Cable Stayed Bridges Theory and Design 2nd Ed PDF

CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
Theory and Design
SECOND EDITION
M. S. Troitsky, DSc
Professor of Engineering
Concordia University, Montreal
BSP PROFESSIONAL BOOKS

OXFORD LONDON ED INB URGH
BOSTON PALO ALTO MELBOURNE

Copyright M.S. Troitsky 1977, 1988 BSP Professional Books
A division of Blackwell Scientific
All rights reserved. No part of this Publications Ltd
publication may be reproduced, stored Editorial offices:
in a retrienl system, or transmitted, Osney Mead, Oxford OXZ OEL
in any form or by any means, (Orders: Tel. 0865 240201)
electronic, mechanical, photocopying, 8 John Street, London WCIN ZES
recording or otherwise without 23 Ainslie Place, Edinburgh El 13 6AJ
the prior permission of the 52 Beacon Street, Boston
copyright owner. Massachusetts 02108, USA
66 7 L)tton Avenue, Palo Alto
First Edition published by Crosby Lockwood California 94301, USA
Staples in 1977 107 Barry Street, Carlton
Second Edition published by BSP Victoria 3053, Australia
Professional Books 1988
Set by Cambrian Typesetters
British Librarv Printed and bound in Great Britain by
Cataloguing i~ Publication Data Butler & Tanner Ltd, Frome and London
Troitsky, M. S.
Cable-stayed bridges: theory and design.-
Znd ed.
1. Bridges, Cable-stayed-Design and
construction
I. Title
624'.55 TG405
ISBN 0-632-02041-5
Acknowledgements
Special acknowledgement is herewith made to the following persons, companies, institutions

and organizations for supplying the information and photographs for the many bridges
discussed in this book: Alaska Department of I lighways, USA; British Railways Southern
Region; Compagnie Fran~aise D'Entreprises Metalliques, France; Compagnie Baudin-
Chateauneuf, France; Dip!. Eng. E. Beyer, Landeshaupstadt Dusseldorf, Germany; Depart-
ment of Public Works, Hobart, Tasmania; Mr A. F. Gee, Mott, I lay and .'l.nderson, Consulting
Engineers, England; Dr 0. A. Kerensky, Freeman, Fox and Partners, Consulting Engineers,
England; Dip!. lng. H. Thul, Germany; The Institution of Engineers, Australia; Mr A. Zanden,
Rijkswaterstaat Directie Bruggen, Holland; Mr J. \'irola, Consulting Engineer, Finland; lng.
J. J. 1\1. Veraart, Holland; Quebec Iron and Titanium Corporation; .\lr Arvid Grant and
Associates, Inc., Consulting Engineers, USA; Modjeski and Masters, Consulting Engineers,
USA; Dr P.R. Taylor, Buckland and Taylor Ltd, Civil and Structural Engineers, Canada.
I am especially grateful to the American Society of Civil Engineers li1r permitting me to use
excerpts of the paper 'Tentative Recommendations for Cable-stayed Bridge Structures'.
Contents
Preface to the second edition Vll
Chapter 1 The Cable-stayed Bridge System

1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Historical review 2
1.3 Basic concepts 19
1. 4 Arrangement of the stay cables 20
1.5 Positions of the cables in space 21
1.6 Tower types 24
1. 7 Deck types 25
1. 8 Main girder and trusses 26
1. 9 Structural advantages 29
1.10 Comparison of cable-stayed and suspension bridges 31
1.11 Economics 34
1.12 Bridge architecture 36
References 39
Chapter 2 Typical Steel Bridges

2.1 Two-plane bridges 42
2.2 One-plane bridges 69
2.3 Inclined tower bridges 91
2.4 Railroad bridges 95
2.5 Combined railroad-highway bridges 99
2.6 Pipeline bridges 103
2. 7 Pontoon bridges 105
References 108
iv COl\TE:'\TS
Chapter 3 Typical Concrete Bridges

3.1 Concrete cable-stayed bridges 114
3.2 Railroad concrete bridges 139
3.3 Pipeline concrete bridges 143
References 144
Chapter 4 Typical Composite Bridges

4.1 Introduction 147
4.2 Composite cable-stayed bridges 148
References 154
Chapter 5 Typical Pedestrian Bridges

5.2 Cable-stayed pedestrian bridges 155
References 173
Chapter 6 Structural Details

6.1 Stiffening girders and trusses 175
6.2 Towers 176
6.3 Types of cable 180
6.4 Modulus of elasticity of the cable 185
6.5 Permissible strength of the cables 191
6.6 Fatigue tests and strength of the cables 191
6. 7 Corrosion protection 195
6.8 Behavior of the bent cable 195
6. 9 Cable supports on the towers 198
6.10 Anchoring of the cables at the deck 203
6.11 Stiffening girder anchorages 211
6.12 Erection methods 213
6.13 Adjustment of the cables 217
References 221
Chapter 7 Methods of Structural Analysis

7.2 Linear analysis and preliminary design 223
7.3 Nonlinear analysis 224
7. 4 Dynamic analysis 227
7.5 Application of computers 229
References 230
CONTENTS V
Chapter 8 Approximate Structural Analysis

8.1 Participation of the stiffening girder in the bridge system 231
8.2 Optimum inclination of the cables 233
8.3 The height of the tower and length of the panels 236
8.4 The relation between the flanking and central spans 237
8.5 Number and spacing of the cables 238
8.6 Multispan bridges 240
8.7 Multiple cantilever spans 240
8.8 Inclined cable under its own weight 241
8.9 Bridge systems 245
8.10 The degree of redundancy 247
8.11 Performance of the cable system 247
8.12 Linear analysis and preliminary design 251
8.13 Approximate weight of the bridge system 261
8.14 Approximate methods of analysis 265
8.15 Nonlinear analysis 269
References 272
Chapter 9 Exact Methods of Structural Analysis

9.1 Methods of analysis 273
9. 2 The flexibility method 274
9.3 Force-displacement method 282
9.4 Reduction method 297
9.5 Simulation method 309
9.6 Stiffness method 317
9. 7 Finite element method 323
9.8 Torsion of the bridge system 328
9. 9 Analysis of towers 345
References 361
Chapter 10 Model Analysis and Design

10.2 Basic concepts 365
10.3 Planning 366
10.4 Static similitude conditions 370
10.5 Sectional properties and geometry of the model 374
10.6 Design of the model 375
10.7 Determination of influence lines 376
10.8 Nonlinear behavior 392
10.9 Post-tensioning forces in cables 397
References 401
vi CONTENTS
Chapter 11 Wind Action and Aerodynamic Stability

11.2 Wind forces 407
11.3 Static wind action 408
11.4 Dynamic wind action 410
11.5 Vibrations 413
11.6 Vertical flexural vibrations 416
11.7 Torsional vibrations 421
11.8 Damping 428
11.9 Wind tunnel model tests 435
11.10 Prevention of aerodynamic instability 440
11.11 Conclusions 446
References 446
Chapter 12 Abbreviated Tentative Recommendations

for Design of Cable-stayed Bridges
12.2 Loads and forces 450
12.3 Design assumptions 451
12.4 Pylons 452
12.5 Analysis 452
12.6 Cables 453
12.7 Saddles and end fittings 454
12.8 Protection 455
12.9 Camber 455
12.10 Temperature 455
12.11 Aerodynamics 456
12.12 Fatigue 456
12.13 Fabrication 457
12.14 Erection 457
12.15 Inspection 458
References 459
Author Index 460
Subject Index 463

Preface to the second edition
Since the first edition of this book was published a decade ago, there has
been considerable development in the state of the art of cable-stayed
bridges. In this second edition, the contents have been revised to reflect
recent developments in research, analysis, design and construction of
new structures. Although much of the data of the first edition has been
retained, the arrangement of material has changed, chapters have been
expanded and new ones have been added.
For the convenience of the users, the following changes and additions
were made in the contents of the second edition. The first edition
contained seven chapters, while the second edition consists of twelve
chapters, as follows:
Chapter 1, The Cable-stayed Bridge System has an additional discussion
on the problems of economics and aesthetics.
Chapter 2, Typical Steel Bridges contains additional data on new steel
single and two-plane bridges, as well as pipeline and pontoon
bridges.
Chapter 3, Typical Concrete Bridges contains additional data on new
concrete structures.
Chapter 4, Typical Composite Bridges describes new deck types of cable-
stayed bridges.
Chapter 5, Typical Pedestrian Bridges presents additional types of pedes-
trian bridges.
Chapter 6, Structural Details provides additional structural details.
Chapter 7, Methods of Structural Analysis presents a discussion on the
structural behavior of bridges and methods of analysis.
Chapter 8, Approximate Structural Ana(ysis treats methods of preliminary
analysis.
Chapter 9, Exact Methods of Structural Analysis presents additional
methods.
Chapter 10, Model Analysis and Design discusses experimental methods of
design.
Chapter 11, Wind Action and Aerodynamic Stability provides expanded
treatment considering aerodynamic action.
Chapter 12, Abbreviated Tentative Recommendations for Design of Cable-
stayed Bridges is a new addition.
Every effort was made to correct some errors detected in the first edition.
To my wife Tania
Chapter 1
The Cable-stayed Bridge System
1.1 Introduction
During the past decade cable-stayed bridges have found wide applica-
tion, especially in Western Europe, and to a lesser extent in other parts of
the world.
The renewal of the cable-stayed system in modern bridge engineering
was due to the tendency of bridge engineers in Europe, primarily Ger-
many, to obtain optimum structural performance from material which
was in short supply during the post-war years.
Cable-stayed bridges are constructed along a structural system which
comprises an orthotropic deck and continuous girders which are suppor-
ted by stays, i.e. inclined cables passing over or attached to towers located
at the main piers.
The idea of using cables to support bridge spans is by no means new,
and a number of examples of this type of construction were recorded a
long time ago. Unfortunately, the system in general met with little suc-
cess, due to the fact that the statics were not fully understood and that
unsuitable materials such as bars and chains were used to form the in-
clined supports or stays. Stays made in this manner could not be fully
tensioned and in a slack condition allowed large deformations of the deck
before they could participate in taking the tensile loads for which they
were intended.
Wide and successful application of cable-stayed systems was realized
only recently, with the introduction of high-strength steels, orthotropic
type decks, development of welding techniques and progress in struc-
tural analysis. The development and application of electronic computers
opened up new and practically unlimited possibilities for the exact solu-
tion of these highly statically indeterminate systems and for precise
statical analysis of their three-dimensional performance.
Existing cable-stayed bridges provide useful data regarding design,
2 CABU:-SfAYED BRIDGES
fabrication, erection and maintenance of the new system. With the con-
struction of these bridges many basic problems encountered in their
engineering are shown to have been successfully solved. However, these
important data have apparently never before been systematically presen-
ted.
In summary, the following factors helped make the successful develop-
ment of cab:e-staycd bridges possible:
( 1) The development of methods of structur al analysis of highly static-
ally indeterminate structures and application of electronic computers.
(2) The development of orthotropic steel decks.
(3) Experience with previously built bridges containing basic clements
of cable-stayed bridges.
(4) Application of high-strength steels, new methods of fabrication and
erection .
(5) The ability to analyse such structures through model studies.
1.2 Historical review
The history of stayed beam bridges indicates that the idea of supporting
a beam by inclined ropes or chains hanging from a mast or tower has been
known since ancient times. The Egyptians 1 applied the idea for their
sailing ships as shown in Fig. 1.1.
In some tropical regions of the world primitive types of cable-stayed
bridge, such as shown in Figs. 1.2 and 1.3, were builrl. Inclined vines
Fig. 1.1 Egyptian sailing
boat with rope-srjlyed
attached to the trees on either bank supported a walk which was woven
sail beam of vines and bamboo sticks.
Fig. 1.2 Primithe bamboo
bridge in Borneo
Fig. 1.3 (bdow) Primitive
bamboo bridge: in Laos
Fig. 1.4 Bamboo bridge with bamboo stays O\'Cr Serajoc Ri,er 10 Ja,a,
Indonesia
F igure 1.4 s hows a primitive bridge of bamboo stays interwoven with

vi11es with the ends fastened to trees ar each side. This crude structure
indicates that its builders had a vague idea of some of the principles of
bridge engineering.
In 1617, Faustus Verantius proposed a bridge system ha,'ing a timber
deck supported by inclined eyebars3 ; see Fig. 1.5.
I t HI I \
Fig. 1.5 Bridge stiffened by eye bars, designed by Faustus Vcrantius,

Italy, 1617.
THE CABLE-STAYED BRIDGE SYSTEM 5
Like all bridge designs of this epoch, it exhibits many departures from
what .a structural analysis would dictate; nevertheless, it contains the
main features and basic principles of a metal suspension bridge stiffened
by stays.
In 1784, a German carpenter, Immanuel Loscher4 in Fribourg
designed a timber bridge of I OS ft (32 m) span consisting of timber stays
attached to a timber tower (Fig. 1.6).
In 1817, rwo British engineers, Redpath and Brown, built the King's
,\leadows Bridge5 , a footbridge in England which had a span of approxi-
mately II 0 ft (33.6 m), using sloping wire stay cable suspension members
attached to cast iron towers (Fig. 1.7).
Fig. 1.6 All-timber bridge stiffened by inclined timber stays, designed by
Loschcr in Germany, 1784.
Fig. l.i King's i\lc;ado"s Bridge, England, 1817

6 CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
Fig. 1.8 Dryburgh Bridge, England, 1817
The system of inclined chains was adopted in a bridge built at Dry burgh
Abbey across the Tweed River 6 in 1817. It had a 260ft (79.3 m) span,
and was 4ft ( 1.2 m) wide (Fig. 1.8).
It was observed that the bridge had a \'ery noticeable vibration when
crossed by pedestrians, and the motion of the chains appeared to be easily
accelerated. In 18 18, six months after the completion of the bridge, it was
destroyed by a violent gale.
Around 1821, the French architect Poyet7 suggested hanging the
beams up to rather high towers with wrought iron bars. Jn this system he
proposed using a fan-s haped arrangement of the stays, all being anchored
at the mp of the tower (Fig. 1.9).
Poyct's idea was further developed by the famous French engineer
Navier who, in 1823, stud ied bridge systems stiffened by inclined chains8
(Fig. 1.1 0).
By comparing both the weights of the deck and the inclined chains,
Navier found that for a given span and height of the towers, the cost of
both systems was approximately equal.
Fig. 1.9 Fan type stayed bridge proposed by Poyet, France, 1821.
THE CA BLE-STAYED BRIDGE SYSTEM 7
l'
II
Fig. 1.10 Chain-stiffened bridge systems proposed by 'a vier, France,

1823
8 CABL-STAYED BRIDGES
Fig. Lll Bridge ~cross the Saale River, Germany, 1824
~.. """"~- ---- ...... - "(EJ . -~ -

=="'
fig. 1.12 Ti,crton Bridge, England, 1837
Fig. 1.13 Harp type stayed bridge by Hatley, England, 1840

In 1824, a bridge was erected across the Saale River at Nienburg, Ger-
many, with a 256ft (78.0 m) span and having the main girder stiffened by
inclined members 9 . However, this bridge had excessive deflections under
loading and the foUowing year it collapsed under a crowd of people
because of failure of the chain-stays (Fig. 1. 11).
1837 Motley 10 built a bridge at Tiverton, England, a highly redun-
dant double cantilever with straight stays (Fig. 1.12).
The other type of stay arrangement, with parallel stays, now called
harp-shaped, was suggested by Hatley 11 in 1840 (Fig. 1.13). He men-
tioned that this system provided less stiffness than the fan-shaped one.
One interesting structure of the inclined-cable type is presented by the
bridge over the Manchester Ship Cana.l 12 in England (Fig. 1.14). And in
1843, Clive 13 proposed an original system of a cable-stayed bridge, shown
in Fig. 1.15.
Fig. 1.14 The Manchester Ship Canal Bridge, England
;,. ___ t , ,
.
-- ----------)+<(-- ---
I
- - - ---- -------- 106 -00 --~
' ' I
Fig. 1.15 Bridge system proposed by Clive, England, 1843

Fig. 1.16 The Franz joseph Bridge over the Moldau River in Prague,
Czechoslovakia, 1868
In 1868 the Franz Joseph Bridge, designed by Ordish and LeFeuvre 1.\
was built over the Moldau R iver at Prague, Czechoslovakia (Fig. 1.16).
This bridge actually represents a combination of a cable-stayed and a
classical suspension bridge.
A new form of suspension was introduced in this bridge, using sloping
rods running directly from the panel points of the floor system to the
tops of the towers, the direct tension members being supported and held
in position by catenary cables between the towers. These have no other
purpose than to sustain the weight of the direct tension bars. Here is a
very interesting idea of supporting an intermediate joint by an inclined
bar which transfers the tension to the longest stay of the other half of the
span.
The Albert Bridge 1 5 over the Thames at Chelsea with a main span of
400ft (122 m) and dating back to 1873, was built by Ordish, using his
system (Fig. 1.17). In this bridge the suspension system comprises tie
Fig. 1.17 The Albert Bridge over the River Thames, England, 1873
members converging at the top of the towers. There are three sloping
tie members on each side of the center span and four on each side of the
end spans.
The short historical review presented here indicates that the idea of
the stayed beam bridge is very old. However, it was not successfully
applied until the twentieth century. The reasons for such slow progress
have to be found in the collapse of several of the first built cable-stayed
bridges.
Inclined stays were first introduced in England and widely used there
in the early part of the nineteenth century. However, a number of suspen-
sion bridges with such stays failed, on account of insufficient resistance
to wind pressure, and this led to the partial abandonment of that type in
England.
It should be noted that in many cases these early cable-stayed bridges
actually possessed structural defects which led to their destruction. This
was mainly due to the misunderstanding on the part of the designers
of the actual structural behavior of such bridges and of the defects in
their construction. Cables, for instance, were usually of an insufficient
cross-section and were not tightened during erection. Consequently,
cables performed their proper function only after substantial deformation
of the whole structure under the action of the load. This aspect of their
behavior led to the opinion that cable-stayed bridges were exceptionally
flexible and not safe. It was Navier who reported on these failures and
suggested using suspension bridges instead of cable-stayed bridges.
Navier's statement led bridge engineers to prefer the suspension-type
bridge.
In the second half of the nineteenth century inclined stays were re-
viewed in America by the famous bridge engineer Roebling. In connec-
tion with the stiffening truss, introduced by Roebling, and efficient
lateral bracings, inclined stays proved more effective.
The cables in suspension bridges designed by Roebling were always
assisted by stays 16 . A network of diagonal stays occupied the same in-
clined plane as that of the cables. The purpose of these stays was twofold.
They not only assisted the cables greatly in the support of the bridge, but
they also supplied the most economical and efficient means for stiffening
the floor against cumulative undulations that may be started by the action
of the wind.
In 1855 Roebling built the first successful railroad suspension bridge
in the world across the Niagara River (Fig. 1.18). The total load was
divided between the cables and an extensive system of radiating stays.
The application of a system of stays provided all the stiffness required for
the passage of trains at a rapid rate, as well as stability against the wind
action.
Roebling also provided a generous system of inclined stays in the
)2 CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
Fig. 1.18 The iagar.a suspension bridge, t:SA, 1855
Fig. 1.19 The Ohio River bridge at Cincinnati, USA, 1867

Fig. 1.20 The Brooklyn Bridge, USA, 1883
construction of the Ohio Bridge (Fig. 1.19). Nearly one-half of the total
weight of the roadway and the live load was carried by diagonal stays of
wire rope, running straight from the tops of the towers to successive
points along the floor. The main cables, themselves stiffened by this
arrangement, really had to carry only about one-half of the total weight of
the roadway and load. The stays served effectively to strengthen the floor
and to prevent or check vibration during the passage of heavy loads and
in high winds.
Perhaps the most distinctive feature of the Brooklyn Bridge (Fig. 1.20)
is the system of inclined stays radiating downward from th e tops of the
towers to the floor of the span. Roebling introduced them primarily for
the critical function of adding rigidity to the ~pan, and then ingeniously
took advantage of the additional load-carrying capacity which they inci-
dentally supplied. This contribution to the strength of the bridge was
explained in simple terms by the designer:
The floor, in connection with the stays, will support itself without the
assistance of the cable, the supporting power of the stays alone will be ample
to hold up the floor. If the cables were removed, the bridge would sink in the
center, but would not fall.
As we know today, the designers of the old days had not yet been able
to calculate the forces in the inclined cables correctly, and they also under-
estimated the influence of hyperstat:ic behavior and of the sag of the stays.
14 CAB LE-STAYEO BRIDGES
Consequently, the stayed-beam bridge system was condemned and

abandoned, and only at the beginning of the twentieth century, with the
introduction of wire cables, high-grade steel and the further development
of the structural theory, was it possible to re-introduce the cable-stayed
system.
A few bridges of a mixture of the stayed-bridge system and the sus-
pension-bridge system were built in France in the nineteenth century by
the famous engineer Arnodin. In this system, diagonal stays radiate from
the tower tops with no vertical hangers in this interval. This system
reduces deflections of the stiffening girders, and permits the use of smaller
heights of the stiffening girder. This arrangement of loading distorts the
curve of the cables from the catenary, but substantially reduces the
amount of load upon them.
Bridges of this mixed system did not find wide application mainly
because of their aesthetical imperfection, the mixture being less satis-
factory than either of the two systems individually.
In the system introduced by Arnodin, who built many French suspen-
sion bridges in the second half of the nineteenth century, the inclined
stays extend from the towers to near the quarter-points of the span, while
the middle portion of the span is suspended from the cables.
The bridge over the Sa6ne River at Lyons designed by Arnodin 17 , has
a span of 397 ft (121 m) (Fig. 1.21). Diagonal stays are shown at ends
radiating from the tower tops with no vertical hangers in this interval.
Of similar conception was the bridge over the Rhone River at Avignon
(Fig. 1.22).
In 1904 Arnodin built over the Blavet River, the Bonhomme Bridge
778ft (237m) long with a main span of 535ft (163m) and side spans of
121 ft (37 m) each 18 (Fig. 1.23). The main span was divided into three
parts, the central portion being hung from five continuous cables on each
side, and the two end portions from six diagonal cables on each side.
The original idea of Poyet to use fan-shaped arrangements of the stays
was modified, improved and successfully employed by Arnodin in the
transporter bridge built in 1903 at Nantes (Fig. 1.24). The lightness of
the suspension system with cables radiating from the tops of the slender
tapering towers creates the impression of an elegant structure.
The first rational solution for cable-stayed bridges which satisfied the
necessary stiffness and economic conditions, was proposed by Gisclard 19 ,
a French engineer, in 1899. He introduced a new system consisting
basically of inclined and horizontal cables. His system presents geo-
metrically stable cable trusses. The inclined cables do not transfer the
horizontal component of the cable force onto the stiffening girder. This
system actually represents a three-hinged arch, having diagonals made of
cables.
The Gisclard system is less appealing to the eye, but appears to be
Fig. 1.21 Bridge over the
Saone River at Lyons,
Frnnce, 1888
Fig. 1.22 The Rhone

Ri,cr bridge at Avignon,
France, 1888
Fig. 1.23 (bdow) Bon-

hommc Bridge over the
Blavcl River, Marbihan,
France, 1904
16 CABLE-STAYED BR IDGES
s.oo
't.
...
fo,OO
0

0
.,0
Fig. 1.24 Transporter bridge at Nantes, France, 1903
E D
Fig. 1.25 Typical bridge of Giscla.rd's system
127' -1 1"
Fig. 1.26 (abow)

' 511' -10"
830. -0"
127 ' -11"
The Cassagnc
Bridge, France,
1907
Fig. 1.27 (rigltl)

!6 "'"'1-~3' /,4~.~~~~~3~6~7'~-0'~'~~~~~~,~66'-3'1
Lezardricux ~~.~.~~----~~--------~
Bridge, France,
1925 ~99. -6" ,j
particularly adapted to railroad traffic. In that system the inclined stays

extend across the entire span and form a main carrying system in which
the material is utilized in tension to the greatest possible extent.
Bridges of this system found wide application in France and her former
colonies. A typical bridge of Gisclard's system is shown in Fig. 1.25, and
another well-known example is represented by the Cassagne Bridge,
having a 512 ft (156 m) central span. It was built in 1907 for a narrow
gauge electric railroad (Fig. 1.26). Due to its suitability, Gisclard's sys-
tem showed distinctive advantages in a number of bridges.
Applying the basic concept of Gisclard's system, the French engineer
Leinekugel le Cocq 20 proposed a bridge system having inclined cables
and transfer of the horizontal components of the cables to the stiffening
girder. This system proved to be very economical and to give only small
deformations. A typical example of this system is the Lezardrieux Bridge
over the Trieaux River in France built in 1925 (Fig. 1.27). This cable-
stayed bridge may be considered a prototype of the contemporary
cable-stayed bridge, having a fan-type system.
The structural system of this bridge is many times statically indeter-
minate and performs as a three-dimensional system because, in addition
to the main girders, both a supporting deck and stringers also participate
in the performance of the main bridge system as one integral unit. The
bridge was designed with hinges at the quarter points of the stiffening
girder under the assumption that the maximum bending moments at
these locations act similarly as in suspension bridges. However, as exact
analysis shows, the bending moments at the above locations are small,
and hinges are not only unnecessary but actually decrease the general
stiffness of the whole bridge system.
In 1938 Dischinger introduced stay cables into the design of a sus-
pension railroad bridge with a 2468 ft (753 m) span over the Elbe River,
near Hamburg, Germany.
To reduce rather large deflections of the conventional suspension
bridge system under heavy railroad loading, Dischinger introduced stay
cables using high-strength wires, and accepted high stresses, reducing
the sag of the cables which have visually a softening effect (Fig. 1.28).
Investigation by Dischinger established the fact that stiffness and aero-
dynamic stability can be achieved by combining the main suspension
cables with stays. An absolute prerequisite for this is that the inclined
cables must be subjected to considerable initial tension.
Since World War II, the rapid advancement of bridge construction
has brought about the need to develop a new concept in bridge design.
In order to achieve economy of both material and cost, designers have
gone back to the cable-stayed bridge concept. A leading role in the new
development of this bridge system was played by Dischinger 21 , who pub-
lished the results of his studies in 1949.
1-JI~ ~I,.:I
I 298.6' I 1033.2' I 298. 6'
~ 298.6 I 1033.2 I 298.6' I
Fig. 1.28 Cable-stayed

bridge system by
Dischinger, Germany, 1938
I 344.4' I' 1344.8' I 298.6' I
...
~,
..
. ,.
.. ..
"':
Fig. 1.29 The Stromsund

Bridge, Sweden, 1955
After 1950, several cable-stayed bridges were proposed at competitions

for the reconstruction of bridges across the Rhine River in Germany.
Comparative estimates of the cost proved that these cable-stayed bridges
were more economical than the suspension or the self-anchored suspen-
sion bridges. In 1952, Leonhardt 22 designed the cable-stayed bridge
across the Rhine in Dusseldorf, but the bridge was not built until 19 58.
In the same period, the German firm Demag23 , in collaboration with
Dischinger, designed the Stromsund Bridge in Sweden, which, erected
in 1955, may be considered as the first modern cable-stayed bridge (Fig.
1.29).
After the first two cable-stayed bridges of modern design had proved
to be very stiff under a traffic load, aesthetically appealing, economical
and relatively simple to erect, the way was open for further wide and
successful application. The new system became rapidly popular among
German bridge engineers and, about ten years later, in several other
countries, too. It is now increasingly applied by designers all around the
world.
The technical literature contains references to more than 50 bridges
that have been built since 1955 or are being contemplated, incorporating
the system of cable stays. Approximately one-third have been built in
Germany and others are located throughout the world. A brief review of
the development of cable-stayed bridges may be found in recent publica-
tions on this subject24 - 26 .
1.3 Basic concepts
The application of inclined cables gave a new stimulus to the construc-

tion of large bridges. The importance of cable-stayed bridges increased
rapidly and within only one decade they have become so successful that
they have taken their rightful place among classical bridge systems. It is
interesting to note how this development which has so revolutionized
bridge construction, but which in fact is no new discovery, came about.
The beginning of this system, probably, may be traced back to the
time when it was realized that rigid structures could be formed by joining
triangles together. It would be easy to refer to such examples in the history
of bridge building, as shown in Figs. l.l-1.7.
Although most of these earlier designs were based on sound principles
and assumptions, the girder stiffened by inclined cables suffered various
misfortunes which regrettably resulted in abandonment of the system.
Nevertheless, the system in itself was not at all unsuitable. The solution
of the problem had unfortunately been attempted in the wrong way.
On the one hand, the equilibrium of these highly indeterminate sys-
tems had not been clearly appreciated and controlled, and on the other,
the tension members were made of timber, round bars or chains. They
consisted therefore of low-strength material which was fully stressed
only after a substantial deformation of the girder took place. This may
explain why the renewed application of the cable-stayed system was
possible only under the following conditions:
( 1) The correct analysis of the structural system.
(2) The use of tension members having under dead load a considerable
degree of stiffness due to high pre-stress and beyond this still suf-
ficient capacity to accommodate the live load.
(3) The use of erection methods which ensure that the design assump-
tions are realized in an economic manner.
The renaissance of the cable-stayed system, however, was finally success-
fully achieved only during the last decade.
Modern cable-stayed bridges present a three-dimensional system con-
sisting of stiffening girders, transverse and longitudinal bracings, ortho-
tropic-type deck and supporting parts such as towers in compression
and inclined cables in tension. The important characteristics of such a
three-dimensional structure is the full participation of the transverse con-
struction in the work of the main longitudinal structure. This means a
considerable increase in the moment of inertia of the construction which
permits a reduction in the depth of the girders and economy in steel.
1.4 Arrangement of the stay cables
According to the various longitudinal cable arrangements, cable-stayed

bridges could be divided into the following four basic systems shown in
Fig. 1.30.
Fig. 1.30 Systems of cable

arrangement STAY SINGLE DOUBLE TRIPLE MULTIPLE VARIABLE
SYSTEM
1 2 3 4 5
BUNDLE
OR
~r ~ ~
1 CONVERGING
--4
OR RADIAL
HARP OR
4
2 PARALLEL
~ ~ ~
3
~ ~
FAN
4 STAR
~
THE CABLE-ST AYEO BRIDGE SYSTEM 21
1. RADIAL OR CONVERGING SYSTEM

In this system all cables are leading to the top of the tower. Structurally,
this arrangement is perhaps the best, as by taking all cables to the tower
top the maximum inclination to the horizontal is achieved and conse-
quently it needs the smallest amount of steel. The cables carry the
maximum component of the dead and live load forces, and the axial
component of the deck structure is at a minimum.
However, where a number of cables are taken to the top of the tower,
the cable supports or saddles within the tower may be very congested
and a considerable vertical force has to be transferred. Thus the detailing
becomes rather complex.
2. HARP OR PARALLEL SYSTEM

In this system the cables are connected to the tower at different heights,
and placed parallel to each other. This system may be preferred from an
aesthetic point of view. However, it causes bending moments in the
tower. In addition, it is necessary to study whether the support of the
lower cables can be fixed at the tower leg or must be made movable in a
horizontal direction.
The harp-shaped cables give an excellent stiffness for the main span,
if each cable is anchored to a pier on the river banks as was done for Knie
Bridge at Dusseldorf, Germany.
The quantity of steel required for a harp-shaped cable arrangement is
slightly higher than for a fan-shaped arrangement. The curve of steel
quantity suggests choosing a higher tower which will also increase the
stiffness of the cable system against deflections.
3. FAN OR INTERMEDIATE SYSTEM

The fan or intermediate stay cable arrangement represents a modifica-
tion of the harp system. The forces of the stays remain small so that single
ropes could be used. All ropes have fixed connections in the tower. The
Nord Bridge, Bonn, Germany, is a typical example of this arrangement.
4. STAR SYSTEM
The star pattern is an aesthetically attractive cable arrangement. However,
it contradicts the principle that the points of attachment of the cables
should be distributed as much as possible along the main girder.
1.5 Positions of the cables in space
With respect to the various positions in space which may be adopted for
the planes in which the cable stays are disposed there are two basic
arrangements: two-plane systems and single-plane systems (Fig. 1.31 ).
Fig. 1.31 Space positions of cables

(a) Two vertical planes system (c) Single plane system
(b) Two inclined planes system (d) Asymmetrical plane system
(c)
(d)
1. TWO VERTICAL PLANES SYSTEM

Two alternative layouts may be adopted when using this system: the
cable anchorages may be situated outside the deck structure, or they may
be built inside the main girders.
The first layout is the better of the two in that no area of the deck surface
is obstructed by the presence of cables and towers, as in the second case.
There is, however, a disadvantage in that the transverse distance of the
cable anchorage points from the webs of the main girders requires sub-
stantial cantilevers to be constructed in order to transfer the shears and
bending moment into the deck structure. Also the substructure, especially
the piers for the towers, has to be longer, because in this case the towers
stand apart and outside the cross-section of the bridge.
Where the cables and towers lie within the cross-section of the bridge,
the area taken up cannot be utilized as part of the roadway and may be
only partly used for the sidewalk. Thus an area of the deck surface is
made non-effective and has to be compensated for by increasing the over-
all width of the deck.
2. TWO INCLINED PLANES SYSTEM

This system was first used for the Severin Bridge in Cologne, Germany,
where the cables run from the edges of the bridge deck to a point above
the centerline of the bridge on an A-shaped tower.
This arrangement can be recommended for very long spans where the
A-shaped tower has to be very high and needs the lateral stiffness given
by the triangle and the frame action. Joining all cables on the top of this
tower has a favorable effect regarding wind oscillations, because it helps
to prevent the dangerous torsional movement of the deck.
3. SINGLE PLANE SYSTEM

Another system is that of bridges with only one vertical plane of stay
cables along the middle longitudinal axis of the superstructure. In this
case the cables are located in a single vertical strip, which is not being
used by any form of traffic.
This arrangement requires a hollow box main girder with considerable
torsional rigidity in order i:o keep the change of cross-section deformation
due to eccentric live load within allowable limits. It is therefore not
necessary to increase the width of the superstructure when using the
central box girder system. This system which was proposed by Haupt 27
can be used if there is a median space to separate two opposite traffic
lanes. In this way, no extra width is needed for the tower, and the cables
at deck level are protected against accidental impact from cars.
The single plane system also creates a lane separation as a natural con-
tinuation of the highway approaches to the bridge. This is an economical
and aesthetically acceptable solution, providing an unobstructed view
from the bridge. In addition, this system also offers the advantage of
relatively small piers, because their size is determined by the width of the
main girder.
It should be noted that all the possible variations regarding the longi-
tudinal arrangements of the cables used with two plane bridges are also
applied to single plane central girder bridges.
1.6 Tower types
The various possible types of tower construction are illustrated in Fig.

