6.

0 GEOTECHNICAL DEPARTMENT
6.1 AUTHORITY AND GUIDELINES

In the context of integrated civil engineering design project,

the authority plays an important role in regulate the professional
conducts and practices of engineers. The authorities which made up
of government bodies that include Public Works Department
Malaysia, Construction Industry Development Board, Board of
Engineers Malaysia, Institution of Engineers Malaysia and
Occupation Safety and Health. On the other hand, guidelines refer to
the essential standards for civil engineering design. This includes
British Standard, Eurocode 7, Public Works Department Malaysia of
Guidelines on Slope Maintenance in Malaysia, Public Works
Department Malaysia of Earthworks, Public Works Department
Malaysia of Guideline for Slope Design and Standard Specification
for Building Works.

Below are the essential lists of standards used for civil engineering
design:

1) BS6031:1981: Code of practice for earthworks.

The British Standard recommends a code of practice for
earthworks forming part of general civil engineering construction.
Section 2 of the code describes methods of designing and
constructing cuttings and bulk excavation. It also covers
embankments and areas of general regarding in cut and fill for
highways, railways and airfields. Certain works such as docks and
power stations include both bulk excavation in open ground and
deep excavations supported sides, the latter being dealt with in
section 3 of this code. Where such supported excavations do not
represent a large proportional of the total volume of earth-moving
they will be dealt with mainly in section 2. Although site

1
investigations for general purposes are described in BS 5930, the
methods of investigation for stability of slopes of cuttings and
embankments require additional specialist techniques and
equipment which are described in the present code.

Section 3 of the code describes methods of excavating

trenches, pits and shafts in various types of ground and methods of
forming temporary supports to the sides. Trenches, pits and shafts
are excavated to enable some form of permanent construction to be
founded at the level of the bottom of the excavation and any
permanent support to the ground faces to be formed. Temporary
supports referred to throughout the code are taken to include
alternative materials such as timber, steel and reinforced concrete,
and alternative methods such as timbering, trench sheeting, sheet
piling, diaphragm walls and contiguous bored piled walls.

2) BS 8004: 1986: Code of practice for foundations.

The British Standard code of practice gives recommendations
for the design and construction of foundations for the normal range
of buildings and engineering structures. Section two covers the
general principles of design; sections three, four, five and seven are
concerned with more detailed considerations of the design and
installation of the main types of foundations. Sections six, eight and
nine relate to site operations and construction processes involved in
foundation engineering and section ten describes the factors
affecting the durability of the various materials used in foundation
structures. Section eleven covers safety precautions. The standard
does not cover foundations for special structures.

3) BS EN 1997-1:2004: Eurocode 7: Geotechnical design

Part 1 General rules.
EN 1997 is intended to be used in conjunction with EN 1990:
2002, which establishes the principles and requirements for safety
2
and serviceability, describes the basis of design and verification and
gives guidelines for related aspects of structural reliability. EN 1997
is intended to be applied to the geotechnical aspects of the design
of buildings and civil engineering works. It is subdivided into various
separate parts. EN 1997 is concerned with the requirements for
strength, stability, serviceability and durability of structures. Other
requirements, e.g. concerning thermal or sound insulation, are not
considered. Numerical values of actions on buildings and civil
engineering works to be taken into account in design are provided in
EN 1991 for the various types of construction. Actions imposed by
the ground, such as earth pressures, shall be calculated according to
the rules of EN 1997. Separate European Standards are intended to
be used to treat matters of execution and workmanship. They are
denoted in the relevant sections.

In EN 1997 execution is covered to the extent that is

necessary to comply with the assumptions of the design rules. EN
1997 does not cover the special requirements of seismic design. EN
1998 provides additional rules for geotechnical seismic design,
which complete or adapt the rules of this Standard.

4) Public Works Department Malaysia: Guidelines on slope

maintenance in Malaysia.
Regular maintenance is essential for all manmade slopes and
retaining structures, disturbed terrain features and natural terrain
hazard mitigation measures to avoid deterioration or to upkeep their
functions. The purpose of this guide is to recommend a standard of
good practice for the maintenance of manmade slopes and retaining
structures, disturbed terrain features and hazard mitigation
measures provided to natural terrain. The document is aimed at
professional geotechnical / civil engineers, although it will also be

3
useful to the general public, many of whom carry responsibility for
slope maintenance as owners of property.

