of aggregate (10mm) is added at contain 100% replacement of natural aggregates with
different proportions by mass. (90:10, 80:20, 70:30 RA. Three types of concrete mixes are prepared for each
and so on). mix design method, i.e. NAC mix with 100% natural
These processes are repeated for smaller size aggregates without any addition of mineral admixture
aggregates (6.3mm and fine aggregate) to find out and super-plasticizer (NAC), RAC mix with 100%
the proportions of all participating aggregates for recycled aggregates with 20% (RAC+FA20) and 30%
which maximum possible packing density (PD) can replacement of cement by fly ash (RAC+FA30). For
be achieved. Indian standard (IS) method of mix design IS
10262:2009 code is followed. All mixes are designed
!"#$%&'()%*$+, = ' -
./01'2345678936:;7'<>?@76A4
(6)
for M30 grade of concrete. Adjustments are made in
5B3@6<6@':>?C678 quantities of materials for water absorption and
5B3@6<6@':>?C678I./01'2345678
moisture content. The difference in quantity of RCA
DE$('"E%+)%+'FGH = ' - JKK (7) and NA is due to its density. The mix proportion of
5B3@6<6@':>?C678
concrete used for the mixes is shown in Table 5.
Table 5: Mix design proportions
778
NA RCA
Mix type Method w/b Cement Fly ash Sand
20-12.5 mm 10-6.3 mm 20-12.5 mm 10-6.3 mm
RAC+FA20 PPM 0.45 360.83 90.21 - - 658.87 751.11 237.19
RAC+FA30 PPM 0.45 315.73 135.31 - - 659.3 761.99 242.71
NAC IS code 0.45 438.13 - 755.77 485.63 610.19 - -
RAC+FA20 IS code 0.45 325.11 139.33 - - 599.61 663.74 415.45
RAC+FA30 IS code 0.45 371.55 92.88 - - 599.61 663.74 415.45
52
Compressive strength (Mpa)

5 Mixing Process and Specimen Casting NAC
50
RAC+FA20
Triple mixing method [10] is used for mixing process 48
which is proved to be an effective method in terms of 46 RAC+FA30
compressive strength and other mechanical properties 44
for concrete with use of mineral admixture.
42
For each concrete mixture, 150 mm cubes and 40
150mm300mm cylinders were prepared for 38
compressive strength tests. Concrete mix for M30 grade 0.38 0.4 0.42 0.44 0.46 0.48
is designed using PPM and IS code method. Specimens w/b ratio
were tested at 7, 28 and 90 days of curing.
6 Tests and Results Figure 3: Variation of CS (28 -day) with w/b ratio
Compressive strength test is done using a compression Effect of curing ages (7, 28 and 90 days) on
testing machine of 300 ton capacity in accordance with compressive strength of concrete mixes is shown in
BIS (IS: 516-1959). The concrete mixtures are tested for Table 7. Three cubes have been used for each test and
Indian standard (IS) method and particle packing the average values of these results are reported. For
method of mix design. For selection of w/b ratio, trial NAC mixes, the CS variation with curing ages is shown
mixes were prepared considering w/b ratio of 0.4, 0.43, in Fig. 4. It is observed that with increase in curing ages
0.45 and 0.47. Variation of 28-day compressive strength there is increase in CS of NAC mix for considered w/b
(CS) with change in w/b ratio is shown in Table 6. ratio. The 7 days CS is 59.3%-64.9% of the 28 days
Compressive strength decreases with increase in w/b strength. There is an increase of 27.74%-32.92% from
ratio for all the mix types. The target strength is 28 days to 90 days compressive strength.
achieved for w/b 0.45 and the variation of CS at this w/b
ratio for all the mixes is less compared to other w/b ratio. Table 7: Compressive strength variations with w/b ratio
So, it is considered in the mix design for all the concrete
mixes. CS variation with w/b ratio is plotted in Fig. 3.
RAC+FA30 mix shows lower CS at 28 days in
compared to RAC+FA20 mix by 3.2%- 5.5%. Increase
in CS for RAC+FA20 mix in compared to NAC in some w/b
Age
of the w/b ratio may be due to improvement in Mix 0.4 0.43 0.45 0.47
(day)
microstructure of the concrete in later case due to proper
coating of fly ash on aggregates because of the mixing 7 30.87 28.74 0.43 25.35 23.69
method adopted. 28 NAC 51.27 44.29 42.75 39.51
90 65.49 58.87 55.96 55.85
Table 6: Variation of 28-day compressive strength (CS)
with w/b ratio 7 26.6 23.49 22.59 22.05
28 RAC+FA20 48.52 44.58 43.22 42.57
w/b ratio NAC RAC+FA20 RAC+FA30 90 58.4 52.58 50.64 49.3
0.4 51.27 48.52 46.25 7 22.09 21.74 17.57 17.1
0.43 44.29 44.58 43.09 28 RAC+FA30 46.25 43.09 41.82 40.2
0.45 42.75 43.21 41.82 90 52.4 48.26 46.74 44.67
0.47 40.51 42.57 40.2
779
140
140
Percentage of 28- day strength

120
120
100 100
80 80
60 7 -day
60
7- day 28- day
40 40
28-day 90 -day
20 20
90- day
0 0
0.4 0.43 0.45 0.47 0.4 0.43 0.45 0.47
w/b ratio w/b ratio
Figure 4: Variation of compressive strength with curing Figure 6: Variation of compressive strength with curing
ages at different w/b (NAC mix) ages at different w/b (RAC+FA30 mix)
Fig. 5 represents the variation of CS at different curing

ages for RAC+FA20 mix. It is observed that 7 days Table 8: Comparison of CS of different concrete mix
strength is 52%- 55% of 28 days strength indicating
slower strength gain due to fly ash replacement than Mix design Cube Cylinder
Mix
NAC. There is an increase of 15.8%-20.3% from 28 method strength strength
days to 90 days strength. IS 46.07 30.13
NAC
PPM 42.75 -
140 IS 43.83 25.60
RAC+FA20
PPM 43.22 26.01
120
IS 41.24 24.95
100 RAC+FA30
PPM 41.82 25.09
80
60 Increase in compressive strength of RAC+FA20 as
7- day
40 compared to NAC in PPM may be due to pozzolanic
28-day
20 property of fine particles of flyash. It may be attributed
90- day
0
to improvement in microstructure and filling up of
0.4 0.43 0.45 0.47 micro cracks already present in recycled aggregates due
w/b ratio to mixing method involving coating of fly ash.
.
Figure 5: Variation of compressive strength with curing 1
ages at different w/b (RAC+FA20 mix)
0.8
Fig. 6 shows the relation between CS and curing ages

fc/fNAC
0.6 IS code
for RAC+FA30 mix. The development of strength at 7- PPM
day is observed to be slower than the other two mixes 0.4
considered i.e. 42%-50% of 28 days strength is achieved 0.2
at 7 days. At 90- day 11%-13% strength gain is
achieved in compared to 28- day strength. The strength 0
gain in long term is smaller in case of recycled NAC RAC+FA20 RAC+FA30
aggregate concrete mix with fly ash in compared to Mix type
NAC mixes may be due to adhered mortar content in
Figure 7: Comparison of compressive strength in
recycled aggregates. The plots represent CS in PPM and IS code method
percentage of 28-day strength.
A comparison of hardened concrete property
i.e. compressive strength of the considered mixes in the The effect of RAC with 20% and 30% replacement of
PPM mix design adopted in present study and IS code fly ash is also observed in case of cylinder strength in
method is done. CS at 28- day is observed and the compression as shown in Fig. 8. The strength relative to
values in Table 8 represents relative CS in compared to NAC designed with IS code method is plotted. The
NAC in IS method of mix design for both the cubes and cylinder strength is observed to be approximately 60%-
cylinder specimen considered in the present study. Fig. 65% of cube strength. Failure in cylinders is less
7 shows the comparison which indicates that there is not affected by the restraining effect of the platens and these
much difference in the relative strength of all the mixes are cast and tested in the same position.
considered at 28 -day in both the method.
780
1 References
0.8
[1] Atis, C.D. (2004) High-volume fly ash concrete with
high strength and low drying shrinkage. Materials in
fcyl/fNAC
0.6 IS code Civil Engineering, ASCE, 15(2),153156.

PPM [2] Kou,S. and Poon, C. (2008). Influence of recycled
0.4
aggregates on long term mechanical properties and pore
0.2 size distribution of concrete. Cement and Concrete
Composites, 33(2), 286-291.
0 [3] Ann, K., Moon, H., Kim, Y. and Ryou, J. (2008).
NAC RAC+FA20 RAC+FA30
Durability of recycled aggregate concrete using
Mix type
pozzolanic materials. Journal of Waste Management, 28
Figure 8: Comparison of 28-day cylinder compressive (6), 993-999.
strength with PPM and IS code method [4] Somna, R., Jaturapitakkul, C., Chalee, W. and
Rattanachu, P. (2012). Effect of the Water to Binder
Ratio and Ground Fly Ash on Properties of Recycled
Aggregate Concrete. Materials in Civil Engineering,
7 General Discussions
24(1), 16-22.
Particle packing method of mix design was [5] Fathifazl, G. (2009) New Mixture Proportioning
followed experimentally and also verified Method for Concrete Made with Coarse Recycled
theoretically to get the proportioning of aggregates Concrete Aggregate. Materials in Civil Engineering,
for maximum packing density. 21(10), 601-611.
The fresh (slump) and hardened concrete property [6] De Larrard, F. and Sedran, T. (1994). Optimization
(compressive strength) of recycled aggregate of ultra-high-performance concrete by the use of a packing
concrete mix incorporating flyash were studied. model. Cement and Concrete Research, 24(6), 997-1009.
Slow rate of strength gain is observed for RAC with IS:10262 (2009), Indian standards concrete mix
fly ash mixes in compared to NAC mix but the proportioning guidelines, Bureau of Indian Standards,
target strength was achieved at 28 days. New Delhi, India.
Increase in long term strength at 90 days though [7] Jacobsen, S. and Arntsen, B. (2007).Aggregate
lower than natural aggregate concrete, was packing and void saturation in mortar and concrete
significant in case of RAC with fly ash i.e. proportioning Materials and Structures, 41(4), 703-716.
approximately 20% for RAC+FA20 mix and 13% [8] Raj, N., Patil, S.G. and Bhattacharjee, B. (2014)
for RAC+FA30 mix. Concrete Mix Design By Packing Density Method.
IOSR Journal of Mechanical and Civil Engineering, 11(2),
8 Conclusions 34-46.
In the present study, PPM mix design method is used [9] Tam, V. W., Gao, X. and Tam, C. (2005). Micro
both theoretically and experimentally for RAC with fly structural analysis of recycled aggregate concrete
ash. It showed nearly equivalent or higher results in produced from two-stage mixing approach. Cement and
terms of compressive strength compared to Indian Concrete Research, 35(6), 1195-1203.
standard method. Hence, PPM can be used for such [10] Kong, D., Lei, T., Zheng, J., Ma, C. (2010). Effect
concrete mix as it has other advantages in terms of and mechanism of surface-coating pozzalanics materials
minimization of cement content and voids which may around aggregate on properties and ITZ microstructure of
have other advantageous effects on performance recycled aggregate concrete. Construction and Building
properties of concrete. Materials, 24(5), 701-708.
[11] IS:2386 (1963), Indian standards methods of tests for
Acknowledgement aggregates for concrete part I,III and IV, Bureau of Indian
Standards, New Delhi, India.
First author gratefully acknowledges the financial [12] IS:4031(1988), Methods of physical tests for
support provided for the project on Sustainable and hydraulic cement part II,III,IV,V and VI, Bureau of Indian
Cost Effective Housing by using Recycled Aggregate Standards, New Delhi, India (Reaffirmed 2000).
Based Concrete under the mega project- Future of [13] IS: 516 (1959), Indian standards methods of tests for
Cities by MHRD, Government of India. Authors strength of concrete, Bureau of Indian Standards, New
gratefully acknowledge the support extended by IL&FS Delhi, India (Reaffirmed 2004).
Environmental Infrastructure and Services Ltd. Plant
(New Delhi) for providing recycled aggregates.
781
GLASS FIBRE REINFORCED GYPSUM PANELS FOR

SUSTAINABLE CONSTRUCTION
Gouri Krishna S R1, Philip Cherian 2, Devdas Menon3, A Meher Prasad4
1,2,3,4
The tremendous housing needs of India is causing the depletion of virgin building materials. In an era of
scarce resources, sustainable solutions are always preferable. Glass Fibre Reinforced Gypsum (GFRG)
technology, is one such solution where all the structural members are constructed using hollow panels
infilled with reinforced concrete (RC), as per structural design. This paper discusses the sustainability of
construction using GFRG panels in terms of embodied energy and indoor thermal comfort. The case study
building at IIT Madras campus was found to have lesser embodied energy compared to conventional
buildings. The result is significant considering the fact that the building sector consumes 40% of the total
energy in world. Also, the inside temperature was found to be lesser by 2C which will help in reducing the
air conditioning requirement of the building and thereby the operational energy.
Keywords: GFRG, embodied energy, sustainable construction
1 Introduction 250
15
There is a great need to find innovative solutions to
tackle the booming problem of housing shortage in India, 94 glass
gypsum
plaster +
distinctly for the poverty-stricken people of our society. fibres flange
ingredients
web
In particular, there is a necessity to address the shelter
15
needs of the lower income groups and their aspirations. 20 230
The challenge is to make these aspirations a reality, by
Figure 1: Cross section of GFRG panel
providing an affordable solution that is also fast. Ideally,
the solution should be scalable to reach the masses The technology found its roots in India in 2003 and
and should be quickly buildable. There would be since then, several buildings were constructed using
significant demand for construction materials such as GFRG load bearing panels, without any beams and
cement, steel, burnt clay bricks and water in order to fulfil columns. Studies conducted in India and elsewhere have
this huge demand. While chasing this big target, the contributed to ensure satisfactory structural performance
requirement for future generation should also be kept in of the individual components as well as the system as a
mind. These requirements; rapidity, affordability and whole. But in the present scenario of construction,
sustainability; oblige to promotion of innovative new sustainability also plays a key role which cannot be
materials and methods of construction. Although there fulfilled by the fast depleting conventional construction
are a number of solutions for resolving the housing materials. GFRG panels, which are manufactured in
shortage problem, the scope of this paper focusses on one India out of the industrial fertilizer waste, is fairly
such solution using Glass Fibre Reinforced Gypsum competent in this aspect.
(GFRG) panels. This holds the promise for providing
The term sustainability is applicable to materials as
sustainable, rapid and affordable mass housing.
well as building as a whole. A material will be termed as
GFRG is a new building panel product, known
sustainable, when it satisfies certain criteria in
commercially as Rapidwall in the industry. GFRG
panels are light-weight load-bearing panels that are most manufacturing, usage and disposal stages [1].
suitable for rapid mass-scale building construction. They Numerically, sustainability is expressed in terms of CO2
are manufactured out of gypsum reinforced by special emission rate and embodied energy (total energy
glass rovings and were first introduced in Australia in associated with the manufacturing of material, starting
1990. Panels are manufactured to a standard size of from the extraction of components). The green rating of
12m3m0.124m and every 1m of panel houses four a building depends on several factors such as selection of
cavities of inner dimension 23094mm as shown in Fig. site, energy efficiency, water conservation, materials and
1. resources used, indoor environment quality, provision for
rain water harvesting, waste management etc. Two rating
systems, namely, Leadership in Energy and
1
Research Scholar, gouriksr@gmail.com
2
Research Scholar, philiph.cherian@gmail.com
3
Professor, dmenon@iitm.ac.in
4
Professor, prasadam@iitm.ac.in
782
Gouri Krishna S R, et al.
Environmental Design (LEED) Green Building Rating

System (managed by Indian Green Building Council
(IGBC)) and Green Rating for Integrated Habit
Assessment (GRIHA) (under The Energy and Resources
Institute (TERI)) are responsible for the green rating of
buildings in India. Figs. 2a, 2b show various factors and
respective weightages as per the two rating schemes.
Figure 3: GFRG demonstration building at IIT M

campus
2 Construction of GFRG Buildings
GFRG panels can be used as walls (both external and

Figure 2a: Weightage for various factors according to internal), slabs, staircases, lift-well walls, parapet walls,
LEED [2] sunshades, etc., with reinforced concrete (RC) filling
inside the cavities. The number, diameter and spacing of
rebars is decided based on the structural design.
Foundation for GFRG building is same as that of
conventional buildings up to the basement / plinth level
(above ground level). The type of foundation depends on
the number of storeys and soil condition at the site. The
connectivity between foundation and superstructure is
achieved with the help of starter bars with L anchorage,
provided to the network of RC plinth beams at basement
footing level. Panels are cut into required sizes in the
factory based on requirement and are packed in stillages,
loaded on to trucks, and then transported to the
construction site. At the site, panels in stillages are
unloaded using vehicle mounted cranes and are stacked
Figure 2b: Weightage for various factors according to at a convenient location. Panels are handled at site using
GRIHA [3] special lifting jaws fitted onto cranes. For construction,
the erection of walls are to be done as per the building
According to the above distribution, around 50% of plan (marked with notations of panels) by installing the
the rating depends on the materials used for construction. respective panels in perfect plumb and level by specially
In this regards, it is necessary to ascertain the suitability trained installation team. Wall panels are fixed in position
of GFRG as a sustainable alternative to conventional using specially manufactured adjustable lateral props in
construction materials. The embodied energy of GFRG order to hold them in rigid position. Concrete is poured
panel as well as GFRG buildings are considered for on to the cavities wherever required. The leftover cavities
assessing sustainability. In addition, the thermal comfort of the wall panel are filled with quarry dust. After
is also accounted because thermally uncomfortable infilling concrete in the wall panel, construction of
environment lowers the energy efficiency of the building staircase waist slabs is carried out. The slab panels shall
GFRG demonstration building inside the IIT Madras be laid on suitable support system and concrete infilling
campus (Fig. 3), constructed for showcasing the features can be done after cutting the flanges of specified cavities.
of this technology such as rapidity, affordability, The upper storeys can be constructed in a similar manner.
sustainability, etc., was considered for the calculation of After the construction of superstructure, proper
embodied energy and assessment of thermal comfort waterproofing and finishing works need to be carried out.
through field measurements. (For details of construction, GFRG construction Manual,
2016 [4] shall be referred).
783
Energy for
material
Operational manufacturing,
energy, OE Eim
Initial embodied Energy for
energy, EEi transporting
Life cycle Embodied Energy for materials, Et
energy, LCE energy, EE building
Recurring
embodied construction, Ec Energy for
energy, EEr construction
Demolition equipment, Eeq
energy, DE
Figure 4: Components of life cycle energy
3 Embodied energy of building

The two-storey building houses 4 flats with a built - up
The energy consumed by the building over its entire area of 184 m2 (two for Economically Weaker Section
life cycle can be considered as a measure of sustainability. (EWS) having carpet area of 25 m2 each and two for Low
The components of Life Cycle Energy (LCE) are illustrated Income Group (LIG) having carpet area of 46 m2). The
in Fig. 4. In this paper, only the initial embodied energy is construction was completed in 40 days (11 days for
considered for assessing sustainability. foundation and 29 days for superstructure). The foundation
was strip footing, constructed using fly ash blocks. Every
Initial embodied energy is given by,
structural member except sunshade was constructed using
GFRG panels with concrete infill. The steps of staircase
Eim = mi Mi (1)
was constructed using concrete. The front doors are made
where, of wood and the interior doors and all windows are made
mi total quantity of the ith material; of aluminium. Ceramic tiles were used for the floor
Mi energy density of the ith material; finishing.
For calculating the embodied energy, the quantity of 5 Estimation of Quantities of Various Materials Used
different materials need to be evaluated. The total quantity of various materials used for the
4 Details of Case Study Building construction of foundation, walls, slabs, lintel cum
sunshade, parapet, staircase headroom, etc. and finishing
The GFRG demonstration building, built inside IIT works (such as waterproofing, tiling, rendering, priming,
Madras campus, is considered for assessing sustainability. painting) were calculated. Tables 1 show the values
Fig. 5 shows the building plan of a typical floor. obtained.
Figure 5: Typical floor plan
784
Table 1: Quantity of building materials

Component of building Constituents of component Materials used Quantity (kg)
Foundation Concrete for PCC layer, floor and Cement 3878.6
plinth beam Coarse aggregate 26721.0
River sand 13360.7
Water 1861.4
Block work Fly ash blocks 85067.5
Mortar & plastering Cement 4100.2
River sand 24318.7
Water 1845.1
Infill River sand 35660.3
Quarry dust 22848.0
Reinforcement for plinth beam Steel 361.2
Walls (including parapet) Wall panels GFRG panels 21714.9
Concrete infill (M20 grade) Cement 4937.9
Coarse aggregate 19751.5
River sand 9875.8
Water 2222.0
Reinforcement Steel 509.9
Inert infill Quarry dust 36901.8
Slabs Slab panels GFRG panels 7721.7
Concrete (M25 grade) Cement 7974.7
River sand 11962.0
Water 3588.6
Reinforcement (including weld mesh) Steel 1339.3
Staircase headroom Panels for walls, slabs and parapet GFRG panel 2261.5
Concrete infill in walls (M20 grade) Cement 409.9
River sand 819.9
Water 184.5
Inert infill Quarry dust 2335.0
Concrete for slabs (M25 grade) Cement 328.5
River sand 492.8
Water 147.8
Reinforcement (including weld mesh) Steel 181.4
Finishing works Priming WD P30 19.3
WD Thinner 16.3
Rendering (interior and exterior) Wall putty 783.6
Water 132.2
Elastobar 41.7
Painting Paint 247.2
Tiling Tiles 4721.4
Plastering Cement 2033.2
Sand 7999.2
Water 915.0
Doors/Windows/ventilators Door/window frame Aluminium 259.5
Window/ ventilator panes Glass 218.7
Doors Wood 47.9
MEP works Pipes PVC 300.5
Fittings Ceramic 58
Iron 93.0
Stainless steel 270.6
Miscellaneous (Lintel cum Concrete (M20 grade) Cement 2373.6
sunshade, landing beam, Coarse aggregate 7502.8
beam in balcony, etc.) River sand 3751.4
Water 1068.1
Reinforcement Steel 550.1
785
As GFRG buildings are constructed using

Figs. 6 and 7 show the distribution of weight and
prefabricated wall and slab panels, the joints need to be
embodied energy of various materials used. The large
waterproofed in order to prevent the ingress of water,
quantity of usage can be misleading in terms of embodied
unlike conventional buildings. The quantity of
energy. For example, river sand and coarse aggregate
waterproofing products used are given in Table 2.
together constitutes 46.8% of the total quantity. But in the
Table 2: Quantity of waterproofing chemicals used context of embodied energy, their contribution is only 4%.
Waterproofing product Quantity (kg)
Zycosil 7.8
Zycoprime 18.9
ZMB60 116.5
ZMB Thinner 1.0
Elastobar 48.6
Stretch fab 13.6
Total 240.6
The total embodied energy of materials calculated

using Eq. (1) are given in Table 3. The energy for
transportation of materials and construction equipment are
not considered in this study. It was observed that materials
for envelope holds the major part of embodied energy.
Table 3: Calculated embodied energy
Material Total Embodied Total Figure 6: Percentage distribution of weight of different
quantity, energy, Mi embodied structural and non-structural components of building
mi (kg) (MJ/kg) energy (MJ)
[5],[6],[7],[8],
[9]
Quarry dust 62084.8 0.15 9312.72
Fly ash blocks 85067.5 0.64 54443.2
Cement 26050.5 6.85 178445.9
GFRG panels 31698.1 5.44* 172437.7
Steel 2941.9 35.1 103260.7
Tiles 4721.4 3.33 15722.3
Aluminium 259.5 155** 40222.5
Paint 247.2 144 35596.8
Coarse 80524.8 0.4
32209.9
aggregate
PVC 300.5 106 31853
Waterproofin 240.6 90.67
21815.2
g Figure 7: Percentage distribution of embodied energy of
River sand 108261.1 0.15 16239.2 different materials used for construction
Stainless steel 270.6 56.7** 15343.0 6 Evaluation of indoor thermal comfort
Primer 35.6 144 5126.4
The thermal performance of GFRG building was
Wall putty 783.6 5.3** 4153.1 analysed through real-time filed measurements. The
Iron 93 25** 2325 purpose of this test was to compare the thermal
Ceramic 58 29** 1682 performance of GFRG buildings with that of the
conventional reinforced concrete framed buildings. For
Glass 218.7 25.8 5642.5 this, the case study buildings selected were the GFRG
Wood 47.9 7.2 344.9 demo building inside the IIT Madras campus and a
TOTAL 746176 conventional RC framed building in the same campus. The
* Embodied energy value from Ref.[9] latter was located just adjacent to the demo building and
** Embodied energy value from Ref.[7] was subjected to similar shading conditions as that of the
former. The test was done on harsh summer days (10th
786
13th June, 2015) and was conducted by installing digital It was observed that the temperatures inside the GFRG
thermometers inside one of the rooms in both the buildings. building were lesser than the conventional building by a
Each thermometer had two thermocouples, of which one maximum of 2C. It could also be observed that the trend
was fixed on the selected wall surface and the other on an was reversed during the afternoon hours, where the
exterior wall of the building. The thermometer was set to conventional building was up to 0.6C cooler. But the
record temperatures at every hour and the readings were number of discomfort hours was considerably less.
taken continuously for 3 days. After analysis, it could be
7 Conclusion
seen that the variation in the measured temperatures
followed a similar pattern. The measured values for a A similar study conducted on the evaluation of
typical day is shown in Table 4, and a plot of the same is embodied energy on a conventional reinforced concrete
shown in Fig. 8. The difference in the temperatures framed building shows that the embodied energy per unit
measured in the exterior thermocouples of the two case area is 10.8 GJ/m2 [8]. For the GFRG demo building, the
study buildings were very minimal, but those in the interior embodied energy works out to be only 5.24 GJ/m2, which
showed considerable difference. shows that GFRG has almost 50% lesser embodied energy
when compared to conventional building system. This
Table 4: Temperature measurements
makes GFRG a competent alternative to conventional
Time Outside Temperature Temperature building materials and systems. Moreover, GFRG
temperatur inside inside GFRG buildings offer better interior thermal comfort even during
e (C) conventional building (C) the hottest days. This minimizes the energy requirement for
building (C) air conditioning of the building and thereby results in
12:00 AM 30.9 33.5 32.2 saving of electricity. This reveals that the use of GFRG
01:00 AM 30.8 33.6 32.1 panels in building construction improves the sustainability
02:00 AM 30.9 33.4 32 of the building sector.
03:00 AM 30.4 33.3 32
Acknowledgement
04:00 AM 29.9 33.5 32
05:00 AM 29.4 33.2 31.7 The authors are thankful to the Engineering Unit of IIT
06:00 AM 28.8 33.2 31.3 Madras for their support. The funding for the construction
07:00 AM 29.4 32.9 31.2 of the demo building by IIT Madras and Department of
08:00 AM 30.7 33.1 31.1 Science and Technology is gratefully acknowledged.
09:00 AM 32.4 32.9 31.1
References
10:00 AM 34.8 32.2 31.4
11:00 AM 36.2 32.7 31.6 [1] Monteiro A., Assessing initial embodied energy in
12:00 PM 36.6 32.9 31.8 building structures using LCA methodology, MS Thesis,
01:00 PM 39.4 33 32.3 New University of Lisbon, Portugal 2015
02:00 PM 40 32.5 32.7 [2] https://igbc.in/igbc/
03:00 PM 36.7 32.6 33
[3] www.grihaindia.org
04:00 PM 34.9 32.9 33.5
05:00 PM 34.8 32.9 33.4 [4] Structural Engineering Division, IITM, GFRG
06:00 PM 33.3 33 33.2 Construction Manual, BMTPC, MHUPA, 2016
07:00 PM 32.9 33.8 33.1 [4] Reddy B.V.V., Jagadish K.S., Embodied energy of
08:00 PM 32.6 33.7 33 common and alternative building materials and
09:00 PM 32.2 33.5 33 technologies, Energy and Buildings, 35, 129-137, 2003
10:00 PM 31.5 33.7 32.8 [5] Shukla A., Tiwari G.N., Sodha M.S., Embodied energy
11:00 PM 31.3 34.2 32.6 analysis of adobe house, Renewable Energy, 34, 755-761,
2009
[6] Chani P. S., Najamuddin, Kaushik S.K., Comparative
analysis of embodied energy rates for walling elements in
India, Institution of Engineers (India) Journal-
Architecture, 84, 47-50, 2003
[7] Hammond G., Jones C., Inventory of carbon and energy
(ICE), Version 1.6a, University of BATH, United
Kingdom, 2008
[8] Pinky D.L., Palaniappan S., A case study on life cycle
energy use of residential building in southern India, Energy
and Buildings, 80, 247-259, 2014
[9] Omahen R., Ecologically sustainable development:
Figure 8: Variation of temperature with time approaches in the construction industry, Thesis, University
of Regensburg, Germany, 2002
787
CEMENTITIOUS COMPOSITES FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF ALTERNATIVES TO

CONVENTIONAL CONCRETE
Sutapa Deb 1, Nilanjan Mitra 2, Swati Roy Maitra 3, Subhasish Basu Majumder 4
Civil Engineering Department, IIT Kharagpur, Kharagpur, 721302, India

Ranbir and Chitra Gupta School of Infrastructure and Design, IIT Kharagpur, Kharagpur, 721302, India
Material Science Centre, IIT Kharagpur, Kharagpur, 721302, India
This paper presents the experimental results of mechanical properties of Engineered Cementitious Composites
(ECC) made with cement, flyash, silica fume, ultra-fine sand (less than 150 micron size), by incorporating
polypropylene (PP) fibre and chemical admixtures. In order to investigate the mechanical properties of ECC,
compressive strength test, four-point bending test, splitting and direct tensile test are performed.
Keywords: ECC, polypropylene fibre, compressive strength test, four-point bending test, splitting and uniaxial
direct tensile test
1 Introduction
The broader scope of this work is to develop
Sustainability is essential to the well-being of our
cementitious composite which has similar properties as
planet, persistent development of a civilization, and
that of ECC (patented by Li), but by using different and
human progress. Sustainable constructions have a small
relatively cheaper constituents including but not limited
impact on the environment. Those constructions use
to manmade or natural fibres. Apart from the
green materials, which have low energy costs, high
development of cementitious composite with higher
durability, low maintenance requirements, and contain a
tensile resistance, it is envisaged that the developed
large proportion of recycled or recyclable materials [1].
material will be lighter than the conventional concrete.
As concrete is one of the most widely consumed man-
made construction material throughout the world. So,
ECC is a kind of fiber reinforced cementitious
concrete must keep evolving to satisfy the increasing
composites with ultra ductility and the properties of
demands of all its users. Although reinforced concretes
multiple cracking and strain hardening [4]. ECCs are
limited durability is responsible for significant amounts
short fibre reinforced composites designed to provide
of infrastructure repair. Its brittleness has caused
pseudo-strain hardening properties based on
numerous and catastrophic failures of buildings and
micromechanical principles [6], [7], [8]. The researchers
bridges in recent earthquake events [2]. Thereby
concluded that ECCs can be utilized for structural
improvement of tensile durability (without degrading
applications where superior ductility and durability are
other characteristics such as compressive strength) is a
desired. Hence, ECC can be referred to as a material
specific requirement for concrete structures.
possessing high shear resistance capacity [3].
The major objective of this work is to develop an
Engineered Cementitious Composites material
indigenous cementitious composite material as an
essentially consists of two components: fibres and a
alternative of conventional concrete and to perform
cementitious matrix. Using a micro-mechanical
different mechanical tests such as compressive strength
approach fibre and matrix properties are adjusted in
test, four-point bending test, splitting tensile and
order to obtain the desired macroscopic material
uniaxial direct tensile test. Development of such
behaviour. The most characteristic material property of
composite material is very much desirable for
cementitious composite material is its extremely
sustainable infrastructure for urban areas especially in
ductility and strain-hardening-like behavior in the
seismic prone zones, blast resistant structures and bridge
inelastic tensile regime [5]. ECC has exceptional strain
decks etc. As per concern stated above, Engineered
capacity of about 3 to 5% compared to 0.01% of normal
Cement composite (ECC), originally developed and
concrete and volume fraction of the fibre is also less
patented by Victor Li (Univ. of Michigan), has the
than 2% compared large amount of fibres say 5-10% in
potential to improve the tensile strength as comparison
Fibre Reinforced Concrete and showing an extensive
to the conventional concrete.
strain hardening behaviour of the composites [9],
[10],[11] .
1.PhD Research Scholar, sutapadeb@iitkgp.ac.in
2. Associate Professor, nilanjan@civil.iitkgp.ernet.in
3. Assistant Professor, swati@iitkgp.ac.in
4. Professor, subhasish@matsc.iitkgp.ernet.in
788
Sutapa Deb, et al.
2 Research Significance
Selection of Trial mixes
Material sustainability is rarely a concern in the through mix design
development of current state-of-the-art ECC. Through
this study the fundamental understanding of the pseudo-
strain hardening behaviour of the ECC will be
strengthened. The major outcome of the work will be Preparing Preparing test Preparing
the indigenous development of cementitious composite test samples samples for test
prepared from low-cost sustainable materials. Effects of for Splitting & samples for
Fly ash, microsilica, ultra fine sand (<150 micron) and Compressive Uniaxial Direct Flexural
polypropylene fibre on the critical micromechanics strength test Tensile strength strength
parameters governing composite ductility were test test
systematically investigated and effectively used to guide
the mix design.
Conducting Conducting Conducting
2.1 Problem Description Compressive Splitting & Flexural
Strength Uniaxial Direct Strength
The material ingradients of ECC are similar to that
Test Tensile Strength Test
of fibre reinforced concrete, including cement (OPC 43
Test
Grade), flyash(FA), silica fume (SF), sand, water,
polypropylene fibre, and a few chemical additives.
Additionally, polypropylene fibres, dispersed in cement
or concrete matrixes, serve as a crack arrester to retard Comparison of the test
crack propagation leading to non-catastrophic failure of results
cement composites. It is aimed to achieve a dense and
durable specimen by utilizing ultra-fine sand having
particle size less than 150 microns. Also, super Selection of optimum
plasticizer is used to enhance workability and avoid mixing ratio of the different
segregation and bleeding respectively. materials
2.1.1 Sample Preparation and experimental Diagram 1: Experimental methodology
methodology
The design of ECC mix involves selection of 2.2 Experimental Program
relative proportions of cement, fly ash, silica fume, very
fine sand, water, polypropylene (PP) fibres and super Care should be taken over the preparation of ECC
plasticizers. The selection of the proportions was made samples to the different physical properties made with
on trial and error basis, as there is no established mix different ingredients such as cement, fly ash, silica fume,
design rule exists for this material. In this case, M40 sand, polypropylene fibres. In this context, cement is
ECC is selected for doing the mix design; water cement used as a binder. The Flyash used here is conforming to
ration is taken as 0.3 for each trial. Physical properties IS 3812(Part I), owing to its pozzolanic properties, fly
of different materials (cement, flyash, silica fume, sand, ash is used as a replacement of cement. Silica fume is an
polypropylene fibres) were checked to do the proper ultrafine material with spherical particles less than 1 m
mix calculations. One mixer machine was used for in diameter, the average being about 0.15 m. This
preparing the material samples. Solid ingredients like makes it approximately 100 times smaller than the
cement, fly ash, silica fume, sand and poly propylene average cement particle. Its extreme fineness and high
fibres were first mixed for a couple of minutes to get a silica content makes it a very effective pozzolanic
uniform dry mix. Water and super plasticizer were then material. Silica fume also blocks the pores in the fresh
added to the dry mixture and mixed for another ten concrete so water within the concrete is not allowed to
minutes. After examining the mortar matrix and making come to the surface. For making this material, the sand
sure that there are no lumps in the bottom of the mixture, is very fine passing 150 m has been used. So the Sand
the mixture was taken out and cast into moulds. is crushed through a grinding machine to achieve that
fraction size. Fractions finer than 75 m effectively
Although the aim is to obtain better tensile consist of silts and clays, and were hence discarded.
properties at a reasonable compressive strength, Thus, the fractions passing 150 m sieves and retained
importance was also given to have the desired on 75 m sieve were used for sample preparation. On
workability in the fresh state and durability in the the other side, Polypropylene fibres have found to have
hardened states. In the Diagram 1, the experimental excellent bond properties with concrete and fails by
methodology is shown. When the casting was done, the gradual slippage; thereby improving the ductility as well
specimen was demoulded after twenty four hours. After as durability. The trials were done with 2% PP fibre
demoulding the specimens were cured in water content by volume. In the present investigation, 12 mm
chambers for 3, 7 and 28 days respectively and as per fiber cut length and 0.034 mm average diameter fibres
requirement, scheduled dated samples are tested.
789
are used. The physical properties of the ingredients are For Uniaxial Direct Tensile Strength Test : dog
shown in Table 1. bone shaped specimen (with 30 mm at bridge and
thickness 13 mm)
Table 1: Physical Properties of different ingredients For Splitting Tensile Strength Test: cylinder
used for preparation of ECC material specimen (100 mm diameter x 200 mm height)
Physical properties The samples casted are shown in Figure 1 (a, b, c & d):
Cement (OPC 43 grade)
Specific gravity= 3.1497 Setting time:
Normal consistency = 30% Initial = 147 minutes
Final = 273 minutes
Fineness: Soundness:
By dry sieving= 4% by Le-chatelier apparatus
=0.2 mm
By blaine apparatus=399 m2/Kg
Compressive strength of cement mortar after:

3 days= 31.82 MPa
7 days= 44.52 MPa
28 days=57.17 MPa
Flyash
Specific gravity = 2.155
Silica Fume
Sand
Grading zone =III as per table 4 of IS 383:1970
Fineness modulus =2.213
Polypropylene fibres
Based on different trials and as per the working

methodology concerned above, hence one mix
proportion was selected from different mix proportions
(keeping slump value 150-175 mm). Super plasticizer
was also used to enhance workability and avoid
segregation and bleeding respectively. Table 2 gives the
mix proportion of the ECC mixture M40 mixed with
different materials.
Table 2: Mix proportions of M40 ECC
Component Fraction (by Volume)

Cement (C) 0.241 m3
Fly ash (FA) 0.176 m3 Figure 1: (a) Typical Compression Test Sample
Silica fume (SF) 0.091 m3 (70.7mm x 70.7mm x 70.7mm), (b) Typical Flexure
Test Sample (500mm x 100mm x 30mm), (c) Typical
Water (W) 0.402 m3
Direct Tension Test Sample (with thickness 13 mm),
Polypropylene fibre (PP) 0.020 m3 and (d) Typical Splitting Tension Test Sample (100 mm
Sand (S) 0.053 m3 diameter x 200 mm height )
Super plasticizer (SP) 0.006 m3
Air (assumed) 0.010 m3 2.2.1 Compressive and flexural strength tests
After 3, 7 and 28 days of curing, the three cube
To carry out standardised mechanical tests, samples specimens were used for testing. Average value of these
have been casted with following dimensions: three specimens was taken into account. The test was
conducted under deformation control at the speed of
For Compressive Strength Test: cube (70.7 mm x 0.01 mm/s.
70.7 mm x 70.7mm) Again, after 7 and 28 days of curing, three
For Flexural Strength Test: rectangular slab (500 rectangular slabs such as 500 mm x 100 mm x 30 mm
mm x 100 mm x 30 mm) were used for flexural strength or four-point bending
790
Sutapa Deb, et al.
testing. The support span of the four-point bending set- The experimental procedure is described in details
up was 450 mm, and the load span was 150 mm as hereafter. The dog-bone specimens were prepared to
shown in Figure 2. obtain a flat surface with larger bond strength with the
aluminum plates. Before placing the specimen in the
test set-up, two pairs of mild steel plates along with one
pair of aluminium plates were connected to the bottom
and the top parts of loading device, respectively. The
lower end of the specimen was first clamped with the
flattened aluminium plates and with the mild steel plates
by tightening four bolts on each side of the specimen.
Then the upper end of the specimen was clamped with
the other pair of mild steel plates and aluminium plates.
The testing gauge length was 150 mm. The tests were
conducted under deformation control with a loading
speed of 0.01 mm/minute. More than three specimens
were tested for this mixture. How to alleviate
eccentricity is of most concern in uniaxial tensile
testing. The eccentricity can lead to a bending moment
in the cross-section of the testing specimen and
Figure 2: Four-point bending set-up
therefore an uneven stress distribution. The larger the
2.2.2 Splitting and Uniaxial direct tensile strength test eccentricity is, the larger the bending moment is. With
large bending moment imposed on the specimen,
Small cylinder specimens with dimension 100 mm cracking starts on the side of the specimen with high
diameter and 200 mm height were used for splitting tensile stress, even when the average stress in this cross-
tensile test. After 7 and 28 days curing, the specimens section is lower than the tensile strength. The crack can
were tested. Four specimens were tested for each day of quickly propagate into the specimen, due to the stress
testing and taken the average value. localization at the crack front and the loss of cross
sectional area. As a result, the measured tensile strength
On the other side, uniaxial direct tensile test set-up and strain capacity appears far from true uniaxial tensile
was developed for ultra ductile fibre reinforced properties.
concrete, such as ECC, as shown in Figure 3. In this
case, after 7 and 28 days curing, the dog-bone 2.2.3 Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) observation
specimens were tested. The specimen is clamped by
eight mild steel plates, two pairs at each end. Each pair The SEM study was conducted to investigate the
of mild steel plates is tightened with eight bolts. The microstructural properties of ECC. After the four-point
tensile force is transferred to the specimen by the bending test, the specimens were dried. The specimens
friction force between the mild steel plates and the are cut into 1 cm x 1 cm surface area along with 1 cm
specimen. Four aluminum plates, 1 mm thick each, are thickness. The dried specimens were placed in a
glued on both sides of the ends of specimen in order to vacuum chamber. The polishing was done with a low-
improve the friction force, to ensure the clamped area relief polishing cloth. After that gold plating of the
work together and to prevent the local damage on the specimens were done. Each gold-plating and polishing
specimen caused by high clamping force. step took 2 min. The images were taken on the prepared
section using a secondary electron (SE) detector with
vapour mode. The acceleration voltage of 10 kV was
used in order to obtain a high contrast image.
In mix design, ordinary portland cement, fly ash

and silica fume are considered as cementitious
materials, and ultra- fine sand (< 150 micron) is
considered as inert filler material. Table 2 gives the mix
proportion of the ECC mixtures mixed with different
ingredients. The above mentioned mix proportions are
selected through different trials and its mix proportion
comes from that of M40 with replacing cement by silica
sand and fly ash and aggregates by polypropylene fibres
and very fine sand respectively. The test results are
shown in Table 3.
Figure 3: Uniaxial direct tensile test set-up
791
3.1 Flexural and uniaxial direct tensile test surface morphology of the sample can be shown in
performance Figure 7.
Under four-point bending load, the specimens
exhibit multiple-cracking behaviour as shown in Figure
5. In the tensile stressstrain curves as shown in Figure
6, the stress at the first drop associated with the first
cracking is defined as the first cracking strength.
Similarly, the maximum stress is defined as the ultimate
tensile strength, and the corresponding strain is defined
as the tensile strain capacity. In this case, tensile
ductility as well as tensile durability is properly
noticeable. The multiple cracking behaviour of ECC
results from the interaction among fibre, matrix and
interface. Different failure pattern of specimens is
shown in Figure 4.One of the criteria for the multiple
cracking behaviour is that the matrix tensile strength
must be lower than the fibre bridging strength across the
crack plane [4].
Consequently, after the matrix cracks, the fibres can
carry the increasing tensile load, which generates new
cracks. When the tensile load exceeds the minimum
fibre bridging strength in ECC, the fibres in this crack Figure 4: Failure pattern of different specimens under
plane are pulled out of the matrix or rupture, and ECC different loading conditions
fails. Obviously, a larger margin between the ultimate
tensile strength and the first cracking strength gives the
matrix more chances to crack and results in a higher
tensile strain capacity.
Table 3: Different test results of M40 ECC
Average test results of different

days, MPa
Type of tests
After 3 After 7 After 28
days days days
Compressive
28.85 38.39 51.80
Strength test
Flexural
- 5.00 6.08
Strength test
Splitting
- 2.80 3.14
tensile test Figure 5: Flexural load-displacement curves for
Uniaxial specimens
direct tensile - 1.90 2.44
test
3.2 Compressive strength and splitting tensile test

performance
The compressive strength of the ECCs at 3, 7 and
28 days is summarized in Table 3 and also for splitting
tensile strength, 7 and 28 days strength was considered.
Failure pattern of different samples are shown in Figure
4. These test results can fulfil engineering requirements
in most projects.
3.3 Microstructure of ECC Samples

The compatibility between the fibre and cement
based matrix leading to a homogeneous distribution of
the reinforcing fibres remains one of the most
Figure 6: Uniaxial direct tensile Stress-strain curves for
dominating factors that influences the mechanical
different specimens
properties of these composites. With the help of SEM,
792
Sutapa Deb, et al.
[3] Li V.C., and Wu H.C., Conditions for pseudo

strain-hardening in fiber reinforced brittle matrix
(a (b composites, Applied Mechanics Reviews, Vol.
) ) 45(8), pp. 390-398, 1992.
[4] Li V. C. (2003), On Engineering Cementitious

Composites (ECC), Journal of Advanced Concrete
Technology, Vol. 1(3), pp. 215229, 2003.
[5] Li, V.C., Engineered Cementitious Composites

(ECC)material, structural, and durability
performance, Concrete construction engineering
Figure 7: The fibre distribution in the ECC samples handbook, pp.1-78, 2008.
In these two micrographs, the reinforcing fibres are

homogeneously dispersed in the cement matrix. [6] Li, V. C., Wang, S., and Wu, C., Tensile strain-
hardening behaviour of PVA-ECC, ACI Materials
Journal, Vol. 98(6), pp. 483-492, 2001.
5 Conclusions
The mix proportion was designed experimentally [7] Kanda, T., and Li, V. C., A new micromechanics
by adjusting the amount of cement, fly ash, silica fume, design theory for pseudo strain hardening
and fraction of fibres accompanied by four-point Cementitious Composite, Journal of Engineering
bending test and uniaxial direct tensile test. Concrete Mechanics, Vol. 125(4), pp. 373-381, 1999.
inspite of being worldwide used material has some
limitations which are addressed by ECC. In this
manuscript, M40 ECC was designed with different
types of cementitious ingredients and the required [8] Li, V. C., and Leung, C. K. Y., Steady-state and
strength criteria were fulfilled by compressive strength multiple cracking of short random fiber composites,
results. Furthermore, it was already shown that ECC Journal of Engineering Mechanics, Vol. 118(11),
gives tensile ductility and durability which will give the pp. 2246-2264, 1992.
additional benefit over concrete.
[9] Chethan, V.R., Ramegowda, M., and Manohara,
Acknowledgments
H.E., Engineered Cementitious Composites- a
The authors would like to thank the Future of review, International Research Journal of
Cities project (Project code: ECI) under MHRD for Engineering and Technology, Vol.2(5), pp. 144-
funding this research. The authors acknowledge support 149, 2015.
of the Structural & material testing laboratory from
Civil Engineering Department as well as Material [10] Srinivasa, C. H., and Venkatesh, A literature
Science Centre, IIT Kharagpur for conducting different review on Engineered Cementitious Composites for
tests. The authors also want to give thanks to Elkem structural applications, International Research
south Asia Pvt. Ltd., BASF Chemicals Company, Tashi Journal of Engineering and Technology, Vol.3(12),
India Ltd. for supplying various materials. pp. 531-537, 2014
5 References
[11] Gohil, B.D., and Parikh, K.B., Study on Engineered
[1] Naik, T. R., Sustainability of concrete Cementitious Composites with different fibres: a
construction. Practice Periodical on Structural critical review, International journal of Innovations
Design and Construction, Vol. 13(2), pp. 98-103, in Engineering and Technology, Vol. 6(3), pp.366-
2008. 370, 2016.
[2] Li, V. C., Lepech, M., Wang, S., Weimann, M., and
Keoleian, G., Development of green engineered
cementitious composites for sustainable
infrastructure systems, In Proceedings of the
International Workshop on Sustainable
Development and Concrete Technology, Beijing,
China, pp. 181-191, 2004.
793
RECYCLING OF PLAIN CEMENT CONCRETE WASTE

P.P.Vadnere1, I.A.Shah2
1, 2
Civil and Environmental Engineering Department, Veermata Jijabai Technological Institute,
Mumbai, 400019, India
Due to increase in the redevelopment projects, the demolition of old structures has increased
substantially. These demolition activities have increased the quantity of construction and demolition
waste (C&D Waste) generated. Concrete, which forms the integral building material is crushed and then
buried in the landfills, thus causing a detrimental effect on our environment. This experiment is an
attempt to provide an efficient use of such scrapped concrete. The study conducted presents a comparison
of the properties of natural aggregates and the aggregates procured from construction and demolition
waste (henceforth referred as C&D Aggregate). Moreover, it also presents a comparison between the
strengths of concrete cubes casted from natural aggregates and C&D aggregates in proportions of 0%,
50% and 100% replacement of natural aggregates by C&D aggregates for M25, M30 and M40 grades.
Keywords:Recycled Concrete Aggregates (RCA), Compressive Strength, Aggregate Properties,

Aggregate Replacement Ratio
1 Introduction rightful approach towards recycling and reusing such

Construction and demolition waste (C&D waste) is waste will help us sketch a sustainable future. From the
one of the heaviest and most voluminous waste above discussion we can understand the potential
generating streams in India. C&D waste arises from benefits involved in recycling C&D waste. This project
activities such as the construction of buildings and civil is an attempt to recover aggregates from used concrete
infrastructure, total or partial demolition of buildings blocks and re-use them to cast new blocks, with an aim
and civil infrastructure, road planning and maintenance. to achieve desired compressive strength.
C&D waste from individual project sites finds its way
into nearby municipal bins and waste storage depots 2 Methodology
making the municipal waste heavy, and degrading its In order to study the effect of C&D aggregates on
quality for further treatment. Out of 48 million tonnes of the compressive strength of concrete, concrete cubes
solid waste generated in India annually, C&D waste with the proportions of 0%, 50% & 100% replacement
contributes to about 25%. of Natural aggregates by C&D aggregates were casted.
Despite its potential, the level of recycling and It is evident that C&D waste does not have any physical
material recovery from C&D waste varies greatly form and is available with different attributes based on
(between less than 10% and over 90%) across world and the source of collection and the method of extraction.
is practically nil in India. On the other hand, the Hence, it becomes mandatory to test the properties of
construction industry in India is booming. As per the C&D Aggregates to establish its utility for preparing
recent reports published by the Government of India the concrete mix.
construction industry, which is contributing to about A detailed plan of the study carried was as follows:
10% of GDP, is growing at an annual rate of 5% over Procurement of C&D waste :
the last ten years as against the world average of 3.4% The C&D waste required for the study was
per annum. This immense upsurge will also have certain procured from the experimental waste of the Structural
fallouts. Buildings are at core of majority of our Engineering Department at Veermata Jijabai
infrastructure demands but at the same time they also Technological Institute. The waste was composed of
contribute significantly to the C&D waste generated. concrete cubes having varying strengths and age.
In fact, controversy in India over sand mining has Segregation of the Aggregates :
put the spotlight on the need to recycle, reuse and The concrete cubes were crushed under the impact of
substitute naturally occurring building materials like the mechanical crusher. The mechanical crusher was
sand and aggregates. Recycling C&D waste is one of used to break the cubes to replicate the probable on-site
the most important aspects involved in creating conditions where the aggregates are expected to be
Sustainable Infrastructure. Reducing and recycling segregated quickly. After crushing, the aggregates were
C&D waste conserves landfill space, reduces the separated from the cement mortar manually.
environmental impact caused due to manufacturing new Determination of Properties of Aggregate :
materials, and can reduce overall building project
expenses through avoided purchase/disposal costs. Our
1
Graduate Student, prasadvadnere.in@gmail.com
2
Graduate Student, isha.94in@gmail.com
794
P.P. Vadnere and I.A.Shah
After the segregation of aggregates, the physical

properties of aggregates viz. Fineness Modulus, Specific
Gravity, Water Absorption, Aggregate Impact Value,
Aggregate Crushing value and Los Angeles Abrasion
Value were determined (explained in Section 3).
Mix Design :
Having determined the properties of the aggregates
the mix design was prepared for M25, M30 and M40
with 0%, 50% and 100% replacement of natural
aggregates with the recycled aggregates each.
Cube Testing :
Three cubes were casted for each 7th and 28th day
testing for each proportion for 3 different mixes.
Tabulating Results :
After testing the cubes on 7th and 28th day, the
observations were reported and the influence of C&D
aggregates on the concrete strength was evaluated.
Finally, the feasibility of C&D aggregates was studied
and applications were suggested depending on the
properties of C&D aggregates and the compressive
strength of cubes.
Figure 1: Sieve analysis of recycled C&D aggregates
3 Properties of Aggregates performed at Structural Engineering Department,
The aggregates procured from the C&D waste will V.J.T.I
be evaluated for its feasibility in the construction
industry. In order to check the suitability of the C&D
aggregates as a material in the construction, certain tests
were carried out and their results were compared with
the natural aggregates. The following excerpt gives a
detailed assay of the tests.
3.1 Gradation of Aggregates

The gradation of aggregates or the particles size
distribution was obtained by performing Sieve Analysis
Test, as shown in Figure 1, which was performed in
accordance with IS : 2386 (Part 1) 1963 .
The gradation is an indicator of the range and
distribution of aggregate sizes in a given sample. It is an
indicator of the void spaces in the aggregates, which in
turn governs the quality of the concrete prepared.
The gradation curve, as shown in Figure 2, implies
that the C&D aggregates are well graded. As the
aggregates are well graded, it signifies that the intensity
of the compaction will be good, thus resulting in a better
mix formation.
Figure 2: Sieve analysis gradation of coarse recycled

C&D aggregates with trial 1 and trial 2
795
3.2 Fineness Modulus Table 3: For Natural Aggregates

Fineness modulus is generally used to get an idea of
how coarse or fine the aggregate is. More fineness Specific Water
modulus value indicates that the aggregate is coarser Aggregate Type
Gravity Absorption
and small value of fineness modulus indicates that the Fine aggregates 2.118 6.87%
aggregate is finer. Coarse (M1) 2.805 6.97%
The Sieve Analysis of fine aggregates required to Coarse (M2) 2.67 4.40%
calculate the Fineness Modulus was performed in
accordance to IS: 2386 (Part 1) 1963. The values 3.4 Aggregate Impact Value
obtained of fineness modulus of C&D aggregates are Aggregate impact value gives the relative strength
given in Table 1. of aggregates against impact loading. The test was
As stated in Ref[1], the use of C&D fines (fines performed in accordance with IS: 2386 (Part IV)
generated due to crushing of C&D waste) has a negative 1963.
impact on the workability and water demand of concrete The aggregate impact values of C&D aggregates
mixes, so the fines from C&D waste are not used in the and Natural aggregates are given in Table 4. From the
study. values, it can be observed that the results are within the
Also, the sand (fines) having a Fineness Modulus permissible limits of 10% to 35% and so, it can be
more than 3.2 is not suitable for making satisfactory concluded that the aggregates are suitable for structural
concrete; we have not used fines from C&D waste. applications.
Since C&D aggregates have a coating of hardened
Table 1: Fineness Modulus of C&D Aggregates cement slurry, the fines generated by C&D aggregates
will be high in amount due to the cement coating getting
Fineness Modulus Average powered each time. Hence, we observe higher value of
Trial 1 4.57 Aggregate Impact value as this test is evaluated on the
4.715
Trial 2 4.86 basis of fines generated.
3.3 Specific Gravity and Water Absorption Table 4: Aggregate Impact Values
In Portland Cement Concrete the specific gravity of
the aggregate is used in calculating the percentage of Aggregate Type Aggregate Impact Value %
voids and the solid volume of aggregates. The C&D aggregates 16.99%
absorption is important in determining the net water- Natural aggregates 13.44%
cement ratio in the concrete mix.
The Specific Gravity and Water Absorption Tests
are carried out in the study are in accordance with IS: 3.5 Aggregate Crushing Value
2386 (Part 3) 1963. The observations of the Specific The aggregate crushing value provides the relative
Gravity test and Water Absorption test are tabulated in measure of resistance to crushing under gradually
Table 2 and Table 3 for C&D aggregates and Natural applied compressive load. Low crushing values indicate
aggregates respectively. stronger aggregates.
The average specific gravity of the natural The following test was carried out in accordance
aggregates procured from the quarry ranges between 2.6 with IS: 2386 (Part IV) - 1963. The aggregate crushing
to 2.8. However, here it is found that the specific gravity values of C&D aggregates and natural aggregates are
of the C&D aggregates is less than natural aggregates. given in Table 5.
The reason for the variation can be attributed to the From the values we observe that the crushing
deterioration of the material due to environmental values of C&D aggregates are higher as compared to
effects, causing a detrimental effect on the specific natural aggregates, because the fines generated by C&D
gravity as well as water absorption. aggregates are high in amount due to the cement coating
As mentioned in Ref[2], the water absorption of getting powered each time. As this test is evaluated on
C&D coarse aggregates lies between 3-10%. The results the basis of fines generated, the Aggregate Crushing
of the water absorption of C&D aggregates are well Value of C&D Aggregates is more than Natural
within the specified limit. Aggregate.
Table 2: For C&D Aggregates

Table 5: Aggregate Crushing Values
Specific
Aggregates Water Absorption Aggregate Crushing Value
Gravity Aggregate Type
(%)
Fine aggregates 2.08 15.37%
C&D aggregates 27.99%
Coarse (M1) 2.06 6.06%
Natural aggregates 19.53%
Coarse (M2) 2.23 4.40%
796
3.6. Los Angeles Abrasion Value

The Los Angeles test is a measure of degradation of
mineral aggregates of standard grading resulting from a
combination of actions including abrasion or attrition,
impact, and grinding in a rotating steel drum containing
a specified number of steel spheres. The Los Angeles
(L.A.) abrasion test is a common test method used to
indicate aggregate toughness and abrasion
characteristics.
The Los Angeles Abrasion Test is performed in
accordance with IS: 2386 (Part IV) 1963. The
aggregate crushing values of C&D aggregates and
natural aggregates are given in Table 6.
From the values in Table 6, it can be observed that
C&D aggregates have higher abrasion value compared
to natural aggregates, as the fines generated by C&D
aggregates will be high in amount due to the cement Figure 3: Casting of cube specimens at Structural
coating getting powered each time. Similar results were Engineering Department, V.J.T.I
observed in Ref [3], where it was concluded that
presence of crushed fines results in the declining Table 8: Mix design quantities for 50% replacement of
performance of C&D aggregates in terms of abrasion Natural aggregates (All quantities are in kg/cu.m)
resistance.
M25 M30 M40
Table 6: Los Angeles Abrasion Values Cement 445
396 494
Water 297 297 247
Los Angeles Abrasion Value
Aggregate Type Fine Aggregate 593 544 346
(%)
C&D aggregates 49.38% M1 Natural Aggregate 247 223 247
Natural aggregates 34.4% M2 Natural Aggregate 346 346 371
M1 C&D Aggregate 247 223 247
4 Concrete Mix Design M2 C&D Aggregate 346 346 371
Mix Design requires the pre-requisite knowledge of
the properties of materials which can then be accounted Table 9: Mix design quantities for 100% replacement of
in the design to obtain the proportions of the mix. The Natural aggregates (All quantities are in kg/cu.m)
Mix Design Procedure followed in the study conforms
to IS: 10262-1982 and IS: 10262- 2009. M25 M30 M40
The mix design was prepared for M25, M30 and
M40 with 0%, 50% and 100% replacement of natural Cement 445 494 544
aggregates with the recycled aggregates each. Since, no Water 297 297 297
codal provisions are present for the concrete mix design Fine Aggregate 642 593 346
of C&D aggregates; the mix design was prepared by M1 C&D Aggregate 692 642 692
taking into account weighted averages of specific M2 C&D Aggregate 494 445 494
gravity and water absorption values of C&D aggregates
and natural aggregates. The quantities of the water presented in the tables above
Tables 7, 8 and 9 below, represent the quantities of are high because, while designing the mix the water
materials in kilograms used for preparation of mix absorption of fine and coarse aggregates have been
design for 0%, 50% and 100% replacement. taken into consideration which has caused the increase
in water cement ratio.
Table 7: Mix design quantities for 0% replacement of The free water to cement ratio taken into consideration
Natural aggregates (All quantities are in kg/cu.m) for mix design conforms to the free water to cement
M25 M30 M40 ratio according to IS: 10262-1982 (from durability point
Cement of view) and IS: 456-2000 (from strength point of
396 445 494
view), the ratio is 0.53 and 0.6 respectively for M25,
Water 297 297 297 0.45 and 0.6 respectively for M30 and 0.38 and 0.6
Fine Aggregate 593 544 346 respectively for M40 grade of concrete.
M1 Natural Aggregate 791 741 791
M2 Natural Aggregate 544 544 544
797
Table 12: Results of compressive strength for M30

5 Compressive Test Results Concrete on 7th day
The Compression Test was performed in
compliance with IS: 516 1959, as shown in Figure 4. Average Reduction in
The compression test was carried out on cubical % Replacement of
C.S. C.S.
specimens with size of 151515 cm. This concrete was N.A
(N/mm2) (%)
then poured in the mould and tempered properly so as
not to have any voids. After 24 hours, these moulds 0% 22.18 -
were removed and test specimens were put in water for
curing. These specimens were tested by compression 50% 21.43 3.38
testing machine after 7 days curing and 28 days curing.
Load was applied gradually at the rate of 140 kg/cm2 100% 19.07 14.02
per minute till the Specimens fails. Load at the failure
divided by area of specimen gives the compressive
strength of concrete.
Minimum three specimens should be tested at each
selected age. The extent to which the properties of Table 13: Results of compressive strength for M30
concrete are affected by the use of C&D aggregates Concrete on 28th day
depends on water absorption and aggregate crushing
value of C&D aggregate. As the replacement ratio of
C&D aggregates to Natural Aggregates increased, the Average Reduction in
% Replacement of
strength of concrete cubes decreased. C.S. C.S.
N.A
The results of the compression test carried out are (N/mm2) (%)
tabulated in Table 10, 11, 12, 13, 14 and 15.
As concluded in Ref[4], the compressive strength of 0% 30.42 -
the C&D aggregates decreased by 4-14% as compared
50% 29.04 4.5
to the natural aggregates. This proves that results of our
experiment are in compliance with the results in Ref[4]. 100% 28.91 4.96
Concrete on 7th day
Average Reduction in Table 14: Results of compressive strength for M40