1.32, which shows that they may take the form of:
( 1) Trapezoidal portal frames
(2) Twin towers
(3) A-frames
(4) Single towers.
l 2 3 4 5 6
n
I I I
~
I I
uAl I I I I I
~
Fig. 1.32 Tower types

I Portal tower 4 A-frame tower
2 Twin tower 5 Single tower
3 Twin tower 6 Side tower
Portal type towers were used in the design of early cable-stayed bridges,
as in the case of suspension bridges, where the portal type was commonly
used to obtain stiffness against the wind load which the cable transfers to
the top of the towers. However, later investigation of cable-stayed bridges
indicated that the horizontal forces of the cables were in fact, relatively
small, so that freely standing tower legs could be used without disadvant-
age. The inclined stay cables even give a stabilizing restraint force when
the top of the tower is moved transversely.
With single towers or twin towers with no cross-member, the tower is
stable in the lateral direction as long as the level of the cable anchorages
is situated above the level of the base of the tuwer. In the event of lateral
THE CABLE-ST AYEO BRIDGE SYSTEM 25
displacement of the top of the tower due to wind forces, the length of the
cables is increased and the resulting increase in tension provides a restor-
ing force. Longitudinal moment of the tower is restricted by the restram-
ing effect of the cables fixed at the saddles or tower anchorages.
There are three different solutions possible regarding the support
arrangement of the towers:
J. TOWERS FIXED AT THE FOUNDATION

In this case large bending moments are produced in the tower. The
majority of cable-stayed bridges in Germany have, however, been built
with the towers fixed at the base, and it is stated that the advantage of
increased rigidity of the structure thus obtained offsets the disadvantage
of the high bending moments in the tower.
Towers with fixed legs are relatively flexible, and loading and tem-
perature do not cause significant stresses in the structure. In this case,
the main girders pass between the frame legs and are supported on the
transverse beam.
2. TOWERS FIXED AT THE SUPERSTRUCTURE

In the case of the single-box main-bridge system, the towers are generally
fixed to the box. With this arrangement it is necessary not only to rein-
force the box but to provide strong bearings. The supports also may
resist the additional horizontal forces caused by the increased friction
forces in the bearings.
3. HINGED TOWERS
For structural reasons, the towers may be hinged at the base in the longi-
tudinal direction of the bridge. This arrangement reduces the bending
moments in the towers and the number of redundants, which simplifies
analysis of the overall structure. Also, in cases with bad soil conditions,
linear hinges at the tower supports are provided, allowing longitudinal
rotation, so that bending moments are not carried by the foundation.
1.7 Deck types
In the search for a more efficient bridge deck, a major advance has been
made with the development of the orthotropic steel deck. Most cable-
stayed bridges have orthotropic decks which differ from one another
only as far as the cross-sections of the longitudinal ribs and the spacing
of the cross-girders is concerned. Typical ribs used in an orthotropic
deck are shown in Fig. 1.33.
Cross-girders are usually 6-8ft (1.8-2.5 m) apart for decks stiffened by
flexible ribs, and 15-18 ft (4.6--5.5 m) apart in the case of decks stiffened
Fig. 1.33 Rib types

(a) Torsionally weak or
open type (b) Tersionally
stiff or box type
2 3 4 5
(a)
6 8 9 10
(b)
by box-type ribs possessing a high degree of torsional rigidity.

The orthotropic deck performs as the top chord of the main girders or
trusses. It may be considered as one of the main structural elements which
lead to the successful development of modern cable-stayed bridges. How-
ever, it is not intended to discuss the orthotropic system in detail because
the analysis and design of this system have been treated extensively in
the technicalliterature 28 29 .
For relatively small spans in the 200-300 ft (60-90 m) range it is con-
venient to use a reinforced concrete deck acting as a composite section
with the steel grid formed by the stringers, floor beams and main girders.
An alternative solution is presented by a reinforced concrete deck
acting monolithically with the main reinforced or prestressed concrete
girders.
1.8 Main girders and trusses
The following three basic types of main girders or trusses are presently
being used for cable-stayed bridges:
1. STEEL GIRDERS
Bridges built with solid web main girders may be divided into two types:
those constructed with !-girders and those with one or more enclosed
box sections, as shown in Fig. 1.34.
Plated 1-girders with a built-up bottom flange comprising a number of
cover plates have been used in some bridges. It is considered that in this
way, the required inertia of the section can be made to fit the moment
envelope exactly, that no excess steel is being used, and thus the minimum
weight of steel is attained. It is felt, however, that this arrangement does
not necessarily produce the most economical solution.
Types of main girder

Arrangement Deck cross - sections
Twin
1 I
girder
=
I I==
Single
2 rectangular
box girder
===-
I I===
Central box
3 girder and
side single web girders 1 t=J r=
Single twin
4 cellular box girder
and sloping struts
=
~I I v=
Single
5 trapezoida I =:::::: s 7 ---===--=-
box girder "'-----/
6
Twin
rectangular
box girder =u u~
Twin
7 trapezoidal
box girder ==\_j vl~
Fig. 1.34 Types of main
girder
Box girders in comparison often have portions of their span where a

certain minimum plate thickness has to be maintained to prevent local
buckling and to provide protection from corrosion, even though the
desired inertia does not require such thickness. They do, however, have
the great advantage of simplicity of fabrication in comparison to plate
1-girders, and most important, a standard section with only the plate
thickness varying can be produced in series, which significantly reduces
fabrication costs. Also, the inside surfaces are not exposed to the atmo-
sphere, and thus initial protective treatment and later maintenance costs
are reduced.
Box girders may be rectangular or trapezoidal in form, i.e. with web
plates vertical or sloping. The trapezoidal section is often used in order
to keep the bottom flange area to the desired size, whilst the support to
the deck plate from the webs is provided at an optimum position.
Although fabrication costs of the inclined web plates are higher, an
overall saving can often be achieved. Both plate girder and box section
main girders are used for cable-stayed bridges, but it is felt that box
Types of stiffening truss

Type of bridge Deck cross-section
1 Highway
m
Highway
2
and
railroad
( project )
~~ r~
Highway
11/~1
and
3
railroad
( project )
:II: II !l :II:
:lt>O<JI:
Highway
and
4
railroad
( project )
Fig. 1.35 Deck supported
by stiffening trusses
sections have a further advantage due to their better torsional stiffness.

Unsymmetrical live loading and wind forces can produce high torsional
moments and box sections are inherently better suited to carry this type
of loading and therefore reduce torsional rotations in the deck.
2. TRUSSES
During the last decade trusses have rarely been used in the construction
of cable-stayed bridges. Compared to solid web girders, trusses present
an unfavorable visual appearance; they require a great deal of fabrication
and maintenance, and protection against corrosion is difficult.
Thus, except in special circumstances, a solid web girder is more satis-
factory both from an economical and an aesthetic viewpoint.
However, trusses may be used instead of girders for aerodynamical
reasons. Also, in the case of combined highway and railroad traffic, when
usually double deck structures are used, trusses should be provided as
the main carrying members of such bridges. In Fig. 1.35, typical bridge
cross-sections incorporating trusses are shown.
Type of girder Deck cross - section
I
1
Single box
girder I rd
I Wadi Kuf
Bridge, Libya )
I
i
I
,,
",, I "
tJ IT
Twin box
2
girders
I
I River Parana
Bridge, Argentina) I
Twin box
girders I
3
(River Waal Bridge,
Holland) ~[ J[ Ii lllr
Mu Itip le box
looWoor
girder
4
( Polcevera Viaduct,
Italy)
Fig. 1.36 Reinforced and
prestressed concrete
girders
3. REINFORCED OR PRESTRESSED CONCRETE GIRDERS

During the last decade a number of cable-stayed bridges have been built
with a reinforced or prestressed concrete deck and main girders. These
bridges are economical, possess high stiffness and exhibit relatively small
deflections. The damping effect of these monolithic structures is very
high and vibrations are relatively small. Such outstanding structures as,
for instance, the Maracaibo Bridge in Venezuela, indicate that this new
bridge system possesses many excellent characteristics. Typical cross-
sections of this system are shown in Fig. 1.36.
1.9 Structural advantages
The introduction of the cable-stayed system in bridge engineering has

resulted in the creation of new types of structures which possess many
excellent characteristics and advantages. Outstanding among these are
their structural characteristics, efficiency and wide range of application.
The basic structural characteristics and reasons for the rapid development
and success of cable-stayed bridges are as outlined below.
Cable-stayed bridges present a space system, consisting of stiffening
girders; steel or concrete deck and supporting parts as towers acting in
compression and inclined cables in tension. By their structural behavior
cable-stayed systems occupy a middle position between the girder type
and suspension type bridges.
The main structural characteristic of this system is the integral action
of the stiffening girders and prestressed or post-tensioned inclined cables,
which run from the tower tops down to the anchor points at the stiffening
girders. Horizontal compressive forces due to the cable action are taken
by the girders and no massive anchorages are required. The substructure,
therefore, is very economical.
Introduction of the orthotropic system has resulted in the creation of
new types of superstructure which can easily carry the horizontal thrust
of stay cables with almost no additional material, even for very long spans.
In old types of conventional superstructures the slab, stringers, floor
beams and main girders were considered as acting independently. Such
superstructures were not suitable for cable-stayed bridges. With the
orthotropic type deck, however, the stiffened plate with its large cross-
sectional area acts not only as the upper chord of the main girders and of
the transverse beams, but also as the horizontal plate girder against wind
forces, giving modern bridges much more lateral stiffness than the wind
bracings used in old systems. In fact, in orthotropic systems, all elements
of the roadway and secondary parts of the superstructure participate in
the work of the main bridge system. This results in reduction of the depth
of the girders and economy in the steel.
Another structural characteristic of this system is that it is geometrically
unchangeable under any load position on the bridge, and all cables are
always in a state of tension. This characteristic of the cable-stayed systems
permits them to be built from relatively light flexible elements-cables.
The important characteristic of such a three-dimensional bridge is
the full participation of the transverse structural parts in the work of the
main structure in the longitudinal direction. This means a considerable
increase in the moment of inertia of the construction, which permits a
reduction of the depth of the girders and a consequent saving in steel.
The orthotropic system provides the continuity of the deck structure
at the towers and in the center of the main span. The continuity of the
bridge superstructure over many spans has many advantages and is
actually necessary for a good cable-stayed bridge.
Considering the range of applications in the domain of highway
bridges, cable-stayed bridges fill the gap that existed between deck type
and suspension bridges. Orthotropic deck plate girders showed superior-
ity over other systems in the case of medium spans. For long spans, how-
THE CAB LE-ST AYEO BRIDGE SYSTEM 31
ever, they required considerable girder depth. The cable-stayed bridge

provides a solution to this problem, based on a structural system com-
prising an orthotropic plate deck and a continuous girder.
Comparative analysis of cable-stayed and suspension bridges indicates
the structural superiority of this new system even for large spans, as is
shown in the following section.
1.10 Comparison of cable-stayed and suspension bridges
The idea of suspended bridge structures is to support the bridge deck

with cables. However, the cable-stayed bridge differs from the suspen-
sion bridge in the manner its deck is supported, and in resulting
structural characteristics.
In suspension bridges the deck is supported from loosely hung main
cables with vertical suspenders, but in cable-stayed bridges the deck is
supported directly from the towers with stay cables. This provides a
significantly stiffer structure. Also generally the deflections are less,
therefore the deck can be made lighter and more slender. Structurally
this improves cable-stayed bridge wind resistance and aesthetically the
appearance.
Comparison between modern types of suspension bridges and cable-
stayed bridges clearly indicates from several points of view that the cable-
stayed bridge is superior to the suspension bridge. Due to results of
several competitions, the opinion became established that the cable-
stayed bridge fitted into the gap between the plate girder beam, with
spans of up to 700 ft (215 m), and the suspension bridge, with spans
larger than 1400 ft (430 m).
Comparison of the suspension and cable-stayed bridge systems
indicates substantial progress in applications of cable-stayed bridges. For
example, in the competition for the Great Belt Bridge in Denmark in
196 7, eleven cable-stayed bridges received prizes from a total number of
eighteen bridges. Incidently, all those bridges have to carry not only
highway but railway loading.
In 1968 for the competition for the bridge across the Strait of Messina,
Italy, a cable-stayed bridge with a 4264 ft (1300 m) main span was in the
award group, as well as a number of suspension bridges. In Japan,
Hitsuishijima and Iwagurojima cable-stayed bridges will have spans of
607 + 1378 +607ft (185 + 420 + 184m) and traffic running on a two-
level stiffening truss with roadway on the upper deck and railway on the
lower deck. The Arcash Kaikyo Bridge is planned to be the longest
cable-stayed bridge, with a main span of 5838 ft (1780 m).
The superiority of the cable-stayed bridge over the suspension bridge
may be based on a comparison of their structural characteristics,
following an analysis as proposed and developed by Gimsing30
1. RELATIVE COSTS AND QUANTITIES OF STEEL

An investigation was carried out to compare the costs and quantities of
steel required for suspension and cable-stayed bridges for spans of 410
+ 1640 +410ft (125 + 500 + 125m), with cables of the harp and fan
configuration. The relative cost of steel included the total cost of the
cables and the pylon with respect to the unit cost. When considering the
ratio of pylon height and length of main span, it was found that cable-
stayed bridges with the fun system give the minimum cost, while the cost
of the suspension bridge is 24% higher. Gimsing30 also compared
suspension and cable-stayed bridges with the fan system for 3280 ft (100
m) and 6560 ft (2000 m) spans, considering equal loads, materials and
type of stiffening girder, and the amount of steel is shown in Table 1.1.
The data indicates that for the cable-stayed system, in the optimum
solution for spans of up to 3280 ft (1000 m) and somewhat beyond for
6560 ft (2000 m) the main span apparently requires larger quantities of
structural steel but less of cable steel, when compared with the
suspension system.
Table 1.1 Quantities of steel.
Bridge system Span Cable steel Structural steel

(m) (tons) (tons)
Suspension 7500 23 000

1000
Cable-stayed 3900 25 000
Suspension 3600 55 000

2000
Cable-stayed 1900 94 000
2. DEFLECTION
The deformation characteristics are illustrated by deflection curves
under different loading cases.
Consider a three-span structure having a main span of 3280 ft
(1000 m). For both symmetrical and asymmetrical traffic loadings over
half the length of the main span, the suspension bridge has a greater
deflection at midspan than does the cable-stayed bridge.
However, deflection curves for structures with a 6560 ft (2000 m)
main span for the above loadings indicate that the deflection of the cable-
stayed bridge tends to becomes somewhat larger than that of the
suspension bridge. This may be another indication that a 6560 ft
(2000 m) main span is too large for cable-stayed bridges.
3. DECK
In terms of their structural behavior, cable-stayed systems occupy a
middle position between the girder and suspension type bridges. A
comparison of static performance of the cable-stiffened, bridle type and
self-anchored bridges is shown in Fig. 1.37.
A comparison between the deck performances of suspension and
cable-stayed bridges indicates a negligible difference. The suspension
bridge needs more bending and torsional stiffness, while the cable-
stayed bridge needs more steel area for the thrust. This thrust of the
cables, creating normal forces in the deck, causes second-order bending
moments due to the deflection, which must and can be kept at a
minimum by using stiff cables and sufficiently deep girders. The stresses
due to second-order moments are of the first order.
4. ANCHORAGES
The outstanding advantage of the cable-stayed bridge can be seen to be
the fact that it does not require large or heavy anchorages for the cables
as the suspension bridge does. The anchor forces at the ends of the
Llllllllf1IIF=
(a)
==w:IIIIIIIII~
4~~
l, IIIIIIIIIIIII~IIIIIIIIJ
(b)
1111111111111111111111
Fig. 1.37 Schematic

comparison between
three systems.
Compressive forces in
the stiffening girders.
(a) Cable-stayed bridge,
(b) bridle-chord bridge,
(c) self-anchored bridge
(c)
cable-stayed bridge act vertically and can usually be balanced by the

weight of the pier and its foundation without much additional cost.
1.11 Economics
The general trend towards the utmost economy in material at an

adequate carrying capacity in the design of modern highway steel bridges
is realized to a high degree in cable-stayed bridges.
There is no simple formula for deciding under what conditions the
cable-stayed bridge should be adopted as an economical solution.
However, the summary of a survey of typical cable-stayed bridges shown
in Fig. 1.38 gives us some indication. This shows the weight of steel per
unit of deck area plotted against the span length. The diagram shows that
the range of variation is relatively wide, considering two-plane and
single-plane systems. The upper limits of the steel weight per unit area
are greater for structures having portal type towers. The variation of the
weight is influenced by many factors, such as the quality of steel, loading
requirements, structural systems, the width of the bridge, etc. These
data, however, may be of use in preparing preliminary designs of cable-
stayed bridges.
""~ 170
"""' 160
~ 150
0
.... 140
0
130
.;:' 120
"'11 0 - - .-jl
"'
'100 '
"" 90
I
80
- 70
~-- ~~- --I ::..-~
~
UJ
~
60
50
, .
.... 40

0
30
0
fig. 1.38 Variation of LEGEND A SINGLE TOWERS
steel weight with span for
typical cable -stayed
bridges
0
0
500 1000 1500
TWIN TOWERS
2000 2500
S P A N F E E T
The study by Taylor31 made a comparison of the weight of structural

steel in lb/ft 2 of orthotropic deck versus center span length considering
girder, suspension and cable-stayed bridges, respectively (Fig. 1.39). In
Germany, Thul 32 compared the length of center spans to the total length
/
so
/
/Girder
,....- __..
/. . . -------
/ / / Cable stayed
/{
.
;
.....
...
100
/ ,..,.,.,.,.,'
............
~
....-- Suspension
- __......
/ /
!10
/- ,....- ..)/'"
Girder bridgeo
o COble_ o!ayed bridgoo Fig. 1.39 Variation of

Su1paneion bri d~l steel weight of
orthotropic deck for
0 500 1000 1500 2000 different bridge systems
Span in feel
of three-span continuous girder, cable-stayed and suspension bridges

(Fig. 1.40). He found limits of economical application as follows:
(1) 700 ft for the center span of a three-span continuous girder. The
ratio of center span to total length is 30 to 50%.
(2) The suspension bridge has an economical center span of 1000 ft,
which is between 60 and 70% of the total length.
(3) The cable-stayed bridges are between continuous girders and
suspension bridges with a center span ranging from 700 to 1000 ft
and 50 to 60/,, of the total length.
Thul's investigation indicates that cable-stayed bridges may be eco-
nomical for bridges with intermediate spans. But in practice, some cable-
stayed bridges have been built with longer main spans. Further studies
indicate that longer main spans are possible and comparable to
suspension bridges.
Open design competitions held in Germany have indicated conclusively
that cable-stayed bridges are the most economical solution in that
country for many highway bridges having main spans in the range of
70
~ 60
.
.c
~
c 50
2"
40
.....
.
~
c
"... 30
20
c
u
10
Fig. 1.40 Comparison
0 of spans for different
200 600 1000 1400 bridge systems
Center opan in feel
500-1200 ft (150-370 m). Structural steel weights of70 psf(340 kg/m 2)

and less have been achieved at spans exceeding 900ft (270m), although
it should be noted that wide, light sidewalks increase this figure
somewhat.
According to Homberg33 , and provided that multiple stay systems are
used, cable-stayed bridges are economically more advantageous than
suspension bridges for spans of as much as 1600-2600 ft (490-800 m).
The cable-stayed system is more and more utilized for bridges with
spans ranging from 300 ft to 1000 ft (90-300 m). New bridges are
generally designed with only one box as the main carrying system. This
provides an economical as well as an aesthetical solution. Also, new
solutions incorporating the intermediate supports at the flanking spans at
locations of cable connections may be very economical at a relatively
small cost of the additional supports. Substantial economy in the metal of
main girders may be achieved by introducing variable panel lengths and
reducing thereby the action of local loading.
1.12 Bridge architecture

The design of a modern bridge cannot be confined to a technical
solution only. Aesthetic design has become an essential part of bridge
design and includes the combination of three basic elements: function,
sound structural design and appropriate aesthetic treatment. The above
considerations may be summarized as follows:
(1) Aesthetics refers to natural or created beauty and its effect on our
five senses and emotions. Since the structure primarily affects our
visual sense, the designer must proportion and shape the bridge so
that it is in harmony with the site, as well as a pleasing entity in itself,
and is aesthetically compatible with its location and route. Harmony,
unity, variety and balance are the fundamental elements of aesthetics
of a bridge. These elements are physically produced by proper
shaping and treatment of the component parts of the bridge to give
form, line, shape, light and shadow, texture and color. Factors to be
considered in the aesthetic design are: safety, ecology, compatibility
with the environment, slenderness, lack of mass, continuity of lines
and simplicity of details.
(2) Safety pertains to the human being's sense of security, comfort and
well-being and is an important aesthetic factor. Special safety
measures, bridge railing and pedestrian protection should be given
due aesthetic consideration.
(3) Ecology in bridge design concerns the preservation, maintenance
and restoration of our environment. It is one of the elements that
constitute aesthetics. The surroundings of the proposed bridge site
should be examined to determine the effect the bridge structure

might have on the natural or man-made landscape, existing or future
culture, and the inhabitants. Ground and aerial photos may be taken
along the proposed route which can be an aid in achieving
compatibility with surroundings. Architectural sketches, photo
retouches and models may be made to ascertain the shape and
proportion of the bridge. The component parts must show unity and
order and should have some variety or contrast to relieve monotony.
iI
The overall view of the bridge should appear to be in balance.
(4) Compatibility with environments-the bridge should be shaped and
proportioned in such a way that it is in harmony with its location and
route. The bridge should fit into the surrounding terrain. Steel
bridges should be painted with colors matching the background.
(5) The more slender a bridge is, the more graceful it will look. To
achieve slender appearance, the span/depth ratio of superstructure
and width/height ratio of piers should be kept to a minimum.
Slender towers and the appropriate ratio of span length to pier height
are desirable.
(6) I ~ack of mass-the bridge should not look massive. It is not
necessary that a slender bridge should have little mass.
(7) Continuity of lines means smooth transaction of one part of the
structure to another or of adjoining structures to the bridge. Abrupt
break in continuity lines is not desirable. Handrails or barriers on
bridge and on approaches should be of the same size, shape and
material. Shadow lines should be continuous such that the total
effect is pleasing to the eye.
(8) Simplicity of details-the bridge will look simpler and smooth if it
has fewer miscellaneous pieces or parts. This can be achieved easily
in concrete bridges. However, the same effect can be achieved in
steel bridges. Bearings should be of smaller height so as not to draw
attention. Ornamentation should be limited and the bridge should
afford a clear view of the surroundings.
The introduction of the cable-stayed system is a true pioneering develop-

ment in bridge architecture. Existing cable-stayed bridges are master-
pieces of steel construction. They are pleasing in outline, clean in their
anatomical conception and totally free of meaningless ornamentation.
This is because the design of cable-stayed bridges was governed not only
by financial, practical and technical requirements, but also, to a great
extent, by aesthetic and architectural considerations. In the design of
modern cable-stayed bridges, one objective is to produce an aesthetically
appealing bridge which blends with its surroundings.
These bridges are truly representative of modern times. They are the
product of engineering science, which is continuously advancing in
accordance with its own laws and has been given form and substance by
the twentieth century engineer.
In span after span, designers have demonstrated that beauty in cable-
stayed bridges can be obtained without sacrificing either utility or
economy. The new, slender and elegant bridge forms were created with
steel and mathematics in a combination of strength and beauty.
From an aesthetic point of view, cable-stayed bridges have a pleasing
shape, as they clearly reveal the function of the cables and towers and
because the cables, due to their small perimeter, are very unobtrusive in
the overall appearance of the bridge.
It should be noted that at the present time, the structural system of
cable-stayed bridges in their numerous variants is coming into promi-
nence. The thinking and daring exemplified by these bridges constitute
one of the most important contributions to the development of modern
bridge engineering.
The most striking feature about cable-stayed bridges built during the
last decade is not their technical features, though without them their new
look would not be possible, but their elegant form and the way in which
they have been blended with the landscape. Some of these notable
bridges have been constructed by engineers in close collaboration with
architects and town planners. Each in his own sphere has striven to give
of his best in a joint venture, so that as a team they have been able to
achieve a work which excels that which each would have contributed
individually.
It may be stated that most of the modern cable-stayed bridges gener-
ally satisfy the six classical principles of aesthetics set down by Vitruvius 34
as they apply to bridge architecture:
(1) Order-or harmony of scale, material and detail, considering ele-

ments and the whole structure.
(2) Arrangement-or expression of function which is the basis of good
design.
(3) Eurythmy-or element of beauty resulting from fitting adjustment of
members.
(4) Symmetry-or proper balance of parts, considering the ratio of height
of opening to span and of width of structure to span.
(5) Propriety-or honesty in design and lack of deception. The best
bridge designs have always a certain simplicity.
(6) Economy-considering cost, efficiency and lack of superfluity.
A comparison of cable-stayed bridges indicates that a layout of the

radial system does not always provide the most attractive solution, es-
pecially where a double-plane system is employed. The harp arrangement
of parallel cables is preferable here, as the unsightly intersections in the
lines of the cables produced by the radial cable arrangement are avoided.
Towers are the most conspicuous part of the bridge, being visible
from many points on land and river. It is therefore important to give
them appropriate aesthetic treatment. The guiding motive usually is
structural simplicity and harmonious proportions. The height is deter-
mined by the clear height of the deck above water at the center, the depth
of the deck structure and the selected arrangement and inclination of the
cables.
The surfaces of the towers may be given a pleasing appearance by an
appropriate choice of form and by constructing their sections economic-
ally, using only metal required for structural reasons.
Architecturally free standing towers have a pleasant appearance, es-
pecially when only two towers are used along the longitudinal center line
of the bridge. This system is particularly attractive because in elevation
there is no intersection of the lines of the cables, and the road user has
an unobstructed view from the bridge on one side.
The aesthetic effect produced by cable-stayed bridges may be better
understood by further analysis of a few outstanding bridges of this new
type of construction.
References
1. Landstrom, B., Sailing Ships, Doubleday, New York, 1969. .