The general public may refer to an abridged version of the

guide: Laymans Guidelines to Slope Maintenance, produced by
Cawangan Kejuruteraan Cerun JKR for simplified guidance on
matters related to slope maintenance. This guide deals basically
with the maintenance on matters related to slope works necessary
to keep in good condition well-designed and properly constructed
slopes and retaining structures and manmade mitigation measures
provided to natural terrain. The maintenance inspections and works
recommended herein can also reduce the probability of instability of
slopes and retaining structures and disturbed terrain features which
are not up to the current geotechnical standards for design and
construction.

5) Public Works Department Malaysia: Guidelines for slope

design.
The following guidelines are intended to be used for Slope
Design and also to complement other relevant technical guidelines
such as the Arahan Teknik. It is to be used as a supplement to other
geotechnical manuals such as Geotechnical Manual for Slopes
published by Geo Hong Kong, British Standards and other accepted
standard practices. These guidelines were prepared by Slope
Engineering Branch, Jabatan Kerja Raya (JKR), Malaysia based on
current technical requirements, design materials and accepted
engineering practices implemented JKR and were formulated to
provide assistance to the designer in the design and assessment of
slope stability, safety and mitigation by complementing existing
design policies, manuals, and directives recognized by JKR.

6) Public Works Department Malaysia: Standard

specification for building works 2005
4
 The Works covered in this Contract comprise the provision by
the Contractor at his own risk and cost of all materials, scaffolding,
tools, plant, labour, transport, water, light and everything else
necessary for the construction and completion of all to the entire
approval of the Superintending Officer herein after referred to as the
S.O.

The Conditions of Contract for the Works which is embodied in

the Form of Contract shall be read in conjunction with this
Specification. A copy of the Form of Contract is available for
inspection on the Tender Table on any working day up to the time
appointed for receiving tenders. If the tendered considers that any
of the clauses of the Contract involves expenses, he shall allow for
the money value of such clauses in his Tender.

6.2 Earthwork
The scope of work involve in earthwork are:
i. Determination of proposed ground level as well as cut and
fill process within the site boundary
ii. Cross section of the site plan after the cut and fill works
iii. Typical temporary earth drain and sedimentation basin
design for the surface runoff

Earthwork is necessary to leveling and centralizes the ground

level of the area which is done by cutting the soil at one site and to
fill the soil into another place. For this project area, the leveling will
be done from highest site at the west and reducing to the east. It
consists all necessary work for the excavation and placing or
disposal of earth or rock material from or to the site for the
constructions of slopes or embankments, the removal of unsuitable
materials and topsoil, temporary stockpiling of the excavated

5
material and refilling and for the demolition and disposal of any
existing structures or obstructions in accordance with the
specifications given.

6.2.1 Cut and Fill

Cut slopes are rarely created greater than a slope of two to

one. Cut sections of roadway or rail are characterized by the
roadway being lower in elevation than the surrounding terrain. From
an operational standpoint there are unique environmental effects
associated with cut section. Conversely, noise pollution is mitigated
by cut sections since an effective blockage of line of sight sound
propagation is created by the depressed roadway design.
Geologically speaking, a vast area of land is formed by
transportation, either by the process of deposition by water, or being
carried and then deposited by wind. Some such deposits are of
recent origin and cause concern to geotechnical engineers.
Historically, engineers avoided the use of fill as much as
possible. It is a tradition that all important structures should be
founded on natural ground. Until recently, the use of fill was limited
to the construction of earth dams, canal embankments, and road
subgrades. Fill ground has been generally regarded as unsuitable for
supporting even minor structures.
With the development of fill placement technique and with the
introduction of compaction equipment such as the sheep foot roller,
the use of compacted fill to support structures has become an
accepted practice.

Generally, the investigation of fill enters into the following

categories:
Fill placement on undesirable natural soils;
Removal of existing fill and replacement with compacted fill;

6
 Removal of existing fill and replacement with imported
compacted fill;
Removal of upper natural soil and replacement with
compacted fill.

With todays improved construction technologies, the use of fill

has become a routine part of a geotechnical engineers
recommendation.