% Replacement of
C.S. C.S. concrete on 7th day
N.A
(N/mm2) (%)
0% 17.15 - Average Reduction in
% Replacement of
C.S. C.S.
N.A
50% 16.85 1.75 (N/mm2) (%)
0% 27.33 -
100% 16.33 4.75
50% 26.54 2.89
100% 25.5 6.36

Table 11: Results of compressive strength for M25 concrete on 28th day
Concrete on 28th day
Average Reduction in
Average Reduction in % Replacement of
% Replacement of C.S. C.S.
C.S. C.S. N.A
N.A (N/mm2) (%)
(N/mm2) (%)
0% 40.47 -
0% 25.96 -
50% 38.03 6.029
50% 24.41 5.97
100% 37.18 8.129
100% 24.00 7.59
798
the properties of the C&D aggregates. This decrease in

the compressive strength can be fairly compensated by
either providing heavy sections or by using admixtures
to increase the strength of the concrete.
Acknowledgements
This research project was carried out by the final
year students of Veermata Jijabai Technological
Institute (V.J.T.I) in partial fulfillment of the
requirements of the degree of Bachelor of Technology
in Civil Engineering under the guidance of Dr. Prashant
P Bhave, Associate Professor and then Head of
Figure 4: Compressive strength test of concrete cube
Department, Civil and Environmental Engineering
prepared from recycled C&D aggregates at Structural
Department, Veermata Jijabai Technological Institute
Engineering Department, V.J.T.I
(V.J.T.I).
6 Feasibility/Applications First of all, we would like to praise the almighty,
for providing us with the opportunity and granting the
The following recommendations for the feasibility capability to proceed successfully with this project. We
of the C&D aggregate concrete can be made based on would like to take this opportunity to express our
experiment carried out: profound gratitude and deep regards to our mentor and
1. Higher grade of concrete, made from C&D guide Dr. Prashant P Bhave, for his valuable guidance,
aggregates, can be used for the applications feedback and constant encouragement throughout the
demanding lower grade of concrete, made from duration of the project. His perspective criticism kept us
natural aggregates. working to make this project in a much better way. We
For example, consider a non-structural would also like to thank then Associate Prof. J.S Main,
application like partition wall. If the grade of Civil and Environmental Engineering Department and
concrete suggested by the designer under ideal Dr. Sandeep S Pendhari, Associate Professor, Structural
conditions is M25, then we can conveniently Engineering Department, Veermata Jijabai
use M30 grade of concrete made from C&D Technological Institute (V.J.T.I), Mumbai, who
aggregates. This will be economical and also provided insight and expertise that greatly assisted us
the provision of higher grade C&D concrete during this experiment.
will account for reduction in the strength of
C&D concrete cubes. References
2. Admixtures can be used in order to increase the
strength of the concrete, prepared from waste. [1] Lim,S., Destner.,D., Zollinger,D., and Fowler,D.
Characterization of Crushed Concrete Materials for
7 Conclusion Paving and Non-Paving Applications Texas
Transportation Institute and Centre for Transportation,
The reduction observed in the specific gravity Austin, TX,2001.
signifies that the recycled aggregates are lighter as [2] Juan, M.S., Gutirrez, P.A. Study on the influence
compared to the natural aggregates. It was found that of attached mortar content on properties of recycled
the water absorption and fineness modulus of C&D fine concrete aggregate, Construction and Building
aggregates is significantly higher as compared to natural Materials, Vol.23 (02), pp.872-877,2009.
aggregates. So, it is recommended that the use of C&D [3] Evangelista, L., de Brito, J., Mechanical behavior
fines should be avoided. The increase in Aggregate of concrete made with fine recycled concrete
Impact Value, Aggregate Crushing Value and Los aggregates, Cement and Concrete Composites, Vol.29
Angeles Abrasion Value for C&D aggregates can be (05), pp.397-401, 2007.
attributed to the presence of cementitious layer around [4] Frondistou-Yanna,S., Waste concrete as aggregate
the C&D aggregates which gets powdered during for new concrete, ACI materials, Vol.74(08), pp.373
crushing thereby increasing the weight of fines. 376,1977.
From the values of the compressive strength at the [5] Topu, I. B., Sengel, S. Properties of concretes
age of 28 days and from Ref[5], it can be concluded that produced with waste concrete aggregate. Cement and
the Compressive Strength for a particular grade of Concrete Research, Vol.34(8), 1307-1312,2004.
concrete decreased at a rate proportional to addition of
C&D aggregates. Hence, we can deduce that the mix
prepared from the C&D aggregates can be suitably used
till 50% replacement of aggregates up to M30 grade as
we see a sharp decrease in the compressive strength as
we try to achieve higher strength. The decrease in the
compressive strength can be attributed to the change in
799
HIGH TEMPERATURE STUDIES ON THE EFFECT OF ADDITION OF

ZIRCONIA IN ALKALI ACTIVATED FLY ASH (GEOPOLYMER) AND
FLY ASH BLENDED ORDINARY PORTLAND CEMENT MORTAR
Sivasakthi M1 Jeyalakshmi R2* Rajamane N P3 Revathi T4 Dhinesh M5

1, 2*,4
Department of Chemistry,SRM University,Kattankulathur, Chennai-603203, India.
3,5
CACR, SRMUniversity,Kattankulathur, Chennai-603203, India.
This study aimed to investigate the effect of heat treatment on two groups of binders, fly ash based geopolymer
mortar (GP) and fly ash admixed Portland cement (BM). Portland cement (CM) mortars has been partially
replaced (20%) by fly ash (FA) prepared and subjected to thermal treatment 200-800oC for 2 hrs after 28days of
water curing. Geopolymerization of fly ash using high alkaline binary activator solution containing sodium
hydroxide and sodium silicate solution (10M), cured at 80 oC for 24 h. 7 days aged specimen heated at elevated
temperature (200oC, 400oC, 600oC and 800oC) for the sustained period of 2h.TGA/DTA analysis and thermal
conductivity measurement as per ASTM C113 were carried out to investigate the changes occurring at the
elevated temperature.
The thermal stability of the alkali activated fly ash mortar at elevated temperature was found to be more that
was reflected in the observed 140% retention of compressive strength (f800oC/f30oC) and it is for about 180% with
the addition of Zirconia at 800oC. It was also confirmed by TGA-DTA and Thermal conductivity studies. The
microstructures of the matrix of these specimens were found to be intact even at elevated temperature that was
evident from the FESEM studies.
Keywords: Alkali activated fly ash, blended cement, refractory chemicals, thermal conductivity, TGA/DTA.
1. INTRODUCTION workers [10-15] and geopolymeric paste was showed that

Geopolymers are systems of inorganic binders high shrinkage as well as large changes in compressive
proposed by Prof Davidovits in 1970s [1] have emerged strength at elevated temperature in the range 800-1200C.
as an alternative to Ordinary Portland cement which seems To improve thermal resistance, alternate geopolymeric
to have superior durability and environmental source materials such as mine tailings, waste ceramics
performance. In a last couple of decades, considerable have tried and satisfied thermostablegeopolymeric paste
interests have been generated in this new binder. was obtained. [16-17].
Geopolymer technology for field applications in light of In the present study, comparision has been made
todays burning issues, i.e. sustainability and reduction of between the fly ash blended cement and fly ash based
greenhouse gas emissions from cement-based industries geopolymer and cement.The morphology was
which is contributing about 7% of total CO2 emission. characterised by the SEM studies. Thermal properties,
These inorganic alumino-silicate polymers can be TGA/DTG and thermal conductivity studies have been
synthesized from alkali activation of any material rich in conducted and the results were discussed.
silica and alumina. Till now investigation has been
performed by using the precursor material like metakaolin 2. Materials and Methods
of geological origin or industrial by-products such as fly
ash, blast furnace slag, red mud and rice husk ash and are 2.1 Materials
activated using hydroxides of Na or K or in combination In this study FA sample from Thermal Power
with silicates of Na or K. The choice of the source Plant (TPP) was used. An industrial grade sodium silicate
materials depends on availability, cost and type of solution (15% Na2O, 33% SiO2 and 52% H2O: molar ratio
applications . Extensive studies reported on geopolymer (SiO2/ Na2O -2.2), lye (50% NaOH) as well deionized
using metakaolin, fly ash and GGBS independently as water were employed in this investigation to prepare
sole precursors and tried to elucidate the kinetics, activating solution. The Sodium Silicate Solution having
mechanisms and microstructure[2-7]. Geopolymers Molar Ratio, defined by the term, SiO2/Na2O of 2.0: 1 was
possess polymeric silicon-oxygen-aluminium three used; computation of the ratio of SiO2/Na2O was done by
dimensional materials containing variety of amorphous to considering the weights of SiO2 and Na2O in a solution
semi-crystalline phases, exhibit higher mechanical expressed in terms of moles.Mixture of sodium silicate
strength, much more excellent chemical, fire and heat and sodium hydroxide is used to prepare AAS and was
resistances, compared to that of ordinary Portland kept for 24 hrs in order to bring down the temperature to
cement[8-9]. Heat resistant properties of metakaolin based room temperature.Zirconium di oxide (ZrO2,AR grade)
geopolymers were investigated and its thermal stability used as an additive to enhance the thermal properties of
upto1200-1400Cwas reported. Heat resistant properties the matrices and mix id Natural sand obtained from the
of alkali activated fly ash were investigated by several river bed is used as fine aggregate and was conforming to
800
Sivasakthi M, et al.
Grading Zone II of IS 383: 1970. The specific gravity and Table 1: Properties and chemical composition of Fly Ash
fineness modulus of sand were 2.58 and 3.01 respectively. (EDXRF analysis)
Commercially available cement was used to prepare
cement mortar. Component
Property Value Chemical
2.2 Experimental procedures. (wt. %)
All the materials required were first weighed accurately. Specific Gravity 2.15 CaO 2.09
Sand and binder material were first dry mixed for about 3
minutes in a digital mortar mixer till a uniform mix is 330
Fineness (Blaine) SiO2 47.55
achieved. Then, the AAS/Water of required quantity was m2/kg
poured into it and the mixing continued for further 7 1005
Bulk density Al2O3 33.45
minutes until a uniform fresh mortar mix is achieved. The kg/m3
fresh mix was then placed in to plastic cylindrical moulds Residue on 45
35 % Na2O 0.4
of size 50mm diameter x 100mm height in three equal micron sieve
layers and compacted using a laboratory vibrator. After Cementing
24hrs of casting, the cylindrical moulds, containing Efficiency Factor, 0.93 K 2O 1.65
geopolymer matrix, were kept for heat curing at 80oC for a at 28 days
period of 24hrs in a hot air oven. After the heat curing, the Loss on Ignition 1.4% MgO 0.8
specimens were taken out of the oven and allowed to cool
Fe2O3 10.17
to room temperature before demoulding operations were
carried out. Specimens were heat treated in a high
temperature furnace (capacity up to 1400oC, rate of Table 2: Details of Mix ID and composition of activating
heating 5oC/min) and sustained for 2 hrs at 200oC, 400oC, solution.
600oC and 800oC. After the required high temperature is
attained, the furnace was maintained for 2 hr and then, it is
switched off and the specimens were allowed to cool to
GPM- I Mix AAS Content (wt FA Ce ZrO L/S
room temperature. The compressive strength values of the
ID %) (%) men 2 ratio
prepared geopolymer mortar were measured using a CTM
Na2 SiO2 H2 t (%)
with the force applied at a rate of 2 KN/s. Compressive
O O (%)
strength gains or losses of the calcined specimens were
GP 26 21 53 100 - - 0.55
then measured. The results reported were the average of 5
replicates.
Thermal Analysis (STA) [NETSCH 2500 GPZ 26 21 53 100 - 2 0.55
Regulus] was used to study the thermal stability in the
temperature range 30-1200C in floating air/Nitrogen (60 CM - - 100 - 100 - 0.45
ml/min) with the heating rate of 10C/min. Thermal BM - - 100 20 80 - 0.45
conductivity of Mortar was examined by hot wire method BMZ - - 100 20 80 2 0.45
according to the ASTM standard code C1113M-09
(Thermal conductivity apparatus - VBCC /TCF/1400C-
04) using the specimen size (22 cm X 11cm x 7 cm). The
The compressive strength of the mortar prepared at
required temperature reached by the heating rate of 10C
room temperature and at elevated temperature has been
per minute and the uniform temperature throughout the
measured. Strength development at different curing ages
sample was maintained by holding the sample for 4 hrs at
has been followed and strength at 7 days (fR) has been
the same temperature.Microstructurecharacterizationby
taken for GP Mortar as a reference for calculating the
Scanning Electron Microscopy (Qunata) under vacuum
strength retention (fT/fR) at different temperature exposure
mode using polished samples.
whereas 28 days for cement based mortar.
The relative increase or decrease in the compressive
3. Results And Discussion strength of each specimen as compared to its original
strength before heating for the mortars as shown in Figure
3.1 Composition of Fly ash
1. The strength gain occurred with and without addition
Chemical composition of FA sample having sum of oxides of zirconia.
SiO2, Al2O3 and Fe2O3 exceeded 80% and low content of The reported literature on fly ash base
CaO (less than 5%) is in accordance with Class F defined geopolymer activated by hybrid activator in the similar
in ASTM C 618. The total chemical composition of Fly reaction conditions showed that geopolymer paste, mortar
ash, alkaline activator solution used in the sample and concrete strength level at ambient conditions are
preparation with geopolymer mortar ID are given in the approximately same but under thermal treatment, paste
Table1andTable 2 respectively. underwent 73% residual loss and mortar did not retain any
residual strength above 600C, even they split into two
halves. [15]. In our present study the strength of CM
decreases when increasing temperature. For BM and BMZ
it was found to be slight decreasing strength from 200 oCto
400oC then maintainsstrngth till 600oC.The strength of
geopolymer mortar specimens increased as temperature
801
increased, attaining a peak strength at 200 C. the potential for thermal resistant/insulating material for
Subsequently, this strength was observed to deteriorate refractory applications
slightly for the remainder of the heating regime but
maintaining the 80% strength gain to that of unheated
mortar; this may be due to stronger thermal compatibility 100 CM
and/or sintering effect by unreacted fly ash particle. In 95
GP
GPZ
general, the strength gain phenomenon after thermal Residual Mass 90 %
Mass Change (%)

90
treatment observed in small size specimens of cement or
85
geopolymer matrixes are no longer evident in the larger Residual Mass 88 %
size specimens. There is always greater difference in 80
thermal gradient between hotter exterior and cooler 75

Residual Mass 69.5%
interior of these larger specimens. Mostly thermal 70
gradients increase with increasing size, which 65

0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
consequently induces thermal cracking. Temperature (C)
200
Figure 2:.TGAthermogram of the geopolymer paste.
180
Strength Retention (fT/fR)
160
3.4Thermal Conductivity
140
CM Thermal conducivity value of GP at 80oC, and 800oC are
120 BM about 1.7 and 0.55W/m.K respectivelyand decreases with
BMZ
100
GP increasing tempeature. The thermal conductivity
80 GPZ measurements exposed to temperature less than 120 oC are
60 only the function of conductivity of gel and the pores, at
40 this temperature range most of the water evoporates, and
20 hence pores in these can be assumed to contain only air.
200 300 400 500 600 700 800
Exposed Temperature (C)
Figure 1:Compressive Strength retention of CM, BM, 1.8

BMZ, GP and GPZ before and after thermal treatment.
1.6
Thermal Conductivity(k) (W/m.K)
3.3Thermal analysis (TGA) CM

1.4
BM
BMZ
Figure 2 show the TGA analysis of cement paste and 1.2
GP
geoplymer paste of the powedered specimens. In this
1.0
TGA test, the mass loss was measured while the
specimens were gradually exposed to increasing 0.8
temperatures. Powdered specimens were used in TGA to
0.6
ensure the achievement of thermal equillibrium during
transient heating .TGA thermogram of GP and GPZ 0.4
showed that sharp decrease in weight before 250C which
is attributed to the loss of evapourable water content. After 0.2
the initial rapid down, the rate of weight loss stabilised
200 300 400 500 600 700 800
between 250C to 780C . After 780C , little change in
Temperature (C)
weight has occurred. After 1300C exposure of
geopolymer paste without addition of zirconia , the total
weight loss was 12% only and retained was around 88%
Figure 3:Thermal Conductivity of CM, BM,BMZ and GP
for both GP whereas with the addition of zirconia in GPZ,
residual mass was found to be 90%. TG curve of GPZ
was found to be smooth in nature. Similar TG analsis of Figure 3 is a representative curve of CM, BM, BMZ and
ordinary portland cement paste showed that retention of GPLiterature cited in the both fly ash and metakaolin
mass was around 70% and visible crack of mortar based geopolymers, was appreciable shrinkage below
specimen occurred around 400oC.TGA/DTA analysis 100oC due to release of water and as temperature rises,
between 300-700oCdehydroxylation of gels causes
showed that Alkali activated fly ash (GP) displayed the
retention of about 90% of the mass whereas it is about shrinkage and second shrinkage at above 800oC due to
70% residual mass in the case of OPC after exposure to structural densification. [18-19]. However, the studied
1200oC. The good strength and thermal stability of GP has geopolymers with and without addition of zirconium di
oxide, has not shown any damage and negligible
802
Sivasakthi M, et al.
dimension change to the surface which may be due the Figure 4:SEM Image of i) CM RT ii) CM after 800oC iii)
lower adsorbed water on the surface of the gel. BM RT iv) BM after 800oC v) BMZRT vi) BMZ after
800oC vii) GP RT and viii) GPZ after 800oC.
4.0 Conclusion:
In the current work geopolymer mortars prepared by using
3.5SEM Analysis 100 % Fly ash activated by the sodium silicate solution of
MR 1.1 ( SiO2/Na2O = 1.1) experienced strength gaining
The Scanning Electron Microscopy of selected at elevated temperature heating from 200-8000C without
geopolymers before and after exposure are shown in the any crack or shrinkage. Addition of 2% zirconium di
figure 4. SEM micrographs of hardened cement mortar at oxide improved the thermal stability further without
ambient temperatures reveal formation of well-developed undergoing any thermal reaction at elevated temperature.
hydrated phases such as Ca(OH)2 and C-S-H.SEM Higher thermal conductivity values of GP indicates the
micrograph of cement mortar exposed to 300oC shows the faster rate of heat dissipationwhich may protect the
formation of voids and deformation of Ca(OH) 2. Further skeleton of alumino-silicate gel. Whereas cement mortar
SEM investigation on mortar samples exposed to 800C losses its strength due to deformation of Ca(OH) 2 at
reveal massive changes in the morphology due to elevated temperature. BM and BMZ follows the same
formation of cracks and voids and increased porosity. The trend maintains its strength till 600oC and then decreases.
cystallinity increases due to the presence of CASH. 5.0Acknowledgement: Authors gratefully acknowledge
(calciumalumino silicate hydrate)indicate distinctreaction financial support from Department of Science and
product layers around the fly ash particle and the surface Technology (DST) under grand no
is more homogeneous with less porosity. DST/TSG/STS/2012/20.
At elevated temperature the rate of dissolution of the fly
ash particle are enhanced and the condensation of 6.0 Reference:
alumino-silicate gel are obvious from the micrograph. The
addition of zirconium di oxide after heating to 800 oC
shows compact and dense surface also the surface [1] Joseph Davidovits.,Geopolymer Chemistry and
roughness has been reduced driven by surface tension thus applications 3rdedition.,Geopolymer Institute.
resulting in good compressive strength.
[2] M.W. Palomo, M.T. Grutzek, M.T. Blanco. Alkali-
activated fly ashes: a cement for the future, Cement
Concrete Research. 29 (1999) p. 13231329.
[3] J L Provis, J S J van Deventer.,
Geopolymers: Structures, Processing, Properties and
Industrial Applications.2009.
[4]C. Shi, P.V. Krivenko, D.M. Roy, Alkali-Activated
Cements and Concrete, Taylor &Francis, London and
New York, 2006.
[5] P. Duxson, Fernandez-Jimenez A, JL.Provis,
GC.Lukey A, Paloma, JSJ Van Deventer , Geopolymer
technology; the current state of art, J of Material
Science, 42 (2007) p.2917-33.
[6]A.Fernanez-Jimenez ,A. palomo,M.Criado ,
Microstructure development of alkali activated fly ash
cement, a descriptive model, Cement and
Construction Res, 35 ( 2005), P 120-127.
[7] Chao Li, Henghu Sun, Longtu Li. A review: the
comparison between alkali activated slag (Si+ Ca) and
metakaolin (Si + Al) cements.Cement Concrete
Research, 40(2010) p.134149.
[8] Li Q., Xu H., Li.F.LiP.ShenI., Zhai.JP., Synthesis of
geopolymer composites from blends of CFBCflyash
and bottom ashes, Fuel,97 (2012), p.366-72
[9] M. Mustafa, A.BakriH.Mohammed., H.Kamarudin,
I.K.Niza, Y.Zarina, Review on fly ash based
geopolymer concrete without
PortlandcementJ.Eng.Technology Res, 3 (2011), P 1-4.
[10] J.Davidovits, M. Davidovits,N. Davidovits, Process
for obtaining a geopolymericalumino-silicate and
products thus obtained. US patent , 54342.595 (1994).
803
[11] V.F.F.Barbosa, K.J.D. MacKanzie, Synthesis and [16] Z.Sun, HaoCui, Hao An, Dejing Tao, Yan Xu,
thermal behaviour of inorganic geopolymers and JianpingZhai, Qin Li, Synthesis and thermal behaviour
composites derived from sodium polysialate, Material of geopolymer type mineral from waste ceramic.
Research Bulletin,38 (2003)P.319-331. Construction and Building Materials 49 (2013) P 281-
287.
[12] Z. Pan Z, JG. SanjayanJG.,BVRengan, An
investigation of the mechanisms for strength gain or [17] Monica A, Villaquiracn-Caicedo, Ruby Mejia de
loss of geopolymer mortar after exposure to elevated Gutierrez, SoumitraSulekar, Calvin Davis, Juan C
temperature , Journal of Material Science, 44 (2009), Nino., Thermal properties of novel binary
1873-80. geopolymers based on metakaolin and alternate silica
sources, Applied Clay Science, 118 (2015)p 276-282.
[13] T. Bakharev, Thermal behaviour of geopolymers
prepared using class F fly ash and elevated [18] JLProvis, CZ Young, P.Duxon ,JS Van Devnter,
temperature curing, Cement concrete research, 36 correlating mechanical and thermal properties of
(2006) p.1134-47. sodium silicate fly ash geopolyers. Colloids, Surace
A Physocochem. Eng. Aspects, 336 (2009) P 57-63.
[14] DanelL.Y.Kong, JG Sanjyayan, KS Crentsil,
Comparative performance of geopolymers made with [19] P.Duxon, GC Lukey, JS.vanDevendter, Thermal
metakaolin and fly ash after exposure to elevated evolution of metakaolingeopolymers, Part 1-Physical
temperatures , Cement Concrete and Research, 3 evolution, J. Non-Cryst Solids, 352 (2006) P 55 41-
(2007), P. 1583-9 55.
[15] Daneil.Y.Kong, JG Sanjyayan., Effect of elevated
temperature on geopolymer paste, mortar and concrete.
Cement and concrete Research, 40 (2010) p.334-339.
804
805
MECHANICAL &DURABILITYCHARACTERISTICS OF SELF

COMPACTING GEOPOLYMER CONCRETE USING QUARTZ MATERIALS
Dr. K. Ramujee1, M. Phani Bharadwaj2
1Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, VNRVJIET, Hyderabad, India
2PG Student, Department of Civil Engineering, VNRVJIET, Hyderabad, India
Cement is one of the important materials for development of infrastructure due to its versatile application. To
reduce emission of CO2 into environment due to production of cement, research on an alternate to cement is
of high priority. Thus, the utilization of geopolymer concrete is a well proved technology, which serves as a
green material. Placement of fresh concrete in the form-work requires compaction efforts and also skilled
labour. To ease the placement of concrete at complex junctions, self compacting concrete is more effective.
Hence, self-compacting geopolymer concrete is introduced. Incorporation of Quartz sand has increased
durability in terms of acid resistance and performance at high temperatures. In the present study a mix
proportion is developed for fly ash based M40 grade geopolymer concrete by making use of Nan-Su method
and the performance of concretes with quartz sand replacement at various percentages (25%, 50%, 75%, and
100%)was studied.The studies concluded that the increase in the replacement of quartz sand reduces the
workability without much of a variation in strength upto a replacement of 50%. And,increase in durability
was observed with an increase in the replacement of quartz sand.
Keywords:Geopolymer Concrete, Self-compacting, Nan-Su method, Quartz materials,Fly Ash, Carbon dioxide, alkaline
activators.
1 Introduction: working environment. Self-compacting Geopolymer

concrete (SCGC) is relatively a new concept of concrete
The production of Portland cement, a crucial component that does not require vibration for placing and can be
of producing concrete, is a significant source for produced by completeelimination of ordinary Portland
emission of greenhouse gas. The production of one ton of cement and it can be regarded as the most revolutionary
Portland cement releases about one ton of carbon dioxide development in the field of concrete technology. Apart,
gas into the atmosphere[1].Therefore, introduction of from above mentioned issues the scarcity in the sand has
geopolymer by Davidovits[2] promises a good prospect forced researchers to look for alternate materials which
for application in the concrete industry as an alternative could be used as a replacement for fine aggregate. And,
building material, with added advantages of reducing quartz sand seems to be an alternative which performs
global warming due to CO2 emission[3]. Flyash which is well in spite of its limitation of decreasing the
byproduct of thermal power stations is a major threat in workability without effecting the strength and durability.
terms of disposal.Self-Compacting Concrete (SCC) is a
type of concrete which can be placed into every corner of 2. Materials
the form work by means of its own weight without any
manual or mechanical efforts. SCC has been developed In the present study Self compacting Geopolymer
to provide adequate compaction and facilitate the concrete is prepared using Low Calcium Flyash and
placement of concrete in structures at complex junctions alkaline activators like Sodium hydroxide and Sodium
with high volume of reinforcement and also into silicate solution. The quartz sand is used as a replacement
restricted areas. SCC was first developed in Japan in the for fine aggregate and Quartz powder and silica fume
late 1980s in order to remedy the lack of skilled labour were used as a partial replacement for fly ash.
and the need for improved durability. SCC offers many
benefits and advantages over traditional concretes like 2.1 Coarse aggregate
improved quality of concrete in terms of uniformity in
consolidation, easein placement of concrete at congested Coarse aggregate used in the study are locally available
locations, increased bond strength, reduced noise levels crushed granite aggregate with a Specific gravity 2.7.
due to absence of vibration, increased durability and safe
806
K. Ramujee and M. Phani Bharadwaj
2.2 Fine aggregate hydroxide solution (NaOH). To prepare one litre of 16M
solution, about 480grams of NaOH pelletswere dissolved
In this study both River sand and Quartz sand were used in 520ml of water. And, the Sodium Silicate solution
as Fine aggregates. Quartz sand is replaced by River sand procured from local market was added directly.
with different proportions.
2.6 Superplasticizer
Table 1: Properties of Aggregates
To achieve the required workability properties as per
S.N Properties Coarse River Quartz EFNAARC a guideline, Superplasticizer Conplast SP320
o aggregate sand sand of specific gravity 1.25 was used, which also has the
1 Specific 2.7 2.62 2.45 property of viscosity modifying agent.
gravity
2 Bulk density 1580 1480 1530 3. Experimental program
(kg/m3)
3 Fineness 7 3 2.2 The concrete mix that was used for the study was
modulus designed to be a SCC using Nan-su method, which was
4 Water 0.45% 1% 1.6% to yield strength of 40MPa at the end of 28 Days.In order
absorption to achieve an optimum performance the following data
was assumed from the literature. The mix proportion for
2.3 Flyash the M40 grade SCGC is as shown in Table 3.
Alkaline Liquid to Fly ash ratio = 0.45

Low calcium flyash (ASTM Class F) obtained from
Ramagundam Thermal power station, Ramagundam. Water to Geopolymer solids ratio = 0.33
Specific Gravity is 2.2. The chemical composition of Sodium silicate to sodium hydroxide ratio = 2.5.
flyash is shown in Table 2. Curing Temperature = 600C.
Curing temperature = 48 hours.
Table 2:Chemical composition of Fly ash
Oxides Percentage Table 3: Mix proportion for M40 Grade SCGC

SiO2 60.54
S.No Materials Quantities (Kg/m3)
Al2O3 26.20
Fe2O3 5.87 1 Coarse Aggregate 850
CaO 1.91 2 Fine Aggregate 862
MgO 0.38
3 Flyash 357
K2O+Na2O 1.02
4 Sodium Hydroxide 46
SO3 0.23
Loss on ignition 2.0 5 Sodium Silicate 115
6 Super plasticizer 6% of powder content
7 Extra Water 12% of powder Content

2.4 Other Mineral Admixtures
Mineral Admixtures like Micro Silica and Quartz powder

were used to improve the strength of concrete. The In the present study 5 mix proportions were used by
Specific gravity of Quartz powder is 2.63.Micro Silica replacing the fine aggregate using quartz sand (with
used in the study was procured from local market which replacement levels of 0%, 25%, 50%, 75%, and 100% of
had a Specific gravity of 2.2. fine aggregate). In all the mixes fly ash and micro silica
were used to replace fly ash by 10%.
2.5 Alkaline solution
Alkaline solution was prepared with the combination of

Sodium Silicate (Na2SiO3) and 16 Molar Sodium
807
Table 4: Mixes used for experimental study yet all the values depict the fact that they belong to the
category of Self Compacting Concrete.
Materials Quantities (kg/m3)
Table 5: Workability Results
M1 M2 M3 M4 M5
(0%) (25%) (50%) (75%) (100%) Mix Slump T50cm J Ring L Box V
Coarse 850 850 850 850 850 Flow (Sec) (mm) (h2/h1) Funnel
aggregate (mm) (Sec)
River sand 862 646 431 215 0 M1 770 2 0 1.0 6
M2 750 3 2 0.9 7
Quartz sand 0 215 431 646 862 M3 740 3 4 0.85 7
M4 690 4 8 0.85 8
Fly ash 286 286 286 286 286
M5 670 5 9 0.8 9
Quartz 36 36 36 36 36
powder
The results in Table 6 correspond to the variation of
Micro silica 36 36 36 36 36 Compressive strength, Flexural strength and Split tensile
NaOH 46 46 46 46 46 strength with the replacement of fine aggregate with
quartz powder. The variation of strength was found to be
Na2SiO3 115 115 115 115 115 quite low upto a 50 % replacement level and it further
decreased for higher percentages of replacement, which
Super 21 21 21 21 21
is clearly shown in Figure 1.
plasticizer
Extra water 42 42 42 42 42 Table 6: Strength Results
Compressive Split tensile Flexural

The freshly preparedconcrete mix was then assessed for
Strength strength strength
its workability characteristics to be quantified as an SCC.
Mix (N/mm2) (N/mm2) (N/mm2)
Slump flow, V-funnel, and L-box tests were performed
for this purpose and verified with EFNARC guidelines.
After conducting the workability tests, the cubes, 7 days 28 7 28 7 28
cylinders and beams were casted to test Compressive days days days days days
strength, Split Tensile strength and Flexural strengths M1 41 46 2.9 3.3 2.74 3.9
respectively.The specimens along with moulds were
placed in the oven at a temperature of 600C for 48 h. M2 40 45 2.8 3.2 2.73 3.3
After oven curing, the test specimens were demoulded M3 39 43 2.7 2.9 2.70 3.0
and placed at roomtemperature exposing it to air curing
until 7 days and 28 days respectively. M4 35 37 2.6 2.7 2.30 2.6
The mechanical characteristics were determined at the M5 32 36 2.5 2.5 2.10 2.5
end of 7 days and 28 days and after 28 days durability
tests were conducted to know the performance of
concrete under severe conditions. In order to study the Table 7: % Loss in weight & Strength
durability characteristics specimens were exposed to (28 days Exposure)
Acid (5% H2SO4) and Alkali (NaOH). The loss in weight
and strength was determined at the end of 28 days Mix Acid attack Alkali attack
exposure. Apart from this Rapid chloridePenetration Weight Strength Weight Strength
Test (RCPT) test was also conducted on the specimens loss (%) loss (%) gain (%) loss (%)
after 28 days.
M1 1 50 3 66
4. Results & Discussions M2 0 12 13 25
The workability characteristics of all the mixes were M3 0 12 15 23

satisfying EFNARC guidelines. The workability results M4 0 10 8 40
are as shown in Table 5. The workability reduced with an
increase in the percentage of quartz powder replacement M5 0 10 13 30
808
K. Ramujee and M. Phani Bharadwaj
Chloride ion penetrability for the above mentioned

concrete mixes was conducted using RCPT test on
cylindrical specimens after 28 days in accordance to
ASTM C1202. The results of chloride permeability in
coulombs for SCGC mixes are given below in Table 8.
The results were clearly depicting the fact that all the
concrete mixes have low chloride penetrability, which
well within the allowable limits.
Table 8: RCPT values for the SCGC mixes
S. No RCPT Value Remarks

(Coulombs)
M1 870 Very Low
M2 1010 Low
M3 1107 Low
M4 1425 Low
M5 1570 Low
Figure 1: Variation of Strength with % replacement 5. Conclusions
The values of weight loss and strength loss due to From the above study it could be concluded that Nan-Su
exposure in acid and alkali are as shown in the Table 7. method is also applicable to develop a concrete mix
The percentage decrease in strength due to exposure in proportion for a SCGC and the water to Geopolymer
acid was quite high at lower percentages and reduced solids ratio is 0.33 which is similar to water cement ratio
with an increase in the replacement of quartz powder. in conventional concrete which was equal to 0.34. The
But weight loss was almost negligible and the specimens workability results indicate that all the concretes
were found to be well in shape. Whereas the specimens exhibited the properties as that of SCC as per EFNARC
exposed to alkali attack showed a phenomenon of weight guidelines. The compressive strength reduced at higher
gain and reduction in strength. However, it is quite levels of quartz sand replacement and not much of a
evident that the incorporation of quartz sand increased variation was observed upto 50% replacement levels. The
the durability. addition of quartz sand increased the durability
characteristics all levels of replacements. Thus, it is
proposed that an effective replacement of upto 50% of
fine aggregate with quartz sand is beneficiary.
(a)
(b)
Figure 2: Specimens exposed to (a) Alkali and (b) Acid

after 28 days exposure.
809
6. References and compressive strength of self

compactinggeopolymer concrete. Journal of
Engineering science and Technology Vol
[1] Davidots, J., Geopolymer chemistry and
8,No:1(2013) 44-56.
properties.Proceedings of Geopolymer 88, First
[9] EFNARC, European guidelines for self
European Conference on Soft Mineralurgy, The
compactingconcrete, specification, Production and
Geopolymer Institute, Compiegne, France,
Use(May 2005).
1988,pp.25-48.
[10] Rangan, B.V.(2008) Flyash based geopolymer
[2] J.Davidovits, Soft mineralogy and geopolymers,
concrete, Research report GC4, Faculty of
in Proc. Geopolymer '88, First European conference
Engineering Curtin University of Technology, Perth,
on Soft Mineralogy, The Geopolymer Institute,
Australia.
Compiegne, France, 1988, pp. 19-24.
[11] Wallah, S.E. and Rangan, B.V.(2006) Low
[3] J. Davidovits, Global warming impact on the
calciumFlyash based geopolymer concrete, long
cement and aggregates industries, World Resource
term propertiesResearch report GC 2, Faculty of
Review, vol. 6, no. 2, pp. 263-278, 1994.
Engineering, CurtinUniversity of Technology,Perth,
[4] Fareed Ahmed memon, MuhdFadhilNuruddin,
Australia.
Samuel Demie and NasirShafiqEffect of curing
[12] Fareed Ahmed Memon,
conditions on strength of flyash based self-
MuhdFadhilNuruddin,NasirShafiq Effect of silica
compacting geopolymerconcrete International
fume on fresh & hardened properties of self
Journal of Civil and Environmental Engineering pp
compactinggeopolymer concrete, Internal journal
183-186, 2011.
of Minerals, Metallurgy and Materials vol 20, no: 1-
[5] Samuel Demie, MuhdFadhilNuruddin,
9.
NasirShafiqEffects of micro-structure
[13] MuhdFadhilNuruddin,SamuelDemie and
characteristics of interfacialtransition zone on the
NasirShafiq Effect of mix proportion on workability
compressive strength of self-compactinggeopolymer
and compressive strength of self
concrete ELSEVIER, construction and building
compactinggeopolymer concrete.
materials 41(2013) 91-98.
[14] T G Ushaa, R.Anuradha, and S.
[6] Fareed Ahmed Memon, MuhdFadhilNuruddin,
VenkatasubramaniFlexural behavior of self
Samuel Demie and NasirShafiq Effect of
compactinggeopolymer concrete using GGBFS with
superplasticizer and NaOHMolarity on Workability,
various replacements of R-sand and M-sand ARPN
compressive strength and microstructure properties
Journal of engineering and Applied sciences vol10,
of self compactinggeopolymerconcrete
No:6157-6166.
International Journal of Civil and Environmental
[15] T G Ushaa, R.Anuradha, and
Engineering pp 122-129, 2011.
S.VenkatasubramaniPerformance of self
[7] MuhdFadhilNuruddin, Fareed Ahmed Memon,
compactinggeopolymer concreteContaining different
Samuel Demie and NasirShafiq Effect of curing
mineral admixtures Indian Journal of Engineering
temperature and superplasticizer on Workability and
and material sciences, vol. 22, pp. 473-481.
compressive strength of self compactinggeopolymer
[16] Nan-Su, Kung- Chung Hsu, and His-wen chai A
concrete.
simple mix design method for self compacting
[8] Fareed Ahmed Memon, MuhdFadhilNuruddin,
concrete Cement and concrete research 31(2001)
Sadaqatullah Khan, NasirShafiq, TehminaAyub
1799-1807.
Effect of NaOH concentration on fresh properties
810
811
A STUDY ON THE STRENGTH AND PERFORMANCE OF GEOPOLYMER

CONCRETE SUBJECTED TO ELEVATED TEMPERATURES
G.Mallikarjuna Rao1, T.D.Gunneswara Rao2, M. Siva Nagi Reddy3, Rama Seshu D4
1,2,3,4
Department of Civil Engineering, National Institute of Technology Warangal, Warangal 506004 India
The present paper presents the experimental studies on mechanical performance of Geopolymer Concrete (GPC),
produced by alkali activation of fly ash and GGBS combination, at different temperatures. Being an innovative
alternative material for cement concrete, GPC requires performance studies under elevated temperatures. In view of this,
an experimental investigation has been carried out on GPC subjected to elevated temperatures. The parameters of the
study of GPC (M20) include Different levels of elevated temperatures (200 0C, 4000C, 6000C and 8000C) and different
durations of exposure (30, 60 and 90 min) and two different cooling regimes like air cooling and water quenching. The
change in mass, compressive strength and X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis for different GPC specimens are evaluated.
The results indicate that the mass and compressive strength of concrete are decreased with increasing temperatures and
air cooling resulted in higher values of residual compressive strength than water quenching. XRD analyses presented
indicated the mineralogical variations in the material at higher temperatures and at longer durations as a result of which
the mechanical properties of GPC are decreased.
Keywords: Geopolymer Concrete, Fly ash, GGBS, Elevated Temperature, XRD, Residual Compressive Strength
1 Introduction and performance of geopolymer concrete depends on

type of alkaline activator, concentration of alkali and
With the growth in infrastructure development and
curing temperature. According to Hardjito et al. (2004)
boom in the housing sector, the demand for cement is
[5] sodium activators provide high strength as compared
bound to increase. Due to environmental concerns of
to that of potassium activators. Various authors studied
cement industry, there arises a strong need to make use
the importance of molar of Na2SiO3/NaOH and
of alternate sustainable technology. Geopolymer
suggested as 2.5 for maximum compressive strength at
(Inorganic polymer concrete) is an emerging class of
constant binder content [6]. Purdon (1940) [7] was
cementitious material and could be the next generation
probably the first researcher to investigate the alkaline
concrete for civil infrastructure applications. The main
activated slags. Subsequent to this, many researchers
advantage of geopolymer concrete is environmental
performed studies on alkali activated slag shows a
friendly (reduces emission of CO2 into the atmosphere
promise as an alternative binder to OPC. However,
by replacement of cement with alkali activated fly ash)
performance and behaviour of geoploymers when
which can be achieved by the effective utilization and
exposed to elevated temperatures have received less
operation of natural resources. Geopolymerization is a
attention than it deserves. To the authors knowledge,
geosynthesisa reaction that chemically integrates
there is no known published data available on the fire
minerals [1]. Geopolymers can be formed by treating
resistance of alkali activated slag binder [8-15] was
aluminosilicate materials (such as fly ash, ground
perhaps first to study the fire resistance behaviour of the
granulated blast furnace slag etc.) with alkaline
Alkali activated concrete activated by sodium
activators at high temperatures. In general, fly ashes
Hydroxide. In continuation to this [16-19] performed
from the combustion of coal consists of an
studies on the thermo mechanical properties of alkali
inhomogeneous mix of aluminosilicate and silica plus
activated slag mortars (activated by NaOH, Na2SiO3 and
small amounts of crystalline materials including mullite,
a combination of these activators) and concluded that
quartz, hematite and magnetite [2]. The commonly used
remarkable high temperature resistance, exhibited
combination of alkaline solution is NaOH and Na2SiO3.
superior mechanical properties comparable with the
This solution binds the loose aggregates in mixture to
properties of the original material not subjected to any
form geopolymer concrete (GPC) which has high
thermal load. Subsequent to these studies [20-21]
strength, durability and low creep [3]. This solution
reported that the residual compressive strength of alkali
activates SiO2 and Al2O3 in fly ash to form N-A-S-H
activated fly ash based geopolymer concrete is constant
and C-S-H gels by reacting with calcium in ground
at temperatures 800 to 10000C, whereas for the Portland
granulated blast furnace slag. The curing conditions
cement concrete the residual compressive strength falls
especially, temperature significantly impacts the
to zero beyond 8000C. However, the research on
polymerization process [4]. The compressive strength
performance of fly ash and GGBS based geopolymer
1
Research Scholar, gmyadav25@gmail.com
2
Associate professor, tdgtdg@gmail.com
3
Post Graduate, msnrmce@gmail.com
812
G. Mallikarjuna Rao, et al.
concrete at elevated temperatures at different heat The morphology of Fly ash and GGBS were examined
exposure periods is still lacking. Thus, the present using Scanning electron Microscope (SEM). Fly ash
investigation focuses on study of strength, performance particles were spherical in shape. The Fly ash is mainly
and mineralogical behaviour of GPC subjected to composed of large percentages of silica and alumina.
elevated temperatures following cooling regime with The shape of the GGBS grains is crystalline and angular
different heat exposure periods. Such a study is very form and From the EDAX, it can be observed that
much necessary to establish the durability of new GGBS is predominated with calcium and silica while
concrete. compared to other elements. The mineralogical
characterization of fly ash and GGBS sample has been
2 PRESENT INVESTIGATION
carried out for the X-Ray diffraction analysis which has
This study examines the performance of geopolymer
been shown in Figures 3 and 4.
concrete as a structural grade for concrete application,
aiming for the optimal percentage replacement of
GGBS to meet target strength of M20. The experimental
program was conducted to investigate the residual
behaviour of Geopolymer concrete subjected to elevated
temperatures. The primary aim of the experimental
study is to compare the compressive strengths of GPC
of M20 grade with air cooling and water quenching
cooling regimes with different heat exposure periods. Fig 1: SEM and EDAX of fly Ash
The program consists of cast and testing a total 150
number of cubes of 150x150x150mm size each.
Different sets of three cubes were tested for different
elevated temperatures (2000C, 4000C, 6000C and 8000C)
maintained for a period of 30min, 60min and 90
minutes. After heating, the specimens were subjected to
two different types of cooling regimes, one is by air
cooling and another is by water quenching. A
comparative study has been conducted to evaluate the Fig 2: SEM and EDAX of GGBS
residual behaviour of geopolymer concrete subjected to
elevated temperatures under two different cooling
regimes. Test results shows that cooling regime plays a
critical role in the assessment of residual behaviour of
GPC subjected to elevated temperatures under different
exposure periods.
3 Experimental Program:
The experimental Program consisted of finding the Fig 3.XRD analysis for fly ash
hardened state properties of geopolymer concrete by
casting specimens for M20 grade. Total of 72 cubes of
size 150mmx150mmx150mm were cast and tested for
determining thermal properties at different temperatures
Chemical Composition Fly ash GGBS
SiO2 60.11 34.06
Al2O3 26.53 20
Fe2O3 4.25 0.8
SO3 0.35 0.9
Fig 4.XRD analysis for GGBS
CaO 4.00 32.6
MgO 1.25 7.89 *(Table 1. Chemical composition of fly ash and
Na2O 0.22 NIL GGBS (% by mass))
LOI 0.88 NIL 3.1.2. Fine Aggregate: The nearby river sand
exposed for different time periods. conforming to Zone-2 according to IS 383 (BIS, 1970)
3.1 Materials: [22] is preferred as fine aggregate. The specific gravity
3.1.1. Fly ash and GGBS are used as source materials in and bulk density of fine aggregate are 2.65 and 1.45
the present study. ground granulated blast furnace slag gram/c.c. respectively.
is obtained from Toshali Cements Pvt ltd, Bayyavaram, 3.1.3. Coarse Aggregate: Crushed granite of 20 mm
India and Fly ash is collected from National thermal nominal size obtained from a local crushing unit is
power plant, Ramagundam, India. Specific gravity of taken as coarse aggregate and the aggregate is well
Fly ash and GGBS are 2.17 and 2.90 respectively. graded aggregate according to IS 383 (BIS, 1970) [22].
Chemical Composition details are shown in Table 1.
813
The specific gravity and bulk density are 2.80 and 1.5 mix proportion shown in Table 3 was adopted to
gram/c.c. carryout mechanical properties at elevated temperatures.
3.1.4. Water: Potable water was used in the Table 3. Mix proportion of Geopolymer Concrete
experimental work for preparation of alkaline Solution.
3.1.5. Super Plasticizer: Sulphated Naphthalene Mix Fly ash GGBS F.A C.A Alkaline
formaldehyde based super plasticizer is used for (Kg/m3) (Kg/m3) (Kg/m3) (Kg/m3) Solution
improvement of workability. (Kg/m3)
Table 2.Physical properties of Fine Aggregate and M20 252 108 770 1090.8 198
Coarse Aggregate).
Physical Fine Coarse 3.4 Casting and Curing of GPC
Properties Aggregate Aggregate The individual dry materials weighed were mixed using
Specific Gravity 2.65 2.80 a rotating drum pan mixer of 100 kg capacity. The
Bulk density 1.45 1.5 alkaline liquid and super plasticizer of optimum dosage
Fine Modulus 2.57 7.3 was added after uniform mixing of dry materials. Proper
Water Absorption 2% 0.5% homogenous mixing would be ensured by continuous
mixing for 5 to 7 minutes and fresh property tests were
3.2 Preparation of Alkaline Solution carried out to ensure workability of GPC. The fresh
concrete was transferred into concrete moulds (150mm
Molarity of NaOH solution plays a crucial role in the X150mm X150mm) followed by table vibration for a
strength of geopolymer concrete. The nominal molarity period of 45 seconds and allowed to set for 24 hours.
for fly ash and GGBS mixes range from 210 M, but The specimens are demoulded after 24 hours of casting
higher strength can be obtained when the concentration and cured in outdoor condition. For outdoor curing,
approaches the maximum range [23]. From 8M to 16M specimens were left out at outdoor (temperature-
there was a rise in the compressive strength for all 352C and relative humidity- 75%) up to specified age
mixes [24]. According to previous studies it was found of testing 28 days. Temperature and humidity control
that with the higher concentration of NaOH solution i.e. were not necessary for outdoor cured specimens.
above 10M, a lower rate of polymerization takes place
and results in decreased compressive strength [25]. In 3.4 Elevated temperature exposure regime:
present experimental work examines the properties of After 28 days of curing, before going to the heating
geopolymer concrete were examined with 8M NaOH. process, the original weight of all the specimens were
320 gms of NaOH pellets were dissolved in potable measured. Geopolymer concrete specimens were
water to make one litre of 8M sodium hydroxide subjected to sustained elevated temperatures of 2000C,
solution. To achieve the required strength the ratio of 4000C, 6000C and 8000C and in each case retention
sodium silicate solution to sodium hydroxide solution is periods were 30, 60 and 90 minutes has been adopted.
considered as 2.5 and the mixed solution is stored for 24 For any particular temperature, after reaching the
hours at room temperature (252C) and relative specified retention periods the exposed specimens were
humidity of 65%, before it is used for casting. Because kept outside for air cooling and water quenching. Air
dissolution of NaOH in water is an exothermic reaction cooling method was adopted in this study for bringing
and a substantial amount of heat will be generated when down the temperature of the specimens to ambient
added in concrete, hence the heat liberated is to be temperature. The specimens left for air cooling were
reduced and come down to ambient temperature. allowed to cool at the room temperature for 1 day
In the present investigation a series of laboratory whereas for water quenching the specimens taken out
experiments were performed to determine the optimum from the muffle furnace after the specific temperature
mix proportions of concrete with minimum binder and exposure period is reached. The heated specimens
content. Before carrying out actual experimentation were kept in 15 liters of water and allowed to cool until
several trials were carried out for control mixes as per the water temperature reaches the room temperature.
IS: 10262-2009 for M20 grade of concrete. The mix The final weights of the cooled specimens were
design of geo polymer concrete was similar to ordinary measured and compressive strength test was done.
concrete but cement was replaced by binder and water Fragment pieces are obtained from the tested specimens
with alkaline solution. NaOH solution and Na2SiO3 and powdered to use for XRD analysis.
solution were used as alkaline activators. The alkaline
activator to binder ratio was taken as 0.55 for M20.
NaOH solution concentration was maintained as 8
Molarity (320 grams of NaOH of 98% purity were
dissolved in tap water to prepare one litre NaOH
Solution). Preparation of alkaline solution is an
exothermic reaction and hence the quantified NaOH and
Na2SiO3 Solution were mixed and stored at room
temperature for 24 hours prior to mix in concrete. After
certain trail mixes and testing of cast specimens, a final Fig 5: Specimens kept in electric furnace
3.6. Testing Procedure for Compressive Strength
814
Standard Cube specimens of size 150mm 150mm 4.2. Water Quenching:

150mm are cast and tested under compression using
The average percentage weight gain results of M20 and
3000 kN compression testing machine at standard rate
subjected to different heat exposure periods of different
of loading suggested by IS 516 (BIS, 1956) [26]. The
temperatures are presented in Figure 8. From the fig 8, it
strength values reported at 28 days outdoor curing and
can be observed that, the geopolymer concrete
various temperatures and different heat exposure
specimens exposed to high temperatures have gained
periods and the reported results are the average of three
weight after quenching them in water immediately after
cubes.
taking out from the furnace. The percentage of weight
gain is increased as the temperature increases from
2000C to 8000C for M20 at all exposure periods.
Exposure period also plays an important role in the
weight gain of GPC Specimens. As the exposure period
increases weight gain for the specimens M20 increases
with raise in temperature. In GPC the weight loss is
observed when the specimens are subjected to different
Fig 6: Specimens testing for Compression temperatures prior to the quenching process. The weight
loss of the specimens already mentioned in the air
4.0 Results and Discussion
cooled specimens as shown in Figure 7. From Literature
4.1. Change in Weight
Average percentage loss in weight of Fly ash and GGBS it is reported, the reacted geopolymer contains, free
based GPC specimens, after exposure to various water and structurally bonded water. The structural
elevated temperatures with respect to the unheated water was bonded in reaction product namely N-A-S-H
specimens are shown in the Figure.7. From the figure 4, gel [27]. Thus loss in structural water gives indirect
it can be seen that the weight loss of GPC is gradually estimation of reaction product. More weight loss is due
increasing with increase in temperature up to 8000C. to the formation of the new reaction products already
The Increase in loss is also observed with an increase in reported in air cooling. Here in this study the different
the exposure period irrespective of the heating pattern was for the water cooling is quite different from
temperature. The weight loss in GPC increases the other studies, here the specimens are kept in
significantly due to the evaporation of moisture within constant volume of water for 6 hours in order to
the specimen. The average weight loss for M20 is measure the thermal diffusivity for the specimens
1.35% at 2000C for an exposure period of 90 Minutes, subjected to the elevated temperature. In this process the
which is very less and negligible, whereas for 400 0C weight gain was observed for all the specimens which
and 6000C and 8000C the average weight loss at heat are kept at different exposure periods and different
exposure period of 90 minutes are 3.86%, 4.42% and temperatures. The mass gain is due to the disconnected
5.05% respectively displaying a significant trend with fine pore structures in the matrix filled by the water.
the change in temperature. The water absorption of M20 increases with increase in
The heat exposure period has a significant effect at the exposure period. The weight gain values for M20
lower temperatures and has no considerable influence at grade GPC at 2000C are 2.5%, 3.13% and 4.05% for 30
6000C and above. The weight loss in GPC is due to the min, 60 min and 90 min exposure periods respectively.
evaporation of Sodium alumino-silicate hydrate and There is a sudden increase in weight gain at 4000C at 30
Calcium alumina-silicate gels. Based on the minutes compared to 2000C 30 minutes. This may due
experimental results of GPC prepared with fly ash and to the fact that the specimens are subjected to the
GGBS for M20 grade it can be concluded that the thermal shock.
weight loss of GPC with increase in temperature and
with longer exposure period, has increased in general.
Particularly the loss is more pronounced at 800 oC for 90
min exposure period which does not have a crucial
effect on the density of GPC.
Fig 8: Percentage weight gain for GPC20 (Water

Quenching)
4.3. Change in Compressive Strength for Air Cooling
The variation in the compressive strength of GPC
specimens subjected to elevated temperatures under
Fig 7: Weight loss after different elevated
different heat exposure periods is displayed in figure 9
temperatures
The compressive strength test results presented in figure
9 indicate that the strength is gained about 40% higher
815
than that of the unheated specimen at 2000C. It shows a furnace which is causes rapid cooling leads to a
significant difference in the strength with different significant thermal gradient and a non-uniform stress
exposure periods attaining a peak of around 44 MPa for distribution in the specimen, which makes the initiation
90 min exposure period. As the temperature increases and expansion of micro cracks and causes more severe
further, the rate of gain is reversed producing the results damage to GPC specimens. As shown in fig 10,
in lower side of those at 2000C. This decreasing trend is reduction in compressive strength more was observed at
continued till 800oC, but the difference is more 6000C from 30 minutes heat exposure period in water
pronounced in between 6000C and 8000C. Even though quenching for M20.Then the strength decreases
the degradation of GPC is started at 600 0C, it has continuously with increase in temperature at different
retained the strength highly above the characteristic heat exposure period also, while the specimens have
strength with a minimum of 80% of the unheated GPC relatively higher bearing capacity up to 6000C in air
strength. At 8000C, it lost almost 65% of the strength, cooling whereas for water cooling the strength
which is vulnerable to a structural grade concrete. Here degradation starts from 2000C for an exposure period of
the duration of heat exposure also has significant effect 30 minutes. For temperature above 6000C, the
in gaining/loosing the compressive strength. At compressive strength decreases considerably and only
relatively lower temperatures, the strength of roughly 35% of the original strength is retained at
geopolymer concrete has an increment, this is mainly 8000C for M20. Therefore, from the strength point of
attributed to the fact that moderate exposure to a normal view it can be concluded that the temperature of 6000C
temperature could make the geopolymerization process is the critical for M20 in both water cooling and air
to continue forming a new hard products. cooling.
The decrease in the strength of geopolymer concrete at
higher temperatures mainly results from the loss of
cohesive bond between the matrix and aggregates,
thermal incompatibility i.e., unmatched expansion and
contraction between matrix and aggregate components,
which lead to the formation of a significant amount of
minor cracks within the specimen. Also mineralogical
changes by water evaporation and the crystalline phases
are also factors contributing to the strength loss, which
were shown in XRD analysis.
Fig 10: Change in Compressive Strength at different

elevated temperatures and different exposure
periods of GPC20 (Water Quenching)
4.5 XRD Analysis
X-Ray Diffraction (XRD) Analysis
The XRD patterns of M20 grade powderd samples at
different temperatures for heat exposure periods 30, 60,
90 minutes were presented in Figures 11 to 14. From the
figures, it can be seen that the samples contains Quartz
(SiO2), Mullite (Al2(Al2.8Si1.2)O9.6) and calcite (CaCO3)
Fig 9: Change in Compressive strength at different are the main minerals which are present in the source
elevated temperatures and different heat exposure materials. The highest peak for all heat exposure periods
periods was contributed by Quartz (SiO2) at different elevated
temperatures. For different heat exposure periods at
4.4 Change in Compressive Strength for Water temperature 2000C, Quartz (SiO2), Mullite
Quenching (Al2(Al2.8Si1.2)O9.6), calcite (CaCO3) and Albite
The compressive strength of the geopolymer concrete (Na(AlSi3O8)), Microcline (KAlSi3O8) peaks were
specimens subjected to elevated temperature was shown detected and there is no much variation in peaks to an
in figure 10. The cooling regime selected here is the exposure period of 30,60 and 90 Minutes retention
water quenching. The cooling regime has an influence period at 2000C. There is an increase in the strength of
on the properties of the geopolymer concrete prepared the geopolymer concrete specimens at 200 and 4000C
with different percentages of fly and GGBS contents. for different retention periods than the initial strengths
The compressive strength for the water cooled this may due to the further geopolymerization process in
specimens is lower compared with the air cooled the concrete specimens [29]. However, for the different
specimens. This may due to the fact that the specimens retention periods (30, 60 and 90 Minutes) at 200 and
are subjected to the thermal shock was also reported by 4000C the peaks pertaining to Albite (Na(AlSi3O8))
[28]. By keeping the specimens in certain volume of were found at 2 = 28 approximately. The
water after taking the specimens directly from the geopolymerization of Fly ash and GGBS with alkaline
816
activators resulted in the sythesis of Albite which also

resulted in transformations from amorphous to
crystalline phases. The synthesis of albite a crystalline
phase of the N-A-S-H (aluminosilicate gel) contributed
to maximum compressive strength and also for sample
exposed to 90 minutes [30]. The reason for this superior
behaviour of could be attributed to the formation of
crystalline phases called anhydrous alumina silicates
such as albite and Microcline. These phases improve the
crystallinity during heating up to 200-4000C and then
recrystallize to new phases albite and Microcline. This
contribute to enhancement of mechanical strength for
M20 [31]. As shown in Fig 13 and 14 the XRD patterns
for all the geopolymer samples are quite similar for the
6000C and 8000C. The samples exposed for the high Fig 12: XRD analysis of Geopolymer Concrete at
temperatures showed marginal mineralogical changes. 4000C for different Heat Exposure Periods for M20
Leucite (KAlSi2O6) and Nepheline (NaAlSiO4), Fig 12: XRD analysis of Geopolymer Concrete at
Microcline (KAlSi3O8), Albite ((Na(AlSi3O8)) was 4000C for different Heat Exposure Periods for M20
mainly formed at 6000C and 8000C of different retention
periods. Leucite is not observed at lower temperature,
this crystalline phase change was observed at high
temperature other than 4000C. The similar observations
of formation of gel binder fully crystallized Leucite at
high temperatures in geopolymer composites was
reported by [32]. The increase in strength is due to
formation of new minerals like albite and leucite.
Whereas the reduction in strength at high temperatures
was attributed to a thermal expansion mismatch of the
different compounds. At 8000C new phase formation
Nepheline (NaAlSiO4) was identified which is in the
form of amorphous aluminosilicate and the same pattern
was observed in the literature [33]. Studies have shown
that at temperature below 5000C.The primary reaction
products of amorphous aluminosilicate semi crystalline
gels such as N-A-S-H are formed along with the crystals
Fig 13: XRD analysis of Geopolymer Concrete at
of mullite. This formation of crystals is due to presence
6000C for different Heat Exposure Periods for M20
of the minerals in both the fly ash and GGBS and the
chemical activator used for the activation of the
combination of Fly ash and GGBS.

