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fill gas
HV supply +
Background
Basics of Radiation
e e r t can e e any e in
Fas e ec ns p si ns pa ic es
ea y c a ed pa ic es pa ic es ssi n a en s
F ee ne ns
60
Co 60
Ni
1.17 MeV
1.33 MeV
(c) decay of 60Co (Q = 2.82 MeV) followed by two
decays of the excited 60Ni.
interact with matter primarily through the electric forces between their positive
charge and the negative electrons in the absorbing matter. As a high-energy alpha
passes through matter, it slows down through many such interactions with the light
electrons. Because any given interaction is very small, the particle trajectory tends
to be mostly straight. The range of alpha particles is fairly short in air, a 2 MeV
alpha has a mean range of only about 1 cm! Hence, detectors for alpha radiation
must have a very thin wall often mica with a thickness of around 0.001 is used,
see Figure 3 for examples. The SBM-20 tubes we will be using have steel walls that
are too thick to be used for alpha radiation.
There are two forms of beta decay. In decay, a neutron in the nucleus essentially
splits into a proton, an electron and a neutrino, thereby increasing the atomic number
of the decaying nucleus. In + decay, a proton in the nucleus essentially splits into a
neutron, a positron (anti-electron) and a neutrino, thereby decreasing the atomic
number of the nucleus. Electrons also interact primarily with the electrons in the
absorbing material. Because the masses are equal in this case, any given interaction
can cause a large change in the trajectory thus electron tracks meander more than
those of alpha particles. Fast electrons also lose energy by emitting light in a process
known as bremsstrahlung. Electrons typically have much longer ranges than alpha
particles, and hence can be seen by the SBM-20 GM tubes we will be using.
Following a radioactive decay, a nucleus is often left in an excited state. When
this state decays, a very high energy photon is emitted in what is called gamma
decay. Photons can lose their energy through several mechanisms: photoelectric
Principles of Soldering
Safety Note: Solder contains lead be sure to wash your hands after handling
solder, and do not solder near food or drink!
Safety Note: Molten solder can be flung towards you if a component slips. Al-
ways wear eye protection when soldering!
Electronics are assembled using solder, alloys designed to have a low melting point,
high electrical conductivity and good mechanical properties. The solder we will be
using is 60% tin and 40% lead. The following tips will help you to make a secure
joint every time:
Before you apply solder to a joint, make sure the joint is mechanically stable.
For example, when soldering to a circuit board, bend the leads outwards once
they are through the hole.
Clean the irons tip on a moist sponge or brass sponge before and after making
each joint.
Put a small amount of solder on the tip of the iron right before touching it to
the part this will help to conduct heat to the part.
Make sure the tip of the iron contacts both parts to be connected you need
them both hot to make a good joint!
Feed the solder into the joint from opposite where the iron touches if the
solder doesnt melt, then you probably havent gotten the joint hot enough.
Dont overheat parts a few seconds should do it. If you cant get the solder
to melt as described above within about ten seconds or less, take the iron away,
clean the tip and put more solder at the tip of the iron to help conduct heat
better.
A good solder joint should be shiny and wetted to the surface, not dull and
balled up on the surface see Figure 4.
Figure 4: Cross-section
of good versus bad solder
beaded up joint.
solder is dull
1 0 0 10k 1% = 1.00 M 1%
Capacitors
Capacitors are another fundamental building block of electronics. A capacitor stores
charge: given a capacitor of capacitance C charged to a potential V, the charge stored
is Q = CV. The value of the capacitors we will be using is indicated by a three-digit
number code that works similarly to the resistor color code described above: the
first two digits are the first two digits of the value and the third digit is the power
of ten multiplier to get the capacitance in picofarads (1 pF = 1012 F). For example,
the code 224 means 22 104 pF = 220 nF.
Inductors
Inductors are the third fundamental building block of electronics. An inductor
responds to changes in current: given an inductor of inductance L with time-varying
current I flowing through it, the voltage is V = LdI/dt. The value of the inductor we
will be using is indicated by a three-digit number code that works very much like
the capacitor code described above: the first two digits are the first two digits of the
value and the third digit is the power of ten multiplier to get the inductance in
microhenries (1 H = 106 H). For example, the code 102 means 10 102 H =
1 mH.
Tip: Always disconnect the battery when done testing you dont want to wreck
your circuit by shorting it out!
Tip: When testing, always make sure the board is supported such that there is
nothing shorting any connections out on it this includes your hands as well as
any debris on your workbench. The two safest approaches are to grip the edges
of the board with the work holder such that the board is held o the workbench
or to put standos in the mounting holes at the corners of the board.
Tip: With components that start out with short leads that you cant bend to hold
the part in place, it sometimes helps to use a small piece of tape to hold the part
in place while soldering.
Safety Note: When using wire cutters, wire fragments can be flung with enough
force to injure your eyes. Keep your eye protection on while trimming leads.
Another useful tip is to hold your hand over the area where you are cutting to
catch the leads as you trim them.