Cut And Fill Calculation

The volume of cut and fill will be calculated to know the

exactly amount of soils that need in the earthwork. Transportation
aspect must be encountered due to the effect of the expansion of
the excavated soil. Therefore, the cleanliness of the area within the
site must be taken as a serious problem to make sure it will not
cause any problem to the existing community such as wash wheel
and silt trap for the lorries.

Cut slopes

Cut slopes are rarely created greater than a slope of two to

one. Cut sections of roadway or rail are characterized by the
roadway being lower in elevation than the surrounding terrain. From
an operational standpoint there are unique environmental effects
associated with cut section.

Fill slopes

Fill sections manifest as elevated sections of a roadway or

track bed. Environmental effects fill sections are typically favorable
with respect to air pollution dispersal, but in the matter of sound
propagation, exposure of nearby residents is generally increased,

7
since sound walls and other forms of sound path blockage are less
effective in this geometry. There are a variety of reasons for creating
fills, among them reduction of grade along a route or elevation of
the route above water, swampy ground, or areas where snow drifts
frequently collect. Fills can also be used to cover tree stumps, rocks,
or unstable soil, in which case material with a higher bearing
capacity is placed on top of the obstacle soil, in which case material
with a higher bearing capacity is placed on top of the obstacles in
order to carry the weight of the roadway and reduce differential
settlement.

Purpose of earthwork
Earthworks are required for the purpose of providing ground
gradients that satisfy engineering criteria and level or useable
platform for erection of structure or other purpose for which it is
planned.

Criteria for earthwork design

The natural condition of the site is can say in plane wavy with
the contours around RL 2.85m and RL 1.73m. The leveling of the site
is high at the north east and reducing to the south west. Earthwork
is necessary to level and centralize the ground level of the buildup
area which is done by cut and fill. The usual procedure to determine
the total volume for the cut and fill was followed; the first step starts
with the determination of the platform level.
Platform Level
Suitable level needs to be proposed according to the function of the
construction project. Most of the area for this project area is for
residential purpose. Therefore, the connecting building should be in
the same level in order to make it conveniences for the user. The
topography of the construction site had shown that is gradually
decreasing slope from right to left. Different level needs to be

8
proposed in order to fulfill the slope condition and to minimize the
cut and fill volume. After analyzes, the suitable platform level is 2.30
m for this construction area.

Compaction of earthwork
Compaction increases the strength characteristics of soils,
thereby increasing the bearing capacity of foundations constructed
over them. Compaction also decreases the amount of undesirable
settlement of structures and increases the stability of slopes of
embankments. Smooth-wheel rollers, sheeps foot rollers, rubber-
tired rollers, and vibratory rollers are generally used in the field for
soil compaction. Vibratory rollers are used mostly for the
densification of granular soils. This chapter discusses the principles
of soil compaction in the laboratory and in the field.
Compaction, in general, is the densification of soil by removal
of air, which requires mechanical energy. The degree of compaction
of a soil is measured in terms of its dry unit weight. When water is
added to the soil during compaction, it acts as a softening agent on
the soil particles. The soil particles slip over each other and move
into a densely packed position.

Topography, Geology and Hydrology

Topography, geology, and hydrology should be treated as an

integral part of soil engineering. No soil engineer can be considered
knowledgeable if he lacks information on these subjects. No soil
report can be considered complete without touching on these
subjects. No investigation can be considered satisfactory without
having such subjects in mind.

Such information can be obtained by reviewing available data,

studying existing maps, or making a reconnaissance survey. Care
must be taken as to the accuracy of such information. Oftentimes,

9
site grading can completely alter the topography, and development
in the neighborhood can alter the hydraulic balance.