817
4.6 XRD Analysis for Water Quenching:

X-Ray Diffraction (XRD) analysis for M20 Grade:
The XRD patterns of M20 grade powdered samples at
different temperatures for heat exposure periods 30, 60,
90 minutes subjected to water quenching were presented
in figures 15-18. From the figure, it can be seen that the
samples contains Quartz (SiO2), Mullite
(Al2(Al2.8Si1.2)O9.6) and calcite (CaCO3) these minerals
are already identified in fly ash. The highest peak for all
heat exposure periods was contributed by Quartz at
different elevated temperatures. Through
geopolymerisation of fly ash and GGBS with alkaline
activators resulted in the synthesis of Albite which also
resulted in transformations from amorphous to
crystalline phases. The synthesis of albite a crystalline
phase of the N-A-S-H (aluminosilicate gel) contributed Fig 15: XRD analysis of Geopolymer Concrete at
to maximum compressive strength. For different heat 2000C for different Heat Exposure Periods for M20
exposure periods at temperature 2000C, Quartz (SiO2), (Water Quenching)
Mullite (Al2(Al2.8Si1.2)O9.6), calcite (Calcium
Carbonate) and Sandine (Potassium Sodium Calcium
Aluminum Silicate), Microcline (Sodium potassium
Aluminium Silicate) peaks were detected and there is
no much variation in peaks to an exposure period of
30,60 and 90 Minutes at 2000C. However, the heat
exposure period for 30 and 60 minutes, peaks pertaining
to Albite (Sodium Calicum Alumino Silicate) were
found at 2 = 28, approximately. The reason for this
superior behaviour of could be attributed to the
formation of crystalline phases called anhydrous
alumina silicates such as sodalite, Microcline and
sandine. These phases improve the crystallinity during
heating up to 200-6000C and then recrystallize to new
phases albite, nepheline. This contribute to enhancement
of mechanical strength for M20 after quenching process.
As shown in figures 15-18 the XRD patterns for all the Fig 16: XRD analysis of Geopolymer Concrete at
geopolymer samples are quite similar for the 400, 6000C 4000C for different Heat Exposure Periods for M20
and 8000C after the specimens are subjected to the (Water Quenching)
quenching process. The samples exposed for the high
temperatures showed marginal mineralogical changes.
Leucite (Sodium Potassium Aluminium Silicon
Oxide) was mainly formed at 400, 6000C and 8000C of
different exposure periods in air cooling. Leucite is not
observed at any temperature in water cooling, this
crystalline phase change was observed at high
temperature other than 2000C. The similar observations
of formation of gel binder fully crystallized Leucite at
high temperatures in geopolymer composites was
reported by Lin et al (2009). The increase in strength is
due to formation of new minerals like Albite and Lucite.
Whereas the reduction in strength at high temperatures
was attributed to a thermal expansion mismatch of the
different compounds. The primary reaction products of
amorphous aluminosilicate semi crystalline gels such as
N-A-S-H are formed along with the crystals of Mullite. Fig 17: XRD analysis of Geopolymer Concrete at
This formation of crystals is due to presence of the 6000C for different Heat Exposure Periods for M20
minerals in both the fly ash and GGBS and the chemical (Water Quenching)
activator used for the activation of the combination of
Fly ash and GGBS.
818
[2] Song S, Sohn D, Jennings H.M and Mason, T.O

Hydration of Alkali-Activated Ground Granulated
Blast Furnace Slag, Journal of Materials Science
35: 249-257.
[3] Wang SD, Pu XC, Scrivener KL and Pratt PL
(1995) Alkali-activated slag cement and concrete a
review of properties and problems. Advance
Cement Research27:93102.
[4] Glukhovsky VD, Soil silicates, Gosstroiizdat,
Kiev, (in Russian 1959).
[5] Hardjito D, Wallah SE, Sumajouw DMJ and
Rangan BV (2004) On the development of fly ash-
based geopolymer concrete, ACI Mater Journal
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[6] Pinto A (2004) Alkali-activated metakaolin based
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furnace slag. J. Soc. Chem. Ind. 59: 191-202.
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From the experimental investigation carried out on GPC [8] Talling B, BrandstetrJ (1989) Proceedings of the
subjected to elevated temperatures, the following 3rd international conference on fly ash, slag and
conclusions were arrived. natural pozzolans in concrete Trondheim, Norway.
[1] The weight loss of GPC with increase in ACI SP 114, vol 2 1519.
temperature and with longer exposure periods, has [9] Bakharev T (2001) Alkali activated slag concrete.
increased in general. Particularly the loss is more Chemistry, microstructure and durability. PhD,
pronounced at 6000C. Department of Civil Engineering, Monash
[2] The compressive strength of GPC has a gain of University, Melbourne.
around 45% strength of unheated GPC after [10] Collins FG (1999) High early strength concrete
exposure to 2000C and the rate of gain is lowered using alkali activated slag. PhD, Department of
at 400oC. Civil Engineering, Monash University, Melbourne.
[3] Up to 6000C GPC retained its strength with a
maximum loss of 19%, beyond this the [11] Collins FG, Sanjayan JG (1999) Workability and
degradation is more rapid. Hence 6000C can be mechanical properties of alkali activated slag
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strength is more pronounced with a loss of 65% of
[12] Bakharev T, Sanjayan JG and Cheng YB (1999)
the strength.
Alkali activation of Australian slag cements.
[5] Heat exposure period also has a significant effect
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at all temperatures.
[13] Collins FG, Sanjayan JG (2001) Early age strength
[6] The XRD analysis indicated that the crystalline
and workability of slag pastes activated by sodium
structure of geopolymer concrete is affected with
increase in elevated temperatures and with longer silicates. Magazine of Concrete Research 53(5):
exposure periods. These changes are in line with 321326.
the strength and weight loss observation made on [14] Collins FG, Sanjayan JG (1998) Early age strength
geopolymer concrete. and workability of slag pastes activated by NaOH
[7] The influence of cooling regime has a significant and Na2CO3. Cement and Concrete Research
effect in deterioration of geopolymer concrete 28(5): 655664.
cooled by water quenching is more serious than
that of specimens cooled by air cooling. [15] Jumppanen U-M, Diederichs U, Hinrichsmeyer K
[8] The specimens for both air and water quenching (1986) Material properties of f-concrete at high
the critical temperature for M20 is 6000C. For air temperatures. Technical Research Centre of Finland,
cooling there is an increase in the strength up to Research Report 452, Espoo, November 60.
6000C 30 Minutes whereas the specimens [16] Mejia de Gutirrez R, Maldonado J and Gutierrez
subjected to water quenching there is a slight loss (2004) Performance of alkaline activated slag at
in strength at 2000C itself. high temperatures. Material construction
54(276):8794.
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from natural sources for concrete. Bureau of Indian
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820
821
PERFORMANCE OF MINERAL ADMIXTURES ON STRENGTH

PROPERTIES OF TERNARY BLENDED CONCRETE
S. Vijaya Bhaskar Reddy1, P.Srinivasa Rao2
1
CMR TECHNICAL CAMPUS, J.N.T.U.H., Dept of Civil Engineering, Hyderabad, 501401, T.S. India
2
J.N.T.U. College of Engineering, Dept of Civil Engineering, Hyderabad, 500072, T.S. India
ABSTRACT
The use of pozzolans such as Micro silica (MS), Ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag (GGBS), Fly ash,
Metakaolin, Rice husk ash etc. in cement concrete, individually as a mineral admixture (MA) has been
studied widely. Information available is less when both MS and GGBS together are present in blended
concretes. Therefore the present study is directed towards developing a better understanding on the
combined performance of MS and GGBS on the strength properties of Ternary concrete over an ordinary
concrete. An extensive experimentation was carried out to arrive at optimum level of MS and GGBS. MS
and GGBS were added according to the partial replacement method in all mixture. Twelve mixtures were
prepared in three groups according to their binder content. A total of 36 Ternary mixtures (TM) and three
control mixtures (CM) were prepared. Ternary concretes were obtained by adding MS (5%, 10% and
15%) and GGBS (20% 30% 40% and 50%) to the ordinary Portland cement. This study focuses on the
performance of MS and GGBS on the strength characteristics of ternary concrete (TC). For all the
combinations, compressive, split tensile and flexural strengths were determined at 7, 28, and 90 days for
water-binder ratio 0.55. Ternary concrete have exhibited good improvements on ordinary concrete.
The experimental results showed that, the strength properties of Ternary concrete increases with
increase in cement replacement level (CRL) of cement replacement materials (CRM) i.e. MS and GGBS.
After an optimum point, at around 40% of the total binder content, the addition of MS and GGBS does
not improve the strength properties.
Keywords: Micro Silica, GGBS, Ternary concrete, CRL, CRM compressive strength, split tensile
strength and flexural strength.
1. Introduction gel at early stages due to fat pozzolanic reaction. The

synergic effect of CRMs in ternary blend cement
The scarcity of natural raw material, depleting system enhances mechanical properties as well as
energy resources, problems of disposal of waste make the resultant concrete durable ( Mullic 2007).[2]
materials and global warming due to emission of green Micro silica is a by-product of the manufacture of
house gases are the long term results of rapid silicon metal and Ferro-silicon alloys. The process
industrialization. Every industry tries its best to combat involves the reduction of high purity quartz (SiO2) in
and minimizes these global problems in concrete electric arc furnaces at temperature in excess of
construction; the primary route is to reduce the content 20000C. Its high siliceous composition and very fine
of ordinary Portland cement (OPC) in concrete. Micro particle size were utilized beneficially in many works
silica (MS) and Ground Granulated Blast furnace Slag to improve the properties of fresh and hardened
(GBS) are Mineral admixtures (MAs) which can utilize concrete. Reactivity of amorphous silica is directly
both heat and calcium hydroxide generated during proportional to the surface area [3, 4]. Micro silica
hydration of cement. Because of these reason, they can increases cohesiveness and decreases, segregation and
become good cement replacement material (CRM), as bleeding of fresh concrete and increases, strength,
recognized now in IS: 456-2000 (Rajamane, 2001: permeability and durability of hardened concrete. Blast
BIS, 2000) [1]. The engineering benefits from the use furnace slag is a by-product of iron manufacturing
of mineral admixtures in concrete result partly from industry. Iron ore, coke and limestone are fed into the
their particle size distribution characteristics, and partly furnace, and the resulting molten slag floats above the
from the pozzolanic and cementitious reactivity. When molten iron at a temperature of about 15000 C to
OPC is replaced by GGBS the rate of gain of strength 16000C. After the molten iron is tapped off, the
of concrete is slower at early age, and this limits its use remaining molten slag, which consists of mainly
in concrete where early age strength is desirable. To siliceous and aluminous residue is then water-quenched
overcome this problem Micro silica is employed with rapidly, resulting in the formation of a glassy granulate,
GGBS in ternary concrete and it increases early is dried and ground to the required size is called as
strength of concrete by formation of secondary C-S-H GGBS. The molten slab has a composition close to the
822
S. Vijaya Bhaskar Reddy and P.Srinivasa Rao
chemical composition of ordinary Portland cement. controlled concrete. Dilip Kumar Singha Roy, Amitava
Ground granulated blast furnace slag is off-white in Sil [8], was investigated the strength parameters of
color. This whiter color is also seen in concrete made concrete made with partial replacement of cement by
with GGBS, especially at replacements greater than
Silica Fume. The investigation has been aimed at to
50%. Micro Silica in the ternary blend improves the
early age performance of concrete and GGBS improves bring awareness amongst the practicing civil engineers
the properties at the later age. regarding advantages of these new concrete mixes. The
It is well documented the use of fly ash along maximum 7 days cube compressive strength observed
with GGBS in concrete results in a significant as 17.85 N/mm2 split tensile is found to be 3.61
improvement in the mechanical properties of concrete, N/mm2 at 10% cement replaced by SF (38.58% more
but researchers are yet to arrive at a unique conclusion than that of normal concrete). The maximum 28 days
regarding the use of GGBS along with micro silica. flexural strength of SF concrete is found to be 4.93
The present investigation was aimed to determine the N/mm2. for 10% replacement of cement with silica
combined influence of Micro silica and GGBS on the fume and the values are higher (by 19.6% and 16.82%
compressive, split and flexural strength of ternary respectively) where as split tensile strength and
concrete flexural strength of the SF concrete (3.61N/mm2 and
4.93N/mm2 respectively) are increased by about
2. Literature survey 38.58% and 21.13% respectively over those (2.6
N/mm2 and 4.07 N/mm2 respectively) of the normal
S.Bhanja, B.Sengupta [5] reported that the
concrete when 10% of cement is replaced by SF.
compressive, as well as the tensile, strengths increased
Deepa A Sinha [9], was aimed to investigate the
with silica fume incorporation, and the results indicate
properties of ternary blended concrete incorporating
that the optimum replacement percentage is not a
Micro silica, metakaolin, and GGBS. The properties
constant one but depends on the watercementitious
investigated include workability, compressive strength
material (w/c) ratio of the mix. Compared with split
and. flexural strength. They replaced cement by ternary
tensile strengths, flexural strengths have exhibited
blend of Fly ash, metakaolin, Micro silica, GGBS up to
greater improvements. Based on the test results,
30% to determine the workability, compressive
relationships between the 28-day flexural and split
strength and flexural strength. The study reveals that
tensile strengths with the compressive strength of silica
out of all pozzolonic material Micro Silica gives
fume concrete have been developed using statistical
highest strength in flexure after 28 and 90 days. Micro
methods. A.Oner, S.Akyuz [6], conducted an
Silica gives highest compressive strength after 90 days.
experimental study on optimum usage of GGBS for the
Metakaolin gives highest compressive strength after 28
compressive strength of concrete, and proved that the
days. N.Sivalingarao, M.Jagadeeshbabu, V.Bhaskar
compressive strength of concrete mixtures containing
Desai and B.L.P.Swami, [10], were investigated the
GGBS increases as the amount of GGBS increase.
mechanical properties of M20 concrete proportioned
They found that the addition of GGBS beyond 55% of
using light weight pumice aggregates in place of coarse
total binder content does not improve the compressive
granite aggregates and cement is replaced by
strength. This is due to presence of unreacted GGBS,
condensed silica fume (CSF). They found that adding
acting as a filler material in the paste. Bhikshma, K.
of silica fume up to about 9% increased the strength,
Nitturkarb and Y. Venkates [7], Described the
beyond that it is decreased. The best combination they
mechanical properties of high-strength concrete of
attained at 20% replacement of coarse aggregate and
grades M40 and M50, at 28 days characteristic strength
5% replacement of cement with CSF.
with different replacement levels of cement with silica
fume or micro silica of grade 920-D are considered. 3. Objectives of the study
Cement replacement up to 12% with silica fume leads
to increase in compressive strength, splitting tensile a) To determine combined influence of Micro silica
strength and flexural strength, for both M40 and M50 and GGBS on compressive, split and flexural
grades. Beyond 12% there is a decrease in compressive strengths of Ternary concrete.
b) To determine the optimum ternary concrete mix by
strength, tensile strength and flexural strength for 28
adding Mineral admixtures (M.S & GGBS).
days curing period. They found that the compressive
c) To utilize Industrial by products and find out the
strength, splitting tensile strength and flexural strength
economical and performance evaluation of concrete
of M40 grade concrete is increased by 16.37%, 36.06%
mix.
and 16.40% respectively, and for M50 grade concrete
d) To create healthy environment world-wide by
20.20%, 20.63% and 15.61% respectively over
using industrial by products wisely.
823
4. Research Significance (specific gravity: 2.6 and fineness modulus 3.17 and
In the recent and past, investigators attempted to bulk density 1793 kg/m3) was used as fine aggregate.
enhance the strength properties of binary, ternary and
quarternary concrete by using different types of Coarse Aggregate: Locally available quarried and
crushed granite stones confirming to graded aggregate
mineral admixtures (MA) with different combinations.
of nominal size between 20mm and 4.75mm as per
Though enhancement in the strength properties of table 2 of BIS:383-1970 (specific gravity: 2.9, fineness
ternary blended concrete through mineral admixtures modulus:6.87,bulk density:1603kg/m3)
like Fly ash, metakaolin, etc., but there exists little
understanding of Micro silica and GGBS combinations Water: Clean drinking water available in the college
and the information is still scanty. The contribution of campus was used for mixing and curing of concrete
silica fume to the strength of concrete is yet to be fully confirming to IS 456-2000.
quantified. Although the literature is rich in reporting
Super Plasticizers: Chemical admixture based on
on silica fume concrete, most of the research works are Sulphonated Naphthalene Formaldehyde condensate-
centered on the compressive strength, and technical CONPLAST SP 430 [13] confirming to BIS 9103-
data on tensile strength is quite limited. Present 1999 and ASTM C-494.
investigation is a step in this direction.
5.2 Mix Proportions
5. Materials and Methodology
Control concrete: Mix design is carried out as per
The experimental programme was planned to produce guide line given in IS: 10262-2009, which yielded a
Ternary Blended Concrete with reduced cement proportion of 1:2.40:3.373 with water cement ratio of
content by adding different percentages of Micro Silica 0.55. is used as the reference mix. Control mixtures
and GGBS. Experimental procedure for blending, were prepared for medium workability without using
mixing, casting and curing of specimens are shown in super plasticizer. The mix proportioning control
Fig. 1 to 6 Three groups of each consists 36 ternary concrete is given in Table 1.
blended concrete (OPC+MS+GGBS) cubes of 150 mm
size were casted by replacing OPC with 20%, 30%, Ternary concrete mixes: For each curing period,
40%, and 50% of GGBS with 5%, 10% and 15% of Twelve Ternary Mixes (OPC+Micro Silica+GGBS)
Micro silica as constant in each group. Also 9 cubes were made with cement replacement. One Ordinary
were casted for control concrete with 100% of ordinary mix was established with OPC only. The compositions
Portland cement. A Total of 117 cubes were casted for of Ternary concretes are given in Table 2.
compressive strength test. Similarly 117 cylinders (150 Table 1: Mix proportion (kg/m3) for
mm.x300 mm.) were produced for split tensile controlled concrete
strength, and 156 beams (100 mm x100 mm x 500 Cement Water FAa CAb
mm) prepared for flexural strength test. All the 324 178 785 1093
specimens were cured by immersion. Three specimens
1.000 0.550 2.400 3.373
of ternary concrete and control concrete were tested for
11.352 6.243 27.471 38.255
saturated surface dry state and to obtain their a
compressive, split tensile and flexural strengths at 7, fine aggregate ,b coarse aggregate
28, and 90 days of curing. Table 2: Ternary concrete mix proportioning
(kg/m3) and Quantity of ingredients
Ternary concrete (TC)
5.1 Materials Mix ID Cement MS GGBS FA CA
Water
(liters)
(C%+MS%+GGBS %)
Cement: Ordinary Portland cement (OPC), 53 grade CCa C100%+MS 0%+GGBS 0% 324 0 0 785 1093 178
confirming to BIS 12269-1987(specific gravity: 3.16, TM 1b C75%+MS 5%+GGBS 20% 243 16.2 64.8 785 1093 178
Blaine fineness: 320 m2. /kg) TM 2 C65%+MS 5%+GGBS 30% 210.6 16.2 97.2 785 1093 178
TM 3 C55%+MS 5%+GGBS 40% 178.2 16.2 129.6 785 1093 178
Micro Silica: Micro Silica -920D [11] as a mineral TM 4 C45%+MS 5%+GGBS 50% 145.8 16.2 162 785 1093 178
admixture in dry dandified form was obtained from TM 5 C70%+MS 10%+GGBS 20% 226.8 32.4 64.8 785 1093 178
TM 6 C60%+MS 10%+GGBS 30% 194.4 32.4 97.2 785 1093 178
ELKEM South Asia (P) Ltd., Navi Mumbai
TM 7 C40%+MS 10%+GGBS 40% 162 32.4 129.6 785 1093 178
confirming to ATSM-C (1240-2000) having specific
TM 8 C40%+MS 10%+GGBS 50% 129.6 32.4 162 785 1093 178
gravity 2.2 and fineness 20000 m2/kg. TM 9 C65%+MS 15%+GGBS 20% 210.6 48.6 64.8 785 1093 178
GGBS: GGBFS was collected from JSW-HYD [12]. TM 10 C55%+MS 15%+GGBS 30% 178.2 48.6 97.2 785 1093 178
Confirming to IS: 12089 1987. (Specific gravity: TM 11 C45%+MS 15%+GGBS 40% 145.8 48.6 129.6 785 1093 178
2.87 Fineness: m2/kg.) TM 12 C35%+MS15%+GGBS 50% 113.4 48.6 162 785 1093 178
Fine Aggregate: Locally available river sand a b
confirming to zone II of table 4 of BIS: 383-1970 Controlled concrete, Ternary mix
824
5.3 Mixing, Casting, and Curing of specimens. L = length of cylinder, mm

D = Diameter of cylinder, mm
Mixing: A Designed mix ratio of 1: 2.40: 3.373 was
used for the ternary concrete. Batching was by weight 5.4.3. Flexural strength test: Flexural strength test
and a constant water/cement ratio of 0.55 used. Mixing were performed on beam specimens according to IS:
was done manually on smooth concrete pavement. 516-1959[14]. Standard beams of size
100mmx100mmx500mmwere supported symmetrically
Casting: For casting the cubes, cylinders and beams, over a span of 400 mm and subjected to two points
standard cast iron metal moulds was used. Whole loading till failure of the specimen. After failure the
casting procedure is confirmed to Indian Standard: distance (a) between the crack and nearest support is
10086-1882. The following specimens were prepared measured. The flexural strength of the specimen is
for both controlled concrete (CC) and ternary concrete expressed as the modulus of rupture. Test results are
(TC) to perform tests at 7 28 and 90 day of curing. presented in the Table 6.
i) 150 mm cubes (9 for CC and 108 for TC) for
compressive strength as per IS 516-1999 The flexural strength of beam was calculated by the
ii) 150 x300mm. cylinders (9 for CC and 108 for TC) following expressions:
for split tensile strength as per IS 5816-1999
iii) 100x100x500 mm beams(9 for CC and 108 for TC) fcr=PL /bd2 (when a is greater than13.3 cm) (3)
for flexural test as per IS516-1959 fcr=3Pa /bd2 (when a is in between 11.0cm
and13.3cm) (4)
5.3.3 Curing: After casting, the moulded specimens are
stored in the laboratory free from vibration, in moist air Where,
and at room temperature for 24 hours. After this fcr = Flexural strength, MPa
period, the specimens are removed from the moulds a = distance between the line of fracture and the
and immediately submerged in the clean fresh water of nearest support,
curing tank. The curing water is removed after every 5 b = width of beam, mm
days. The specimens are cured for 7, 28, and 90 days. d = depth of beam, mm
P = Central load, KN
5.4. Testing of Specimens: At the age of 7, 28, and 90
days, the specimens were taken out of water and
allowed to dry under shade and then tested for
strengths at room temperature.
5.4.1. Compressive strength: Cube compression tests
were performed on standard cubes of size 150 x 150 x Figure 1: Casting Figure 2: Curing
150 mm after 7, 28, and 90 days curing as per IS:516-
1959 [14]. as shown in Fig.4 and the test results are
presented in Table 3
Compressive strength of specimen was calculated by
the expression:
Figure 3: Concrete Lab Figures 4:Compression
fcu= Pc /A (1)
Where,
Pc= Failure load in compression, kN
A = Loaded area of cube, mm2
5.4.2. Split Tensile Strength: The test was carried out Figure 5: Split tensile test Figure 6: Flexural test
on cylinder by splitting them along the middle plane Table 3: Compressive Strength Test Results
parallel to the edges by applying the compressive load Mix Id
7-Days 28 -Days 90-Days
(C%+MS%+GGBS %)
to opposite edges as per IS: 5816-1956 [15]. As shown C100%+MS 0%+GGBS
CM 24.14 36.5 38.15
in Fig. 5. Test results shown in Table 4. TM1 C75%+MS 0%5%+GGBS 23.33 38.11 40.5
TM2 20%
C65%+MS 5%+GGBS 23.2 40.32 43.78
30%
The split tensile strength of cylinder was determined by TM3 C55%+MS 5%+GGBS 22.83 39.43 42.4
TM4 40%
C45%+MS 5%+GGBS 22.6 38.81 41.61
expression: TM5 50%
C70%+MS 10%+GGBS 25.08 39.2 41.92
TM6 20%
C60%+MS 10%+GGBS 24.5 42.95 47.52
30%
ft=2Pt / LD (2) TM7 C40%+MS 10%+GGBS 24.38 42.21 46.1
TM8 40%
C40%+MS 10%+GGBS 22.78 39.19 42.16
TM9 50%
C65%+MS 15%+GGBS 25.7 35.13 37.01
Where, TM10 20%
C55%+MS 15%+GGBS 25.41 39.3 42.58
ft = Tensile strength, MPa TM11 30%
C45%+MS 15%+GGBS 25.01 34.84 36.96
TM12 40%
C35%+MS15%+GGBS 24.92 34.3 36
Pt = Load at failure, N 50%
825

6.1 Fresh Concrete properties:
6.1.1 Mix Characteristics: While observing the

characteristics of fresh concrete, Micro Silica and its
super fine particles, causes the ternary mixtures to be
Sticky and Cohesive, when compared to control
concrete mixtures and also noticed that, the
Cohesiveness increases with increase in Micro Silica
Figure 7: Influence of binder content on content and which leads to more paste volume, and
Compressive Strength of Concrete Contributes to a reduction in bleeding. All the Mixtures
Table 4: Split Tensile Strength Results (0.55) have exhibited satisfactory characteristics regarding
Mix Id 7-Days 28 -Days 90-Days
(C%+MS%+GGBS %) bleeding and Segregation. content reaches to 30% and
CC C100%+MS 0%+GGBS 0% 2.44 3.27 3.38
TM1 C75%+MS 5%+GGBS 20% 2.39 3.37 3.52
it decreased even the GGBS Content increased. Also
TM2 C65%+MS 5%+GGBS 30% 2.37 3.51 3.73 observed that, workability of Ternary Concrete
TM3 C55%+MS 5%+GGBS 40% 2.33 3.45 3.65
TM4 C45%+MS 5%+GGBS 50% 2.28 3.36 3.55
Mixtures were decreased with the increase of Micro
TM5 C70%+MS 10%+GGBS 20% 2.51 3.46 3.62 silica content .All Mixtures were prepared by
TM6 C60%+MS 10%+GGBS 30% 2.48 3.77 4.10
TM7 C40%+MS 10%+GGBS 40% 2.40 3.58 3.83
maintaining medium workability.
TM8 C40%+MS 10%+GGBS 50% 2.38 3.53 3.76
TM9 C65%+MS 15%+GGBS 20% 2.50 3.14 3.28
TM10 C55%+MS 15%+GGBS 30% 2.49 3.42 3.65
6.2 Hardened concrete properties
TM11 C45%+MS 15%+GGBS 40% 2.46 3.16 3.31 Compressive, Split and Flexural strengths of
TM12 C35%+MS15%+GGBS 50% 2.45 3.13 3.24
control concrete and ternary concrete mixtures were
determined at 7, 28, and 90 days of curing. The
average of three samples was taken for every testing
age.
6.2.1 Compressive strength development
Fig.7 shows the early age (7days) strength of

ternary concrete varies with respect to the percentage
levels of Micro silica (MS) and GGBS and also noticed
that, the compressive strength of ternary concrete is
Figure 8: Influence of binder content on Split lower than that of control concrete at Micro silica 5%
Tensile Strength of Concrete as constant, for all replacement levels of GGBS. At MS
Table 5: Flexural Strength Test Results 10% as constant, slightly increase in strength of ternary
Ternary concrete (TC) concrete was observed from the Table 3. But there is a
MI 7-Days 28-Days 90-Days
(C%+MS%+GGBS %) considerable increase in strength of Ternary concrete at
CC C100%+MS 0%+GGBS 0% 3.53 4.74 4.90
TM1 C75%+MS 5%+GGBS 20% 3.47 4.91 5.13
MS 15% as constant, for all percentage levels of
TM2 C65%+MS 5%+GGBS 30% 3.44 5.10 5.42 GGBS. The reason for this phenomenon is, the GGBS
TM3 C55%+MS 5%+GGBS 40% 3.39 5.02 5.33
in the ternary concrete, which delays the early age
TM4 C45%+MS 5%+GGBS 50% 3.33 4.91 5.19
TM5 C70%+MS 10%+GGBS 20% 3.64 5.08 5.34 strength due to slow pozzolanic reaction. Inclusion of
TM6 C60%+MS 10%+GGBS 30% 3.60 5.47 5.97 Micro silica in cement system, increase the strength of
TM7 C40%+MS 10%+GGBS 40% 3.55 5.30 5.67
TM8 C40%+MS 10%+GGBS 50% 3.45 5.12 5.47
ternary concrete at early stage significantly [16].
TM9 C65%+MS 15%+GGBS 20% 3.64 4.58 4.79 Conversely it is observed that, the 28 day
TM10 C55%+MS 15%+GGBS 30% 3.62 4.98 5.33 compressive strength of ternary concrete increases
TM11 C45%+MS 15%+GGBS 40% 3.57 4.60 4.81
TM12 C35%+MS15%+GGBS 50% 3.55 4.54 4.72
gradually until GGBS content reaches to 30% and there
after it falls even increase of GGBS, with MS 5% as
constant. Same trend was observed with MS 10% as
constant. But it is noticed that, the strength of Ternary
concrete is lower than that of control concrete with MS
15% as constant. The same trend was observed even at
90 days curing also.
6.2.2 Split tensile strength
Fig.8 shows the variation of split tensile strength

Figure 9: Influence of binder content on with Micro silica and GGBS replacement percentages
Flexural Strength of Concrete as well as curing days. It is observed that Micro silica
826
incorporation increases early age strength and GGBS 1. The incorporation of Micro silica in concrete
increases the strength with respect to curing days. A resulting in significant improvement in the early
close observation of Fig.8 exhibits the strength gain is age strength of concrete. The optimum 7days
almost similar with that of compressive strength at all strength has been obtained by 15% micro silica,
curing days. And also noticed that very high but it is reduced to 10% at 28 day strength.
percentages of Micro silica do not significantly 2. The early age strength of concrete with GGBS was
increase the split tensile strengths, and increase is lower than the control concrete. However, as the
almost insignificant beyond 10%. as shown in Table: 4 curing period is extended, the strength increases.
The reason is that the pozzolanic reaction is slow
6.2.3 Flexural tensile strength and the formation of calcium hydroxide requires
time.
Fig.9 shows the variation of flexural tensile 3. The strength properties of concrete increases as the
strength with Micro silica and GGBS replacement GGBS content increased up to an optimum point.
percentages as well as curing days. Micro silica seems Therefore it can be concluded that, there is an
to have more pronounced effect on the flexural strength optimum level for the efficient use of GGBS
than the split tensile strength. The flexural strengths content, which yields the highest strength. The
almost follows the same tend as the compressive optimum level of GGBS content for maximizing
strength does at all curing days. strengths is at about 30% of total binder content.
4. Addition of GGBS in concrete, beyond 30% does
6.3 Optimum Ternary Mixes Combinations not improve the strength. And it can be concluded
that, after certain limit, the GGBS, which could
From the Table 3 It is observed that the maximum not enter into reaction, but behaves like fine
cube compressive strength (25.70MPa) was obtained aggregate. It indicates that, GGBS cannot be used
by ternary mix TM9 (15%MS+20%GGBS+65% OPC) efficiently as a binder, but rather as filler in the
at 7 day curing. And also observed that the ternary mix concrete.
TM6 (10%MS+30%GGBS+60%OPC) attained. 5. The 7day compressive strength ternary concrete is
Maximum cube compressive strength (42.95MPa) at maximum at 35% replacement of OPC by MS and
28 days testing. Even at 90 days curing, the same GGBS. and it is 5.26% higher than control
combination i.e. TM6 shows maximum cube concrete. Whereas 28 day and 90 day compressive
compressive strength (47.52MPa) strength is maximum at 30%, it is 17.67% and
From the Table 4 It is observed that the maximum 24.56 respectively. The percentage increase in
Split Tensile (2.50MPa) was obtained by ternary mix compressive strength of ternary concrete is
TM9 (15%MS+20%GGBS+65% OPC) at 7 day 75.31% and 93.96% when compared to 28 day
strength
curing. And also observed that the ternary mix TM6
6. Split tensile strength of ternary concrete is
(10%MS+30%GGBS+60%OPC) attained maximum maximum at 35% replacement of OPC by MS and
cube compressive strength (3.69MPa) at 28 days GGBS, which 2.05% higher than control concrete
testing. Even at 90 days curing the same combination at 7 day curing. But it is 15.23% and 21.45%
i.e. TM6 shows maximum cube compressive strength higher than control concrete at 30% replacement
(3.95MPa) of cement at 28days and 90 days respectively. The
From the Table 5 It is observed that the maximum percentage increase in split tensile strength of
ternary concrete is 51.96% and 65.32% when
Flexural Strength (3.64MPa) was obtained by ternary
compared to 28 day strength
mix TM9 (15%MS+20%GGBS+65% OPC) at 7 day 7. The 7 day Flexural strength of ternary concrete is
curing. And also observed that the ternary mix TM6 maximum at 35% replacement of cement, and it is
(10%MS+30%GGBS+60%OPC) attained maximum 2.48% higher than control concrete. Whereas 28
cube compressive strength (5.39MPa) at 28 days days and 90 days strength was obtained at 30%
testing. Even at 90 days curing the same combination replacement, which are 15.40% and 21.73%
i.e. TM6 shows maximum cube compressive strength respectively. The percentage increase in Flexural
strength of ternary concrete is 52.15% and 65.92%
(5.82MPa). when compared to 28 day strength
From the above investigation, an effective and
7 Conclusions efficient ternary concrete can produce by using mineral
admixture (Micro silica and GGBS). In ternary blended
Extensive experimentation was carried out to concrete Micro silica acts filler and GGBS controls
determine the combined effect of Micro silica and workability. Therefore, this combination is more
GGBS on compressive, split tensile and flexural effective in improving the properties of ternary blended
strengths of concrete at water-cement ratio 0.55, and concrete. It was observed that the combination of
cement replacement of 0% to 65%. The following Micro silica and GGBS not only enhances the
conclusions can be derived from the present study. Compressive, Split tensile and Flexural strengths but
827
also many other beneficial properties like durability, [11] Elkem South Asiapvt.ltd
better crack resistance, low permeability, cost [12] JSWSteelPvt.Ltd, 7thFloor, Surya Towers, 105,
effectiveness etc. therefore the Triple blended concrete sardar patel Road, Kalasiguda, Secunderabad,
is quite suitable for high performance concrete(HPC). Telangana 500003
[13] www.fosroc.com
Recommendations [14] IS: 516-1959,Method of Testsfor Strength of
Concrete,Bureau of Indian Standard, New
From the above cited test results, the authors Delhi..
recommending the use of Micro silica and GGBS in [15] IS:5816-1959,Split tensile strength of concrete
the ternary concrete mix TM6 method of test: , Bureau of Indian Standards, New
(C60%+MS10%+GGBS30%) to get economical and Delhi.
durable concrete. [16] Kanchan Mals, A.K.Mullick, k.k. Jain and
P.K.Singh Effect of Relative Levels of Mineral
Acknowledgments Admixures on Strength of Concrete with Ternary
Cement Blend International Journal of Concrete
The experimental work was carried out at the Structure and MaterialsVol.7, No.3.pp.239-
laboratories of Concrete and High way Materials, in 249, September 2013ISSN 1976-0485
CMR Technical Campus, Hyderabad. We would like to
thank to Elkem South Asia pvt.ltd. Mumbai and JSW About The Authors
Steel Pvt. Ltd. for providing the Micro silica and Mr. S.Vijaya Bhaskar Reddy,
GGBS. Professor and Head of Civil
Engineering Department in
REFERENCES CMR Technical Campus,
Hyderabad. Specialized in
[1] BIS (2000), IS: 456-2000.Indian Standard Structural Engineering having
for plain and reinforced concrete-Code of 12 years of academic
Practice, BIS, New Delhi. experience and published 6
[2] Mullick, A.K.Performance of Concrete with research papers. Research
Binary and ternary cement blends .Indian interests are Concrete Technology, Blended
Concrete Journal 81(1), 15-22. Concretes, Earth Quake Resistance Design of
[3] Mehta PK. Rice husk ash a unique Structures, and Life Member of ISTE, Fellow
Supplementary cementing material. In: Malhotra Member of Institution of Engineering, Member Indian
VM, editorrocIntSympAdvConcreteTechnol Society of Earth Quake Technology, Member Indian
CANMENT:1994.p.329-36.97. Concrete Institute.
[4] James J, Subba Rao M.Reactivity of rice husk
Ash.Cement Concrete Res 1986; 16:296-302. Dr.P.SrinivasaRao, Professor and
[5] S.Bhanja, B.Sengupta Influence of Silica Fume Vice principal of Dept of Civil
On the tensile strength of concrete Cement and Engineering, J.N.T.U College of
Concrete Research 35(2005)743-747
Engineering. Hyderabad,
[6] A.Oner, S.Akyuz An experimental study on
optimum usage of GGBS for the compressive T.S.India. Specialized in structural
[7] V.Bhikshmaa,K.NitturkarbandY. engineering. Research interests are
Venkatesham, investigations on mechanical Concrete Technology, Structural
Properties of high strength silica fume concrete Design, High Performance
Asian journal of civil engineering (building and Concrete, Prefabricating
housing) vol. 10, no. 3 (2009) pages 335-346. Structures, Special Concretes and use of Micro Silica, Fly
[8] Dilip Kumar Singha Roy,Amithava Sil, Effect
ash in Building Materials. He has been associated with a
of Partial Replacement of cement by silica fume
on Hardened Concrete International Journal of number of Design projects, for member of organizations
Emerging Technology and Advanced Engineering and involved as a key person in Quality control and Mix
(ISSN 2250-2459, Volume 2, Issue 8, August Designs. He has 24 years of academic, research and
2012). industrial experience published over 100 research papers.
[9]Deepa ASinha,Comparative mechanical properties He guided four Ph.Ds and 100 M.tech projects. Guiding 15
of different ternary blended concrete volume: 1 Ph.Ds students. Delivered invited lectures in other
issue: 10 October 2012.issn - 2250-1991.research
organizations and institutions. Member of ISTE, Member
paper engineering.
[10]N.Sivalingarao, M.Jagadeeshbabu, V.Bhaskar of ICI and Member of Institute of Engineers.
Desai and B.L.P SwamiStructural Properties of
Silica Fume modified light weight aggregate
(pumice) concrte.june 2013
828
829
INFLUENCE OF BLENDED CEMENT ON THE FRESH PROPERTIES

OF SELF COMPACTING CONCRETE INCORPORATING RECYCLED
AGGREGATE
1 2
Senthamilselvi.R & Revathi.P
1
Research scholar, Pondicherry Engineering College, Puducherry, India.
2
Assistant Professor, Pondicherry Engineering College, Puducherry, India.
Abstract:
Production of self compacting concrete requires large amount of powder content, thus demanding the
high quantity of cement with one or more admixtures. Using large quantity of cement creates production
demand, environmental pollution and leads to high energy consumption. In view of this aspect, mineral
admixtures are used to replace the cement in high volume. On the other hand the issue of disposal of demolition
waste is addressed by recycled aggregate as coarse aggregate in SCC. This study investigates the influence of
blended cement on the properties of fresh self compacting concrete incorporating RA. SCC with RA mixes is
produced with different types and amounts of mineral admixtures. OPC cement, Fly ash (FA), Silica fume (SF),
and ground-granulated blast-furnace slag (GGBS) are used in binary, ternary, and quaternary blends to improve
the fresh properties of SCC. Cement is replaced by the above blends with 20%, 40% & 60% for all mixtures.
Fresh properties of the SCC with RA mixes are tested for slump flow, T 500, V-funnel flow, and L-box tests. The
results indicated that when the all the blended cement mixtures shows improved fresh properties without
segregation even at 60% replacement.
Keywords: Self compacting concrete recycled aggregate, fresh properties, Blended cement, Mineral
admixtures.
Introduction:
Self Compacting Concrete (SCC) is condition (SSD). As a result, RA in SCC enhances
gaining popularity all over the world due to its self the workability and flow properties of concrete,
flow ability, which can be placed and compacted thus reducing the powder demand. Moreover, the
under its self weight without any external vibration fresh properties are influenced due to the small
[1]. In order to achieve self compactability, large particle sizes of mineral admixtures, which in turn
amount of powder content is required, thus directly influence the fresh, mechanical and
demanding large quantity of cement with one or durability performances of concrete. Use of
more admixtures [2]. Consumption of large amount blended cement in SCC is expected to eliminate the
of cement severely affects the environment drawbacks of the particular mineral admixtures
severely. In order to reduce energy consumption, through combining with other superior quality
CO2 emission and production demand, cement is material in order to reduce the overall cost of
replaced with mineral admixtures in concrete [3]. concrete production. The current knowledge of the
Mineral admixtures are the by- products of fresh properties of blended cement is generally
different industries and dumped as waste. Various limited to SCC only. Celik [15] utilized high
mineral admixtures such as fly ash (FA), silicafume volume class- F FA / High volume natural pozzolan
(SF), ground-granulated blast-furnace slag and limestone as binary and ternary blends in SCC.
(GGBS), metakaolin etc are used as cement The study reveals that both binary and ternary
replacement in SCC. An extensive review of blended mixes gives the better fresh properties.
literature has been carried out to examine the effect Gesoglu and Ozbay [16] investigated the effects of
of mineral admixtures on the properties of SCC. using FA, GGBFS and SF as mineral admixtures in
Proper replacement of cement by suitable mineral binary, ternary, and quaternary blends on the fresh
admixtures can result in not only economical and properties of SCC. It is reported that SCC mixtures
ecological benefits, but technical benefits as well. It with blended cement have improved fresh
improves the fresh properties of SCC considerably properties without segregation. Guneyisi and
[3-10]. Large quantities of Construction and Gesoglu [17] studied the properties of SCC with
Demolition (C&D) wastes have been generated Limestone and GGBS as binary and ternary
annually across world. The use of C&D waste as blended cement. The study reveals that the use of
recycled aggregate (RA) in concrete is limited due GGBS in blended cement improves the fresh
to its low density and high absorption [11]. Few properties of SCC. Gesoglu et al [18] investigated
studies have conducted using RA in SCC [12-14]. the properties of SCC with binary, ternary and
Fresh properties of SCC such as decreased with the quaternary blended cement containing FA, GGBS
increasing percentage of RA. To overcome these and SF. It was concluded that the ternary use of PC
issues, RA is used in saturated surface dry + FA + GGBS shows the better fresh properties
830
Senthamilselvi.R and Revathi.P
than the other blended mixtures. In view of this, a of total powder content. Designed mixes are
research program is implemented to study the designated according to the type and the amount of
contribution of binary, ternary and quaternary mineral admixtures included.
blended cements with different mineral admixtures Testing methods:
on the fresh properties of SCC with RA as coarse Fresh properties of SCC were quantified
aggregate. through slump flow, T500 slump flow time, J ring
Materials: test, V - funnel test and L box test. The above tests
Ordinary Portland cement (43 grade) was were performed according EFNARC guidelines to
used for this experimental investigation. Cement evaluate the characteristics of SCC such as passing
was partially replaced with Class F fly ash, Silica ability, flowability and segregation resistance.
fume and GGBS powders to develop binary, Slump flow and T500 time test to assess the
ternary and quaternary systems. Locally available flowability and the flow rate of SCC in the absence
river sand with 4.75mm maximum size was used as of obstructions. The result is an indication of the
fine aggregate. Crushed granite obtained from the filling ability of SCC, and the T500 time is a
local quarry was used as NA. The crushed concrete measure of the speed of flow. J- Ring test is to
specimens from laboratory were used as the source investigate both the filling ability and the passing
of RA. These concrete specimens were crushed ability of SCC. In the V funnel test, the funnel is
manually and subsequently crushed with a lab filled with the concrete and the time taken by it to
model jaw crusher and sieved. The aggregate flow through the funnel is measured. This test gives
passing in 16 mm sieve and retained on 4.75 mm account of the filling capacity of SCC. In the L box
sieve is used as RA. The nominal size of the natural test, the test was conducted by removing the gate to
and recycled coarse aggregates was 16 mm. The allow the flow of concrete through the horizontal
physical and mechanical properties of NA and RA part and of the remaining concrete is in the vertical
were determined in accordance with IS 2386-1963 part and then the ratio of h2/h1 were determined.
(19) and presented in Table 1. Potable water
available in the college campus was used for the Result and discussion:
mixes. Poly carboxylic ether based super plasticizer
was used at 1% by weight of powder content, to Slump flow:
achieve good workability. Slump flow results of all blended cement
with SCCRA are shown in Fig 1 to 3. The slump
Table 1: Physical properties of aggregate. flow values of all blended mixtures are within the
range of 690 to 770mm. As per EFNARC
Sl. Physical Fine Recycled guidelines, binary blended mixtures are classified
No properties aggregate aggregate SF2, ternary mixes and quaternary mixes are
(River sand) (RA) classified as SF2 and SF3. These mixtures are
1. Specific gravity 2.59 2.27 suitable for many normal applications and
2. Bulk density 1375 1209 congested reinforcement structures. It is evident
(kg/m3) from these figures that in all in all cases of blended
3. Water 1 7.79 mixes, the improvement of flowability increased
absorption (%) for all replacement levels of mineral admixtures.
4. Fineness 3.06 7.24 The result shows that the addition of mineral
modulus admixtures such as FA, SF and GGBS helps in
increasing flowability of mix without segregation
Mix Proportion: even at the 60% replacement ratio. The same trend
In this study SCC mixes were produced is observed for all binary, ternary and quaternary
adopting particle packing mix design approach, blended mixes. It is also observed that the binary
whose detailed proportions are presented in Table mix with GGBS and ternary mixes with FA and
2. Totally 22 mixes were designed with w/p of 0.36 GGBS shows higher flow value compared to that of
to 0.37 and total powder content used was generally other blended mixes at 60% of replacement level.
maintained as 570 kg/m3 of concrete. SCCRA The best combination of various blending with
mixtures incorporated binary (PC + FA, PC + respect to flow are 40% replacement of GGBS,
GGBS, PC + SF) and ternary (PC + FA + SF, PC + 60% replacement for GGBS for binary blends,
FA + GGBS, PC + GGBS + SF) and quaternary 60% of FA & GGBS for ternary blends and 60 %
(PC + FA + GGBS + SF) cementitious blends in of quaternary blended mix. Therefore, it is clear
which a proportion of Portland cement was that the binary blends, ternary blends and
replaced with the mineral admixtures. The various quaternary mixes shows better stability and
replacement levels of mineral admixtures flowability of mixes.
considered for SF are 5% to 15%, for FA are 20%
to 60% and for GGBFS are 20% to 60% by volume
831
Table 2: Mix Proportions of various blended mixtures.
Mix Designations W/P Water Cement FA GGBS SF Fine Recycled SP Dosage

Aggregate (%)
Aggregate
SCCRAFA20 0.36 196 448 73 -- -- 788 444 293 4.82
SCCRAFA40 0.36 196 336 146 -- -- 788 444 293 4.46
SCCRAFA60 0.37 196 224 219 -- -- 788 444 293 4.10
SCCRAGGBS20 0.36 196 448 -- 101 -- 788 444 293 5.08
SCCRAGGBS40 0.36 196 336 -- 203 -- 788 444 293 4.62
SCCRAGGBS60 0.37 196 224 -- 304 -- 788 444 293 4.53
SCC RASF 5 0.36 196 532 -- -- 20 788 444 293 4.73
SCCRASF10 0.36 196 504 -- -- 41 788 444 293 4.67
SCCRASF15 0.37 196 476 -- -- 61 788 444 293 4.59
SCCRAFA10S10 0.36 196 448 36 51 -- 788 444 293 4.95
SCCRAFA20S20 0.36 196 336 73 101 -- 788 444 293 4.72
SCCRAFA30S30 0.37 196 224 109 152 -- 788 444 293 4.49
SCCRAFA15SF5 0.36 196 448 55 -- 20 788 444 293 4.84
SCCRAFA30SF10 0.36 196 336 109 -- 41 788 444 293 4.68
SCCRAFA45SF15 0.37 196 224 164 -- 61 788 444 293 4.15
SCCRAS15SF5 0.36 196 448 -- 76 20 788 444 293 5.04
SCCRAS30SF10 0.36 196 336 -- 152 41 788 444 293 4.89
SCCRAS45SF15 0.37 196 224 -- 228 61 788 444 293 4.75
SCCRAFA7.5S7.5SF5 0.36 196 448 27 38 20 788 444 293 4.93
SCCRAFA15S15SF10 0.36 196 336 55 76 41 788 444 293 4.70
SCCRAFA22.5S22.5SF15 0.37 196 224 82 114 61 788 444 293 4.45
T 500 flow time:

T-500 indicates viscosity of mixture.
Shorter time of T- 500 is an indication of the better
flow capacity, with lower viscosity. As seen in Fig
4-6, T-500 values varied from 0.86 to 1.48 s for
binary blended mixtures, 0.8 to 1.49 s for ternary
blended mixtures and its varied from 1.23 to 1.65 s
for quaternary blended mixtures. As per EFNARC
guidelines, binary blended, ternary mixes and
quaternary mixtures are classified under VS1.
These mixtures are suitable for congested
reinforcement structures and it has better surface
finish. As clearly seen in the figures, the use of
GGBS and FA in all the blended mixtures shows
the effective reduction in the slump flow time. The
concretes with SF and 20% of FA in binary
mixtures, and all ternary and quaternary blended
mixtures at 20% replacement had a high slump
flow time. According to EFNARC specifications
and guidelines, the T-500 slump flow time of SCC
generally ranges from 2 to 5 s. Hence, the T-500
832
slump flow times were less than the acceptable observed during the tests and indicates satisfactory
range. However at the time testing, all the blended mix stability and segregation resistance for flow
mixtures were observed with good flow capacity through reinforcement.
without any bleeding and segregation. This is
mostly due to the increased content of powder and
SSD condition of RA.
V funnel flow:
The V-funnel times of different mixes are
presented in Fig 10-12. It can be seen from these
J- ring slump flow: figures that, V-funnel times for binary, ternary and
The slump flow values of J-ring are shown quaternary blended mixes are in the range of 6.54
in Fig 7-9. Flow ranges between 610 to 720mm, 9.8 s, 6 7.8 s and 6 6.95 s, respectively. The
595 670mm and 625 640mm for binary, tenary V- funnel flow times of all mixtures satisfy the
and quaternary blended mixtures are considered requirement of EFNARC guidelines. The quantity
acceptable as per EFNARC. It is evident from these of mineral admixtures influences the V funnel flow
figures all the blended mixes having FA and GGBS time of all the SCC mixes. Incorporating the lowest
shows the highest slump value due to its particle replacement of all blended mixtures in SCC makes
size. For all blended mix, no seggregation was it highly flow able with decreased viscosity.
833
all the mixes have good segregation resistance with

good filling ability.
L box:
The results from the L-box test are shown
in the Fig.13 -15. The blocking ratio of SCC for all
blended mixtures containing FA, GGBS and SF
changed from 0.8 to 1.0. It shows the satisfactory
blocking ratio as per EFNARC recommendation Conclusions:
and all the blended mixtures were under PA 1 The following conclusions may be drawn from the
category. It is evident from these figures increasing experimental results.
replacement of GGBS and FA content in binary
blended cement shows the increased passing 1. The result shows that the addition of
ability. This result was evident in the concrete mineral admixtures such as FA, SF and
produced with ternary and quaternary blended GGBS helps in increasing flowability of
cement. At the same ternary and quaternary mix without segregation even at the 60%
blended cement. Also at the time of testing, the replacement ratio. The same trend is
authors did not observe any tendency of blockage observed in the ternary mixes and
between reinforcement. Hence, it is revealed that quaternary mix.
834
2. The binary mix with GGBS and ternary strength of self-compacting concrete, Cem
mixes with FA and GGBS shows higher Concr Compos, vol 34(4), pp.583-90,2012.
flow value compared to that of other [9] Venkatasubramani R, Performance of self
blended mixes at 60% of replacement compacting concrete containg different
level. The best combination of various mineral admixtures, KSCE journal of civil
blending with respect to flow are 20% engineering, vol 17920, pp. 465-472, 2013.
replacement of S, 40% replacement for S [10] Ahmed S, Adekunle S K, Maslehuddin M,
for binary blends and 60% of FA & S for Azad A K. Properties of self compacting
ternary blends. concrete made utilizing alternative mineral
3. The filling abilty of all blended mixtures fillers, Construction and Building Materials,
increased with the inclusion of FA, GGBS vol.68, pp. 268-276, 2014.
at all replacement level and with SF at [11] Padmini A.K, Rmamurthy K, Mathews M.S,
high replacement. Influence of parent concrete on the properties
4. Though binary and ternary mixes exhibit of recycled aggregate concrete, Construction
good fresh properties, the quaternary & Building Materials, vol 23, pp.829-
blended mixes will be assured to have 836,2009.
better mechanical and durability properties [12] Yong P.L and Teo.D.C.L, Utilization of
of SCC with RA, in addition to its fresh recycled aggregates as coarse aggregate in
properties. concrete, J.Civ.Eng, vol 1(1), pp.29-36,
2009.
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RathishKumar P, Mechanical and
[1] Okamura H, Self compacting high Durability properties of Self Compacting
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Self- compacting concrete. UK: EFNARC; 2229-5518,2013.
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[3] Ponikiewski T, The influence of high-calcium compacting concrete with coarse recycled
fly ash on the properties of fresh and hardened aggregate, Advanced Material Research,
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[4] Bouzoubaa N and Lachemi M,Self consolidating concretes incorporating high-
Compacting concrete incorporating high volume natural pozzolan or high-volume fly
volumes of class F fly ash preliminary results, ash, Construction and building materials,
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[5] Dinakar P, Babu K.G, Santhanam M, admixtures on fresh and hardened properties
Durability properties of high volume fly ash of self-compacting concretes: binary, ternary
self-compacting concrete, Cement Concrete and quaternary systems, Materials and
Composite, vol 30 (10),pp. 800-886, 2008. Structures, vol.40, pp.923937, 2007.
[6] Yazici,H, The effect of silica fume and high [17] Guneyisi E and Gesogolu M, Properties of
volume class c flyash on mechanical self compacting Portland pozzolana and
properties, chloride penetration and freeze- limestone blended cement concretes
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Construction and Building Materials, Materials and structures, vol.44, pp. 1399-
vol.22,pp.456-462,2008. 1410,2011.
[7] Turk K, Turgut P, Karatas M ,Benil A, [18] EFNARC, The European Guidelines for Self
Mechanical properties of self compacting Compacting Concrete, 2005.
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Cong on Advances in Civil Engineering, of Test for Aggregates for Concrete IS: 2386
pp.27-30,2010. (Part IV)-1963 Bureau of Indian Standards,
[8] Boukendakdji O,Kadri EI-H,Kenai S, Effects New Delhi.
of granulated blast furnace slag and SP type
on the fresh property and compressive
835
FLOW CHARACTERISTICS OF POLYMER MODIFIED SISAL

FIBRE REINFORCED MORTAR
S.Priyadharshini1, G.Ramakrishna2
1,2
Department of Civil Engineering, Pondicherry Engineering College, Puducherry 605014, India
Nowadays, incorporation of natural fibres in cement composites is becoming very popular due to several
advantageous properties of natural fibres. The natural fibre incorporation into matrix provides varying
effects in terms of both negative and positive aspects with respect of fresh characteristics of composites
and these effects will resembles in performance of hardened composites. Therefore it is important to study
the fresh behavior of natural fibre reinforced matrices and also to proportionate mix parameters before
production of fibrous composites. On the other hand, use of polymers in natural fibre plays a vital role in
adjusting the negative effects of fibre incorporation. Based on the above facts, the effects of addition of
sisal fibre and styrene butadiene rubber polymer on flow behavior in 1:3 mortar composite has been
investigated in the present study. From the results, it is noticed that the polymer addition into sisal fibre
reinforced cement mortar greatly enhances the fresh behavior. Also the flow curves are obtained for
various cement mortar mixes containing the polymer contents of 5% and 10% and sisal fibre contents of
0.5%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 2.5% and 3% respectively. The flow curves can be used to arrive W/C ratio for a
given flow value, polymer content and fibre content for the various applications of cement mortar.
Keywords: flow, mix parameters, mortar, polymer, sisal.
1 Introduction alkaline treatment etc.), matrix modification (eg. Using

mineral admixtures, polymer modification) and
Use of natural fibres in cement/cementitious matrix
combined surface and matrix modification [5-12]. The
is gaining vital importance in the field of construction.
techniques so far mentioned are major aspects of
The major concern on natural fibres among many
improving the composite properties. On the other hand,
researchers is because of its abundant availability,
there are some minor factors but are very important in
economical and eco-friendly nature. Moreover, the
improving composite strength and durability. Such
environmental issues in manufacturing and disposing
minor contributing factors are method of mixing, curing,
the synthetic fibres are very serious and also pose
mix type and various material parameters [4,9]. The mix
several health problems. Also, synthetic fibres affords
proportion and material optimization is the foremost
for high cost due to more energy consumption during
process in achieving good quality composite product. It
manufacturing process. Hence, the attention towards
is well known that the quality of composites in fresh
natural fibre cement/cementitious composites has been
state resembles its performance at hardened state. The
grown and lot of research works is going on all over the
mix with good fresh characteristics will pave way for
world. Natural fibres, not only proves to be economical
achieving designed strength and durability. Fresh
and eco-friendly, but also provides several useful
characteristics of mortar are concerned with several
technical properties such as lightweight, high impact
complicated terms namely workability, flowabilty,
strength, more toughness, excellent tensile properties,
consistency, rheology etc [13,14]. These terms are
better post cracking behavior etc [1-3].
measured by using various tests viz. mini slump test,
Also, natural fibre cement composites shows some
flow test, marsh cone, viscometers and rheometers
negative issues on long term durability due to varying
[15,16,17]. The literature states that, it is more common
nature of fibre, balling effect in fresh composites,
to use flow table test for studying the fresh behavior of
moisture sensitivity, degrading effects under cement
mortar [18]. Also this test proves to be very simple,
medium (i.e. alkaline medium) [4]. These characteristics
economical and provides reliable direct results on flow,
of natural fibres need some extra care to make such
which in turn tells how the mortar is consistence [13].
composites to perform in better way. Several techniques
Also the term consistency related to the type of
are adopted to improve the properties of natural fibre
application of mortar, thereby arriving the required W/C
composites. The various techniques so far adopted are
ratio seems to be predominant in proposing adequate
surface modification of fibres (eg. Coatings to fibre,
mix proportions.
1
Research Scholar, priya5.sriraman@gmail.com
2
Professor, grkv10@pec.edu
836
S. Priyadharshini and G.Ramakrishna
In this investigation, the polymer modified sisal Table 3: Physical properties of sisal fibre
fibre reinforced mortar is evaluated for its fresh Sl.No. Property Values
properties using flow table test. The main aim of this 1. Average length (mm) 2.6
study is to investigate mix parameters and to arrive flow 2. Average diameter (mm) 0.1
curves for achieving quality mix proportion. The various 3. Density (g/cm3) 1.45
parameters considered are water-cement ratio, fibre 4. Average tensile strength (N/mm2) 1360
content, and polymer content and mix type. Also the 5. Elongation (%) 7.3
effect of various sisal fibre content (0.5-3%), SBR 6. Water absorption (%) 180
polymer content (1-15%) and their interactive effect on
flow values for various mixes of 1:3 mortar is Table 4: Physical properties of SBR polymer
thoroughly investigated. Sl.No. Property Values
1. Colour Milky white
2. Total solid content (%) 44
2 Experimental Program 3. Water content (%) 56
2.1 Materials for Mortar 4. pH 10
5. Specific gravity 1.03
Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) of grade 43
confirming to IS 8112-2013, good quality locally Table 5: Mix proportions of various mixes
available river sand and potable water were used in
Mix Cement Sand Fibre Polymer
preparation of mortar. Natural fibre named sisal fibre
(By (By content content
available in 300 mm lengths was cut and used an aspect
parts) parts) (%) (%)
ratio from 125 to 215. Styrene butadiene rubber (SBR)
Control 1 3 - -
polymer was used to enhance the properties of mortar
PMM 1 3 - 1 to15%
mixes and the water content already present in SBR is
SFM 1 3 0.5 to 3% -
adjusted with designed W/C ratios. The physical
properties of all the materials used were provided in the PMSFM 1 3 0.5 to 3% 1 to15%
Table 1 to 4.
2.3 Test Program
2.2 Mix Proportions The 1:3 mortar mixes were tested for determining
The mix was designed for 1:3 mortar by the effects of fibre and polymer content on flow
considering four different mixes Viz. control mix, characteristics using flow table test confirming to IS
Polymer modified mortar (PMM) mix, sisal fibre 4031: Part-7. The flow table test is performed by placing
reinforced mortar (SFM) mix and Polymer modified the mortar sample inside the frustum of cone mould in
sisal fibre reinforced mortar (PSFM) mix and shown in two layers and each layer is tamped 20 times smoothly
Table 5. The varying parameters considered were with tamping bar and excess mortar is wiped off. Then
water/cement (W/C) ratio, fibre content and polymer remove the mould and operate the machine to offer 25
content. The mixes were prepared with fibre content drops to the placed sample. The flow is measured for the
(FC) varying from 0.5% - 3% and polymer content (PC) increased base at least for four diameters with equi-
from 1% - 15%. W/C ratio has been varied by spaced intervals and is expressed as a percentage
considering the attainment flow values ranging from increase with that of the original base diameter. The
80% - 100%. flow table test for each mix is performed by increasing
W/C ratio upto the attainment of aimed flow percentage
Table 1: Physical properties of cement (OPC 43 grade) of 80% to 100%.
Sl.No. Property Values
1. Standard consistency (%) 29.5
2. Initial setting time (min) 120 3.2 Effect of Polymer Content on Flow
3. Final setting time (min) 270 Characteristics of Mortar
4. Soundness (mm) 1 The effect of different percentages of polymer
5. Specific gravity 3.15 contents on flow characteristics of mortar for various
W/C ratios is shown in Fig.1. The flow curves of PMM
Table 2: Physical properties of sand falls above the control mortar, confirming that the effect
Sl.No. Property Values of polymer addition improves the flow characteristics of
1. Specific gravity 2.6 mortar. In general, increase of PC and W/C ratio
2. Water absorption (%) 1% increases the flow value. However, critically comparing
3. Bulk density (kg/m3) 1683 the flow values for each PC shows that the flow
4. Fineness modulus 2.83 increases with increase in PC but the curves with PC of
5. Zone II 9%, 10% and 11% are overlapped at different W/C
ratios and also the PC-13% shifts below the PC-15%
curve. Therefore, from the above point, it is realized that
837
the selection of low PC with higher flows are also respectively. Therefore, this may be due to the fact that
possible. Hence PC of 13% and 10% are wise choice the fibre used in SSD condition imparts higher flow
instead of 15% and 11% respectively for bringing the differences for low to high FC at higher W/C ratios.
advantageous in achieving required flow at minimum Moreover, the flow of control mortar starts at W/C ratio
polymer dosages. The improvement in flow with respect of 0.45, SFM at FC between 0.5% and 2.5% starts at 0.5
to control mortar is compared for flow curve with higher W/C ratios and for FC of 3% the flow begins only at
flows. In this aspect, the higher flow is achieved for PC 0.55 W/C ratios. From this, it is clear that the water
of 13%, showing the increase in flow at W/C ratio of requirement is more for SFM compared to control
0.45 is around 8.3 times with that of control mortar. mortar whereas mix with FC content greater than 2.5%
Also, the aimed flow percentage of 80-100% is achieved requires still higher W/C ratio to attain a measurable
at lower W/C ratio for PMM but a flow of only 24.5% flow. Also it is seen that upto W/C ratio of 0.6, the flow
attained for control mortar. From this it is clear that the curves of FC-3% and FC-2% shifts over the flow curves
addition of polymer imparts very high flow of FC-2.5% and FC-1.5% respectively but after W/C
improvement even at low W/C ratios. Almost all flow ratio of 0.6 the curves are vice versa, showing the fibre
curves (PC-1% to PC-15%) are noticed to convening effect is non linear at lower W/C ratios whereas shows
closer as W/C ratio increases and this implies that the linear trend at higher w/c ratios. Altogether, the attained
effect of polymer at higher W/C ratios is very less but higher percentage loss in flow for SFM is observed for
the effect is vice-versa at lower W/C ratios. Moreover, 3% FC and is compared to control mortar, which seems
increase of PC achieves the flow at very low W/C ratios to be in the range of 75 to 38% for w/c ratios between
i.e. the flow starts very earlier for higher PCs when 0.55 and 0.7.
compared with low PCs and control mortar. Therefore,
the mixes with very low W/C ratio and higher PC impart
a mortar to achieve measurable flow.
Figure 2: Flow Vs W/C ratio for Control & SFM mixes