2. Mehrtens, G. C., Vorlesungen iiber lngenieur-Wissenschaften, Zweiter
Teil-Eisenbriickenbau, Erster Band, W. Engelmann, Leipzig, 1908.
3. Faustus Verantius, Machinae novae Fausti Verantii, Venice, 1617.
4. Li:ischer, C. T., Angabe einer ganz besondern Hiingewerksbriicke, die
mit weniger und schwachem Hotze, ohne im Bogen geschlossen, sehr
weit iiber einer Fluss kann gespannt werden, die grossten Lasten triigt
und j(Jr den stiirksten Eisfahrten sic her ist, Leipzig, 1784.
5. Drewry, C. S., A Memoir on Suspension Bridges, Longman, Rees,
Orme, Brown, Green and Longman, London, 1832, p. 24.
6. Drewry, C. S., A Memoir on Suspension Bridges, Longman, Rees,
Orme, Brown, Green and Longman, London, 1832, pp. 25-26.
7. Navier, C. L., Report et Memoire sur les Ponts Suspendus, de l'Im-
primerie Royale, Paris, 1823, p. 8.
8. Navier, C. L., Report et Memoire sur les Ponts Suspendus, de l'Im-
primerie Royale, Paris, 1823, p. 10.
9. Anonymous, Die Nienburger Briicke, Verh. d. Ver. Z. Befi:ird d.
Gewerbefl. in Preussen, 1826, p. 65.
10. Motley, T., 'On a Suspension Bridge Over the Avon, Twerton',
Mechanics' Magazine, London, 29 (790), 468, September 1838.
11. Lentze, K., Bemerkungen iiber die groszern Briickenbauwerke in

Frankreich, England und Ireland, aufeiner Reise im Winter 1844-1845
gesammelt, Verh. d. Ver. Z. Beford d. Gewerbefl. in Preussen, 1846,
p. 88.
12. Tyrrell, H. G., History of Bridge Engineering, published by the
author, Chicago, 1911, p. 126.
13. Clive, T. H., 'Mr. Clive's System of Constructing Suspension
Bridges', Mechanics' Magazine, London, 39 (1050), 225-227, 23
September, 1843.
16. Steinman, D. B., The Builders ofthe Bridge, Harcourt, Brace, New
York, 1950.
17. de Nansouty, M. 'Road-Bridge over the Rhone at Lyons', Proc. lnst.
Civil Engineers, London, 108, 430-432, 1892.
18. Leinekugel le Cocq, G., 'Bonhomme Suspension Bridge over the
Blavet', Proc. Instn. civ. Engs, 162 (4), 436-437, 1905.
19. Gisclard, A. V., 'Note sur un nouveau type de pont suspendu rigide',
Annis Pants Chauss., 1899-1900.
20. Leinekugel le Cocq, G., Pants Suspendus, tomes 1 and 2, Octave
Doin et Fils, Paris, 1911.
21. Dischinger, F., 'Hangebriicken fiir schwerste Verkehrslasten',
Bauingenieur, No.3, 65-75, 1949; No.4, 107-113,1949.
22. Leonhardt, F. and Zellner, W., 'Cable-Stayed Bridges-Report on
Latest Developments', Canadian Structural Engineering Conference,
Toronto, February 16-17, 1970.
23. Wenk, H., 'Die Stromsundbriicke (The Stromsund Bridge)', Stahl-
bau, 23 (4), 73-76, 1954.
24. Thul, H., 'Cable-Stayed Bridges in Germany', Proceedings of the
Conference on Structural Steelwork Association Ltd., 1966, pp. 66-81.
25. Simpson, C. V. ]., 'Modern long span steel bridge construction in
Western Europe', Proc. lnstn. civ. Engs, London, Suppl. II, 1970.
26. Podolny, W., Jr. and Fleming,]. F., 'Cable-Stayed Bridges-A State
of the Art', Preprint 1346, ASCE National Water Resources
Engineering Meeting, Phoenix, Arizona, 11-15 January, 1971, p. 30.
27. Haupt, W., 'Die Mitteltragebriicke', Bautechnik, 25, 25, 60, 1948;
'Mitteltragebriicken', Z. Ver. dt. lng., 95, 511, 1953.
28. American Institute of Steel Construction, Design Manual for Ortho-
tropic Steel Plate Deck Bridges, New York, 1963.
29. Troitsky, M. S., Orthotropic Bridges Theory and Design, The James
F. Lincoln Arc Welding Foundation, Cleveland, Ohio, 1967; second
printing, 1968.
30. Gimsing, N.]., Cable Supported Bridges, Concept and Design, John
Wiley & Sons, New York, 1983, pp. 173-174; 186-194.
31. Taylor P. R., 'Cable-Stayed Bridges and Their Potential in Canada',
Engineering Journal, 52 (11), 15-21, 1969.
32. Thul, H., 'Cable-Stayed Bridges in Germany', Proceedings of the
Conference on Structural Steelwork, The Institution of Civil Engineers,
September 66-81, 1966, London, England.
33. Hamberg, H., 'Progress in German Steel Bridge Construction',
Report on Steel Congress 1964 of the High Authority ofthe European
Economic Community.
34. Vitruvius, The Ten Books on Architecture, translated by M. H. Mor-
gan, Dover Publications, New York, 1960, pp. 13-16.
Chapter 2
Typical Steel Bridges
Previously built structures and the application of new materials, construc-

tion and erection techniques and improved methods of structural
analysis, resulted in the development of the modern cable-stayed bridges
reviewed below.
2.1 Two-plane bridges
Several typical bridges of the two-plane type, either completed or in the

course of construction, are described below in chronological order.
2.1.1 Stromsurzd Bridge, Sweden
Fig. 2.1 View of In this bridge 1 2 the main girder is continuous over three spans of 245,
Striimsund Bridge, Sweden 600 and 245 ft (75, 183 and 75 m) (Fig. 2.1). The girders are supported
TYPI CAL STEI-.1. BRIDGES 43
Fig. 2.2 Stromsund

Bridge, general
arrangement
4)'
11! I k
I
I
I
I I
IIIJ
Fig. 2.3 (bdow) View of
I I
56'
I North Bridge, DUsseldorf,
Germany
by groups of prestressed cables passing over the tops of towers on the main
piers. The stay system, in the form of radial cables, consists of two upper
and two lower cables immovably anchored together at the top of the tower.
The towers were built as trapezoidal frames, hinged at the base to allow
rocking movements in the longitudinal direction of the bridge. The cables
are anchored to the main girders by means of double web anchor beams,
with the four cable ends of one set of stays held in one block of cast steel.
The deck structure consists of a reinforced concrete slab supported by
stringers and cross-beams (Fig. 2.2). The depth of the stiffening plate
girders is 10ft 6 in (3.2 m) or lsof the span.
2.1.2 North Bridge, Dusseldorf, Germany
This bridge, built in 1958 in Germany, was the first long span cable-
stayed bridge 3 4 (Fig. 2.3). The river part of this bridge consists of
continuous suspended box girders over three spans of 354, 853 and 354ft
(108, 260 and 108m).
The cables, in a harp configuration, are in two planes supported by
single towers 134ft (40.9 m) high, which are built into the deck structure.
The tower saddle for the center cable is fixed, but the saddles for the
Fig. 2.4 North Bridge,
upper and lower cables are supported on rocker type bearings.
general arrangement
I n
0 0
-
N
--"'
.1 0 a
-
1 l .J.
57. 7'
--- n ~
I
---- ---
TYPIC\!. STELL BR!D(iES 45
The cross-section of the deck consists of two box-shaped main girders

II ft (3.37 m) high and 5 ft 3 in (1.60 m) wide. The orthotropic steel deck
consists of a steel plate 196 in (14.3 mm) thick, stiffened by 8 x 4 x 176 in
(203 x I 02 x Il.l mm) angles spaced at I6 in (0.4I m) and supported by
cross beams spaced at 6ft (1.83 m) intervals (Fig. 2.4).
In addition to a 47ft (14.3 m) wide roadway, 6ft (1.83 m) bicycle paths
and 7 ft (2.I4 m) pedestrian walks of reinforced concrete run along both
sides, making the total width between railings 85ft (25.9 m).
The superstructure is partly welded and partly riveted.
2.1.3 Severin Bridge, Cologne, Germany
One of the most spectacular examples of the cable-stayed system is a

2300 ft (700 m) suspended structure, the Severin Bridge in Cologne 5- 9
(Fig. 2.5).
In this bridge, one continuous box type girder of a very slender ap-
pearance spans the river. Aesthetic considerations featured prominently in
selecting the final form. A single A-frame tower and one continuous box
type girder combine beauty with economy. The sober lines of the bridge
harmonize completely with the old city and the towers of the famous
Cathedral.
The superstructure consists of a six-span continuous beam with a
length of I6I+292+I57+990+494+172 ft (49.1+89.0+47.9+
302.0+ I50.7 + 52.5 m).
The two largest spans are stiffened by a system of I2 cables intersecting
at the top of the tower. The cables converge at one point at the apex of the
triangle, which is advantageous to the three-dimensional structural action
and gives the bridge a closed, restful appearance with no distracting
intersections.
In cross-section, the bridge consists of two box-type main girders
IO ft 6 in (3.2 m) wide with the deck plate spanning between them, and
cantilevered sidewalks (Fig. 2.6). The depth of the box-sections varies
from approximately 10ft (3.0 m) at the ends of the bridge to I5 ft (4.6 m)
in the largest span.
The total width of the bridge is 97ft (29.6 m). It comprises a 65ft 6 in
(20.0 m) roadway, two 7 ft 5 in (2.3 m) bicycle paths, and two 9 ft 10 in
(30 m) sidewalks.
The i in (9.5 mm) thick deck plate is stiffened by longitudinal flat bar
ribs spaced at I2 in (0.305 m) centers and transverse floor beams, spaced
6ft 7 in (2.0I m) apart. Transverse diaphragms are provided at intervals
of I30-230 ft (39.6-70.1 m).
There is a 2ft 6 in (0. 76 m) deep stiffener along the center line to distri-
bute unsymmetrical loads. The tower legs are made up of hollow box
Fig. 2.5 View of Severin

Bridge, Cologne, Germany
Fig. 2.6 Severin Bridge,

general arrangement
~
9.8' I 7 . 4' 62 . 3'

1
I I
l J
"I
J
\
"'
...
0
!
~
- I
~. 5 l 1o. 5' I 62.8'
TYPICAL STEEL BRIDGES 47
Fig. 2.7 View of the

George Srreet Bridge aL
'ewport, Wales
, Fig. 2.8 The George

Street Bridge, general
arrangement
'h ..
61 '-0"
r- I W-0" I 24'-0" I .
H! :l~I:I!f:l! t:t:W:w: ~~
sections anchored in concrete at the bottom and rigidly joined at the top.
Inside, the boxes are reinforced by a system oflongitudinal and transverse
stiffeners.
The suspension spans are composed of 45 sections varying in length
from 47 to 53ft (14.3~ 16.2 m). The box girders and deck for each section
were shop-welded.
2.1.4 The George Street Bridge at Newport, Gwent, Wales
The first major cable-stayed bridge in Britain was the George Street
Bridge over the Usk River 1 0 11 opened to traffic in 1964 (Fig. 2. 7).
The 500ft (152 m) steel central span is supported from hollow rein-
forced concrete towers, by wire ropes which pass over rollers within the
towers, and which are anchored at the concrete side spans on piers at a
55ft 6 in (16.9 m) spacing. The weight of the concrete anchor spans thus
serves to counter the live and dead loads on the steel center span.
The reinforced concrete towers, each 170ft (52 m) above high water,
taper upward from a 13ft 6 in by 14ft (4.12 by 4.27 m) base section to
10ft by 7ft (3.05 by 2.14 m) at the top. The wall thickness varies from
18 in (0.46 m) at the base to 6 in (0.15 m) at the top. Since the stresses are
wholly compressive, concrete was chosen for the towers. The provision
of three levels of support points in each tower leads to considerable
economy in the cable length required for the structure.
In order to provide the required clearance, the main span is a cellular
steel box design of shallow construction. The cable layout presents a well-
distributed support for the steel box deck, thus minimizing longitudinal
bending stresses.
In cross-section, the deck consists of two steel edge boxes 38 ft 4 in long
by 5 ft wide by 3ft 10 in deep (11.68 by 1.52 by 1.17 m), with infilling
transverse boxes. The top and bottom flange plates of the deck are
stiffened by welded closed type ribs running longitudinally (Fig. 2.8).
The design of the top deck plate presented an unusual problem in that
it had simultaneously to sustain longitudinal and lateral compressive
forces, and heavy wheel loads at any position. A 4 in (0.10 m) thick
reinforced concrete slab is provided over this deck plate.
The theoretical dead load tensions required are not the same as the
actual rope tensions set in the computed bridge. The reason for the
difference is that the rope tensions have been adjusted to produce bene-
ficial post-stressing in the steel-box structure, after completion. By this
method, it has been possible to produce a reasonably even stress envelope
for all loading conditions-that is, the maximum longitudinal bending
stresses at midspan are approximately the same as the maximum com-
bination of direct and bending stresses which occur elsewhere in the steel.
1\ l'lt. \I. SH.I I IIKII>(,I S 49
Fig. 2.9 Vie" ofS1 Florem Bridge, Fr3nce
29'-9"
t- 19' -II"
1 I
I
-'
N
2 1 -0 11
Fig. 2.10 S1 Floren! Bridge, gener3l arnngemenl

Fig. 2.11 View ofRees Bridge, Germany
2.1.5 St Floren! Bridge, France
This bridge, built in 1969, crosses the south arm of the Loire River at
Saint-Florent-le-Vieil, France 12 13 (Fig. 2.9).
It has two spans each of 340ft (104m). The main support is formed by
the river pier, which is surmounted by a portal type tower, supporting the
stay cables arranged in a radial pattern on each side. The stay cables are
disposed in the vertical plane of each side girder. They are arranged in
three radiating bundles which converge at the top of the portal frame.
Each bundle comprises two identical cables.
The bridge deck is formed by two solid web side girders interconnected
by cross-girders (Fig. 2.10). The deck plate is an all-welded structure
extending in one continuous length of 682 ft (208 m) between abutments
and supports the reinforced concrete deck slab.
2.1.6 Rees Bridge, Germany
This bridge, built near Rees in I 967, has a multi-cable system supporting
the main span of 837 ft (255 m) and side spans each 341 ft (104 m)
long14. 15. 16 (Fig. 2.11).
The cables are formed in two planes outside the roadway and are
supported from single towers built into the piers. The cable stay system is
n PICAI. STEI-.1. IIRID(il.<; 51
;:...
'
Fig. 2.12 Recs Bridge, general arrangement
fig. 2. 13 View of Ludwigshafen Bridge, Germany

in the form of a multi-stringed harp, having ten stays, one above the other,
on each side of the tower.
This arrangement is a result of the desire to achieve structurally simpler
transmission of the forces acting in the cables to the main girder. The
latter is thus no longer suspended at a few isolated points but, instead, has
something very much like a continuous elastic support from the stay
system.
The cross-section consists of two main plate girders, 11!ft (3.5 m) deep,
and spaced 62ft (18.9 m) apart, spanning between which is an orthotropic
roadway deck (Fig. 2.12).
The stiffening in the deck is of interest in that so-called 'tension bands'
are introduced transversely between the normal T -section transverse
stiffeners, and a more effective transverse distribution oflocal wheel loads
is thereby achieved.
2.1.7 Ludwigshafen Bridge, Germany
This bridge, erected in 1968, is situated over a new railroad station in

Ludwigshafen 1 7 ' 18 and has an unusual central double A-frame tower
supporting two equal central spans of 453ft (138m) (Fig. 2.13).
The cables converge at the tower top and are rigidly anchored into a
rhomboid-shaped box anchorage mounted at the apex of the A-frame.
The deck structure comprises two web-plate girders 8 ft 2 in (2.49 m)
deep, spaced at 54ft 9 in (16.70 m) and supporting the orthotropic deck,
stiffened with box type ribs (Fig. 2.14).
26' -3"
11'-2" -1 11'-lQII
Fig. 2.14 Ludwigshafen Bridge, general arrangement

rig. 2.15 (ub(lt't) \'ie\\ ol
"- n1c Undgc, Dusseldorf,
German} : (bdoll') The
h. n1c Undge under
con~truction
2.1.8 Knie Bridge, Germany
The Knie Bridge at Dusseldorf spans the Rhine with a single long span of
1050 ft (320 m/ 9 20 21 (Fig. 2.15).
Five shorter spans, 160ft (48 m) each, comprise the approach on the
left bank. An asymmetrical scheme was chosen largely because of site
conditions.
The towers, which are 312ft (95 m) high, each support four parallel
cables rigidly anchored at each of the four flood. span piers._ The cable
anchorages on both the side and main spans are formed from sloping box
structures which cantilever out from the webs of the two main plate
girders. The towers are of reinforced concrete, having dimensions of28 ft
by 21 ft 4 in (8.54 by 6.50 m) at the base, and 10ft 10 in by 9ft 2 in (3.30
by 2.80 m) at the top.
The anchorages for all four cables are placed outside the main girder
webs, while the cables are supported in saddle bearings which allowed
limited movement during erection, but were fixed when completed.
The cables on the rear side of the two single towers anchor to the
approach span girders at pier locations, while on the other side they con-
nect to the main span. In order to eliminate any uplift in the short span, the
girders are fixed to the piers, so, in effect, the cables are also connected to
fixed points.
The aerodynamic stability of the towers was checked in the wind tunnel
at the National Physical Laboratory, London, both for the various stages
of erection and in the final form. With this bridge, additional components
Fig. 2.16 Knie Bridge, general arrangement
1-
I 9 6 ' - 2 ' _ '-
74 I -1"
i1
TYPICAL STEEL IJRIDGES 55
of vertical wind loads, the magnitude of which is comparable to horizontal

wind loads, also have to be taken into account.
An orrhotropic deck plate spans between the plate girders and provides
for six lanes of traffic, a sidewalk, and a cycle track (Fig. 2.16).
2.1. 9 Saint-Nazttire Bridge, France
This bridge, completed in 1974, over the Loire River, France2223 , is

currently one of the longest cable-stayed bridges in the world, ''~th a
main span of 1325 ft (404 m) (Fig. 2.17). The central length is 236 1 ft
(720 m), and divided into three spans supported by stay-cables arranged
in sloping planes. The steel deck of the bridge has the streamline shape
of box-section girder, of welded steel plate, 49 ft (14.8 m) wide, and
supports a 39ft 4 in (12m) wide carriageway, with two footways of2 ft 9
in (0.87 m) \\;dth, each.
The deck plating, side plates and bottom plates are all stiffened by ribs
of pressed-steel throughing, and welded end-to-end. At intervals of 13 ft
(4 m), the diaphragms of the ribbed steel plate, each \\~th a suitable way
through, prevent any deformation of the ~ox girders. The steel plating
varies, in thickness, fromTI in (12 mm) to% in (16 mm), but some parts,
including the lugs for attaching the stay cables, are of 80 mm thick metal.
The structure is welded throughout, apart from the site-erection joints
between the 52 ft 6 in (16 m) lengths of the central span, for which some
junctions, notably those in the webs, arc made with high-strength bolts.
Pig. 2.17 \'i~\\ of th~

Saint-1\:azaire Bridge,
Prance
To help with the calculations for the structure, certain very exacting
aerodynamic investigations were undertaken, with wind-tunnel testing
being conducted. These investigations showed that despite the stream-
lined shaped of the box girder, it was possible that, for certain wind
velocities, mostly quite moderate movements could be set up, which
might cause some qualms for those using the bridge; and that the fitting
of deflector plates for those part lengths of the deck structure
considerably reduced this effect, so that these fins were added to the
structure.
A carriageway paving, to a thickness of 6 em (2 1/z in) of special com-
position for orthotropic decks was laid.
Regarding the hollow-deck units, the method of assembly was the
same, whether for the 52 ft 6 in (16 m) lengths of the main central span
or for those of 518 ft (15 8 m) for the two approach spans. The work
was started on fixed templates, where 16ft 6 in (4.5 m) lengths of the side
parts were spot-welded together. These included the footway and the
upper and lower side-plating, with diaphragms at 13 ft: (4 m) centers.
The welds were then run to full-length, and to full-section on a tilting
framework. These assembled units were then welded to bottom plates,
mounted, for this purpose, onto a gantry and adjusted to the required
camber. Finally, they were butt-jointed end-to-end, to give their 314 ft
10 in (158 m) lengths. The work was then completed by inserting
additional diaphragms and fixing the deck-plating.
Much thought has been given to the surface protection of the
structure, and a method was found which promised 10-years' resistance
to the aggressive Atlantic atmosphere.
Inside the box girders, the treatment consisted only of zinc-based
paint on previously shot-blasted steel plate. Externally, the priming coats
were of zinc-rich paint, followed by an undercoat which was epoxy-resin
based, and then an acrylic finishing coat. The footways were surfaced
with a screening of epoxv-silicon

composition, _!_
16
in (1.6 mm) thick laid
onto a course of epoxy pitch .
.The towers set up on the main piers appear as inverted V-shapes
having a height of 223 ft (68 m) above the piers. The tower legs have a
cross-section of 8.2 X 6.6 ft (2.5 X 2.0 m) in welded plate, adequately
stiffened. The vertical extension above the two box-section legs of the
tower is fitted with steel gusset plates, for attaching the stay cables (Fig.
2.18). The stay cables, arranged in sloping planes, are attached at the top
to thick steel gusset plates, fixed to either side of the top length of the
towers. At the top as well as at the lower ends, forked roller bearings
form hinged connections between the stays and their fastening points.
The steel wire ropes of locked-coil type have a core of round strands
with three or four enclosing layers of z-shaped strands, the two other
layers being galvanized. These cables vary in diameter from 2 ~ in
I
(72 mm) to 4 ""if m (105 mm) according to their location in the Fig. 2.18 Saint-l\'azaire
Bridge, general
superstructure. arrangement
2.1.1 0 Kohlbrand Bridge, W Germany
This cable-stayed bridge was erected in the Port of Hamburg in

1975 2+-26 . The central span of the bridge is 1066 ft (325 m) and the
flanking spans are 319ft (97.5 m) (Fig. 2.19).
The stiffening girder has a trapezoidal box form, 11 ft 4 in (3.45 m)
58 CABLE-STAYED URIDGES
Fig. 2.19 \ie\1 of

Kohlbrand Bridge, \\'es1
German}
high , having a top chord 57ft 5 in (17.6 m) wide and a bottom chord 19ft
7 in (5. 98 m) _wide. Its orthotropic deck consists of steel plate, having a
thickness of TI in (12 mm) at its roadway, and 1. in (9.5 mm) at both of
its sidewalks. x
The deck-plate is stiffened by longitudinally trape~oidall) -shaped
ribs, 5 t in (143 mm) high, and its wall thickness is TI in (5.6 mm).
Cross-beams arc spaced apart ar 6ft 5 in (1.95 m) and 7 fr (2.13 m). The
deck surfacing consists of 2 ~ in (70 mm) thick asphalt.
Two towers ha\'e the A-shape and two trans\'erse beams. The ends of
the cables are connected to the upper straight parts of the towers (Fig.
2.20). The ca~les arc of patent type \\ith diameters ranging from 2* in
(5-t mm) to -t-17; in (110 mm) and a strength of 120 kp mm 2.
2.1.11 Bridge rnw the River Duepr, L'SSR
The na,igablc part of the RiYcr Dncpr in KicY17 is spanned with a cable-
Sta) ed bridge ha,ing a central span of 98-t ft (300 m), a single tower and
fan-shaped double-plane bracing system (Fig. 2.21).
319 1 -0 11
I 1705'- 8"
57' -5"
52'- 6"
I~-~
28'- 2 11
Fig. 2.20 Kohlbrand

The steel stiffening girder, 11 ft 10 in (3.6 m) high, in cross-section Bridge, general
consists of two boxes connected by the orthotropic plate of the bridge arrangement
floor, with diaphragms installed every 41 ft (12.5 m). The longitudinal

ribs are made of orthotropic plate.
The bridge tower is an A-shaped hollow reinforced concrete frame
with separate pier footings for each leg (Fig. 2.22). The bracing cables
are formed of 91 parallel zinc-coated wire ~ in (5 mm) in diameter.
Each bracing cable consists of 20 to 40 ropes.
2.1.12 Rokko Ohhashi Bridge, Japan II'I

tl
I
The Rokko Ohhashi Bridge is a cable-stayed structure with a 722 ft

(220 m) center span, and two side spans each of 295 ft (90 m), and links
Rokko Island with the Kobe 2H (Fig. 2.23). This bridge was designed as a
double-deck six-lane road bridge.
60 CABLE- STAYED BRIDGES
Pig. 2.2 1 \ 'ie" of

Dncpr River Bridge,
USSR
I
I z II $1.$'
42.2$'
~IO'i"~iJ
1 16. 4' 1 I
Pig. 2.22 Dncpr River

Bridge, genera l
arrangement
Fig. 2.23 \'icw of 1he

Rokko 13ridgc, Japan
The main \Varren trusses are continuous over three spans and
supported by the fan-type arranged cables. Both upper and lower steel
deck plates bonded to the chord members of the main truss act as part of
its flange and participate in CarlJ~ng the bending moments in the main
truss. The deck plates arc supported only on cross-girders with a spacing
of 8ft 2in (2.5 m). The cross-girders are rigidly connected with the steel
deck, and arc supported as simple girders on the chord members.
Because the steel plate decks act as the top and bottom flanges of the
main truss and provide a large sectional area, the following problems
were investigated:
(I) Shear Jag phenomena in the orthotropic plates have been taken into
account for not only the overall bending of the truss but also for the
local bending of chord members as continuous beams over
equidistant supports.
(2) The axial forces transmitted from the cables and the diagonal
members were distributed through the orthotropic plat~s. F rom the
results of the above investigation the effective widths of the
orthotropic plates were determined for both overall and local
bending.
Each pylon has a modified H -shape \\~th a pair of legs spread towards
the supports. The cross-section is a 6ft 7 in X 7 ft 2 in (2.0 X 2.2m) box
with a maximum plate thickness of32 mm. The upper parts of the pylons
are designed to have the same transverse distance in between as the top
chord members in order to have the cables inclined transversally. The
pylons are simply supported on the shoes, fixed at intermediate piers, so
as to permit the rotation of the bases in the longitudinal direction, but to

prevent it in the transverse direction (Fig. 2.24).
The cables are made up of shop-fabricated parallel-wire strands
arranged in a closed form of a hexagon comprising 217 wires of ~ in
(5 mm) diameter. Five-fold cables are used on both sides of each tower,
constituting a fan configuration. All cables were first installed in a
temporary state. After the supports of the truss superstructure were
erected, the required prestresses were introduced by lowering the
supports after attachment of all the cables. The cables ae protected
against corrosion by means of a plastic wrapping ~ in (2 mm) thick
consisting of polyethylene film reinforced with glass fibers.
Wind tunnel tests were carried out to certifY the aerodynamic stability
of the superstructure under wind forces by using a sectional model as
well as a bridge model. No vortex oscillation with limited amplitude was
observed in all tests. Some torsional oscillations due to flutter were
observed at a critical wind velocity above 85 m/s.
Rokko Island Port of Kobe

197' 295' 722' 295' 197'
623'
1345-'
7.5' 45.3 1 7.5'
-y------r-----_11 1 it
in
"'
<0
79'
Fig. 2.24 Rokko

Bridge, general
arrangement
2.1.13 Zarate-Erazo Largo Bridges, Argentina
In 1978 the Zarate-Brazo Largo System of bridges was finished

providing both road and rail links across the Parana River 29 The system
consists of two bridges across the two arms of the Parana River. The two
bridges are 18.6 miles apart and each bridge carries a four-lane highway
and one railway line. Each bridge has a center span of 1082 ft (330 m)
and two side spans each of 360 ft (110 m) (Fig. 2.25).
Fig. 2.25 Zarate-Brazo

Largo Bridge, general
arrangement
~I----
.
.,ci "'"'
"'
...
! I
li II il li il II II ,I
i
The trapezoidal box girder has an orthotropic deck stiffened by box

I
type ribs. The concrete towers are 394ft (114.5 m) high above river level
and are of variable rectangular hollow section and were built using
sliding forms. They arc composed of two columns linked together by a
reinforced concrete girder at deck level and a steel cross at the top.
Between the bridge deck and the reinforced concrete girder of each
tower, there are hydraulic dampers allowing longitudinal movement,
which operate as sliding bearings for slowly-applied loads and as fixed
bearings for rapidly-applied loads. At the same level there are also sliding
compressible bearings controlling transverse movements without
restricting longitudinal movements.
64 CADLE-STAYED BRIDGES
Each bridge has a suspension system-stay cables consisting of I+4

TI
Hi-Am cables" ith a maximum of 337 \\ire!> of diameter in (7 mm)-
supporting a railway and dual lane road.
2. 1.I-+ 1}ijm Bridge, Stveden
This bridge across Askerofjord has a cable-stayed steel main span of

1200 ft (366 m), concrete approach \iaducts with spans of 37 1 f't 7 in
(12-+ m) and -+79 ft II in (156.6 m), and concrete towers 3031 (Fig. 2.26).
Fig. 2.26 \ 'icw of the

Tjiirn Bridge, S"cdcn
The deck has a clear width of -+9ft (15.75 m) comprising a roadwa) of

three lanes and a combined sidewalk and cycle track. The orrhotropic
deck surfaced with asphalt is supported b) a \\elded rectangular bo'
girder of width 27ft II in (8.5m) and height 9ft lOin (3m) and with f1oor
H
beams at 13 ft (4 m) centres. The in (12 mm) deck plate of the box and
its cantilever extensions as well as the bottom plate are stiffened by
trapezoidal ribs and the webs by angles.
The supcrstructme is longitudinally anchored at the abutment of the
eastern viaduct, while transverse forces arc transmitted to the founda-
tions at the towers and the abutments.
The concrete towers ha,e two parallel legs of constant cross-c;ection
13 X Hft 9in (-+ X 4.5 m), connected by cross-beams at two leYels. The
two legs were cast simultaneously by slip-forming in two stages. Steel
anchorages for the cables are attached in recesses at four le,els of each
tower leg (Fig. 2.27).
I 51.7'
!, ..~.y
1
1~-.1
, 11,9' 27.9 II. 9
Main span
51.7'
Fru=TI9,,.j
[( "'
Side spans
.I
Section B. B
Fig. 2.27 Tjiirn Bridge,
general arrangement
The stay cables, located outside the superstructure, each consist of

*
two strands of the locked coil type, of diameter 3 - 4 in (77 - 108 mm),
with hot galvanized (1600 N/mm 2) wires. The strands are anchored
individually to facilitate their replacement.
Apart from the wind-tunnel tests carried out in connection with the
design, the structural damping of the main span was determined by tests
of the erected bridge by sudden release of static loading.
2.1.15 Kessock Bridge, Scotland
The highway Kessock Bridge, finished in 1982, spans the navigation

channel between Inverness Harbour and the Caledonian Canal 32 33 . The
I
navigation span is 782 ft (240 m) with a clear headroom of 95 ft (29 m).