Cut and Fill Calculation

The determination of cut and fill volume will be started with the
determination of the platform level. One platform levels is
determined (2.30 m). Generally, there are two methods that are
commonly used to calculate the cut and fill volume which are Grid
Method and Cross Section Method. For this project, grid method is
adopted to calculate the total cut and fill volume due to the
simplicity and accuracy of the method. The grid used for the
calculation of cut and fill volume is 1m and 1m which form a square
area of 1 m2. The existing ground level of each intersection of the
grid is calculated by interpolating the reduced level. In this project, a
compaction ratio of 1.1 is used. The cut volume of the soil will be
approximately higher than the fill volume by 10% as the volume of
the soil might shrink during the compaction process. The method
used for the calculation of the volume of the soil is the method of
volume from spot height. This method is easy and only involved the
earthworks of the project excluding the construction of the road.
h1 h2

h3 h4
Figure 1 : Grid Segment

The figure above shows the sample of the square grid that is
used for the volume calculation of the earthwork. The average
height of the square grid is obtained in order to compute the volume
for the earth work. The volume of the earthwork within the grid can
be calculated as below:
Hmean = (h1+h2+h3+h4)/4
Soil volume, V = (hmean proposed level)x grid area

10
 Grid Layout 1

Figure 6.1: Grid Layout for Layout 1

Cut and fill Layout 1

GRI
D AREA EXISTING EARTHWORK DIFFERENT LEVEL VOLUME OF EARTH
GROUND PLATFORM CUT FILL CUT FILL
LEVEL LEVEL
m2 m m m m m3 m3
1 39.49 2.175 2.30 0.13 4.94
2 100.00 2.225 2.30 0.07 7.50
3 100.00 2.240 2.30 0.06 6.00
4 100.00 2.240 2.30 0.06 6.00
5 100.00 2.240 2.30 0.06 6.00
6 100.00 2.240 2.30 0.06 6.00
7 100.00 2.380 2.30 0.08 8.00
8 75.83 2.380 2.30 0.08 6.07
9 52.53 2.14 2.30 0.08 4.20
10 100.00 2.175 2.30 0.13 12.50
11 100.00 2.175 2.30 0.13 12.50
12 100.00 2.210 2.30 0.09 9.00
13 100.00 2.210 2.30 0.09 9.00
14 100.00 2.210 2.30 0.09 9.00

11
15 100.00 2.170 2.30 0.13 13.00
15 63.90 2.380 2.30 0.08 5.11
16 65.57 2.110 2.30 0.19 12.46
17 100.00 2.110 2.30 0.19 19.00
18 100.00 2.080 2.30 0.22 22.00
19 100.00 2.110 2.30 0.19 19.00
20 100.00 2.140 2.30 0.16 16.00
21 100.00 2.130 2.30 0.17 17.00
22 100.00 2.120 2.30 0.18 18.00
23 51.97 2.120 2.30 0.18 9.35
24 78.61 2.080 2.30 0.22 17.29
25 100.00 2.065 2.30 0.24 23.50
26 100.00 2.065 2.30 0.24 23.50
27 100.00 2.080 2.30 0.22 22.00
28 100.00 2.080 2.30 0.22 22.00
29 100.00 2.130 2.30 0.17 17.00
30 100.00 2.130 2.30 0.17 17.00
31 40.02 2.130 2.30 0.17 6.80
32 91.64 2.060 2.30 0.24 21.99
33 100.00 2.060 2.30 0.24 24.00
34 100.00 2.060 2.30 0.24 24.00
35 100.00 2.060 2.30 0.24 24.00
36 100.00 2.105 2.30 0.20 19.50
37 100.00 2.205 2.30 0.09 9.50
38 100.00 2.280 2.30 0.02 2.00
39 28.07 2.280 2.30 0.02 0.56
40 100.00 2.000 2.30 0.30 30.00
41 100.00 2.030 2.30 0.27 27.00
42 100.00 2.060 2.30 0.24 24.00
43 100.00 2.070 2.30 0.23 23.00
44 100.00 2.130 2.30 0.17 17.00
45 100.00 2.205 2.30 0.09 9.50
46 100.00 2.280 2.30 0.02 2.00
47 16.13 2.280 2.30 0.02 0.32
17.72 1.930 2.30 0.37 6.56
49 100.00 1.930 2.30 0.37 37.00
50 100.00 2.000 2.30 0.30 30.00
51 100.00 2.025 2.30 0.28 27.50
52 100.00 2.065 2.30 0.24 23.50
53 100.00 2.105 2.30 0.20 19.50
54 100.00 2.130 2.30 0.17 17.00
55 100.00 2.130 2.30 0.17 17.00
56 30.75 1.900 2.30 0.40 12.30
57 100.00 1.930 2.30 0.37 37.00
58 100.00 1.930 2.30 0.37 37.00
59 100.00 1.903 2.30 0.40 39.70
60 100.00 1.940 2.30 0.36 36.00
61 100.00 2.015 2.30 0.29 28.50
62 100.00 2.340 2.30 0.04 4.00
63 100.00 2.080 2.30 0.22 22.00
64 30.75 1.890 2.30 0.41 12.61
65 100.00 1.890 2.30 0.41 41.00
66 100.00 1.890 2.30 0.41 41.00