Figure 1: Flow Vs W/C ratio for Control & PMM mixes 3.3 Comparative discussion on PMM and SFM mixes
with flow curves and flow value
3.2 Effect of Fibre Content on Flow Characteristics
of Mortar The flow curves and flow values obtained for PMM
and SFM are compared and critical ranges of varying
In the Fig.2, the effect of fibre content on flow
parameters are presented in this discussion. In the Fig.3
characteristics at various W/C ratios is shown. From this
the curves for control mortar, PMM and SFM mixes are
it is seen that the flow curves of SFM shows opposite
correlated. From this, it is clearly seen that the curves of
trend when compared with PMM curves. Therefore, it is
SFM are lying below the control mix and PMM curves
clear that the addition of fibre reduces the flow values
are above control mix. Therefore, this confirms that
when compared with flow of control mortar. Also
there is a loss in flow is observed for SFM mixes and
increase of FC from 0.5% to 3% shows reduction in
wide improvement in flow has been noticed for PMM
flow, but FC of 0.5% illustrates improved flow from
mixes. On the other hand, the PMM attains flow at a
0.55 W/C ratio compared to control mix. This
very minimum W/C ratio of around 0.3 whereas the
improvement of flow may be due to the minimum FC,
control and SFM mixes attained the flow only at W/C
which is not sufficient to restrict the flow performance.
ratios of 0.45 and 0.5 respectively. Hence the higher
The percentage reduction of flow for control mortar and
water requirement particularly in SFM mixes to attain
SFM at 3% FC is compared and it is evident that the
sufficient flow will leads to lower strength, which can
reduction of flow almost ranges from 38 to 75% at
be expected to compensate by incorporation of polymer
various W/C ratios. In addition, the flow curves for
in SFM mortar mixes. The use of SBR polymer in SFM
various FC (0.5%-3%) are critically evaluated at
mixes may also contributes to even distribution of fibres
constant W/C ratio and this depicts that at W/C ratio of
throughout the mix and thereby solves the purpose of
0.5, the differences of flow for various FC are very
fibre addition by maintaining uniformity in mixes and
closer than that of flows attained at W/C of 0.65 and
reducing balling effect. Also it is seen that the PMM
greater. The difference of flow for 0.5% and 3% ranges
curves converges at higher W/C ratio but the SFM
from 19.4% to 53.7% between W/C ratio 0.5 and 0.65
curves diverges at higher W/C ratio. In other words, it is
838
seen that the increase in polymer addition doesnt shows higher PC of 7-15% are to be dealt distinctly. It is
much effect at higher W/C ratios when compared with noticed that the PC of 5% shows better flow among PC
lower W/C ratio but the increase in fibre addition below 5% and also PC of 10% and 13% performs
improves flow at higher W/C ratios. From the Table 6, superior than other PC. However, the optimum flow at
it is evident that the PMM with W/C ratio of 0.45 high W/C ratios can be achieved by combining lower
particularly starts to cover the wide range of mixes than FC with lower PC and higher PC with higher FC.
other lower W/C ratios by attaining flow for all PCs
3.3 Effect of Fibre - Polymer interaction on Flow
used. As overall, the W/C ratio between 0.35 and 0.45
Characteristics of Mortar using critical PC
almost covers major mixes by starts attaining flow in
PMM mixes with medium to higher flow percentages. The combined effect of fibre and polymer on flow
By comparing SFM and PMM, W/C ratio of 0.5 starts to characteristics of mortar has been studied for the
cover almost all mixes with various FC and PC by selected PMM mixes based on discussion under sec 3.1.
attaining the measurable flow. Moreover, the selection The selected PC of 5% and 10% are used to make
of W/C has to be made by compensating the flow loss mortar mixes with all FC employed in SFM mixes and
and flow gain in both PMM and SFM mixes. From the their effects on flow performances are presented in the
Table 7, it is noticed that the flow value minimized at Fig.4. It is noticed that almost all flow curves of
0.5 W/C ratios for the fibre content from 0.5% to 3% PMSFM falling above the control mortar, illustrating
and on the other hand the flow is maximized for the that the polymer addition in SFM improves the flow
W/C of 0.45with respect to various polymer dosages. performance with the chosen PC of 5% and10% for the
From this it is desired to maintain the W/C ratio mixes having FC from 0.5% to 3%. This improvement
between 0.4 and 0.45 for obtaining measurable flow. in flow is noticed to be about 1.2-4 times and 1.3-5.6
Also, the compensation of flow loss in SFM at particular times for mixes produced with PC of 5% and 10%
FC will be achieved by adopting particular range of PC. respectively for various W/C ratios and FCs. Also it is
Furthermore, it is noticed that at lower W/C ratio, the evident that the flow behavior seems to be higher with
flow can achieved only beyond 10% PC and so selecting decreasing FC and with increasing PC. Moreover, the
lower FC for such mixes will be able to balance the lost flow is noticed for constant FC with PC of 5% and 10%
flow in SFM. Moreover, the lower PC of 1-5% and
Table 6: Flow values in percentage given for Control, PMM and SFM for various W/C ratios
w/c ratio control mix SFM-Fibre Content (F.C) PMM- Polymer Content (P.C)
0.5% 1% 1.5% 2% 2.5% 3% 1% 3% 5% 7% 9% 10% 11% 13% 15%
0.25 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 4.3
0.3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 10.9 28.7 23.5
0.35 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 21.5 31.1 31.7 21.8 47.5 42.6
0.4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 17.2 25.3 41.9 51.2 52.5 45.4 66.3 61.8
0.45 10.2 0 0 0 0 0 0 20.3 47.3 52.6 62.1 66 73.3 69 85.2 81
0.5 24.5 19.4 13.9 8.4 16.3 6.3 0 48.5 77.1 79.8 82.4 88.8 94.1 92.7 104 100.1
0.55 47.8 52.1 31.4 23 26.8 12.4 11.8 76.7
0.6 70.2 76.9 61.4 51.7 48 27.3 27.1
0.65 83 96.9 83 72.6 65.2 47.3 43.2
0.7 101.13 124.2 102 91.9 86.8 71.8 62.5
0.75 - 149.6 123.3 109.4 100.7 77.2 80.2
Figure 3: Comparative flow curves for Control, PMM and SFM mixes
839
Table 7: Difference in flow value for higher and lower the flow curves towards the curve of control mortar,
flow values at constant W/C ratio for PMM and SFM implying that mixes with higher FC behaves as control
mortar even with polymer addition. Anyhow the FC of
W/C PMM-Difference Difference in flow upto 2.5% with both PC of 5% and 10% offers
ratio in PC (%) (%) measurable flow at W/C ratio of 0.4, which is earlier
0.3 3 17.8 than control, showing approximately equal flow only at
0.35 4 26
W/C of 0.45. Also, when comparing PMSFM curves
0.4 10 49
0.45 12 64.9 with SFM at constant FC, it is possible to observe the
0.5 12 55.5 compensation of flow loss with minimum water
W/C SFM-Difference in Difference in flow requirement in PMSFM mixes due to polymer
ratio FC (%) (%) interaction. Fig.5 and Fig.6 clearly shows the overall
0.5 2.5 19.4 flow performances of all the mixes Viz. control mortar,
0.55 2.5 40.3 PMM, SFM and PMSFM. The figure depicts that the
0.6 2.25 49.8 obtained flow curves of PMSFM are falling between
0.65 2.5 53.7 PMM and control mortar mixes. Furthermore, it is
0.7 2.5 61.7 accomplished that due to fibre-polymer interaction, the
0.75 2.5 69.4 flow gain in PMM and flow loss in SFM are well
adjusted and the flow compensation has been noticed for
and it is observed that the mixes at all FC with 10% of all flow curves with FC from 0.5% to 3% in PMSFM
PC performs better than 5% PC with the exception of with the selected PC. However, for obtaining better
mix at a FC of 1.5%. Therefore, the flow curves with PC mortar composites, selection of W/C ratio has to be
of 5% and 10% with FC of 1.5% almost overlap each made with respect to appropriate flow curve presented
other and establish the behavior of fibre-polymer and in turn depends on flow requirement and
interaction at FC of 1.5% to be more critical. Moreover, applications of composites.
as increase in FC irrespective of PC and W/C ratio shifts
Figure 6: Flow curve showing range of distribution of

Figure 4: Flow curves for PMSFM mixes at various flow for control, PMM, SFM and PMSFM mixes
W/C ratios
4 Conclusions
The various useful conclusions were made from the
results obtained as follows:
1. Increase in the fibre content decreases the flow
value whereas increase of polymer content and
W/C ratios increases the flow value increases as
compared the control mortar.
2. The maximum increase in the flow value of PMM
mixes is 8.3 times more than the control mortar
for the polymer content of 13%
3. There is no significant improvement in the flow
value is observed beyond 13% polymer content
for the chosen W/C ratio of 0.25 to 0.55.
4. The maximum decrease in the flow value of SFM
for the fibre content of 3% ranges about 38-75%
Figure 5: Flow spread for control, PMM, SFM and for the selected W/C ratios.
PMM mixes 5. In the PMSFM mixes, the improvement in the
flow value is about 1.2-4 times at 5% PC and 1.3-
840
5.6 times at 10% PC higher than the control [10] Sumit Chakraborty, Sarada Prasad Kundu, Aparna
mortar. Roy, Ratan Kumar Basak, Basudam Adhikari, and
6. Due to addition of SBR polymer in the SFM Majumder, S.B., Improvement of the mechanical
mixes, the flow values are increased reasonably, properties of jute fibre reinforced cement mortar:A
with less W/C ratios. Also a uniform distribution statistical approach, Construction and Building
of sisal fibres in the mix was observed, while Materials, Volume No.38, pp.776784, 2013.
mixing with polymer. [11] Sarada Prasad Kundu, Sumit Chakraborty, Aparna
7. The developed flow curves for various mixes can Roy, Basudam Adhikari, and Majumder, S.B.,
be used to choose W/C ratios for various cement Chemically modified jute fibre reinforced non-
mortar application based on flow value. pressure (NP) concrete pipes with improved
mechanical properties, Construction and Building
Acknowledgments
Materials, Volume No.37, pp.841850, 2012.
The authors wish to thank the Principal and the [12] Sumit Chakraborty, Sarada Prasad Kundu, Aparna
Head of the Department, Pondicherry Engineering Roy, Ratan Kumar Basak, Basudam Adhikari, and
College for their continuous support and encouragement Majumder, S.B, Polymer modified jute fibre as
in respect of undertaking this study. Also, it is reinforcing agent controlling the physical and
acknowledged that the laboratory facilities are provided mechanical characteristics of cement mortar,
by the Department of civil Engineering, Pondicherry Construction and Building Materials, Volume
Engineering College, Puducherry. No.49, pp.214222, 2013.
[13] Pandya Mithileshdatta D., Dr.N.K.Arora, Prof.
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reinforced with coconut fibre, Cement & Concrete [18] Roel Hendrickx, The adequate measurement of
Composites, Volume No.27 pp. 565574, 2005. the workability of masonry mortar, Phd report,
[6] de Gutierrez, R.M., Diaz, L.N., Delvasto, S., Katholieke Universiteit, Faculty of Engineering
Effect of pozzolans on the performance of fiber- Leuven, Beligium,2009.
reinforced mortars, Cement & Concrete
Composites, Volume No.27 pp. 593598, 2005.
[7] Mohr, B.J., Biernacki, J.J., Kurtis, K.E.,
Supplementary cementitious materials for
mitigating degradation of kraft pulp fiber-cement
composites, Cement and Concrete Research
Volume No.37, pp.15311543, 2007.
[8] Canovas, M.F., Selva, N.H., and Kawiche.G.M.,
New economical solutions for improvement of
durability of Portland cement mortars reinforced
with sisal fibres, Materials and structures, Volume
No.25, pp.417-422, 1992.
[9] ACI 548.3R-03, Polymer-Modified Concrete,
June 17, 2003.
841
Effect of Graded Fibers on the Strength and Post Peak Deformation

Capacity of Glass Fiber Reinforced Concrete
Hanuma Kasagani1, C B K Rao2

1
Department of Civil Engineering, National Institute of Technology, Warangal 506004, INDIA,
2
Department of Civil Engineering, National Institute of Technology, Warangal 506004, INDIA,
Abstract
Glass Fiber Reinforced Concrete improves strength and deformation of concrete. Fibers of different
stiffness are combined (hybrid fibers) to further improve the characteristics of concrete. Similarly blending of long and
short length of fibers (Graded fibers) may enhance the properties of concrete at peak strength and post peak deformation
of composite. The idea of Graded Fibers may help in arresting the micro and as well as macro cracks thus improve both
pre and post peak performances of concrete. This paper presents research on the effect of addition of Graded Glass
Fibers with different fiber length and volume fraction in Glass Fiber Reinforced Concrete. The experimental work was
carried out for M40 grade of concrete with 0.20% fiber volume, Mono Glass Fibers (150 m, 6 mm and 20 mm length
fiber), short length Graded fiber in Graded form (150 m Micro length fiber + 6 mm Short length fiber) and long length
Glass fibres in Graded form (150 m Micro length fiber + 6 mm Short length fiber + 20 mm Long length fiber). This
investigation showed that there is a significant amount of post peak deformation capacity of Graded Glass Fibers than
Mono Glass Fiber Reinforced Concrete.
Key words: Mono Glass Fiber, Graded Glass Fibers, Energy absorption
1 Introduction 2. Research Significance

Micro fine fiber cement composites are Mixing of fibers can be done in different ways.
fundamentally different from conventional fiber In mono fiber only one length of fiber is used. Mixing
reinforced concrete containing relatively large fibers of of different types of fibers is termed as Hybrid fibers.
steel. Strength in tension may be significantly higher Mixing of different lengths in concrete is named as
than that of the plain matrix. [1]. In case of glass fibers Graded fibers. This investigation is focused on Mono
size is less than 45m it act as pozzalonic material [2]. fiber reinforced concrete and Graded Glass fiber
Given their fine size, in the composite, micro-fibers are reinforced concrete with varying volume fractions of
able to provide reinforcing mechanisms at the micro- different-sized Glass Fibers. In the present work direct
level such that the micro cracks are arrested and compression tests were performed on prismatic
stabilized before they acquire unstable dimensions [3]. specimens. Three lengths of AR glass fibers 150
It has also been proposed that in the presence of micro- micron, 6 mm length and 20 mm length are combined in
fibers, the intrinsic performance of the matrix itself is different proportions to form Graded glass fibers in one
enhanced [4]. For the volume of fibers normally used grade of concrete M40. The study was aimed at
for cementitious composites, when relatively large understanding the effect of length of the fiber on the
fibers are used as reinforcement, only a small composite.
improvement in peak strength is observed [5-6]. This is 3. Experimental Program and Testing
probably due to the fact that matrix cracking first occurs 3.1Materials and Mixing
at the micro level. If fibers are far apart, they have no Materials used in this research work are
ability to arrest micro cracks. However, once the micro Ordinary Portland Cement of 53 Grade, fly ash, coarse
cracks condense into macro cracks, the large fibers can and fine aggregates are confirming to IS12269, IS 3812-
arrest propagation of macro cracks and substantially 1, IS 383 respectively [12.13 and 14]. The specific
improve the toughness or energy absorption capability gravity of materials are: cement- 3.15, coarse and fine
to the composite [7-8]. A combination of macro fiber aggregates- 2.7, fly ash- 2.17, and superplasticizer-
and microfiber has been demonstrated to be effective in 1.18, and glass fibers- 2.6. Alkali Resistant Glass
a mortar matrix because these fibers influence crack Fibers with tensile strength of 1700 MPa and elastic
growth at different stages of the failure process. Thus modulus of about 73 GPa, length Fiber 150 m, 6 mm
improve an increase in peak strength and energy and 20 mm with filament diameter of 13.5 m were
absorption far beyond what was achievable with micro used. Conplast SP430 superplasticizer was used for all
fibers or macro fibers alone [9, 10 and 11].1 mixes as per IS 9103 [15]. The plain concrete was
designed for M40 and proportions are given in Table 1
1
Research Scholar, hanudurga@gmail.com as per IS 10262 [16]. The mix labels with different
2
Professor, raocbk@gmail.com volume fraction are given in Table 2.
842
Hanuma Kasagani and C B K Rao
Table 1 Mixture Proportion for M40 Grade of Concrete Table 3 Summary of the test results
Fly Fine Coarse Energy
Cement Water Peak Post Peak
Ash Aggregate Aggregate Absorption,
Kg/m3 Kg/m3 Mix Strength, Deformation
Kg/m3 Kg/m3 Kg/m3 (X10-2 N
label u capacity, br
400 100 225 744 960 mm)
(MPa) (X10-4 )
Super plasticizer 2.5 Kg/m3
MV0 27.30 33.41 6.79
In these experimental program prisms of size 100 mm x
MV1 37.57 47.53 13.64
100 mm x 200 mm were cast as per the program with
MV2 35.34 52.17 14.15
proper compaction and vibration. After the completion
MV3 31.54 60.83 15.56
of casting all the specimens were cured for 28 days.
MV4 35.92 57.17 16.2
There were three specimens with each mix label to
obtain average value. MV5 38.82 65.97 20.2
Table 2 Fiber volume proportions MV6 40.38 49.27 15.7
MV7 37.62 86.32 24.80
Glass Fiber Length MV8 30.90 60.83 15.30
Mix Vf
label (%) 150 MV9 32.62 51.54 12.66
6mm 20mm MV10 31.78 66.78 16.73
m
MV0 0 - - - MV11 30.36 35.54 7.98
MV1 100% - - MV12 28.92 39.29 8.50
MV13 27.50 47.03 9.76
MV2 - 100% -
br = Strain at Failure
MV3 - - 100%
MV4 50% 50% - It can be observed, that the stress-strain curves
MV5 60% 40% - of Glass Fiber Reinforced Concrete (GFRC) is similar
MV6 40% 60% - to response of plain concrete up to linear portion. For all
MV7 0.2 40 % 30% 30% the mixes with 0.2% fiber volume, as the fiber length
MV8 40 % 40 % 20 % decreases to 150 m, the composite peak strength
MV9 40 % 20 % 40 % increased. On the other side with increment of fiber
MV10 33.33% 33.33% 33.33% length to 20 mm there is a considerable increase in post
peak deformation capacity (Figure 1). Study of micro
MV11 40% - -
length fibers and long length fibers with less volume
MV12 - 30% - fraction viz about 0.06% as shown in Figure 4 and the
MV13 - - 30% behavior of stress strain diagram with less volume
fraction (almost minimum volume fraction) is similar to
3.2 Testing volume fraction 0.2%. That is, to say the micro length
fibers contributed to increase in peak strength and long
The Prism was arranged in the testing machine length fiber contributed in post peak deformation
of capacity 2000 KN with load cell. Before placing the capacity.
prism in the testing machine, it is equipped with
Linearly Varying Displacement Transducers (LVDTs)
with a gauge length of 100 mm. These LVDTs and load
cell are connected to the Data Acquisition System
(DAS). The axis of the specimen was carefully aligned
at the center of the loading frame. The specimen is
subjected to gradual increase of load and displacements
are recorded.
4. Results and Discussions
The load and displacement values were
converted to stress-strain values for all the mixes. From
these values, the curves were drawn to understand the
response of stress-strain curves with different
parameters (Figure 1 to 4) and summary of the test
results (peak strength, post peak deformation capacity Figure 1 stress-strain response of mono lengths of
and energy absorption) are shown in Table 3. fibers with 0.2% volume fraction
Mixing of micro length fiber (150 m) and
short length fiber (6mm) termed as short length Graded
fiber concrete. For all the mixes fiber volume is 0.2%.
Specimens with designation MV4, MV5 and MV6
belong to this category and the stress strain diagram is
shown in Figure 2. Results shows the peak strength is
843
higher for the mix having 60% 150 m + 40% 6mm mono fibers i.e., 0.08%. That is, specimens are cast with
length fiber and post peak deformations is higher for the 40% of 0.2% volume with150 m fiber alone separately
mix having 40% 150 m + 60% 6mm length fiber. The and named as MV11. Similarly the specimen viz. 0.06%
micro length fiber content contributed to increase in volume fraction with 6 mm and 0.06% volume fraction
peak strength on the other hand short length fiber with 20 mm fibers are also cast and named as MV12
content contributed to significant amount of and MV13. Stress strain diagram of these mono length
deformation capacity. fiber GFRC of M40 is shown in Figure 4. The trend is
similar as earlier, that is to say that micro length fiber
contribute to improvement in peak strength and long
length fiber contributes to post peak deformation
capacity.
Figure 2 stress-strain response of Graded Fiber volume

0.2% combinations with (150 m + 6mm)
Figure 4 stress-strain response of mono lengths of
Thus it is evident from the above that the long fibers with different volume fractions
length fibers contribute for post peak deformation Strength and deformation of MV7 is computed
capacity. Advantage of Graded fiber GFRC is presented by law of mixtures from MV11, MV12 and MV13 as
with only two lengths viz. 150 m and 6 mm. A further shown in Table 4 and 5. The theoretical composite
study is undertaken by adding one more length viz. 20 strength of MV7 is 32.18 MPa and experimental is
mm length fiber in the mix 40% 150 m + 60% 6mm 37.62 MPa is shown in Table 4. Similar theoretical
length fiber. It is logical to add some long length fiber in strain at failure for MV7 is 55.22 and experimental
the 60% of Graded part. Hence the 60% part is now value is 86.32.
further Graded with the 30% 6 mm + 30% 20 mm, 20% Table 4 Theoretical peak strength calculation
6 mm + 40% 20 mm and 40% 6 mm + 20% 20 mm and Experi-
designated as MV7, MV8, and MV9 respectively. A Peak Fiber Theoretical
Mix mental
study was also conducted by equal proportion of the Strength contribution value
label Value- MV7
(MPa) (MPa) (MPa)
these fibers viz. 33.33% 150 m + 33.33% 6 mm + (MPa)
33.33% 20 mm, named as MV10. Stress strain diagram MV0 27.30 -
for MV7, MV8, MV9 and MV10 is shown in Figure 3. 30.36-27.30 27.30
MV11 30.36
Among all the mixes, the mix with 40% 150 m + 30% =3.06 +3.06
6mm + 30% 20mm length fiber shows the better peak 28.92-27.30 +1.62 37.62
MV12 28.92 +0.20
strength and post peak deformation capacity. =1.62
27.50-27.30 =32.18
MV13 27.50
=0.20
Table 5 Theoretical Strain at failure calculation
Experi-
Strain
Mix Fiber Theoretic mental
at
label contribution al value Value
failure
(MV7)
MV0 33.41 -
35.54-33.41 33.41
MV11 35.54
=2.31 +2.31
39.29-33.41 +5.88 86.32
MV12 39.29
=5.88 +13.62
Figure 3 stress-strain response of Graded Fiber volume 47.03-33.41 =55.22
MV13 47.03
0.2% combinations with (150 m + 6mm + 12mm) =13.62
For each mix the total energy absorption
Now study is focused on the behavior of GFRC capacity is calculated by considering area under the
concrete where fractional volume of fiber is present as stress-strain curve. Energy absorption for all the mixes
844
Hanuma Kasagani and C B K Rao
with mono fiber and Graded fibers for various fiber [2] Khmiri, M. Chaabouni, B. Samet, Chemical
volume combinations is shown in Figure 5. For the behaviour of ground waste glass when used as partial
mono fibers, mix containing 20mm fiber length shows cement replacement in mortars, Construction and
the more energy absorption capacity. In Graded fibers, Building Materials, Vol. 44, pp. 74-80, 2013.
mix containing 40% 150 m + 30% 6mm + 30% 20mm [3] Yilmaz Akkaya, Surendra P.Shah, and Bruce
fiber length combination shows better energy absorption Ankenman, Effect of Fiber Disperssion on Multiple
capacity both with mono fibers and Graded fibers. Cracking of Cement Composites, Journal of
Hence, Graded fiber GFRC is perform better than mono Engineering Mechanics, Vol. 127, No. 4, pp. 311-337,
fiber GFRC. 2001.
[4] N. Banthia and J. Sheng, Fracture Toughness
of Micro-Fiber Reinforced Cement Composites,
Cement & Concrete Composites, Vol. 18, No. 6, pp.
251-269, 1996.
[5] L.R. Betterman, C. Ouyang,t and S.P. Shah:
Fiber-Matrix Interaction in Microfiber-Reinforced
Mortar, Advanced Cement based Materials, Vol.2, pp.
53-61, 1995.
[6] Shashi Kant Sharma, Aditya Anupam Kumar,
G.D. Ransinchung R.N, and Praveen Kumar, Micro
Fiber Reinforced Cement Paste and Mortar OverlaysA
Review, International Journal of Pavement Research
and Technology, Vol.33, No.4, pp. 765-772, 2013.
Figure 5 Energy Absorption as a function of Fiber [7] N. Banthia, R. Gupta, Hybrid fiber reinforced
volume concrete (HYFRC): fiber synergy in high strength
matrices, Materials and Structures, Vol.37, pp. 707-716,
5. Conclusions
2004.
Effect of the Mono Glass fiber, Graded Glass fibers [8] Y. Akkaya, A. Peled and S. P. Shah,
on M40 concrete with fiber content (0.20% by volume Parameters related to fiber length and processing in
of concrete) on the stress-strain response of Glass fiber cementitious composites, Materials and Structures,
reinforced concrete was studied and the following Vol.33, No.4, pp. 515-524, 1999.
observations are reported. [9] Nemkumar Banthia, Vivek Bindiganavile,
1) Micro length fiber (150 m) contribute to Performance Synergy in Hybrid Fiber Reinforced
improvement in peak strength and long length fiber Concrete under Impact, Journal of Frontiers in
(20 mm) contributes to post peak deformation Construction Engineering, Vol.6, No.6 pp. 75-82, 2013
capacity. [10] John S. Lawler, Davide Zampini, Surendra
2) The peak strength is higher for the mix having 60% P.Shah. Microfiber and Macrofiber Hybrid Fiber-
150 m + 40% 6mm length fiber and post peak Reinforced concrete, Journal of Materials in Civil
deformations is higher for the mix having 40% 150 Engineering, Vol.17, No. 5, pp. 595-604, 2005.
m + 60% 6mm length fiber [11] Brian N. Skourup, Leslie E. Robertson
3) Among all the long length Graded mixes, the mix Associates, Ece Erdogmus, Characteristics of PVA
with 40% 150 m + 30% 6mm + 30% 20mm length Fiber-Reinforced Mortars ASCE, Structures Congress,
fiber shows the better peak strength and post peak Vol.2, pp.1622-1631, 2009.
deformation capacity. [12] IS: 12269 - 2013, Indian Standard Ordinary
4) The mix with long Graded Fibers, namely 40% 150 Portland Cement, 53 Grade Specification, Bureau of
m + 30% 6 mm + 30% 20 mm length fibers given Indian Standards, New Delhi 2013.
overall better improvement compared to Mono [13] IS: 3812-1 2003 Indian Standard
fibers and Graded fibers. Specification for Fly Ash, Bureau of Indian Standards,
5) In case of long length Graded fibers improvement New Delhi, 2003.
in pre peak strength is less compared to short length [14] IS: 383 1970 (Reaffirmed 2002), Indian
Graded fibers and post peak deformation capacity is Standard Specification for Coarse and Fine Aggregates
higher for long length Graded fibers than short from Natural Sources for Concrete, Bureau of Indian
length Graded fibers. Standards, New Delhi, 2002.
6) Energy absorption capacity is higher for Graded [15] IS: 9103 - 1999, Standard Specification for
Glass Fibers than Mono Glass Fiber Reinforced Chemical Admixtures for Concrete, Bureau of Indian
Concrete. Standards, New Delhi, 1999.
[16] IS: 10262 - 2009, Indian Standard Concrete
6. References Mix Proportioning - Guidelines, Bureau of Indian
[1] N. Banthia, A. Moncef, K. Chokri, and J. Standards, New Delhi, 2009.
Sheng, Uniaxial tensile response of Micro-fiber
reinforced cement composites, Canadian journal of
civil engineering, Vol.21, pp. 999-1011, 1994.
845
ON THE TOUGHNESS CHARACTERIZATION OF FIBRE

REINFORCED CONCRETE USING NOTCHED BEAM TESTS
Sujatha Jose 1 and Ravindra Gettu 2
1,2
The significant benefit of using fibre reinforced concrete (FRC) is its improved energy absorption capacity, termed as
toughness, and the consequent enhanced post-cracking load carrying capacity, which have resulted in applications such
as tunnel linings, pavements, industrial floors etc. There is limited knowledge regarding notched beam testing in India
for flexural toughness characterization of FRC though it is prevalent in Europe. In the current work, the flexural
behavior of concrete with different dosages of hooked-ended steel fibres are characterized by center-point loaded (CPL)
notched beam testing, according to the EN 14651:2005 and RILEM TC 162-TDF recommendations. The flexural
toughness parameters assessed are based on the load-crack mouth opening displacement (CMOD) curves and load-
deflection (d) curves obtained experimentally. A detailed analysis also revealed that for steel FRC, a good correlation
exists between equivalent and residual flexural tensile strength parameters.
Keywords: Fibre reinforced concrete, Flexural toughness, Notched beam test, Crack mouth opening displacement
1 Introduction
The enhanced performance of fibre reinforced 2 Flexural toughness testing based on the notched
concrete is due to its increased energy absorption beam test
capacity during fracture, which is termed as toughness. The tests are performed in a closed-loop servo-
The main objective of toughness characterization is to controlled Controls testing system as shown in Fig. 1.
measure the effectiveness of the fibres and the The test control and data acquisition is done through a
resistance offered against crack propagation. The test Controls software interface Advantest. The test is
configuration commonly used for toughness performed initially under load control by increasing the
characterization is the bending of prismatic specimens. load at a constant rate of 100 N/s up to about 40% of the
From the fracture mechanics perspective, the notched estimated peak load, and then by changing to crack
beam test is mostly recommended for toughness mouth opening displacement (CMOD) control.
characterization due to its rational analysis [1, 2]. However, both deflection and crack mouth opening are
Over the past few decades, extensive research has measured as shown in Fig.2. The specimen dimensions
been carried out on the material properties of FRC. are 150 150 700 mm, and the span is 500 mm. A
Consequently, based on the state-of-the-art knowledge, notch is cut through the width of specimen at mid-span
FRC is introduced in the fib Model Code 2010 to on a face that is parallel to the casting direction. Since
provide design guidelines for the design of FRC the crack opening is measured at a distance of y (= 3
structural elements, at both serviceability and ultimate mm) from the bottom face of the specimen, the value of
limit states. In this code, material classification of FRC CMOD has to be corrected as:
is based on the flexural toughness parameters with
respect to post-cracking tensile strength, determined
from bending tests on notched prisms according to EN
14651 [3, 4].
Considering the fact that notched beam test gives a where h is the depth of the specimen (i.e., 150 mm) and
more reliable test data and post cracking response of CMODy is the measured value. For measuring the
FRC, relevant for structural applications, it is proposed deflection, two LVDTs are mounted on rigid frames
as the basis of the present work. The notched beam test fixed to the either side of the specimen and the tips rest
with Center Point Loading (CPL) is performed as per on 1 mm thick steel plates placed across the notch.
EN 14651:2005 (E) and RILEM TC 162-TDF: Test and
design methods of steel fibre reinforced concrete,
Bending Test: Final Recommendations [5, 6].
1
Doctoral research scholar, sujathavin@gmail.com
2
Professor, gettu@iitm.ac.in
846
Sujatha Jose and Ravindra Gettu
2.2 Flexural Toughness Parameters

Flexural toughness parameters in are derived from
the load-CMOD curves and load-deflection curves. The
Limit of Proportionality fctf (LOP) and Residual Flexural
Tensile Strength (fR) are the parameters recommended
by EN 14651:2005 (E) [3], which are obtained from
load-CMOD curve as in Fig. 4. The LOP represents the
flexural strength of the composite obtained using the
first peak load of the FRC specimen. Residual flexural
strength is an estimate of flexural strength retained by
FRC after cracking at particular crack widths of 0.5, 1.5,
2.5 and 3.5 mm.
Figure 1:Experimental Setup
Figure 2: Position of the Clip gauge and 2 LVDTs for Figure 4: Estimation of LOP and Residual flexural
measuring CMOD and deflections, respectively strength from Typical Load-CMOD Curve
Additionally, the equivalent flexural strength (feq)

2.1 Notching Procedure has been calculated from the load-d curve, as
A notch is cut through the width of specimen at recommended by RILEM TC 162-TDF, using the
mid-span on a face that is parallel to the casting average load over certain deflection ranges as in Fig. 5.
direction using a water-cooled diamond edged disc saw. The energy absorption DBZ,2(or DBZ,3) is equal to
Specimens are rotated 90 over their longitudinal axis the area under the load-deflection curve up to a
and then sawn as shown in Figure 3. The notch depth deflection 2 (or 3), and is taken to be the sum of the
contribution of the plain concrete and that of the fibres
adopted for 150 mm deep beam was 25 mm.
(DfBZ,2or DfBZ,3) as in Fig. 5. The two contributions are
separated by a straight line connecting the point on the
curve corresponding to FL and the point on the abscissa
equal to L +0.3, where L is the deflection at FL.
The equivalent flexural tensile strengths feq.2and
feq.3 can consequently be determined [6], as:
Figure 3: Position of the notch with respect to the test

specimen as cast
1- Top surface during casting
2 Notch.
3 -Cross-section of test specimen
hsp is the distance between the tip of the notch and the
top of the specimen, in millimeters
The test specimens are cured for a minimum of

3 days after sawing. Toughness testing is performed at
28 days. The width of the notch is about 3 mm.
847
Table 2: Nominal mix proportions in kg/m3

Material Quantity
Cement 380
Fine aggregates 760
5-10 mm Coarse aggregates 390
10-20 mm Coarse aggregates 700
Water 171
The concrete was mixed for about 3 minutes after

fibre addition. Specimens such as cubes of 150 150
150mm and prisms of 150 150 700mm, were cast
for plain concrete and different dosages of steel fibre
reinforced concretes (SFRC).
Nine prisms were cast, along with nine cubes for
each dosage of the mix, and a high frequency vibrating
table was used for compaction of the concrete in
moulds. Reference concrete without any fibres were
also cast. The specimens were left in the moulds for 24
hours after casting, then demoulded and cured for the
next 27 days in the mist room. Three days prior to the
testing, a notch of 25mm length was cut across the
longitudinal section and the specimen was kept again in
the mist room for curing. Flexural tests were performed
at the age of 28 days.
4.1 Fresh Properties

There was a loss in workability due to the addition
of fibres with lower slump being obtained.
Consequently, a poly-carboxylate (PCE) based
Figure 5: Estimation of the equivalent flexural strength superplasticizer (with a density of 1080 kg/m3 and solid
parameters from the load-deflection curve content of 33%), was used to obtain a reasonable
workability to be handled during fabrication. The
3 Experimental Programme superplasticizer dosage, by weight of cementitious
materials, was increased from 0.19% in plain concrete
The flexural behavior of concrete, having 40 MPa to 0.4% for 45 kg/m3 of steel fibres and the slump could
design compressive strength (denoted as M40), be maintained at 10020mm.In general, all mixes
reinforced with hooked-ended steel fibres was showed similar trends of workability reduction with an
characterized. The fibre details are given in Table 1, as increase in fibre dosage.
specified by the manufacturer. The nominal mix proportion
for the concretes are given in Table 2.
Table 1: Details of fibre Compressive strength tests were conducted on
Specific Tensile Fibre cubes at the ages of 3, 7 and 28 days using a 3 MN
Aspect capacity Controls compression testing machine; a
Type gravity strength dosages
ratio minimum of three specimens were tested at each age.
*(g/cc) *(MPa) kg/m3
Note that in the mix designation, M40 denotes the
Hooked- concrete grade, SF denotes the use of steel fibres, and
10,15,20,
ended steel 7.8 80 1225 the number at the end denotes the fibre dosage in kg/m3.
30,45
fibres The compressive strength values along with the
* specified by the manufacturer standard deviation are given in Table 3, for specimens
of different fibre volume fractions.
848
Table 3: Compressive strength of SFRC

Concrete (mean standard deviation)
at 3 days at 7 days at 28 days

M40SF0 22.31.2 33.70.5 47.10.3
M40SF10 22.50.8 34.40.9 48.40.8
M40SF15 23.50.7 35.61.5 49.20.6
M40SF20 26.70.8 36.71.6 50.41.3
M40SF30 27.91.3 37.30.7 51.51.7
M40SF45 28.60.4 38.00.9 52.80.7
Figure 6: Typical load-CMOD curves
From the Table 3, it can be observed that, the
incorporation of steel fibres resulted in an improvement
in the compressive strength compared to plain concrete,
from 3% to 12% for the fibre dosages of 10 kg/m3 to
45 kg/m3. This can be attributed to the bridging of
cracks by the fibres, which produces some internal
confinement, increasing the compressive strength. The
variability of compressive strengths is within the usual
range and are not influenced by the type or amount of
fibres.
4.3 Flexural behavior of SFRC and toughness

parameters
Typical load-CMOD curves for the SFRCs are
shown in Fig. 6. For all the mixes it was observed that, Figure 7: Typical load-deflection curves
the post-peak load-carrying capacity and the area under
the load CMOD curve increase with the fibre dosage, as Based on the data obtained, the FRC can be
expected. There is a gradual change from softening- to classified according to fib Model Code 2010 in terms of
hardening-type response with an increase in fibre the response at the serviceability limit state (represented
dosage (1045 kg/m3), especially at larger deflections by CMOD = 0.5mm) and at the ultimate limit state
(after a CMOD of 0.2 mm). In fact, for the M40SF45 (represented by CMOD = 2.5mm). Note that in order to
mix, the post-crack load-carrying capacity was even take into account the effect of variability of the test
higher than the peak load after a CMOD of 1 mm. For specimens, characteristic values of the parameters are
lower dosages of steel fibres (10 and 15 kg/m3), the considered, i.e., fR,1k. and fR,3k. The class of the FRC is
softening branch is followed by a region of constant denoted with a number followed by a letter: the number
residual load. The typical load-deflection curves of the is based on the value of fR,1k rounded off to the nearest
different mixes, presented in Fig.7, show similar trends 0.5 MPa and the letter depends on the ratio fR,3k/ fR,1k
as in the load-CMOD curves. The flexural toughness ratio, as follows:
parameters obtained for all the mixes are given in Table a, if 0.5 <fR,3k / fR,1k 0.7
4, as mean and standard deviation values. It can be seen b, if 0.7 <fR,3k / fR,1k 0.9
that the values of feq,3and fR,4 are higher than feq,2 and fR,1, c, if 0.9 <fR,3k / fR,1k 1.1
respectively, which indicates that the energy absorption d, if 1.1 <fR,3k / fR,1k 1.3
and post cracking capacity increase at larger crack e, if fR,3k / fR,1k >1.3
mouth openings, in the case of SFRC, especially at
higher dosages. The FRC is taken to be suitable can be used at
Ultimate Limit State (ULS) if the relationships given in
Eqns. (4) and (5) are fulfilled, where fLk is the
characteristic value of the LOP.
(4)
(5)
849
Table 4: Flexural toughness parameters of SFRC
Concrete LOP, fR,1 fR,2 fR,3 fR,4 feq,2 feq,3

fctf @CMOD @CMOD @CMOD @CMOD
(MPa) =0.5 mm =1.5 mm =2.5 mm =3.5 mm (MPa) (MPa)
(MPa) (MPa) (MPa) (MPa)
M40SF0 5.220.42 - - - - - -
M40SF10 5.330.39 2.190.18 2.110.20 2.130.24 2.050.29 1.990.33 2.040.26
M40SF15 5.440.45 2.350.23 2.480.26 2.550.29 2.480.32 2.090.31 2.400.21
M40SF20 5.580.42 3.400.48 3.730.53 3.800.34 3.680.27 3.230.55 3.620.43

M40SF30 5.380.42 4.040.61 5.210.65 5.540.75 5.480.75 3.890.70 5.030.61
M40SF45 5.470.41 5.300.77 6.701.22 6.631.55 6.531.40 5.290.84 6.331.19
The classification for the SFRCs tested based on

the fib Model Code2010, as well as the ratios given in
Eqns. (4 and 5) are is shown in the Table 5. It can be
observed that all the SFRCs considered here have
satisfied the restrictions on the minimum residual
strength, as given in Eqs. (4) and (5). This becomes
relevant in structures with high degree of redundancy,
especially when fibres completely replace conventional
reinforcement, where a minimum redundancy level is
required for the structural member.
Table 5: SFRC classification as per

fib Model Code 2010 Figure 8: Relationship between feq,2 and feq,3 of SFRC
Concrete Class fR,3k /fR,1k fR,1k /fLk

M40SF10 2b 0.9 0.40
M40SF15 2c 1.0 0.42
M40SF20 2.5e 1.3 0.50
M40SF30 3e 1.4 0.61
M40SF45 4b 0.9 0.80
4.4 Relationship between equivalent and residual

flexural tensile strengths
A linear relationship was found to exist between
the equivalent (feq,2 and feq,3) and residual strength
parameters (fR,1 and fR,4), as shown in Figs. 8 and 9,
Figure 9: Relationship between fR,1 and fR,4 of SFRC
confirming the observations of Barros et al. [7]. Further,
the relationships between feq,2 and fR,1 and between feq,3
and fR,4 are represented in Figs. 10 and 11, with good
correlation between two sets of parameters, as again
obtained by Barros et al. [7].
850
Acknowledgements
The authors acknowledge the support of Bekaert

Industries, for having provided the fibres used in this
study. The help from the staff of the Construction
Materials Laboratory of IIT Madras is gratefully
appreciated.
References
[1] Gopalaratnam, V. S. and Gettu, R., On the
characterization of flexural toughness in
Figure 10: Relationship between feq,2 and fR,1 of SFRC fiber reinforced concretes, Cement and
Concrete Composites, Vol. 17, pp 239-254,
1995.
[2] Gopalaratnam, V. S., Shah, S. P., Batson, G.
B., Criswell, M. E., Ramakrishnan, V. and
Wecharatana, M., Fracture Toughness of
Fiber Reinforced Concrete, ACI Materials
Journal, Vol. 88, pp 339-353, 1991.
[3] Fib bulletin 55: Model Code 2010, First
complete draft Vol. 1
[4] di Prisco, M., Colombo, M. and Dozio, D.,
Fibre-reinforced concrete in fib Model Code
2010: principles, models and test validation,
Structural Concrete, Vol. 14, pp 342-361,
2013.
Figure 11: Relationship between feq,3 and fR,4 of [5] Test Method for Metallic Fibre Concrete
SFRC Measuring the Flexural Tensile Strength
The present study suggests that approximate values (Limit of Proportionality (LOP), Residual),
of feq or fR can be obtained when the other has been EN 14651, CEN, Brussels, 2005.
reported. [6] RILEM TC 162-TDF, Test and Design
Methods for Steel Fibre Reinforced Concrete
5. Conclusions Final Recommendations, Materials and
Structures, Vol. 35, pp 579-582, 2002.
The post-cracking behavior SFRC was assessed [7] Barros, J.A.O, Cunha, V.M.C.F, Ribeiro, A.F.
using three-point bending tests on notched specimens and Antunes, J.A.B., Post-cracking
for M40 grade of concrete. From the results obtained
behaviour of steel fibre-reinforced concrete,
from the concrete mixes and fibre dosages considered
here, the following conclusions can be drawn. Materials and Structures, Vol. 38, pp 47-56,
2005.
From the load-CMOD behavior and load-
deflection behavior of the SFRC from notched
beam test, it can be concluded that at large
crack openings, the hooked-ended steel fibres
are efficient in enhancing the post crack load
carrying capacity. This is reflected by the
higher values seen for feq,3 and fR,4 than for feq,2
and fR,1.
A good correlation exists between equivalent
and residual flexural tensile strengths
parameters of SFRC.
851
PERFORMANCE STUDY ON TERNARY BLENDED SELF

COMPACTING CONCRETE FOR USE IN REPAIR WORKS
Mohammed Rayyan N 1, Jeelan Basha C 2 and M.S. Haji Sheik Mohammed 3

1,2,3
Department of Civil Engineering, B.S. Abdur Rahman University, Chennai, India.
This study focuses on developing a ternary blended self-compacting concrete (SCC) for use in small
repair works. Three different SCC mixes were designed using fly ash, metakaolin and PCE superplasticizer
based on experimental investigation by varying its filler cement ratio and paste volume. The concrete mixes
were tested for workability parameters such as resistance to segregation, filling and passing ability by
conducting slump flow, V-funnel, L-Box and U-Box tests to ascertain its suitability for repair works.
Mechanical properties of concrete mixes were found by conducting compressive strength test, flexural strength
test and split tensile strength test. Durability tests conducted includes accelerated corrosion test, rapid chloride
penetration test (RCPT) and sorptivity test. It is found that all the developed mixes offer appreciable
performance against segregation, slump flow and filling ability. The concrete mix SCC-M1 with increased
cement and metakaolin content offered improved strength and durability properties as compared to other mixes
which may be due to enhanced hydration reaction and improved microstructure of concrete.
Keywords: Repair, self-compacting concrete, ternary blend, mechanical properties, durability properties.
1.Introduction microstructure of hydrated cement paste that largely

influences durability. In order to achieve high strength, low
The repair, rehabilitation and strengthening of
permeability and durable self-compacting concrete, it is
reinforced concrete structures has become a routine activity
essential to reduce the porosity of cement paste in
of construction industry in the recent times. The need for
appropriate level. It is known that the incorporation of
repair of these concrete structures arises from the
pozzolana materials refines the porosity and pore size
deterioration caused mainly by corrosion of reinforcement
distribution of the paste. Fly ash is known to be a good
bars which is due to inappropriate durability design,
pozzolanic material for use in concrete and many
aggravated further by penetration of chloride ions and
researchers have established its effect on the physical
carbonation. India is incurring a loss of Rs. 2,50,000 crores
properties and pore structure of concrete. However, the
annually due to corrosion which reveals the significant
pore structure changes due to variations in fly ash fineness
contribution of distressed concrete structures towards this.
are not well established. Study conducted by Dinakar et. al
The engineers and specification makers have ample choice
[4] shows that self-compacting concrete has significant
of materials for repair but lack in guidance and knowledge
durability performance when compared with normal
on their properties and long term performance. The
vibrated concrete. Self-compacting concrete has the ability
composition of a repair material especially in concrete is
to gain strength at the early ages of curing. The gain in
not realistically possible without much understanding.
compressive strength at early ages for different grade of
There is a need to establish a set of requirements which
SCC mixes and its relation to the conventional concrete
should be based on performance related properties of the
values as per BIS: SP 23-1982 was studied by Binu et. al
repair material. The set of procedures / specifications for a
[5]. Aruz [6] ascertained the extend of service life of
particular repair is not readily available and is location
chloride - exposed concrete structure by addition of fly ash
specific [1,2]. Self-compacting concrete (SCC) is one of the
in the concrete. The increase in initial strength and
most widely used repair material. In the design of self-
durability of concrete due to addition of Metakaolin was
compacting concrete, durability has to be given much
established [7,8]. Metakaolin is also a highly reactive
emphasis in addition to its ability to resist expected loading
pozzolanic material and has been subjected for several
conditions. The service life and durability of concrete
studies especially in ternary blending mainly due to its
structure is strongly depending on properties such as
capacity to react vividly with Ca(OH)2 by-products
permeability, sorptivity and diffusivity which are controlled
occurred during cement hydration. Due to its high
by the micro-structural characteristics of the materials used
pozzolanic activity, the addition of metakaolin enhances the
in the concrete [3,4]1. The porosity and pore size
mechanical and durability properties of cement based
distribution in concrete are the critical components of the
materials. Recent works have shown that effective
pozzolan, altering the pore structure of the cement paste
1 and greatly improving its resistance against water
Student, mohamedrayan1994@gmail.com permeability and diffusion of harmful ions through the
2
Student, jeelanbasha1@gmail.com cement matrix [7,8]. From the past research studies, it is
3
Professor and Dean, hajisheik@bsauniv.ac.in inferred that scant research work have been carried out
852
Mohammed Rayyan N, et al.
towards development of SCC to suit the needs of small aggregate skeleton. Paste is a system composed of cement,
level repair works. This research work focuses on filler material (fly ash and Metakaolin), water and
developing a ternary blended self-compacting concrete superplasticizer. Aggregate skeleton is composed of fine
using hand mixing for use in repair works. and coarse aggregate.
2. Materials, Mix Design and Specimen Preparation The dosage of superplasticizer was optimized using
marsh cone test as per EN 445. The tests were conducted
Portland pozzolana cement (PPC) with physical and for different filler cement ratio (f/c) of 0, 0.3, 0.4, 0.5 and
chemical characteristic confirming to BIS: 269-1989 and 0.6 with fixed water binder ratio of 0.4. The relation
BIS :1489-1991 Part-1 (Fly ash based) respectively was between the flow time and dosage of superplasticizer (sp/b)
used for production of SCC. The 28 days compressive for different f/c value is shown in Fig.1. The optimum
strength of PPC is found to be 33 MPa when tested as per dosage of superplasticizer at saturation point was identified
BIS: 650-1991. Fly ash of class F obtained from the Ennore as 0.8,0.8,0.9,1,1.09 for f/c values 0,0.3,0.4,0.5 and 0.6
Thermal power station, Chennai, India with the specific respectively. It can be inferred that slurry with higher filler
gravity of 2.2 and Blaine surface area of 428 m2/kg was content requires more dosage of superplasticizer.
used as filler material. Commercially available Metakaolin Optimum dosage of filler material was established using
having specific gravity of 2.6 and Blaine surface area of mini slump test. The time taken for 115mm spread shall be
2200 m2/kg was used to improve the microstructure of within 2-4 sec. The diameter of final spread shall be of 170-
SCC. Locally available river sand of specific gravity 2.55, 190mm. The paste prepared with different f/c value of
fineness modulus 3.10 and bulk density 1.69 kg/l which is 0,0.3,0.4, 0.5 and 0.6 with superplasticizer dosage (sp/c)
confirming to zone II as per BIS: 383-1970 is used as fine optimized from marsh cone test and water binder ratio
aggregate. Coarse aggregate comprises of crushed granite (w/b) of 0.4 is subjected to mini slump test. Table 1 shows
having size less than 10mm with specific gravity 2.59, the observation on marsh cone test and mini slump test. The
fineness modulus 7.67 and bulk density 1.3 kg/l. Poly optimized dosage of fly ash considered for design of SCC is
carboxylic ether (PCE) based superplasticizer confirms to f/c=0.5; sp/b=1 and f/c=0.6; sp/b=1.09.
BIS 9103:1999 and ASTM C 494-92 Type F, in an aqueous
form was used to enhance the water retention and
workability of the concrete. Potable water confirming as per
ASTM D 1129 was used for mixing and curing of concrete.
The materials used for designing SCC were subjected to
physical and chemical characteristic analysis as per the
Indian / ASTM standards.
The methodology adopted for designing of self-

compacting concrete is based on experimental
investigation. The experimental procedure for optimizing
material constituents was developed by following the
procedures laid down by Universitat Politecnica de
Catalunya, Barcelona, Spain [9]. In this procedure, concrete
is considered to be two phase material consisting of paste
and aggregates. The composition of the concrete was Figure 1: Relation between flow time and dosage of
determined separately by optimizing the paste and the superplasticizer (sp/b)
Table 1: Observation on marsh cone test and mini slump test

f/c (%) w/b Marsh con test Mini slump test
Saturation point (sp/b) Spread time Final spread Unit weight of paste,
% T115mm (s) diameter (mm) (Kg/l)
0 0.4 0.8 - - -
0.3 0.4 0.8 2.99 138 1.67
0.4 0.4 0.9 2.605 173.75 1.68
0.5 0.4 1 3.01 173.25 1.68
0.6 0.4 1.09 2.69 176.33 1.69
Allowable range 1.1 2-4 s 170-190mm
f/c, filler cement ratio; w/b (cement+ fly ash+ Metakaolin), water binder ratio
853
Table 2: Proportion of materials for the three different SCC mixes

Description SCC-M1 SCC-M2 SCC- Recommendation limit
M3 (as per UNI 11040)
Paste volume (%) 48 48 49 >40
PPC 53 Grade cement (kg/m3) 420 390 400 Fine content about
fly ash cement ratio (f/c) 0.5 0.6 0.6 500-600kg/m
Fly ash (kg/m3) 210 234 240
Metakaolin (kg/m3) 8.4 4 4
Water added W/b=0.4 252 249 256 Water/binder ratio 0.31-0.36
Super plasticizer poly carboxylic base (ltr.) 6.3 6.8 7 sp/b=1.1
Sand (kg/m3) 590.27 593 579.83 Coarse aggregate /sand ratio of
Gravel(kg/m3) 732.76 737 719.79 about 1
The sand gravel ratio for SCC is optimized using Self-compacting concrete requires proper mixing of
ASTM C29/ C 29M method. The relation of bulk density materials to achieve homogenous mixing. First cement, fly
and percentage of void with varying sand content is shown ash and Metakaolin were mixed thoroughly and added with
in fig. 2. aggregates. 80% of the gauge water is added to the dry
concrete mix, the remaining 20% is premixed with
superplasticizer and introduced in the later stages. Vigorous
hand mixing is done to simulate site conditions expected in
small level repair works which may not need a quantity
arising out of using a mixer machine. After ascertaining the
fresh concrete properties, the concrete is poured in the
mould without any compaction to fabricate specimens to
conduct different strength and durability tests. In case of
specimen for conducting accelerated corrosion test, the
rebar used is pickled in 10% Hydrochloric acid solution
added with inhibitor for 10 15 minutes for complete
removal of rust followed by alkaline water cleaning before
casting. After placing of concrete, demoulding is done after
14 hours followed by water curing for the desired period.
Figure 2: Relation of bulk density and percentage of void
with varying sand content In the present study, the expected characteristics of SCC
used in small repair works such as ability to flow under
The percentage of sand which offers minimal void content own weight without vibration, ability to retain homogeneity
and maximum bulk density was interpreted from Fig.2. without segregation etc. were focused. Slump flow, V-
The corresponding optimum sand /gravel ratio=45/55 and funnel, L-Box and U-Box tests were conducted as per EN
minimum void ratio=27.1%. Three different SCC mix Standards to ascertain the fresh concrete properties for its
proportions were arrived with varying paste volume and suitability to repair works. Table 3 shows the fresh concrete
fine content (fly ash and Metakaolin) based on the properties of developed SCC mixes.
experimental study such as marsh cone test, mini slump test
and bulk density test. Mix proportion was confirmed as per
the specifications of UNI 11040. The proportion of
materials for the three different SCC mixes are listed in 3.Experimental Investigation
Table 2.
Table 3: Test result of workability of self-compacting concrete mixes

Mix ID w/b Sp/b Slump flow T50cm slump V-funnel flow V-funnel flow L-Box U-Box
ratio ratio (mm) flow (s) at Tf (s) at t5 min (sec) h2/h1 (h2-h1)
SCC-M1 0.4 1.1 550 6 18 22 8 0.5
SCC-M2 0.4 1.1 620 5 18 20 10 0.6
SCC-M3 0.4 1.1 665 4 16 27 10 0.5
Recommendation limit 600-800 12 4-12 < Tf + 3 30 >0.80

(as per UNI 11040)
w/b: water/binder (Cement +Fly ash + Metakaolin); Sp/b: Super plasticizer/binder (Cement +Fly ash + Metakaolin)
854
Mechanical properties of developed concrete mixes determine the rate of absorption (Sorptivity) of water by
were found by conducting compressive strength test, hydraulic cement concrete.
flexural strength test, split tensile strength test and youngs
modulus test as per Indian Standards. Durability tests 4. Results and discussion
conducted include accelerated corrosion test, rapid chloride
penetration test, chloride penetration test and sorptivity test Table 4 shows the observation on mechanical
by following Indian /ASTM Standards / Guidelines of properties of developed self-compacting concrete when
premier research institutions. In each category and age, tested as per Indian Standards. The compressive strength
three specimens were cast and subjected to relevant testing. test results of three different SCC mixes such as SCC-M1,
SCC-M2 and SCC-M3 at the age of 7, 14 and 28 days were
Compression strength test was conducted in the 3000kN listed. It can be inferred that SCC-M1 offered significant
capacity compression testing machine as per BIS 516 increase in compressive strength at all the tested ages as
:1959. The size of the specimen cast and tested is 150mm compared with other tested mixes. There is a target strength
cube. Split tensile strength test was carried out as per BIS attainment of 60% at 7 days, 70% at 14 days and 80% at the
5816 :1999. Cylinder specimens of size 100mm diameter end of 28 days curing. Whereas Mix SCC-M2 exhibited
and 300mm height were tested in the 1000 kN capacity 40% at 7 days, 50% at 14 days and 62% at 28days which is
compression testing machine attached with special fixtures. appreciably less than the target strength achievement for
Rectangular concrete prisms of size 100x100x500 mm were SCC-M1. The mix SCC-M3 also found with reduced target
subjected to flexure strength test as per BIS 516:1959. The strength attainment in the tested ages as compared to mix
test was conducted in a 40 tones capacity Universal Testing SCC-M1 whereas similar but slightly reduced strength
Machine (UTM). values as compared to mix SCC-M2. The better
performance of mix SCC-M1 may be due to ternary
Accelerated corrosion test was conducted to find the blending of cement with increased percentage addition of
resistance offered by the SCC mix against cracking when it metakaoline which react with Ca(OH)2 of cement and
is subjected to severe chloride exposure conditions. The test enhanced the hydration reaction and improved the
was conducted as per procedures followed in CSIR- microstructure of concrete. Since pozzolana action of
Structural Engineering Research Centre (SERC) and metakaolin is significantly high due to its high
Central Electro Chemical Research Institute (CECRI), concentration of alumina and silica. Despite of 28 day
Karaikudi [10]. The test specimen comprises of 70mm values, the strength development at later ages is expected to
diameter and 115mm height concrete cylinder with increase due to secondary hydration of pozzolana material
centrally embedded 12mm rebar. The specimen is placed in the fly ash. The reduced strength attainment at 28 days
centrally in the non-conducting acrylic tank with steel rebar for the mixes SCC-M2 and SCC-M3 may be due to lesser
acts as anode, perforated stainless steel hollow cylinder metakaolin content, increased paste volume due to
surrounding the specimen is the cathode with 3% NaCl increased fly ash content and increased water-binder ratio.
solution as an electrolyte. A constant potential of 12 V was Split tensile strength test results at the age of 28 days for
applied to the system using a DC power supply regulator to mixes SCC-M1, SCC-M2 and SCC-M3 is found as 2.5
accelerate the corrosion conditions. The variation in the MPa, 2.33 MPa and 2.1 MPa respectively. This implies that
development of corrosion current was monitored at regular there is a marginal increase in split tensile strength for
intervals of 2 hours using a high impedance multimeter SCC-M1 mix as compared to other mixes. The expected
until end of the test. The time required to cause cracking in theoretical tensile strength values calculated as per BIS
the concrete is considered as a relative resistance of the 456:2000 for mixes SCC-M1, SCC-M2 and SCC-M3 is 4.8
concrete mix against chloride ingress and subsequent MPa, 4.3 MPa and 4.2 MPa respectively which
corrosion. overestimates the experimental tensile strength test results
The rapid chloride ion penetration test (RCPT) set-up is significantly.
similar to the diffusion test and carried out as per procedure
followed in ASTM C1202. Size of the concrete slice used Flexural strength values of 3.8 MPa, 3.7 MPa and 3.5
in the test is 100mm diameter and 10mm thick. Test MPa was observed for concrete beam specimens made of
SCC-M1, SCC-M2 and SCC-M3 mix when tested at the
Table 4: Mechanical properties of self-compacting concrete mixes