There are seven spans of 275-262 ft (84-80 m) on the south side and
five spans of 197-262 ft (60-80 m) on the north side. The overall length
of the bridge is 3450 ft (1052 m) (Fig. 2.28).
In cross-section the deck is of the orthotropic type consisting of steel
plate with longitudinal trapezoidal stiffeners and supported by two lOft
10 in (3.3 m) deep plate girders at the outer edges, with cross-girders at
13 ft (4 m) centers. The completed deck was surfaced with mastic
asphalt.
The total width of 71 ft 11 in (21. 92 m) between the parapets consists
of a 6ft 5 in (1.95 m) central reservation, two 23 ft 11 in (7.30 m) wide
roadways, two 2 ft 11 in (0.885 m) outer guidance strips and two 5 ft 11
in (1.80 m) footpaths.
The two towers have a modified A-shape and extend 351 ft (107m)
above the top of the concrete pier. Each leg of the tower is a nine-cell
steel box tapered in both the longitudinal and transverse directions. High
strength weathering steel has been used in the fabrication.
3450' between bearing centres
North E.
Navigational clearance
only at supports
77.15' I
Fig. 2.28 Kessock

Bridge, general
arrangement
Cable stays are in two planes in line with the tower legs. Three groups
of stay cables arc attached to the top of each tower in a fan arrangement.
The cables are rigidly connected to the cross-girders and to the tower
tops. Each stay consists of two or four cables arranged about 2 ft (0.6 m)
apart. Each cable is a bundle of ~ in (6 mm) diameter steel wires placed
inside a polyethylene tube to protect against corrosion during slipping
and erection. Once the full dead load was in place, the tubes were filled
with a special cement grout as further protection.
2.1.16 lvlississippi Rirer Bridge, Luling, USA
This cable-stayed steel bridge spanning the M ississippi River in the delta
area near New Orleans, at Luling, was opened for traffic in 1983 3u s.
This stretch of the river is navigable by ocean-going vessels requiring a
horizontal clearance of 1200 ft (366 m) and a vertical clearance of 133 ft
(40.5 m). The main span of the bridge was set as 1220 ft (372 m) and
side spans of 508 ft (155 m) and 495 ft (151 m) together with adjacent
spans of 259 ft (79 m) (fig. 2.29).
rig. 2.29 \ 'iew of the

Luling 13ridge, USA
The deck carries four traffic lanes and a 2 ft 6 in (0. 7m) median
barrier for a total width gutter to gutter of 79 ft (24 m). A steel
orthotropic deck is supported by two longitudinal trapezodial box girders
spaced 39 ft (I 1. 9 m) apart.
The metalwork is high-strength weathering steel. The wearing surface
+
is 2 in (57 mm) of epoxy asphalt. To eliminate the possibility of vortex
shedding and to improve aerodynamic stability in steady wind, a fairing
plate was added to the main span.
The towers are internally stiffened box members with dimensions of 5
ft 3 in (1.60 m) in the transverse direction and 7 ft 3 in (2.20 m) in the
longitudina l direction of the bridge, rising 138 ft (42 m) above the bridge
deck (Fig. 2.30).
85'
Fig. 2.30 Luling

Bridge, general
arrangement
The cables are galvanized spiral bridge strands with maximum cable
forces from 738 k (3280 kN) to 497 k (2210 kN), requiring a diameter up
to 3.96 in (101 mm). At lower cable anchorages the vertical cable
components are carried by cantilevers of the cross-girder. The horizontal
cable components are carried by horizontal cantilevers at the level of the
deck plate.
2.1.17 Faro-Folster Bridge, Denmark
This bridge, with symmetrical multi-cable fans and displaced end piers,
was erected in 1985 35 - 38 , with a central span of951 ft (289m) and two
i.
TYPIC\L STEEL BRIDGES 69
side spans each of 394ft (120m) (Fig. 2.31). The end pier is positioned
under the anchor point of the second cable, 52 ft 6 in (16 m) from the
end of the fan. Thus, the three outer cables of the side span can be
regarded as forming the anchor cable.
The steel deck has a box-type cross-section of trapezoidal form 73 ft: 6
in (22.4 m) wide at the top and of height 11.50 ft (3.5 m) reinforced by
longitudinal box-type stiffeners. Both pylons are made of reinforced
concrete, romboidal in shape. The pylon legs have a hollow cross-section
and a hexagonal cross-section at the pier junction.
2.2 One-plane bridges
In one-plane bridges, unsymmetrical loading on the roadway does not

affect the cable load, but is resisted by the great torsional strength and
Fig. 2.31 Faro- Foister

Bridge, general
arrangement
rigidity of the closed box section, resulting in cable economy over a dual-
cable system.
The chief structural element of the bridge structure, apart from its
cables, is the central box girder, chosen for its great torsional strength and
rigidity.
It should be noted that the idea of applying a middle type main carrying
system to bridges originated with Haupt, a German engineer. He pro-
posed similar systems in 194839-42 .
2.2.1 North Elbe Bridge, Germany
In 1962, the North Elbe Bridge, the first bridge with single-plane cables,
was built over the Elbe River in Hamburg. The central span is 565 ft
(172 m) long and the flanking spans each measure 210 ft (64 m) 43 - 51
(Fig. 2.32).
The central towers standing 174 ft' (53 m) above the deck support a
star-shaped configuration of cables which gives the bridge an interesting
appearance. Although the configuration cannot be justified from a purely
economical viewpoint, a visually satisfying solution has been achieved,
which is complemented by the increased height of the tower above the
cable saddles.
The bridge has a cross-section with a central box girder and two single
web girders, one on each side, which are joined at about 72 ft (22 m)
centers by transverse beams (Fig. 2.33). In the side spans, the bottom
flange of the central box is replaced by diagonal bracing. The central box
and side girders are about 10ft (3 m) deep, and the central box web and
plate girder webs are equally spaced at 25.6 ft (7.80 m) centers.
2.2.2 Julirher Street Bridge, Dusseldorf; Germany
The Jiilicher Street crossing, having spans of 105, 325 and 105ft (32, 99
and 32 m) was completed in 1963 (Fig. 2.34). The bridge consists of a
52 53
single box girder supported by a single-plane cable-stay system . The
towers, rising 53 ft (16.2 m) above the deck, are of a rectangular box
section and are both longitudinally and transversely restrained between
the two inner webs of the deck box girder.
In cross-section, the main girder consists of a shallow 4ft 11 in ( 1.50 m)
rectangular box supporting the cantilevers and incorporating a roadway,
cyclist path and sidewalks (Fig. 2.35). The top and bottom plates of the
main girder are stiffened by open type longitudinal ribs.
~!~~ Elbe Bridge,
. 32 Two views of
Germany
37.8' Ill 37.8' I I 5. 8'
''['!! :y];:' { e:t

I I
Fig. 2.33 North Elbe
Bridge, general arrangement I 25.6' I 25.6' 25.6' ... I
2.2.3 Leverkusen Bridge, Germany
This bridge, erected over the Rhine at Leverkusen in 1965, has a single
twin cellular box girder from which sloping struts, which support the
deck, cantilever out 54-56 . The river part of this structure comprises a
continuous suspended box girder over three spans of 347, 920 and 347ft
(106, 281 and 106m) (Fig. 2.36).
Support is provided to the deck by a single-plane system of two sets of
parallel cables dividing each of the side spans into two equal lengths and
the center span into five parts.
The towers rise 147ft (44.8 m) above the bridge deck, and are of rather
unusual design in that they taper towards the base which is built into the
deck structure and is supported on a hinged bearing. By tapering the
tower, a reduction in the required width of the median strip is obtained,
thus providing a substantial saving in cost.
The steel roadway deck is stiffened with triangular shape box ribs, and
the walkway is of reinforced concrete (Fig. 2.37).
2.2.4 The Wye River Bridge, England
The cable-stayed portion of the Wye River Bridge, built in 1966, consists
of a 770 ft (235 m) central span and two 285 ft (87 m) side spans 57 58
(Fig. 2.38). At each end of the central span a single box-section tower,
96 ft (29.3 m) high and pivoted at road level, supports a staying cable,
anchored to the box girder 255 ft (78 m) either side of the tower. The cable
passes into the box girder through a 13ft (3.96 m) wide median strip be-
tween the two lanes and is anchored into a system of diaphragms.
TYPIC \I . STI~F I . BRIDGES 73
Fit,!. 2.34 (a) View ofjlilicher Street Bridge, DUsseldorf, Germany
(b) The Jtilicher Street Bridge under construction

Fig. 2.35 The Jtilicher Street Bridge, general arrangement
223'-10"
532'-6"
The cable itself consists of 20 galvanized wire spiral strands each

approximately 2! in (63.5 mm) in diameter. The strands are arranged in
the form of a truncated equilateral triangle with a horizontal base,
permitting the use of a simple saddle at the tower top and simplifying
erection. The box girder section is 10ft 6 in (3.20 m) deep at the center-
line with a slight fall to either side for run-off. The top of the trapezoidal
section is 43ft (13.2 m) wide and the bottom flange plate is 32ft (9.76 m) in
width (Fig. 2.39).
The deck carries a 13ft (4.0 m) central section, dual24 ft (7.31 m) road-
ways, 12ft (3.66 m) cycle track and 12ft footpath.
The box girder consists of stiffened steel plates with transverse dia-
phragms at 14ft (4.27 m) intervals. The top flange, which also forms the
roadway decking, consists of steel plate stiffened by the trapezoidal
longitudinal ribs. The bottom flange and web plates are stiffened by
single-sided bulb flats.
2.2.5 Bonn-Nord Bridge, Germany
This bridge over the Rhine at Bonn, completed in 1967, has a stay system
in the form of a multi-stringed harp comprising twenty cables strung one
above the other S<J,r,o (Fig. 2.40). A multi-cable single plane system is
T\ I'IC \I. STEEl. llRIDGI'-'i 75
Fig. 2.36 Vie\\ of Le\ c:rkusen Bridge, Germany
fig. 2.37 Le,erLusen Bridge, general arrangement
,-
1
Q.....
~ 320'
L:f::: ~ ~--~ f~
I 347' I
;; .;o 4$0 ,, ....
920'
I
347 ' I 320'
76 C \Bl.F.-ST:\YED URIIXiES
Pig. 2.3S View of the Wye River Bridge, England
260'-0"
1340'-0"
II' -6" I 16'-0" +

Pig. 2.39 The Wye River Bridge., general arrangement
employed to support the main and side spans of 920ft and 393 ft (280 m
and 120m) respectively.
A very striking appearance is given to the bridge by the 20 cables sup-
ported from each tower, which, perhaps because of their small size, do not
appear obtrusive, and thus an overall impression oflightness is achieved.
The cables are formed from single strands varying in diameter from 156 to
H in (7.94 to 11.90 mm) and are fixed immovably in the tower top. The
tower itself splays out below deck level, and is rigidly fixed to the pier with
prestressed anchor rods.
Fig. 2.40 View of Bonn-Nord Bridge, Germany
The deck structure consists of a single box girder from which cantilever
out sloping struts that support the floor (Fig. 2.41).
2.2.6 Maxau Bridge, Germany
The Rhine bridge at Maxau 61 , completed in 1967, is an example of a single

tower central girder bridge, comprising a triple bundle of cables and two
unequal spans of 575ft and 385ft (175m and 117m) respectively (Fig.
2.42). A single tower standing 149ft (45.5 m) high above the deck sup-
ports top and bottom cables by movable bearings. The central bearing,
however, is fixed.
The cables are tensioned by jacking the saddle supports and by lowering
the superstructure at its temporary supports and at the abutments. The
cross-sectional shape of the bridge superstructure is that of a box girder
lOft 6 in (3.20 m) deep, 39ft 4in (12.00 m) wide, with 38ft(l1.60m) wide
cantilevers on each side supported by inclined struts (Fig. 2.43).
The whole superstructure was erected from the right bank of the river
by means of temporary piers. Then the tower followed and the cables
were connected, the uppermost first, using a temporary walkway.
1 -: - - 1_ _:_c39:_::_3_'
- :__7
"_ + 1705'-6"
393'-7"
41 1 -4 11
I -I
Fig. 2.41 Bonn-Nord

Bridge, general arrangement
n I'ICAI . STI.F.I. BRIDGES 79
Fig. 2.42 \ 'ic\\ of ,\ laxau

Uridg-e, Gcnnany
2.2.7 Papineau Bridge, Montreal, Canada
In 1969, the longest North American cable-stayed bridge was completed

across Montreal's Riviere des Prairies 62 - 6 \ having a central span of
790ft (251 m) flanked by sidespans of 295 ft (90 m) (Fig. 2.44).
This is the first bridge on the continent to have its orthotropic decking
supported by cables fastened within the median and draped over single
towers atop the main piers.
The cables are galvanized bridge strands covered with a hot-extruded
polyethylene coating 0.20 in (5 mm) thick to provide a further protection
from weather and highway de-icing salts. The cables were first pre-
stretched and marked in long lengths before being passed through an
extrusion die where the hot coating was applied. The cables were then
cut to length and socketed.
Each outer stay comprises 24 strands of 2 156 in (58.7 mm) diameter
arranged in two bundles of 12 side by side and about 2ft (0.6 m) apart.
The inner stays are similar but use liin (41.3 mm) diameter bridge strand.
The polyethylene coating provides a tough and durable weather protec-
tion and is easily repaired in the event of damage.
A light box girder of high torsional rigidity forms the central spine,
stayed at intervals with cable supports. The spine carries the light but
extremely rigid orthotropic steel deck, designed to reduce deadweight
and cost (Fig. 2.45). Floor beams at 15 ft (4.58 m) centers extending
beyond the central spine receive additional support from raking struts to
the bottom flanges. The main girder has a third web along the centerline
onto which the cables are attached by way of special anchorage assemblies.
A section model of the main span at j 8 scale was tested in the National
Research Council's wind tunnel at Ottawa. The tests indicated the
structural ability to withstand various types of wind load up to 120 mph
(200 kph).
Research into 13 different types of paving material included fatigue
tests on asphalt compounds to simulate the effect of 10 years of automobile
traffic. Materials were also tested under temperatures varying from
-20 to l10F (-29 to 43C).
A rubber-asphalt composition was selected as the most suitable for the
paving operation, consisting of a J in (31.8 mm) coat of rubber-asphalt
followed by a-!- in (6.4 mm) coat of concrete-asphalt.
2.2.8 Duisburg-Neuenkamp Bridge, Germany
This bridge, completed in 1970, is currently one of the longest cable-

stayed bridges in the world 66 67 with a main span of 1148 ft (350 m), and
is the first of its size to be welded throughout (Fig. 2.46). A central
T\I'IC\1 STI.I.I . IlKII)(il .'i 81
Fig. 2.H Vie"

of Papine:au
Bridge, Momreal,
Canada
~~-'
I ,,. I 790'
I
1 295'
1380'
fig. 2.-15 Papineau

Bridge, general
arrangement
r.,
4'1 1 ~'11"
E~::::,II.EI::vJ
I 17 1 -0" ~
t
17 1 -0"
~ 44 I -8" 44 I -8" I
Fig. 2.46 View of hollow box girder is supported by bundles of cables fanning out in an
Duisburg-
Neuenkamp asymmetrical harp from a slender tower at each end of the main span.
Bridge, Germany Project engineers estimate that use of the hollow box design accounted
for about half of the cost saving. The other half comes from the use of
special high strength steel, developed in the USA, that allowed design of
the slim towers that kept the unusable center strip on the bridge to a
mmtmum.
The two towers, which soar 161 ft (49 m) above the road deck, consist
of 79 ft (25.1 m) high welded sections. The towers taper inward from
7.5 ft (2.29 m) at the base to about 6 ft (1.83 m) at a point 30 ft (9.15 m)
above the roadway, then flare to a maximum width of 10ft (3 .0 5 m) at the
top. Each tower carries six bundles of nine cables that thread through the
towers on three different levels. The cables rest on saddle bearings with a
lid bolted down on top to hold them in place. They connect to the hollow
center girder in two vertical planes by steel bearings through which the
cables are inserted.
The cross-section comprises a twin rectangular cellular box girder
39.5 ft (12.05 m) wide and 12.2 ft (3.72 m) high. Sloping struts from the
bottom flange of the box s upport the cantilevered deck plate which is
stiffened longitudinally with triangular stiffeners (Fig. 2.-1-7). The deck
plate extends 42ft (12 .8 m) from the main box on either side, providing a
119ft (36.3 m) width to carry three lanes in each direction flanked by a
sidewalk and a bicycle path.
2.2.9 Massena Bridge, Paris, France
The Massena Bridge, finished in 1971, is one of the largest and most up-
to-date cable-stayed bridges in France68 - 71 . It crosses the railway lines
coming from the Austerlitz Station in Paris (Fig. 2.48).
This bridge has an overall length of 1615 ft (493 m) and comprises three
spans of length 266,530 and 265ft (81.1, 161.6 and 80.8 m).
The 118ft (36.0 m) wide deck carries a 13ft (4.0 m) central section, two
46ft (14.0 m) roadways and two 6ft 6 in (1.98 m) walkways. The stiffening
TYP ICAL STEL BRIDGES 83
. I 2549'-1 1" I I
119 '-0"
I 1 qtQI I 2'3'' 41 10' ' 2'2'f 8'6" !2'2'' lt l' -QII 2'3'' 9IQI I lQII
r-- II l I" II I
r 12 . 2.. , 27'8" 39;4" ~ 27'8" I 12'2" I
Fig. 2.47 Ouisburg-

eucnkamp Bridge,
general arrangement
Fig. 2.48 View of

Massena Bridge, Paris,
France
118'
~+---4~-~-~-;~_.--------------1~3-._. ,.2="~~-----_--_- _- - '-"45c__'1._1._"---~'1
i
~-18_'6_"-1-1_16_'_5'~'+----42' 7" I 16'5" I 18~~'--1
Pig. 2.49 Massena girders consist of two 16 ft 5 in (5.00 m) wide box girders located a
Bridge, general
arrangement distance of 59ft (18.0 m) center to center and interconnected by solid-
web cross girders (Fig. 2.49).
The three center spans are supported by four stays located on the
longitudinal center-line of the bridge and carried by two towers which
rise to a height of 108ft (32.9 m) above deck level. Each stay comprises
19 cables arranged in a hexagonal pattern. The stays are installed cable by
cable. An initial tension of 10 tons is given to the cables at the instant of
anchoring the sockets in the deck. Load is then applied to the structural
system by raising the bearing in the tower, this being achieved by means
of a telescopic support resting on jacks.
2.2.10 Erskine Bridge, Scotland
The Erskine cable-stayed bridge over the River Clyde west of Glasgow,
Scotland, finished in 1971, is a continuous, all welded steel box girder
with a cable-stayed main span of 1000 ft (305m) and side spans each 360ft
(110 m) long 72- 75 (Fig. 2.50).
A single all-welded steel box girder that runs the whole length of the
bridge carries the dual24 ft (7.3 m) roadway, cycle tracks and footpaths.
The southern abutment provides a fixed anchorage for the deck girders.
There is a single cable over each steel tower above the main piers and
anchored in the median between the roadways. The stays are 2~ in (63.5
mm) wire strands arranged in two groups anchored to the deck steelwork
T\ I'IC:\1. STEEl. BRII)GES 85
f'ig. 2.50 View of Erskine Bridge, Glasgow, ScOLland
in the central section between traffic lanes and passing over the tops of
125ft (38.1 m) high steel towers directly above the main piers. The box
girder is shaped rather like an airplane wing in cross-section, 65 ft wide
;tnd about 10ft deep (19.8 m by 3m), with cantilevered wings upstream
and downstream to carry the cycle and walkway tracks (Fig. 2.5 1).
The actual construction of the superstructure involved the use of pre-
fabricated sections of some 60ft long by 8ft wide (18.3 m by 2.4 m) and of
varying depth. Erection was carried out by cantilevering out from the first
span of each approach viaduct, so that the bridge grew from the abutments
along each viaduct, then each side span and finall y each half of the
main span, until the two halves finally met over the center of the river.
The final 1000 ft span, across the river, was not installed using staging,
but was guyed during construction.
The design permits expansion at a later date from a four-lane crossing
to six lanes, by taking in the cantilevered wings which will carry cyclists
C:ClC~
168' 224'
iI
" -1
224' 224'
I -
360' "'' '"' 1ooo
. --1-.--- -
-----
4-33_4_' -_-- _ -
fttl. LJ,_UL.lq~A
,,,., 36o'
-----~-
2.24 224' 224' 224' 224' 224'
. --1------l-- ----;----- _,.______..
-
I
224'
I
2o6 1
:1
102'-6"
IT 8'-9 11 8 1 -0 11 3'0 1 .._!.._:-0"
ft 24'-0 11
1 1 0 11
- 11'
1'
-
O" 24'-0'' 1'-0"
FOOTWAY CYCLE CARR I AGE WAY , , 3'- "
2 2
TRACK 1-"-i I ~
k q :J :J :{ jiD[ 1: r~) ~
ij .1
0 _]' -0"
20'-9 11 17' -6" 17 I -6 11 12 I -0 11 2Q I -9 11
Fig. 2.51 Erskine

Bridge, general
arrangement
and pedestrians in the early stages. These wings are strong enough to
carry the additional lanes, and wide enough to still accommodate foot and
cyclist traffic.
2.2.11 The New Galecopper Twin Bridge, Holland

The New Galecopper Bridge, completed in 1971, crossing the Amsterdam-
Rhine Canal at an angle of 51, has been designed as two skewed steel,
cable-stayed, continuous plate girder bridges, situated next to each
other 76 . The spans are 229.6, 590 and 229.6 ft (70, 180 and 70 m), whilst
the total width across the two bridges is 229.6 ft (70 m) (Fig. 2.52).
Each bridge consists of a steel orthotropic deck supported by six plate
girders. The towers and staying cables are arranged in the longitudinal
plane of symmetry of each bridge. The tower is of box type in cross-
section, measuring 4. 9 by 4. 9ft ( 1. 49 by 1. 49 m) at the foot and 8.2 by 8.2 ft
(2.5 by 2.5 m) at the top. The tower is not connected with the bridge and
is hinged in longitudinal direction with the pier. The shape of the towers
was chosen for aesthetic appeal (Fig. 2.53)
Each main cable consists of two groups, each of six full-locked and
galvanized cables 3 in (76 mm) in diameter. The expression 'full-locked'
refers to a patented twisted wire cable, in which the spiral wires are of
trapezoidal and Z sections so that they lock together leaving practically no
voids 77 .
The cables are connected to the middle main girders through cross-
girders. They are anchored in the bridge by two cantilevers on each side of
the main girders, and on the abutments by concrete rolled profiles.
T\ l'lC \1. STEEl. JlRIJ)m:s 87
~ --- - -
;.,.,;..
--
-.
----., ..
--~-
.
.
---~
< ~. 4l? ,
New Galecopper Bridge,
Holland
229.6' 590.~' 229.6'
t!J 't
--fl-- -1>- - - -o- --~--a -
n
1
M
II
J I :,l.
- - - ...IJ---o- - -- - o- --8- 0
fl 'l
Fi!. 2.53 The New

(i,lll'c:oppcr Bridge, general
Jrrangcmcnl
The bridge was designed skew in plan. The torsiona!Jy weak construc-
tion, with its large width, required special considerations in design . How-
eYer, rhe sa ,ing in the deck area is more than 20% .
2.2.12 0 /Jerkasse/er Brulge. Diisseldorf, German)'
A cable-stayed continuous girder bridge is at present under construction

over the River Rhine in Oi.isscldorf on a temporary subsnucrure, before
being moved 16-J. ft (50 m) upstream onto its permanent pi ers7H-HO
(Fig. 2.5-l).
88 CABLE-STAVED BRIDGES
fitt. 2.54 Model of rhe At first the new bridge, with a clear span of 8-1-6ft (258 m) and a total
Obcrkasselcr Bridge,
J)usscldori, Germany
length of 2920 ft (890 m), will have a temporary or emergency function
while the existing bridge, built s hortly after the last war with only a
27 ft 3 in (8.3 1 m) roadway, is demolished.
It will consist of three steel girder cells and a 11 5 ft (35.1 m) wide
orthotropic plate deck carrying four lanes of traffic, two streetcar tracJ..s,
two bicycle paths and two sidewalks. It will be suspended by four
symmetrically arranged cables from a single tower (Fig. 2.55).0n the left
bank the forces from the cables will be transmitted to the ground through
four dead-end piers.
2.2.13 ll(f(hJIIt~)' Bridge 'Sloboda', Yugoslatia
Trus cable-stayed bridge OYer the Danube Ri, er in l'\mi Sad111 consists
of spans 2 X 197 + 11 51 + 2 X 197 ft (2 X 62 + 35 1 + 2 X 62 m).
The bridge deck has a box-type cross-section of trapezoidal form ''ith
three cells to separate a proper place for p) lon connection and cable
anchorage. The deck incorporates two 32ft (9.75 m) ,,;de roadways and
two sidewalks 5 ft (1.5 m) ,,;de. The orthotropic steel deck is reinforced
by box-type ribs, and cross-beams arc spaced at 9ft 10 in (3m) intervals.
T\1'1<: \I. STFFI. llRII H ii:S 89
246 I :j
t~T
~I
23 I -6ll 68' 23' -6" I

115 I
------------~
+
Fig;. 2.55 Oberkasscler

The two pylons, 197 ft (60 m) in height above the deck, have
Bridge, general
rectangular cross-sections, varying linearly from 11ft 10 in (3.6 m) at the arrangement
bridge deck to 10 ft: (3 m) at the top. Each pylon is reinforced by
longitudinal stifTeners with aT-shape cross-section. Transverse stiffening
is provided by frames spaced between 10 and 11 ft 6 in (3 and 3.5 m)
apart (Fig. 2.56). On each side of the pylon the cables arc spaced along
the deck at intervals of 177 + 157 + 157ft (54+ 47.9 + 47.9 m) and up i
the cable heights from the deck arc 113ft 10 in (35m), 146ft 7 in (45 m)
and 179ft 5 in (55 m). Each cable consists offour strands spaced at 2ft 6
in (0.8 m). The number of wires in each strand varies from 240 to 312,
each having a diameter of~ in (7 mm).
2.2.14 Argen River Bridge, German)'
This is a highly unusual cable-stayed bridge design having 'above and

below' cable carrying a highway across an unstable valley slope in
Southern GermanyHZ,HJ. The ground is sliding, so foundations could not
he put on the incline. The main span of the bridge is 846ft (258m). The
bridge has stays which drop from a tower on the southern abutment, pass
through the center of the deck and three struts before being anchored in
the bottom of the deck short of the next support pier (Fig. 2.57). This
arrangement keeps the number and height of cable towers to a minimum.
From an anchorage on the southern side of the valley 12 steel cables
rise to the top of a 180ft (55 m) inverted-V (or A-type) concrete pylon
Section A _A
-...
m
A
r
A
Section 8_ 8
Fig. 2.56 'Sloboda'
Bridge, general
arrangement
sr- --.8
before dropping down to an anchorage in the center of the steel box
girder. On the river side, two cables are fixed in the median of the deck
141 ft (43 m) from the pylon, and eight more are anchored at the
centerline another 141 ft (43 m) from there. At that point, the anchor
block pierces the steel box girder deck and secures a plane of six cables
beneath it. They pass over the ends of three struts, projecting down at
141 ft (43 m) intervals, before anchoring in the lower flange of the box at
the northern end of the span. Two single-member struts flank a longer
V-shaped 49 ft (15 m) center strut.
TYPICAl. STEEL BRIDGES 91
fig. 2.57 View of

Argen Rivt:r Bridge,
Germany
The cable-stayed end span and its neighboring, shorter unstayed

river span have a continuous steel box girder, 93 ft 6 in (28.5 m) wide,
projecting 16 ft (4.9 m) over the third pier.
Each two-lane roadway O\'er the stable northern slope has a separate
concrete box girder, also projecting 16ft (4.9 m) beyond the last pier to
fig. 2.58 Argen River
meet the steel box in a f1cxihlc joint at the middle of a short span (Fig. Bridge, general
2.58). 3rrangemem
2.3 Inclined tower bridges
Structural, geological or architectural reasons sometimes dictate the

choice of a single inclined tower for cable-stayed bridges. Two typical
examples, one built in Tasmania and the other under construction in
114
Czechoslovakia, each have a single inclined tower Although the towers
are inclined in opposite directions, they perform the same function. Both
bridges are asymmetrical cable-stayed structures, the principal feature of
each being a single inclined tower which is Situated on one bank and
provides the suspension point for cable stays supporting a cantilevered
nver span.
Both the Batman in Tasmania and the Czech bridge are unique among
cable-stayed bridges. Lying in the plane of the resultant of the cable-stay
forces, the single inclined tower of each bridge supports almost the entire
river span. The tower not only dominates each structure but also adds
great character.
It is not an easy matter to assess which tower configuration is the better,
structurally or economically, for each has its advantages and disadvantages.
Also these two bridges are the only ones of their kind in existence.
2.3.1 The Batman Bridge, Tasmania
Completed in 1968, this is one of the world's first cable-stayed truss

bridges and is dominated by a 315 ft (96.1 m) high steel A-frame tower
which is inclined at 20 from the vertical and leans out over 100ft (30.5 m)
across the river$ 5- 87 (Fig. 2.59).
The overall length of the bridge is 1417 ft 6 in (432 m) between abut-
ments. The main span over the river of 67 5 ft (206m) is continuous, with
a side span of 180ft (55 m) to the west abutment and approaches by four
continuous viaduct spans on the eastern shore. The weight of the main
span over the river is almost entirely carried by the tower; it is separated
both vertically and laterally at the tower cross beam and at intervals by
three pairs of forestay cables suspended from the tower top.
The asymmetrical support was dictated by site geology, because bad
ground on the right bank made it necessary to support the span from one
side.
The A-frame tower, its crossbeam and the diagonal bracing beneath the
beam are all of welded box construction. The tower legs rest on rocker
bearings, each designed for loads up to 3000 tons. Each tower leg consists
of 20 hollow steel boxes seated one on top of another and connected by
high strength friction grip bolts through machined end plates.
The tower backstays comprise 32 cables, 16 on each side; the forestay
closest to the tower has two cables on each side, and other forestays have
four cables on each side.
Trusses were chosen rather than a plate or box girder design in
deference to the high winds that often prevail. Wind tunnel tests indicate
the bridge will withstand 140 mph (225 kph) winds without incurring any
serious resonant oscillations. The tremendous longitudinal forces between
the main-span truss sections require abutting longitudinal members to
seal solidly together. Truss chords and horizontal braces are box sections.
Diagonals are slender and perforated.
The Batman Bridge is the first in Australia to have an orthotropic deck
(Fig. 2.60). The deck plate is 1in (12.8 mm) thick and it is reinforced by
the longitudinal boxes of triangular shape made from 156 in (8 mm) plate.
I\ I'lL \I. STI.I.I. IIRII )(,1 <., 93

Balman llridge, Tasmania
12' 12'
....
'
1. Fig. 2.60 Ba1man Bridge,

general arrangement
Transverse beams support the deck through rubber bearings set on

the upper truss chords.
2.3.2 Bratislava Bridge, Czechoslovakia
This bridge, built in 1971 over the Danube at Bratislava, is an asymmetric

system with an inclined rower with a restaurant at its top 88 . The tower
and its network of inclined cables counterbalance architecturally with the
silhouette of the opposite shore, consisting of hills crowned with the well-
known Bratislava Castle.
A continuous box girder spanning 206ft 8 in+ 1003 ft 8 in+ 177ft lin
(63. 1+3 16.0+54.0 m) of the overall length of 1387 ft 5 in (433 m) is
suspended in the central span on inclined cables (Fig. 2.61).
The inclined position of the tower is determined by the resultant of the
axial forces of the cables and the dead weight of the system. The design
of the cross-section of the tower legs allows them to incorporate both the
shaft for the high speed lift to the restaurant and an escape staircase.
Shaped like an A- frame, the 285ft (86.9 m) high steel tower is fixed at
the base and inclined backwards over the bank at approximately 17 to
t he vertical.
The bridge spans are fixed at the right abutment and have pendulum
s upports at the tower base, on the Danube's left bank and at the left
abutment. At intervals along its center line, the river span is supported by
three forestays. The locked coil cables in these forestays pass over a cross-
beam, which is situated between the tower legs beneath the restaurant,
and converge to an anchorage at the right abutment.
In cross-section, the bridge consists of the two-storeyed, two-box
girders with an orthotropic deck plate of high torsional rigidity considered
as an upper flange plate of the box, intended for highway traffic (Fig. 2.62).
fig. 2.61 View of