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67 100.00 1.930 2.30 0.37 37.00
68 100.00 1.880 2.30 0.42 42.00
69 100.00 1.860 2.30 0.44 44.00
70 100.00 1.960 2.30 0.34 34.00
71 79.74 1.930 2.30 0.37 29.50
72 43.79 1.930 2.30 0.37 16.20
73 100.00 1.565 2.30 0.74 73.50
74 100.00 1.565 2.30 0.74 73.50
75 100.00 1.200 2.30 1.10 110.00
76 100.00 1.565 2.30 0.74 73.50
77 100.00 1.880 2.30 0.42 42.00
78 100.00 1.910 2.30 0.39 39.00
79 46.62 1.930 2.30 0.37 17.25
80 11.41 1.200 2.30 1.10 12.55
81 24.16 1.220 2.30 1.08 26.09
82 36.91 1.200 2.30 1.10 40.60
83 48.18 1.200 2.30 1.10 52.99
84 54.93 1.200 2.30 1.10 60.42
85 35.36 1.260 2.30 1.04 36.77

27.38 1987.77

Total quantity of earth fill before compaction = 1987.77 m

Total quantity of earth fill after compaction = 1987.77 x 20% = 397.55 m
Total quantity of earth cut = 27.38 m
Total net of quantity earth = 2358 m

6.2.3 Cross Sections

The determination of cross-sections was required to help in the
designing of slopes. As any cut or fill will leave a slope behind, it was
required to study the slopes in terms of their heights, angles, and
the horizontal to vertical ratio. The cross-sections were taken on the
basis that it should cut the area of construction in order to know the
slopes faced by the constructed buildings. The cross-sections
considered, contains data about the ground level before and after
excavation. The cross section line can refer Figure 6.1.

13
 Figure 6.2 : Cross section A-A

The total cut and fill volume for layout1 is coming in the below
categories:
Amount of cut = 27.38 m3
Amount of fill before compaction = 1987.77 m3
Amount of extra fill required after compaction
= 1987.77 * 20% = 397.55 m3
Total amount of fill required = 2385.32 m3
Soil to be disposed = 2385.32 27.38 = 2357.94m3

6.3 Temporary Drainage System

The amount of silt can ideally be minimized by making sure that the
only water that runs across exposed ground is what actually falls on
it. Any other water will be diverted away from the earthworks onto
stable ground by means of temporary drainage, built before open up
the ground. Design of temporary drainage system will be based on
MASMA (Manual Saliran Mesra Alam) requirement and specification
which been published by Jabatan Pengairan dan Saliran Malaysia
on 2000. For this project, the temporary drainage will be constructed
along the road within the construction area. This temporary drainage
is connected to the silt traps which will be located on perimeter of
the area to improve the water flow from surface runoff. It helps to

14
avoid water accumulate on site which destabilized the soil, surface
soil erosion, prevent damage to slope as well as for safety reason
whiles the construction is ongoing or before the drainage system of
the construction area are built. Drainage should be connected to
existing drainage and the channeled to sedimentation basin or silt
trap for treatment purpose.
During the earthwork stage of construction, the soils top layer
or cover will be removed and this will leave the soil bare. A bare soil
uncovered surface will have a higher surface water runoff compared
to normal grassed surfaces. The function of temporary earth drain is
used to make sure the rain water appropriately directed flow away
without causing unnecessary clogging or flood.

6.3.1 Design Criteria of Temporary Earth Drainage

Design average recurrence interval (ARI) adopted:

Minor system: 3 years
The total catchment area in this project is 0.604 ha. The duration of
3 years for the design the temporary drainage is enough to bear
rainfall and resist flood. Flood estimation is obtained by using
rational method.