Description Compressive strength Split tensile strength Modulus of rupture Youngs modulus
(MPa) (MPa) (GPa)
7 days 14 days 28 days
SCC-M1 39 43 48 2.5 3.8 26
SCC-M2 24 30 37 2.33 3.7 24
SCC-M3 22 28 36 2.1 3.5 22
duration is 6 hours. ASTM C1585 04 was employed to age of 28 days. There is slightly improved flexural strength
for SCC-M1 mix specimens as compared to other mix
855
specimens. But flexural strength values calculated as per This improved performance may be due to presence of high
BIS 456:2000 is in the range of 4.8 MPa, 4.3 MPa and 4.2 content finer materials and well-designed particle size
MPa for SCC-M1, SCC-M2 and SCC-M3 mix respectively. distribution, resulted in improved packing and
This infers that theoretical values overestimate the microstructure formation with optimum water content in the
experimental test results appreciably irrespective of the type SCC mix which gave excellent resistance against
of SCC mix. accelerated chloride ingress.
Fig.3. shows the time versus current behavior of control Table 5 shows the observation on the rapid chloride
concrete and SCC mixes in the accelerated corrosion test penetration test for the developed SCC mixes at the end of
during the test period. It can be seen that there is an 6-hour test period. It can be observed that the mixes SCC-
increased initial current development for control concrete as M1, SCC-M2 and SCC-M3 exhibited current values of
compared to SCC mixes followed by similar current values 1008, 1312 and 1353 coulombs respectively. According to
until 2000 minutes. Thereafter there is a steep increase in ASTM C 1202, the values falls under 2000 coulombs falls
current values for the small increment in time which under low permeability category. Mix SCC-M1 offered
indicates failure of specimen due to corrosion related improved resistance against current development as
cracking. Concrete specimen made of SCC-M1 and SCC- compared to other SCC mixes. It can be concluded that the
M2 mix was observed with minimum initial current developed SCC mixes possess excellent impermeability
development. This value is persisted until 5000 minutes and characteristics. Fig.5. shows the time versus current
followed with gradual increase in current values during the development behavior of SCC mixes in RCPT test during
remaining test period. Although specimen with SCC-M3 the test period. Irrespective of the type of SCC mix,
was observed with minimum initial current development, minimal current development in the initial test period for all
this condition remains only for 1000 minutes and thereafter the mixes followed by gradual increase in current values as
there is a gradual increase in current values upon time the time progress. SCC-M1 offered better resistance against
increment until failure of specimens. It can be concluded current development as compared to other SCC mixes
that the specimens with mix SCC-M1 and SCC-M2 offered which explicit its improved durability performance. The
significant resistance against accelerated chloride ingress improved performance of SCC mixes is due to the fact that
followed by SCC-M3 specimens. chloride ion penetration depends mainly on the chloride
binding capacity of the constituent materials. Chlorides
penetrate through concrete by diffusion along water paths
or open pores. Some of these chlorides react with the
cement compounds mainly tricalcium-aluminates (C3A),
forming stable chloro complexes. The excess free chloride
leads to the initiation of the corrosion process. The presence
of fly ash content in SCC leads to an increase in the amount
of C3A due to the higher amount of alumina present in the
mix and increases the calcium silicate hydrate content that
is formed in the pozzolanic reactions.
Figure 3: Time versus current behavior of control concrete
and SCC mixes
Figure 4: Comparison of cracking time for control and Figure 5: Time versus current behavior of SCC mixes in
SCC mix specimens RCPT test
Table 5: Observation on rapid chloride penetration test
Control concrete specimen exhibited inferior performance
as compared to SCC mix specimens. Fig.4. shows the Sl.no. Type of Charge passed (coulombs)
comparison of cracking time for control and SCC mix mix (at the end of test period)
specimens. It can be seen that cracking time for control
concrete specimen is 40 hours. Whereas specimens made of 1 SCC-M1 1008
SCC mix exhibited resistance against cracking until 89 2 SCC-M2 1312
hours. This reveals that SCC specimens offered 2.2 times 3 SCC-M3 1353
improved performance as compared to control concrete.
856
Thus, the chloride binding capacity of concrete tends to Sorptivity test results explicit the improved
increase with fly ash addition and consequently less free performance of SCC-M1 mix as compared to other
chloride is available to initiate the corrosion process as SCC mixes.
observed by Dinakar et al. It is concluded that better performance of mix
SCC-M1 may be due to ternary blending of
Fig.6 shows the relation between water absorption and cement with increased percentage addition of
square root of time. It can be inferred that mix SCC-M1 metakaolin which react with Ca(OH)2 of cement
exhibit less water absorption characteristics as compared to and enhanced the hydration reaction and improved
other tested SCC concrete. The sorptivity value was the microstructure of concrete.
estimated based on the slope of the best fit curve of water The mix SCC-M1 is recommended for small level
absorption and square root of time. It is found that repair works which need improved workability,
sorptivity value of mix SCC-M1 is 572 x 10-4 mm/sec. strength and durability performance of concrete.
Whereas mixes SCC-M2 and SCC-M3 were observed with
665 x 10-4 mm/sec and 1154 x 10-4 mm/sec 6.References
respectively. The mix SCC-M1 and SCC-M2 offered
significant reduction in sorptivity values as compared to [1] Pro J.G. Cabrera and Al-Hasan, A.S., Performance
SCC-M3. The sorptivity values is attributed by the rise of Properties of Concrete Repair Materials, Science direct,
water in the specimen through capillary action which Construction and Building Materials, Vol.11, pp.283-290,
depends presence of pores and its connectivity in the 1997.
microstructure of concrete. The dense and well packed [2] Decter, M.H. and Keeley, C., Durability of Concrete
microstructure of SCC-M1 and SCC-M2 resulted in Repair - Importance of Compatibility and Low Shrinkage,
excellent reduction in sorptivity. Science direct, Construction and Building Materials,
Vol.11, pp.267-273, 1997.
[3] Prinya Chindaprasirt, Chai Jaturapitakkul and
Theerawat Sinsiri, Effect of Fly ash Fineness on
Compressive strength and Pore size of Blended Cement
Paste, Science direct, Cement and Concrete Composite,
Vol.27, pp.425-428, 2005.
[4] Dinakar, P., Babu, K.G. and Manu Santhanam,
Durability Properties of High Fly Ash Self-Compacting
Concretes, Science direct, Cement and Concrete
Composite, Vol.30, pp.880-886, 2008.
[5] Binu Sukumar, Nagamani, K. and Srinivasa Ragavan,
R., Evaluation of Strength at Early Ages of Self-
Figure 6: Relation between water absorption and square
Compacting Concrete with High Volume Fly ash, Science
root of time
direct, Construction and Building Materials, Vol.22,
pp.1394-1401, 2008.
5.Conclusions [6] Aruz Petcherdchoo, Repair by Fly ash Concrete to
Extend Service Life of Chloride - Exposed Concrete
Over 100 specimens were subjected to workability,
Structures Considering Environmental Impacts, Science
strength and durability test to find the performance of the
direct, Construction and Building Materials, Vol. 98, pp.
optimized SCC mixes. The following conclusions were
799-809, 2015.
drawn based on the test results and further analysis.
[7] Oguzhan Kelestemur and Bahar Demirel, Effect of
All the tested SCC mixes showed an appreciable Metakaolin on the Corrosion Resistance of Structural
performance against segregation, slump flow and Lightweight Concrete, Science direct, Construction and
filling ability. Building Materials, Vol. 81, pp. 172-178, 2015.
The mix SCC-M1 offered significant increase in [8] Nan Su, Kung-Chung Hsu and His-Wen Chai, A simple
compressive strength at all the tested ages as Mix Design Method for Self-Compacting Concrete, Cement
compared with other tested mixes. and Concrete Research, Vol.31, pp.17991807, 2001.
There is a marginally improved flexural strength, [9] Barragan, B., Gettu, R., Pintado, X. and Bravo, M.,
and split tensile strength values for SCC-M1 mix Design of High Strength Self-Compacting Concrete, in
as compared to other SCC mixes. Maria S. Konsta-Gdoutos (Eds.), Monitoring and Modeling
Accelerated corrosion test results revealed 2.2 Concrete Properties, pp. 485-491, Springer, 2006.
times improved performance for SCC specimens [10] Haji Sheik Mohammed, M.S., Murugesan, V., Samuel
irrespective of type as compared to control Knight, G.M. and Srinivasa Raghavan, R., Macrocell
concrete. Corrrosion Studies of Coated Rebars, Arabian Journal for
The developed current values at the end of test Science and Engineering, Springer, Vol.39, pp.3535-3543,
period in the RCPT test exhibit low chloride 2014.
permeability for all the tested RCC mixes.
857
USE OF STEEL SCRAP WASTE IN HIGH STRENGTH PORTLAND

POZZOLANA CEMENT BASED COMPOSITES
Shubham Goyal1, Harish K. Venkatanarayanan2*
1
Graduate student, Dept. of Civil Engineering, IIT Kanpur, UP 208016, India
2*
Assistant Professor, Dept. of Civil Engineering, IIT Kanpur, UP 208016, India, E-mail: kvharish@iitk.ac.in
In this study, an attempt is made to beneficially use steel scrap waste materials (SSWs) from workshop in
high strength cement based composites (HSCCs). The oily substances on the surface of SSW are first
removed using different chemical treatments, which may affect bond properties of composite. The packing
density and voids content of fillers is then studied at different dosages of SSW. After developing
appropriate mixture proportion for HSCC, SSW is partially substituted for sand at 5%, 10%, 15% and
20% (by volume) of sand. The effect of SSW addition on the compressive and flexural strength of HSCC
mixture, with and without heat curing is investigated.
Keywords: high strength cement based composites, steel scrap waste, packing density, voids content
1 Introduction cements (PPCs) having a fly ash content ranging from

15%-35% have been manufactured at the plant
1.1 High strength cement based composites (HSCCs)
following appropriate grinding and blending procedures.
HSCCs are composites with compressive strength The use of PPC for ordinary portland cement
greater than 80MPa, much higher than the strengths (OPC) for many normal strength application has
mentioned for high strength concrete (i.e., 60-80MPa) in become popular during the recent years. The use of PPC
IS 456-2000. The design for compressive strengths for HSCC mixture can cause serious problems with
greater than 80MPa requires the use of new materials regard to its setting time and strength development at
and/or techniques as there are limitations associated early ages. The application of heat curing on the mixture
with using simple direct approaches stated in the can be helpful to tackle such issues. Additional benefits
standard mixture design procedures. HSCCs are of using heat curing include volumetric stability of
designed based on fundamental principles used in specimens and better creep and shrinkage resistance.
making ultra-high performance concretes (UHPCs) of Further, quicker removal of concrete from formworks
compressive strength greater than 150 MPa [1]. The and moulds can help in their quicker reusal thereby
performance of HSCC are lower than that of UHPC providing economic advantage for cast-insitu
primarily due to the use of local materials in the former. applications and pre-cast products, respectively. Thus
Local materials generally show moderate level for some applications of HSCCs, the heat treatment can
performance compared to the high-quality materials be very advantageous. Numerous studies were
chosen for UHPC. conducted in the recent past to understand the effect of
Ordinary portland cement (OPC) has been heat curing on the mechanical properties of concrete,
traditionally used for the production of HSCCs. The use some significant inferences are as follows [1-4]:
of richer mortars can help in providing better binding (i) Short-term heat curing if not accompanied by
properties to the composites and reducing their heat of supplementary wet curing may have detrimental
hydration, especially when pozzolans are added in the effects on the latter age strength of concrete.
mixture. In addition, the use of pozzolans reduces the (ii) Heat curing can enhance the mechanical properties
high cement contents used in the production of HSCC of concrete, however, the duration of heat curing,
thereby reducing the material cost sustantially while the presence of supplementary cementitious
also improving its long-term durability. One main materials and the water content can greatly affect
problem associated while using fly ash is the variation the strength of heat-cured concrete. Therefore,
in its physical and chemical property, which is appropriate care should be taken while choosing
dependent on its source, type of coal used during curing regimes for high strength mixtures.
production and other parameters. Further, fly ash should (iii) Although heat treatment provides higher strength at
be properly blended with cement for producing uniform early curing periods, unlike normal water curing,
properties and repetitive results, each time the very little increase in strength is generally observed
composite is prepared. To tackle uniformity and with longer periods of curing.
homogenity related problems, portland pozzolana
1
2
858
Shubham Goyal and Harish K. Venkatanarayanan
1.2 Filler materials for HSCCs than melting them and reusing. The melting of steel
and/or steel production is an energy consuming process
During the last decade, the development of HSCCs has
and hence, other effective ways to utilize these wastes
gained full momentum. Different filler materials have
have to be explored. SSWs are available as fine powders,
been used for the production of high strength
coil-shaped material and have the potential advantage of
composites namely, quartz powder, silica flour, copper
providing high strength due to the material property of
slag, steel aggregates, magnetite and others [5-9]. Like
the parent metal, provided these materials can bond well
other microfillers, crushed quartz powder has shown to
with cement matrix like steel reinforcements or fibers.
fill voids between individual cement particles and sand
In addition, since these wastes are metals and may
grains due to its very fine particle size. In addition,
possess sufficient hardness, one option that can be
quartz powder has been found to take part in pozzolanic
explored is to use them in the production of HSCCs.
reaction undergoing transformation in its silica structure
While some industrial wastes do not require much
to form compounds such as tobermorite, xonotlite and
processing such as fly ash, some others require
others when subjected to heat curing [5, 6].
processing due to their unique physical and chemical
Silica Flour is another inert material that can play a
properties. The need to perform research arises from the
vital in portland cement based materials cured under
fact that little research has been conducted to understand
ambient temperature. Its fine particulate nature
the potential of using SSWs in concrete. In addition,
physically improves the gradation of aggregate and
chemical treatments may be required to remove thin oil
reduces the permeability of concrete. The use of these
film on their surfaces so as to make them suitable for
fine particles in concrete also promotes the rate of
use in cement based composites. Thus, the principle
cement hydration and increases the early-age strength of
objective of this research is to study the effect of
composite [7].
addition of SSW on the performance of HSCCs made
Copper slag possesses mechanical and chemical
with PPC and develop strategies such as thermal curing
characteristics that qualify the material to be used in
for improving the performance of composites.
concrete as a partial substitute for aggregates. For
example, copper slag has a number of favourable 2 Experimental Investigation
mechanical properties for aggregate use such as
2.1 Properties of material
excellent soundness characteristics, good abrasion
resistance and good stability. Also, copper slag exhibits PPC obtained from Mycem cement company, Limited
pozzolanic properties since it contains low CaO content and densified silica fume (Corniche) obtained from
and other oxides such as Al2O3, SiO2, and Fe2O3. The local source, conforming to the IS: 1489 (Part 1) - 1991
use of copper slag in the concrete industry as a and ASTM C1240 or IS: 15388 2003, was used in this
replacement for cement and/or fine aggregates has the study. SSWs from lathe waste obtained from a local
benefits of reducing disposal costs and helps in vendor were used as a partial substitute for standard
protecting the environment [8]. sand in HSCCs. A photograph of silica fume and SSW
Similarly, steel aggregates can offer higher samples is shown in Figure 1 (i) and 1 (ii), respectively.
mechanical properties in concrete than normal
aggregates due to the superior material property of the
former, provided the cement matrix strength is higher.
Composites having compressive strength of ~810MPa
has been achieved using 6 cm diameter cylinders during
the production of reactive powder concrete
incorporating steel aggregates [1].
In other research, high density concretes containing
magnetite and barite aggregate have been used as
shielding material against nuclear radiations to provide
(i) Silica fume (ii) Steel scrap waste
superior performance compared to other aggregates.
Conventional concrete has relatively low thermal Figure 1 Photograph of samples
conductivity, may not withstand higher temperatures for
longer time and hence, may not yield satisfactory The sieve analysis of SSWs obtained from three
performance for shielding purpose. In addition, non- different locations in the lot is shown in Figure 1 (ii).
uniform temperature distribution throughout concrete The specific gravity and colour of SSW is 7.82 and
may lead to rise of differential thermal stresses. The use greyish brown solid, respectively. The three grades of
of magnetite aggregate can help diminishing the Indian standard sand Grade 1, Grade 2 and Grade 3
negative impacts of elevated temperatures [9]. conforming to the IS:650-1991 were used in the
1.3 Steel scrap waste (SSW) from latte or workshop proportion of 37:20:43 so as to obtain particle size
distribution similar to that of steel powder scraps. The
The generation of steel scrap waste (SSW) is a routine sieve analysis of sand fractions and SSW samples is
operation in workshops and other manufacturing shown in Figure 2. A poly-carboxylic ether based
industries. Steel scraps are identified as potential waste superplasticizer (Master Glenium SKY 8233) obtained
and there are currently no methods to recycle them other from BASF construction chemicals, Mumbai was used.
859
Phase Change Thermal Systems Laboratory, Mechanical

Engineering Department, IIT Kanpur.
3 Experimental results and discussions

3.1 Effect of addition of SSWs on the overall packing
density of filler materials
The variation of packing density, void content and void
(i) SSW from a lot (ii) Standard sand vs SSW
ratio of filler materials on the variation of SSW is
Figure 2 Sieve analysis of samples shown in Figure 3 (a).
2.2 Proportioning of mixtures

The detailed procedure developed by Kwan et al. 2012
was adopted for the proportioning of HSCC mixtures,
which is based on packing density and void content of
fillers [10]. A brief discussion of results from packing
density of fillers is discussed later in Section 3.1.
Accordingly, a water:PPC, silica fume:PPC and
sand:PPC of 0.275, 0.10 and 1.10 was arrived,
respectively, for the HSCCs. The mixtures were studied (a) Variation of wet and dry packing (b) Variation of void content and
density with powder dosage void ratio with powder dosage
for different volume replacements of SSWs (i.e., 5%,
10%, 15% and 20%) and superplasticizers were added Figure 3 Packing density, void content and void
at appropriate dosages to obtain flowable consistency. ratios of fillers for different dosages of steel scrap
The description of HSCC mixes are shown in Table 1. powder
Table 1 HSCC mixture IDs used in the study As the Figure 3 (a) shows, the wet and dry packing
ID Description density decreases continuously with increase in powder
C0 Control mixture without silica fume and SSW dosage, with the former registering higher values than
C1 Control mixture with silica fume and SSW the latter and the increase in value being in the range of
C2 Control mixture with heat curing 3 to 14%. The higher values registered for wet packing
S0-X-Y Mixture without silica fume with Y% SSW by vol.
density may be attributed to three reasons: (i) the inter-
S1-X-Y Mixture with silica fume with Y% SSW by vol.
* X = 100%-Y
particular forces comprising of Vander Waals and
electrostatic forces may cause agglomeration and loosen
2.3 Processing of SSW samples the packing of particles under dry conditions. However
The SSWs contain oily film on their surfaces and hence, in the case of wet condition, there are no change of the
two chemical treatments namely, calcium and sodium Vander Waals forces and electrostatic forces should
hydroxide are investigated. The samples are initially have been reduced because of smaller intensity of static
soaked in a standard solution formed from these electricity generated. Such reduction in electrostatic
chemicals having a fixed concentration of 0.5M. The forces would allow closer packing under wet condition.
soaking period of samples in solution was ~24 hours, (ii) Secondly, the water in the voids would develop
after which they were surface-dried and kept in oven for capillary forces to hold particles together and impart
another 24 hours. This process removed substantially cohesiveness to particle-water mixture particularly
the oil and other surface dust and rust particles. The under wet condition. This cohesiveness would also have
processed SSWs were then used in the HSCC mixtures. contributed to the increased packing density for the wet
condition. (iii) Thirdly, the water in the voids would
2.4 Experimental test methods lubricate the solid surfaces to reduce the friction
The bulk density and void contents of filler samples between particles. Such a reduction would allow easier
were calculated using the IS 2386 (Part-3). The movement of the particles to achieve closer packing.
procedure used for determining the wet packing density Since the voids ratio or content is inversely proportional
to packing density, the results obtained with voids ratio
of fillers was based on the method suggested by Fung et
al. 2009 except that the size of the cylindrical container or content provided in Figure 3 (b) can be expected to
used was 400 ml [10]. The compressive and flexural show an increasing trend with powder dosage. All
strength of HSCCs was determined as per the ASTM reasons mentioned for packing density previously also
holds good for air content or voids. In addition to these
C109 and ASTM C78 test, respectively. The rapid
chloride ion permeability test was performed as per the reasons, steel powder scraps in the mixture tend to
ASTM C1202 test procedure after 28 days curing period develop internal voids due to their complex shape (coil
of the test specimens. The thermal conductivity and shaped) if sufficient paste is not present to fill these
voids or if adequate compaction is not provided during
diffusivity tests were determined using the Hot Disk
TPS 500S Thermal Constants analyzer available at the mixing operation. The voids ratio for mixture at all
dosages was higher than the voids content.
860
3.2 Effect of chemical treatment of SSW on castability particles. A 20% steel scrap powder dosage decreased
and strength of HSCCs the compressive strength of HSCC mixtures without and
with silica fume by ~43.2% and 36.3%, respectively.
In this section, one HSCC mixture without chemical
Probable reason for strength decrease may be attributed
treatment of steel scraps (REF) and two HSCC mixtures
to the presence of additional voids in the mixture due to
with chemical treatment of steel scraps (NAOH and
steel scrap powder addition. The findings from Figure 3
CAOH) were used. The proportion in the mixtures
(b) support this statement.
remained constant and the SSW dosage was maintained
at 20% (by volume replacement for sand). Figure 4 (i)
through (iii) shows the photograph of the effect of
castability of mixtures with and without chemical
treatments. As the Figure 4 (i) shows significant
bulging (or volume increased) of mixture containing
untreated SSW above the surface of mould was
observed and this problem is suspected to have arisen
due to the oily coat on SSW surface. This unusual
volume changes can affect significantly the properties (a) Rate of compressive strength (b) Rate of compressive strength
of HSCCs and hence, chemical treatment on the SSWs development of mixtures without development of mixtures with silica
is highly warranted. The Figures 4 (ii) and 4 (iii) shows silica fume fume
that the bulging of mixture is substantial reduced due to

the use of any chemical treatment on the SSW samples.
However, the effectiveness of chemical treatments can
be better appreciated from compressive strength test
results on hardened specimens, which is discussed next.
Level of bulging of mixture above mould surface
(c) Comparison of 28-day (d) Comparison of 28-day strengths

strength of mixtures without of mixtures with silica fume
silica fume
(a) REF (b) NAOH (c) CAOH
Figure 4 Photograph of mixture containing

(untreated and treated) SSWs after 24 hours of
casting
The 7-day compressive strength of the REF, NAOH and
CAOH mixtures are 20, 38, 36 MPa and their 28-day
strengths are 31, 54 and 49 MPa respectively. As the (e) Comparison of 28-day strengths of mixtures with and without silica fume
data shows, there is substantial change in the
Figure 5 Compressive strength test results of normal
compressive strength between REF mixture and
water cured HSCC specimens at different curing
chemically treated NAOH or CAOH mixtures, probably
periods
due to better bond characteristics in the former.
However, the 7- and 28- day compressive strength of A comparison of the strength reduction due to
NAOH and CAOH mixture are approximately equal, steel scrap powder addition can be obtained by
proving that both chemical treatments are equally normalizing the 28-day strength of mixture containing
effective in oil removal. While NaOH use may lead to no steel scrap powders to be 100. This is shown in
alkali-silica reaction in the presence of reactive Figure 5 (c) and (d) for mixtures with and without
aggregates in the mixture and may also increase the silica fume, respectively. As these figures show, a 75%
electrical conductance of pore solution, Ca(OH)2 limit is provided indicating the strength reduction
treatment is preferred for further studies. permitted by the ASTM C618 for fly ash or natural
3.3 Compressive strength test results for normal-water pozzolans. The results indicate that the optimal steel
cured specimens scrap powder dosage for mixtures without silica fume
and with silica fume based on compressive strength is
Figure 5 (a) and (b) shows the rate of compressive 0%-10% and 10%-15%, respectively.
strength development of normal water cured HSCC A comparison of the strength improvement with
specimens for mixtures with and without silica fume, silica fume dosage can be obtained by normalizing the
respectively. As the figure shows, the compressive 28-day strength of mixture without silica fume
strength increases continuously with increase in the containing silica fume to be 100. This is shown in
period of curing because of progressing cement Figure 5 (e) for mixtures with and without steel scrap
hydration and possible pozzolanic reaction of fly ash powders, respectively. As the figure shows, the
861
percentage increase in the compressive strength of this case), indicating the need for high-temperature
HSCC mixtures due to silica fume addition at 0%, 10% curing.
and 20% steel scrap powders is 14.9%, 27.6% and 30% In addition, curing regime 3 registered higher
respectively. The increased strength obtained for silica compressive strength than curing regime 1 or 2. The
fume mixtures may be due to pozzolanic effect and percentage increase in strength compared to curing
micro-filling effect. regime 2 was 11.5%, 8% and 16% at steel scrap powder
dosage of 0%, 10% and 20%, respectively. This may be
3.4 Compressive strength test results for heat-cured
because sufficient curing period of ~2 days just after 1
specimens
day of ambient temperature curing is left for cement
A comparison of the 28-day compressive strength of hydration in curing regime 3 to progress. The low- and
heat cured HSCC specimens is shown in Figure 6 (a). high- temperature curing applied at a later stage helps in
further accelerating the cement hydration and
pozzolanic reactions, thereby resulting in higher target
strength for the composite.
Considering the strength of HSCC mixture
containing no steel scrap powder as reference (100), the
relative strengths of specimens at different steel scrap
powder dosage are calculated for different curing
regimes and shown in Figure 6 (b), (c) and (d). As
these figures show, the relative strengths of curing 2 and
(a) 28-dompressive strength for (b) Relative strength of specimens 3 for 10% and 20% steel scrap powder additions is well
different curing regimes subjected to curing regime1
above 75% limit and hence, these curing regimes can be
concluded to have provided strength levels sufficient to
be qualified.
3.5 Flexural strength test results

Figure 7 (a) and (b) shows the the flexural strength of
normal water cured and heat-cured specimens at 28 days
for different dosages of steel scraps powders,
(c) Relative strength of specimens (d) Relative strength of specimens
respectively.
subjected to curing regime 2 subjected to curing regime 3
Note :
CR 1- 1 day ATC + 3 day HWC at 80C and 80% relative humidity + 24 day NWC
CR 2- 1 day ATC + 3 day NWC+ 3 day HWC at 80C and 80% relative humidity + 21 day
NWC
CR 3- 1 day ATC + 2 day NWC + 2 day HWC at 80C and 80% relative humidity + 2
day Hot air curing at 200 C + 21 day NWC
Figure 6 28-day compressive strength test results of

heat cured HSCC specimens at different steel scrap
powder dosage
(a) For normal water cured specimens (b) For heat-cured specimens
As the figure shows, the heat cured HSCC specimens
generally registered higher compressive strength than Figure 7 28-days flexural strength test results of
the normal water cured specimens. The percentage HSCC specimens at different dosages of steel scrap
increase in strength due to heat treatment was in the powders
range of 10% to 25%, 21 % to 35% and 26 % to 64 %
for steel scrap powder addition of 0%, 10% and 20%, As the Figure 7 (a) shows, the increase in the steel
respectively. scrap powder dosage from 0% to 20% decreases the
Of the different heat cured HSCC specimens, flexural strength of the HSCC substantially. The
curing regime 2 registered slightly higher compressive percentage decrease in strength at 20% dosage was
strength than curing regime 1 at all steel scrap powder ~35.6 % and ~38.9 % for mixtures without and with
dosages. The probable reason may be that the cement silica fume, respectively. The percentage decrease
requires sufficient time for initial hydration at early obtained for flexural strength at 20% dosage was
periods (~1 to 3 days) for its strength development comparable to the percentage decreased obtained for the
which may be disrupted by the application of heat. On compressive strength at the same dosage stated
the other hand, heat application accelerates both the previously and the reasons for decrease in compressive
cement hydration and pozzolanic reaction in the mixture, strength mentioned in Section 6.3.2 can be extended to
leading to strength improvement. However, the heat this case also. In addition to the above findings, the
applied may not be sufficient enough to substantially flexural strength of HSCC increases with usage of silica
accelerate the cement hydration and pozzolanic reaction fume at all powder dosages and the increase is in the
as the temperature used is well below 1000 C (800 C in range of 3.5%-9.1%.
862
The effect of different curing regime on the 28-day References

flexural strength of heat-cured HSCC specimens is
[1] Pierre, R., and Marcel, C., Composition of reactive
shown in Figure 7 (b). As the figure shows, the heat-
powder concretes, Cement and Concrete Research
cured HSCC specimens generally registered higher
Elsevier Journal, Vol. 25 (7), pp. 1501-1511, 1995.
flexural strength than the normal water cured specimens,
[2] Yazc, H., Yardmc, M.Y., Aydn, S., and
indicating the beneficial effects of heat treatment. The
Karabulut, A.S., Mechanical properties of reactive
percentage increase in strength due to heat treatment
powder concrete containing mineral admixtures
was in the range of 20%-31%, 8%-28 % and 5%-23%
under different curing regimes, Construction and
for steel scrap powder addition of 0%, 10% and 20%,
Building Materials, Vol. 23 (3), pp. 1223-1231,
respectively. In addition, CR2 registered slightly higher
2009.
flexural strength than the CR1 at all steel scrap powder
[3] Harish Venkatanarayanan, K., Dattatreya, J.K.,
dosages, the reasons for the behavior is mentioned in
Neelamegam, M., Experimental investigation and
Section 6.3.2 for compressive strength. Further, CR3
analytical modeling of the characteristics in
registered higher flexural strength than CR1 or 2. The
compression of heat-treated ultra-high strength
percentage increase in strength compared to CR2 was
mortars produced from conventional materials,
7.6%, 14.8% and 21.3% at steel scrap powder dosage of
Construction and Building Materials Elsevier
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Journal, Vol. 49, pp. 781-796, 2013.
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Temperature and stress development in ultra-high
The following conclusions are drawn from this study:
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(i) The wet and dry packing density decreased
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[5] Marcel, C., Vincent, M., and Laurent, F.,
The void content and ratio increases with increase
Microstructural analysis of RPC (Reactive Powder
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[6] Hlne, Zanni., Marcel, C., Vincent, M., Samuel,
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(iv) Compressive and flexural strength decreases with
[7] Zhengqi, L., Harish Venkatanarayanan, K., and
increase in SSW dosage because of the increase in
Prasada Rao, R., Influence of silica floursilica
void content.
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(v) The addition of silica fume increase the
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[8] Ambily, P.S., Umarani, C., Ravisankar, K., Prabhat
NWC + 2 day HWC at 80C and 80% relative
Ranjan, Prem., Bharatkumar, B.H., and Nagesh,
humidity + 2 day Hot air curing at 200 C + 21
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[9] Santhanam, M., Venkatachalapathy, V.,
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Acknowledgement 2010.
[10] Kwan, A.K.H, Li, L.G., and Fung, W. W.S., Wet
This study is financially supported by Indian Institute of
packing of blended fine and coarse aggregate,
Technology Kanpur under start-up initiation grant
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provided to the second author. The authors wish to 2012.
convey sincere thanks to the Department of Civil
Engineering and other lab of IIT Kanpur for providing
necessary equipment and facilities.
863
CARBONATION, SHRINKAGE AND LONG TERM

STUDIES ON RECYCLED AGGREGATE CONCRETE
Bhashya V 1, Bharatkumar, B. H.2
1,2
Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), CSIR-Structural Engineering Research Centre,
Chennai, 600113, India
Crushing demolition waste concrete to produce recycled aggregates for production of new concrete is one
common means for achieving a more environmentally-friendly concrete. In this paper, durability
properties such as drying shrinkage, carbonation and long term exposure up to one year explained in
detail. Increase in compressive strength of control and recycled aggregate concrete was around 20% after
a exposure period of one year whereas, reduction in water absorption were 1.5% and 6% respectively, for
control and recycled aggregate concrete. The carbonation depths and drying shrinkage in the recycled
aggregate concrete were higher than conventional concrete. The use of heat treated recycled aggregates
and incorporating fly ash/silica fume in addition to cement reduced the carbonation depth and drying
shrinkage in concrete. This is due to the reduction of pores in recycled aggregate after treatment and fly
ash or silica fume in addition to cement reduced the porosity of recycled aggregate concrete.
Keywords: Recycled aggregate concrete, carbonation, shrinkage, long term studies
1 Introduction pre-soaking method developed by Tam et al [9], was

reported to result in only 7.2712.17% reduction in the
The construction industry is one, which to a great
water absorption of the RCA samples tested. The acid
extend depends on natural resources. The large scale
concentration of 2M proposed in the method developed
depletion of natural resources for extraction of natural
by Akbernezhad et al [10] was reported to result in less
aggregates, simultaneously, huge amount of
than one percentage of water absorption of the recycled
construction and demolition (C&D) waste is produced
concrete aggregates.
during construction (construction waste), due to
Yildiram et al [11] studied shrinkage of recycled
demolition of aged concrete structures (demolition
concrete having different w/c ratios. Authors reported
waste) and insufficient number of landfills for dumping
for w/c =0.7, Shrinkage (after 112 days) in recycled
such waste led to search for a viable option for effective
aggregate concrete 2 times more when compared to
utilization of C&D Waste. The separate rules
control concrete. For w/c=0.6, a mere 16% difference
Construction and Demolition Waste Management
was reported between highest and lowest shrinkage
Rules for management of C&D waste was published by
values after 112 days, while the corresponding
the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate
difference for w/c =0.5 was 37%.After 112 days, The
Change, India, wide notification no. G.S.R.317(E) dated
differences in relative shrinkage tended to decrease with
29th, march 2016 [1]. The rules defined thresholds (more
time. Ismail and Ramli [12] studied the shrinkage
than 20 tons or more in one day or 300 tons per project
behaviour of three different types of concrete mixes by
in a month) above which construction and demolition
using natural, recycled and treated recycled aggregates.
wastes have to be sorted into four streams such as
In particular, RCA concrete was likely related to the
concrete, soil, steel, wood and plastics, bricks and
poor quality and low stiffness of untreated, coarse RCA,
mortar in order to facilitate their subsequent recovery.
which was reported as affected in long run. However,
In India, the Central Pollution Control Board has
enhancing the quality of treated RCA after surface
estimated solid waste generation to be about 48 million
treatment positively affected and slowed down drying
tons per year, of which 25% is from the construction
shrinkage stress.
industry [2]. It is seen from the literature [3-7] that the
Leemann et al [13] studied the carbonation of
properties such as, density, water absorption, specific
concrete having lime stone powder, micro silica and
gravity, crushing value have a negative influence on
GGBS. The exposure conditions were 1% CO2
recycled aggregate concrete quality. Grabiec et al [8],
(200C,57%RH) and carbonation chamber with 4%
concluded that the method of bio-deposition of calcium
CO2(200C,57%RH) sheltered outdoor and unsheltered
carbonate improved the quality of recycled aggregate.
outdoor exposure until the age of 56 days. The cement
The acid concentration of 0.1M proposed in the acid
replacement with limestone powder, micro silica and
1
Scientist, bhashya@serc.res.in
2
Sr.pr.Scientist, bharat@serc.res.in
864
Bhashya V and Bharatkumar, B. H
GGBS reported higher carbonation coefficient than the company in Mumbai was used in this research. The
use of ordinary Portland cement. The carbonation chemical composition of fly ash and silica fume are
coefficients in the sheltered conditions are higher than presented in Table 1.
in the unsheltered conditions. Miguel bravo et al [14]
concluded that the mixes with recycled aggregate have Table 1:Chemical composition of fly ash and silica
lower carbonation resistance than the control concrete. fume
This was predictable since, when the water absorption Chemical Fly ash (% by mass) Silica fume
was analysed, a property influenced by the same factors, compound (%by mass)
the same trend occurred. SiO2 62.10 94.73
Experimental studies on recycled aggregate Al2O3 27.44 -
concrete shown use of RCA have poor mechanical and Fe2O3 4.57 -
durability properties of concrete. RCA has the greatest CaO 0.83 -
potential to reduce the overall durability of RCA MgO 0.55 -
concrete, likely due to the greater amount of fissures Na2O 0.04 0.51
created by RCA, into which water can permeate and K2O 1.17 -
diffuse. It is important to consider that climate can TiO2 1.09 -
affect long-term performance of recycled aggregate Mn2O3 0.04 -
concrete. Therefore, it is necessary to evaluate the SO3 0.4 0.2
durability responses and performance of concrete Chlorides - 0.07
prepared using RCA. From the detailed review of
existing literatures, several investigations are found in
India related to the mechanical (compressive strength, 2.2 Heating and abrasion treatment for the recycled
split tensile strength, flexural strength and modulus of aggregates
elasticity) and durability properties (water absorption,
sorptivity, chloride ion permeability) recycled aggregate The presence of mortar was the main reason for
concrete. However, limited studies have been carried lower quality of the recycled aggregates compared to
out to evaluate the carbonation, shrinkage and long term natural aggregates. The adhered mortar can be removed
performance of recycled aggregate concrete. Therefore, by chemical treatment, heat treatment and microwave
treatment [16]. Using this method, the recycled concrete
the present research focuses on carbonation, shrinkage
aggregates were heated to 2500C for four hours, after
and long term studies of concrete prepared using RCA
which the heated aggregates were immediately
and use of treated RCA, incorporation of pozzolanic
immersed in water causing a sudden reduction in the
materials (fly ash and silicafume) to improve its aggregate temperature and creating internal thermal
properties. stresses. After cooling, the adhered mortar became
brittle. These aggregates were dry-mixed in a pan-type
2 Experimental programme mixer for two to three minutes to remove the adhered
mortar. Then, the mixture of recycled aggregates and
removed mortar was sieved through standard sieves for
2.1 Materials preparation of treated recycled aggregates.
Recycled coarse aggregates were prepared by
crushing the demolished concrete in a jaw crusher set at 2.3 Mix proportion and test specimens
an opening of 20 mm with the jaws in the closed Experimental investigations were carried out to
position. Crusher products from each of the demolished investigate the carbonation, shrinkage and long term
concretes were screened into two size ranges (25 to 12.5 performance of concrete, produced by replacing the
mm, and 12.5 to 4.75 mm) and recombined into a natural aggregates with recycled aggregates coming
recycled coarse aggregate of approximately the same from construction and demolition of waste. The
grading as the natural aggregate (i.e., 60% of 25 to 12.5 concrete mix proportions were designed in accordance
mm, and 40% of 12.5 to 4.75 mm material). To improve with IS 10262 [17], with a common target slump of 70
the quality of the recycled aggregates, a heating and 10 mm. A super plasticizer made of sulphonated
abrasion treatment described in the next section was naphthalene formaldehyde was used. The content was
used. Ordinary 53-grade Portland cement conforming to 0.5% by weight of the binder. The details of the mix are
IS 12269 [15] was used. Locally available river sand given in Table 2. Totally 4 mixes have been cast. Mix 1
passing through a 4.75-mm sieve was used as fine contained 100% natural aggregates. This group serves
aggregate. Blue granite crushed stone aggregate of size as control mix. In Mix 2, 100% of the natural aggregate
ranging 12.5 to 25 mm and 4.75 to 12.5 mm was used in was replaced with RCA. The samples in Mix 3
a ratio of 60:40 by volume as coarse aggregate for the contained fly ash 10% of the coarse aggregate in
control concrete. Fly ash from a thermal power plant addition to cement and Mix 4 produced with 5% of the
near Chennai in India and silica fume supplied by a coarse aggregate was replaced by silica fume. The
865
natural coarse aggregates in mix 3 and mix 4 were 2.6 Drying shrinkage
replaced with 100% treated RCA. The test specimens Experimental investigations were carried out to
were casted for both conventional concrete mixes and investigate the shrinkage of concrete, produced by
RAC with water to cement ratio of 0.5. replacing the natural aggregates with recycled
aggregates coming from construction and demolition of
Table 2: Mix proportions per 1 m3 of concrete waste. The main aim of this work was to determine
Specimen Cement Fly Sand Coarse shrinkage variations experienced in recycled concrete,
Id (kg/m3) ash/ (kg/m3) aggregates and comparing it to control concrete. Concrete
Silica (kg/m3) specimens having size 100X100X500mm were prepared
fume (RCA) to conduct shrinkage test. The change in length of the
(kg/m3) specimens was recorded when their age of curing
reached 3, 7, 28, 60, 90, 120,150 and 180 days.
Mix 1 362 - 832 -
Mix 2 362 - 793 921
Mix 3 362 92 782 828 3.0 Results and Discussion
Mix 4 362 46 784 875
Coarse aggregate (NA) 1030 kg/m3, water 170 kg/m3
3.1 Bulk density
Recycled aggregates have lower density when
compared to natural aggregates. This was due to the
2.4 Long term studies presence of adhered mortar in the recycled aggregates.
Experimental studies on recycled aggregate Bulk density of natural and recycled aggregate is
concrete shown use of RCA have poor mechanical and presented in Table 3. Reduction in bulk density was
durability properties of concrete. These effects on observed by 9% and 12% for RCA sizes ranging from
4.75 to 12.5 mm and 12.5 to 25 mm respectively, in
concrete properties can affect the long-term
comparison to natural aggregates. The increase in bulk
performance of the concrete mix. RCA has the greatest
density of recycled aggregates when heating and
potential to reduce the overall durability of RCA
abrasion treatment was used was 8% and 10% for
concrete, likely due to the greater amount of fissures aggregates of sizes ranging from 4.75 to 12.5mm and
created by RCA, into which water can permeate and 12.5 to 25 mm, respectively.
diffuse. Also, it is important to consider that climate can
affect long-term performance of recycled aggregate Table 3: Bulk density of recycled aggregates
concrete. Therefore, it is necessary to evaluate the Aggregate type Bulk density (Kg/m3)
responses and performance of RCA concrete in the
long-term through experimental studies. In the present (4.75-12.5mm) (12.5-25mm)
study performance natural and recycled aggregate
concrete exposed to open atmosphere up to a period of NA 1572 1690
one year have been studied. RCA 1430 1483
Treated RCA 1550 1664
2.5 Carbonation
The accelerated carbonation test was carried out on
recycled aggregates obtained from construction and
demolition waste. The test specimens were casted for 3.2 Water absorption
both conventional concrete mixes and RAC with water
Recycled concrete aggregate sizes ranging from
cement ratio of 0.5. Concrete cubes of size 100mm were
12.5 to 25 mm and 4.75 to 12.5 mm had very high
cast to determine the compressive strength and
percentages of water absorption. Water absorption of
carbonation of recycled aggregate concrete. The
natural aggregate of size 12.5 to 25 mm was found to be
specimens taken from the curing chamber were directly
0.7%, whereas for recycled aggregate it was 4.8% by
put into the accelerated carbonation apparatus. Exposing
weight. The water absorption of recycled concrete
the concrete specimens to the accelerated carbonation
aggregate was 6.8 times that of natural aggregate, while
process will be continued for a period of 1, and 2
many investigations found the water absorption about 6
months. The specimens were subjected to 2.5% carbon
to 10 times [18-20]. This was due to the porous
dioxide in a chamber with a temperature of 20 0C and
characteristics of the mortar residue adhering to the
65% RH, until the time required for testing.
original aggregate particles. The heating and abrasion
method reduces the water absorption to 1.62% by
weight. Hence, it is observed that there is a 66%
reduction in water absorption of recycled aggregate
after treatment. For the 4.75 to 12.5 mm aggregates after
866
treatment with the heating and abrasion method, water 2.5 times greater than that of conventional concrete.
absorption was reduced to 1.59% from 2.67%. This may be attributed to the recycled aggregate being
more porous. The use of heat treated recycled
aggregates and incorporating fly ash/silica fume in
3.3 Results of long studies on RAC addition to cement reduced the carbonation depth in
concrete. This is due to the reduction of pores in
Table 4 presents results of compressive strength of recycled aggregate after treatment and fly ash or silica
recycled aggregate concrete specimens exposed to open fume in addition to cement reduced the porosity of
atmosphere for a period of one year. Compressive recycled aggregate concrete.
strength of control (Mix 1) and recycled aggregate
concrete specimens (Mix 2) tested after one year have
20% and 18% increment in strength, respectively, this
may be due to strength gained by concrete during the
period of exposure. The increase in strength in the
specimens with fly ash and silica fume, when 100 % of
the coarse aggregate was replaced by recycled aggregate Mix 1 Mix 2 Mix 3 Mix 4
was 33 % (Mix 3), and 32 % (Mix 4100). Fly ash or Figure 1: Carbonation in conventional and recycled
silica fume could improve the compressive strength aggregate concrete
with age because of a pozzolanic reaction.
Table 4: Compressive strength of RAC exposed to

one year
Age of
concrete 28 days 1.0 years
Mix 1 38.25 46.27
Mix 2 31.74 37.49
Mix 3 45.51 60.95
Mix 4 44.75 59.07
Table 5 presents results of water absorption of

recycled aggregate concrete specimens exposed to open
Figure 2: Depth of carbonation of recycled aggregate
atmosphere for a period of one year. Reductions in
concrete (w/c =0.5)
water absorption for control (Mix 1) and recycled
aggregate concrete specimens (Mix 2) tested after one Table 5: Water absorption of RAC exposed to one
year were 1.49% and 6.14%, respectively. The water year
absorption of heat treated recycled aggregate concrete Specimen Water absorption (%)
with addition of fly ash and silica fume was reduced by designation 28 days 1.0 years
1.78 (Mix 3) and 1.9% (Mix 4), respectively. Hence a
Mix 1 4.22 4.15
significant amount of reduction in water absorption was
observed when the addition of mineral admixtures in Mix 2 6.49 6.03
concrete with heat treated recycled aggregates. Mix 3 4.92 4.83
Mix 4 4.86 4.76
3.4 Results of Carbonation
The specimens were taken out after completion of
3.5 Results of shrinkage on RAC
the test and the depth of carbonation was measured by
spraying the surface of a freshly broken concrete cube Fig.3 and Fig.4 shows the carbonation and
specimen with a 1% phenolphthalein indicator solution. percentage weight loss in RAC with age. The results
Purple red colour is obtained in the non-carbonated part from the shrinkage test showed that the drying
of the specimen where the concrete is still highly shrinkage values of all specimens, which were measured
alkaline, while in the carbonated part of the specimen up to 180 days, fell below 850 microstrains. From the
due to the carbonation the alkalinity of concrete is results during the early ages up to 28 days, the drying
reduced and no colour occurs (Fig.1). Immediately after shrinkage behavior of all four concrete mixes were
spraying the indicator, the average depth of the observed to similar. After 28 days, however, different
colourless phenolphthalein region has been measured. drying shrinkage values became clearer. In particular,
In conventional concrete the carbonation depth concrete having 100% RCA exhibited a high shrinkage
measured was around 2mm, whereas recycled aggregate value compared with the control concrete. Shrinkage in
concrete it was higher. Fig.2 shows the depth of the recycled concrete was 79% higher than that of the
carbonation recycled aggregate concrete for w/c 0.5 It is control concrete after a period of 180 days. The higher
observed that the recycled aggregate concrete was 2.0 to shrinkage of the 100% RCA mix may be the relatively
867
easier loss of moisture from the RCA particles because concrete. The use of heat treated recycled aggregates
it is likely that this is free water and is not required to and incorporating fly ash/silica fume in addition to
hydrate the cement in the residual mortar which is cement reduced the carbonation depth and drying
already hydrated. However, enhancing the quality of shrinkage in concrete. This is due to the reduction of
treated RCA after surface treatment positively affected pores in recycled aggregate after treatment and fly ash
and slowed down drying shrinkage in concrete with or silica fume in addition to cement reduced the porosity
flyash and silicafume. At the age of 180 days, the of recycled aggregate concrete.
shrinkage strains in concrete with flyash was 20% and
with silicafume was 47% lesser than in control mix.
Acknowledgement
Based on these observations, it is obvious that the RCA
mixes produced by using treated RCA and mineral The authors gratefully acknowledge the support of
admixtures experience less long-term shrinkage than the the technical staff at the Advanced Materials Laboratory
concrete prepared by using untreated RCA. (AML), SERC, Chennai, during the experimental work.
References
[1]. Construction and Demolition Waste Management
Rules, Ministry of Environment, Forest and
Climate Change, India, notification no.
G.S.R.317(E),29th, march 2016
[2]. Rao, M.C., Bhattacharyya, S.K., and Barai, S.V.,
Recycled coarse aggregate and its use in concrete,
Indian Concrete Institute Journal, V.11, No.4,
pp.27-40, 2011.
[3]. Katz, A., Properties of concrete made with
recycled aggregate from partially hydrated old
concrete, Cement and concrete Research, V.33,
Figure 3: Comparison of shrinkage strain in RAC with No.5, pp.703-711, 2003.
conventional concrete [4]. Hansen, T.C., and Narud, H., Strength of recycled
concrete made from crushed concrete coarse
aggregate, Concrete International, V.5, No.1,
pp.79-83,1983.
[5]. Yang, J., Du, Q., and Bao, Y., Concrete with
recycled concrete aggregate and crushed clay
bricks, Construction and Building Materials,
V.25, No.4, pp.1935-1945,2011.
[6]. Rao, M.C., Bhattacharyya, S.K., and Barai, S.V.,
Behaviour of recycled aggregate concrete under
drop weight impact load, Construction and
Building Materials, V.25, No.1, pp.69-80,2011.
Figure 4: Comparison of weight loss (%) with age in [7]. Beln, G.F., Fernando, M.A., Diego, C.L, and
RAC with conventional concrete Sindy, S.P., Stressstrain relationship in axial
compression for concrete using recycled saturated
4.0 Conclusions coarse aggregate, Construction and Building
materials, V.25, No.5, pp.2335-2342,2011.
Experimental investigations were carried out on [8]. Grabiec, A.M., Klama, J., Zawal, D, and Krupa,
concrete with coarse recycled concrete aggregates. The D., Modification of recycled concrete aggregate
study presents the physical and mechanical properties of by calcium carbonate bio deposition, Construction
the recycled concrete aggregate (RCA) and the and Building Materials, V.34, pp.145-150, 2012.
durability of concrete prepared with RCA. Durability [9]. Tam, V.W., Tam, C.M, and Le, K.N., Removal of
properties such as drying shrinkage, carbonation and cement mortar remains from recycled aggregate
long term exposure upto one year presented. Increase in using pre-soaking approaches, Resources,
compressive strength of control and recycled aggregate Conservation and Recycling, V.50, No.1, pp.82-
concrete was around 20% after a exposure period of one 101, 2007.
year whereas, reduction in water absorption were 1.5% [10]. Akbarnezhad, A., Ong, K.C.G., Zhang, M.H.,
and 6% respectively, for control and recycled aggregate Tam, C.T, and Foo, T.W.J., Microwave-assisted
concrete. The carbonation depths drying shrinkage in beneficiation of recycled concrete aggregates,
the recycled aggregate concrete were higher than Construction and Building Materials, V.25, No.8,
conventional concrete. It was observed that the pp.3469-3479,2011.
carbonation depth in recycled aggregate concrete was
2.0 to 2.5 times greater than that of conventional
868
[11]. Salih Taner Yildirim,Christian meyer,simon

herfellner Effects of internal curing on the
strength,drying shrinkage and freeze-thaw
resistance of concrete containing recycled
concrete aggregates, Construction and Building
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[12]. Sallehan Ismail and Mahyuddin Ramli ,
Mechanical strength and drying shrinkage
properties of concrete containing treated coarse
recycled concrete aggregates ,Construction and
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[13]. Leemann, Andreas, Peter Nygaard, Josef
Kaufmann, and Roman Loser. Relation between
carbonation resistance, mix design and exposure
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Composites, V 62 , pp 33-43,2015.
[14]. Bravo, Miguel, Jorge de Brito, Jorge Pontes,
and Lus Evangelista, Durability performance of
concrete with recycled aggregates from
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plants, Construction and Building Materials, 77,
pp. 357-369, 2015.
[15]. Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS),
Specifications for 53 grade ordinary Portland
cement, IS 12269, BIS, New Delhi, India,1987.
[16]. Juan, M.S., and Gutierrez, P.A., Study on the
influence of attached mortar content on the
properties of recycled concrete aggregate,
Construction and Building Materials 23(2), 872
877,2009.
[17]. Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS), Concrete
mix proportioning-guidelines, IS 10262, BIS,
New Delhi, India,2009.
[18]. Somna, R., Jaturapitakkul, C., Chalee, W., and
Rattanachu, P, Effect of the water to binder ratio
and ground fly ash on properties of recycled
aggregate concrete. Journal of Materials in
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[19]. Poon, C. S., Shui, Z. H., and Lam, L., Effect of
microstructure of ITZ on compressive strength
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461468,2004.
[20]. Tangchirapat, W., Buranasing, R.,
Jaturapitakkul, C., and Chindaprasirt, P.
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of recycled aggregates, Construction and
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869
Effect of Three Different Particle Sized Calcium Carbonate on the

Properties of High Strength Concrete
S. Maheswaran*, A. Ramachandra Murthy*, V. Ramesh Kumar* and Arthi Karunanithi#
*,#
CSIR-Structural Engineering Research Centre, Taramani, Chennai - 600113, INDIA
The main objective of this study is to find the hydration activity, compressive strength and shrinkage
effect with the incorporation of different particle sized calcium carbonate materials in high strength
concrete (HSC). Towards this objective, it is attempted with three different particle sizes of calcium
carbonate (CaCO3) and the same are incorporated in HSC as a partial replacement for cement. The
sources of CaCO3 in the form of lime sludge (LS, ~ 43 m, residue from paper and pulp industry),
commercial CaCO3 (MC, ~13 m), commercial nano-CaCO3 (NC, <100 nm) are used. The heat of
hydration, compressive strength and shrinkage volume are studied. The characterization of blended
cement pastes are carried out by X-ray diffraction (XRD) and scanning electron microcopy (SEM).
Results showed that there is an enhancement of hydration reaction due to the nucleation effects of
CaCO3, considerable improvement in the reduction of shrinkage volume, hence the minimization of
shrinkage cracks. The results of compressive strength with different sized CaCO3 showed significant
increase in HSC in all the cases compared to control mixes. The SEM images confirm the formation of
C-S-H clusters over CaCO3 particles on MC and LS materials, whereas the denser microstructure is
observed in the case of NC incorporated concretes.
Keywords: High strength concrete, lime sludge, nano materials, shrinkage, calcium carbonate
Introduction controlling concrete properties and the design of such

concrete.
The development of concrete materials can be
One such mineral admixtures is lime stone (LP,
divided in to several stages, the first being the
CaCO3) fines and the activity of LP in the cementitious
development of normal strength concrete (NSC). When
system is still under debate. Many researchers [1,2]
the compressive strength of concrete is greater than 50
observed that the LP is added (about 5-6%) during the
MPa, it is defined as high strength concrete (HSC), even
cement grinding did not affect the cement properties
though strength is not only important parameter rather
since it acts as a filler material. Kumar et al. [3] found
other properties such as permeability, durability and
that the reaction of LP largely depends on its fineness
workability. Extensive research studies are being carried
and this could effectively enhance the heat flow of
out to enhance the performance of concrete and to
cement during hydration process. Several investigations
develop durable and sustainable concrete for the
have been carried out on the physical and chemical
construction industry by implementing various methods
characteristics of mortar or concrete, but focused only on
such as blending mineral admixtures with cement,
NSC in which water-to-binder ratio is relatively high. To
chemical admixtures including nanomaterials. The
achieve very high strength under very low water/binder
application of various mineral admixtures significantly
ratios in HSC, which leads not only high cost, but also
improves the performance of cement-based materials due
has effects on the heat of hydration and may cause
to economical and environmental concerns. The
shrinkage problems. Therefore, to develop efficient HSC,
application of high-performance concrete with high
it is important to understand the effect of different
strength and superior durability is an attractive method of
particle sized CaCO3 admixtures on the properties and
--------------------------------------------------------------
*Principal Scientist, smahes@serc.res.in
*Principal Scientist, murthyarc@serc.res.in
*Scientist, ramesh@serc.res.in
#
Project Assistant, arthi.jeni@gmail.com
870
S. Maheswaran, et al.
hydration process of HSC. Moreover, due to the shown in Table 3 and the sample IDs are denoted as:
advancement of nano science and technology, the CONT - neat cement paste and aggregates, LS-5 -
researchers in construction industry are capitalizing on replacement of cement by LS by 5wt %, MC-1indicates
nano technology to innovate a new generation of 1wt% of replacement of cement by micro-sized
concrete for the additional improvement on the commercial CaCO3 and NC-0.1 indicates replacement of
performance of concrete in terms of smart functions and cement by 0.1% of commercial nano CaCO3.
sustainable features. In this study, nano sized CaCO3 is Compression Testing Machine (CTM) of 300T capacity
also used as source of mineral admixture. At the same is used to determine the compressive strength of HSC
time, due to environmental pollution problem, in this (size of 70.2x70.2x70.2 mm3).
study, LS (residue collected from the paper and pulp
industry) is also used for one of the sources for CaCO3.
The other source of material is commercial micro-sized
CaCO3 (MC) and commercial nano CaCO3 (NC).
With this background, this study focuses on the

hydration and mechanical behaviour, shrinkage volume /
crack reductions and the causes for the physico-chemical
changes due to mineral admixtures by using different
sized CaCO3 particles without using any fibers for crack
reduction.
(a)
Materials and methods
One part of ordinary Portland cement (OPC),

silica fume (SF, 0.25), quartz sand (1.10 part, 0.6 1.2
mm) and quartz powder (0.4 part, 5.3 m 1.3 m) are
used as aggregates in HSC [4]. A polycarboxylate high-
range water reducing admixture (HRWRA) based
superplasticizer (SP) is added in the range of 2-3 % of
cement volume. The physical properties and chemical
compositions of the classified materials are given in
Tables 1&2. The particle size analysis of lime sludge and
micro CaCO3 are shown in Fig.1a&b. Brukers D2
PHASER X-Ray Diffraction (XRD) system, equipped (b)
with 1-D LynxEye detector is used in the present study,
which employs Cu-K radiation (30 kV, 10 mA) with Fig.1 Particle size analysis of (a) Micro-CaCO3 and (b)
Nickel filters. A continuous scan from 100 to 600 2 in lime sludge
step width of 0.020 and counting time of 0.5 sec per step Table 1. Physical properties of samples such as OPC,
is performed on less than 25 micrometer size powder SF, NC, LS, and MC
samples. The micro-structural studies of samples are
carried out by using scanning electron microscope (SEM) Bulk Specific Fineness Moistur
TESCAN VEGA5 using secondary electron in the Density, Gravity passing e
accelerating voltage range of 5kV to 10kV with the probe gm / cm3 40m content,
sieve, % %
current from 1pA to 2A.
OPC 1.36 3.1 90 <1-2
SF 0.13-0.6 2.2 90-92 <1
Calmetrix- I CAL 2000 HPC; USA is used for heat of
NC* 0.52 - 99.7 -
hydration studies and the samples are prepared as like LS 0.62 2.4 80-85 52
mortars, but without aggregates. The mix proportions are MC * 0.25-0.35 2.7 95-97 -
made for hydration and compressive strength studies as *
Supplier's data
871
Table 2 Chemical Composition of OPC, SF, LS and NC cement start to react, during which concrete gains
strength. The period of maximum heat evolution occurs
Oxide OPC SF NC* LS typically between about 40 and 60 hours (Fig. 2a) after
SiO2 20.49 94.73 - 5.78 mixing water and then reduced gradually (deceleration
Al2O3 5.91 - - 0.18
period). The rate of cumulative heat evolution of all the
Fe2O3 4.07 - 0.02 0.15
CaO 62.9 - 99.5 45.74 blends exceeds that of CONT pastes after the induction
SO3 1.87 0.2 0.27 0.28 period. The difference of hydration heat released with
Na2O 0.20 0.51 - 2.03 respect to CONT of various pastes in this study can be
K2O 0.5 - - 0.3 related to the total heat released by the hydration and this
MgO 1.13 - - 0.39 can be related to the compressive strength of the
MnO 0.08 - 0.02 0.02 mixtures. Hence, a higher compressive strength is
Cl 0.45 0.07 - 0.08
2.29 1.5 - 45.04 expected with an increase of the total heat released
LOI
*
Supplier's data during hydration. These results are influenced mainly by
different particle sizes of the blended CaCO3, which are
Table 3 Mix proportions for pastes for heat of hydration acted as an additional site for the nucleation. Hence, it
experiments at 30C can be concluded from these studies that the silicate
Sample CONT LS-5 MC-1 NC-0.1 hydration acceleration effect due to nucleation effect of
Cement (g) 24 22.800 23.760 23.976 micro-sized CaCO3 particles, such as MC and LS, rather
SF (g) 6 6 6 6 than nano-sized one. The NC samples act here as filler
LS (g) - 1.2 - - only.
MC (g) - - 0.24 -
NC (g) - - - 0.024
Autogenous shrinkage of concrete can be
Water (g) 6.0 5.7 5.9 5.9
SP (g) 0.72 0.68 0.71 0.72 defined as the macroscopic volume change and
considered as an external volume change (apparent
volume change). To offset the magnitude of autogenous
Results and discussions shrinkage, Suzuki et al. [5] investigated the use of an
expansive additive and a shrinkage reducing additive and
Due to non-pozzolanic nature of calcium reported that an autogenous shrinkage of more than 700
carbonate, it has been considered as inert filler in millionths would be reduced to zero with the use of these
concrete in general. But the effect of calcium carbonate materials. In this study, it is found that the shrinkage
on the hydration of cement, in particular, tricalcium volume has significantly reduced due to the presence of
silicate alters the physico-chemical properties during nano sized particles rather than micro particles as
Portland cement hydration (Fig.2a) and enhance the ingredients (Fig. 3). The reduction in shrinkage volume
mechanical performance of HSC. for later materials (LS and MC) are minor with similar
particle size distribution to that of Portland cement,
It is found that there is a notable reduction in the which act as nucleation sites for hydrates, whereas this
dormant period (DP) for all the blended cement pastes effect is major in the case of nano calcium carbonate
with respect to CONT; especially the reduction is very (NC) materials due to filler effect.
high in the case of MC-1 and LS-5, which indicates the
occurrence of pre-mature stiffening or hardening of the It is found from the above discussions, the calcium
blended pastes. This shows that the reaction kinetics are carbonate accelerates the hydration mechanism, and also
very fast in the case of MC-1 and LS-5, which could be acts as filler materials. This occurs on its surface of
due to the particle size effect and available pore volume, CaCO3 resulting in improved mechanical performance.
whereas NC-0.1 behaves like control cement pastes. The In addition, it is found that the shrinkage volume has
calcium carbonate accelerates the hydration mechanism significantly reduced due to the presence of nano sized
and also acts a nucleation site for C-S-H formation. particles rather than micro particles as ingredients (Fig.
3). The results of compressive strength (Fig. 4) with
At the end of the dormant period, the main different sized CaCO3 showed considerable increase in
period of hydration starts, i.e. the alite and belite in the
872
HSC in all the cases over control mixes (6 - 36% in 7 composite pastes are quantified as other amorphous
days curing and 21- 34 % in 28 days of curing). contents.
250
Shrinkage volume, x10 - 6 m3

200
150
7 days
100 28 days
50
0
CONT LS-5 MC-1 NC-0.1
(a) Fig.3 Shrinkage volume reduction of different samples
(b)
Fig.4 Relative compressive strength of different samples
Fig.2(a) Results of heat of hydration of neat cement with respect to control
pastes with different particle sized CaCO3 [DP - Dormant
Period] (b) Total heat evolved of neat cement pastes Table 4 shows the quantitative results of the
with different particle sized CaCO3 XRD analysis and indicates the incremental quantity of
The qualitative and semi-quantitative analyses amorphous contents, which are normally contributed to
are conducted for the composite pastes by using X-ray improvement in strengths. It is observed from Table 5
diffraction to analyze the formation of various phases that the amorphous contents of the samples of LS-5, MC-
like portlandite (P), calcite (CC), ettringite (E) etc. 1 and NC-0.1 are relatively higher than CONT samples.
(Fig.5). The phases are clearly identified and quantified These results indicated the reasons for the improved
after 7 and 28 days of water curing. In addition to this, relative compressive strengths for the samples MC-1, LS-
the hydrated phases such as C-S-H, C-A-S-H of the 5 and NC-0.1 (Fig.4). In addition to this, NC particles,
are favoured the formation small sized Ca(OH)2 and
873
ettringite / AFm crystals and denser clusters of C-S-H by which determines the reduction in shrinkage volume as
nucleation effect and also the NC particles are filled the discussed above.
voids between cement grains (Fig.6d).
Table 4. Semi-quantitative (S-Q) analyses of different
CaCO3 blended cement pastes
% of
CC E CH
Others
S-Q analysis of 7 days cured pastes
CONT 8.9 16.5 6.3 68.3
LS-5 12.3 14.8 3.8 69.1
MC-1 6.8 11.4 3.4 78.4
NC-0.1 7.9 13.1 6.5 72.5
S-Q analysis of 28 days cured pastes
CONT 8.4 13.6 5.2 72.8
LS-5 10.9 11.7 3.9 73.5
MC-1 6.7 12.2 4.8 76.3
NC-0.1 10 9.2 7.9 72.9
CC- Calcite (CaCO3), CH- Portladite (Ca(OH)2),

E - Ettringite (Ca6Al2(SO4)3(OH)12.26(H2O), and others -
% of other amorphous contents including C-S-H, C-A-S-
H etc.
Conclusions
It is concluded from the above studies that the

calcium carbonate accelerates the hydration mechanism
and also acts a nucleation site for C-S-H formation. This
occurs on its surface of CaCO3 resulting in improved
mechanical performance. In addition, it is found that the
shrinkage volume has significantly reduced due to the
Fig.5 XRD spectrum of (a) 7 days and (b) 28 days cured presence of nano sized particles rather than micro
cement composite pastes [E-ettringite, CH-portlandite, particles as ingredients. The results of compressive
CC-Calcite, CnS-C2S+C3S, C2S/C3S - di/tri-calcium strength with different sized CaCO3 showed considerable
silicate and CA calcium aluminate increase in HSC over control mix. It is also observed that
there is an enhancement of hydration reaction due to the
The typical morphology of different particle nucleation effects of CaCO3, considerable improvement
sized CaCO3 blended high strength concretes are shown in the reduction of shrinkage volume, which leads to the
in the Figures 6 a-d. It can be noticed from the Fig. 6a minimization of shrinkage cracks and hence
and 6b that the pore volumes are more compared to other enhancement of compressive strength. The semi-
two samples. The C-S-H clusters are formed over the quantitative analysis of the cement composite pastes by
particles of the CaCO3 can be seen clearly in Fig 6c. In XRD revealed that quantity of the strength giving phases
the case of NC blended cement pastes, there are some of amorphous contents of various paste samples. The
agglomeration of nano particles but at the same time it is imaging of the 28 days cured cement paste samples
found that there is dense packed structure in this case, revealed the results packing of foreign particles in
cement moieties.
874
References
[1] Valcuende M, Parra C, Marco E, Garrido A, Martnez

E, Cnoves J. Influence of LP filler and viscosity-
modifying admixture on the porous structure of self
compacting concrete. Constr Build Mater
2012;28(1):1228.
[2] Bentz DP. Modeling the influence of LP filler on
cement hydration using CEMHYD3D. Cem Concr Comp
2006;28(2):1249.
[3] Kumar A, Oey T, Kim S, Thomas D, Badran S, Li J,
et al. Simple methods to estimate the influence of LP
fillers on reaction and property evolution in cementitious
materials. Cem Concr Comp 2013;42:209.
[4] Ganesh, P, Ramachandra Murthy, A, Sundar Kumar,
S, Mohammed Saffiq Reheman, M, Iyer, N.R. Effect of
nanosilica on durability and mechanical properties of
high-strength concrete. Mag Concrete Res, 2015;68(5):
229-36.
[5] Suzuki, M., Maruyama, I. and Sato, R., 2005, June.
Properties of Expansive-Ultra High-Strength Concrete. In
7th International Symposium on Utilization of High-
Fig.6 SEM image of the different particle sized CaCO3 Strength/High-Performance Concrete, Edited by Henry
blended HSC a. CONT, b. LS-5, G. Russell, America (pp. 1159-1174).
c. MC-1 and d. NC-0.1
From the experiments conducted with the materials used

in this study, the addition of micro-sized CaCO3 (MC)
had a strong acceleration effect and hardening process. It
showed better early-age compressive strength results than
that of the control. By replacing very small quantity of
NC (0.1 wt % of cement) improved the reduction of
shrinkage volume in HSC and exhibited improved
strength over control. From performance and
environmental points of view, adding 5% LS materials
can provide an efficient improvement for concrete
properties.
Acknowledgment
The scientists and staff members of CSMG of CSIR-

SERC are greatly acknowledged for the useful
discussions and suggestions provided during the course
of the investigations. This paper is being published with
the kind permission of the Director, CSIR-SERC,
Chennai, India.
875
Development of Cost-Effective Water Tanks using Flowable

Cementitious Composite
J. Prabakar1* and J. Daniel Ronald Joseph2
1
Senior Principal Scientist, 2Scientist
CSIR Structural Engineering Research Centre, CSIR Madras complex, Chennai, India
*
Corresponding author: Email: prabhakar@serc.res.in; Telephone: +9144 22549 169
Abstract
This paper presents an indigenous technology developed for construction of cost effective prototype
water tanks using flowable cementitious composite. The ferrocement products have added advantages,
but it requires special attention during manufacture. To achieve a good quality product, highly skilled
man power of artisan type is needed. To overcome this difficulty, flowable cement mortar is developed
at CSIR-SERC Chennai without compromising its strength and quality. The cementitious composite
consists of mixture of cement, fine aggregate and ground granulated blast furnace slag.
Superplasticizer was used to achieve required flow properties of fresh composite. Mix proportion of
cement composite that achieved required flow ability and strength was chosen for construction of
water tank. Average cube strength at 28 days curing period was found to be 40 MPa. A prototype
water tank was constructed of 1000 liters capacity. The thickness of the water tank walls was kept as
30 mm similar to traditional ferrocement water tank.
Keywords: Flowable composite, Water tank, Cement composite, GGBS, Weld Mesh.
Introduction coupled with shortage of skilled construction workers.