Troubleshooting Tips
If a circuit doesnt work as expected, check the following:
1. Make sure the correct components have been placed in the correct spots.
2. Check the orientation of diodes, transistors and chips with respect to the
silkscreen outline.
3. Make sure that adjacent pads didnt become shorted together (bridged)
during soldering.
4. Make sure you are making the measurement properly: always hook the ground
of your scope and the COM lead of your meter to the GND pin or one of
the grounded mounting holes in the corners of the board.
4
11
- + 3 1 7
VI VO
6 10
8 12
2
9 14
13
3
1
2
1
2
3
1
2
3
1 8 4
1_OUT 8_GND
5
2 7 6
2_VCC 7_RT
3 6
3_COMP 6_DTC
4 5
4_FB 5_SCP
the GM counter.
Figure 6: Full schematic for
6
Figure 7: Parts of the GM
counter.
(a) top view with traces (b) top view with pads and silkscreen only
Note: Dont get the 78L05 linear regulator mixed up with the transistors, which
are in the same style of package!
The power supply provides the 5 V that the rest of the circuit runs on.
Parts Used 1. Hook up the leads from the battery snap as shown
Name Description/Value Diagram in Figure 9, taking care that the red wire goes on the
9V battery snap side marked with a +. Be sure to follow Figure 9
closely or the wires to the battery will soon break!
slider switch 2. Solder the battery wires from the top of the board,
IC1 78L05 trim any excess length.
C1, C2 10 F filtering capacitor 106
3. Insert the parts as shown in the diagram. Make sure
flat side faces to right the flat side of the 78L05 linear regulator faces to-
wards the two large capacitors.
106
106
4. Flip the board over, grip the edges with the work
holder (if using one).
5. Solder all of the wires you just inserted and trim the
excess lead length protruding from the board.
The inverter inverts the pulse from the GM tube. Parts Used
Name Description/Value Diagram
flat side faces towards bottom R14 5.1 k 1/2 W resistor
R15 10 k resistor
470
R16 1 k resistor
C5 47 pF capacitor
Q3 2N3904 NPN transistor
IO1 6-pin header
2. The short end of the 6-pin header goes into the board,
with the plastic part on top, see Figure 10.
Note: Whenever you are using the oscilloscope, always connect the shield (black
lead when using a BNC-to-minigrabber cable) of each channel to the GND pin.
Be careful to not short to adjacent pins!
The pulse stretcher turns the very short pulse from the GM tube into a 1.5 ms pulse.
LMC555
LMC555 timer (and DIP-8
IC3 socket) 2. Insert the small LED with the longer lead in the hole
R17 6.2 k resistor nearest to where LED2 will go.
R19 75 resistor 3. Insert the parts as shown in the diagram, bending
C6 220 nF capacitor leads as necessary to hold them in place. Make sure
C7 10 nF capacitor to line up the notch at the top of the chip socket with
LED1 small blue LED the notch indicated on the silkscreen outline.
notch at top longer lead on this side 4. Flip the board over, solder all of the components in
and trim the excess leads.
5. Insert the 555 chip into its socket with the notch as
shown on the silkscreen outline.
224
103
3 n e e nd c nnec i ns
c anne s
4 C ec a e p e is and a e a d is a ay
any a e ia s a i s i
C nnec e a ey n ep e s ic n
6 se a ie s e pads ci c ed in ed
e e ein ca e n c ad acen pads
7 n e sc pe se e e si na y ie n
c anne and e p se s e c e n c anne
y c d ap e i e ie y en e
p se s e c e s dp a1 s n
s a e p se appin is as is a d d
hook A to GM hook B to PS e ise e s e c e i e n as n as
ground both channels to GND e i e is in c n ac
en e p se s e c e is n e e
s d i p
s d see si na s i e Fi e 13
The filter collects the GM tube pulses to control the color of LED2: the higher the
count rate, the more red LED2 will get. The red pump drives this proportional
current through the red LED.
Parts Used
Name Description/Value Diagram
MCP6004 quad op-amp MCP6004
IC4 (and DIP-14 socket)
LED2 large red-green LED
R20 100 k resistor
R21 36 k resistor
R22 2.4 k resistor
R23, R24,
R25, R26 1 k resistor
C8 10 F capacitor 106
106
3. Repeat the procedure from the previous tests: hold a wire at the right lead of
R16 and tap it on the lower, circular pad of the SBM-20.
4. You should see the red LED light up as you hold the wire in place, then gradu-
ally fade away when you remove the wire.
Parts Used
Name Description/Value Diagram
R27, R28, R29,
R30, R31, R32,
R33, R34 1 k resistor
3. Repeat the procedure from the previous tests: hold a wire at the right lead of
R16 and tap it on the lower, circular pad of the SBM-20.
4. The LED should go from green to red as you hold the wire in place, then fade
back to green when you remove the wire.
The piezo driver uses the full battery voltage to produce more volume from the
high-impedance piezoelectric speaker.
+ piezo speaker
R18 1 k resistor
Q4 2N3904 NPN transistor
3. Repeat the procedure from the previous two tests: hold a wire at the right lead
of R16 and tap it on the lower, circular pad of the SBM-20.