6.3.2 Methodology
Based on MASMA, the general procedure to estimate the peak flow
for a single catchment area using the rational method as below:

15
 Select design
ARI

Estimation of
time
concentration,t
c

Determine
rainfall
intensity, yIt

Estimate
runoff
coefficients

Calculate peak
flow rate, Qy

6.3.3 Design criteria for ARI

Annual Recurrence Interval (ARI)
a) Minor system : 10-20 years
b) Major system : up to 100 years (MASMA,Table 4.1)

The earth drain proposed is considered as minor system for 10 years

ARI. Rational method is used to predict the possibility of flood
occurrence.

Equation used in design temporary earth drain

Rainfall intensity, I
For ARI 10 years, MASMA Table 13.A.1

PD = P30 - FD (P60 -

(MASMA Eq. 13.3)

Where,
PD = the design rainfall depth
P30 = the 30th minutes duration rainfall depth
P60 = the 60th minutes duration rainfall depth
FD = the adjustment factor for storm duration (MASMA, Figure
13.3 &Table 13.3)

16
 ln (RIt) a + b ln(t) + c (ln(t))2 +
d (ln(t))3

(MASMA Eq.13.2)
Where,
(RIt) = the average rainfall intensity (mm/hr) for ARI and duration t
R = average return internal (years)
T = duration (minutes)
a to d = fitting constant depending on ARI (Appendix 13.A)
Peak Flow Estimation, Qpeak

Qy = c. yIt
.A
360
(MASMA, Eq. 14.7)
Where,
Qy = y year ARI peak flow (m3/s)
C = dimensionless runoff coefficient
y
It = y year ARI average rainfall intensity over time of
concentration, tc, (mm/hr)
A = drainage area (ha)

Drain cross section design

b
The earth drainage design is trapezoidal. The Manning Equation
used to calculate the Q of the flow;
2 1
A R3 S2
Q=
n

17
Where,
n = Mannings roughness coefficient
R = hydraulic radius (m)
S = friction slope (m/m)
A = cross section area (m2)

Area of cross section, A

1
A= ( a+b ) h
2

Hydraulic Radius
Area , A
R=
wetted perimeter , P

The sample calculation for temporary earth drain at Appendix 6.1

6.4 Silt Trap

Besides of taking prevention of soil erosion by keeping excessive
water away from the exposed ground, the rain that falls on the
actual ground will inevitably erode away some of the soil. A lot of
this soil needs to be trapped before it leaves the construction site
and heads for the nearest stream. It is also important to protect the
surrounding environment from being polluted. It also needs to be
trapped until the site is permanently protected against erosion.

6.4.1 Design Criteria of Silt Trap

Design average recurrence interval (ARI) adopted:

Minor system: 3 years
The total catchment area in this project is 0.604 ha. Since the upper
layer of soil is clay, the wet basin design will adopted. The site runoff
potential is moderate to high. The construction period will be over 2

18
years, the design storm event is the 5-day 80th percentile for the
design.

6.4.2 Methodology

Select sediment trap

type

Calculate sizing of
sediment basin

Determine overland
flow time of
concentration, to

Estimation the
sizing of emergency
spillway

The calculation for design of silt trap are shown in Appendix 6.2

LTWL Spillway

LB

Inflow WTWL WB

Inflow

Y1
1
Y2 2
Appendix 6.2
Typical layout of temporary earth drainage

19
 2m

0.8

0.8m

Temporary earth drainage dimensions

Typical layout of silt trap Spillway

26.8 m

25.32m

Inflow 11.2m 7.32m

Overall basin dimensions (a)

Inflow

0.6 m
1
0.37m 2

Overall basin dimensions (b)

0.4m
1.67m
3m

Typical open spillway dimensions

7.0 BOREHOLES and SOIL PROFILE

20
The site investigation is done by team of geotechnical laboratory,
Universiti Sains Malaysia,. There are 1 (one) borehole had being
carried out; located at the middle of construction area.

7.1 Boreholes locations

In this project, 1 borehole covered the hostel building, multi-story
parking, and the boreholes in the middle of the construction area.
One borehole is enough because the area of construction is not
large. The layout of boreholes location can be seen in the figure
below.

21