In order to reduce these problems, mechanized
Reinforced concrete is a composite material in which
production and proper choice of reinforcements must
concrete as well as steel is used. As concrete is weak in
be pursued to ensure cost competitiveness and speed of
tension, tensile stresses in flexural member is primarily
construction.
resisted by steel reinforcement. Being much stronger
than concrete in compression as well, reinforcing steel
Ferro-cement is very much a versatile form of mesh
can also supplement concrete in bearing compressive
reinforced cement mortar that has a unique quality of
forces as in column. Ferro-cement is actually the first
strength and serviceability. It is one of the
invention of reinforced concrete with some differences.
comparatively new cementitious composite considered
The main difference is in scale of the element: ferro-
for construction as a construction material. It is a thin
cement uses small sized reinforcement, rather than
type of walled reinforced concrete generally consisting
large steel rods, such as wire meshes. In ferro-cement
of cement mortar reinforced with closely spaced layers
coarse aggregate is not used, and the binding material
of continuous and relatively small wire mesh [1]. The
is cement-sand mortar. Ferro-Cement was developed
closely-spaced and uniformly-distributed
by a Frenchman, Joseph Louis Lambot during 1848. He
reinforcement in ferro-cement transforms brittle
used this product to build ferro-cement boats, water
material into a superior ductile composite. Therefore,
tanks and vessels. The name ferro-cement was given by
ferro-cement technology is becoming more attractive
Italian Professor Pier Luigi. Early 1970's, labour
to housing construction, particularly for roofs, floors,
intensive ferro-cement construction was noticed as
slabs and walls because of its relatively low cost,
particularly suitable for few countries, so the
durability and weather resistance [2,3]. The versatility
applications of ferro-cement must be seen from a
of ferro-cement further increases its utility in
different perspective due to the competitiveness in the
production of prefabricated components required in
construction industry and the increase in labour cost
housing.
876
J. Prabakar and J. Daniel Ronald Joseph
Ferro-cement fabrication technique is very easy to Once the reinforcement gage is ready for the water
learn, and if ferro-cement structures are properly build, tank, cement mortar is applied on external side of the
is basically maintenance free [2-5]. Ferro-cement is a reinforcement gage by keeping ply wood just opposite
promising composite material for prefabrication and side of the application of mortar. The holding of
industrialization of the building industry [6,7]. Studies plywood is managed by a person. The very first day
were made on ferro-cement as encasement for mortar is applied in all the external surfaces including
structural strengthening [8-11] have also shown great bottom side of the tank. Next day, mortar is applied in
potential. The influence of ferro-cement with wire all inner side of the tank. Third day, the tank is finished
mesh reinforcement with various sizes and volume in all respects. Fig.1 shows the construction process of
fractions in direct tension, has shown a great conventional ferro-cement water tank.
improvement in the ultimate tensile crack behavior of
the composite plates after warning and as well as the
cracking stage extended and a distinctive failure stage
were also studied [12,13].
The property of improved homogeneity is observed

when compared to RCC and reduced thickness make it
possible to employ the material as substitute to timber,
steel, and asbestos cement. Its high degree of
impermeability and resistance to cracking makes it
ideally suitable in construction of water tanks and other
liquid retaining structures. The ferro-cement can also
be used for the construction of shells, domes, roofing,
flooring and walling elements. The main difference
between ferro-cement and reinforced concrete is that
ferro-cement is a thin composite made of cement
Fig. 1 Construction Process of Conventional Ferro-
mortar reinforced with closely spaced small diameter
cement Water Tank
wire meshes instead of larger diameter rods and large
size aggregates. The thickness of ferro-cement 3. Aim of the Study
generally ranges from 25-50 mm. The latest ACI Code Various ferro-cement products have been developed in
also encourages the use of non- metallic reinforcement CSIR-SERC during 70s, and these Ferro-cement
and fibers. products have several advantages, but it requires
special attention during manufacturing to achieve a
Ferro-cement is an environment friendly technology good quality product. Ferro-cement is nothing but it is
and possesses an excellent unique properties such as a system of reinforced cement mortar applied over a
good tensile strength, improved toughness, water thin reinforcement closely spaced. The ferrocement
tightness, lightness, fire resistance, resistance to based technologies are cost effective and they are
cracking and cost, time and material effective costly now a days due to its labor demanding process.
construction technology. Unlike conventional About 60 % of the product cost goes only towards the
concrete, ferro-cement reinforcement can be assembled labors charges. Moreover, to produce the water tank,
into its final required shape and the mortar can be we require a highly skilled man power. In the present
plastered directly in place without the use of any condition, getting highly skilled person itself very
formworks. difficult and that to of artisan types is much more
difficulties. The primary aim of this study is to
2. Conventional Casting Methods of Ferro-cement construct a ferro-cement water tank by modifying the
Water Tank properties of fresh cement composite to increase the
The conventional method of construction of the workability, and hence flowable, thereby reducing the
ferrocement tank requires a minimum of three days.
877
need for skilled labour and reduce cost of construction Table 2 Properties of Super Plasticizer
significantly.
Aspect Light brown Liquid
4. Experimental Program and Results Relative Density 1.09+0.01 at 25c
The main raw materials used in the present study are PH >6
cement, fine aggregate, GGBS, Water reducing agent, Chloride ion
< 0.2%
weld mesh and chicken mesh. Commercially available content
53 grade Portland Puzzolana Cement and GGBS were
used. Natural river sand passing through 1.18-mm
sieve conforming to IS 383(1970) was used as a fine Table 3 Chemical Composition of GGBS
aggregate for preparing composite. The properties of
cement conforming to IS 1489: Part I and river sand are S. No. Constituent Percentage
reported in Table-1. Properties of super plasticizers is
1 CaO 40.3
given in Table-2. The chemical composition of GGBS
is reported in Table-3. In general, weld mesh and 2 SiO2 43.4
chicken mesh were used for the conventional
ferrocement technology. The chicken mesh was used 3 Al2O3 12.5
basically to hold the cement mortar in position also to 4 Fe2O3 0.82
resist the shrinkage and thermal effect arise during
cement hydration. In the present study, weld mesh of 5 MgO 0.75
25 x 25-mm grid size instead of 100 x 100-mm with
6 Na2O 0.26
2.5-mm dia was used to overcome the construction
difficulties. 7 K2O 0.35
8
Table 1 Physical Properties of Cement and Fine SO3 0.34
aggregate
4.1 Mix Preparation using Cementitious Composite
S. Physical Cement Fine
No. Properties (PPC) Aggregate
To overcome the construction difficulties and bring
1 Consistency 34 % - down the cost of the Ferro-cement water tank, a simple
construction techniques has been evolved by
Initial Setting
2 148 mins. - modifying the cement composite into flowable form
Time
Final Setting 5hrs- without compromising its strength properties.
3 - Flowable cement composite is developed using cement
Time 45mins.
Specific as a main constituent material as a binder and sand as a
4 3.15 2.66
Gravity filler material which attributed towards strength. Water
Fineness 2.70 and construction chemicals are used to achieve the
5 -
Modulus
required workability and consistency of the cement
Bulk Density
6. 1438 1700 composite. The mix has been finalized based on the
(kg/m3)
Compressive strength requirement and its flow-able characteristics.
Strength, MPa The flowable characteristics is measured by pouring
7 (at 28 days 55 - the cement composite through a funnel. The dia. of the
curing period) funnel is of 15 mm through which the composite was
flown. In addition flow has been measured by pouring
the composites in to a cylindrical mould of 75x150
mm. The composite is poured in to the mould and the
mould was lifted gently, and the horizontal spread of
the composite was measured to be 300 mm. The
878
selected strength of composite at 28 days was mm. spacing of wires

determined and found to be 42-MPa. is 10mm placed at 45o
2. Green Mesh Its a square type mesh 12
of wire dia 1.08 mm
and the MS mesh
insulated with PVC.
The size of the mesh
4.2 Flexural strength of Slab using Flowable
opening is 13 x 13
Cement Composite mm.
Specimens were cast to study the flexural property. 3. Weld mesh Its a square type mesh 12
Four types of weld mesh were considered as 100 mm of wire dia. 2.5 mm
reinforcement and cast slab of size 900 x 300 mm spacing having mesh opening
of 100 mm
having thickness of 30 mm with the selected 4. Weld mesh It is a square type 20
composite. The slabs were cured under water for 28 25 mm mesh of wire dia. 1.5
days. Flexural test was conducted on the slab using two spacing mm having mesh
point load system with one end of the slab being hinged opening of 25 mm
and other end kept on roller. The load was applied 5. Chicken It is of hexagonal type 10
gradually with an increment of 25 kg and the mesh wire mesh of 22 gauge
deflections were measured at the center using LVDT. and mesh opening is of
The load at which the first crack appeared and the load 25 mm.
at which slab failed were noted. The slab cast with

flowable cement composites was compared with
conventionally made ferro-cement slab. Fig. 2(a)
Casting of slab using flowable composite with 25 mm
grid weld mesh and Fig.2(b) shows slab under flexural
test. Fig. 3 shows the graph between the load and
deflection.
Weld Mesh
(a) Casting
Aluminum Mesh Green Mesh
D 100 mm spacing
Chicken Mesh
Weld Mesh (b) Testing
25 mm spacing
Fig. 3 Mesh Types used in Tests Fig. 2(a&b) Casting and Testing of Slab
using Flowable Cement Composite
Table-4 Details of Mesh types used for casting slab
The load-deflection behavior indicates that the flexural
Cost per
S.No Mesh type Specifications behavior of slab cast using flowable cement composite
Sq.ft
1. Aluminum Its an diagonal type 12 is better than the other conventional ferro-cement slabs.
mesh mesh of wire dia 1.02 The deformability of the slab with flowable cement
879
composite was higher than the other panels, and hence Reinforcement gage was made for the prototype water
relatively ductile than the other panels. tank and re-bars of 8 mm was used to hold the hooks
fixed. These re-bars were tied at corners of the
reinforcement gage. In order to maintain the position
of the reinforcing gage during pouring the flow-able
cement composite, on either side cover blocks were
tied.
The reinforcement gage is placed inside the mold and

then inner mold is placed. In order to obtain the
uniform thickness of tank wall, a guider arrangement
has been made using steel plates. To avoid lifting of
inner mould due to pressure development during
pouring of cement composite, both the inner and outer
molds were clamped together. Now the set-up is ready
for pouring the flowable cement composite.
Fig. 3 Load-deflection Curves of Slabs with
Different Mesh Types Flowable cement composite is prepared in a heavy duty
concrete mixer using cement, sand, and water and with
4.3 Design of Mould for Prototype Type Water super plasticizer which helps in reducing the
Tank using Flowable Cement Composite requirement of more water for higher workability. The
Crucial point in the construction of water tank in a mix can be removed from the mixer once the
mould using flowable cementitious composite is consistency of the mix is ensured. Then the cement
dismantling the tank from the mould. Due to larger composite is poured into the mould at one side of the
contact surface area, it would be difficult to remove the tank until the composite is filled completely throughout
tank from the mould in one stretch. In order to the gap.
overcome this difficulty, the mould was modeled so as
to ensure easy dismantling. A 3D view of inner mould Once the composite is filled, all the guiders can be
designed is shown in Fig. 4. removed. Next day, the inner mould is removed by
removing the middle plates first so that all other inner
plates can be removed easily. Once the inner mould is
removed then the outer mould can be taken away. The
first day, the tank can be wet by covering with wet
gunny bag. The third day, water tank can be lifted for
removing the bottom sheet and then water can be fully
filled in the tank for curing. The water tank can be used
for water storage after 28 days of curing. As is seen
from Fig. 4 the inner steel mould can be dismantled by
removing each of its elements separately. Separate
lifting arrangement was fabricated to easy placing of
inner mould in to the outer steel mould. Fig. 5 shows
the lifting arrangement developed.
Fig. 4 3D View of Steel Mould
A steel mold has been designed and fabricated for

construction of prototype water tank of capacity 1000
liters using flowable cement composite. The inner
mold was designed and fabricated in such a way that
dismantling can be done without any difficulties.
880
is 65 % of the total cost. It can be said that major cost

goes only towards the labour charges and only 35 %
goes towards materials cost. The proposed water tank
using flowable composite is costing 50 % less than the
conventional ferro-cement water tank. Approximate
dead weight of the tank is 300 kg. In order to facilitate
easy placing of water tank on roof terrace without
mechanical lifting arrangements, attempts are being
made to construct water tank using segmental thin
panels. It is noted that, these types of tanks can also be
Fig. 5 Lifting Arrangement of Mould constructed using geo-polymer composite whose mix
proportions may be suitably chosen so as to make the
The cementitious composite is poured in between the
tank usable in shorter period of time. The cost analysis
outer and inner steel mould as shown in Fig. 6. After
worked out based on the raw materials and for labor
curing, the mould was removed and the prototype water
payment is given in Appendix.
tank constructed is ready for usage. Fig. 7 shows the
water want constructed using indigenously developed
5.0 Conclusions
technology at CSIR-SERC.
This technology eliminates the complex/highly
skilled casting process of conventional ferrocement
construction technique.
Simplifies the process and production methodology
of ferrocement
Improved sustainable quality ferrocement products
are possible with flowable Cement Composite as the
mix is highly homogeneous.
Cost of the water tank using flowable composite
workout to be 50% cheaper than the ferro-cement
Fig. 6 Pouring of Flowable Cementitious water tank.
Composite into the Mould The properties of Flowable Cement Composite
based ferrocement Water tank are very well
comparable with the conventional ferrocement
water tank
This simplified process technique is very much
viable for industrial production and it can be scaled
up to a large scale production.
References
ACI Committee 549, Guide for the Design,
Construction, and Repair of
Ferrocement,Journal of ACI Structural, Vol.
85, No. 3, pp. 325351, 1988.
Fig. 7 Water Tank Ready for Usage 2. Mansur, M. A., Maalej, M., and Ismail, M.,
Study on Corrosion Durability of
4.4 Cost Analysis of Water Tank using Flowable Ferrocement, Journal of ACI Materials, Vol.
Cement Composite 105, No. 1, pp. 28-34, 2008.
3. Vatwong, G., and Pichai, N., Structural
Cost of labour required for construction of ferro-
Integrity of Ferrocement Panels Exposed to
cement water tank following the conventional method
Fire, Journal of Cement and Concrete
881
Composites, Vol. 30, No. 5, pp. 419-430, M.A.,Ultimate and Service Behavior of
2008. Ferrocement Roof Slab Panels, Journal of
4. Paramasivam, P., and Ravindrarajah, R. S., Construction and Building Materials, Vol. 19,
Effect of Arrangements of Reinforcements No. 1, pp. 3137, 2005.
on Mechanical Properties of Ferrocement, 10. Hani, H. N., and Husam, N., Experimental
Journal of ACI Structural, Vol. 85, No. 1, pp. and Analytical Investigation of Ferrocement-
3-11, 1988. Concrete Composite Beams, Journal of
5. Jamal, S. M., and Tareq, B. Z., Flexural Cement and Concrete Composites, Vol. 26,
Response of Ferrocement with Fibrous No. 7, pp. 787-796, 2004.
Cementitious Matrices, Journal of 11. Gray, F. M., Estevam, B., Edgar, V. M. and
Construction and Building Materials, Vol. 21, Savio, N. B., Experimental and Numerical
No. 6, pp. 11981205, 2007. Analysis of Large Ferrocement Water Tanks,
6. Noor, A. M., Salihuddin, R. S., and Journal of Cement and Concrete Composites,
Mahyuddin, R., Strength and Behavior of Vol. 25, No. 2, pp. 243-251, 2003.
Lightweight Ferrocement-Aerated Concrete 12. Mahmoud, A. El-Wafa and Fukuzawa, K.,
Sandwich Blocks, Malaysian Journal of Various Sizes of Wire Mesh Reinforcement
Civil Engineering, Vol. 18, No. 2, pp. 99-108, Effect on Tensile Behavior of Ferrocement
2006. Composite Plates, Proceedings of the 10th
Noor, A. M., Salihuddin, R. S., and International Summer Symposium Organized
Mahyuddin, R., "Ferrocement Encased by Japan Society of Civil Engineers (JSCE),
Lightweight Aerated Concrete: A Novel Tokyo, Japan, pp. 193-196, 2008.
Approach to Produce Sandwich Composite, 13. Mahmoud, A. El-Wafa and Fukuzawa, K.,
Journal of Materials Letters, Vol. 61, No. 19- Advanced Interaction of High Tensile
20, pp. 4035-4038, 2007. Performance of Thin Plate Composites
8. James, P. R., Ferrocement for Infrastructure Ferrocement-Grouted Mortar, Journal of
Rehabilitation, Journal of Concrete Engineering Sciences, Assiut University, Vol.
International, Vol. 9, No. 9, pp. 24-28, 1987. 36, No. 3, pp. 647-655, 2008.
9. Hago, A.W., Al-Jabri, K.S., Alnuaimi, A.S.,
Al-Moqbali, H. and Al-Kubaisy .
882
Appendix
A1. Cost Estimation of Water Tank (1000 litre capacity)
Conventional Ferrocement Tanks Water Tank using Flowable Cement Composite

Raw Materials
Quantity Unit Rate Amount in Rs. Quantity Unit Rate Amount in Rs.
Cement 100 kg 8 800 85 kg 8 680
Sand 200 kg 1 200 170 kg 1 170
GGBS - - 0 42 kg 1 42
SP - - 0 1.2 kg 165 198

2 2
Weld mesh 5m 85 425 5m 85 425
2 2
Chicken mesh 10 m 35 350 10 m 35 350
Material Cost in
1775 1865
Rs.
Labor Component
Mason 3 Nos. 750 2250 0 Nos. 750 0
Mazdoor 2 Nos. 500 1000 0.5 Nos. 500 250
Total Labour Cost, Rs. 3250 250
Towards Mould 250
Total Cost of a Tank in Rs. 5025 2365
A2. Cost of Different Water Tanks Commercially Available in Market
Tank using
Types of
Syntex/Plastic Masonry RCC Ferrocement Tank Flowable
Tanks
composite
Cost in Rs. 8000 3500 10300 5025 2365
883
INTERPRETATION OF ASME CODE RULES FOR ASSESSMENT OF

GRAPHITE COMPONENTS
Deepak Kanse1, I. A. Khan2, V. Bhasin3, and A. Rama Rao4
1, 2
Reactor Safety Division, Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, Mumbai, 400085, India
3
Nuclear Fuels Group, Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, Mumbai, 400085, India
4
Reactor Design and Development Group, Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, Mumbai, 400085, India
Abstract
High density and high purity grade of graphite is proposed to be used as a structural material and
reflector in Compact High Temperature Reactor (CHTR), that is being designed by BARC, India. Due
to statistical nature of several microstructural features, graphite shows a wide scatter in its strength
properties. As a result, the design rules for graphite components are expected to be different from the
metals. ASME Section-III, Div-V (subsection HH) provides the rules for design, construction,
fabrication and assembly of graphite core components. These rules are based on probabilistic
structural mechanics.
In this work, a notched tensile specimen and a fuel tube of graphite were analyzed using the
ASME code procedure. Both simplified as well as detailed (full) assessments were carried out to
obtain the design margins. It was observed that the existing detailed assessment procedure that is
based on three-parameter Weibull model, leads to some anomalies for the cases analysed in this work.
It is not very clear to the authors whether the adjustment of threshold parameter alone is required
(purely from peak stress consideration) or the Weibull modulus and characteristic strength also need to
be adjusted. Our studies revealed that the former case leads to some ambiguities where the three-
parameter model is leading to more conservative assessment compared to the two-parameter approach.
This clearly seems to be in contradiction to the spirit of the code rules. When the latter case was
adopted this apparent anomaly was resolved.
Keywords: Graphite, High temperature reactor, Weibull model, probabilistic structural assessment
1. Introduction
The detailed information about CHTR is provided in
Isotropic and near-isotropic nuclear grade Ref. [6].
graphites are the potential candidate materials for the Ref. [5] describes that the mechanism of fracture
moderator and major structural components of Gen in graphite is intimately related to various parameters
IV Very High Temperature Reactors (VHTR) such as such as density, filler particle size, mean pore size,
the Next Generation Nuclear Plant (NGNP) and the distribution of pore size and orientation, particle
Pebble Bed Modular Reactor (PBMR). BARC, India fracture toughness etc. These parameters influence
is in process of designing a Compact High the process of crack initiation and propagation which
Temperature Reactor (CHTR) having a coolant outlet finally leads to ultimate failure. Since some of these
temperature of around 1000C. Its internal parts such parameters are statistical in nature, failure strength of
as fuel tube, reflector blocks, down comer and upper graphite shows a wide scatter. In Ref. [4] and Ref.
plenum block are proposed to be constructed from [8], it is investigated that graphite failure strength
high density and high purity grade of graphite. shows size-dependence and it also depends on the
type of imposed loading.
1
Scientific Officer, ddkanse@barc.gov.in As a result, the design rules for graphite
2
Scientific Officer, imran@barc.gov.in components are expected to be different from the
3
Associate Director, vivekb@barc.gov.in deterministic design criteria adopted for metals.
4
Associate Director, arr@barc.gov.in ASME Section-III, Div-V (subsection HH) provides
884
Deepak Kanse, et al.
the rules for design, construction, fabrication and

assembly of graphite core components. These rules
are based on probabilistic structural mechanics. As
per these rules, the designer is supposed to test a
large number of graphite specimens under uni-axial
loads to quantify the scatter band in failure stress.
Weibull parameters are estimated from the tensile
failure stress data which are then used for generation
of material reliability curve. Subsequently, design
allowable strength values obtained from the material
reliability curve are used for structural integrity
assessment of graphite components.
2. Estimation of Weibull Parameters and

Generation of Material Reliability Curve
ASME Section III Div. 5 Subsection HH

provides code rules for simplified as well as full Figure 1: Tensile test set up.
assessment of graphite core components. The design
rules are not for pressure retaining components and The Weibull parameters for both two-parameter as
they are also not intended to ensure sealing against well as three-parameter distributions were estimated
leakage of coolant. These design rules are based on considering maximum likelihood method (ASTM C-
modified volume normalized Weibull theory as 1239). This approach yields smaller confidence
described in Ref. [7] and they require Weibull intervals on the parameters in comparison to
parameters to be determined from the experimentally regression methods like Least Squares. Figure 2
observed tensile failure stress data. Simplified rules shows the experimentally observed failure stress
based on two parameter Weibull distribution involve distribution for tensile specimens and Weibulls two
generation of material reliability curve and parameter as well as three parameter distribution fits
subsequent comparison of membrane and peak to the experimental data. Numerical values of
equivalent stresses with the allowable design values Weibull parameters, for both types of distributions,
arrived at from the material reliability curve. The are listed in Table 1.
code rules for simplified approach are more
conservative and if a component can not be qualified
using this approach, full assessment can be carried
out. Weibull parameters based on three-parameter
distribution are used for the full assessment of
graphite components.
A computational code was developed to estimate
Weibull parameters viz. Weibull modulus, threshold
stress, and characteristic strength from the uniaxial
tensile failure stress data generated in-house. About
150 graphite specimens were tested under
compressive, tensile and flexural loads as per relevant
ASTM standards. Figure 1 shows the flexible chain
mechanism for tensile tests as per ASTM C-749.
Figure 2: Experimentally observed tensile failure

stress distribution and Weibulls fit.
885
Table 1: Weibull parameters estimated from tensile

test data.
Type of Weibull Threshold Characteristic
Weibull Modulus Stress, Strength, Sc
Distribution (m) S0 (MPa) (MPa)
2- parameter 11.024 0 24.857
3- parameter 1.697 20.068 24.259
The estimated Weibull parameters are, however,

statistically biased, that is, they are dependent on the
sample size and they approach true material
parameters as sample size increases to a large
number. Moreover, there will be a variation from
sample to sample. As a result, the parameters are
generally assumed to be normally or log-normally
distributed. ASME code recommends the use of
lower limit of one sided confidence interval at 95%
confidence level. For calculating the desired bounds,
Fisher matrix was evaluated and subsequently, a Figure 3: Material reliability curve for graphite.
matrix of variances and co-variances of the
parameters was generated by taking inverse of Fisher
3. FE Analysis of Notched Tensile Specimen and
matrix as mentioned in Ref. [9]. Using the variance
Fuel Tube of Graphite
values from the matrix, one sided bounds on the
respective parameters were evaluated. Table 2 shows
In this work, a notched tensile specimen, and a
the lower limits of one sided confidence bounds at
graphite fuel tube that is proposed to be used in
95% confidence level for Weibull modulus and
CHTR was analysed using the ASME code rules. The
characteristic strength. The confidence bound on
objective was to understand and interpret the
threshold stress was not evaluated as this parameter is
probabilistic based design rules recently proposed for
dependent on the peak stress in the component being
graphite components. Detailed 3-D finite element
analyzed.
analyses were carried out to obtain the stress
distribution and subsequently the design margins
Table 2: Lower limits of one-sided confidence
were evaluated using both the 'simplified' and the 'full
bounds on Weibull parameters at 95% confidence
assessment' procedure suggested by ASME code.
level.
Weibull Weibull Characteristic
3.1 FE Analysis of Notched Tensile Specimen
Distribution Modulus Strength, Sc95%
(m95%) (MPa)
In the first exercise, a notched specimen of
2- parameter 8.166 24.0052
graphite subjected to remote tensile load was
3- parameter 1.2362 23.386 analyzed. The length, width and thickness of the
specimen were 100 mm, 30 mm and 10 mm
Weibull parameters based on 2-parameter distribution respectively. The remaining ligament and radius of
were used for generating material reliability curve the notch tip were 20 mm and 0.8 mm respectively.
required for simplified assessment of graphite 3D FE model of notched tensile specimen was
components. Material reliability curve is simply a prepared and the model was meshed using 20 noded
plot of cumulative probability of failure for 95% brick elements as shown in Figure 4.
confidence level versus tensile stress, as shown in
Figure 3. The allowable stress limits for a given
reliability target, are derived from the material
reliability curve. The reliability target depends on the
Structural Reliability Class (SRC) of graphite
component and the service level.
Figure 4: FE model of notched tensile specimen.
A tensile load of 300 N at one end and other suitable

boundary conditions were applied to the model and a
886
linear static analysis was carried out. Figure 5 shows

the 1st principal stress distribution in notched tensile
specimen of graphite.
Figure 5: 1st principal stress distribution in notched

tensile specimen of graphite.
(a) (b)
3.2 FE Analysis of Fuel Tube of Graphite Figure 7: 3-D (a) solid and (b) meshed quarter-model
of the fuel tube of graphite.
As a second exercise, an annular fuel tube of
graphite proposed to be used in CHTR, as shown in A steady-state coupled thermal-structural
Figure 6, was analyzed. In this proposed analysis of the fuel tube was carried out for design
configuration, fuel tube carries fuel inside 12 equi- mechanical and thermal loads. Figures 8 and 9 show
spaced longitudinal bores (10 mm) made in its wall. the nodal temperature and the 1st principal stress
The fuel elements would be located inside each of the distribution in the fuel tube respectively.
bores only within 700 mm region. The liquid metal
coolant flows through the central hole ( 35 mm) of
the fuel tube.
Figure 6: Geometry of fuel tube.
Since graphite core components are not pressure-

retaining, the only loads which are of significance are
the dead weight and the thermal loads. Figure 7(a)
shows the 3-D quarter-model of fuel tube. The model Figure 8: Nodal temperature distribution in fuel
was meshed using 10 noded tetrahedral elements as tube.
shown in Figure 7(b).
887
For the case of fuel tube, the peak equivalent stress,

as obtained from FE analysis, was observed to be
1.17 MPa which is quite less as compared to the code
allowable value. For evaluation of the combined
equivalent membrane stress, two different sections
were considered for stress linearization, as shown in
Figure 10. The membrane stresses were 0.7846 MPa
and 0.1809 MPa for ligament (AB) and through
thickness (CD) sections respectively. Therefore, as
per simplified approach, both notched tensile
specimen, as well as fuel tube meets the structural
requirements of ASME code.
Figure 9: 1st principal stress distribution in the fuel

tube.
4. ASME Code Qualification of Notched Tensile

Specimen and Fuel Tube of Graphite
C B
The structural assessment of notched tensile
specimen, and graphite fuel tube was carried out as A
per ASME code rules. Both the 'simplified' as well as
'full assessment' procedures were employed to obtain
the design margins, assuming that both the
components belong to Structural Reliability Class-1 Figure 10: Ligament (AB) and through thickness
(SRC-1). For SRC-1, ASME suggests a target (CD) sections in fuel tube.
probability of failure as 10-4.
4.2 Full Assessment
4.1 Structural assessment as per Simplified
procedure The simplified procedure proposed in ASME
code is conservative. As per this approach, if
In this approach, the combined membrane (C m), prescribed limits are not met, does not imply that the
and membrane plus bending plus peak (Cm+Cb+F) graphite component is not acceptable. In such cases,
equivalent stresses in the component being assessed full assessment which is based on Weibulls three
are compared with the allowable stress limits. From parameter distribution can be carried out to check the
the material reliability curve (Figure 3), allowable design adequacy.
combined equivalent membrane stress Sg(10-4) is For full assessment of a component, linear elastic
7.7699 MPa and allowable peak equivalent stress FE analysis of the component is carried out and
Rtf.Sg(10-4) is 8.601 MPa. Rtf is the ratio of mean equivalent stress in the sub-elements is calculated
flexural (four point bend) to mean tensile strength. based on maximum deformation energy (MDE)
For the grade of graphite that was used in this study, theory. A sub-element is a part of an element
the Rtf value was about 1.107 associated with a gauss point. Subsequently, the
The stress distribution as obtained from detailed groups of these sub-elements are formed in
3D FE analyses was used to compute the equivalent accordance with the criteria discussed in ASME code.
membrane and peak stresses at the ligament of Threshold stress is adjusted based on the peak
notched tensile specimen. For this case, the equivalent stress in the component. The probability of
equivalent membrane stress was 1.54 MPa and the survival (POS) of each group is determined using
peak equivalent stress was 5.96 MPa which are much Weibull's three parameter distribution. Overall
lower than the code allowable values. probability of survival is then calculated by
888
multiplying the probability of survival of the References

individual groups.
As per this procedure the computed probability [1] ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Sec-III,
of failure of the component is compared with the Division 5, Sub-section-HH, (2010).
target probability of failure applicable to that [2] ASTM C-749, Standard test method for tensile
structural reliability class. A computational code stress-strain for carbon and graphite.
incorporating the 'full assessment procedure' was [3] ASTM C-1239, Standard practice for reporting
developed in-house. The probability of failures of uniaxial strength data and estimating Weibull
notched tensile specimen, and fuel tube of graphite, distribution parameters for advanced ceramics.
obtained from the in-house code were 4.927X10-3 and [4] Brocklehurst, J. E. and Darby, M. I., Concerning
3.33X10-2 respectively. These values are much higher the fracture of graphite under different test
than the target probability of failure that is 10 -4. conditions, Materials Science and Engineering,
Hence both the components do not qualify as per the 16, 91-106, 1974.
full assessment procedure of ASME code. [5] Burchell, T. D., A microstructure based fracture
model for polygranular graphite, Carbon Vol. 34,
5. Results and Discussion No. 3, pp. 297-316, 1996.
[6] Dulera, I. V. and Sinha, R. K., High temperature
As per simplified assessment procedure, reactors, Journal of Nuclear Materials, 383, 183
combined equivalent membrane and peak stresses for 188, 2008.
both notched tensile specimen as well as fuel tube of [7] Hindley, M. P., Mitchell, M. N., Erasmus, C.,
graphite were observed to be less than the design McMurtry, R., Becker, T. H., Blaine, D. C.,
allowable values arrived at from the material Groenwold, A. A., A numerical stress based
reliability curve. Therefore, both the components are approach for predicting failure in NBG-18 nuclear
safe as per the simplified assessment procedure. graphite components with verification problems,
However, full assessment of both the components, in Journal of Nuclear Materials, 2012.
discussion, shows that probability of failure is greater [8] Price, R. J., Statistical study of the strength of
than 10-4 and hence they are unsafe. This clearly near-isotropic graphite, General Atomic Project.,
seems to be in contradiction to the philosophy of 1976.
ASME code rules where the 'simplified assessment [9] Wittman, D., Fisher matrix for beginners.
method' is expected to be more conservative than the
'full assessment method'. One important aspect that
needs to be considered is that the full assessment
method suggests a modification in the Threshold
parameter based on the peak stress consideration. As
per this approach, the threshold parameter needs
adjustment if the peak equivalent stress in the
component is less than the characteristic strength.
Apparently, the existing code rules do not suggest
any modification in the Weibull modulus and
characteristic strength. However, the adjustment of
threshold parameter alone is not expected to give
proper fit to the tensile test data. Thus, in this work,
in addition to the adjustment of the threshold
parameter, other two parameters, namely Weibull
modulus and characteristic strength were also
modified such that the Weibull distribution using the
modified set of Weibull parameters fit the tensile test
data. Subsequently, the probability of failure for both
the notched tensile specimen and the graphite fuel
tube were recomputed. The calculated probabilities of
failure were 8.18 X 10-13 and almost zero
respectively. Hence, both the components were
observed to be safe.
889
Durability and In-situ performance evaluation of sustainable recycled

aggregate concrete using fluorogypsum as Cementitious Binder
Monalisa Behera1, A.K. Minocha2, S.K. Bhattacharyya3, Rajesh Deoliya4
1,2,4
CSIR-Central Building Research Institute, Roorkee - 247667, India
3
Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur - 721302, India
Abstract
Enormous industrialization and urbanization have led to the generation of huge quantity of C&D waste, which requires its
appropriate utilization or disposal. Keeping these in eyes, construction sector is focusing on sustainable waste management
regulations now-a-days. Thus, the sustainable future green cities can be possible only by using low carbon resources, eco-
friendly materials and through energy conservation techniques. The goal of this study was to evaluate the durability and in-
situ performances of concrete made with recycled coarse aggregate (RCA) using fluorogypsum as cementitious binder to
replace the cement partially (25%). This leads to a new perspective for achieving green concrete. The quality of RCA and
the influence of the replacement ratio were assessed on several parameters such as chloride ion penetration, carbonation and
water absorption resistance. The in-situ parameters such as ultrasonic pulse velocity (UPV) and rebound hammer number
reflected the same behaviour with replacement percentage level of RCA. The UPV values of more than 3600 m/sec, showed
good quality concrete. Though, RCA is having potential inferior quality than natural aggregate (NA), it could be used to
produce a structural grade concrete of strength more than 40 MPa. The results with fluorogypsum binder (FB) revealed that
though it is having its own binder property, it could not achieve strength up to that with cement replacement. Rather, it can
be used as a filling material or as an additive to improve its performance by making its matrix denser.
Keywords: Sustainability, recycled aggregate concrete, durability, chloride ion penetration, carbonation, UPV
1 Introduction emission of greenhouse gasses without sacrificing the
Over the past years, there is a huge demand of natural safety of structure. The production of cement is
resources such as aggregates and cement due to the extensively energy intensive and contributes 1 ton of CO 2
exponential growth in population and the infrastructural per ton of its production, which is approximately 7% of
development in most of the developing countries like the total CO2 contribution from all sources [2]. The usage
China, India etc.1. The increased demand of NA may of industrial by products in cement, are becoming popular
contribute towards the quarry mining and mining of river worldwide in the construction sector to make it less
bank and contribute towards global warming. Hence, the energy intensive and to reduce the greenhouse gas
use of recycled aggregate through the recycling of C&D emission . The use of industrial by product of hydrofluoric
waste in concrete has become the recent burning topic all acid industry as a cementitious binder in construction
over the globe in pursuit of sustainable development. sector may significantly reduce the carbon footprint and
Recycling of C&D waste will provide a breakthrough for meet the sustainability requirement.
turning the economy of developing countries into a From the past studies, it is noted that RCA can be
circular flow. The use C&D waste as a substitute of NA utilized for many purposes such as road base material,
not only has the tremendous environmental benefits, also pavement material and concrete structures. However, the
reduces the social and financial cost. Recently, IS: 383 has quality assurance is very much essential in its safe and
permitted included the use of RCA, iron, steel slag and reliable usage for structural purposes. A large number of
copper slag among manufacture aggregate to replace the studies have revealed that RCA is having some inherent
use of natural aggregates in its draft revision (March negative attributes compared to natural aggregates which
2015) [1]. limit its mass usage for construction purposes [3,4]. In
The major issues involved in sustainable construction consequent to these attributes, the old mortar wrapped
lies with the optimizing usage of natural resources, waste around the surface of RCA after crushing is one of the
minimization, and innovative usage of industrial by most distinguished aspects in differentiating the quality
products by conserving natural minerals and to reduce the and properties of RCA over the NA [4-6]. The adhered
mortar around RCA is the solely responsible factor for
affecting the concrete behaviour [7-9]. Many studies have
1
Scientist, monalisabehera7@gmail.com reported that the inferior properties of RCA have
2
Chief Scientist, minochaak@yahoo.com detrimental effect on the physical, mechanical and
3
Professor, srimankb@gmail.com durability properties of the RAC [10-14].
4
Principal Scientist, rdeoliya@gmail.com
890
Monalisa Behera, et al.
The objective of this study is to evaluate the durability to replace cement. The chemical composition of the
and in-situ performances of RAC at various percentage binders was determined through XRF analysis and
replacement levels and to correlate these with the apparent reported in Table 1. The required water for a normal
porosity distribution. In addition, the effect of FB on the consistency and setting times of the binders are assessed
properties of concrete was also studied to evaluate its in accordance with BIS specifications IS 4031. The results
viability of using as a binding material by replacing for consistence, setting time, mortar strength and
cement. The use of industrial by product (fluorogypsum) soundness are given in Table 2.
in concrete along with RCA for sustainable construction is
4 Concrete mix proportion and methodology
the main focus of this experimental paper.
The proportions of the various components of the
2 Availability of fluorogypsum concrete mixes were determined as per IS: 10262. The
In India, more than 300 million tons of industrial by- mix proportioning was based on absolute volume method
product such as fly ash, slag, gypsum, red mud, mine and the aggregates were used in dry condition. The mix
tailing are getting generated per annum [15]. Out of these design was formulated for control sample to achieve a
by-products, gypsum waste is a cardinal waste obtained compressive strength of 40 MPa at 28 days. The minimum
from several industries such as phosphoric acid industry, value of the w/c ratio was determined by a preliminary
hydrofluoric acid industry. In India, more than 6.0 million study to assure the desired workability and the required
tons of gypsum by-products are produced annually [15]. strength. In the present investigation, the free water/binder
Fluorogypsum is a waste by-product of hydrofluoric acid (w/b) ratio (0.42) and the quantity of total cementitious
industry, available to an extent of 1 million ton per substances (390 kg/m3) were kept constant for all the
annum. Basically, it is an anhydrite form of gypsum, mixes. To achieve the proper workability, a polyvinyl
which is chemically inert. However, it has been used as a ether based high range superplasticizer was used. Total six
binder for producing value added building material by concrete mix recipes were prepared by taking the
activating its hydration and setting property. combination of type of aggregate and binders and the mix
compositions are presented in Table 3. To improve the
3 Material properties
quality of concrete containing RCA, two stage mixing
The recycled aggregate used in this study was obtained approach (TSMA) [16] was adopted in a little modified
from commercial C&D waste recycling plant crushed manner for the present study. In TSMA, water is added in
through both jaw crusher and impact crusher. The two stages of equal time interval, in two equal parts.
aggregates derived from C&D waste were characterized in However, in the current investigation, water was added in
accordance with the BIS specifications IS:2386-1963 and unequal parts at different time interval. At first, coarse
IS:383-1970 due to the non-availability of Indian standard aggregates of both the sizes were dry mixed and then
specification for the characterisation of recycled mixed with one third of the total water in the mixer for
aggregate. Two different size fractions of 10 mm and 20 around a minute to compensate the initial water absorption
mm were used for both RCA and NA in concrete mix. of aggregates and in order to make a proper coating of
RCA was used to replace NA at three various replacement binder around the aggregates. Consequently, the fine
levels (0%, 50% and 100%). Locally available river sand aggregate was added and uniformly mixed for 1 minute
as fine aggregate (zone-III) confirming to IS-383-1970 more. Then, the binder was added to the wet aggregates
and readily available natural coarse aggregates were used. and agitated for around 2 mints to get the aggregates
The particle size analysis indicates that the size
distribution of RCA lies within specified range of IS: 383, Table 1: Chemical composition of the binders
showing a good particle distribution. The fineness Binder CaO SiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 MgO SO3 Na2O Cl- F-
modulus of RCA, NA and natural fine aggregate were Cement 50.40 13.14 2.73 3.27 1.25 2.07 0.18 0.02 -
found to be 6.51, 6.73 and 2.27 respectively. Water FB 36.04 0.46 0.18 0.23 0.24 45.50 0.19 0.29 1.32
absorption of the RCA was 3.95% (20 mm) and 4.07%
(10 mm) respectively, which is considerably larger than Table 2: Physical properties of binders
that of NA which was found to be 0.5%. Properties Cement FB
Ordinary Portland cement (OPC) of 43 grade, (specific Consistency (%) 28.5 22
gravity 3.15, specific surface area 3819 cm2/gm) Initial setting (min) 160 195
confirming to IS 8112:1989, is used as binding agent. Final setting (min) 280 290
Additionally, a new binding material, FB was used in this pH 12.34 8.5
study to partially replace cement up to 25%. FB (specific
Mortar 3 days 20.72 3.67
gravity 2.81, fineness 2875 cm2/gm) is basically a waste
by product which has been processed to develop its strength 7 days 25.23 15.71
binding property by adding chemical reagents. The (MPa) 28 days 49.15 21.67
content of FB was added to the mix by weight of cement Soundness (mm) 0.5 3
891
Table 3: Mix proportion details of concrete (kg/m3) results, slump value decreases drastically with the
increment in RCA content irrespective of the binder types.
Mix Cem FB Sand NA RCA SP w/c It is mainly associated with the higher initial water
Notation ent (%) ratio absorption features of RCA which absorbs the available
REF 390 - 660 1241 - 0.75 0.42 free moisture from concrete and more friction due to
C-R50 390 - 659 619 619 0.75 0.42 rough surface of RCA. Furthermore, the increase in the
C-R100 390 - 660 - 1149 0.75 0.42 replacement ratio had negative effects on the workability
F- R0 293 97.5 657 1234 - 0.25 0.42 of RAC. Despite that, the influence of cementitious
F-R50 293 97.5 657 617 617 0.25 0.42 substances on workability was also remarkable. The
F-R100 293 97.5 657 - 1146 0.25 0.42 influence of FG binder also contributes towards lower
consistency due to its platy and lathe shape [4].
surface-coated with binders. Finally, the balance two third
of water premixed with super plasticizer was added to the 6.2 Compressive strength
mix and rotated in the mixer machine for 2 to 3 minutes to Fig. 1 represents the compressive strength results for all
obtain a uniform mix. the mixes at 7 and 28 days. The results indicated that the
5 Test methodology replacement level of RCA and the binder replacement has
The compressive strength of concrete was determined a strong influence on the compressive strength of concrete
on 150 mm cube specimen at the age of 7 and 28 days in for their respective ages. The highest strength was
accordance with IS: 516-1959. Three tests were performed achieved by control concrete 28 days, which was 51.93
to measure the durability of concrete: the chloride MPa. The 28 days strength achieved with 100% RCA was
penetration resistance, carbonation resistance and water 42.07 MPa. The compressive strength thus appeared to be
resistance test in terms of water absorption according to increased with age but with a lesser rate in the latter age
ASTM C 642-06 [17]. The test for chloride ion than the strength developed in early age. The strength got
penetration depth was carried out on 100 mm cubic reduced with the increase in replacement ratio. It was also
specimen as per description given by Otsuki et al. [13]. observed that the rate of 7 days strength development of
The specimens were immersed in 3.0% by wt. of NaCl RAC was higher than the control concrete. The strength at
solution for the diffusion of chloride ion into the concrete 7 days was found to be 38.59 MPa and 34.22 MPa for
mass for 28 days. The fractured surfaces were sprayed control concrete and for concrete with 100% RCA. The
with 0.1N AgNO3 aqueous solution, which forms a white higher early strength development in RAC may be
color boundary due to the formation of silver chloride attributed to the higher water absorption capacity of RCA
indicating the depth of chloride penetration. Similarly, an which ultimately helps in reducing the effective w/c ratio.
accelerated carbonation test was carried out on 100 mm The modified mixing method also would have imparted
cube specimens of size. Only two faces were exposed to on RCA in forming better bond with the surrounding
CO2 enriched carbonation chamber with 10% carbon matrix and hence, improving the strength. However, a
dioxide at 25 C and the relative humidity of 605% for 7 contradictory effect is noticed in the early strength
days. Non-destructive tests were performed to evaluate the development of concrete made with FB. A significant
concrete condition to assess the performance of concrete distinction was noticed in the strength development of
in-place and to determine the presence of voids, cracks, if concrete made with either natural aggregate or RA where
any. Ultrasonic pulse velocity (UPV) test was conducted FG binder was used as a partial replacement of cement.
as per IS: 13311 (part 1) 1992 and the rebound hammer 60
test was also performed as per IS: 13311(Part 2) 1992.
REF
The UPV value is mainly related to the density of concrete 50
in terms of quality of concrete. A Schmidts Rebound C-R50
hammer of N-type was used to evaluate the surface 40
hardness of different concrete specimen. C-R100
6 Results and Discussion 30
6.1 Fresh properties F-R0
Fresh concrete mixes were subjected to the consistency 20
F-R50
stest slump tests according to IS: 1199-1959. The results
of slump test are shown in Table 4. From slump cone test 10
F-R100
Table 4: Slump test values of different mixes 0
Mix REF C-R50 C-R100 F- R0 F-R50 F-R100 7 days 28 days
Slump
45 20 15 28 35 9 Fig. 1: Compressive strength of mixes at 7 and 28 days
value(mm)
892
The 7 days strength of F-R0 is 28.7% lower than the found to be two times more than that of control samples.
control concrete. It may be explained on the basis of RAC having FB always showed a higher chloride ion
slower rate of hydration in early strength gain of FG. penetration depth than that of concrete using cement. This
From 28 days strength results, it was found that the may be attributed to the more porous microstructure of FB
concrete made with 100% RCA achieved strength more concrete as it is also reducing the strength characteristics
than 40 MPa as the control concrete. Though, it could of concrete. The microstructure of the hydration product
achieve the characteristics strength of 40 MPa, however, it of cement and FB paste matrices are shown in Fig 3. As
could not reach to the target strength of control concrete. one can see that the matrix of FB is more porous than that
Thus, there was a decrease of approximately 14.69% in 28 of cement, which facilitates the ingression of chloride ion
days strength than that of target strength at 100% RCA to a greater depth. To improve the performance of FB, it is
replacement for pure cement. Similarly, the strength was needed to improve the hydration process to obtain a
18.98% lower than the strength achieved by control denser matrix.
concrete at 28 days for OPC with 100% RA respectively. 6.4 Water absorption
However, the strength reduction rate at 28 days appeared The behaviour of pore structure within the concrete was
to increase steeply when FB is used as replacement of assessed by measuring the water absorption rate of
cement. A reduction in strength is noticed up to 24.69% unsaturated specimens by immersing in water. It is a very
with NA for the concrete having FB as a partial important parameter for evaluating the pore structure and
replacement of cement. Similarly, the strength was their connectivity in concrete made with RCA and the
reduced up to 30.12% with 100% RA for the concrete results are presented in Table 5. It was observed that the
made with FB. It was observed that the variation in 28 water absorption value increases with the increase in RCA
days compressive strength of FB concrete is nearly similar replacement ratio. The higher porosity of RCA facilitates
to each other irrespective of the coarse aggregate the higher water absorption of RAC as compared to
replacement ratios. normal concrete. The water absorption value found to be
6.3 Chloride ion penetration 5.51%. Hence, there was an increase of water absorption
Fig. 2 illustrates the effect of RCA and the influence of value up to 55% at various replacement level of RCA. The
various binders on the chloride ion penetration resistance higher water absorption value is attributed to the quantity
of various mixes of natural aggregate concrete (NAC) and of adhered mortar present in the RA and its porous nature.
RAC after an exposure to chloride environment for a It was also observed that water absorption value decreased
period of 28 days. It also represents the influence of with the increase in strength. It is due to the dense
partial replacement of various types of cements by FB on microstructure which ultimately increases the strength.
the chloride resistance of concrete. As revealed from the Despite that, a very prominent influence of binders has
figure, there was a reduction in chloride ion penetration been observed on the water absorption characteristics of
resistance of concrete with the subsequent substitution of hardened concrete. There was a significant increase in the
NA by RCA. The chloride ion penetration depth of control water absorption value of concrete with FB. However, the
specimen was found to be 5.25 mm. However, After 28 use of FB in concrete resulted in more increase of water
days exposure period, the concrete made with 100% RCA absorption. It might be due to the porous microstructure
and FB had shown the highest penetration depth than the and presence of accessible cracks in FB matrix, obtained
other concrete. The maximum chloride ion penetration from the SEM evidences of the hydration products of
could reach up to 10.54 mm in the mix having 100 % paste (Fig. 3).
RCA and FB as a partial replacement of cement. By using 6.5 Carbonation
FB, the chloride ion penetration resistance of mixes is
Keeping the w/c ratio constant, varying the type of
further decreased as compared to using cement. It was
binders and the RCA substitution level, their effect on
15 carbonation depth was analyzed upon 7 days period of
Penetration depth (mm)
10
5
Cement Flurogypsum
0
R0 R50 R100
RCA % . Fig. 3: SEM micrographs of hydration product of cement
Fig. 2: Chloride ion penetration depth at different RCA and FB paste
replacement levels
893
Table 5: Water absorption values of different mixes 4800

Mix notation REF C-R50 C-R100 F-R0 F-R50 F-R100 Cement Flurogypsum
4600
UPV (m/sec)
Water
3.54 3.80 5.51 4.95 5.24 5.70
absorption(%) 4400
exposure to carbonation environment and the results are
4200
shown in Fig. 4. In control specimens, carbonation
occurred only up to 0.3 mm. As a consequence of this, it 4000
was difficult to measure and compare the carbonation
R0 R50 R100
depth occurred in various concretes. However, an effort Replacement ratio
was made to measure the carbonation depth of concrete
with greater accuracy. Regardless of the binder variation, Fig. 5: UPV values at different RCA replacement levels
the RAC showed sufficient resistance to carbonation to started decreasing with the increase in the replacement
occur and did not show proper response towards RA level of RCA. Hence, there is a reduction of 5.13% in
substitution ratio. OPC series did not show any significant UPV value at 100% RCA than the control concrete. The
difference in the carbonation depth at various substitution higher water absorption of RCA, due to loosely adhered
level of RCA. A possible reason contributing towards this porous mortar is responsible for contributing towards the
could be the lower permeability and poor interconnected porosity of concrete. Thus, it affects the transmission of
pore network structure of concrete even if RCAs were ultrasonic waves in UPV test and results in poor quality
used. Moreover, it is seen from the experimental results concrete. Whereas, the partial replacement of cement with
that carbonation depth increased with the increase in RCA FB resulted in lesser UPV value than concretes made with
content exhibiting the same trend as in case of water cement. The lowest UPV value was obtained for concrete
absorption and chloride penetration. However, the FB made with FB and 100 % RCA, which was 4316.17
containing concrete shows a slight deviation from this m/sec. In this case, both quality of aggregate and
trend shown by other concrete suggesting the possibility replacement of binder became the limiting parameters.
of different mechanism of carbonation. As expected, it The honeycombing or the presence of internal flaws in the
both natural aggregate concrete and RAC. The matrix having FG binder or due to the changes in the
replacement of cement by FB facilitated the more structure of concrete probably could be added as a
diffusion of CO2 into the hardened concrete irrespective of contribution towards the porosity of concrete. Thus, it
RCA substitution signifying its more porous resulted in lowering their UPV values to a greater extent,
microstructure. up to 7%. The possible reason could be attributed to the
6.6 Ultrasonic pulse velocity variation in aggregate type and cement type.
UPV test is a non-destructive in-situ test, conducted to 6.7 Rebound hammer strength
ensure the quality of concrete in terms of homogeneity, Rebound hammer test is one of the non-destructive
honeycombing or the presence of internal cracks within tests, performed to evaluate the strength of concrete in
the concrete. The UPV test also gives an indirect terms of surface hardness. The rebound hammer results in
indication of the coherent porosity of the concrete. The terms of rebound indices are shown in Fig. 6. Rebound
UPV results of all the mixes are illustrated in Fig. 5. The numbers get influenced by a number of factors such as
UPV values of all the mixes were found to be more than cement and aggregate, surface condition and moisture
3600 m/sec, showing a very good quality concrete. The content and age of concrete Fig.6 shows that the rebound
control concrete showed excellent performance with a number increases with the increase in strength of concrete
UPV value of 4636 m/sec. However, the UPV values
50
3
Rebound index
40
Carbonation depth
R0 R50 R100 30
2
(mm)
20
1 10
0
0
Cement FG
Fig. 4: Carbonation depth in cement and FB at different Mix notation
RCA replacement levels Fig. 6: Rebound hammer value of various mixes
894
and decreases with the increase in replacement level of and production process on properties of recycled
RCA. The decrease in rebound number may be related to aggregate concrete. Cem. Concr. Res. 37 (5), 735
the poorly linked porous mortar attached to RCA surface 742, 2007
which increases the porosity of concrete. In addition to [4] Behera M., Bhattacharyya S.K., Minocha A.K.,
this, the same trend was observed with various binder Deoliya R. and Maiti S. Recycled aggregate from
combinations also and it decreased corresponding to their C&D waste & its use in concrete A breakthrough
RCA replacement level. However, rebound index reduced towards sustainability in construction sector: A
drastically in the concrete made of FB. Thus, it shows that review. Constr. Build. Mater. 68, 501-516, 2014.
the hardness of concrete is reducing when cement is [5] Nixon P. Recycled concrete as an aggregate for
replaced by FB. As per IS: 13311 (part 2) 1992, rebound concrete-a review. Mater. Struct. 11 (5), 371378,
indices are indicative of the compressive strength of 1978
concrete to a limited depth of 30 mm from the surface. So,
[6] Hansen T.C. and Narud H. Strength of recycled
compressive strength of the core specimen was evaluated
concrete made from crushed concrete coarse
after the rebound hammer test in order to establish a
aggregate. Concr. Int. 5 (1), 7983, 1993.
relationship between the actual strength and rebound
hammer strength. As, the rebound hammer value and UPV [7] Sagoe-Crentsil K.K., Brown T. and Taylor A.H.
value get affected by moisture content of concrete, the Performance of concrete made with commercially
increase in moisture content could have increased the produced coarse recycled concrete aggregate. Cem.
UPV value and decreased the rebound number. Concr. Res. 31 (5), 707712, 2001.
7 Conclusion [8] Hansen T.C. RILEM REPORT 6. Recycling of
demolished concrete and masonry. Bodmin, UK:
This paper addresses the efficient reuse of the RCA
E&FN Spon, 1996.
derived from C&D waste. The obtained results show that
coarse RCA can be used to replace NA up to 100% to [9] Dhir R.K. and Jappy T.G. (Eds.). Proceedings of the
achieve a strength value of 40 MPa. The strength international conference on exploiting wastes in
reduction was found up to 11% with 100% reduction and concrete, UK: Thomas Telford, 1999.
5% with 50% replacement. The chloride ion penetration, [10] Olorunsogo F.T. and Padayachee N. Performance of
carbonation and water absorption resistance decreased recycled aggregate concrete monitored by durability
with the increase in RCA replacement ratio. However, indexes. Cem. Concr. Res. 32 (2), 179185, 2002.
concrete made with RCA showed good carbonation [11] Cui Z.L., Yang L.H. and Ohaga Y. Durability test
resistance and better UPV values result of more than 3600 investigation on the recycled aggregate concrete.
m/sec, showing good quality concrete. The results with Sci. Tech. Eng. 6 (21), 35163519, 2006.
FB revealed that though it is having its own binder
property, it could not achieve strength up to that with [12] Levy S.M. and Helene P. Durability of recycled
aggregates concrete: a safe way to sustainable
cement replacement as it is having adverse effect on the
development. Cem. Concr. Res. 34 (11), 19751980,
durability and in-situ properties of concrete. Rather, it can
2004.
be used as a filling material or as an additive or else can
be used with other mineral admixture such fly ash to [13] Otsuki N., Miyazato S. and Yodsudjai W. Influence
improve its performance by making its matrix denser. of recycled aggregate on interfacial transition zone,
RAC with pure cement showed better durability and in- strength, chloride penetration and carbonation. J.
situ properties than concrete made with FB as a partial Mater. Civ. Eng. 15 (5), 443451, 2003.
replacement of cement. [14] Kou S.C. and Poon C.S. Enhancing the durability
properties of concrete prepared with coarse recycled
Reference
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[1] Maullick A.K. Viable alternatives to natural fine and [15] Singh M. and Garg M. Cementitious binder from fly
coarse aggregate in concrete. Proceedings of Int. ash and other industrial wastes. Cem. Concr. Res. 29
Seminar on Emerging Building Materials and (3), 309-314, 1999.
Construction Technologies, March 2016, New Delhi.
[16] Tam V.W.Y., Tam C.M. and Wang Y. Optimization
[2] Malhotra V.M. and Mehta P.K. High performance
on proportion for recycled aggregate in concrete
high-volume fly ash concrete for building sustainable
using two-stage mixing approach. Constr Build
and durable structures, 3rd Ed., Supplementary
Cementing Materials for Sustainable Developments, Mater. 21, 192839, 2007.
Ottawa, 2008 [17] ASTM C 642-06, Standard test method for density,
[3] Etxeberria M., Vzquez E., Mar A. and Barra M. absorption, and voids in hardened concrete, West
Influence of amount of recycled coarse aggregates Conshohocken, USA, 2002.
895
IMPACT RESPONSE OF PAVER BLOCKS WITH WASTE TYRE