Bratislava Bridge,
Czechoslovakia
323'. 9" 117'. 2"
~ 68'.10"
~'::7"1
t
-
11 ' . 6" ~ 41 ' . 4"
64'. 4"
I 11 ' . 6" :I
..
Fig. 2.62 Bratislava

Bridge, general
The lower flange plate of the box section supports pipe and cable lines arrangement
mounted on the bridge.
The torsional rigidity of the enclosed box section makes it possible to
suspend the girder in the middle plane so that with the asymmetric
distribution of transverse load the girder behaves as a three-span
continuous girder.
2.4 Railroad bridges
The cable-stayed system may be used either for combined highway and
railroad bridges or for railroad bridges only. This technique may be
applied to new structures or to strengthen existing bridges, and has
proved particularly useful where headroom is restricted. The following
three bridges serve as good illustrations of this.
2.4.1 North Romaine River Railroad Bridge, Quebec, Canada
In 1960, strengthening work was required on bridges on the Quebec Iron

and Titanium Corporation Railroad between Havre StPierre and Lake
Tio, due to increased train loadingsH 9 . The longest bridge on this line was
a continuous deck truss structure having two spans each 200ft (61 m) long
(Fig. 2.63).
Analysis of stresses of the original structure indicated a great difference
f-ig. 2.63 View
of the North
Romaine River
Bridge, Quebec,
Canada
...
j
"''
~
0
~
i'
"'
~
';'
47>
Fig. 2.6+ North

Romaine Bridge.
general
arrangement
I\ 1'1(. \1. STI.I.I . llRif)(tl .<; 97
in the inrensiry of stresses under the existing and proposed future train
loadings, which would practically overstress all members of the truss.
The proposed solution consisted of prestressing the truss members by
means of stay cables connected to the top of the tower which was designed
to rest on the center pier (Fig. 2.64). This solution proved practical and
permitted introduction of substantially hea\ icr trains by comparison with
the original loadings for "hich the bridge was designed.
2.+.2 Nakar Bridge at Unterturkheim, Germany
This railroad skew type bridge was built having two spans, the first one
from prestressed concrete, and the second one as a steel girder')(). Both
spans are supported by stay cables over single towers (Fig. 2.65).
This railroad bridge may be considered as the first srrucrure incorporat-
ing a cable-stayed prestressed concrete girder. The rowers arc built from
the reinforced concrete. A rypical cross-section of the steel part of the
bridge is shown in Fig. 2.66.

eckar Bridge, Germany
Fig. 2.66 Neckar Bridge,

19 1 -611
genera] arrangement
Fig. 2.67 View of Bridge

of the Isles, MomTeal,
Canada
2.4.3 Bridge of the Isles, Montreal, Canada
This 688ft (210m) long Expo 1967 structure, spanning the StLawrence
River between lie St Helene, is of an original design 91 92 (Fig. 2.67).
The bridge consists of two simply supported spans, each suspended at
midspan from their sides by cables anchored to twin concrete towers sited
in mid-river. Each span is made up of two longitudinal box girders
supporting floor beams designed to be composite with the concrete deck.
The longitudinal girders are supported at midspan by a transverse box
girder anchored to suspension cables. The spans have expansion bearings
at the abutments, while at the pier they rest on fixed bearings and bear
24' 2 I -6 11
Il
fig. 2.61! Bridge of the

Isles, general arrangement
TYPICAl" STEEl" BRIDGES 99
against buffers which take the horizontal components of the forces acting
on the cables.
This cable-supported girder bridge is 94ft (28.7 m) wide and is sup-
ported by two concrete towers that rise 92ft (28.1 m) above the roadway.
The bridge is 92 ft wide from curb to curb and accommodates auto-
mobiles, pedestrians and rapid transit trains, which run over its center
line (Fig. 2.68).
2. 4.4 RaihPa)' Bridf.(c in Belgrade, Yuf.(oslaria
In 1978, a railroad cable-stayed bridge was completed covering two

tracks over the Sava River, in Belgrade, Yugoslavia'!-', with a main span of
833 ft (254 m) and two nanking spans of 164 ft (50 m) each.
In this structure, the tics and rails arc seated in a ballast which is
supported by an orthotropic plate, reinforced by longitudinal open ribs
spaced 15 f in (400 mm) apart, and with a depth of 10 ~ in (260 mm).
Because of the ballast, the loading is uniformly distributed over the
orthotropic plate.
The cross-beams are spaced at intcrnls of 8 ft (2.4 m) and the cross-
frames are located at distances of49 ft (15m). Two stiffening box girders
support the deck. Each box girder is 10 ft 6 in (3.2 m) wide and has a
depth of 14 ft 6 in (4.4 m). The width of the orthotropic plate between
the box girders is 26 ft 6 in (8.1 m) and the total width of the bridge
including its maintenance sidewalks is 54 ft (16.5 m).
Two towers of rectangular cross-section are fixed into the box girders,
and reach a height of 172 ft (52.5 m) abow them. Two two-legged
pylons each support two pair of cables. The cables, made up of bet\veen
250 and 300 parallel steel strands in a polyethylene casing, arc cut and
anchored individually to each pylon leg (Fig. 2.69). From each pylon,
they connect to the main span and t\vo side spans, each pair at a different
angle. Two cables toward the main span provide clastic supports for the
box girder and the other No cables toward the nanking span act as
anchorages.
The maximum calculated denection of the bridge loads is 1 ft 7 in
(50 em) or ,(\o
of the main span. A test model was constructed and tested
to check static behavior, free vibrations and vibrations under load. Free
vibration of the cable agreed closely with theoretical values.
2.5 Combined railroad-highway bridges
In 1965, the Danish Government sponsored an 'International Contest of

Ideas' for the Great Belt Crossing which will link the islands of Zeeland
100 CAB LE-ST AYEO BRIDGES
164' I 833' 164'
~..---
<t
'!! ~~
28' 10.5' 13'-3" 13'.3" -'-- t--- t-1
I
I
III 18.45' 18.45'
N
~
Ar I Section A _A
II
Section B _ B
~
-~4-
Fig. 2.69 Belgrade
Bridge, general I
arrangement
and Funen 94- 97 . The structure will be 11 miles ( 17.6 km) long. Some of
the alternatives included combined road and rail bridges. Three of
the original and successful designs are shown below.
2.5.1 Project by Sverdrup and Parcel and Associates, USA
The St Louis firm of Sverdrup and Parcel from the USA was one of four
firms awarded the first prize for a combined road and rail bridge (Fig. 2. 70).
TYPICAL STEFL BRIDGES I0I
---- ~--__llill_' -Q"