4. If you tap briefly enough you should hear a sharp click sound. The slower you
are, the more of a tone you will hear. If you hold the wire in place, the tone
will be continuous.
The resistors installed in this step serve both to help drain the high voltage power
supplys capacitor after the device is turned o and to form a 1000:1 voltage divider
that helps you to safely measure the output of the power supply with conventional
test equipment. Because of the high impedances involved, it is necessary to use
dierent resistors for dierent input impedances of test equipment. The two possible
states of jumper JP1 select the type of equipment used: 10 M for a DMM, 1 M
for a standard oscilloscope.
Parts Used
Name Description/Value Diagram
R9, R10 1 G resistor
R11 1 M resistor
R12 1.1 M resistor
2. The short end of the 3-pin header goes into the board,
with the plastic part on top, just like the 6-pin header.
4. Flip the board over and grip it with the work holder,
solder all of the components in and trim the excess
leads.
Note: There are five components that must be installed in the correct orientation
in this step. Be sure you have them right before soldering them in!
The boost converter steps the 9 V battery voltage up to the 400 V needed for the GM
tube. The TL5001 is a general-purpose power converter controller that provides
active control of the output voltage.
Parts Used
Name Description/Value Diagram
R4 22 k resistor
153
102
R5 20 k potentiometer
472 R6 4.7 k resistor
BA
R7 4.7 M resistor
R8 6.8 M resistor
C3 15 nF capacitor
C4 1 F capacitor
brass dot to left notch to left
flat sides to left silver band to right CHV 4.7 nF HV capacitor
Q1, Q2 FQN1N50C MOSFET
102
L1 1 mH inductor
1. Set the TL5001 chip aside until the last step.
2. Insert the other parts into the board as shown.
3. Make sure the silver band on the diode is towards the HV capacitor as indi-
cated on the silkscreen outline/in the diagram.
4. Make sure the notch at the top of the chip socket is oriented as indicated on
the silkscreen outline.
5. Make sure the brass screw on top of the potentiometer ends up away from
the transistors as shown on the silkscreen outline/in the diagram.
6. Make sure the flat sides of the transistors face AWAY from the inductor.
7. Flip the board over, solder all of the components in and trim the excess leads.
8. Insert the TL5001 chip into its socket with the notch to the left.
1 C ec a e p e s i c is and a e a d
is s pp ed a ay any a e ia s a i
s i
3 a es e a e pe is se a 10
C nnec e a ey n ep e s ic n
6 sin e p as ic ad s in n e ass p en
i e e n c c ise n i e e e eads ess
an 300 V Be careful to not touch the high volt-
age portions of the board while doing this!
make sure jumper is at 10M
measure HV supply on HV 7 en n e n c n e c c ise n i e e
be sure to connect meter COM to GND e eads 400 V e di ide is 1000 1 s is c
esp nds 400 V p e V s pp y
Parts Used
Name Description/Value Diagram
fuse clips for GM tube (2)
R13 5.1 M
3. Insert the loose end of the red wire into the hole
marked with a +, insert the black wire into the
other hole in the block labelled SBM-20.
Figure 14: Wire ready to be soldered to clip. 5. Flip the board over, solder all of the components in
and trim the excess leads.
1. Make sure the battery is disconnected, the power switch is o and that you
have removed all debris from the board.
battery clip: 2. Use #2-56 3/16 screws with nuts inside the case to secure the battery clip,
#2-56 flat head then put a piece of electrical tape over the nuts to protect the battery.
screws into hex nuts
3. Use #4-40 3/16 self-threading screws to attach the board to the standos
with the board oriented so the battery snap is close to the clip you just installed.
circuit board:
#4-40 self-tapping 4. Use #4-40 1/4 screws to attach the two hexagonal standos inside the case.
pan head screws
5. Screw the fuse clips to the standos using plastic #4-40 3/16 screws. You
might need to bend the clip out a bit using pliers, just dont bend it too far!
GM tube:
#4-40 flat head to
6. Bend the tabs on the fuse clips so they are nearly vertical.
attach hex standoffs
7. Insert the GM tube into the clips with the end marked with + at the clip with
to case, plastic #4-40
pan head to attach the red wire. Be gentle when pushing down on the tube it is very fragile!
clips to standoffs Push down on the plastic right next to the clips to avoid crushing the tube.
hoo to hoo to
gro nd both channels to
3. Make sure the battery is not touching the clip holding the GM tube!
4. If the posts in the top run into the tabs on the clips holding the GM tube,
remove the GM tube to avoid damaging it, then bend the tabs to be closer to
vertical. Once the top fits, carefully put the tube back in, following the same
precautions as before.
5. Put the top on with the rectangular notch over the power switch and secure it
with the four self-threading screws.
This project was designed by Mark Chilenski (graduate student, Course 22). Numerous productive
conversations were had with Prof. Anne White, Prof. Mike Short, Matthew DAsaro (graduate student,
Course 6) and John Walk (graduate student, Course 22) in the design of this project.
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