CRUMB RUBBER
R. Bharathi Murugan1, E. Rama Sai2, C. Natarajan3
1,2,3
Department of Civil Engineering, National Institute of Technology at Trichy, Tamil Nadu, India.
Abstract
Waste materials utilization has been a very important aspect in the concrete manufacturing to develop the green
construction in the last decade. The disposal of waste tyres is one of the most problematic issues in the present scenario.
The use of waste tyres in the concrete production is very important to control the waste accumulation and preserve the
natural resources. The aim is to investigate the effect of partial replacement of sand by waste tyre crumb rubber in the
production of concrete paver blocks. The specimens were prepared for 5%, 10%, 15%, 20% and 25% replacements by
volume for sand. M40 grade concrete was designed and used in this study. The paver blocks were prepared in the
industry and tested in the laboratory to determine the impact resistance. The test results revealed that the impact
resistance for both first crack and ultimate failure increased with an increase in the crumb rubber content up to 25%.
Keywords: Paver block, Waste tyre, Crumb rubber, Impact energy, Ductility index
1 Introduction
The size of the crumb rubber also influences
Recycling of waste tyres are considered as one the strength of the concrete. The use of coarse crumbs
of the major environmental challenges faced by every gave lower compressive strength than the fine crumbs.
country. Many countries follow two easiest ways of Even though, the strength of concrete seems to reduce
disposing. Firstly, burning of tyres and secondly, used by the addition of crumb rubber, there are several other
as a landfill due to low density and poor degradation. properties of concrete that are beneficial. For example,
Nowadays some of the countries do not accept the concrete mixed with crumb rubber is found to have
burning method because while burning the waste tyres, lower density, higher impact and toughness resistance,
large amounts of smokes is produced which will mix enhanced durability and better sound insulation.
into the natural air and lead to the environmental In this study, the performance of Precast
issues. The second method of landfill techniques also Concrete Paver Blocks (PCPB) with waste tyre crumb
not advisable because of uneven settlement and the rubber as a partial replacement of fine aggregate, under
stagnation of storm water during rainy season as this drop weight impact loading is examined. The drop
will produce the mosquitoes which spread many weight impact test was conducted on PCPB added with
diseases. Hence this becomes a more dangerous health waste tyre crumb rubber as the replacement of 5%,
hazard [1 -3]. 10%, 15%, 20% and 25% by volume of fine aggregate.
Several investigations were done on the effect The impact energies to induce the first visible crack
of waste tyre crumb rubber replacement for sand (or) and ultimate failure on each paver block were
aggregate in the concrete mixtures and few studies investigated.
were done with waste tyre powder as a replacement of
cement. These studies indicate that the presence of 2 Materials and methods
rubber in concrete seems to reduce the compressive
strength and enhance the elastic behaviour. [4-5] 2.1 Materials
Ordinary Portland cement of 53 grades was
used in this study and it conforms to IS 12269:1987
1
PhD Scholar, rbmmecivil@gmail.com [6]. The physical properties are presented in Table 1.
2
PG Student, ramsai.eeda@gmail.com
3
Professor, nataraj@nitt.edu
896
R. Bharathi Murugan, et al.
Table 1: Physical properties of cement

Sl. No Property Results Limits as per
IS 12269:1987
1 Fineness (m2/kg) 290 >225

(Specific surface)
2 Initial setting time (minutes) 85 <30
3 Final setting time (minutes) 280 <600
4 Soundness 1 <10
By Le-Chatelier
5 Compressive strength
7 days (N/mm2) 38.60 >37
28 days (N/mm2) 56.96 >53
Locally available river sand passing through

4.75 mm IS sieve conforming to grading zone III as per Light Brown colour Superplasticiser (SikaViscoCrete
IS: 383-1970 [7] having a fineness modulus of 2.51 20HE) was used to improve the workability with the
and a specific gravity of 2.65. specific gravity of 1.08.
The coarse aggregate used in the concrete
mixtures was crushed granite stone, having the 2.2 Manufacturing concrete paver blocks
maximum size of 12.5 mm, a fineness modulus of 5.94 Paver block manufacturers followed two
and a specific gravity of 2.72. Sieve analysis was methods of specimen preparation as follows:
performed on the coarse aggregate, according to IS: (i) Wet cast method
383-1970 [7]. (ii) Dry cast method
Shredding and chipping is the mechanical In the dry casting method low water cement
process of shredding tyres into particles up to 4.75 mm. ratio (0.30 to 0.36) was used. It has a zero slump and
A tyre shredder is a machine with a disc of cutting the forms can be stripped as soon as the concrete has
edges, rotating in one direction to create a shearing been compacted. A dry casting method is especially
motion, that effectively cuts or shreds tyres as they are followed for the mass production because it requires
fed into the machine. In the present study a shredded expensive equipments. In Wet casting method the
rubber is used as partial fine aggregate replacement. concrete should have a minimum water cement ration
Sieve analysis was performed as per IS: 383-1970 [7]. of 0.4. In the wet casting method the concrete is placed
Crumb rubber is a fine material with gradation is close in the rubber moulds and leveled off by using a rake or
to that of river sand and the gradation curves are shown similar. Table vibrator is then used to compact the
in Figure 1. The fineness modulus is 3.72 and specific concrete, filling any small voids, forcing any small air
gravity is 0.84. Figure 2 shows the crumb rubber used pockets/ bubbles expelled via the open top surface
in the current study. (which will become the base of the finished paved
blocks). After a successive period of vibration all the
moulds are moving on to the storage area. In this
method, the curing is not required because the
sufficient water is present in the mould in the hydration
process. For that all the moulds are covered by the
plastic cover to avoid the evaporation of the water. The
moulds are manually removed as soon as 24 hours after
casting. After demoulding all the specimen thickness
and surface were checked. In this current study, paver
blocks of size 250 mm X 120 mm X 80 mm were
produced by using a wet casting method. M40 grade
concrete had cement, fine aggregate and coarse
Figure 1: Gradation of sand and crumb rubber aggregate in the ratio of 1: 2.20: 2.66 with water
cement ratio of 0.4. The mix was designed as per IS
10262 [8] and the target strength was found to be 48.25
MPa. Fine aggregate was partially replaced with crumb
rubber by volume (5%, 10%, 15%, 20% and 25%). The
identification and details of the specimens are
presented in Table 2.
Figure 2: Crumb Rubber
897
Table 2: Mix proportions

Mix ID Details of mix ID C FA CA CR W/C SP
R0 Control mix 1 2.27 2.65 0 0.42 0.04
R5 5% FA replaced by CR 1 2.08 2.65 0.19 0.42 0.04
Note:
C Cement, FA- Fine Aggregate, CA- Coarse Aggregate, CR- Crumb Rubber, W/C Water
Cement ratio and SP Superplaticizer.
2.3 Test setup and procedure

A 4.54 kg weight was lifted to 0.457m above
the specimen and then released. The drop weight
impact testing machine is shown in figure 3. The
impact load was applied via the free fall of the drop
weight onto a centre of the paver block by the
guidelines of ACI committee 544.2R-89 [9]. The
weight was dropped repetitively and the number of
blows required for the first visible crack and the
complete failure of the specimens was noted. The
Figure 4: Failure Specimens after Impact Testing
failure of the specimen during the testing was shown in
figure 4. The impact energy was calculated for each
paver block using the following equation.
nmv 2 3.1 Impact energy
U= (1)
The number of blows required for producing
2
the first visible crack and the complete failure for each
Where, type of paver blocks is presented in Table 3. Based on
U = Impact energy; n = number of blows; m = the number blows the first crack impact energy and
Weight of the hammer = 4.54 kg; v = drop weight failure impact energy were calculated by using Eqn. (1)
and plotted in Figure 5.
hammer velocity = 2(0.9g )h ; g = gravitational As compared to conventional concrete paver
acceleration; h = drop height. The factor, 0.9 accounts blocks, the first crack impact energy was increased by
for effect of the air resistance and friction between the 34.48%, 51.23%, 71.92%, 91.62% and 112.31% and
lifting weight and the guide rails. the failure impact energy was increased by 35.81%,
53.02%, 74.88%, 96.27% and 118.14% to 5%, 10%,
15%, 20% and 25% of sand replaced by crumb rubber
by volume respectively.
Hence it was observed that, increasing the
replacing percentage of shredded rubber increases the
impact energy of paver blocks significantly, in both the
first crack stage as well as failure stage [10-12]. The
impact resistance of R25 is approximately twice than
R0 (CPB) because of crumb rubber absorbs more
energy. This proves that the rubber act as a fibre and
effective crack arrestor, when an impact load is
encountered. Thus the plain concrete exhibits an early
brittle failure when compared to FRC which shows
Figure 3: Impact Testing Machine
better ductile properties [13]. The mode of failure of
concrete depends upon the cement matrix strength,
aggregate strength and bond strength of fibre with
aggregate matrix.
898
Average, statistical value of first crack and

failure impact energy and the number of test specimens
for each PCPB at the level of 5%, 10%, 15%, 20% and
25% of crumb rubber replacement by sand volume are
presented in Table 4 and Table 5 respectively.
In this study, paired t-test was mainly used to
determine whether the average impact energy (first
crack and failure stage) for PCPB with different
percentage crumb rubber content is compared to the
control concrete (without crumb rubber).
Figure 5: Impact energy of wet casting paver blocks
Table 3: impact test results for plain and rubber mixed concrete
Mix No. of blows Average no. of Impact energy Average impact Ductility Average
ID blows (J) energy (J) Index ductility
index
First Failure First Failure First Failure First Failure N2/N1 Average
crack crack crack crack of
(N2/N1)
R0 49 51 890.82 927.19 1.040
41 43 745.38 781.74 1.048
36 39 40.60 43.00 654.48 709.02 738.11 781.74 1.083
38 41 690.84 745.38 1.078
39 41 709.02 745.38 1.0512 1.060
R5 46 50 836.28 909.01 1.08
53 57 963.55 1036.27 1.075
56 58 54.60 58.40 1018.09 1054.45 992.63 1061.72 1.035
60 66 1090.81 1199.89 1.100
58 61 1054.45 1108.99 1.051 1.069
R10 65 68 1181.71 1236.25 1.046
71 76 1290.79 1381.69 1.070
59 64 61.40 65.80 1072.63 1163.53 1116.24 1196.25 1.084
55 59 999.91 1072.63 1.072
57 62 1036.27 1127.17 1.087 1.072
R15 71 78 1290.79 1418.05 1.098
74 80 1345.33 1454.41 1.081
59 66 69.80 75.20 1072.63 1199.89 1268.97 1367.15 1.118
79 82 1436.23 1490.77 1.037
66 70 1199.89 1272.61 1.060 1.079
R20 88 94 1599.88 1708.93 1.068
71 77 1290.79 1399.87 1.084
84 92 77.8 84.40 1527.13 1672.57 1414.41 1534.40 1.095
74 80 1345.33 1454.41 1.081
72 79 1308.97 1436.23 1.097 1.085
R25 86 96 1563.49 1745.29 1.116
98 104 1781.66 1890.74 1.061
86 89 86.20 93.80 1563.49 1618.08 1567.13 1705.30 1.034
90 98 1636.21 1781.66 1.088
71 82 1290.79 1490.77 1.154 1.091
899
Table 4 Paired t-tests for crumb rubber-concrete paving blocks (first crack)
Mix No. of Average impact Standard t-value p-value Remarks
ID specimen energy (first crack) deviation
R0 5 738.11 91.44 ---- ---- ----
R5 5 992.63 99.24 3.062 0.0376 Significant
R10 5 1116.24 118.23 8.011 0.0013 Very significant
R20 5 1414.41 139.88 12.044 0.0003 Extremely significant
Table 5 Paired t-tests for crumb rubber-concrete paving blocks (failure)

Mix No. of Average impact Standard t-value p-value Remarks
ID specimen energy (first crack) deviation
R0 5 781.74 85.21 ---- ---- ----
R5 5 1061.72 106.72 3.455 0.0255 Significant
At the statistical level of 0.05 (95% level of Figure 6: Ductility index of the wet cast paver
confidence), its required to have t critical value of blocks
2.571 with the degree of freedom of 5. The t- statistical
values were calculated and presented in Table 4 and 4 Conclusions:
Table 5. The statistical analysis results show at a 0.05 The impact resistance of paver blocks was
level of significance and the calculated t- statistical investigated for the paver blocks with partial
values are greater than the critical value (t). Therefore, replacements of 5%, 10%, 15%, 20% and 25%
it is possible to show the significant difference in the volume of sand by waste tyre crumb rubber.
average impact energy at first crack and failure The impact resistance of the paver blocks was
conditions between control PCPB and 5%, 10%, 15%, mainly calculated in two stages; (i) First
20%, 25% of crumb rubber content. cracks- impact resistance and (ii) Failure
impact resistance. Both stages of impact
3.2 Ductility index resistance were increased by the replacement
Ductility index is defined as the ratio of of sand with crumb rubber up to 25% by
energy absorbed at failure to energy absorbed at first volume of sand. The ductility index also
crack [14]. In the ductility index may quantitatively increased with the crumb rubber content
represent the ductility of the paver blocks. Figure 6 increases up to 25%.
shows the variations of the ductility index of the wet All the test results are statistically validated by
cast paver blocks based on the crumb rubber using paired t test and proved that both first
replacements at various percentages. It was observed crack and failure impact resistance were
that the ductility index value increases if the percentage statically significant. The results show that
of the crumb rubber increases in the concrete mix. The 25% of rubber content replacement fine
sand replacement by crumb rubber (5%, 10%, 15%, aggregate considerably increase the impact
20% and 25%) increases the ductility index by 0.93%, energy in case of CPB with crumb rubber
1.16%, 1.82%, 2.3% and 2.94%. when compared to conventional CPB.
The incorporation of rubber content to
concrete, changes, the failure pattern from
brittle mode to ductile, which displays the
beneficial effects of CPB with crumb rubber,
used in absorbing vibrations.
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901
Nanomaterials: A new approach to sustainable infrastructure

Geetika Mishra1, L.P. Singh2, Saurabh Ahalawat3
1
Indian Institute of Technology, Delhi,
2
CSIR-Central Building Research Institute, Roorkee
3
UltraTech Cement Ltd, Vikram Cement Works, Khor
geetika.mishra30@gmail.com; lpsingh@cbri.res.in; srv.cbri@gmail.com
Abstract
In the present study, preparation of spherical, uniform and well dispersible silica nanoparticles (SNPs) using
sol-gel method was carried out wherein sodium silicate solution used as precursor and water as solvent and
further these SNPs were supplemented into cementitious system to study their influence on the hydration
characteristics and engineering properties. These synthesised SNPs were characterized using Scanning
electron microscopy (SEM), powder X-ray diffraction (XRD) etc. SEM micrographs reveals the particles are
spherical in shape and average particle size in the range of 30-70nm, XRD profile confirms the amorphous
nature of synthesised SNPs. Furthermore, incorporation of SNPs at smaller volume fractions have resulted to
higher compressive strength (44%) at 1 day, improved hydration characteristics and reduced capillary
porosity (~75%) when compared with conventional cementitious materials. The reduction in the percentage
of CH content was found ~13% to 37% with the addition of 1 to 3% SNPs at 28 day, due to pozzolanic
reactivity. The addition of these nanofine particles improved the properties of cement based materials due to
high specific surface area, which provides additional nucleation sites for the precipitation of hydration
products. This phenomenon affects reactivity through filling the nano and micro pores of the cement paste
and leads to denser microstructure. From the above results it can be concluded that the application of
nanomaterials enhanced the performance of cementitious system and produces more durable and sustainable
construction materials.
Keywords: Silica nanoparticles, Porosity, cement, Calcium hydroxide, Strength
1. General Introduction
In recent times, nanotechnology has emerged out the reaction kinetics of the process may be
as a promising technique that has potential to controlled by varying the composition of the
solve many of the perennial problems faced in reaction mixture. Dispersed, amorphous and
construction sector. Aggressive development of uniform SNPs have aroused specific interest due
infrastructures using conventional materials is to their simple preparation and potential
responsible for approximately one-third of global applications in various industries. It can be used
warming. It is estimated that one tonne as effective materials in various cementitious
production of cement approximately produces system for improving the strength, flexibility,
one tonne of CO2. Hence, there is a need for durability, workability, etc. Several authors have
developing new construction materials which are reported the effect of SCMs (fly ash, silica fume)
smart, efficient and sustainable. Use of nano- on mechanical properties, however, limited
engineered concrete may lead to reduction in the literature is available on the influence of SNPs on
consumption of cement and thus, reduction of the mechanical strength development. Generally,
CO2 emission so as to develop sustainable an increase in paste strength was observed, with
constructions materials. increase in amount of SNPs at early ages along
with increase in pozzolanic activity. At the age of
Various methods for the preparation of 1 and 28 days, increase in compressive strength
nanoparticles are reported in literature such as the observed was approximately 6% and 23% for
modified Stober method [1-8], combustion SNPs (3%), while 3 and 16% with SF (3%),
techniques [9], chemical vapor deposition [10], respectively, only as compared to plain cement
aerosol spray [11-13], and emulsion [14] method. [15]. Another study has also suggested that the
Among these Sol-gel method has been widely increase in compressive strength of cement paste
used due to several advantages such as (i) to the range of 2025% with 0.5-2.0% addition of
synthesis may be carried out at low temperature, SNPs by weight of cement was also reported and
(ii) desired pH to yield high purity and also, (iii) beyond 2% additional strength reduction was also
902
Geetika Mishra, et al.
noticed [16]. Therefore, a systematic 2.2.2. Specimen preparation

experimental study was carried out to find the
potential of SNPs in cementitious system. SNPs were mixed with cement using grinding
method for uniform mixing. The doses of SNPs
2. Experimental Work varied as 1.0%, 1.5%, 2.0%, 2.5% and 3.0% by
weight of cement and a fixed water-to-cement
2.1. Materials ratio (0.35) was taken for all the specimens. Prior
43 grade OPC Type I, conforming to IS:8112 is to mixing SNPs into cement, sonication method
used in the present study. Chemical composition was used. In this method the weighed quantity of
of the cement was analysed using X-Ray SNPs and water were sonicated for 30 min using
Fluoroscence (XRF) technique, listed in Table.1. a bath sonicator till the solution become milky,
Powdered silica nanoparticles were prepared in thereafter, this mixture was added into cement
laboratory. paste and thoroughly mixed. The cement-SNPs
slurry was then mixed for 5 minutes before
Table 1: Chemical composition of cement casting into specimens. Then, the paste was
placed into cubic mould (252525 mm) and
Parameters OPC (%) Range tamped with a glass rod to ensure escape of
(Neville AM) possible air voids. The specimens were de-
SiO2 22.1 17.0-25.0 moulded after 24h and then cured in water at
Al2O3 6.8 3.0-8.0 room temperature of 203C and relative
Fe2O3 2.2 0.5-6.0 humidity of 98% in water tubs till the day of
CaO 61.6 60.0-67.0 testing. The plain cement sample without any
MgO 3.4 0.5-4.0 additives was used as control (C). Further, the
SO3 2.4 - compressive strength was determined on 1, 3, 7
Na2O+ K2O 0.19 0.3-1.2 and 28 days as per IS 4031 (Part 6). Similarly,
Loss on 4.0 capillary porosity in particular is associated with
<5%
Ignition the change in mechanical properties as well as
responsible for transportation of aggressive ions
into cement matrix [18]. The following equation
2.2. Methodology based on Powers model [19] was used for
2.2.1 Preparation of silica nanoparticles determining capillary porosity at different
interval of time.
Cost effective SNPs were synthesised using sol
gel technique wherein sodium silicate used as a
precursor, cetrimonium bromide (CTABr) as
dispersing agent and 1 N HCl as catalyst. In
preparation, CTABr, HCl and deionized water where, Pc is the capillary porosity of cement
were mixed, stirred for 45 min, followed by
dropwise addition of 1 M solution of sodium matrix, w/c is water-to-cement ratio taken,
silicate with stirring at room temperature until the is the specific gr
gravity of cement paste containing
pH of reaction system reached ~8.0. The resultant SF and SNPs, is degree of hydration at time
white suspension was filtered and washed with (t) and 1.15 is volumetric expansion coefficient
deionized water to remove all the sodium for hydration product relative to pozzolanic
chloride formed. The prepared powder was dried materials reacted (assuming that the hydration
(50C) and then muffled at 700 C for 4 h [17]. products have the same volume, plain or
Finally, the white powder was characterized by modified) [20].
scanning electron microscope (SEM), X-ray
diffraction (XRD), BET techniques.
Na2SiO3 + 2HCl + H2O Si(OH)4 + 2NaCl 2.3. Results and Discussion
Si(OH)4 undergoes polymerization and forms 2.3.1. Silica nanoparticles

silica chain. Synthesized SNPs were characterised using
SiOH + HOSi SiOSi + H2O various instrumental techniques such as SEM for
morphology, XRD for mineralogy (Fig. 1), BET
for specific surface area. Through SEM, it was
903
found that the particle size ranges from 30 to 70 suggest that the surface of SNPs acts as the
nm. From X-ray studies, it was observed that the nucleation site and promotes the formation of
SNPs were ~99% pure with little amount of C-S-H seeds for the precipitation of hydration
impurities like bromide and chloride. The product, therefore, acceleration in hydration
characteristic diffraction broad hump, centred results higher compressive strength at early
~22 (2), confirmed its amorphous nature. BET ages. Thereby, it is concluded that the
results showed that the specific surface area of nucleation effect of SNPs is predominant over
synthesized SNPs was 116.2 m2/g. the pozzolanic effect at early age of hydration.
Similarly, as the hydration time proceeds
compressive strength improves with SNPs at
all the ages. In plain cement, compressive
strength was observed as 300 kg/cm2 at 7days,
while with the addition of SNPs (1 and 3%) it
is increased as 359 kg/cm2 and 473 kg/cm2,
respectively, It is about 16% and 37%
increment in compressive strength at 7 day.
This later improvement in the strength can be
attributed to the rapid consumption of free CH
by SNPs and converted into C-S-H crystals,
which ultimately improved the pore structure
by filling up the capillary pores and by
thickening of paste. Another reason for
improvement in performance of nano-
modified cement matrix is the fact that SNPs
are smaller in size than cement and are
capable of reducing volume of larger pores in
the cement paste. Pore structure refinement by
SNPs was not only achieved by
transformation of CH into C-S-H (chemical
effect), but it was also attained by filler effects
of SNPs (physical effect). Later on, higher
doses of nanoparticles are susceptible for
agglomeration, which further slows the
hydration reaction and degrades mechanical
strength. Hence, from the above results it can
Fig 1: SEM and XRD of SNPs be concluded that the optimized dose of SNPs
addition is about 3%, gives better
performance. On the other hand, at higher
2.3.2. Compressive strength doses microstructure become compact which
further inhibit the growth of hydration
Compressive strength is a basic parameter to products due to lack of space and cause cracks
determine the performance of material. SNPs in microstructure.
have positive significant effect on
compressive strength. Compressive strength
found to increase with increasing doses of
SNPs. At early ages (1 and 3 days),
compressive strength was significantly higher
in all nano-modified specimens compared
with plain cement. Fig. 2 clearly demonstrates
that the compressive strength of plain cement
is 78 kg/cm2 at 1 day, whereas with increasing
doses of SNPs i.e.1%, 2%, and 3%, the
compressive strength also increased to 82, 99
and 135 kg/cm2 respectively. These results
904
Geetika Mishra, et al.
Fig.3: Porosity of SNPs incorporated cement paste

Fig.2: Compressive strength of SNPs
incorporated cement paste at 1 day
2.4. Conclusions
The above experimental studies were carried out
2.3.3. Capillary Porosity
to study the potential of SNPs as incorporated in
Initially after adding water into cement, the cementitious system. From the studies following
total space occupied by water are known as conclusion can be drawn as
capillary pores. This study illustrates the
influence of different doses of SNPs in Cost effective SNPs were prepared using
refining the pore structure of cement matrix. sodium silicate as precursor instead of costly
With the progress of the hydration, it seems to chemicals such as Tetraethoxy silane
be reduced continuously. These results (TEOS), Tetramethoxy Silane (TMOS) etc.
inferences that SNPs show nucleation effect at Spherical, well dispersible and uniform size
early age, which is responsible for SNPs were synthesised
acceleration in hydration rate. Fig.3
illustrates the variation in capillary porosity Compressive strength of the nano-modified
with 1%, 2% and 3% SNPs modified paste. cement system improved significantly ~37%
Due to the formation of initial hydration with 3% SNPs as compared to plain cement.
product till 1h, the capillary porosity was
calculated as 47.5% in plain cement while in SNPs are capable of reducing capillary pore
SNPs (3%) admixed cement it was reduced to in the system and indirectly make the cement
a significant extent even at 1h and was found matrix more compact and dense against
to be 35.5%. As the hydration continues, the ingress of aggressive ions.
volume of capillary pores reduces. The
reduction in capillary pores is more
significant in SNPs incorporated samples. 2.5. References
This is because in SNPs added cement paste,
the rate of formation of hydration product is 1. Grun M, Unger KK, Matsumoto A, Tsutsumi
higher than plain cement. Furthermore, due to K (1999) Novel pathways for the preparation
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regularly by SNPs and formed additional C-S- porosity and morphology. Microporous
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6. Shimura N, Ogava M (2005) Growth of compared with silica fume. Const. & Build.
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7. Tan B, Rankin SE (2004) Interfacial calcium-silicate-hydrate formation in cement
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Phys Chem B 108:20122 17. Singh, L.P., Bhattacharyya, S.K., Ahalawat,
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8. Tan B, Lehmler HJ, Vyas SM, Knuston BL, morphology and dispersibiliity of silica
Rankin SE (2005) Controlling nanopore size nanoparticles on the mechanical behaviour of
and shape by fluorosurfactant templating of cement mortar. Journal of Concrete
silica. Chem Mater 17:916925. Structure and Materials (DOI
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Zheng Y (2009) Thermodynamic, 18. L. Raki, B. James, A. Rouhollah, M. Jon and
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906
907
MECHANICAL AND DYNAMIC PROPERTIES OF FIBER

reinforced Geopolymer compositesREINFORCED
may be considered a
solution to improve flexural strength and fracture
GEOPOLYMER CONCRETE
toughness. Adding reinforcing
Dr .D. Ravi Prasad-11, Dr.D.Rama Seshu-22
1.Asst. Professor, Syructures Division, Department of Civil Engineering
NIT Warangal, Warangal-506004
2. Professor, Syructures Division, Department of Civil Engineerin, NIT Warangal
Warangal-506004
Abstract: Portland cement concrete is most widely
used construction material worldwide which can be fibers to a brittle matrix helps to control micro and
attributed to its mechanical properties, cost macro-cracks diffusion through the material by
effectiveness and overall performance. But the main generating a bridging effect as well as to change the
concern is regarding the environmental pollution post-cracking behavior of the material from a brittle
involved in cement manufacturing process. It accounts fracture mode to a ductile one Refs.[2),4)]. Fibers in the
for about 7% of worlds CO 2 emissions consuming high cementatious matrix tend to reinforce the composite
energy resources and natural quarries. under all modes of loading and the interaction between
The one possible alternative green concrete is the use of the fiber and matrix affects the performance of cement
alkali activated binder formed by using industrial by based fiber composite material. The behavioral
products involving Geopolymerization, hence named as efficiency of this composite material is far superior to
Geopolymer concrete(GPC). Industrial by products such that of plain concrete and many other construction
as Flyash and GGBS are used in total replacement to materials of equal cost and this steadily increased the
cement with alkaline solution has sodium silicate and use of FRC during the last two decades and its current
sodium hydroxide. Even though it is possessing good field of application includes: explosive-resistant and
compressive strength and durability, its ceramic like earthquake-resistant structures, tunnel and mine linings,
nature leads to low tensile and flexure strength. An rock-slope stabilization, bridge deck overlays, airport
attempt has been made to overcome this weakness by and highway pavements, hydraulic structures, etc.
addition of Recron fibers. Ref. [5].
In this work the influence of the addition of Recron The vibrations produced by dynamic actions usually
fibers on dynamic properties of geo polymer concrete cause service problems as they can reduce comfort up to
has also been studied. Along with mechanical tests, unacceptable levels. But, in some extreme cases, they
Fundamental resonant frequency tests are conducted as can cause real safety problems, compromising the
per ASTM C215 to determine dynamic properties of stability of the whole structure. The enhancement
plain GPC and GPC with fibers. It is found that good produced by the addition of fibers to concrete results in
enhancement in mechanical and dynamic properties more ductile structures with higher energy absorption
with the addition of fibers is observed. capacity, which are very desirable properties from the
point of view of structures under dynamic actions.
Keywords: Geopolymer concrete, Recron fibers, The behavior of concrete under dynamic actions is
Mechanical properties, Dynamic Properties1 General determined by its dynamic properties such as dynamic
Introduction modulus of rigidity, modulus of elasticity, Poissons
Geo-polymer materials are inorganic polymers having ratio, compressive strength or strain limits, which
basic units of alumina and silica, they are synthesized present different values compared with their static
from de-hydroxylated alumina-silicate powders counterparts.
condensed with alkaline silicate in a highly alkaline Mechanism involved:
environment. Geopolymer cement manufacturing Fibers work with concrete utilizing two mechanisms,
involves lesser amounts of calcium-based raw materials, the spacing mechanism and the crack bridging
lower temperature requirement and lower fuel mechanism. The first mechanism requires a large
consumption, resulting in reduced carbon emissions up number of fibers well distributed within the concrete
to 22%-72% in comparison with Ordinary Portland matrix to arrest any existing micro-crack that could
cement Ref.[1)]. Moreover this green concrete is potentially expand and create a sound crack. For typical
gaining importance because of its properties of low volume fractions of fibers, utilizing micro fibers can
shrinkage, less creep factor, early strength gain, high ensure the required number of fibers for micro crack
threshold value, good corrosion resistance and high arrest Refs.[11,12]. The second mechanism termed
compressive strength over conventional concrete crack bridging requires large straight fibers with
Refs.[1),2)]. However despite these features, poor adequate bond to the concrete. Fibers whose moduli is
flexure and tensile strength and low elastic modulus are lower than the cement matrix such as cellulose, nylon,
exhibited by Geopolymer concretes due their brittle and polypropylene, polyester and Fibers with higher moduli
ceramic like nature leading to catastrophic failures than the cement such as asbestos, glass, steel etc. Fibers
limiting its applications farther Refs.[1),2)]. Fiber having lower modulus of elasticity are expected to
908
D. Ravi Prasad and.D.Rama Seshu
enhance strain performance whereas fibers having present different values compared with their static
higher modulus of elasticity are expected to enhance the counterparts.
strength performance Ref.[6)]. The characterization of these dynamic properties can be
experimentally achieved according to the standard test
Recron Fibers: method ASTM C 215 Refs.[5),7),8)]
Recron 3s Fibers are used in concrete as a Secondary 2 Experimental Investigation
Reinforcement at a rate of dosage varying from 0.1% Experimental programme has been carried out in order
to 0.4% by volume (0.9 Kg/m3 3.60Kg/m3). The to study the effect of the addition of Recron fibers on
properrties of Fibers are shown in Table 1. Recron 3s the mechanical and dynamic properties of fly ash-
Fibers are engineered Micro Synthetic Fibers having a GGBS based geo polymer concrete.
unique Triangular Cross-section. These fibers Materials and specimen preparation
enhances the resistance of concrete to shrinkage cracks It was found that the fresh fly ash-GGBS based geo
and improves mechanical properties such as flexural, polymer concrete was dark in colour (due to the dark
transverse and split tensile strengths of concrete along colour of the fly ash), and was cohesive. Sodium meta
with the desired improvement in abrasion and impact silicate solution and the sodium hydroxide solution
strengths. mixed together at least one day before adding the liquid
These synthetic fibers are of polyester type, micro, to the solid constituents. Mix all dry materials in the pan
monofilament, discrete, discontinuous short fiber having mixer for about three minutes. Add the liquid
low elastic modulus than normal concrete. Thus can be component of the mixture at the end of dry mixing, and
used in concrete to control and arrest micro cracks. continue the wet mixing for another four minutes. To
Further, cross section of this fiber is substantial improve workability sulphonated naphthalene
triangular due to which it is 2.2 times more effective superplasticiser (Conplast SP 430) is added. The
than the fiber having circular cross section. These fibers demoulded specimens were left in sunlight until tested
are found to give good deformation performance under for 28 days without any special curing regime.
different types of loading with moderate strength M40 grade of concrete is adopted for reference mix for
enhancement Refs. [9),Error! Reference source not conventional concrete(OPC), mix proportions are as per
found.]. the IS: 10262- 2009 Ref.(14). The design mix
Table 1: Properties of recron fibers proportions adopted are shown in Table 2.
Fiber Recron Fiber Table 2: Mix proportions of conventional concrete
Material Poly ester
Shape Straight Fine Coarse
Mix Water Cement
Cross section Triangular Aggregate Aggregate
Proportions (Kg/m3) (Kg/m3)
Diameter 30um (Kg/m3) (Kg/m3)
Length 12mm By Weight
197.16 438 672.85 1145.78
Specific gravity 1.36 (Kg)
Tensile strength 1000MPa
Elastic modulus 17250MPa FLly ash-GGBS based geo polymer concrete of M40
grade is prepared and the mix propositions of
Geopolymer concrete are mentioned in Table 3. Same
Significance of Dynamic properties mix proportions are adopted with addition of Recron
Many of the research works have generally focused on fibers at dosage of 900gm/m3 of concrete. Proportions
the study of mechanical properties. However, most of Required for Alkaline Liquid are shown in Table 4.
the applications of the concrete such as tall buildings, Table 3: Mix design proportion of geopolymer
dams, bridges, towers, power plants, chimneys or heavy concrete
duty industrial floors, among many others, are
constantly subjected to dynamic actions. The vibrations Mix Alkaline
GGBS FA
Fine Coarse
produced by dynamic actions usually cause service Proport Liquid Aggregate Aggregate
(Kg/m3) (Kg/m3)
ions (Kg/m3) (Kg/m3) (Kg/m3)
problems as they can reduce comfort up to unacceptable
levels. But, in some extreme cases, they can cause real Weight
safety problems, compromising the stability of the 191.58 153.264 229.896 647.54 827.63
(Kg)
whole structure. The enhancement produced by the
addition of fibers to concrete results in more ductile Table 1: Proportions required for alkaline liquid
structures with higher energy absorption capacity,
which are very desirable properties from the point of Molarity 8
view of structures under dynamic actions. Na2SiO3/NaOH 2.5
The behavior of concrete under dynamic actions is Alkaline Liquid/ Flyash 0.5
determined by its dynamic properties such as dynamic Alkaline Liquid 191.58 Kg/m3
modulus of rigidity, modulus of elasticity, Poissons Na2SiO3Solution 136.84Kg/m3
ratio, compressive strength or strain limits, which NaOH Solution(NaOH + H2O) 54.737Kg/m3
NaOH Flakes 14.355Kg/m3
Water 40.382Kg/m3
909
The experimental program consisted of casting and Flexure strength

testing of 18 cubes, 12 cylinders and 12 prisms to Flexure strength was obtained by testing Standard
determine the mechanical properties like compressive prisms of size 100 100 500mm. Flexure strength
strength, split tensile strength, flexural strength and variation for all concretes with fiber dosage at 28 days
fundamental resonant frequencies. And 18 beams to are shown in Fig3.
determine the dynamic characteristics of concrete
respectively for plain and FRC composite of
Conventional concrete(OPC) and Geopolymer
concrete(GPC).
Results and Discussions

following results are obtained after conducting tests for
mechanical and dynamic properties.
Compressive strength of Geopolymer concrete with
Fiber(GPCF) with reference to normal concrete with
fiber(OPCF) were obtained. The results of compressive
strength and its variations in these values are shown in
Fig. 1, 2.
Figure 3: Flexural strength at 28 Days
Split tensile strength

The splitting tensile strength was obtained by
conducting test on cylinders of 150mm diameter and
300mm height as per code IS 516-1959 Ref.[16]. These
split tensile strength results and the variation in these
values due to addition of Recron fibers at 28 days are
shown in Fig.4.
Figure1: Compressive strength at 7 and 28 Days
Figure 4: Split tensile strength

From Fig4; Addition of Recron fibers resulted in 5.66%
and12.60% improvement in split tensile strength of
OPC and GPC resp. Pozzolanic materials in GPC act as
dispersant for fibers leading to well uniform mix.
Split tensile strength is about 7% of compressive
strength of OPC both in Plain and FRC composite. But
Figure 2: Compressive strength at 28 Days for GPC it is obtained as 4% of compressive strength.
Figs 1,2; shows that compressive strength of OPC and
Dyna mic Properties of Concrete :
GPC are more or less same at 7 days, whereas at 28 Prismatic specimens (100 x 100 x500 mm) of each
days ordinary concrete having more strength. Addition concrete type were tested for determining fundamental
of fibers showed remarkable improvement in the resonant frequencies in longitudinal, transverse and
strength at 28 days in both concretes. There is an torsional mode as per the standard specifications
increase in 28 day compressive strength of fiber mentioned in the code ASTM C215 Ref.[15]. These
reinforced concrete by 11.9% and 8.87% compared to frequencies are determined by conducting Impact
plain concretes of OPC and GPC respectively. Hammer test using OROS Dynamic Analyzer and NV
910
D. Ravi Prasad and.D.Rama Seshu
solutions software. With NV solutions software It is observed that fundamental transverse frequency is
damping ratios in each mode are also obtained using in range from 1.4-1.6 KHz for M40 grade OPC. For
half power bandwidth method. GPC it is found to be in lower range from 0.6 0.8 KHz
Dynamic modulus of elasticity, dynamic modulus of there are no significant changes with FRC composite,
rigidity and dynamic Poissons ratio for all concrete Where as damping ratios in transverse mode are in
types are calculated using these frequencies as per code range of 2.5 - 3% for M40 grade OPC. For GPC it is
ASTM C215 Ref.[15]. found to be in lower range from 3.5 - 4%.
Fundamental torsional frequency is in range from 2 - 2.5
Fundamental Resonant Frequency and Damping KHz for M40 grade OPC. For GPC it is found to be in
Ratio: lower range from 1-1.5 KHz, there are no significant
The prisms of all concrete types were weighed, changes with FRC composite. it is observed that in this
markings were done and experimental tests are mode damping is in the range 1 1.5 (%) for M40 grade
conducted in each mode as per code ASTM C215. OPC. For GPC, it is in higher range from 2 2.5(%).
Fundamental resonant frequency in longitudinal There is only 2.6% increase for fiber composite of OPC.
mode(n), transverse mode(n), torsional mode(n) It is about 8% increase in damping ability of GPC.
and respective damping ratios were recorded for each Dynamic and static modulus of elasticity
concrete type. Values of frequencies and damping ratios Static modulus of elasticity and dynamic modulus of
corresponding to each concrete type are shown in elasticity of concrete mixes are tabulated as follows in
Tables 5, 6. Table.7.
Table 5: Fundamental resonant frequency Table.7 Dynamic and static modulus of elasticity
Type of Density (n) (n) (n) Concrete Type fck (MPa) Es(MPa) Ed(MPa)
Concrete (Kg/m3) (KHz) (KHz) (KHz) OPC 52.73 36307.713 43985.29
OPC 2543 4.16 1.490 2.422 OPC (F) 59.06 38425.252 45102.51
OPC (F) 2567 4.19 1.501 2.440 GPC 49.57 35202.983 12277.84
GPC 2397 2.26 0.753 1.329 GPC (F) 53.97 36732.139 13661.95
GPC (F) 2439 2.33 0.765 1.336 it is observed that for dynamic modulus of plain and
FRC composite of OPC are 21.14% and 17.37 % higher
Table 6: Damping in different Modes of vibration than static modulus values. Whereas for GPC, dynamic
modulus is 65.12% and 62.8% lower than their static
Damping in Damping in Damping in
Type of values.
Longitudinal Transverse Torsional
Concrete Dynamic modulus of rigidity and Poission's ratio
Mode l(%) Mode t(%) Mode g (%)
Dynamic modulus of rigidity(Cd) based fundamental
OPC 0.720 2.67 1.15
torsional frequency calculated as per the code ASTM
OPC (F) 0.730 2.72 1.18
C215 are shown in Table. 8.
GPC 1.33 3.61 2.14 Variation of dynamic rigidity modulus is in the range
GPC (F) 1.52 3.75 2.32 from 16 -18 GPa. for OPC. and it is 4 - 6 GPa for GPC.
The variation in these values with addition of fibers is
Comparison of Fundamental Frequencies and 2.44% and 5.9% for OPC and GPC.
Damping ratios of Concretes Dynamic Poissons Ratio(1/md) was calculated as per
These frequencies are directly proportional to stiffness
the code ASTM C21. are shown in Table.8;
of concrete matrix and damping ratio indicating the
damping ability of concrete material. The variation in
Table.8 Dynamic modulus of rigidity and Poission's
Stiffness and energy dissipating ability of different
ratio
concretes with and without addition of short fibers are
shown in the above tables. it is observed that
Concrete
Type
fck (MPa) Cd(MPa) 1/md(MPa)
fundamental longitudinal frequency is in range of 4 - 4.5
OPC 52.73 17645.17 0.246
KHz for M40 grade OPC. For GPC it is found to be in
lower range of 2 2.5 KHz. There are no significant OPC (F) 59.06 18076.88 0.248
changes with FRC composite, except for GPC it is GPC 49.57 5007.05 0.226
2.9%. GPC (F) 53.97 5302.85 0.288
Damping ratios in longitudinal mode are in range from
0.6 - 0.8% for M40 grade OPC, there is 1.38% increase Dynamic poission's ratio is in range from 0.245 - 0.25
with FRC composite. For GPC it is found to be in lower for OPC and GPC with and without fibers except for
range from 1.2 -1.4 %. Whereas with fibers it is GPC upon addition of fibers it increased to 0.288.
increased to a range of 1.4-1.6 %, the difference is
about13.9%. Conclusions
Geopolymer concrete possess good compressive
strength values and high damping ability. Multiple
911
cracking was also observed during static tests having 10) K. Sasikala1, Dr. S. Vimala, A Comparative
low flexure and split tensile strength. It is having low Study Of Polypropylene, Recron And Steel
low dynamic modulus and low natural frequency proves fiber reinforced engineered Cementitious
to be less stiff. To some extent the ceramic like nature Composites, International Journal of
can be overcome by addition of Recron fibers. Engineering Research & Technology (IJERT),
Addition of Recron fibers enhances both mechanical Vol. 2 (4), , ISSN: 2278-0181, April 2013.
and dynamic properties. These short discontinuous 11) Amin Noushini, Bijan Samali, Kirk Vessalas,
fibers having high fiber count for low volume fraction Effect of polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) fiber on
builds up integrity and homogeneity in the concrete dynamic and material properties of fiber
matrix and considerable improvement in damping reinforced concrete, Construction and Building
ability in every vibrating mode. The reason for the Materials Vol. 49, pp.374383,2013.
improvement is due the friction between fibers and 12) L.Yan, C.H.Jenkins, R.L. Pendleton,
concrete matrix under dynamic actions. Polyolefin fiber-reinforced concrete
composites Part I. Damping and frequency
References characteristics, Cement and Concrete Research
1) Dali Bondar., Geo-polymer Concrete as a New Vol. 30, pp.391-401, 2000.
Type of Sustainable Construction Materials, 13) IS: 456:2000, Indian Standard Plain and
Third international conference on sustainable Reinforced Concrete Code of practice, 4th
construction materials and technologies. revision, Bureau of Indian Standards, New
2) Ana M. Fernndez-Jimnez, Angel Palomo, Delhi.
and Cecilio Lpez-Hombrados., Engineering 14) IS: 10262 - 2009, Recommended Guidelines
Properties of Alkali-Activated Fly Ash for Concrete Mix Design, Bureau of Indian
Concrete, ACI Concrete Journal, Vol. 103(2) Standards, New Delhi.
No. 2,April 2006. 15) ASTM C 215, Standard test method for
3) A.Natali, S. Manzia, M. C. Bignozzi, Novel fundamental transverse, longitudinal, and
fiber-reinforced composite materials, based on torsional resonant frequencies of concrete
sustainable geopolymer matrix, Procedia specimens. American Society for Testing
Engineering Vol.21, pp.1124-1131, 2011. Materials; 2008.
4) Faiz Uddin Ahmed Shaikh, Review of 16) IS: 516 1959, Indian Standard test methods
mechanical properties of short fiber reinforced of tests for concrete, Bureau of Indian
geopolymer composites, Construction and Standards, New Delhi.
Building Materials Vol.1, pp.3749, 2013.
5) V. Giner, S. Ivorra1, F.J. Baeza, B. Ferrer,
Effect of different admixtures on dynamic
structural behaviour of fiber reinforced
concrete elements, Proceedings of the 8th
International Conference on Structural
Dynamics, eurodyn, isbn 978-90-760-1931-4.
2011.
6) Ronald F. Zollo, Fiber-reinforced concrete: an
Overview after 30 Years of Development,
Cement and Concrete Composite Vol.19,
pp.107-122, 1997.
7) V.T. Giner, S. Ivorra, F.J. Baeza, E. Zornoza,
B. Ferrer, Silica fume Admixture Effect on the
Dynamic Properties of Concrete, Construction
and Building Materials 25, 2011, pp.3272-
3277.
8) L. Zheng, X. Sharon Huo, Y. Yuan,
Experimental investigation on dynamic
properties of rubberized concrete, Construction
and Building Materials Vol. 22, pp 939947.
2008.
9) Vajihollah Alamshahi, Abbas Taeb, Reza
Ghaffarzadeh, Mohammad Amin Rezaee,
Effect of composition and length of Poly
propylene and polyester fibers on mechanical
properties of cement based composites,
Construction and Building Materials Vol.36, ,
pp534537, 2012.
912
913
INVESTIGATIONS ON AGGREGATE REACTIVITY IN

GEOPOLYMER CONCRETE
B.Singh (1) and Ishwarya G.(2)
(1,2)
Polymers, Plastics and Composites Division, CSIR-Central Building Research Institute,
Roorkee (India)
The potential reactivity of sandstone/siliceous aggregates in geopolymer concrete based on fly ash/ GGBS
composite mixes was assessed in terms of alkali-silica reaction. The mortar bars made as per ASTM
C1260 were exposed to 1M NaOH at 80 oC upto 90 days. The exposed samples were examined for their
expansion and petrography. It was observed that the samples expanded less than the threshold of 0.1% at
the end of 16 days exposure while its OPC counterpart failed by exceeding the limit. At 90 days, the
geopolymer mortars containing composite mixes had expansion in the range of 0.31-0.56% as compared
to 0.12% for fly ash based geopolymers. Evidences of crystalline zeolites, sodium calcium silicate gel and
cracks observed in FESEM after 90 days could be responsible for higher expansion. Reduction in
alkalinity of solution /dissolved silica from aggregate after 24 hrs exposure in 1 M NaOH solution
indicated innocuous nature of aggregates contrary to the expansion results. It was noted that geopolymer
concrete made with high GGBS content exhibited prominent ASR product. It was concluded that
siliceous aggregates had less ASR than the sandstone aggregate.
Keywords: Geopolymer concrete, Expansion, ASR, Microstructure, Aggregate
1. Introduction
In the recent years, geopolymers has received a lot aggregates [8-10]. The alkalis are able to interact in
of attention as an alternative to Portland cement (OPC) two competitive reactions. In the primary reaction, they
concrete in civil infra-structures due to its superior are taken up to activate the vitreous component of the
properties such as high early compressive strength, low aluminosilicates and convert it into a cementitious
permeability, negligible shrinkage, excellent acid & material, or even form zeolite crystals; but at the same
fire resistance and low thermal conductivity [1-3]. time, they may be involved in a secondary reaction that
However, concerns are often raised on the performance attacks the aggregate [2]. Garcia-Lodeiro et al. [8]
of these new materials in the aggressive chemical indicated that fly ash based geopolymers performed
environment. It is known that alkali-silica reaction better to ASR than the corresponding Portland cement
(ASR) is one such factor causing gradual but severe and reported that calcium in the material plays an
deteriorations of hardened cement concrete structure in important role in the expansive nature of gels. Patil and
terms of its strength loss, cracking and volume Allouche [9] found that ASR in fly ash based
expansion [4-6]. It involves the reaction between the geopolymer concrete was well below the ASTM
hydroxyl ion in the pore solution within the concrete specified threshold because the samples appeared to
matrix and reactive silica in the aggregate. The extent undergo a densification process during accelerated
of dissolution of reactive silica from aggregate depends exposure resulting in reduced permeability and
on a number of factors such as alkalinity of pore increased mechanical strength. Fernandez-Jimenez and
solution (threshold 0.20-0.25 M), water-cement ratio, Puertas [10] concluded that alkali activated slag mortar
degree of hydration (0.15 to 0.85 mol/l corresponding expanded initially at slower rate than the OPC mortars
to pH values of 13.2 to 13.9), humidity and but monitoring of expansion for longer period will be
temperature. It is also recognised that high calcium essential due to formation of sodium and calcium
content is necessary for concrete expansion by ASR silicate hydrate products with rosette type morphology
[7]. In geopolymer concrete, the residual alkali after in the microstructure. Bakharev et al. [11] found that
geopolymerization of aluminosilicates is expected to alkali activated slag concrete had lower resistance to
react with reactive silica of the aggregates causing ASR than that of OPC concrete of similar grade. Till
disruption of their siloxane bridges. It is therefore,
desirable to assess the potential reactivity of different
types of aggregates and subsequent evolution of their
microstructures in geopolymeric environment.
In earlier studies, attempts were made to study ASR
in geopolymer concrete using reactive and non-reactive
914
B.Singh and Ishwarya G
date, there have been no reports available on the 3.35%, CaO 7.04%, MgO 1.68%, K2O+Na2O 2.36%)
potential reactivity of aggregates in geopolymer and siliceous type (SiO2 49.47%,Al2O3 8.1%, Fe2O3
concrete produced from fly ash-slag composite mix. 3.34%, CaO 2.99%, MgO 1.52%, K2O+Na2O 2.69%)
In the present study, we aimed at discussing of aggregates were procured locally.
geopolymer pastes based on fly ash/ground granulated
blast furnace slag (GGBS) as binders for producing 2.2 Sample preparation
concrete which can set fast under ambient temperature
and be easily adopted in the field similar to OPC 2.2.1 Preparation of Pastes:
concrete [12]. Since aggregates contain some
deleterious substances, the knowledge on Fly ash and GGBS were inter-ground in a ball mill for
understanding the reactivity of these aggregates in the 5 min in different ratio. The activator solution was
geopolymeric alkaline environment should be known prepared with 12M NaOH and sodium silicate in the
for mass utilization. It is expected that unutilized ratio of 1:2.5 and kept at room temperature for 24 hrs
water-soluble alkalis existing in the geopolymer before use. The geopolymer pastes were prepared
concrete may cause expansion in the concrete through varying the fly ash /GGBS mix ratio, activator dosage
alkali-silica reaction. Such effect can be assessed by and liquid-solid ratio. Four binder systems selected for
known method (ASTM C1260) used for cement mortar bars are: fly ash geopolymer, fly ash-GGBS
mortars which is very much applicable to geopolymer geopolymer (80:20, 60:40) and OPC.
concrete also as adopted by other authors [8,9]. In this
article, the potential reactivity of siliceous and 2.2.2 Preparation of mortar bars:
sandstone aggregate in geopolymer concrete using fly
ash-GGBS composite mix was investigated under The sandstone aggregate were crushed below 4.75 mm.
accelerated condition. The exposed mortar bars were The mix proportioning of mortar bars was done as per
assessed for their expansion and microstructural ASTM C1260 using fly ash/GGBS, aggregate and
changes. A comparison in the expansion of geopolymer activators. The liquid-solid ratio for geopolymer
concrete was also made with its corresponding OPC mortars (GPC) was kept as 0.47. OPC mortar bars were
concrete. taken as control specimens (w/c, 0.47). The dry
components such as fly ash, GGBS and aggregate were
2.Experimental first mixed together and then mixed with activating
solution in a Hobart mixer for 2-3 min to obtain
2.1 Materials homogeneous mix. The resulting mix was cast in a
Class F fly ash (FA) was collected from National prismatic mould of size 25 x 25 x 285 mm consisting
Thermal Power Corporation, Suratgargh, India of gauge studs protruding 17.5 mm inside the specimen
(Blaines surface area 4099 cm2/g, average Particle size from both the ends. The cast OPC mortars were
= 39m). Chemically, it consists of SiO2 45.76%, demoulded after 24 hrs and then immersed in water at
Al2O3 22.41%, Fe2O3 3.48%, CaO 0.74% and LOI 80 oC for 24 hrs. The geopolymer samples were cured
0.58%. Ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBS) at 80 oC for 24 hrs before being demoulded. The initial
was procured from Vizag steel plant, Vishakhapatnam, length of the specimens was recorded.
India (Blaines surface area - 5144 cm2/g, average The demoulded specimens were immersed in 1 M
Particle size = 14m). It consists of CaO 32.23%, SiO2 NaOH at 802 oC in an oven up to 90 days. The
27.2%, Al2O3 11.85%, Fe2O3 0.86%. The fly ash specimens were monitored at a regular interval of time
particles are spherical while GGBS particles are for visual inspection and change in length.
angular (Fig. 1). Laboratory grade sodium hydroxide
(97.5% pure) and sodium silicate (Na2O 8%, SiO2 27% 2.3 Test methods
, H2O 65% by mass) were used as received. Sandstone
(SiO2 49.9%, Al2O3 5.64%, Fe2O3 The change in length of mortar bars was measured
with the help of a length comparator as per ASTM
C490. The samples were placed vertically with the
gauge stud at one end pressing against the tip of the
dial gauge needle and the gauge stud at the other end
resting on the groove of the collar. The length change
in the samples was recorded at different period.
The fractured surface of exposed mortar bars was
examined on a FESEM (Quanta 200F). Prior to
examination, a thin film of Au/Pd coating was applied
1 m 20 m on the surface by a sputter coater to render them
(a) (b) conductive. The elemental chemical composition was
mapped with EDAX at different locations.
Figure 1: SEM image (a) fly ash particles (b) GGBS The potential reactivity of sand stone aggregate
with NaOH was assessed by the chemical method. The
915
sample was digested for 24 hrs at 80 oC. Reduction in

alkalinity and dissolved silica in 1 N NaOH solution 40%
were determined in accordance with IS: 2386 (Part GGBS
VII) [13].
20%
3. Results and discussion GGBS
Expansion (%)
3.1 Composite geopolymer pastes
The geopolymer pastes were optimized as a
function of fly ash-GGBS ratio (4:1, 3:1, 2:1), activator OPC
dosage (10-30%), water-binder ratio (0.2-0.29), curing
temperature (28 & 80 oC) and curing time (7, 28, 56,
90 days) [12]. DSC run under quasi-isothermal mode
showed that rate of geopolymerization increased with 16 days
the increase of activator dosage. The addition of GGBS limit
into fly ash produced a single heat flow peak and 100%
reduced time lag compared to fly ash showing its fast FA
setting time. The optimum strength of geopolymer
pastes at 7 days was obtained at a fly ash-GGBS ratio Exposure time (days)
of 2:1, 22% activator dosage and at a water-binder ratio
of 0.21. It was also found that the compressive strength Figure 3: Expansion of OPC Vs geopolymer mortars
of room temperature cured samples was higher than the bars containing coarse aggregates
heat cured samples (80oC) after 28 days.
3.2 Mortars with sandstone aggregate

(0.12%) approached the threshold while fly ash-GGBS
Visually, the surfaces of both OPC and GPC were composite mixes exhibited expansion in the range of
defect-free at the end of 16 days exposure showing no 0.31-0.56%. It was also noted that fly ash based
signs of surface fissures, cracks and voids. However, geopolymer had 60% less expansion than the OPC
warping in GPC was 51% less than OPC. Contrary to mortars. Contrary to this, geopolymer mortars made
this, at 90 days exposure, the OPC mortars showed with fly ash-GGBS composite mixes exhibited 23-46%
white exudates along with pores and hair cracks on more expansion than the OPC mortars. This can be
their surface. The surface of fly ash based GPC was explained on the basis of unstable co-existence of N-A-
soft and eroded whereas, GPC made with fly S-H and C-S-H gels as a result of exposure at 80 oC for
ash/GGBS appeared harder and less eroded but longer period. In addition to expansion test, the
exhibited thick white deposits along with large voids reactivity of aggregates in 1 N NaOH was assessed by
and cracks (Fig. 2). It is assumed that low dissolution fitting the experimental data in the standard curve
of Ca from the surface of fly ash/GGBS mix binders at between reduction in alkalinity and dissolved silica
high pH solution favoured their less surface erosion. from aggregate mentioned in the specification (Fig. 4).
Fig. 3 shows that expansion of mortar bars It was found that the aggregate was falling in the
increased with increasing exposure time. It was innocuous zone. The reduction in alkalinity was ~50
observed that the expansion in GPC mortars at 16 days millimole/litre while silica dissolved from aggregate
was less than 0.1% as specified in ASTM C 1260 was ~26 millimole/litre. These values were low
whereas, OPC mortars expanded beyond the threshold because sodium hydroxide might have reacted with
limit. When the exposure period was extended up to 90 carbonate of magnesium or ferrous or
days, the expansion in the fly ash based geopolymer
Fresh Fresh Fresh
Exposed Exposed Exposed

OPC GPC (FA) GPC (FA+GGBS)
Figure 2: Fresh & exposed OPC and geopolymer samples after 90 days
916
Detailed
view of
matrix
Reduction in alkalinity of 1N NaOH solution
(a) 20 m (b)
(millimole / litre)
50 m
Figure 5: FESEM images of ITZ of OPC mortars at (a)

16 days (b) 90 days
Si/Al Si/Al = 2.33

= 2.27 Na/Al = 0.53
Na/Al
= 0.76
Silica dissolved by 1N NaOH solution (millimoles/litre)