I
-----+---"-'-'-
1 I -311
96 -o _ _s'-9"-~
I
--------1---- -"-'39_'_-9'--"----tl-l~_'_::Q"_j
fig. 2. 70 Project by Sverdrup and Parcel and Associates, USA, first
prize
For the main navigation span two towers support stayed girder deck
units. Roadways are carried at the top level of the deep deck trusses with
two rail tracks fitted at the lower level as wide apart as the deck allows.
2.5.2 Project by Philips Holzman, A.G., Germany
This is a combined road and rail bridge, having the main span as a cable-
stayed truss (Fig. 2. 71 ). All cables in side spans are connected to the piers,
increasing the stiffness of the railway bridge.
2.5.3 Project by Fried, Krupp and Rheinhausen, Germany
In this combined road and rail bridge the inclined legs of the piers shorten
the main span. They also provide fixity and decrease deflections. The
same applies for both side spans (Fig. 2.72).
~~~~~;~~!
- - - -----~-J ~ ~ ~~ ."~ ~'<'~<(,.}~/
' -o~ ________ _

' 1968'
.~_-_0'_'- -+ 46 I -0 11 46 I -0 11
Fig. 2.71 Project by Philips Holzman, A. G., Germany, first prize
f----492' -0'' 1804 I -Q 11 656' -0" + 49? -a
Fig. 2.72 Project by Fried, Krupp and Rheinhausen, Germany, second

prize
2.6 Pipeline bridges
2.6.1 Types ofpipeline bridges
For crossing rivers, gorges, highways or any artificial obstructions, cable-

stayed pipeline bridges are most often used. Such types of bridges may
be designed as simple or multi-span structures. By its statical perform-
ance, the pipeline works as a continuous beam on elastic supports. At
spans of up to 350 ft (106 m) the cable-stayed system may be applied,
however for greater spans in the range of 350 to 1000 ft (106 to 305 m) it
is recommended to use cable trusses. Generally, end cables are
connected to anchorages, which arrangement is helpful for bridge
erection. In practice the pipeline bridge systems shown in Fig. 2.73 are
most often built.
In these systems panels between cable stays will be under additional
tension under the action of the horizontal stay component. However,
because the cross-sectional area of the pipe is relatively large, these
tensile stresses are small. For gas pipelines of diameter between 20 and
40 in (508 and 1016 mm) the spacing of radial stays connections is
between 60 and 130 ft (18 and 40 m), and for oil pipelines between 40
and 100 ft (12 and 30m). At great pylon heights, the forces in the stays
and its cross-sections are reduced, but more steel is required for the
pylons. For cable-stayed pipeline bridges having spans between 200 and
330 ft (60 and 100m) there are no horizontal bracings. However, at large
spans in areas subject to high winds, bracings are installed. To increase
the horizontal stiffness of the pipeline bridges, horizontal wind bracings
are used.
The basic carrying elements, cables and struts are post-stressed in the
horizontal plane. End cables of the wind bracing are connected to the
anchorages. The horizontal sag of the wind bracing depends on the
intensity of wind load and is taken to be from -1J to ~j of the span.
1 2
2.6.2 Two pipeline bridges at Heilbronn, West Germany
1. C:O!\lllll\ED PIPELII\E Al\D PEDESTR!i\1\ BRIDGE'"

This cable-stayed bridge carries two pipelines, each of diameter 31 Vz in
(0.8 m), and between them a pedestrian deck 6 ft 7 in (2 m) wide. This
continuous structure has two spans of200 ft (67.25 m) and 247ft (75.25
m). The deck is supported by two rolled beams and precast concrete slab,
connected to the transverse beams by shear connectors. The portal type
tower,. with a box cross-section, carries the deck by elastic type bearings
(Fig. 2.74).
104 C \Bl.F-ST \ Yf:I) BRIDGES
(a)
(b)
Pipeline Bridges, (a) and (b) single spans,(c)multispan
(d)
Fig. 2.73 Types of

pipeline bridges, (a),
(h) single spans, (e l
(c) multispan, (d),
(e) schemes of wind
hracings (d) and (e) Schemes of wind bracings
2. PIPELH\E BRIDGE
This pipeline bridge carries two pipelines, each of diameter 31 1/z in (0.8
m). The continuous structure has two spans of 147ft (45 m) and 189ft
(57.5 m) and a single pylon 243 ft (74 m) high (Fig. 2.75).
TYPICI\1. STEEL BRIDCiES 105
3.8 3.8'
n Railing
I
\ .
0 0-
Lights ..,
0
I I u
"'~
I e
I Slope
-.,0 1 ) I I "j -I I 1 ( r Fig. 2.74 Pipeline and
-.,0 1
pedestrian bridge at
6 v r
-~
~- -!...
Heilbronn, general
14. 6' arrangement
I
I
-l-'-"+-~---__:_1_::8::._9' ___ ~,+.l-A--~~~4 8::._'_ ~B ~lioo A_A
Section B _ B
Fig. 2.75 Pipeline

bridge at Heilbronn,
general arrangement
2.7 Pontoon bridges
2.7.1 Bridge over the Ganges River, India
The capacity of prestressed cables to withstand compression enables

them to be used as supports for pontoon bridges (Fig. 2.76).
106 C'\BLE-STAYED BRIDGES
Q>..P
l /Girder
~
1
A
(a l i
Pottrossed
-------!.
Coble
I j
~ -~ -~Pontoon
I I \ I I
li . . .
Fig. 2.76 (a) The
I 1/
';~;>m''' J!I!1Jn; >nn;,-;'}Phv;;;;;~J;;;;; _.,>,
principle for a
prestressed cable support
for a pontoon; (b) (b)
prestressed cable
supports for a bridge over
the Ganges River, India
When one pontoon is under a load ~ which is greater than the actual
load for the bridge P, and at this position the bridge is stiffened by a
prestressed anchor cable, then after deloading the cable is prestressed in
tension. Under this loading the pontoon is effectively supported by a
prestressed cable acting as stiff support. This principle was applied in
1912, during the construction of a pontoon bridge supporting a deck of
rigid girders over the Ganges River, in Calcutta, lndia99 (Fig. 2.76 (b)).
The bridge has three spans with a total length of 1407 ft (4 29 m) and a
width of 98 ft (30 m). The bridge supports were built of eight
cylindrically shaped pontoons, each one 226 ft (69 m) long and with a
diameter of 15 ft 6 in (4.7 m). The pontoons were anchored to the
bottom of the river by prestressed cables.
It should be noted that the same principle of using post-stressed
anchor cables may be applied to achieve stiffness during construction of
oil rigs at sea.
2. 7.2 Proposed pontoon bridge, !ta(y
The principle discussed in the previous section was also applied in a

.
proJect . a pontoon b n'd ge between sICI'1y an d c a1ab na
proposmg . loo ' 101 ,
Italy (Fig. 2.77).
(a l
Fig. 2.77 A proposed

pontoon bridge for
crossing the sea strait
between Sicilv and
Calabria, Italy: (a) .view,
(b)
fl/.? /
I.
j~~:h<S>
278.8'
"" "-..\~
\ <So
)
(b) detail of supports I
In this scheme the reactions of the truss are transferred onto the
hollow steel rings, which are anchored by post-stressed cables 400 ft
(120 m) deep under the water elevation to the bottom. The ring has an
external diameter of 131 ft (40 m) and a 65 ft 6 in (20 m) internal
diameter at the wall thickness of~ in (14 mm). There are a total of 12
floating supports stiffened by post-stressed anchor cables. The initial
tension will be completed at high tide.
2. 7.3 Proposed .floating bridges fiJr long water crossings
Challenging innovative technical concepts were proposed by Kuesel 102 103

for waters too deep for economical bridge piers, where multi-span cable-
stayed bridge piers would be built with each tower founded on a huge
pontoon of 250 ft (76 m) diameter, which would be tied to the bottom by
vertical anchor cables and lateral stay cables (Fig. 2. 78).
I.OOO' Bridge pontoon _pier
I !ypicarl~
:~;; :;: :i :'i' ;';)
Drilled_ in anchor
Fig. 2. 78 Proposed
floating bridge for long
ELEVATION water crossings
Kuesel proposed to build such structures at three locations: the Strait

of Georgia near Vancouver, 15 miles (24.2 km) wide, water depth to
1100 ft (335m); the Gibraltar Strait, 15 miles (24.2 km) wide, water depth
to 1000 ft (305 m) and in the Hawaiian Islands, covering distances of
between 9 and 13 miles with water depths of200 to 2300 ft (60 to 700 m).
For the Strait of Georgia crossing, floating bridges with both
continuous longitudinal and individual transverse pontoons have been
considered. The principal design problem is to accommodate differential
motions bet\veen adjacent piers.
For the Gibraltar Strait crossing, the proposal is that a central section
will be composed of a 1000 ft (305 m) bridge span supported on tethered
buoyant bridge piers.
At a depth below the waves, the pier is broadened out to form a
cellular pontoon structure with a net buoyancy of about 150% of the
weight of the superstructure. This provides sufficient tension in the
vertical anchor cables to stabilize the piers against normal tidal current,
wind and wave forces. The vertical anchor cables are deployed in a circle
to give equal stability in all directions. Their tension may be monitored
and adjusted through access galleries in the pontoons. A sufficient
number of cables is provided to permit the removal and replacement of
individual pairs of cables without endangering the stability of the system.
References
1. Wenk, H., 'The Stromsund Bridge', Demag News, No. 136,

Duisburg, 1954.
2. Ernst, H. J ., 'Erection of a Cable-Stayed Girder in the Construction
of a Large Bridge', Stahlbau, No.5, 101, 1956 (in German).
3. Beyer, E., Nordbriicke Dusseldorf, Landeshauptstadt, Dusseldorf,
1958.
4. Beyer, E. and Tussing, F., 'Nordbrucke Dusseldorf', Stahlbau,
Nos. 2, 3, and 4, 1955.
5. Fischer, G., 'The Severin Bridge at Cologne (Germany)', Acier-
Stahl-Steel, No. 3, 97-107, 1960.
6. Schussler, K., 'Wettbewerb 1954 zum Bau einer Rheinbrucke oder
eines Tunnels in Koln im Zuge Klappergasse Gotenring', Stahlbau,
No. 8, 205, 253, 294 and 326, 1957.
7. Vogel, G., 'Erfahrungen mit geschweissten Montagestassen beim
Bauder Severinsbrucke in Koln', Schweiss. Schneid., 12 (5) 189-
194, 1960.
8. Hess, H., 'Die Severinsbrucke Ko1n, Entwurf und Fertigung der
Strombrucke', Stahlbau, No.8, 225-261, 1960.
9. Vogel, G., 'Die Montage des Stahluberbaues der Severinsbrucke
Koln', Stahlbau, No.9, 269-293, 1960.
10. Anonymous, 'The George Street Cable Cantilevered Bridge at
Newport', Civ. Engng pub!. Wks Rev., 575, May 1964.
11. Brown, C. D., 'Design and Construction of the George Street
Bridge over the River Usk, at Newport, Monmouthshire', Proc.
lnstn. civ. Engrs, No. 32, 31-52, September 1965.
12. Anonymous, 'Le Pont Suspendu a Haubans de Saint-Florent-le-
Vieil (Maine et Loire)', Travaux, 765-766, July-August, 1968.
13. Anonymous, 'The Cable-Stayed Suspension Bridge at Saint
Florent-le-Vieil, France', Acier-Stahl-Steel, No. 2, 92, 1969.
14. Thu1, H., 'Stahlerne Strassenbrucken in der Bundesrepublik',
Bauingenieur, No.5, 169-189, May 1966.
15. Anonymous, 'Another Cable-stayed Bridge Conquers the Rhine',
Engng. News Rec., 103, 25 May, 1967.
16. Anonymous, Rheinbriicke Ress-Kalkar, Bundesminister fUr Verkehr,
Bonn, 1967.
17. Reutter, K., 'Konstruktion und Fertigung der Seilkammer fi.ir die
Stahlhochstrasse Ludwigshafen', Schweiss. Schneid., No. 9, 418-
420, 1968.
18. Freudenberg, G., 'Die Stahlhochstrasse uber den neuen Haupt-
bahnhof in Ludwigshafen/Rhein', Stahlbau, No. 9, 257-267,
September, 1970; No. 10, 306-314, October, 1970.
19. Tamms, F. and Beyer, E., Kniebriicke Dusseldorf; Beton-Verlag
GmbH, Dusseldorf, 1970.
20. Anonymous, Neubau Kniebriicke, Teil 1, Strombriicke, Landes-
hauptstadt Dusseldorf, 1967.
21. Anonymous, 'Record Span is Cable-Stayed', Engng. News Rec.,
34, 20 November, 1969.
22. Sanson, R., 'Saint-Nazaire-Saint Brevin Bridge over the Loire
Estuary (France)',Acier-Stahl-Steel, No.5, 161-167, 1976.
23. Fuchs, W., 'Die Loire-Bri.icke bei Saint-Nazaire', Bauingenieur,
53, 19-20, 1977.
24. Schwab, R. and Homann, H., 'Der Bau der Kohlbrandbri.icke',
Die Bautechnik, Heft 5, 145-156, May, 1975.
25. Rabe, J. and Baumer, H., 'Die Gri.indungen und Pfeiler der
Ki.:ihlbrandbri.icke', Die Bautechnik, Heft 6, 181-197, June, 1975.
26. Boue, P. and Hohne, K.]., 'Der Stromi.iberbau der Kohlbrand-
bri.icke', Der Stahlbau, No. 6, 161-174, 1975; No. 7, 203-211,
1975.
27. Anonymous, 'Structures in the USSR', IABSE Structures C-4178,
4-5, May, 1978.
28. S. Komatsu, Y. Torii and S. Okada, 'Cable-stayed Bridge "Rokko
Ohhashi" at Kobe Gapan)', Acier-Stahl-Steel, No. 3, 101-106,
1977.
29. Anonymous, 'Zarate-Erazo Largo Highway-Railway system
(Argentina)', IABSE Periodica, Structures C-3/78, 14-15, February,
1978.
30. Brodin, S., 'New Tji.:irn Bridge across the Ackeri.:ifjord (Sweden)',
IABSE Structures, C-21182, 40-41, May, 1982.
31. Kohmann, R. and Koger, E., 'Die neue Tji.:irnbri.icke, Konstruk-
tion, Static and Montage der Stahlkonstructionen', Bauingenieur, 57,
379-388, 1982.
32. Clements, L., 'The Kessock Bridge Design and Build Contract, and
Proposals for Managing Similar Contracts', Proc. Inst. civ. Engrs, Part
1, 76, 23-34, February, 1984.
33. Knox, H. S. G., Homberg, H. and Deason, P.M., 'Kessock
Bridge: Design by Contractor', Proc. lnst. civ. Engrs, Part 1, 76, 35-
50, February, 1984.
34. Kealey, T. R., 'Mississippi River Bridge, Luling (Louisianna,
U.S.A.)', IABSE Structures C-20182, 4-5, February, 1982.
35. Anonymous, 'Bridge', Civ. Engng ASCE, 31-33, July, 1984.

36. Anonymous, 'Die Fare-Bri.i~ken in Denmark', Stahlbau, No. 5,
156-158, 1985.
37. Anonymous, 'Die Falster-Faro-Bri.icke (Danemark). Schalung der
Pylonen fi.ir die Schragseilbri.icke', Bautechnik, No.2, 69-70, 1984.
38. Wittfoht, H. et al., 'Die Unterbauten der Faro-Bri.icken', Bauin-
genieur, 61, 9-16, 1986.
39. Haupt, W., 'Die Mitteltragerbri.icke', Bautechnik, 25, 25, 60, 1948.
40. Haupt, W., 'Mitteltragerbri.icken', Z. Ver. dt. !ng., 95,511, 1953.
41. Anonymous, 'New Type Bridge Proposed by Germans', Engng.
News Rec., 86, 87,2 September, 1948.
42. Haupt, W. and Kleinschmidt, H. ]., 'Die Alleestrassenbri.icke in
Wanne-Eickel', Stahlbau, No. 1, 1-7, 1955.
43. Stahlbau Taschenkalender, 'Norderelbebri.icke, Autobahnbri.icke,
Baujahr 1960/61, Deutschen Stahlbau Verband, Koln', Schweiss.
Schneid., 12 (5), 189-194, 1960.
44. Havemann, H. K., 'Die Seilverspannung der Autobahnbri.icke
i.iber die Norderelbe-Bericht i.iber Versuche zur Dauerfestigkeit
der Drahtseile', Stahlbau, No.8, August 1962.
45. Havemann, H. K., 'Die Bri.icke i.iber die Norderelbe im Zuge der
Bundesautobahn si.idliche U mgehung Hamburg. Teil I: Ideen und
Bauwettbewerb', Stahlbau, No.7, 193-198, July 1963.
46. Aschenberg, H. and Freudenberg, G., 'Die Bri.icke i.iber die
Norderelbe im Zuge der Bundesautobahn si.idliche Umgehung
Hamburg. Teil II: Konstruktion des Bri.ickeni.iberbaus', Stahlbau,
No. 8, 240-248, August 1963; 'Teil III: Statische Berec.hnung des
Bri.ickeni.iberbaus', Stahlbau, No.9, 281-287, September, 1963.
47. Havemann, H. K., 'Die Bri.icke i.iber die Norderelbe im Zuge der
Bundesautobahn si.idliche Umgehung Hamburg. Teil IV: Bau-
ausfuhrung der stahlernen Uberbauten', Stahlbau, No. 10, 310-
317, October 1963.
48. Anonymous, 'Norderelbe Bridge K 6: A Welded Steel Motorway
Bridge', Acier-Stahl-Steel, No. 11, 499-500, 1963.
49. Anonymous, 'Pylons Support Welded Steel Span', Engng. News
Rec., 42, 28 November, 1963.
50. Anonymous, 'An Original Bridge in Germany', Cir. Engng pub!.
Wks Rev., 173, February, 1964.
51. Hass, B., 'Eine ungewohnliche Belastung der Bri.icke i.iber die
Norderelbe im Zuge der B A B si.idliche Umgehung Hamburg',
Bautechnik, No.5, 145-151, May, 1964.
52. Beyer, E. and Ernst, H.]., 'Bri.icke Ji.ilicher Strasse in Dusseldorf'
Bauingenieur, No. 12, 469-477, December, 1964.
53. Thul, H., 'Cable-Stayed Bridges in Germany', British Construc-
tional Steelwork Association Conference 1966, p. 10.
54. Daniel, H., 'Die Bundesautobahnbrticke tiber den Rhein bei

Leverkusen, Planung, Wettbewerb und seine Ergebnisse', Stahlbau,
No.2, 33-36; No.3, 83-86; No.4, 115-119; No.5, 153-158;
No. 12, 362-368, 1965.
55. Daniel, H. and Urban,]., 'Die Bundesautobahnbrticke tiber den
Rhein bei Leverkusen. Unterbauten der Strombrticke', Stahlbau,
No.7, 193-196, July, 1966.
56. Daniel, H. and Schumann, H., 'Die Bundesautobahnbrticke tiber
den Rhein bei Leverkusen', Stahlbau, No.8, 225-236, August, 1967.
57. Anonymous, 'The New Wye and Usk River Bridges', Building with
Steel, J. Br. Constr. Steelwork Ass., 2 (8) 16-18, November,
1963.
58. Anonymous, 'Welded Steel Boxes Assembled on Site for Britain's
Wye Bridge', Engng. News Rec., 26,27 and 29,21 July, 1966.
59. Anonymous, 'Rheinbrticke Bonn Nord', Tiefbau, 29-40, 1968.
60. Forge, A., 'The Evolution of German Cable-Stayed Bridges-An
Overall Survey', AISC Engng }., 118, July, 1967.
61. Schottgen, J. and Wintergerst, L., 'Die Strassenbrticke tiber den
Rhein bei Maxau', Stahlbau, No. 1, 1-9, January, 1968; No. 2,
50-57, February, 1968.
62. Demers, J. G. and Marquis, P., 'Le pont a Haubans de la Riviere-
des-Prairies', L'lngenieur, No. 231,24-28, June, 1968.
63. Rooke, W. G., 'Papineau Bridge Steel Erected in Record Time',
Heavy Constr. News, 4, 5 and 8, 1 September, 1969.
64. Webster, L. F., 'Papineau Cable-Stayed Bridge-Canadian First',
Engng. Contract Rec., 68-69, October, 1969.
65. Demers, T. G. and Simonsen, 0. F., 'Montreal Boasts Cable-
Stayed Bridge', Civil Engng, Easton, Pa, 59-63, August, 1971.
66. Anonymous, 'Rheinbrticke Duisburg-Neuenkamp', Landschafts-
verband Rheinland, 1968.
67. Anonymous, 'Record All-Welded, Cabled-Stayed Span Hangs
from Pylons', Engng. News Rec., 20-21,3 September, 1970.
68. Balbachevsky, G. N., 'Study Tour of the A.F.P.C.', Acier-Stahl-
Steel, No.2, 73-74, 1969.
69. Anonymous, 'The Paris-Massena Bridge. A Cable-Stayed Struc-
ture', Acier-Stahl-Steel, No.6, 278-284, 1970.
70. Valentin, Mignot and Gandil, 'Le Pont Massena a Paris
(l'e partie)', Travaux, No. 420, 157-175, March, 1970.
71. Mignot and Gandil, 'Le Pont Massena aParis (2 partie)', Travaux,
l-23, July-August, 1970.
72. Anonymous, 'Superstructure Started for Erskine Bridge', Highw.
pub!. Wks, 34-35, December, 1968.
73. Morley, G. W., 'The Erskine Bridge over the River Clyde', Civ.
Engng pub!. Wks Rev., 440-443, May, 1969.
112 C\llLE-ST\YED llRIDtiES
74. Anonymous, 'Erskine Bridge Nears Completion', Highw. Traff

Engng, 46, April/May, 1971.
75. Anonymous, 'Erskine Road Bridge', Civ. Engng pub!. Wks Rev.,
505, 507, 509 and 510, May, 1971.
76. Binkhorst, ]., 'De Galecopperbrug te Utrecht', Ingenieur, No. 16,
B89-B96, 23 April, 1971.
77. Steinman, D. B., A Practical Treatise on Suspension Bridges, Wiley,
New York, 1953, p. 88.
78. Landeshauptstadt Dusseldorf, Die neue Oberkasseler Rheinbriicke,
1968.
79. Anonymous, 'German Bridgebuilders Plan Big Shift on Rhine',
Engng. News Rec., 17, 15 January, 1970.
80. Anonymous, 'New Oberkasseler Bridge, Dusseldorf', Highm. Traff
Engng, 27,28 and 30, June, 1970.
81. Hajdin, N., 'Strassenbriicke "SLOBODA" iiber die Donau in Novi
Sad', Der Stahlbau, Heft 4, 97-103, April, 1983.
82. Anonymous, 'Bridge is stayed Above and Below', Engng News Rec.,
28, July, 1985.
83. Montague, S., 'Up and Under Cable Stay Keeps Low Profile', New
civ. Engr, 20-21, August, 1985.
84. Anonymous, 'Inclined Tower Bridges', Consult. Engr, St. Joseph,
58-61, June, 1969.
85. Payne, R. ]., 'The Structural Requirements of the Batman Bridge
as They Affect Fabrication of the Steelwork', J. Instn Engrs Aust.,
199-207, December, 1967.
86. Anonymous, 'Leaning Tower Supports Stayed Truss Span',
Engng. News Rec., 24-25, 22 June 1967.
87. Anonymous, 'Batman Bridge Near Completion', Aust. civ. Engng
Constr., 13-16, 5April, 1968.
88. Tesar, A., 'Das Project der neuen Strassenbrucke uber die Donau
in Bratislava/CSSR', Bauingenieur, No.6, 189-198, June, 1968.
89. Troitsky, M. S., 'North Romaine River Bridge Mile 5.8', Report
by the Foundation of Canada Engineering Corporation Limited,
Montreal, February, 1960.
90. Heeb, A., Gerold, W. and Dreher, W., 'Die Stahlkonstruktion der
Neckarbrucke Unterturkheim', Stahlbau, No. 2, 33-38, February,
1967.
91. Anonymous, 'Montreal Hosts a Double Bridge Spectacular in the
St Lawrence', Engng. News Rec., 24-27 and 31, 5 August,
1965.
92. Anonymous, 'Cable-Stayed and Orthotropic Structures at Expo',
Highw. pub!. Wks, 24-25 and 27, April, 1967.
93. Hajdin, M. andJevtovic, L.]., 'Eisenbahnschragseilbriicke iiber die
Save in Belgrad', Der Stahlbau, 47, No. 4, 97-106, 1978.
TYPIC \1. STEEl. BRIDGES 113
94. Anonymous, 'Great Belt Bridge Award Winners', Consult. Engr,

St. Joseph, 31 (3), 63-69, March, 1967.
95. Klingenberg, W., 'Ideenwettbewerb fiir eine feste Verbindung
iiber den Grossen Belt', Bauingenieur, No. 11,389-407, November,
1967.
96. Klingenberg, W. and Thul, H., 'Ideenwettbewerb fiir einen
Briickenschlag iiber den Grossen Belt', Stahlbau, No. 8, 225-236,
August, 1968.
97. Anonymous, 'Great Belt Crossing', Civ. Engng, Easton, Pa, 79,
June, 1970.
98. Schlaich,J. and Hagg, G., 'Zwei Rohrbrii:ken iiber den Neckar bei
Heilbronn', Stahlbau, No. 10, 289-292, 1986.
99. Ferjencik, P. and Tochacek, M., Die Vorspannung im Stahlbau,
Theorie und Konstruktionspraxis, Verlag von Wilhelm Ernst & Sohn,
Berlin, 3 2-34, 197 5.
100. Koutny, M., Premosteni Mesinske Uziny, lnz. Stavby, H.6, 1958.
101. Ferjencik, P. and Tochacek, M., Die Vorspannung im Stahlbau,
Theorie und Konstruktionspraxis, Verlag von Wilhelm Ernst & Sohn,
Berlin, 33-34, 1975.
102. Kuesel, T. R., 'Floating Bridges For Long Water Crossings', a
presentation to the Structural Engineers Association of Hawaii,
1984 Annual Convention (courtesy of Mr. Thomas R. Kuesel, Par-
sons Brinckerhoff Quade and Douglas Inc. Engineers), pp. 1- 13.
103. Anonymous, 'Tougher Bridge Challenges', Civ. Engng ASCE, 65,
June, 1985.
Chapter 3
Typical Concrete Bridges
3.1 Concrete cable-stayed bridges
In the last decade, a number of cable-stayed bridges having a reinforced

or prestressed concrete deck system have been erected. These structures
possess a high degree of rigidity, a relatively small deflection and their
damping effect is such that there are relatively small vibrations.
Most often this system consists of a stiffening girder separated into
two cantilevers which are connected by a middle single-span girder.
This system is very convenient for a free cantilevering construction.
Multispan structures could be very economical; usually these spans are
equal, so the deadload is compensated. The main advantages can be
summarized as follows 1:
(I) The horizontal component of the inclined cable forces, causing
compression combined with the bending, very much favor a deck
system design using monolithic or precast concrete.
(2) The depth of the main girder is very shallow, like that of a tied arch
bridge with a suspended deck.
(3) The amount of steel used for the cables is comparatively small. An
optimum solution can be achieved by correct choice of the height of
the tower.
(4) The erection of the cables, as well as of the reinforced concrete deck,
is comparatively easy. Besides that, construction with the free canti-
levering system is very suitable. Due to the small amount of steel and
the ease of erection, this system can be highly recommended with
regard to the cost.
(5) The deflections are small, and therefore this system is applicable for
railroad bridges.
TYPIC \1. CO:"'CRETE BRID(iES 115
3.1.1 Aqueduct at Tempul, Spain
In 1926, the famous Spanish engineer Torroja designed a reinforced

concrete aqueduct over the Guadalete River, at Tempul, Spain 23.
The central span of the aqueduct was to be 188ft (57.3 m) long, and in
order to save steel, this span was arranged to be suspended from reinforced
concrete towers by inclined cables (Fig. 3.1).
fig. 3.1 View of

Stays support balanced cantilevers, as well as the center part of the aqueduct at Tempul, Spain
structure, and had to be tightened to compensate for elongation under

load. To stretch the cables, the tops of the col"umns were separated from
the rest of the structure, and were then capable of being lifted upwards.
The cables from which the aqueduct was suspended passed over this
movable top part of the towers, and a month after placing the concrete,
the tops of the towers were lifted by means of hydraulic jacks, thus
tightening the cables. The space between these movable parts and the
fig. 3.2 Aqueduct at

Tempul, general
arrangement
towers was then packed with concrete, the jacks were removed, and the
cables were embedded in concrete to protect them from oxidation
(Fig. 3.2).
The twisted cables are of high tensile steel, each made in one piece
and conveniently transported rolled up in drums. They have the ad-
vantage of being easy to unwind and place.
ll6 CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
3.1.2 Benton City Bridge, Wasluugton, USA
This concrete-tied cantilever bridge, opened to traffic in 19 57, represents

a true pioneering bridge design .. (Fig. 3.3). The modest structure is
approximately a model of the great Maracaibo Bridge, Venc7.ucla, on a
scale of I :8, built five years later.
The 170 ft (51. 9 m) long central span is flanked on both sides by two
continuous spans of 57.5 ft (17.53 m) each. The inclined stays connected
to the top of the tower support the cantilever part of the main span, and
in the side spans they extend to the top of the adjacent piers.
Wide flange steel beams were used for the inclined diagonals and
towers, rhe latter being s ubsequently encased in concrete. The diagonals
are set with their flanges placed vertically, thereby matching the flanges
of the towers, and each tower has its two diagonals connected to it b)
plates curved in elevation. The enclosed spaces were filled with light-
weight concrete.
In cross-section, the suspended spans, as well as the cantilever spans,
comprise a reinforced concrete slab, supported monolithicall) by the
ribs. The bridge has a 26 ft (7.93 m) roadway and two 4 ft (1.22 m)
sidewalks.
3.1.3 The Mara caibo Bridge, Veue::.uela
This 5~ mile (8.85 km) long bridge, completed in 1962 and spanning
Lake 1'vlaracaibo in Venezuela, is one of the world:s outstanding pre-
stressed concrete structures5- 8 . It includes five 775 ft (236 m) main
spans soaring 148 ft (45.1 m) above the lake's navigation channels and
fil! .LI \'1e" u l Benton supported by inclined cables (Fig. 3.4).
Ctl} Bndge, \\ a'ohJnj:IOn,
LS\
'111'1< \1. (.(), CRI.TI.IIRIJ)(.I .S 117
Each 775 ft long span consists of 2 x 311 ft (95 m) cast-in-place decks

at both ends and a 153 ft (46.6 m) suspended prefabricated deck. Each
31 1 ft long deck was made of cast-in-place concrete which was poured
over a specially made truss. The cantilever span is supported by inclined
ropes suspended from the top of a 305 ft (93.0 m) high four-legged pier
oftwoinclined A-frames linked atthe top by a rrans\'ersegirder(Fig. 3.5).
The CCISt-in-place trestle towers have four legs on each side, tied at the
midpoint by concrete beams and at the top by a 128 ft (39.0 m) deck
platform, which was cast in place and post-tensioned.
Each suspended span consists of a complex of six beams. They were
designed as c0ntinuous beams with six restraints, of which four are
go' erned by oblique struts intersecting each other in the form of two
inclined A-frames. These continuous beams are prestressed internally
b) steel cables and exrernall) by the horizontal component of the inclined
stays.
The continuous cantilever girder is a closed box secrion 16.5 ft (5.03 m)
deep. Its high torsional stiffness distributes asymmetrical traffic loads
cA'ccti,cly. In addition, the high torsional frequency of the box section
itself reduces resonance due to the proper freq uency of the inclined stays.
Since strains of the ropes were equalized during construction, the l'ig. 3.-1 \ 1e" of the
\laracaibo Bndge,
\ cnctucla
r------"-5"--24_'_-8_"----+------'--5e no' -R" 524'-8"
illodJor I
46' -6"
Fig. 3.5 The Maracaibo

Bridge, general
arrangement
intersecting forces of the system resulting from deadweight were cal-

culated on the assumption of infinitely rigid inclined ropes. However, for
traffic loads, the elasticity of the ropes had to be taken into account.
The cables, having 16 strands, each 2"k in (73.0 mm) in diameter, were
made of cold-drawn patented Siemens-Martin cast steel wires and
protected against corrosion by a bitumen coating.
The 57ft (17.4 m) wide bridge deck carries four lanes of traffic with a
4 ft (1.22 m) central median and two 3 ft (0.91 m) sidewalks. This
unorthodox concrete design was selected because corrosive fumes in the
area would make maintenance of a less costly steel bridge too expensive
in the long run.
3.1.4 The Dnepr Bridge, Kiev, USSR
A cable-stayed bridge over the Dnepr River at Kiev, having a reinforced-

concrete main girder, was completed in 1963 9- 12 (Fig. 3.6). It consists
of a 474ft (144m) central span and two side spans 216ft (66 m) long.
There are three pairs of stays from each portal type tower. The outer
ones have a 0.16-2.76 in (4-70 mm) diameter, the middle ones are 0.16-
2.16 in (4-55 mm) in diameter, and the bottom ones next to the tower
are 0.08-2.76 in (2-70 mm) in diameter.
TYPICAL COI'<CRETE llRIDGF.S 119

Dnepr Bridge, Kiev,
USSR
The most interesting feature of this bridge is that the whole super-
structure is prefabricated and made only of reinforced concrete. The
main girders are built from precast reinforced concrete members sus-
pended by the cable stays. The reinforced concrete towers are 138 ft
(42.06 m) high. They are fixed into the piers and have lateral beams to
support the superstructure.
The most complicated joints are the connections of the steel cables to
the main girders. This is because these joints should satisfy the condi-
tions during erection and the possibility of the regulation of the separate
strands of the cables.
In cross-section, the roadway is 28 ft (6.30 m) wide and the two
sidewalks on each side are 5 ft (1.52 m) each (Fig. 3.7).
Safe connections between the main girders and the cross-beams have
been achieved by making a joint between the front side of the cross-beam
and by making the side of the main girder a conical-shaped wedge. Only
a nominal amount of reinforcement is used in the deck except where the
cables are attached to the deck.
An examination of the dynamic behavior of the bridge revealed that
the structure had a high stiffness. I n spite of the shallow depth of the
main girder, which is only -rim of the span, the deflection does not exceed
-r/ro of the span. The deflection of the main girder is mainly the result of
the cable stretch under live loading, and is only slightly due to its own
deflection.
The structural design of the bridge system has been checked on a
to scale model.
472' -4"
+ 904'-2" - --~
l __
foig. 3.7 The Dnepr

Bridge, general
arrangement
3. 1.5 The Polcetera Creek Viaducl, ilaly
The three main spans of this structure, erected in 1966, are carried by
inclined cables and ha\"e span s of 66_., 689 and _.60 ft (202, 210 and
HO m) 131"' (Fig. 3.8).
The length and sequence of the spans were established by the location
of the piers which were built in spots allowed by the local topography,
the area being densely built and occupied by railroad yards, roads,
industrial plants and the Polcevera Creek.
The structural scheme of the viaduct is basically the same as that used
foig. 3.11 \'ic'' of !he in the main spans of Maracaibo Bridge. The viaduct comprises a series
PoJcc,em Creek
Viaduct, hal}
TYPIC\!. CO:'\CRFTF BRIDGES 121
of independent, balanced systems, each carried by an individual pier, as

shown in Fig. 3.9.
Each system consists of a three-span continuous deck overhanging on
both sides. The systems are spanned together by suspended girders. The
ends of the overhanging spans are supported by inclined cables which
pass over the top of a concrete A-shaped tower. The cables consist of
pretensioned high-tensile strength steel strands encased in a protective
concrete shell.
The structure has been analysed in the elastic range for dead and live
loads, temperature variations, wind and braking forces. The ultimate
load capacity of the structure has also been determined.
The safety factor against collapse has been determined under the
assumption that yielding of the cables occurs at the same time as that of
the girders. The safety factor against collapse of the cables and of the
girder sections has an approximate value of 2.
3.1.6 Ansa de la Magliana Viaduct, Rome, Italy
This motorway viaduct, designed by Morandi, was built in 1967 to

cross a banked length of the Tiber River over a swamp land 15 16
(Fig. 3.10). At the site of the main span, the road lay in a curve. A single,
inclined, portal tower supports a seven cell box girder cantilever, which Fig. 3. 9 Polcevera Creek
in turn supports a suspended span comprising seven T -beams (Fig. 3.11). Viaduct, general
arrangement
59'
~rloooool
I 50'-5"
fig. 3.10 \ 'icwofthe

Ansa de Ia \lagliana
\'iaduct, ltal)
~7S' 7" l7S't0" -1

r
9S'-2"
hlooooooor
1"'"-- - - - - - . 1 . .0 I -6"
_ _ _ _ _ _ 7~4" - - - - - - -- :
Fig. 3. 11 Ansa de Ia
Magliana Viaduct, general
arrangement
I' I'IC-\1 . CO,CRETE BRIDGI.S 123
Because of poor foundation conditions, the bridge is a fully articulated

structure. The tower porral is hinged at its bearings and, because of the
different inclinations of the forestays and backstays, leans backwards
nearly 8.2 ft (2.5 m) from the vertical. Similarly, the cantilever s pan is
hinged at the rower and the anchor span, which rests on the grou nd, at
two positions.
The backstays, which are widely splayed to accommodate the cun a-
ture of the deck, are anchored independently in large gravity bloc ks,
which nevertheless rely on extensions of the abutment for their resistance
to horizontal movement. The transverse beam into which the forestays
arc anchored is again of box section, the. cables being bifurcated. In this
bridge Morandi used, for the first time, parallel wire prestressing cables
in the main stays.
3.1.7 River Parana Bridge, Corrientes. Argentina
The cable-stayed part of this bridge consists of an 803.6 ft (244.6 m)

central span and two flanking spans each ~3~.6 ft (132.2 m) long17 .
A-frame legs to the portal rower, together with the splayed columns of
the pier, provide rigidity to the deck, which is supported by two back-
stays and two forestays from each tower (Fig. 3. 12).
A deck section comprises twin box girders s upporting the roadway
slab and joined by intermediate diaphragms at between 39ft ( 11.9 m)
and 52 ft ( 15.9 m) centers, the cable planes lying on the centerlines of the
bo' girders (Fig. 3. 13).
The towers and splayed column legs arc cast on the site together with
a 173.8 ft (53.0 m) long section of deck symmetrical about each tower,
fill'. 3.12a View of the

Ri,er Parana Bridge,
Corrientes, Argentina
complete with the roadway shtb, which is formed from precast channel
units spanning between the box girders and the cantilevered footways.
The remaining 282 ft (86.0 m) of each cantilevered box girder is erected
from 25 precast units.
The main cables are spread and anchored in pairs in adjacent units so
as to distribute the large concentrated forces as much as possible. The
permanent cables are socketed and anchored by means of horseshoe
washers at the tower. At the deck anchorages, the sockets are each
retained by a crosshead which is jacked down a pair of high tensile
threaded rods anchored to the beams.
3.1.8. Wadi Kuf Bridge, Spiac, Libya
This thJee-span bridge is part of a new highway near Libya's Medi-

21
terranean shore, linking Tunis and Egypt 18- . The bridge has a center
125
fig. 3.12h o\norhcr '1e"

of the Ri,er Panna Bridge
fir.r . .1. J:l Ri' cr Parana

Bridge, general
arrangement
~7'-2"
L
1: 32' -8"
t: l ;...,
~
'
_1] [t
18'-2"1 82 11
~1
39' .- -l
Fig. 3. 14 Vie\\ of the

Wadi Kuf Bridge, Spine,
Libya
Fig. 3. 15 Wadi Kuf

Bridge, general
arrangement
L 319'-8" 925' 31~ -
.- -r
In
49' - 2"
.
4
.....
1\ ~
ro
0
- l
~
~r"'
-
. N
r
- 24 t -J"
42 . -6"
--
TYPICAL COI'\CRETE BRIDGES 127
span of 925 ft (282 m), the longest cantilevered concrete cable-stayed

span, flanked by 319.8 ft (97.5 m) side spans for a total length of 1565 ft
(477 m) (Fig. 3.14).
The designer selected concrete because of its rigidity, tolerance to
extreme day-and-night temperature variations, and security against
seismic disturbances in the area.
The A-frame portal and inclined pier legs support a single box girder
of varying depth with a single pair of forestay and backstay cables
(Fig. 3.15). The inclined legs are attached to the deck at points 319.8 ft
(97.5 m) from the tower by an inclined transverse prestressed box beam
21.3 ft deep by 8.2 ft wide (6.5 m by 2.5 m). The main girder extends a
further 52.5 ft (16.0 m) beyond the cables to support a 180.4 ft (55.0 m)
suspended span.
The overall deck width of 42 ft 5 in (12.90 m) consists of a 34ft 6 in
( 10.51 m) wide roadway and two sidewalks 3 ft 5 in ( 1. 0 5 m) wide. The
bridge deck is of cellular construction and consists of top and bottom
slabs joining together the longitudinal beams and a number of transverse
diaphragms.
The main sidespan cantilever extends to the abutments, where they
are anchored down through very large doubly hinged rockers. The single
suspended span is formed from two precast 1-beams lifted directly into
position.
Nineteen wire strands and conventional proprietary prestressing
anchorages are used for both temporary and permanent supporting
cables, the former being taken directly through ducts in the webs of the
box girder and systematically reused in the permanent stays. The main
cables are encased, using a most ingenious method comprising precast
segmental comb units 5.7 ft wide by 3.4 ft deep (1.74 m by 1.04 m)
which are offered up from below. They are sealed by lids cast on the site,
and a number of such segments each 6.6 ft (2.01 m) long are bonded
together using epoxy resin. A 7 in (177 mm) on-the-site joint every
32.8 ft (10.0 m) accommodates any casting tolerances. The casings are
then prestressed sufficiently to prevent tension developing in them under
live load and the deep slotted ducts formed by the combs are grouted up.
3.1.9 Rher Waal Bridf.{e, Tiel, Holland
This bridge has a main span of875 ft 9 in (267m) and two flanking spans
of 311ft 7 in (94.9 m) each 22 (Fig. 3.16).
The deck is formed from twin box girders connected by the deck slab
and transverse diaphragms at the piers and cable anchorages. The main
cantilevers, which are supported by two forestay cables from the towers,
are continuous not only with the side span but also with the first approach
span on each side (Fig. 3 .17).
I
fo'ig. 3.16 View of the
River Waal Bridge, Tiel,
Holland
~.-L
I
875' -9"
---
T
0
101 1
1.! '
I + 69' + 16'2"~ "'
Jr
16 ' -2"
"'
-'
::L
~r=
r
Jr lC
~
32 I 8" 25' -7"
2.5'-7"
83 ' -10"
+
fig. 3.17 Tiel Bridge,

general arrangemem
TYPIC\.L CO:\CRI:TJ: BRIJ)(;LS 129
The lower backstay cables support the side spans at their mid-points
and the upper backstays are anchored over the first shore pier, so that
their function is to stabilize the tops of the towers from which the other
points are effectively suspended. Because of this, the forestays and
backstays, although of the same total size, are divided in different
proportions, and it is necessary to divert some tendons from upper to
lower stays in the tower saddles. Multiple strand cables are used for the
permanent stays and longitudinal stressing of the box girders, multiple
wire for transverse stressing of the deck and diaphragms and high tensile
bars for the temporary stays and vertical stressing of the box girders.
3.1.10 River Foyle Bridge, Londonderry, Northern Ireland
In this bridge the main span 688.8 ft (210 m) long is supported assym-
metrically from a single diamond-shaped tower 23 (Fig. 3.18).
The deck in cross-section is a torsion resisting trapezoidal box supported
essentially on a single central cable plane. The permanent stays are
parallel wire cables anchored in conventional proprietary prestressing
anchorages. Dead-end anchors are used at the deck with jacking at the
Fig. 3.18 River Foyle
tower through stressing rods. Each stay consists of two cables to provide Bridge, general
space for the anchorages and this arrangement conveniently allows for arrangement
229' -6" I 229' -6'.' 688' -8" 229 1 -6 11
29'-5 11
V--j
a central footway on the bridge. The deck is anchored at the main pier
so that the tower is not stressed by expansion movement of the deck.
Each of the two adjacent piers to which the backstays are anchored acts
as a flexible strut and tie.
Under the proposed method of construction, the tower will be cast on
the site up to deck level and the approach spans cantilevered 114.8 ft
(35.0 m) into the main span at each end.
Because dead load accounts for about 95% of the total load which the
cables, tower and deck itself are designed to carry, economy will be
achieved by using high-strength concrete for the deck to reduce dead
load to a minimum.
3 .1.11 The Pasco-Kennewick Bridge, USA
This structure is the largest precast prestressed cable-stayed bridge built

in North America, completed in 1978, spanning the Columbia River and
connecting Pasco and Kennewick in Washington State 24- 27 . The bridge
is 2503 ft (763 m) long, the main span is 981 ft (299 m) and the side
spans are each 407ft (124m) long (Fig. 3.19). The width of the bridge is
80 ft (24 m), carrying sidewalks and four traffic lanes.
The bridge girder, structurally continuous along its entire length and
suspended over 1794 ft (54 7 m) of its length, is assembled from large,
separately precast, prestressed concrete elements. Sixty-two bridge
girder elements, 80ft (21.1 m) wide, 27ft (8 m) long, 7ft (2.1 m) deep
and weighing about 300 tons (272 t) each, were assembled in the bridge
system.
There are 144 stay cables, arranged in two planes, held at the tops of
the two main pier towers in special welded steel tower-head assemblies,
and anchored at 27 ft (8 m) intervals along both edges of the concrete
girder (Fig. 3.20). The cables are made up of *in (6.4 mm) diameter
steel wires, arranged into straight bundles. The wire bundles are encased
in polyethylene pipes, and after installation the space between the steel
wires and pipe wall is filled with portland cement grout for protection
against corrosion. The cables containing stiff neoprene damping inserts
near the anchorages, are designed to minimize or preclude vibrations.
The bridge has only one expansion joint to provide for all temperature
changes and other necessary movements. The girder is freely suspended
between the main pier towers and fixed on the large abutment at the
northerly end.
3 .1.12 Brotonne Bridge, France
Brotonne Bridge was the largest cable-stayed prestressed concrete

bridge when it was opened to traffic in 1977 2H-Jo. It crosses the Seine
TYPICAL COt'CRETE URIDGES 131
Fig. 3.19 Views of

Pasco-Kennewick
Bridge, USA
River downstream from Rouen and has a central span of 1050 ft (320m)
(Fig. 3.21).
In cross-section the prestressed segmented concrete deck consists of a
single-cell trapezoidal box girder, with interior stiffening struts. Webs
are vertically prestressed to resist shear stresses, in addition to transverse
prestressing in the top and bottom flanges. Inclined stiffeners are
prestressed longitudinally, near the center of the main span.
Each tower of the Brotonne Bridge was made of a single reinforced
132 C\BLF-ST \YFD BRID(;I:S
60'-cl" J
10'-0" 1
80 -6
11
~ ~l At l!lltA
. I
t:D_ ~~
'
':...
.. ... ...
~ ~
A: a:
~ '
.124-8"
Coin ~ec. A_A
"' "'
0"'~U)
15'-o'soc. _a
N N
N N Tower Section
lr ,
Fig. 3.20 Pasco- ar -, B

Kennewick Bridge,
general arrangement '
concrete pylon, 230 ft (70 m) high, fixed in the deck and exposed to wind
up to a height of 394 ft (120m) above ground level. The slenderness of
the tower is very impressive.
The suspension of the Brotonne Bridge is achieved by 21 stay cables
per tower, placed in a fan layout, anchored at both ends in the deck and
tower. The stay cables cross the tower on saddles which form a fixing
T) I' I(. \I . CO!'\CRI:TF. IIRII)GI.S 133
Pig. 3.21 \ 'ic'' of

Brownne Bridge, France
point. The cables are made of stranded prestressed cables, threaded in

steel ducts and grouted with cement. The number of strands ranges from
39 to 60, from the shonest to the longest cables (Fig. 3.22). The
anchorages of the stay cables into the deck have two main purposes:
tensioning of the cables before grouting, and changing the tension after
grouting either by releasing the cables or by increasing the tension. The
stay anchorages are spaced every 19 ft 8 in (6 m) at the deck, fixed so that
their positioning can be changed; they can also be replaced in case of
damage. Stay-cable tensioning is achieved by four parallel jacks.
In terms of construction the Brotonne Bridge presented two problems:
the positioning of the stay cables and the injection of grout.
3.1.13 Rheinbridge Diepoldsau, Srvil:::erland
The total length of this cable-stayed bridge is 918 ft (280 m) and the
central span is 318ft (97 m) 31
The deck cross-section consists of a reinforced concrete slab 4 7 ft 7 in
(14.6 m) wide "~th a thickness 1 ft 2 in to 1 ft 10 in (0.36 to 0.55 m). The
total ''~dth of the deck includes two roadways each 16 ft 5 in (5 m) wide,
two bicycle tracks each 5 ft (1.5 m) '~de and one sidewalk 6 ft 7 in (2 m)
\\~de (Fig. 3.23).
This bridge has two pylons, each having two legs. Harp disposed
cables, on two planes, are spaced at 20 ft (6 m) intervals at the deck level.
Both pylons are made of reinforced concrete frames, 118 ft (36 m) high.
Each leg has a cross-section of 5 ft 3 in X 7 ft 2 in (1.6 X 2.2 m) at the
bottom and 4 X 4 ft (1.2 X 1.2 m) at the top (Fig. 3.24).
134 C \OLE-ST \\'1-J) BRIDGE.:;
4 1113' .o
83' .. 0 ..
o
,~-or41 II
21'.. 21 ' -0'
ii
18' - 0'
.I 13: o .I -~~- +1---~-a_-_o_-
-_o_- .... -1
B
r
.
0
Secllon A - A
.,
--
N
..
b
N
Section B - B
Fig. 3.22 13rmonn
Bridge, general
arrangement
Fig. 3.23 \ 'iew of

Diepoldsau Bridge,
S"irzerland
TYPICAl. CO:\CRETE BRIDGES 135
172'
Fig. 3.24 Diepoldsau

Bridge, general
18' I 51. s' I 18' ~
1 arrangement
The stay cables are composed of strands having from 37 to 77 parallel

wires, each of ~in (7 mm) diameter and covered by polyethylene.
3.1.14 Sunshine S/...jiway Bridge, USA
After the collapse of the Sunshine Skyway Bridge in 1980, when a

freighter struck one of its support piers in a sudden storm, a new design
was accepted 32- 34 . This bridge crosses Tampa Bay in Florida, with a
main navigational span of 1200 ft (366 m) and side spans of 540 ft
(164.5 m). The new bridge provides 17 5 ft (53.4m) of vertical clearance
for ships and the horizontal clearance is 1000 ft (305 m) (Fig. 3.25).
This is a unique structure from several aspects. Its 1200 ft (365 m)
main span qualifies the Skyway as the largest concrete span in North
America. Also, for a bridge of its size and type 21 877 ft (6670 m) long,
the construction method is innovative for the USA. The center 8860 ft
136 C t\BJ.E-STAYED BR([)GJ:S
Fig. 3.25 Views of

Sunshine Sk)"'ay 13ridgc,
USA
(2701 m) portion of the high level approach and the main span of the
bridge were built by the precast segmental concrete technique.
In cross-section, the deck consists of single-cell precast concrete
segmental box girder units 12ft (3.65 m) long, 14ft (4.27 m) deep and
95 ft 3 in (29 m) wide. The cross-section is a monolithic unit and
contains transverse post-tensioning in the top and bottom flanges as well
as in the web.
The segments for the precast section of the bridge are being cast
under factory-type conditions and each segment weighs approximately
170 tons.
The twin 40ft (12.2 m) roadway allows for two lanes of traffic and an
emergency 10 ft (3 m) shoulder in each direction.
The Skyway design features a single pylon and a single plane of cable
stays. The pylon is basically rectangular, \\<ith a constant transverse
dimension of 11 ft (3.35 m) and a tapering longitudinal dimension of 23
ft (7 m) at the top. The pylon has an interior void area to allow for a
service elevator. Each single-shaft pylon is rigidly connected to the box
girder superstructure. The superstructure is supported by 2 1 cables on
either side of the pylon at a spacing of24 ft (7.31 m) on center for 2280 ft
(695 m) of the 4000 ft (1219.5 m) main span unit (Fig. 3.26).
The single plane of stays is continuous over the pylon and anchored on
blocks at the middle of the segmental steel pipe covering the stays to
protect them, and this pipe is painted with reflective epox')' to reduce the
maintenance needs.
The new bridge is designed to withstand hurricane winds of velocity
240 mph. The two main cast- in-place elliptical piers were designed to
T\ PIC \1 . CO:'\CRETE BRID(;ES 137
95'- 3"
I'
f-ig. 3.26 Sunshine
Skyway Bridge, general
arrangement
withstand design sh ip impacts of up to 6000 tons. Also, the elliptical

shape minimizes wind loading on the pier shaft.
3.1.15 The Dmue Point Bridge, USA
The proposed Dame Point Bridge over the St Johns River in Florida
concrete alternative to one cable-stayed steel bridge will have a 1300 ft
(396 m) cennal span and side spans of 650 ft (198 m) (Fig. 3.27)35- 38 .
Fig. 3.27 View of Dame

Point Bridge, USA
In cross-section, the cast-in-place deck is supported by precast T-

beams and the longitudinal edge girders. It will support three lanes of
traffic in each direction. Each pier will support two concrete pylons,
which anchor the stay cables (Fig. 3.28).
Each proposed stay will consist of between seven and nine Dywidag
bars, 1+ in (44.5 mm) in diameter, which will be encased in a metal
duct.
105' -10"
Cab loa I I43' -6" 1!"2'-0" I

43'-6" 1 Cab los
(End Span)
1
(Main span'[;-~.~::::::::::::====~====:::::::f$+-.
Cost_ in-situ Beam Preca,.st-r;- Beam
.,...
0
Fig. 3.28 Dame Point

Bridge, general
arrangement
TYPIC\1. CO'-:CRETE BRIDGES 139
3.2 Railroad concrete bridges
3.2.1 T!u: Main Bridge, W Gemw1~)'
The Main Bridge, near Hoechst, was built in 1971 over the River
J\llain 39-H. This is the world's largest prestressed concrete bridge
carrying highway and railway traffic.
The bridge is a prestressed segmental cable-stayed structure, carrying
two three-lane roadways, separated by a railway track and pipeline. It is a
skew bridge having a central span of 486 ft (148 m), with a northern
approach span of 86ft (26m) and southern approach spans of 55, 84, 95
and 129 ft (16.9, 25.65, 29.00, 39.35 m) (Fig. 3.29).
fig. 3.29 \ 'ie" of the

1\lnin Bridge, \\'e~t
Germany
In cross-section the deck consists of a torsionally stiffened box girder

supporting two cantilevers of 39 ft (11.95 m) and 36 ft (11 m). The
centerline of the individual cantilever pylons coincides with the
centerline of the longitudinal webs of the box girder. It is a 102ft (30.95
m) wide structure and the centnl box spine is 26 ft (8 m) wide and only
8 ft 8 in (2.66 m) deep.
The stay cables are in pairs parallel to each other in the main span
(Fig. 3.30). The stays are anchored in the webs of the spine girder and
are tensioned at the tower with torqued nuts on the threaded rods. There
are 13 pairs of stays on each side of the spine. Each stay has 25 rods, f
in (15.8 mm) in diameter, held in a circular configuration by polyethylene
spacers and encased in a 7llz in (190 mm) diameter steel pipe.
140 C \IlLE-ST\ YED BRIDCiES
~5.j6' 84.1~' 95.12' 12907' 376.90' 109.29' 118.64'1

I I
486.19'
Fig. 3.30 Main Bridge,

general arrangement
The construction of the bridge superstructure was by the cast-in-place

segmental method.
3.2.2 M25 Overbridge, Lyne, England
This railroad bridge is to cross the proposed motorway M25 at a skew of

62 from the normal whilst on a curve, having extremely restricted
headroom 43 (Fig. 3.31). The location is considered to be of exceptional
scenic beauty requiring a bridge of particular aesthetic merit.
The bridge consists basically of two plane frames each comprising a
continuous box girder supported from a single tower by two forestay
and backstay cables (Fig. 3.32).
The frames are connected by a prestressed slab at the level of the
bottom flange of the girder which acts as the rail carrier. All stay cables
T YI'IC \1 . CO:"-. CRETI . BRIDCI I.S 141
Fig. 3.3 1 View of the M25

O verbridge, Lyne, England
194. 7" 194' - 7"
;::.
!H
- __,_,
34_ - --'!-l11
{b 39'
~
T
0
f
f ig. 3.32 M25 O vcrhridgc,
gen eral arrangement
are parallel wires using conventional prestressing anchorages, and are

uncased. The deck tendons will be stressed simultaneously to control
stresses in the tower and deck as the bridge is raised off its centering.
The stay cables will be jacked at the rowers, the lower cables being an-
chored to the tower, itself, while the upper ones terminate in an anchor
block mounted on rockers. At the lower end, all cables have dead-end
anchorages in separate anchor blocks which are themselves stressed down
independently to the deck, to facilitate replacement in the event of damage
to the cables due to a derailment or other cause.
3.2.3 Great Belt Bridge Project by Dyckerho_ff'and Widmann, Germany
In the competition for a Great Belt Bridge, a German firm, Dyckerhoff

and Widmann, was awarded a second prize for the design of a combined
rail and road bridge, having multiple spans up to 1150 ft (351 m) 4445
(Fig. 3.33).
The double-track railroad runs in the middle of the superstructure,
and the roadways in both directions are arranged at the same level on
both sides of the railroad. The 145 ft (44.2 m) wide bridge deck consists
of a solid prestressed concrete slab having an average thickness of 2 ft
(0.61 m). It is suspended from the towers of the bridge by means of
inclined cables, which are arranged in two planes on both sides of the
clearance profile of the double-track railroad.
r----sa-;-- - 50'
---------~-~- ---------------r----
so 1
45 1 f~tL __I -10 11
----.2%
Fig. 3.33 Project by
Dyckerhoff and
\\idmann, second ---t--
prize 146'
TYPICAL CO:'\CRETE BRIDGES 143
3.3 Pipeline concrete bridges
3.3.1 Pipe Bridge, Pretoria, South Africa
This bridge of the Transvaal Roads Department, completed in 1968,

carries two 27 in (0.69 m) diameter water mains with provision for future
installation of a further 34 in (0.86 m) diameter pipe 46 (Fig. 3.34).
It was cast entirely on the site, the most interesting feature being that
the hinge between the two deck sections, which again must transmit the
horizontal thrust, was achieved by continuous casting of two mating
surfaces.
93'
I 93'
13'-4"
Fig. 3.34 Pipe Bridge,
15'-10" general arrangement
The stays were formed from parallel wires anchored by a prestressing

system in which the wires are looped around a capstan type boss on
which is tapped a stressing rod. The other ends of the wires are usually
crimped and embedded as a dead-end-anchorage, but in this case the
cables were prefabricated from a continuous length of wire, presumably
completed by welding or brazing, and stressed simultaneously from both
ends. The stressing rods pass through the deck to fabricated steel
bearing plates mounted on the soffit and prevented from sliding by a
large number of inclined bolts anchored in the deck concrete.
144 CAlli ,E-STA YED BRIDGES
References
1. Kammiiller, K., 'Suspension Bridges with Inclined Cables', Beton

Stahlbetonb., No. 3, 63-65, March, 1952 (in German).
2. Paez, A., 'Our Fiftieth Anniversary', Concr. Constr. Engng, 187-188,
January, 1956.
3. Torroja, E., Philosopky of Structures, University of California Press,
Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1962, pp. 128-12 9.
4. Hadley, H. M., 'Tied-Cantilever Bridge-Pioneer', Civ. Engng,
Easton, Pa, 48-50, January, 1958.
5. Morandi, R., 'The Bridge Spanning Lake Maracaibo', J. Prestr.
Concr. Ins!., 12-27, June, 1961.
6. Lustgarten, P., 'Briicke iiber den See von Maracibo', Bauingenieur,
l'\o. 10, 365-373, October, 1962.
7. Schmitz, H. and Jetter, R., 'Planung und Bauausfiihrung der
Schiffahrtsoffnungen der Maracaibobriicke in Venezuela', Bau-
ingenieur, No. 8, 283-302, August, 1963.
8. Simons, H., Wind, H. and Moser, W. H., The Bridge Spanning Lake
Maracaibo in Venezuela, Bauverlag, Wiesbaden-Berlin, 1963.
9. Kireenko, B. 1., 'Reinforced-Concrete, Cable-Stayed Bridge', Beton
Zhelezo-beton, No. 6, 5-10, 1965 (in Russian).
10. Anonymous, 'Die Schragseilbriicke in Kiev', Bauingeneur, No. 11,
426-427, 1968.
11. Streletzkii, N. N., Reinforced Concrete Bridges, Moscow, pp. 119-127,
1965 (in Russian).
12. Kireenko, B. 1., Cable-Stayed Bridges, Kiev, 1967, pp. 25-27 and 81-
92 (in Russian).
13. Anonymous, 'Polcevera Difficult Site is Spur to Design', Engng.
News Rec., 32-34, 26 August, 1965.
14. Morandi, R., 'Some Types of Tied Bridges in Prestressed
Concrete', Concrete Bridge Design, ACI Publication SP-23, American
Concrete Institute, Detroit, Michigan, 1969, pp. 44 7-465.
15. Morandi, R., 'Viaducto de Ia Magliana, ltalia', lnj(mnes de Ia
Construccion Revista de lnfiJrmacion Technia, No. 208, lnstituto
Eduardo Torroja, Madrid, March, 1969, pp. 73-74.
16. Gee, A. F., 'Cable Stayed Concrete Bridges', Developments in Bridge
Design and Construction, Ed. Rockey, K. C., Bannister, ]. L. and
Evans, H. R. Conference proceedings, University College, Cardiff,
1971, Crosby Lockwood, London, 1971, p. 462.
Evans, H. R., Conference proceedings, University College, Cardiff,
1971, Crosby Lockwood, London, 1971, pp. 464-465.
18. Morandi, R., 'Some Types of Tied Bridges in Prestressed
TYPIC\ I. COT\ CRETE BRJI)GFS 145
Concrete', First International Symposium Concrete Bridge Design,

Paper SP 23-25, ACI Publication SP-23, Detroit, Michigan, 1969,
pp. 447-465.
19. Morandi, R., 'Past and Future Achievements in Reinforced
Concrete', Concrete, 5 (2), 41-46, 1971.
20. Gee, A. F., 'Cable Stayed Concrete Bridges', De-velopments in Bridge
Evans, H. R., Conference Proceedings, University College, Cardiff,
21. Anonymous, 'Longest Concrete Cable-Stayed Span Cantilevered
over Tough Terrain', Engng. News Rec., 28-29, 15 July, 1971.
!
24. Grant, A., 'Pasco-Kennewick Bridge-the longest cable-stayed
bridge in North America', Civ. Engng ASCE, 62-66, August, 1977.
25. Grant, A., 'The Pasco-Kennewick Intercity Bridge',]. Prestr. Concr.
lnst., 24, No. 3, 90-109, May/June, 1979.
26. Grant, A., 'Intercity Bridge first Major U.S. Cable-Stayed Bridge',
Civ. Engng ASCE, 71-73, June, 1979.
27. Bridges, C. P. and Coulter, C. S., 'Geometry Control for the
Intercity Bridge', ]. Prestr. Concr. lnst., 113-125, May/June,
1979.
28. Mathivat, J., 'Le Pont de Brotonne (France)' L4.BSE Periodica,
Structures C-3178, 10-11, February, 1978.
29. Lenglet, C., 'Brotonne Bridge: Longest Prestressed Concrete
Cable-Stayed Bridge', Cable-Stayed Bridges, Structural Engineering
Series No. 4, Bridge Division, Federal Highway Administration,
Washington, DC, 1978.
30. Mathivat,]., The Cantilever Construction oJPrestressed Concrete Bridges,
John Wiley and Sons, New York, pp. 301-304; 312-314; 316-321,
1983.
31. Bacchettal, A., L4.BSE Structures C-32184, 68-69, November, 1984.
32. Anonymous, 'Preventing Another Sunshine Skyway Bridge
Disaster', Civ. Engng ASCE, 56-57, March, 1982.
33. Muller, ]., 'Optimization in the Design and Construction of the
Sunshine Skyway Bridge-Florida's First Cable-Stayed Bridge',
The International Bridge Conference, 4-6 June, 1984, Pittsburg, Pa,
USA, pp. 59-60.
34. Anonymous, 'Skyway Bridge Boasts a Record and Innovations', Engr

News Rec., 20-23, September, 1986.
35. Graham, H.]., 'Dame Point Bridge', Cable Stayed Bridges, Structural
Engineering Series No. 4, Bridge Division, Federal Highways
Administration, Washington, DC, 1978.
36. Anonymous, 'Alternate Bidding Could Yield Record Stayed
Girder', Engng News Rec., 12, June, 1978.
37. Anonymous, 'Bids Called for Record-Span Florida Bridge', Engr
News Rec., 14, August, 1979.
38. Anonymous, 'Record Span to be Rebuilt', Engr News-Record, 20,July
1980.
39. Anonymous, 'All-Concrete Stayed Girder Bridge Cuts Costs', Engr
NewsRec., 18-19,January, 1973.
40. Anonymous, 'All-Concrete Cable-Stayed Bridge Over the River
Main', Ind. Concr. ]., 47, No. 11, 394-419, November, 1973.
41. Parkinson, ]., 'Finsterwalder is Star Turn', New Cil'. Engr, 34,
September, 1976.
42. Schambeck, H., 'The Construction of the Main Bridge Hoechst to
the Design of the 365 m. Span Rhein Bridge Dusseldorf-Flehe',
Cable-Stayed Bridges, Structural Engineering Series No. 4, Bridge
Division, Federal Highway Administration, Washington, DC, 1978.
Design and Construction, Ed. Rockey, K. C., Bannister, J. L. and
Evans, H. R., Conference Proceedings, university College, Cardiff,
44. Klingenberg, W., 'Ideenwettbewerb fiir cine feste Verbindung iiber
den Grossen Belt', Bauingenieur, No. 11, 390-408, November,
1967.
45. Finsterwalder, U., 'Free-Cantilever Construction of Prestressed
Concrete Bridges and Mushroom-shaped Bridges', First Inter-
national Symposium, Concrete Bridge Design, ACI Publication SP-23,
1969, pp. 467-494.
46. Gee, A. F., 'Cable Stayed Concrete Bridges', Developments in Bridxe
Chapter 4
Typical Composite Bridges
4.1 Introduction
In the design of modern cable-stayed bridges the trend is to use concrete

pylons and composite steel girders for the deck system. In this case the
deck consists of a grid of welded steel plate girders with two main girders
located at the very outside and topped by a concrete precast slab.
Generally the advantages of such composite decks, as considered by
some authorsl.2, are as follows:
(1) The roadway slab is made of concrete, instead of the usual steel
orthotropic deck, to reduce costs.
(2) By using precast slabs for the deck, the redistribution of compression
forces onto the steel girders due to shrinkage and creep is
minimized, and forming costs are reduced.
(3) The roadway spans longitudinally between floor beams; tensile
stresses onto compression stresses from the overall system.
(4) The deck in the center of the main span is not prestressed, although
the overall compression is decreasing there. For crack control, the
reinforcement is increased and lapped in cast-in-place joints.
(5) Greater resistance against rotation to the torsionally weak bridge
deck system is achieved by anchoring the stay cables to the outside
main girders and converging them at the tower top, thereby creating
stiff space truss.
The composite type deck was successfully applied to a number of

existing cable-stayed bridges, and this concept was also proposed as a
steel alternative for a number of other bridges in the United States.
148 C:\lli.F-ST \YFD llRIDCi!:S
4.2 Composite cable-stayed bridges
4.2.1 Sitka Harbor Bridge, Alaska, USA
This structure is the first cable-stayed bridge built in the uSA in 19723
(Fig. 4.1).
The cable-stayed portion of this bridge is 750ft (22H m) in length with a
main span of 450ft (137m).
The stay system in the form of radial cables in two planes consists of
three cables immovably anchored together at the top of the tower. The
cross-section consists of two main box girders, 6ft (1.83 m) deep, spaced
34ft 3 in ( 10.4 3m). The reinforced concrete deck slab is supported by floor
beams, stringers and main girders (Fig. 4.2). The steel towers are of
rectangular box section and fixed at their bases to the concrete pedestals.
4.2.2 East Huntington Bridge, US'A
The bridge which crosses the Ohio River at East Huntington has a main
superstructure consisting of two spans of 900 ft (274m) and 608 ft (185
m) and a single tower (Fig. 4.3t
The bridge was designed for two lanes and in cross-section the
composite deck consists of a high strength concrete slab supported by
two main girders and transverse steel floor beams.
The length of the precast segments in the stayed part of the bridge is
44ft 10 in (13.7 m), and floor beams are spaced at 9ft (2.74 m) intervals
on center. The deck slab, steel floor beams and main girders are built
monolithically (Fig. 4. 4). The height of the pylon above the deck is 179 ft
5 in (55 m).
Cable stays consisting of parallel ~in (6.35 mm) diameter wires are
anchored at both the pylon and deck and are of the Hi-Am type. The
original design incorporated an orthotropic type steel box girder.
4.2.3 Quinry Bridge, USA
This bridge, presently under construction across the Mississippi River 5 ,

is a three-span cable-stayed bridge with a center span of 900 ft (274m)
and side spans of 440 ft (134 m), (Fig. 4.5).
The deck consists of edge I -girders, floor beams and stringers
supporting precast composite slab. The two main girders are made of 6 ft
(1.83 m) high 1-beams and are spaced at 43 ft 6 in (13.25 m) intervals.
The spacing of the floor beams varies from 17 to 24ft (5.2 to 7.3 m).
n 1'1(. \I. (.0\II'OSITI-. BRIDGES ) 49
Fig. +.I View of the Sitka Harbor Bridge, Alaska, USA
1 2 5' 150 ' 450' 150 ' 1 2 5'

J.
22' 22'
~' 7' - 9" 0
15 ' t 1 5'
0
f'ig. 4.2 Sitka Harbor Bridge, general arrangement

150 CABLE-STAYED BRLDGES
Pig. 4.3 View of East

Huntington Bridge, USA
4" "' 111
16'-6"
Ill
fig. 4.f East

lluntington Bridge,
general arrangement Section A_ A
fig. 4.5 Yiew of Quine)

Bridge, USA
The precast composite deck slab, 9 in (228 mm) thick, is reinforced

transversally and post-tensioned in the longitudinal direction (Fig. 4.6).
The portal-type concrete pylons reach a height of 181 ft 10 in (55.4 m)
above the roadway. The cables are in two planes and have a fan
configuration. Each cable consists of bundles of parallel wires of 0.25 in
diameter, with a tensile strength of 240 ksi.
TYI'ICI\L CO<\IPOSITE BRIDGES 151
20'-0' I
21'-'3'
7'-3' 7'-3. 7- ~
I
I
~
I .l
lt
(I
~
~.
.e
~
): 1
IHt-- --llkl
47'- 3" w. Tower rig . .f.6 ({uincy Bridge,

43' -II' E.'Towor genera l arrangement
4.2.4 Annacis Island Bridge, Canada
Annacis Bridge crosses the south arm of the F raser River ncar
Vancouver, British Columbiab-8 . Completed in 1987, it is the longest
span cable-stayed bridge in the world (Fig. 4.7), measuring 3052 ft
(930.5 m), with a central span of 1525 ft (465 m) between the towers.
f ig. .f.7 \ 'ie" of

-\nnacis Bridge, Canada
152 C\BLE-ST.\YFD IlRIDCiES
The deck is designed to carry six lanes of traffic but initially will carry
only four. The width of the bridge is 105ft (32m) and the superstructure
consists of two steel plate girders 6 ft 11 in (2.10 m) deep set 91 ft 10 in
(28 m) apart, supporting steel floor beams spaced at 14 ft 9 in (4.5 m)
intervals on center.
The steel members, connected to the 10 in (265 mm) precast concrete
deck by studs, act compositely with it. Precast concrete panels, 44 ft 5 in
(13.545 m) long and 13 ft 3 in (4.03 m) wide, span between the floor
beams. They are connected to each other at the steel members and at the
crown by cast-in-place strips. The panel sits on a neoprene strip that
provides uniform support during construction and leaves a 1.8 in (45
mm) wide gap under the panel filled with concrete during the pouring of
the in-fill strip (Detail 1, Fig. 4.8 (b)).
The bridge has two towers 506 ft (154 m) high and the bents are
reinforced-concrete structures with provision for ductile behavior in
earthquake situations. The legs are of a hollow rectangular cross-section
tapering from 24ft 7 in (7.50 m) by 13ft 9 in (4.20 m) at the base to 17ft
1 in (5.20 m) by 13 ft 9 in (4.20 m) at deck level, from which point the
cross-section remains unchanged.
(a)
r-- Cable plano Cable plano
r;
6.6' 1
41.6' ~~ymm
ID
0
"'
Main girder 1 4 .7'5'spacing
6.6' deep
Fig. 4.8 Annacis Bridge

(a) general arrangement;
(b) floor beam-precast
deck joint; (c) tower-
cable connection; (d)
deck cable connection I liS' .I
TYPIC\L CO!Ili'OSITF BRID<ii:S 153
50mm concrete
overlay
Neoprene strip
415mm
(b) Floorbeam flanQe
Floor beam_ precast deck joint
t. Towor
(c)
Tower_ cable connection
(d)
Deck cable connection
The cross-beams are also hollow in section. The depth of the lower
beam is 3 2 ft 10 in (10 m) and of the upper 26 ft 3 in (8 m). The walls of
the tower legs and cross-beams are 2ft (600 mm) thick. The cranked H-
shape was selected to eliminate compound cable angles and associated
eccentricities at each cable anchorage; the modified fan configuration of
cables permits space to anchor each cable separately at the tower and
replacement of any cable. Despite their considerably larger weight and
foundation size, concrete towers were more economical than steel
towers.
As concrete is not a suitable medium to transfer the horizontal

tension component of each cable through the tower, thin structural steel
channels were used, which also provided jacking seats for cable
connection and adjustment (Fig. 4.8 (c)). The cables are connected
directly to the girder top flange (Fig. 4.8 (d)).
References
1. Svenson, H. S., Christopher, B. G. and Saul, R., 'Design of a Cable-

Stayed Steel Composite Bridge', ASCE, J. Struct. Engng, 112, No. 3,
489-504, March, 1986.
2. Zellner, W., Saul, R. and Svensson, H., 'Recent Trends in the
Design and Construction of Cable-Stayed Bridges', 12th IABSE
Congress, Vancouver, BC, September 3-7, 1987, Final Report, pp.
279-284.
3. Golub, H., 'Cable-Stayed Bridges', Civ. Engng, Easton, Pa, 43,
August, 1971.
4. Pavlo, E. L., 'East Huntington Bridge', Cable-Stayed Bridges, Federal
Highway Administration, lind Book, 1978.
5. Kulicki, J. M., Waldner, H. E. and Prickett, J. E., 'Design of the
Cable-Stayed Mississippi River Bridge at Quincy, Illinois', Transp.
Res. Record 950, Second Bridge Engng Conf, val. 2, Washington, DC,
pp. 34-50, 1984.
6. Anonymous, 'Steel Wins Stayed Girder', Engng News Rec., 13, 26
January, 1984.
7. Taylor, P., 'Hybrid Design for the World's Longest Span Cable-
Stayed Bridge', 12th IABSE Congress, Vancouver, BC, September
3-7, 1984, Final Report, pp. 319-324.
8. Taylor, P., Torrejon,J. E. and Manniche, K., 'Use of Concrete in the
Annacis Bridge Main Span', International Conference on Concrete in
Transportation, Paper SP93-31, 1986, pp. 695-720.
Chapter 5
Typical Pedestrian Bridges
5.1 Introduction
Among pedestrian bridges erected up until now and used for crossing
road traffic, cable-stayed systems have found a wide application.
The superstructure of a typical pedestrian bridge usually has three
parts: an upward sloping stretch, a central part, and a downward sloping
stretch. The sloping parts may consist of ramps, stairs or escalators.
These may be in line with the bridge proper, curved or at an angle to it.
Further, they may have a uniform slope, or one that varies all the way.
The latter is the case with pedestrian bridges that take the shape of a flat
arch, and here the central horizontal part is omitted. The arched pedes-
trian bridge is usually pleasing in appearance in view of its architectural
form, but has the disadvantage that its users are taken to a point at the
crown of the bridge which is higher than the minimum clear headroom
that is necessary for the traffic below.
Pedestrian overpasses necessarily being observed by a large number of
people, there is therefore a natural tendency to build these structures so
as to blend with the surroundings. A variety of such solutions, applying
the cable-stayed system, are reviewed below.
5.2 Cable-stayed pedestrian bridges
5.2.1 Pedestrian bridge, Duisburg, Germany
This unusual, asymmetric, graceful pedestrian bridge was one of the most
interesting steel structures to be seen at the Brussels World Fair of
1958 12 . It connected the Fair's general exhibition area with the
West German section. After the close of the exhibition, the bridge was
dismantled andre-erected at Duisburg (Fig. 5.1).
Fig 5. 1 Vie" of
pctbtrian bridge,
Dui-;hurg, German~
The walkway is supported by a girder suspended from a 164 ft

(50.0 m) high tower on parallel steel cables. The single girder extends
to a stair landing about 118 ft (36.0 m) from the tower. The anchor arm
projects 60ft (18.3 m) back from the tower. The cantilevered hollow box
is 4ft 3 in (1.30 m) deep, having a width of2 ft 3~ in (0.70 m) at the tower
and decreasing to about l ft (0.30 m) at the end. The 10ft (3.0 m) wide
walkway is supported at 11 ft (3.36 m) intervals on brackets projecting
12 ft (3.66 m) from one side of the girder. A spandrel beam connects the
ends of the brackets, helping to distribute the walkway load to the
brackets and also serving as part of the horizontal wind bracing (Fig. 5.2).
TYPIC\L PEDESTRI>\1'\ BRIDGES 157
r----
I
.118 '-_3"_______ -....J--_
_____lj).. '-=3."___j
188'-.fi" - ___ -------1

I
Fig. 5.2 Pedestrian

bridge, Duisburg, general
arrangement
The tower has a curved hollow cross-section, namely two circular arcs
of a different diameter connected by two straight plates. In the transverse
direction, the lower portion of the tower is bent toward the walkway so
that the load passes through the center of gravity of the support. The
tower tapers almost to a point on both sides of the bend. Therefore, the
semicircular plates had to be conical in shape.
5.2.2 The Schiller Street Bridge, Stuttgart, Germany
This bridge, built in 1961, is of the cable-stayed system3 4 (Fig. 5.3).

The main span has a length of 225 ft (68.6 m) and is supported by radial
cables connected to the single tower. In plan, this footbridge consists of
a straight portion with an overall width of 18 ft (5.49 m), and curved
approach portions.
The deck consists of a steel box 18ft (5.49 m) wide and 1ft 8 in (0.46 m)
deep (Fig. 5.4). The top and bottom plates of this box section are
stiffened longitudinally by trapezoidal cold formed steel sections spaced
at 2ft 3 in (0.69 m) centers. Transverse stiffening is by V-shaped lattice
girders with diagonal members formed by bars 1 in (25 mm) in diameter.
The tower, 79 ft (24.1 m) high, is an all-welded structure and has an
octagonal tapered cross-section, supported by a rocker type bearing.
158 CABU:-STAYED BRIDGES

Sc-hiller Street Bridgr,
Stuugart, Germany
I
225'
303'-7" + 78'-7"
j