100 m 20 m
Figure 4: Illustration of division between innocuous (a) (b)
and deleterious aggregates on the basis of reduction in
alkalinity test Figure 6: FESEM images of fly ash based GPC
mortars showing (a) ITZ at 16 days (b) Growth of
certain silicates of magnesium (antegorite). This result crystalline zeolites at 90 days
was quite contradictory with the expansion and
petrographic data wherein ASR reaction was geopolymer (20% GGBS), a clear demarcation
evidenced. between the paste and the aggregate was observed at
Evidences of deterioration in the exposed OPC and the ITZ (16 days). The Si/Al = 3.99 ratio was higher
GPC were viewed in FE-SEM micrographs. In OPC than that of the bulk matrix (Si/Al = 2.35) probably due
mortars, a rim of reaction products around the to reaction between reactive silica of aggregate and
aggregate mainly consisting of sodium, silica and NaOH. At 90 days exposure, wide cracks at the ITZ
calcium was observed (Fig. 5 a). In the vicinity of (Fig. 7 a) and the existence of crystalline zeolites in the
interface (Fig. 5 b), matrix had been converted into matrix were evident. When GGBS content was
jelly-fibrous structure with plenty of voids (90 increased up to 40%, the cavities existed in the matrix
days).The Ca/Si ratio decreased significantly (from was filled with the rod shaped structures (Si/Al = 1.05).
0.6-1.2 to 0.4) as observed under EDAX mapping. Apseudo rosette type zeolitic structure were widely
Sodium existed at a level of ~3% in the matrix scattered throughout the matrix (Fig. 7 b).The presence
suggesting(b)the migration of sodium ions into the of excess Ca++ ion in the system (from GGBS) had
specimen during exposure which confirmed the exchanged for sodium ion on silica gel leading to
formation of sodium calcium silicate gel triggering the further production of ASR complexes, thus causing
ASR. The fly ash based GPC showed an intact severe deterioration.
interface between the paste and the aggregate at the age
of 16 days. EDAX mapping indicated that Si/Al (2.27) 3.3 Mortar bars with siliceous aggregate
and Na/Al (0.76) ratio at the interface were nearly
comparable to bulk of the matrix (Si/Al= 2.33, Na/Al= Fig. 8 shows expansion of mortar bars as a function of
0.53). The ingress of alkali at the initial stage has exposure time. At 16 days, both OPC and geopolymer
caused densification of ITZ (Fig. 6 a) and matrix by mortars expanded less (0.03-0.07%) than the
further geopolymerization of unreacted particles, thus prescribed limit of the standard. At 90 days, the
causing slight expansion. The growth of crystalline expansion in both OPC and geopolymer mortars
zeolites was viewed in the cavities (Fig. 6 b) which exceeded the limit as similar to sandstone aggregate
play no role in exerting pressure on the structure. The system. As observed earlier, the mortars made with
formation of sodium calcium silicate gel appeared to be composite mix of fly ash and GGBS had higher
minimal due to non-availability of adequate calcium in expansion (0.27-0.35%) than the mortars made with fly
the system. In the case of fly ash/GGBS based
917
Si/Al = 2.35
Si/Al = 3.99
100 m 5 m
(a) (b)
Figure 7: FESEM images of GPC mortars after 90 days showing (a) 20% GGBS (b) 40% GGBS
ash alone (0.11%). It was also observed that

geopolymer mortar exhibited less expansion than the
OPC mortar (0.46%). This is mainly because of less
expansive gel formation following the reaction of
NaOH with reactive silica. When compared with
sandstone system, the siliceous aggregate was less
Expansion (%)
prone to ASR possibly due to its less reactive silica and

also its lower CaO content and higher Al2O3 content as
determined by chemical analysis. The dissolved
aluminium either from Si-Al networks or unreacted fly
ash/slag may adsorb onto the surface of silica and thus
prevented ASR. It is also mentioned that mineralogy of
sandstone is mainly quartzite type and soft fragmented.
Due to some unstable form, the dissolution of silica is
more in sandstone coarse aggregate than the siliceous
fine aggregates. Because of this, the expansion in
mortar bars containing siliceous aggregate was less
than the sandstone aggregate mortars.
Exposure time
SEM micrographs on the fractured surface of mortars
were also studied. In OPC samples, ITZ between the (days)
Figure 8: Expansion of OPC Vs geopolymer mortars
paste and aggregate appeared to be intact at 16 days bars containing siliceous aggregate
exposure. The reaction product formed at the interface
consisted of high silica content (27.59%) and small 4. Conclusions
amount of sodium (1.56%) and calcium (0.53%)
The results indicate that geopolymer concrete were
showing dissolution of silica from the aggregates. Fly
less susceptible to the expansive alkali-silica reaction.
ash based geopolymer mortars exhibited large number
However, for longer periods, expansion beyond the
of cavities in which crystalline zeolites was filled. The
prescribed limit was observed in the case of fly ash-
specimens did not respond to ASR showing innocuous
GGBS composite mix based mortars. It was noted that
nature of siliceous aggregate. Mortars made with fly
expansion in geopolymer mortars increased with
ash-GGBS composite mix (80:20) produced a rim at
increasing GGBS content in the fly ash-GGBS mix.
the interface around the aggregate. As similar to fly ash
The existence of large number of voids, cracks and
system, voids were filled with crystalline zeolites
crystalline zeolitic phases in the microstructure
showing no stress in the microstructure. Consequently,
affected the expansion behaviour of geopolymer
this has resulted in less expansion. In the case of
concrete. The deleterious ASR in geopolymeric
geopolymer mortar with 40% GGBFS, the aggregate
environment can be prevented through a dense matrix
was covered with the reaction products. Several gel
formation by utilizing/ immobilizing dissolved silica in
type structures were distributed in the matrix and filled
geopolymer and also by involving CaO in the Na/Ca-
the voids (Na=9.3%, Al=6.38%, Si=16.19%,
A-S-H phase formation through ternary binder system.
Ca=3.73%). Because of this gel formation, the mortars
exhibited more expansion than those of others systems.
918
Acknowledgements [7] Ichikawa T. Alkali-silica reaction, pessimum

effects and pozzolanic effect. Cement and
This paper forms part of a Supra Institutional Project of
Concrete Research, Vol. 39, pp. 716726
CSIR R & D programme (Govt. of India) and is
2009.
published with the permission of Director, CSIR-
Central Building Research Institute, Roorkee (India). [8] Lodeiro, I.G., Palomo, A. and Jimenez A.F.,
Alkali-aggregate Reaction in Alkali
References Activated Fly ash Mortars, Cement and
Concrete Research, Vol. 37, pp. 175-183,
2007.
[1] Davidovits, J., Green chemistry and
sustainable development. Proceedings of An [9] Patil, K.K. and Allouche, E. N., Impact of
International Conference on Geopolymer alkali silica reaction on fly ash-based
2005, Saint-Quentin, France, June, 2005. 9- geopolymer concrete, Journal of Materials in
15. Civil Enggineering. ASCE, Vol. 25, pp. 131-
139, 2013.
[2] Provis, J.L. and Van Deventer, J.S.J., editior.
Geopolymers, structure, processing, [10] Jimenez, A. F, Puertas F. The alkali-silica
properties and application, 1st Edn reaction in alkali-activated granulated slag
(Woodhead Publishing Limited, CRC, 2009). mortars with reactive aggregate. Cement and
Concrete Research. Vol. 32, pp. 10191024,
[3] Hardjito, D., Wallah, S.E., Sumajouw, D.M.J.,
2002.
Rangan, B.V., On the development of fly
ash-based geopolymer concrete. ACI. [11] Bakharev, T., Sanjayan, T.G., and Cheng. Y.-
Materials Journal, Vol 101, pp. 467-472 B., Resistance of alkali-activated slag
2004. concrete to alkali-aggregate reaction, Cement
and Concrete Research.. Vol. 31, pp. 331-334
[4] Swamy, R.N., editor. The alkali-silica
2001.
reaction in concrete.UK: Blackie and Sons
Limited, 1992 [12] Ishwarya, G., Development of geopolymer
concrete cured at ambient temperature, M.
[5] Bijen, J.M.J.M., Blast Furnace Slag Cement
Tech thesis. CSIR-Central Building Research
for Durable Marine Structures, Stichting
Institute (AcSIR), Roorkee, India; 2013.
Betonprisma, Den Bosch, The Netherlands
62, 1996. [13] IS: 2386, Methods of Test for Aggregates for
Concrete-Part VII Alkali Aggregate
[6] Malek, R.I.A., Roy, D.M., Effect of Slag
Reactivity, 1963.
Cements and Aggregate Type on Alkali -
Aggregate Reaction and Its Mechanism,
Alkalies in Concrete, Research and Practice,
6th International Conference, pp. 223 230,
1983.
919
BOND BEHAVIOUR OF RECYCLED AGGREGATE CONCRETE

Surya M1, Lakshmy P2, Rao VVLK3
1,
Structural Engineering Group, CSIR-Central Building Research Institute, Roorkee, 247667, India
2
Bridges and Structures Division, CSIR-Central Road Research Institute, New Delhi, 110025, India
Abstract
This paper discusses the mechanical properties and bond behavior of recycled aggregate concrete (RAC). The
recycled aggregates used were obtained from crushed concrete cubes of 2 3 years old. The properties of the aggregates
were studied and a concrete of characteristic compressive strength of 40 MPa was designed. RAC mixes with 50, 75 and
100% coarse recycled aggregates viz. R50, R75 and R100 and 20% fly ash were tested, the properties were compared to
Natural aggregate concrete with and without fly ash viz. NAC and NAF. Triple mixing method was adopted for mixing
of concrete. The mechanical properties were studied at 56 days and the bond behavior was investigated by performing
rebar pull out test. The Mechanical properties of the mixes were found to be almost similar for all mixes, except for elastic
modulus which decreased with increase in percentage of recycled aggregates. The bond strength of RAC at a slip of 0.025
mm and 0.25 mm were upto 25% higher and 27% lower than that of NAC and NAF, respectively. However, the bond
strength at failure load was found to be almost similar for all the mixes.
Keywords: Recycled aggregate concrete, bond strength, pull out test, C and D waste
Introduction There had been only a few researches on bond of

The global consumption of construction aggregates, RAC with the steel rebar and the findings reported areas
including for road construction, as filling materials and follows. Xiao and Falkner [9] found that RAC exhibited
for structural concrete, has increased from 26.8 billion a similar behavior as NA concrete under rebar pullout
metric tonnes (bmt) in 2011 to 28.7 bmt in 2013 and 48.3 testing, with respect to micro slip, residual cracking and
bmt in 2015 [1]. Due to this increased consumption load versus slip curve. It was also reported that the mixes
several sources of natural aggregates (NA) are in decline with similar compressive strength exhibited equal bond
and the construction industry is at the risk of facing strength. However, the RAC with similar mix
shortage of NA. Use of recycled aggregate (RA) proportions exhibited bond strength of upto 6 and 12%
obtained from the construction and demolition waste lesser than the comparable NA concrete mix when the
(CDW) is a techno-economically viable solution for the percentage of RCA replacement were 50 and 100%
problem of shortage of aggregates. With the use of CDW respectively. Similarly, Butler et al [10] reported that
for generation of aggregates, the quantity of the same bond strength of RAC was lesser by 9 to 11.4% for 30
dumped in the landfill is reduced and thus prevent the MPa concrete and by 10.3 to 11.4 % for 50 MPa
use of constructible land as a landfill. However, the use concrete, when compared to NA concrete of respective
of RA in structural concrete is still limited in use, due to strengths.
lack of evidence on the efficacy of the RA. Various Kim et al [11] also reported reduced bond strength
research studies were and are carried out around the of concrete with an increase in the amount of the RA.
world to investigate the properties of RA and the Based on the study, Eq. (1) was proposed to predict the
performance of recycled aggregate concrete (RAC) with bond strength of RAC with the quantity of RA
respect to mechanical properties and durability, whereas replacement.
0,
only a few studies have been carried out on the bond !"#$ = %&. '()*+,- / 3 %&. 445 3 6&. )7&89&.&(:7; < &. &&:>? (1)
12
strength and structural properties of RAC. This research where
investigates the bond behaviour of RAC with varying rmax: maximum predicted bond stress of RAC
percentage of replacement of NA by RA along with the fck : observed compressive strength of RAC
basic mechanical properties. Cc : distance from the deformed steel re-bar core to
Literature review the concrete surface
The earlier studies reported an inferior performance db : diameter of deformed steel re-bar
of RA and RAC when compared to NA and NA S : replacement ratio of recycled fine aggregate
Concrete with respect to mechanical and durability G : replacement ratio of recycled coarse aggregate
properties [2-19]. However, the same had been found to On contrary to the earlier findings Fathifazl et al [7]
improve in RAC with the use of SCM, coating of concluded that the type of aggregate does not have any
aggregates and adopting double mixing [5] or triple considerable effect on the bond properties of the
mixing methods[6]. concrete when equivalent mortar volume method of mix
1
design was adopted.
Scientist, surya@cbri.res.in Design Provisions in standards
1
Chief Scientist, lakshmyp@crri.nic.in CEB-FIP[20] defines bond as the term used to
1
Sr. Principal Scientist, vvlkrao@crri.nic.in denote the interaction and transfer of force between
reinforcement and concrete. Various factors influencing
920
Surya M, et al.
bond slip relations such as cracking, loading, creep and Table 1: Design values for Favourable Bond
fatigue, rebar surface features etc., were discussed and Conditions
suitable anchorage length design procedure has been Concr M M M M M M M M M
suggested. The code also suggests a basic bond strength ete 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
Grade
and design bond strength values as given by Eq. (2) and fck /
(3). Reba
The basic bond strength, r
fbd,0 = 1 2 3 4 (fck /25) 0.5/c (2) grade
Plain 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7
Bars 5
where: Fe
fck is the compressive strength of concrete 240
1 is a coefficient representing surface characteristics of HYSD 1.9 2.25 2.7 3.0 3.2 3.4 3.75 4.0 4.3
barso 5
rebar f
2 coefficient based on the casting position of the bar 32
during concreting mm
3 coefficient based on the bar diameter: Experimental study
4 represents the characteristic strength of steel The experimental studies were carried out in three
reinforcement phases which involved i) Characterization of Materials
The partial safety coefficient for bond ii) Mechanical properties of the concrete mixes iii) Bond
c is taken as 1.5 strength determination by pull out test
The design ultimate bond strength Characterization of Materials
$*-. &145-.
!" = (#$ + #% ) !",& ' / < $1 2 !",&3 ' / < 8126 073 9/0 (3) Aggregates
0 0
Crushed granite available in Delhi region was used
where: as coarse natural aggregates (NA). The RA for the
2 and 3 represent the influence of passive present study was obtained by crushing concrete cubes
confinement from cover (2) and from transverse and cylinders that were cast at CSIR-CRRI and various
reinforcement (3). bridge construction sites and tested at CSIR-CRRI. The
Ptr is the mean compression stress perpendicular to samples crushed for aggregates were of strength range
the potential splitting failure surface at the ultimate limit 35 45 MPa and age between 2 to 3 years and stored in
state; where transverse compression perpendicular to the atmospheric conditions after failure. The properties of
bar axis acts over a portion of the bond length, bond these aggregates were studied and reported in Table 1
strength may be increased over that portion. P tr is along with the results obtained in earlier studies and
negative when transverse stress is compressive. acceptance criteria for comparison.
Indian standards like IS 456[21] and IRC 112[22] Table 2: Properties of RA and NA
Propert RA NA
provide a design bond strength value for concrete based y Prese Earlier Acceptan Prese Earlier Acceptanc
nt studies[ ce nt studies[ e criteria
on its characteristic compressive strength. study 2-19] criteria study 2-19]
IS 456[21] consider a design bond stress for design Specific 2.501 2.3 2.5 or 2.675 2.5 2.7 2.30 2.90
Gravity 2.56 more (JIS (ACI EI 07)
of development length of steel reinforcement. The A 5021 [27]
Class H)
values of bond stress for plain rebars are considered to [24]
be 1.2, 1.4, 1.5, 1.7 and 1.9 N/mm2 respectively for Water 2.76 0.9- 3.0 or less 0.42 0.2 1.5 2.0
Absorpti 11.55 (JIS A (MORTH)[
concrete of grade M20, M25, M30, M35 and M40 & on (%) 5021 28]
Class H)
above. For deformed bars, these values shall be [24]
increased by 60 percent and for bars in compression the Abrasion 29.27 10-46 40 or less 26 12 29 30
loss (%) (KS F (IS 383)
values of bond stress shall be increased by 25 percent. 2573)[25] [41]
Crushing 28.87 19.86- - 27.12 15 - 28 30
However, it is not to be assumed that the average bond Value 36.3 (IS 383)
stresses calculated from the pull out tests performed as (%) [41]
Impact 16.04 9.66- - 21.77 5 - 22 30
per IS 2770[23] have any direct relation to the Value 35.8 (IS 383)
(%) [29]
permissible bond stress given in IS: 456[21], though Bulk 1340 1190- 1200 (HB 1630 1340 - 1280 1920
these values are arrived at based on the bond slip Density 1426 155: 1733 (ACI E1
2002) 07) [27]
behavior of the rebar and concrete. [26]
IRC 112[22] considers bond as a property From Table 1, it can be seen that the specific gravity
dependent on surface pattern of the bar, dimension of the and bulk density of RA used in the present study were
member, and on position and inclination of the rebar lower and water absorption was higher than that of NA.
with respect to the direction of concreting. The bond However, the same were found to comply the acceptance
strength of concrete is significant in determination of criteria for RA and hover within the range observed in
anchorage length of rebar, as per IRC 112[22]. The earlier studies. The RA used in the present study was
design bond strength values are also given for both plain found to have better resistance to impact than the NA
rebar and high yield strength deformed bars as given in and same was observed to be contradictory to the results
Table 1. For unfavourable conditions these values are of the earlier studies. The other mechanical properties of
multiplied by 0.7. the RA used in the present study, though slightly inferior
921
to that of NA, satisfied the acceptance criteria for RA as the specific gravity of the combination of NA and RCA
well as NA. This, menial performance of RA may be (2.593 and 2.553) for R50 and R75 respectively. The
attributed to the porous nature of the adhered mortar and details of mix proportions of the concrete mixes are
micro cracks and fissures which could have formed in
given in Table 4.
the aggregates during the manufacturing process of RA.
Rebar Casting and Curing
High Yield Strength Deformed bars of grade Fe 500 was The concrete mixes were prepared in a drum mixer of
used. The surface characteristics of the bar are given in capacity 300 kg. Conventional mixing for NAC and
Table 3. Triple mixing method, developed by Kong et al [6], for
Table 3: Surface Parameters of Rebars NAF and RAC mixes were adopted for the production
Property Observed Value of concrete. In conventional method dry mixing of
Diameter (mm) 20 aggregates and cement is carried out first and then the
Rib Height (mm) 1.45
Rib Width(mm) 0.2 water is added, whereas in triple mixing water is added
Rib Spacing (mm) 20.8 in two parts. This method of mixing is reported to allow
Rib face angle 45 less water near ITZ, making the same more compact
Fine aggregate contributing to better mechanical and durability
Crushed stone sand available in Delhi region is used as properties. The steps involved are as follows: coarse
fine aggregate in this study. The specific gravity of the (RCA and NA) and fine aggregates were initially mixed
fine aggregates is found to be 2.63 and the water for 15 s. A part of water was then added to the aggregate
absorption value is obtained as 0.72 %. The particle size
distribution of the fine aggregate used has conformed to mixture and mixed for 15 s, and to this wet aggregate the
the grading curve of Zone I as given in IS 383[29]. fly ash was added and further mixed for 15 s to facilitate
Concrete Mixes coating of the surface of aggregate with fly ash. Cement
Five concrete mixes of characteristic compressive was then added to the surface coated aggregate and the
strength 40 MPa were made with different percentages remaining water was added and the mixing was
of RA, a) Control concrete with 100% natural aggregate continued for further 60s. The oiled moulds were filled
(NAC) b) Natural aggregate concrete with 100% natural with concrete in layers and vibrated on a table vibrator.
aggregate and fly ash (NAF) c) Recycled aggregate The cast specimens were water cured for 56 days.
concrete with 50% of recycled aggregate and fly ash Mechanical Properties of concrete mixes
(R50) d) Recycled aggregate concrete with 75% of The specimens were water cured till the age of test and
recycled aggregate and fly ash (R75) and e) Recycled tested at 56 days for compression, flexure and youngs
aggregate concrete with 100% of recycled aggregate and modulus as per procedure in IS 516 [3] and splitting
fly ash (R100). tensile strength as per IS 5816 [32]. The test results are
Table 4: Details of mix proportions reported in Table 5, from which it is observed that the
Mix Designation NAC NAF R50 R75 R100 compressive strength, split tensile strength and flexural
strength of RAC are on par with NAC and NAF while
Cement (kg/m3) 410 410 410 410 410
Water (kg/m3)
the elastic modulus decreases with increase in
164 164 164 164 164
Fly Ash (kg/m3) - 82 82 82 82 percentage of RCA.
Fine Aggregate 706 706 706 706 706 Table 5: Mechanical Properties of Concrete Mixes
(kg/m3)
(SSD Condition) Mix Compressive Split Flexural Elastic
Coarse NA 1172 1172 568 280 - Designation strength tensile strength Modulus
Aggregate MPa strength MPa GPa
3
(kg/m )
(SSD MPa
RCA - - 568 839 1119
Condition)
NAC 53.19 3.96 5.35 30.15
Super 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6
plasticizer(Percentage
NAF 57.77 4.15 5.46 35.20
by weight of cement)
Slump 65 61 63 62 68 R50 54.02 3.53 4.78 27.17

(mm)
All the NA concrete mixes were designed as per IS R75 54.22 3.63 4.77 26.28
10262 [30] to achieve a characteristic compressive
R100 57.33 4.15 5.72 25.03
strength of 40 MPa. In case of RAC mixes the weight of
coarse aggregates were adjusted according to the
Rebar Bond behavior
specific gravity of the aggregates. The specific gravity The pull out test has been carried out to determine
used for determining the weight of coarse aggregate in the bond strength of different concrete mixes in a
RAC are specific gravity of RCA (2.501) for R100 and universal testing machine as shown in Fig.1 at an age of
922
Surya M, et al.
56 days. The cube specimens of size 150 mm and

deformed high yield strength (HYSD) steel bar of 20
mm diameter were used. The test was performed and the
load at a specified slip was recorded until the total slip
was 2.5 mm or rebar failure or concrete crushing,
whichever occurred first as specified in IS 2770 [23].
Figure 2: Observed crack pattern on specimens after

pull out test
Figure. 1: Pull out test The bond strength is determined using the
embedded surface area of the bar and load
During the test it was observed that, NA concrete
corresponding to a slippage of 0.025 mm, 0.25 mm and
specimens developed significant measurable cracks on
at failure. Three specimens have been tested for each
the concrete surface whereas in case of RAC specimens
mix and the average bond strength is plotted in Fig. 4. It
there has been no measurable / significant crack on the
is found from Fig. 4 that the bond strength of RAC at a
concrete surface. On the other hand, a fine powdery
slip of 0.025 mm and 0.25 mm were upto 25% higher
material is seen falling from the concrete-rebar interface
than that of NAC and 27% lower than that of NAF,
in the RAC mixes during the test. This may be due to
respectively.
crushing of the adhered mortar (which is porous and
However, the bond strength at failure load was
comparatively weaker than aggregates) in the RAC
found to be almost similar for all the mixes with a
mixes as the rebar is pulled which could be preventing
maximum variation of only 6% when RAC was
transfer of load from the rebar to the adjacent concrete.
compared to NAC and NAF.
Thus, appearance of crack on concrete surface, which
normally happens in the NA mixes, was not found in
160
RAC mixes. Figure 2 shows the crack pattern of
140
specimens after failure.
120 NAF
The effect of this localized crushing of mortar in the
100
interface between RAC and re-bar can be observed in
Load kN
R50
80
the Load vs. Slip curves as shown in Figs. 3. The curve R100
60
is almost linear initially till a slip of 0.5 mm for all the
40 R75
mixes. However, beyond 0.5 mm slip NAC and NAF
20
mixes displayed comparatively steeper curves than R50, NAC
0
R75 and R100. The steeper curves of NAC and NAF
show that the increase in slip is lower for equal increase 0 1 2 3
Slip mm
in load. This indicates that the rate of slip of the bar in
Figure 3: Comparison of Load vs. Slip curves for the
RAC specimens is comparatively greater than the rate of
slip in NA concrete. This may be because in case of mixes
NAC and NAF the slippage of bar is resisted by the The results of the present study are similar to the
strong rebar-concrete interface and the load is results observed in a study by Xiao and Falkner [9], in
transferred to the adjacent concrete, whereas in the case which mixes with 100% RA exhibited higher bond
of RAC mix the rebar-concrete interface becomes weak strength at failure load and it was concluded that the
due to crushing of the mortar at the interface. bond strength of RAC will be similar to the bond
strength of NAC when the compressive strength of the
mixes are comparable. The same is applicable in the
present study as well, as the compressive strength of the
mixes are in similar range.
923
20 18
0.025 mm
Bond Strength, MPa
16
slippage
15 14
0.25 mm Brittleness
12 index
10 slippage
10
At failure
8 Bond
5
6 strength,
MPa
0 4
NAC NAF R50 R75 R100 2
0
Figure 4: Variation in bond strength for various mixes 0 50 100
The experimental results compared with the Percentage of Recycled Aggregates
predictions for ultimate bond strength are given in Fig.
5. It is seen that the RAC mixes exhibited a bond Figure 6: Variation of Brittleness Index and Bond
strength upto 23% higher than the bond strength Strength
predicted by Eq. 1 by Kim et al [11]. However all the Conclusions
mixes including NA mixes exhibited a bond strength From the discussions made in the paper following
upto 32 % lesser than that given by the Model Code, conclusions can be drawn.
2010 [20]. But the bond strength prediction given in The properties of RCA were menial compared
Model Code 2010 is valid for well confined concrete to NA but complied well within the limiting
with a cover greater than five times diameter, while the values of the specifications.
specimens used for pull out study had a cover thickness The mechanical properties of RAC were on
equivalent to three times the bar diameter. Hence, the par with NAC and NAF, except for elastic
predictions may not be strictly obliging to the obtained modulus which decreased with increase in
values, but the variation in trend remained similar for percentage of RCA.
both experimental and predicted values.
The bond strengths of RAC mixes were
20 greater than that of NAC and lesser than that
of NAF.
Bond Strength MPa
15 The bond strengths of RAC predicted from the

Experiment
compressive strength values were found to be
al following a similar trend as that of the
10
Kim et al
experimental values. However, the RAC
(2012) exhibited upto 23 % higher bond strength than
5 the predicted.
Model code
(2010) Brittleness index may be considered as a valid
0 predictor for computation of bond strength if
NAC NAF R50 R75 R100 concrete.
Figure 5: Comparison of experimental and predicted
Bond Strength REFERENCES
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The bond strength of the concrete is related to its tensile Aggregates Industry Study with forecasts for
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and splitting properties and thus fracture toughness is a
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Brittleness index (Ratio of compressive strength to split (2011). Influence of field recycled coarse
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toughness the obtained ultimate bond strength value and Structures, RILEM, 44, 205-220.
the computed brittleness index against the percentage of [3] Iyer, N.R., Bharatkumar, B.H., Bhashya, V.,
Prameettha, J., Investigation on recycled
RCA are given in Fig. 6. The higher brittleness index
aggregate concrete with mineral admixture,
indicates more brittle the material is and the vice versa. Proceedings of International Workshop on
It is seen from Fig. 6 that the bond strength decreases Construction and Demolition (C & D) Waste
with increase in brittleness index. This indicates that the Recycling, IIT Madras, Chennai, 2013, pp 75-82.
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[5] Otsuki, N., Asce, Miyazato, S., and Yodsudjai,
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O.B., Fournier, B., and Foo, S. (2009). New Amsterdam.
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with coarse recycled concrete aggregate, Journal Zerbino, R. (2008). Failure mechanism of
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effect of recycled concrete aggregate properties on reinforced Concrete, Bureau of Indian Standards,
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behaviour of normal-and high-strength recycled materials, Sydney, Australia.
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56-70. education bulletin-Aggregates for concrete,
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International Conference on Sustainable Built bridge works, Indian Road Congress, New
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[14] Somna, R., Jaturapitakkul, C., Chalee, W., and [29] IS 383, (1997), Specification for Coarse and
Rattanachu, P.(2012). Effect of water to binder fine aggregate from Natural sources of Concrete,
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Mathews. "Influence of parent concrete on the of concrete, Bureau of Indian Standards, New
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Construction and Building Materials,V.23, No.2, [32] IS 5816, (1999), Splitting tensile strength of
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925
STUDIES ON DURABILITY OF SLAG-BASED GEOPOLYMER

CONCRETE
S. Sundar Kumar1, J. Lokesh Kannan2, K. C. Pazhani3 and K. Ravisankar4
1,2,4
CSIR-Structural Engineering Research Centre, Taramani, Chennai 600 113
3
Anna University, Chennai 600 020
1
Scientist, ssk@serc.res.in
2
Former Project Student, lokeshkannan9691@gmail.com
3
Associate Professor, kcpazhani@annauniv.edu
4
Former Chief Scientist, kravi@serc.res.in
Geopolymer is an emerging technology for alternative binder systems in concrete. It uses materials that are normally
considered waste or byproducts of low value. In geopolymerization, a material that is rich in Silicon (Si) and
Aluminium (Al) reacts in an alkaline solution (medium) to produce the binder. Materials such as Fly ash, Metakaolin
and Ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag (GGBS) can be used to make Geopolymer concrete. Fly ash based
Geopolymer concrete needs high concentration of hydroxide solution and high temperature curing. To make the
concrete at lower concentration of hydroxide and by ambient curing, GGBS can be used. The calcium content in slag
helps in the chemical activation of the materials at lower alkalinity and ambient temperature. In this study GGBS based
Geopolymer mixes were developed with varing binder content. Class F Fly ash has been incorporated and its effect on
workability, strength development and durability studied. Addition of fly ash results in an increased viscosity of the
mix, demanding a higher water content or workability aiding admixtures. Incorporation of fly ash only marginally
increases the strength but results in better durability performance.
Key words: Geopolymer Concrete, GGBS, Fly Ash, Strength, Durability
Introduction also be used as source material for Geopolymer. The

product of geopolymerization is an inorganic polymer
Concrete the most widely used construction which binds the aggregates together to make
material is usually associated with Portland cement as Geopolymer concrete. In this study GGBS is used as
binder. On the other hand, the climate change due to source material.
global warming, one of the greatest environmental
issues has become a major concern during the last Literature survey
decade. Among the greenhouse gases, CO2 contributes
about 65% of global warming. The Portland cement In Geopolymers, the polymerisation process
industry is responsible for about 8% of all CO2 involves a chemical reaction under highly alkaline
emissions according to a report published by PBL conditions on Al-Si minerals, yielding polymeric Si-O-
Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency in Al-O bonds, as described by Davidovits1. The chemical
2015. Although use of Portland cement is unavoidable composition of Geopolymers is similar to zeolites, but
till foreseeable future, many efforts are being made to with amorphous microstructure. Geopolymers made
reduce the use of Portland cement in concrete. One of from calcined source materials, such as metakaolin
the ways to produce environmentally friendly concrete (calcined kaolin), fly ash, slag etc., yield higher
is to reduce the use of Ordinary Portland Cement by compressive strength when compared to those
partially replacing cement with by-product materials synthesised from non-calcined materials, such as kaolin
such as fly ash, GGBS etc. However partial clay. The source material used for geopolymerization
replacement of cement with fly ash or GGBS has can be a single material or a combination of several
limitations such as, delayed setting, slower rate of types of materials. A combination of sodium or
strength development etc, hence the replacement is potassium silicate and sodium or potassium hydroxide
restricted to around 30-40% only. With Geopolymers is widely used as the alkaline activator.
100% of Portland cement is replaced. Geopolymer is
an emerging alternative binder for concrete that uses Wallah and Rangan2 reported that geopolymer
industrial wastes or by-products. Materials rich in
concrete specimens exhibit extremely small changes in
Silicon (Si) and Aluminium (Al) reacts with alkaline
length and also shows very little increase in mass after
solutions to produce Geopolymer binder. Source
one year of exposure in sulphate solution. In another
materials such as fly ash and Ground Granulated blast
study by Bakharev3, the author used various
furnace slag can be used to make Geopolymer. GGBS concentrations of sulphate solution to immerse the
and Fly ash are two materials that are abundantly geopolymer materials prepared using different types of
available and can be readily used for
activating solutions. The geopolymer material can be
geopolymerization. GGBS blended with Fly ash can
926
S. Sundar Kumar, et al.
used in various applications, such as fire and heat materials together to form the Geopolymer concrete.
resistant, fibre composites, sealants, concretes, The major oxide composition of the Fly ash and GGBS
ceramics, etc., depending on the chemical composition are given in Table 1.
of the source materials and the activators. Davidovits1
suggested that the atomic ratio of Si-to-Al of about 2 Table 1 Chemical composition of fly ash
for making cement and concrete. Geopolymer can also and GGBS (%)
be used as waste encapsulation to immobilise toxic
metals.
Fe2O3
Al2O3
Na2O
MgO
TiO2
CaO
SiO2
K 2O
Reddy and Edouard4 reported that low
calcium fly ash based concrete is more homogenous
and well-bonded to aggregates and has better crack
Fly ash
62.10
27.44
4.57
0.83
0.55
0.04
1.17
1.09
resistance and long term durability. Loya and
Allouche5 reported that the mechanical behaviour
Geopolymer concrete were similar to OPC concrete. In
another study Adam6, the author reported that Fly ash
GGBS
43.40
12.50
40.30
1.50
0.90
0.60
based Geopolymer concrete performs better than AAS
-
concrete regarding durability parameters. Yip7
suggested that low concentration of NaOH activates the
GGBS to form CSH gel and is responsible for strength
Alkaline Solution: The alkaline solution, which is a
development in the matrices.
combination of sodium silicate solution and sodium
hydroxide solution, reacts with the silicon and
The calcium content in slag helps in the chemical aluminium in the Fly ash and GGBS to form the paste
activation of the materials at lower alkalinity and which binds the aggregates. The Sodium Hydroxide
ambient temperature, this also results in the formation solids were commercial grade flakes. The sodium
of calcium silicate hydrate (CSH)6. Hence a hybrid silicate available in liquid form was used in the present
microstructure of Al-Si network and CSH gel gets investigation. The composition the sodium silicate in
synthesized. The slag based geopolymer is also suspension is given in Table 2. The dissolution of
commonly called alkali activated slag concrete. In one sodium hydroxide flakes in water is an exothermic
of the two mixes studied class F fly ash has been used reaction and the temperature usually increases beyond
to replace about 15% of the binder. This resulted in a 50oC. Hence this dissolution is carried out much early
marginal increase in the strength developed, however a before the actual mixing of concrete is done. However,
better durability performance was observed in terms of the sodium silicate can be mixed in water at the time of
chloride ion penetration, water absorption and mixing concrete.
sorptivity.
Table 2 Composition of sodium silicate
Panias8 reported that the amount of sodium silicate Specific Na2O SiO2 Total Viscosity
solution in the synthesis of geopolymers was evidenced gravity (%) (%) solids (N s /m2)
to have a substantial effect on the obtained (%)
compressive strength. Sodium silicate solution controls 1.5 14.20 31.20 45.40 900
the soluble silicate concentration and the predominant
silicate species in the geopolymeric system, improving
the mechanical strength of the produced materials. Aggregates: The coarse and fine aggregates currently
Bakri9 remarked that Geopolymer works better than used by the concrete industry are found to be suitable
normal concrete in many aspects such as compressive for producing Geopolymer concrete. As in the case of
strength, exposure to aggressive environment, Portland cement concrete, coarse and fine aggregates
workability and exposure to high temperature. Devasan occupy about 75% to 80% of the mass of Geopolymer
and Ranganath10 suggested that sufficient strength can concrete. Aggregates from local sources were obtained.
be achieved by utilising effluent (NaOH) from fibre The coarse aggregate is a mixture of aggregates
industry as alkaline solution. ranging from 6mm to 20mm sized aggregates. Fine
aggregate is also obtained from local sources and used
as such. Both the aggregates are kept in Saturated
Experimental program Surface Dry condition (SSD) prior to use in the
concrete.
GGBS and Fly ash: In this work, GGBS and low
calcium Fly ash were used as source material for Mix Proportion: Mix proportioning for Geopolymer
binder, instead of Portland or other hydraulic cement concrete is till date done largely by trial and error.
paste to produce concrete. The GGBS and Fly ash Hence mixes were arrived by conducting various trials.
based Geopolymer paste binds the loose coarse However, it was ensured that the binder volume was
aggregates, fine aggregates and other un-reacted around 30 percent of the total concrete volume and rest
927
being aggregates. The NaOH : Na2SiO3 was in the machine as per IS 516 on 100mm x 100mm x 100mm
range of 1:2 to 1:3. The concentration of the second cubes at 3 days, 7 days and 28 days. Split tensile test
mix was 5M which was 1M more than the first mix to was carried out on cylinders of size 100mm diameter
ensure dissolution of fly ash particle to a greater extent. and 200mm height. The test was performed on
From the trials the two mixes taken for further studies 1000KN Universal Testing Machine. Flexure strength
are show in Table 3. test was carried out on prisms of size 100mm x 100mm
x 500mm. The prisms were subjected to two point
Table 3 Mix Proportion loading.
Weight (kg/m3)
Durability Properties: For durability tests, the sample
Mix 1 Mix 2 shall consist of several individual portions of concrete,
Materials
each to be tested separately. The individual portions
Fly Ash 0 50 may be pieces of cylinders, cores, or beams of any
GGBS 350 300 desired shape or size, except that the volume of each
Fine portion shall be not less than 350 cm3. In this Study,
852 805
Aggregate Specimens from 100 x 200mm size cylinders were
Coarse separated into pieces of 50mm thick using concrete
900 900 cutter machine.
Aggregate
AAS 244 264
Density 2346.55 2318.54 Rapid Chloride Permeability Test (RCPT): The
rapid chloride penetration test was carried out as per
ASTM C1202. A specimen of 50mm thick and 100mm
W/B 0.55 0.57 in diameter was saturated in water and subjected to a
Molarity 60 V applied DC voltage for 6 hours using a power
4 5
of NaOH pack. In one reservoir, 3.0 % NaCl solution was filled
and in other reservoir 0.3 M NaOH solution was filled.
GPC can be manufactured by adopting the The total charge passed was determined as follows:
conventional techniques used in the manufacture of Q=900(I0+2 I30+2 I60+.....+2 I300+2 I330+I360)
Portland cement concrete. In the laboratory, the GGBS Where, Q charge passed (coulombs), I0 Current
along with Fly ash and the aggregates were first mixed immediately after voltage is applied, It Current at t
together dry on pan mixer for about three minutes. The minutes after voltage is applied.
activator solutions were prepared one day before use.
After the dry mix is made, the prepared alkaline Sorptivity Test: It is a simple and rapid test to
solution is mixed thoroughly with the dry mix for determine the tendency of concrete to absorb water by
another 5 minutes to make the fresh Geopolymer capillary suction. Sorptivity testing is performed in
Concrete. In preparation of NaOH solution, NaOH accordance with ASTM C 1585-11. Standard test
pellets were dissolved in one litre of water for specimens of size 100 mm diameter with a thickness of
concentration of NaOH (4M) and (5M). 50mm were kept in oven at 50C for 3 days. Then the
specimens were cooled to normal temperature and the
Alkaline activator with the combination of side surfaces were sealed with epoxy. The specimens
NaOH and Na2SiO3 was prepared just before the were placed in a container with water level
mixing with the binder. The alkaline liquid (Na2SiO3 / approximately 1 to 3 mm above the exposed bottom
NaOH) used in the current study was 0.5 for all the surface. After first contact with water the first
mixes. The binder and alkaline activator were mixed we i g h t me a s ure me n t shall be at 60 2s, the
together in the mixer until homogeneous paste was second 5 min 10s. Subsequent measurements shall
obtained. This mixing process can be handled within 5 be within 2 min of 10 min, 20 min, 30 min, 60min.
minutes for each mixture with different molarity of T he weight me a s ure me n t s are d o ne every hour,
NaOH. After casting the specimens, they were kept in 5 min, up to 6 hrs, from the first contact of the
rest period for a day and then they were demoulded. specimen with water. The absorption is determined as
The demoulded specimens were kept in ambient room follows:
temperature for curing. The workability of the concrete I = mt / (a x d)
was assessed using slump test and the slump value was Where, I absorption, mt change in specimen mass
in between the range 150 mm to 180 mm. in grams, a exposed area of the specimen in mm2
and d Density of the water in g/mm3.
Mechanical Properties: Compression strength test,
Water Absorption Test: Water Absorption Test was
Split tensile strength test and Flexure strength test were
performed in accordance with ASTM C 642-13.
performed to determine the mechanical parameters of
Specimens were dried in oven at 100C for 24 hours
the concrete. Compressive Strength Test was
and allowed to cool in dry air, the mass was determined
performed on 3000KN capacity compression testing
(A). The specimens was then immersed in water for 24
928
S. Sundar Kumar, et al.
hours and weighed (B). The specimens were see whether there is any significant improvement in the
subsequently kept in autoclave for 5 hours and weighed durability properties of the mixes. No major increase in
(C). Finally the submerged weight of the specimens the compressive strength was expected. The results
was also measured (D). were as expected. There was only a marginal increase
( !") in the compressive strength of 3MPa. This is due to the
Absorption after immersion = x100
"
Absorption after immersion and boiling, %
( !") fact that at low alkali concentrations slag is the major
= x100 reactant and most of the strength is derived from slag.
"
Volume of permeable pore space (voids), % A minimum molar concentration of around 8M is
!"
= x100 required to activate the fly ash. It is expected that the
!#
fly ash here acts only as a filler of high fineness,
plugging the voids existing in the binder matrix. The
Water Permeability Test: Water Permeability Test
split tensile strength was around 7 percent of the
was performed in accordance with ASTM D4491-99a.
compressive strength and the flexural strength about
Water Permeability test is based on measuring depth of
3.8 percent.
penetration of water into the concrete Specimens.
Pressure applied 3 to 5 bars with duration of 3 days.
After the test specimen is split and depth of water 80
penetration is measured. Cubes of 150 x 150 x 150mm
Compressive strength
70
were used to measure the depth of pressurized water.
60
50
pH of the Geopolymer concrete: The pH of
(Mpa)
40
geopolymer concrete was measured for both Mix 1 and Mix 1
Mix 2. 20g of concrete powder were collected in a 30
20 Mix 2
conical flask. Dilution ratio of 1:1 was taken for
diluting the concrete powder with distilled water. The 10
sample was soaked in a shaking table for about 20 0
minutes. The pH readings were obtained using a pH 0 7 1421 28
Days
probe with a digital meter
Fig. 1 Compressive Strength Development
The pH of Mix 1 and Mix 2 were 13.52 and Table 4 Mechanical Properties
13.37 respectively. The pH values of the Geopolymer Compressive Split Tensile Flexural
concrete were similar to the OPC concrete. Hence the Mix
Strength (28 Strength Strength
concrete under investigation was alkalinity in nature. ID
days) (MPa) (MPa) (MPa)
Mix 1 68 4.67 2.57
Results and Discussions Mix 2 71 4.80 2.68
The motive behind addition of a small quantity of fly

ash into the slag based geopolymer concrete mix was to
Table 5 Durability Properties

Water
RCPT
Permeab
Mix ility
Water Absorption (%) Sorptivity pH
ID (Coulo
mbs)
(cm)
immersion voids
immersion
and boiling
Mix 1 1642 4.22 4.07 9.60 3.10 0.0037 13.52
Mix 2 1293 4.11 4.04 9.27 2.60 0.003 13.37
929
0.6 and for Mix 2 y = 0.003x. Hence Mix

y = 0.0037x 2 had a lower rate of water absorption than
0.5
Mix 1 through capillary action.
0.4 y = 0.003x In Water Permeability Test, Mix 2 absorbed
I (mm)
0.3 about 2.75 cm of Pressurised water whereas

Mix 1 absorbed about 3.25 cm of Pressurised
0.2 M water. Hence Mix 2 performed better than
0.1 Mix 1, though the performances of both the
mixes were satisfactory.
0 The pH of Mix 1 and Mix 2 were 13.52 and
0 50 100 150 200 13.37 respectively. The pH values of the
Times Geopolymer concrete were similar to the OPC
Fig 2 Absorption (I) vs Time concrete. Hence the concrete under
investigation was alkalinity in nature.
Concluding remarks
References
As GGBS was used as a major binder, the
mixes were activated with lower 1. J. Davidovits, High-alkali cements for 21st century
concentrations of NaOH solution. The concretes vol. 144. ACI Special Publication. SP;
molarities used for Mix 1 and Mix 2 were 1994. pg. 38398
4M and 5M respectively. 2. B.Vijayarangan, Djwantoro Hardjito Steenie
In Mix 2, 50 kg/m3 of GGBS was replaced E.Wallah and Dody M.J.Sumajouw, Studies on
with Fly ash. As Fly ash was incorporated Fly Ash-based Geopolymer concrete in Faculty of
the NaOH concentration was increased by 1 Engineering and Computing, Curtin University of
Molar. Technology, GPO Box U 1987, Perth 6845,
Addition of fly ash increased the viscosity of Australia.
the concrete in fresh state which reduced the 3. T. Bakharev, Geopolymeric materials prepared
workability and thereby marginally using Class F fly ash and elevated temperature
increased the strength of concrete. curing Cement and Concrete Research. 35 (2005)
In Compressive Strength Test, there was not 12241232.
much difference in the strength between the 4. D.V.Reddy, Jean-Baptiste Edouard and Khaled
two mixes. This was because 5M of NaOH Sobhan,Durability of Fly-Ash based Geopolymer
solution was not sufficient to activate Class Structural Concrete in Journal of materials in Civil
F fly ash. Hence the fly ash utilised here Engineering ASCE / JUNE 2013.25:781-787.
probably acted as a filler material. 5. E. Ivan Diaz-Loya, Erez N. Allouche, and
In Flexural Strength Test, the strength of Saiprasad Vaidya Mechanical Properties of Fly-
both the mixes were low which was less than Ash-Based Geopolymer Concrete in ACI
that of the IS Specification (0.7fck). Materials Journal, May-June 2011.
In Split Tensile Strength Test, the strength 6. Presentation of Andi Arham Adam, Department
obtained by both the mixes was less than of Civil Engineering, Tadulako University, Palu-
1/10th of the compressive strength of Central Sulawesi.
concrete. 7. C.K. Yip, G.C. Lukey, J.S.J. Van Deventer The
In Rapid Chloride Permeability Test, the coexistence of geopolymeric gel and calcium
charge passed in Mix 1 was 1642 coulombs silicate hydrate at the early stage of alkaline
and the charge passed in Mix 2 was 1293 activation in ELSEVIER, Cement and Concrete
coulombs. The charge passed for both the Research 35(2205)1688-1697.
mixes were in between 1000-2000 coulombs 8. Dimitrios Panias, Ioanna P.Giannopoulou,Theodora
which indicate that the chloride ion Perraki, Effect of Synthesis parameters on the
permeability/penetrability was low. Out of mechanical Properties of Fly-ash Based
two mixes, Mix 2 was more impermeable Geopolymers Colloids and Surfaces A:
than Mix 1. Physicochem. Eng. Aspects 301 (2007) 246254.
In Water Absorption Test, the percentage of 9. Mohd Mustafa Al Bakri, H.Mohamed,
water absorption for the Mix 1 and Mix 2 H.Kamarudin, Y.Zarina, Review on fly ash based
were 4.25% and 4.17% which were within Geopolymer concrete without Portland cement in
the limits. Mix 2 absorbs less water than Mix Journal of Engineering and Technology Research
1. Vol.3(1) pp. 1-4, January 2011.
In Sorptivity Test, the plots obtained for both 10. Deevasan, K. K., and Ranganath, V., Geopolymer
the mixes varied linearly. The straight line concrete using industrial byproducts in
equation obtained for Mix 1 was y = 0.0044x Construction Materials Vol.164 issue CM1 of
Proceedings of ICE. February 2011 Pages 4350.
930
931
SHEAR BEHAVIOUR OF GLASS FIBRE REINFORCED

GEOPOLYMER CONCRETE
Nithyapriya K1, Subramanian K2, John Britto X3, Muthuraj M P4
1,4
Department of Civil Engineering, Coimbatore Institute of Technology, Coimbatore 641 014, India
2
PSR Engineering College, Sivakasai 626 140, India
3
Department of Civil Engineering, KGISL Institute of Technology, Coimbatore 641 035, India
ABSTRACT
Experimental investigations were carried out on shear behaviour of geopolymer reinforced concrete beams with and
without fibres. The mix is composed of ternary blend of mineral admixtures, ground granulated blast furnace slag
(GGBS), silica fume, metakaolin and fly ash. In all the mixes, the amount of GGBS is kept constant and other mineral
admixtures such as silica fume, metakaolin and fly ash are varied in different proportions. Two concentrations of
molarities, namely, 6M and 10M of NaOH solution are considered in the present study to investigate the shear
behaviour of geopolymer concrete beams with and without glass fibres. Several beams were cast for different mixes and
the responses were studied under four point bending static loading. Among the various mixes, it was found that the mix
of 10M i.e 70% GGBS+12% fly ash + 10% silica fume + 8% metakaolin performed well with and without fibres. Many
cracks were developed for the case fibre incorporated beams signifying the contribution of fibres in terms of higher
energy absorption and improved ductility. There is no significant difference is observed in terms of load carrying
capacity, first crack load and deflection of 10M mixes compared to 6M mixes.
Keywords: Geopolymer concrete, Glass fibres, Compressive strength, flexural loading, Ultimate load, Deflection
geopolymerisation consists of: (a) dissolution, (b)

speciation equilibrium, (c) gelation, (d) reorganization,
1. Introduction and (e) polymerization and hardening [7]. Pictorially, the
For the construction of buildings, bridges, process geopolymerization is shown in Fig. 1 [7]. Many
airport pavements, nuclear containments and other civil research investigations reported that the behaviour of
infrastructure, the reinforced concrete (RC) is one of the under-reinforced fly ash-based geopolymer concrete
commonly used composite materials. It can be well beams is similar to conventional reinforced concrete
forecast that the requirement for RC will enhance many beams under flexural loading. The responses considered
folds in view of expansion of infrastructure in many for comparison include crack width, first crack load, load
countries. To produce concrete, Ordinary Portland - deformation relationship, flexural stiffness, failure load,
cement (OPC) is normally employed as primary binder. ductility, ultimate load etc. [8 - 12].
In the process of production of OPC, it is estimated that Mohana and Nagan [13] compared the flexural
about one ton of carbon dioxide (CO2) liberates for one behaviour of geopolymer reinforced ferrocement slabs
ton of OPC. It was also found that concrete is less and conventional ferrocement slabs. From the
durable under severe environmental conditions. experiment, it was found that the cracking load, yielding
In the present scenario, it has become necessary load and ultimate load of the geopolymer ferrocement
and urgent requirement to search for alternate binding slabs are found to be larger compared to conventional
materials to reduce CO2 emission and to preserve natural ferrocement slabs. The interesting observation was the
resources. Geopolymer concretes (GPC) is one of the geopolymer ferrocement slabs possess higher energy
advanced cementitious concretes, proved to be a potential absorption and ductility compared to conventional
candidate to replace or supplement the conventional ferrocement slabs. Maranan et al. [14] investigated the
concrete. flexural strength and serviceability aspects of beams
It possesses high mechanical and durable made up of geopolymer concrete beams and glass fibre
properties. Many investigations were carried out on GPC reinforced polymer bars under four point bending static
at laboratory level as well as in the field to demonstrate loading. The effect of bar diameter, anchorage system
its efficacy [1-6]. The typical mechanism of and reinforcement ratio were also studied and it was
1
Assistant Professor, nithyapriya83@gmail.com
2
Principal, drkscit@gmail.com
3
Assistant Professor, brittoannai@gmail.com
4
Assistant Professor, m_p_muthuraj@rediffmail.com
932
Nithyapriya K, et al.
noticed that there is no significant effect of bar diameter Fine aggregate content in total aggregate = 30%
on the flexural performance of the beams. Hung et al. Extra water content = 20 % of mass of cementitious
[15] carried out an extensive review on structural material
behavior of geopolymer concrete members such as superplasticizers = 2% of mass of cementitious material
beams, columns, slabs, panels. From the review, it is Various material properties are presented in Table 1.
highlighted that (i) there is no negative effect of using General description on preparation of geopolymer
geopolymer concrete as structural elements in terms of concrete is given below:
load carrying capacity and ductility and (ii) standard
codes of practice can be used to design the members Table 1 Various material properties
made up of geopolymer concrete.
In the present study, the shear performance of Material Property Value
geopolymer reinforced concrete beams with and without Specific gravity 2.2
fibers is carried out. GGBS
Fineness (m2/kg) 420
Specific gravity 2.05
Fly ash
Silica fume
Metakaolin
Purity 97%
Sodium
Hydroxide Specific gravity 2.13
Purity 98.5%
Sodium Silicate
Coarse Specific gravity 2.80

Aggregate 20
mm water absorption in %
0.35%
as per IS 2386
Coarse Specific gravity 2.79

Aggregate
12.5 mm water absorption in %
0.30%
as per IS 2386
Fine Aggregate
water absorption in %
conforming to 0.86%
as per IS 2386
Zone II
Water Specific gravity 1
Fig. 1 Concept of geopolymerisation [7]
Superplasticizer Specific gravity 1.65
2. Basic Material Characteristics The alkaline activator solution (AAS) is prepared with
the combination sodium hydroxide pellets, sodium
For the production of geopolymer concrete, silicate solution (SiO2/Na2O=2.2), and distilled water.
various ingredients such as fly ash, ground granulated Since lot of heat is generated when sodium hydroxide
blast furnace slag (GGBS), metakaoline, silica fume, flakes react with water, the sodium hydroxide solution
Sodium silicate, Sodium hydroxide, glass fibres, coarse should be prepared a day before casting. The main
aggregate (12.5mm and 20mm), superplasticizer function of AAS is to dissolve Si and Al present in the
(Polyheed 997) and water were used. GGBS is procured reactive portion of source materials such as FA, GGBS,
from JSW steel works Ltd., Coimbatore, India. The silica fume and metakaolin and provide a high alkaline
following norms were considered to arrive at geopolymer liquid medium for condensation polymerization reaction.
concrete mix with and without fibers. The aggregates are to be taken out from the mixer and
Alkaline liquids/GGBS = 0.3 to 0.45 dry mix is to be performed about 2 minutes after addition
Sodium silicate/ sodium hydroxide = 2 to 2.5 of a small quantity of water to prevent the water
Water / GGBS = 0.16 to 0.24 absorption of aggregates in later stage. Later, all the
Total aggregate in mass of concrete = 65% to 85% cementitious materials are added one after the other.
933
Next, the alkaline activator solution is to be concentrations. The compressive strength of various
added to the mix and the mixing is to be continued for mixes corresponding to the two concentrations is
about 5 minutes. The required quantity of superplasticizer presented in Table 4. The compressive strength values
is mixed with water and then added to the mix during the are varied from 61.2 MPa to 71.8 MPa for the case of 6M
production of geopolymer concrete. In any combination concentrations where as for the case of 10M, the values
of geopolymer concrete mix, desired degree of are varied from 64.8 MPa to 79.7 MPa.
workability is to be ensured. The maximum increase in compressive strength
Several trials were made to finalise the mix. The between 6M and 10M is about 10%. From Table 4, it can
final mix proportion arrived at is 1 : 0.94 : 2.2 : 0.13 : be observed that the maximum strength is obtained for
0.192 (Cementitious materials : Fine aggregate : Coarse the cases of 6M7 and 10M7 where in the mix proportion
aggregate : Alkaline liquids : Water) is 70% GGBS+12% fly ash + 10% silica fume + 8%
Two concentrations of NaOH (molarities 6 and metakaolin. Fig. 1 shows the typical slump test and
10) were considered for the present study. Table 2 testing of cube for evaluation of compressive strength.
presents the details of various ingredients used for casting
of geopolymer concrete beams. For all the beams, the Table 4 Compressive strength for the mixes
percentage of GGBS is fixed as constant i.e 70%. considered
Mix Compressive Mix Compressive
Table 2 Various ingredients used for casting of beams strength, MPa strength, MPa
Mix ID GGBS Fly Silica Metakaolin 6M2 67.2 10M2 71.9
(%) ash fume (%) 6M3 70.9 10M3 77.3
(%) (%) 6M4 70.1 10M4 76.8
6M2 70 20 5 5 6M7 71.8 10M7 79.7
6M3 70 15 10 5 6M9 61.2 10M9 64.8
6M4 70 17 5 8
6M7 70 12 10 8
6M9 70 25 5 0
10M2 70 20 5 5
10M3 70 15 10 5
10M4 70 17 5 8
10M7 70 12 10 8
10M9 70 25 5 0
3. Workability Studies
The slump values obtained for the two
concentrations of several mixes are given below in the
form of table (Table 3). From Table 3, it can be noted
that the slump values are varying from 25 mm to 29 mm
for the concentration of 6M and the highest value is (a) Typical Slump test
obtained for 6M3 for which the mix proportion is 70%
GGBS + 10% silica fume + 5% metakaolin. For the other
concentration of 10M, the slump value for all the
combinations is observed to be almost same i.e. 27 mm
(average).
Table 3 Slump values for the mixes considered

Mix Slump, mm Mix Slump, mm
6M2 31 10M2 29
6M3 41 10M3 28
6M4 37 10M4 29
6M7 27 10M7 29
6M9 25 10M9 25
There is no significant variation in slump with
the increase in concentration of NaOH.
3. Mechanical Properties (b) Testing of a cube for compressive strength

Cubes of size 100 mm are cast to determine the Fig. 1 Typical Slump test on concrete and
compressive strength of various mixes of two Compressive strength test
934
Nithyapriya K, et al.
4. Testing of Beams for Shear The responses such as first crack load, corresponding
deflection, crack patterns, ultimate load, and
To determine the flexural performance of geopolymer
corresponding deflection were noted for all the beams.
beams, the beams were cast of size 1500 mm x 100 mm x
To measure curvature of the beams above and below the
200 mm (length x width x depth). Some beams were cast
neutral axis, pellets were fixed at 75 mm distance on
with glass fibres by adding at 5% of total volume.
either side of the loading point. Figure 4 shows typical
Figure 2 presents the typical reinforcement details for
test set up including the location of pellets and dial
shear tests.
gauges.
Fig. 2 Reinforcement details for shear test
Figure 3 shows casting of typical geopolymer

concrete beam. All the specimens were cured at
ambient temperature in order to achieve strength gain
through the polymerization yielding of Si-Al bonds.
Load is applied incrementally on the beam
through hydraulic action till failure. The testing frame
has the capacity of 2000 kN. Load has been controlled

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Structural Engineering Convention 2016

Dr. A. Rama Mohan Rao

21-23 December 2016

CSIR - Structural Engineering Research Centre

Prof. Santosh Kapuria

NATIONAL ADVISORY COMMITTEE

TECHNICAL AND PUBLICATION COMMITTEE

FUND RAISING COMMITTEE

SESSIONS MANAGEMENT COMMITTEE

CULTURAL PROGRAM COMMITTEE

EXHIBITION AND SOUVENIR COMMITTEE

A Comparison of Three Dimensional Elasticity Solutions for Functionally Graded Plates

ROLE OF SIMULATIONS IN STRUCTURAL HEALTH MONITORING

Recent Advances in Seismic Design of Precast Concrete Walls

Structural Design Challenges and opportunities in Wind Power Plants

INDUSTRYS EXPECTATION OF R&D IN STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING

Road Map for Upgrading Earthquake Resistant Design in India

Lessons to be learnt from structural failures

GEOPOLYMER COMPOSITES A NEW SUSTAINABLE MATERIAL FOR 21ST CENTURY

From Deterministic to Risk-informed and Further to Risk-based Approach

Dr. Somnath Ghosh

Geopolymer is a class of aluminosilicate binders synthesized by activation of solid

Geopolymerisation is a complex multiphase exothermic process, involving a series of

Keywords: Fly Ash, Geopolymer, Alkaline activator, Exothermic process, Compressive

2. Comparison of conventional Cement and Geopolymer binder

Portland cement Geopolymeric binder

14500C (Calcination) 50 to 1000C

C-S-H + Ca(OH)2 Aluminosilicate gel

Figure 2.1 : Comparison of conventional and Geopolymer cement

Geopolymerisation is a very complex multiphase exothermic process, involving a series of

NaOH, KOH | |(-) |

4. Field applications of Geopolymers

5. Few Research Findings

Effect of NaOH molarity on Effect Na2SiO3/NaOH ratio on

Effect of fly ash/activator ratio on Effect water/Geopolymer solid ratio on

Microstructure of Geopolymer Binder

Publications of Prof. Dr. Somnath Ghosh

1. Book on Fly ash Based Geopolymer Composites: Manufacturing and Engineering

2. Book on High Temperature Resistant Fly ash Based Geopolymer Composites:

3. Book on Strength and Durability of Fly ash based Geopolymer composites

Estimation of Residual Crack Widths in Post-Yield Response Range

ESTIMATION OF RESIDUAL CRACK WIDTHS IN POST-

Keywords: maximum crack width, residual crack width, nonlinear response

1 Introduction finally leads to bond slippage and increase in the crack

where, is the ratio of distance between neutral axis and

Table 1: Comparison of simulated and measured yield

higher compared to those estimated by Gergely and Lutz

Figure 3: Comparison of measured and calculated

Figure 4: Comparison of measured and calculated

reinforcement. Rw gradually decreases with increase in Rw = 0.3 mf , for mf < 2

Figure 6: Developed relationship between residual

From Table 2, it can be observed that residual bond

Sustainable Civil Infrastructure: The New and the Ageing

Distress in Concrete Pavements: Causes, Prevention and Remedies

SHEAR BEHAVIOUR OF STEEL FIBER REINFORCED CONCRETE

SHEAR BEHAVIOUR OF STEEL FIBER REINFORCED

1. Introduction extra stirrups, often lead to heavy congestion of steel.

Figure 2: Test setup

During the loading process, digital images were

Considering Equation (5), the compressive force (C)

improved digital correlation method. Image

ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF TABLE TOP FOUNDATION FOR TURBINE

1 General Introduction The STG pedestal foundation is a massive concrete

The STG pedestal supports a steam turbine