~-------=
t q
..;;__ ts ----L
a~2J
Fig. 5.-1 The Schiller
Street llridgc, Stuttgart,
general arrangement
The cables are of a special type. This is the only example of a German
cable-stayed bridge with parallel-wire cables. This type of cable was
adopted on account of the more favorable modulus of elasticity,than for
twisted-wire cables and also because it was possible to achieve a shorter
anchorage length for this type of cable than with the system usually
employed. The cables consist of 0.236 in (5.67 mm) diameter steel wires
which, after being bundled, were provided with a wrapping of a wire
TYPICAL PEDESTRIA!\ BRIDGES 159
0.1 in (2.5 mm) in diameter. The final sheathing consists of polyethylene

tubing. The space between the tubing and the actual cable is filled with
cement grout.
5.2.3 Pedestrian bridge, Hamburg, Germany
This bridge was erected in 1963, as a single box structure with its tower
extended upward so as to harmonize with the towers of the highway
bridge 5 (Fig. 5.5).
It has a steel central span of 178 ft (54.3 m) and reinforced concrete
approach ramps of 56ft and 68ft (17.1 m and 20.8 m).
The stay system is of the fan type, presenting a novel appearance,
considering the purpose of this footbridge, and yet perfectly rational
from a technical viewpoint. The girder is suspended from a single tower
located along the central longitudinal axi'> of the bridge. The girder has a
trapezoidal cross-section, variable depth and width, and incorporates an
orthotropic deck.
The 94ft (28.6 m) high tower has a triangular cross-section tapering at
the top and supporting cables. The tower support is fixed, and the box
girder has its bearings on the cantilevers connected to the tower.
56' -2" 178' -4" 68'-2"

292'-8"
Fig. 5.5 Pedestrian

bridge, Hamburg, general
arrangement
5.2.4 Canal du Centre Bridge at Obourg. Belgtum
This cable-stayed footbridge, constructed in 1966, is of an original

design. It comprises two spans, each 220ft (67 m) Ionge>.? (Fig. 5.6).
The spans arc suspended from a central rower by means of stay cables.
Apart from a walkway, the structure carries a water main II in (0.28 m)
in diameter. The tower is hinged at the base and it is formed of rwo
reinforced concrete legs 65.5 ft ( 19.99 m) high, ha\'ing a 27 in by 32 in
(0.69 m by 0.81 m) cross-section. The legs were prefabricated in the
workshop.
Pig. 5.() \'ie"' of the Canal du Cenlre Bridge, Obourg, Belgium
"
T
/I
L 219' -9" I
..,.... 219'-9"
J
...,
"'
41'-4"
58 '-9"
Pig. 5.7 Canal du Centre Bridge, general arrangement

1\1'1( \I. l'I.DI.STR1 \ '\ liRll)( il '> 161
The deck consists of prefabricated prestressed concrete units 55 ft

(16.8 m) long and having a double T-section about 2 ft (0.6 m) high
(Fig. 5.7).
Both ends of the superstructure arc supported by rockers in order to
allow a free expansion of the whole structure. The stay cables are
anchored directly to the units, which are provided with a special de,ice
for this purpose.
5.2.5 Foolbridge ( Ponl de Ia Bourse) over !he Bassin du Commerce, Le

Havre, Fra nee
\ modern type of footbridge was built in 1969 at Le I Ja\'re 11 (Fig. 5.8).

This structure is unusual in that its outline is not symmetrical, owing to
the fact that one pier foundation of the earlier footbridge has been used
again. I Iowever, the aesthetic effect is quite satisfactory.
The bridge has two unequal spans of l03 ft 8 in and 240 ft 10 in
(31.6 m and 73.5 m) making a total length of 3-H ft 6 in (105.1 m). The
steel-framed ded, "ho e depth is only 3 ft 6 in (1.07 m), has a very
marked cuned, convex profile, in order to ensure a clear height abo\e
highest water le\els. The camber amounts to 10ft 8 in (3.25 m) over the
total length of the bridge.
In spite of its profile, which conforms to the parabolic curve and was
most suitable for the project, the approach slope is as sharp as 1 in 6.25.
Such a steep gradient required the use of a special pavement for the deck.

Pon1 de Ia Bourse, Le
Havre, France
....
N
"'
N
Fig. 5.9 Pont de Ia

Bourse, general
240 I -11" ---------1 ~36'3~
arrangement - - - - - _)44'_-6"
-~
The stiffening girders are supported by suspension cables, slung from

the top of the steel mast 114ft 10 in (35.0 m) high, of elongated triangular
shape, pointing upwards. The A-shape tower has both legs of triangular
section. Elevation and cross-section of the bridge are shown in Fig. 5.9.
5.2.6 River Barwon Footbridge, Geelong, Australia
This prestressed concrete footbridge crosses the Barwon River at

Geelong, Australia 9- 11 The structure is a prestressed concrete
stayed girder with a main span of 270 ft (82.3 m) and two sidespans of
180ft (54.9 m) (Fig. 5.10).
The main prestressed beam is trapezoidal-shaped in section and in-
corporates a 3 ft 6 in (1.07 m) diameter hole for a sewer pipe. The stay
cables, which are anchored at both deck and tower, were formed from
galvanized seven-wire strand (Fig. 5.11). They are not cased and do not
even have any protective wrapping, although at the lower end each cable
is threaded through a steel tube.
The girder of the main span was cast on the site using the cantilever
erection method. The bottom part of the tower was cast in place. The top
part was precast at the site in two halves connected after erection by six
galvanized bolts. Six Freyssinet jacks are located in the joints between
the top and bottom section of each tower, providing a means of adjust-
ment to allow for final shrinkage and creep of the concrete in the girder,
should this be required at a later date. Above the joint is a Freyssinet
concrete hinge in each leg to allow the top part of the tower to follow the
temperature movements of the girder without the pylon being loaded in
bending.
5.2.7 Mount Street Footbridge, Perth, Australia
This footbridge is a part of a large road complex forming the northern

approaches to the Narrows Interchange Bridge at Perth, Australia 12- 15
(Fig. 5.12).
TYI'IC.\L PEDE~TRIAI': BRIDGES 163
fig. 5.10 Vicwofthe

Ri\'er Barwon footbridge,
Geclong, Australia
:C:::::::::::::' I :::==
t80'-3" 302 I -9" t80'-3"
6'
:;;
l
-..... -.....
"' 0
~ fig. 5.II River Barwon
Footbridge, general
arrangement
164 CABLI:.-STAYED BRI DGES
ln this bridge the solid prestressed deck sccrion is cast in place together
with the s ubstructure and the single central tower assembled from two
precast units stressed down to the deck girder. The parallel wire stay
cables are anchored in conventional proprietary prestressing anchorages
using dead-end anchorages in the deck and jacking at the tower to which
all cables are rigidly anchored (Fig. 5. 13).
The unusual cable arrangement certainly was chosen only for aesthetic
reasons since there is no structural advantage: equalizing the length of
the cables is of no benefit when the inclinations arc so diflercnt.
During the planning s tage extensive dynamic and static testing of a
one-fifth scale model of this bridge was carried out. A method of reducing
the deflection responses of the model was developed permitting the im-
provement of the dynamic characteristics of the prototype structure. The

Mount Srreet Footbridge,
Perth, Austnlia
TYPIC:\!" PEDESTRI.\1\ JlRI!)Gl:S 165
116 I -911
lf i
116' -9" -'
f.---
l
15 I -9 11
Fig. 5.13 Mount Street

Footbridge, general
arrangement
static load testing was performed for different combinations of the design
dead and live loads and the ultimate load capacity of the structure was
determined. The agreement between the theoretical and experimental
results was within permissible limits.
5.2.8 Wilmersdorf Stadium Footbridge, West Berlin, Germany
This footbridge is designed to cross the circular railroad and motorway

ring from Rudolstadter Strasse to the Wilmersdorf Stadium in West
Berlin 16 (Fig. 5.14).
The superstructure is designed as a single-cell hollow steel box with
orthotropic top and bottom plates. Access to the interior of the cellular
structure is by means of hatchways in the cross-beams. The type of
bridge chosen is a cable-stayed girder bridge with a single A-type tower,
so as to keep the traffiic space of both the motorway and railroad free from
columns, and, for town planning considerations, to create a strong visual
effect.
The tower has a hinged bearing and forks in the bottom third. The
walkway passes symmetrically below the bifurcation and is there clamped
to the tower, leaving its ends free to move on sliding bearings.
The cable system consists of three parallel cables on both sides of the
tower and is coincident with the bridge axis.
N
co
r~ --
~_____22~~6'' _ _
413' -3'\
_j__ _ 1 60-'-=2"_--1
~I
r- 13 I - ~-~ -----------1
Fig. 5.14 Wilmersdorf ~- 13 I -9 11
Stadium Footbridge, '
general arrangement
Lighting is provided by fixtures incorporated in the handrail on both

sides, and the bridge deck contains heating coils to prevent icing and
slippery conditions on packed snow.
5.2.9 Bundesallee Footbridge, West Berlin, Germany
This bridge is designed to enable pedestrians and people residing in the

vicinity of the Wilmersdorf Public Park to cross the six-lane Bundesallee
street safely 17 (Fig. 5.15).
The stiffening girder, consisting of two hollow box sections connected
by an orthotropic plate, is supported on the East side by two pairs of
splayed cables which meet at a common saddle on the tower and splay on
the West side to anchorages in the abutment. The bridge deck is
provided with heating coils, and lighting is provided by fixtures
incorporated in one of the handrails.
The A-shaped tower rises to a height of approximately 121 ft (36.9 m).
The superstructure is clamped symmetrically to the tower in its trans-
verse direction, but asymmetrically to the tower in its longitudinal
direction, its ends being supported on sliding bearings at the abutments.
TYI'ICAL PEDESTRIAK BRIDGES 167
q>
0
-7
--
-7
'
,...
a:>
,,
29' -5" 59" 59' 65' -6"
I
2 13. - 2"
11' -S" 0.81'

I I
-ITI 11 I I 0
II Fig. 5 .I S Bundesallee
r 3. -3" I 3 '- 3" Footbridge, general
arrangement
5.2. 10 Eric Harvie Bridge, Canada
T his cable-stayed precast prestressed concrete pedestrian bridge 18 over

the Bow River in Calgary was completed in 1982 (Fig. 5.16) . The deck is
composed of five precast pretensioned T -shaped box girders with a
cross-section 10 ft 4 in (3.15 m) wide and 3 ft 7 in (1.10 m) deep. The
structure is symmetrical with a central span of 262 ft 6 in (80 m) and side
Fig. 5. 16 View of the

Eric llarvie Bridge,
Canada
168 <. \111 .1.-S'I \) 1.1> llRIDGI.S
spans of 65 fi 7 in (20 m). The girders were connected to each other wirh
high strength non-shrink grout (Fig. 5. 17).
The superstructure is supported by two rowers, each of which consic;t:,
of four high tapering precast reinforced square columns. The cross-
section of each column \'aries from 35 X 35 in (0.9 X 0.9 m) at the base
to 22 X 22 in (0.56 X 0.56 m) at the top. Each tower cable is composed
of four galvanized Dywidag bars, If
in (35 mm) in diameter.
10'-4"---j 3S'
Fig. 5.17 Eric llarde

Bridge, g~neral
arrangement
9cJf! Base
11
D
~
,..,
Columns
5.2. I 1 Rother Bridge, England
This is an asymmetrical cable-stayed bridge spanning 187 ft (57 m)

across the River Rother within Rother Valley Park, close to Sheffield 19
(Fig. 5.18). It is a pedestrian bridge, H ft (4.3 m) wide, which was also
designed to carry horse riders, cyclists and park maintenance vehicles.
The parapets were designed to be 5 ft (1.5 m) high to gi\'e a feeling of
security to horse riders.
Fig. 5. 18 View of the

Rother Oridgc, England
TYPIC'\!, PEDESTRIJ\1'\ BRIDGES 169
The longitudinal members of the deck are rectangular hollow sections.

The timber deck is supported on a grillage of steel members consisting
of channel sections, spanning 9ft (2.7 m) between cross-beams and 3 ft
(0. 9 m) apart.
The A-type tower is bolted to the concrete substructure. The tapered
tower legs were fabricated from rectangular hollow box sections (Fig.
5.19). The bridge suspension cables are composed of 2 in (50 mm)
diameter spiral bridge strands.
26.2' 35.75'
B
r "1
B
c
r ""1
c
CJ Fig. 5.19 Rother
Bridge, general
arrangement
5.1.12 Pedestrian bridge in Barcelona, Spain
This pedestrian bridge, linking three areas, consists of a Y-shaped

structure, having one straight main branch which divides into two curved
parts. All three branches, with orthotropic decks, are suppported by
cables springing from the main pylon 20 .
The bridge deck consists throughout of a hexagonally-shaped steel

box, stiffened by triangular ribs (Fig. 5.20). The longitudinal stiffeners
are V and L-shaped sections, of varying sizes. They are continuous in a
longitudinal direction, and cross the transverse diaphragms by means of
cut-outs provided for this purpose. The lateral stiffening is ensured by
lattice frames composed of steel plates and connected together by angles.
Apart from this stiffening, their main function lies in ensuring that the
section affected by the distortion of the box girder cannot lose its shape.
The larger dimensions of the frame-plates, in the curved branches,
result from a greater torsion which occurs here. The frames are also
subjected to the effect of these vertical loads on the plates. The upper
frame elements are subjected to bending and the others to axial stresses.
The welding over the length of the stiffeners and the plates is
discontinuous. Due to the nature of the loads upon the pedestrian
bridge, fatigue does not have to be considered, and so continuous
welding has not been applied.
---=~~c=ii=--==~=
.l
---rll~:~,~~-
1. 52"-d 142'-8" 177'- 2" I
18'-2'
I 126'-3"
Straight branch
8'-10 11
6 1-7
11
,1'-l~~r
fig. 5.20 Barcelona 2'-5 112'1

.. '4
3'-11"
Bridge, general
arrangement Curved bronc h
TYPICAL PEDESTRI<\.1\ BRIDGES 171
5.2.13 Kawasaki-Bashi j(JOtbridge, Japan
In 1978, the largest footbridge was finished over the old Yodo River in
Japan 21 . This cable-stayed bridge has two spans of 287 ft (87.5 m) and
133 ft (40 m), and serves both pedestrians and cyclists (Fig. 5.21).
In cross-section, this bridge has a hexagonally-shaped box girder. The
orthotropic-type deck consists of a ~ in (8 mm) steel plate, stiffened by
flat open ribs spaced at distances of 1 ft 2l in. The deck is covered by an
asphalt pavement of depth 1 ~ in (20 m;h).
Otsign river bed
fig. 5.21 Kawasaki-

13ashi Bridge, general
arrangement
This combination of aerodynamically-shaped box girders, incor-

porating orthotropic decks, results in a large natural frequency which is
not resonant to that of a pedestrian. Also, this structure does not produce
vortex-induced oscillations at a wind velocity lower than 54 mph.
The tower is an H-shaped frame with inclined legs. To ensure
aesthetical harmony with the length of the main girder, the height from
the pier was made 98 ft (30 m).
The cables of this bridge consist of locked -coil strands, and have been
protected from corrosion by painting. The cables were pre-tensioned to
reduce bending moments within the main girder and the tower.
5.2.14 Ballycastle Footbridge, Ireland
This footbridge of cable-stayed design was completed in 1967, comprising

laminated timber towers and main beams and stainless steel cables 22
(Fig. 5.22).
172 (.,\llf .I.-STr\ YW IJRJDGES
The design had to be economical, of light appearance and construction

so as not to detract from the existing character of the resort, with natural
materials to be used as much as possible. As the bridge site is only a fe\\
hundred yards from the open sea, steel was rejected due to the corrosion
hazard, whilst reinforced concrete and aluminum, which were also con-
sidered, would have entailed a much greater total contract price.
T he total length of the bridge amounts to 210ft (64.0 m). I t consists of
three spans of70, 68 and 70ft (21.4, 20.7 and 21.4 m), with a width of
6 ft (1.83 m). The loading requirements for live load were 100 psf
(4-90 kg/ m 2 ) and the bridge can resist gale force winds up co 100 mph
( 160 kph). The mai n beams for the bridge had a finished cross-section
of S! in by 20 in (1.013 by 0.41 m) and \\ere constructed of Douglas Fir,
as were all the laminated members (Fig. 5.23). The main walkwa) decl-
i
consists of I sq in (967 mm 2 ) boarding fixed to It in (38 mm) and 2 by
5 in (51 by 127 mm) joists at approximately 11 in (0.28 m) centers and
covered with I ~ in (31.7 mm) asphalt. Solid struts were located at 12 ft
(3.66 m) spacing between the main beams to resist any tendency of
movement under wind loads, or of buckling under excessi\e footway
loading.
The timber towers consist of laminated units measuring 7i by 30 in
(0.18 by 0. 71 m) at the deck level and decreasing to 7! by 12 in (0. 1S b)
0.37 m) at the base connection. The stainless steel cables are continuous
over the towers and provide an adjustment both at the center of the span,
and at the approach beam connection points.
Fig. 5.22 View of the Ballycastle Footbridge, Ireland

TYPIC\L PEDESTRIAI'\ BRIDGES 173
l-____E'__ 68' ______ __L_ 70'
Fig. 5.23 Ballycastle Footbridge, general arrangement
All metal work has been hot dipped galvanized and special precautions
were taken during erection to apply a spread of mastic compound to fill
all the cavities between the timber and the metal connections. Bolts and
ring connections were used for all structural joints.
Prior to shipment to the construction site, a complete assembly of the
bridge was undertaken at the fabrication plant, where the completed
construction also received one coat of scaler.
References
1. Fuchs, D., 'Der Fussgangersteg auf der Bri.isseler Weltausstellung

1958. Eine Seitentragerbri.icke', Stahlbau, No. 4, 91-97, April,
1958.
2. Lewenton, G., 'The Pavilions of the German Federal Republic at
the Universal and International Exhibition, Brussels, 1958', Acier-
Stahl-Steel, No. 6, 243-248, June, 1958.
3. Leonhardt, F. and Andra, W., 'Fussgangersteg i.iber die Schiller-
strasse in Stuttgart', Bautechnik, No. 4, 110-116, 1962.
4. Anonymous, 'An Original Footbridge in Germany', Civ. Engng publ.
Ulks Ret., 1111-1113, September, 1962.
5. Reimers, K., 'Fussgangerbriicke iiber die Glacieschaussee in
Hamburg fiir die lnternationale Gartenbau-Ausstellung 1963',
Sc/znJeiss. Schneid., No. 6, 262-264, 1963.
6. Thomass, S., 'Spannbeton-Kongress Paris 1966-Arbeitssitzung V.
bemerkenswerte Bauwerke-Briicken', Beton Stahlbetonb., No. 12,
289-297, December, 1966.
7. Anonymous, 'An Original Suspension Footbridge in Belgium', Civ.
Engng pub. Ulks Ra'., 1365, November, 1966.
8. Bachelart, I I., 'Pont de Ia Bourse Footbridge Over the Bassin du
Commerce, Le Havre (France)', Acier-Stahl-Steel, No. 4, 167-168,
1970.
9. Vander Molen,]. L., 'Prestressed Concrete Stayed Girder Bridge',
Conslr. Rn. Ausl., l\"o. 1, 19-21, 1969.
10. Van der Molen, J. L., 'Barwon River Footbridge, Geelong,

Australia', Concr. Q, Lond., 33-35, July-September, 1969.
12. Samuel, P., 'The Design of Freeway Bridges for the Narrows
Interchange in Perth', Constr. Rev. Aust., 19-30, April, 1968.
13. Beresford, F. D. and Lewis, R. E.," 'Dynamic Studies of a Large
Model of a Prestressed Concrete Footbridge', Rilem International
Symposium on Testing Methodology and Technique ojPull-Scale or Model
Structures under Static and pynamic Loads, Bucharest, 9-11
September, 1969, pp. 1-22.
14. Lipton, T. M. and Beresford, F. D., 'Static Load Testing of a
Model of a Post-Tensioned Concrete Footbridge', Federation
Internationale de Ia Precontrainle, Sixth Congress, Praha, 1970, pp. 1-
12.
16. Donnelly, J. A., 'Footbridge at Berlin (Germany)', Acier-Stahl-Steel,
No. 6, 263-264, 1971.
17. Donnelly, J. A., 'Slender Cable-Stayed Footbridge', Acier-Stahl-
Steel, No.6, 264-265, 1971.
18. Anonymous, 'Eric Harvie Bridge Carburn Park, Calgary', J. Preslr.
Concr. Ins!., 154-159, July-August, 1983.
19. Wilson, M. C. and Bell, R. D., 'The Design and Construction of the
River Rother Cable-Stayed Footbridge, Rother Valley Park', Proc.
Instn civ. Engrs, part 1, 545-563, June, 1985.
20. Casado, C. F., Montercia, J. and Troyano, L. F., 'Cable-Stayed
Foot-Bridge in Barcelona (Spain)', Acier-Stahl-Steel, No. 2, 44-53,
1976.
21. Komatsu, S., Kato, T. and Matsumaro, H., 'Design and Construc-
tion of Kawasaki-Bashi Foot Bridge', Der Stahlbau, No. 3, 69-77,
1980.
22. Anonymous, 'Cable-Stayed Footbridge in Laminated Timber',
!lighw. pub. VVks, 31, August, 1967.
Chapter 6
Structural Details
6.1 Stiffening girders and trusses
Stiffening girders of the deck system of cable-stayed bridges are generally

subjected to bending moments and also to normal force components
from the inclined cables.
The general problem is to design the stiffening girder with regard to the
above moments and forces. Experience has shown that the optimum
solution may be obtained by combining the orthotropic type deck with
the stiffening girders into one integral unit.
The stiffening girders are usually designed as box sections to provide
convenient anchorages for the inclined cables. In addition, the substantial
stiffness of the box section against torsion removes the need for bracings
and means that only vertical diaphragms are needed at the points where
the cables are connected to the girders. The wind loads are transferred
through the rigid deck plate.
For aesthetic reasons, the intermediate stiffeners of the webs are
usually placed inside box girders. And the longitudinal stiffening ribs of
the orthotropic deck are usually included in the effective cross-section of
the box girder.
To increase the rigidity of the box sections, diagonal bracings and frame-
type diaphragms are used. The local stability against buckling is assured
by the longitudinal ribs welded to the deck plate and to the plate constitut-
ing the bottom flange of the box.
In cross-section, the orthotropic deck can be successfully combined
with various arrangements of plate girders and trusses shown in Figs.
1.34--1.36. It should be noted that most recent cable-stayed bridges were
built with torsionally stiff single box girders and multiple web box
sections.
When the cable system is arranged in a single plane, the torsional
moments caused by asymmetrical live loadings are taken by the box
stiffening girders, which transfer these torsional moments to the supports.
17 6 CABLE-STA YEO BRIDGES
SECTION A-A SECTION B-B
_jA -i
Fig. 6.1 Cross-sections of
a typical steel tower,
North Bridge, Dusseldorf SECTION C-C SECT I ON D-D
6.2 Towers
1. GENERAL
The towers have to carry heavy loads, usually several thousands of tons.
Therefore, box sections with a large kern width are best to provide safety
against buckling with the minimum amount of material. Box sections can
be kept slender without unnecessary wasting of the material.
In the case of portal or A-shape towers, the legs are separated from the
stiffening girders. However, when the towers are located along the
longitudinal centre line of the bridge, they are usually connected to the
main central box girder.
Most towers of modern cable-stayed bridges consist of a single rect-
angular box built with thick steel plates which are joined by either
welding or riveting (Fig. 6.1).
Towers may be built of metal or of reinforced or prestressed concrete.
The advantage of metal towers lies in their faster fabrication and erection.
However, for large cable-stayed bridges, the towers can be built more
STRUCTURAL DETAILS 177
\
ELEVATION
Fig. 6.2 Cross-section of

the tower of Knie Bridge,
PLAN Dusseldorf
economically with concrete than with steel, and the saving can be as high
as 40% of the tower cost.
A different type of cross-section of the tower was used for the Knie
Bridge with two boxes arranged in T -form (Fig. 6.2).
The longitudinal box was made up with thick steel plates in order to
locate the center of gravity of the whole cross-section as close as possible
towards the bridge deck. This had to be done to keep the bracket moment
at the hanging points as low as possible.
The transverse box stiffens the relatively slender main box and prevents
the optical illusion of a tapering of the outer edges, whereby the tower legs
appear to diverge. The transverse box also permits installation of an
elevator for inspection of the cable saddles.
2. TOWER BASE BEARINGS

The behavior of the towers depends upon the details of their connections
to the cables, deck and pier. These connections may be designed to
minimize tower bending moments; however, a fixed base, attached either
to the deck or the pier, may be necessary to avoid the expense of a heavy
pinned bearing. A pinned base may also complicate erection.
SECTION B-B
SECTION A- SECTION A-A
SECTION C-C
fig. 6.3 Tower base fixed

to the pier, Severin Bridge
I
0
N
"'.JI
f "'./1
i)i:.:
_,
I
f"-
+ 2..
I
0
SECTION D-D
~D
1' 7'Y.co"
SECTION B-B
Fig. 6.4 Tower base fixed

to the pier, Knie Bridge
9 1 11 II
Fig. 6.5 Concrete tower

base, the George Street
Bridge, Newport SECTIQN A-A
The following different arrangements are possible with regard to the

supports of the towers:
(a) Towers with fixed bases: typical examples of steel towers are shown
in Figs. 6.3 and 6.4. A reinforced concrete tower with fixed con-
nection to the foundation is shown in Fig. 6.5.
(b) Towers with hinged bases: these are used when the tower foundations
are in bad soil. Linear hinges, allowing longitudinal rotation, prevent
bending moments being carried by the foundation. Typical examples
are shown in Figs. 6.6 and 6.7.
6.3 Types of cable
1. COMPOSITION
A cable may be composed of one or more structural ropes, structural
strands, locked coil strands or parallel wire strands.
A strand, with the exception of a parallel wire strand, is an assembly of
wires formed helically around a center wire in one or more symmetrical
layers and is produced in the USA in accordance with ASTM Standard
A-586 Specifications 1 . A strand may be used either as an individual load-
carrying member, where radius or curvature is not a major requirement,
or as a component in the manufacture of structural rope.
A~ 181
ELEVATION VIE\/ A-A
Fig. 6.6 Hinged tower

bearings, North Bridge,
Dusseldorf
3 I -411 41 -1 J/(4 II
I I
'I :1\
m Iii !I
~~v-~~--~1- ~ - -- - --
"'
I - f-- ---if' :~--1 t - - - 1----
e---
" - ~
/
" illl
~-811
I
I'ig. 6.7 Hinged tower
bearings, Ji.ilicher Street
Bridge, Dusseldorf
A rope is composed of a plurality of strands helically laid around a core

and is covered by ASTM A-603 Standard Specifications2 . In contrast to
the strand, a rope provides increased curvature capability and is used
where curvature of the cable becomes an important consideration.
The significant differences between strand and rope are as follows 3 :
(a) At equal sizes, a strand has a greater breaking strength than a rope.
(b) The modulus of elasticity of a strand is higher than that of a rope.
(c) A strand has less curvature capability than a rope.
(d) The wires in a strand are larger than those in a rope of the same
diameter. Consequently, a strand of a given class of coating is more
corrosion resistant because of the thicker zinc coating on the larger
diameter wires required by the governing ASTM Specifications.
For these reasons structural strand is generally preferred to rope for

cable-stayed bridges.
The three types of strand configuration are
'~
\:.
( I) the helically-wound strand,

(2) the parallel wire strand , and

(3) the locked coil strand .
The first two types are composed of round wires and the difference lies
in their construction. In the first, the wires are formed helically around a
center wire in one or more layers, and in the second, all wires are parallel.
The normal size range of helical structural strands produced in the
USA isH in ( 12 I 00 mm) diameter with a range of breaking strengths
of I 5- 925 tons for Class A zinc coating.
It should be noted that in the structural design, it is imponant to choose
the strand so as to obtain the correct modulus of elasticity for the cables.
2. STRAND OF TWISTED WIRES

Figure 3.8 shows typical strands of twisted wires. The modulus of the
elasticity of twisted wire depends on the elasticity of the wires, the internal
deformation of the cable, the sag of the cable, or on a combination of these
three factors. H ence, the modulus of elasticity is constant but is a function
of the force acting on the cable.
3. ROPE OF TWISTED STRA OS

As a further step towards economy in the construction of inclined cable
bridges, the use of parallel wire cables rna) be considered. The ''alue of
the modulus of elasticity for these cables closely approaches that of the
plain wire, and this fact has a favorable influence on the deformations due
to the live load . The reduction of the value of the modulus ofelasticity due
to cable sag, however, produces the same percentage figures as shown for
the locked coil cables. But as there arc no plastic elongations, as for cables,
the erection deformations can be accurately calculated in ad,ance. It will
therefore be possible to allow for fatigue strength bet\\ ccn 28 500 psi
and 42 600 psi (20x 106 and 30x 106 kg/ m 2 ), provided that anchorages
Fig. 6.ll Strand of twisted and curves do not impose a ny reduction.
wires
4. CABLES OF LOCKW-COIL CONSTRUCTIO

The majority ofexisting cable-stayed bridges use preformed, prestretched,
gahanized locked-coil wire ropes.
During the past years, the cables specified for cable-stayed bridges in
Germany have always been of locked-coil construction. The advantages
of this type of cable are the more effective protection against corrosion as
well as its more favorable properties com pared with those ofa conventional
s piral rope manufactured from round" ires. Thus the density of material
183
.
STRUCfURAL DETArLS
.

.~:. ~~.
...........

:.::~

....................
~,.

;
:.lt...
,.
....
~.
,.:
.......
~ ~
.
..........
1.
.1..
..:::~

.-:1.
Fig. 6.9 Rope of twisted

strands
is 90% for the locked-coil cable, and about 70% for the spiral cable, while
the modulus of elasticity is also higher for the locked-coil cable. After
only a few load repetitions in the range of live load stresses it reached
11150 tons/in 2 (18.27x 109 kg/ m 2 ), which is almost exactly half-way
between the value for the spiral cable and that for solid structural steel.
In spite of the increased stiffness of the locked-coil cable, the flexibility
required at curves is maintained because of its spiral construction. More-
over, locked-coil cables are largely insensitive to bearing pressure because
the individual layers of profile wires support each other through their
faces and not just by point contact, as in spiral cables (Fig. 6.10).
The locked-coil strand as used in Germany is also a helical type strand.
The center portion is composed of a number of round wires, then several
layers of wedge or keystone shaped wires and fina lly several layers of Z-
or S-shaped wires. The construction of typical locked-coil wire rope is
presented in more detail in Table 6.1. This type of rope does nor contain
strands.
Fig. 6.10 Typietllockcd-

coi l wire rope
Trtb!e 6. 1. Cross-section of 2.83 in diameter German locked-coil wire rope.
Layer Number Wire Wire Area of Total area

of"' ire~ dimensions shape one wire for each
(in) (in 2 ) wire form
(in 2 )
Center I 0.189 R 0.0281 0.()28

I 6 0.177 R 0.02-l6 0.887
2 12 0.177 R
3 IR 0.177 R
-l 27 0.197 s 0.0307 1.872
5 34 0. 197 s
6 40 0. 197 Sp 0.0322 2.804
7 47 0.197 Sp
Total 185 2.830 d 5.59
R = round, S = segmental, Sp = special

The circular wires form only a smaU portion of the total area ( 16.36).
The surfaces of the fo urth through seventh layers form a complete
cylinder. As a result, contact stresses between these layers are greatly
reduced. It should be noted thar the size of the wires does not vary
greatly with the size of the rope.
A type oflocked-coil strand is manufactured in the USA primarily for
cable and tramway applications and has not been utilized for bridges in
this country.
5. PRESTRETCHING
The total elongation or stretch of a structural strand is the result of several
component deformations, one of which is called constructional stretch.
This is caused by the lengthening of the strand lay (pitch length of the
wire helix) due to subsequent adjustment of the wires in a strand into a
denser cross-section under load. This constructional stretch of the stay is
permanent.
Prestretching is accomplished by the manufacturer by subjecting the
strand to a predetermined load for a sufficient length of time to permit
adjustment of the component parts to that load. The prestretch load should
not exceed 55% of the rated breaking strength of the strand according to
the ASTM A-586 Specifications4 . Prestretching enables the designer to
predict the elastic behavior of the strand after erection in the structure
because it eliminates the constructional stretch of the cable 5 .
6.4 Modulus of elasticity of the cable
1. DETERMINATION OF THE MODULUS OF ELASTICITY

The modulus of elasticity is determined by using a gauge length of not less
than 100 in (2.54 m) and a gross metallic area, including zinc coating, of
the strand conforming to ASTM A-586 Specifications4 . The elongation
readings used for computing the modulus of elasticity are taken when the
strand or rope is stressed to not less than I 0% of the minimum rated
breaking strength, or more than 90cyo of the prestretching load. The
modulus of elasticity shall not be less than 24 x 106 psi (16.9 x 109 kgjm 2 )
for t-2?6 in (12.7-65.1 mm) nominal diameter strand and 23 x 106 psi
(16.2 x 10 9 kg/m 2 ) for 2iin (66.6 mm) and larger nominal diameter strand.
These values are for normal prestretched helical type strands. For a
parallel-wire strand the modulus of elasticity is in the range of 28 x 106 -
28.5 X 10 6 psi (19.7 X 109 -20 X 109 kgjm 2 ).
The modulus of elasticity, E, of the rope is low for low loads and
increases as the load is increased into the normal working range. Creep
may occur for sustained loads.
For the Jiilicher Bridge in Dusseldorf long-term elongation was
reported at 0.25 x the ultimate equivalent to E = 16.9 x 10 2 ksi 6 . For
short-term loads from 0.25 to 0.40 x the ultimate the value of E was
23.1 x 10 3 ksi. These figures appear to be typical of German practice. The
design of the Usk River Bridge was based on a value of E equal to
22.8 x 103 ksi.
2. THE APPARENT MODULUS OF ELASTICITY

The stiffness of the cable-stayed bridge depends largely upon the tensile
stiffness of the stay cables.
Fig. 6.11 The inclined

cable arrangement
The displacement of the end of the free hanging cable under an axial
load depends not only on the cross-sectional area and the modulus of
elasticity of the cable but to a certain extent on the cable sag, as proved by
Ernst 7 .
Let us consider an inclined cable, connected by a hinge at the lower
support and with one movable bearing as the upper support (Fig. 6.11).
Due to the action of the force F, the cable takes the shape of a chain line,
where L > land L is the length of the chain line between supports. IfF
became infinite the cable would be straight. The end C moves to the
position cl and the expansion is
!).f =L- I
By increasing the load to
the end C moves the distance
and the extension is

cf = 1)./).f/l
Therefore, the apparent modulus of elasticity may be expressed as
EJ = (j/<>1
3. THE IDEAL MODULUS OF ELASTICITY

The cable under an axial load undergoes an elastic stretch
<>e = (j/Ee
where Ee indicates the corresponding modulus of elasticity.
An ideal or equivalent modulus of elasticity of the cable Ei is defined as

depending on moduli E1 due to sag and Ee due to elasticity, or
(6.1)
where
and
From the above, we obtain
E!Ee
E.=~'-----..::_ (6.2)
' Ef+Ee
To find Ei, 111 should be determined. The comparison between the
catenary and parabola indicates negligible difference. Therefore, the
catenary may be satisfactorily approximated over this length by a parabola
(Fig. 6.12).
H
F --
cos c(
Fig. 6.12 Parabolic cable
Fig. 6.13 Uniformly

loaded cable
Let us now consider an inclined cable under uniformly distributed load

(Fig. 6.13). At the location X= xm/1
where His the horizontal component of cable tension,fm the ordinate to

the cable curve measured downward from the chord, and Ms the simple
beam moment for the given span and load.
Under load g 1
Because g 1 = g cos r:t. and
I= L/cos r:t.
Condition Ms = M 9 yields
and if H/g= h, we have

(6.3)
The cable length is
I+~ (.fn:)
2
L1 =
3 I
By neglecting the high-order terms, we obtain
~ (f~)
2
111 = L 1 -l =
3 I
By designating
f~ = fm cos r:t. = L2 /Bh and I= L/cos r:t.

we obtain
3
!!.I= L cos r:t. (6.4)
24h 2
By substituting into the eq. (3.4) the values
L =I cos r:t. h = H/g H = Fcos r:t. h = F cos r:t./g
we obtain
(6.5)
and
d/11
(6.6)
dF
Generally,
a Fl l dF
E=-=-=-~
1: A 11.! A d 11.!
By substituting for dFjd 11.1 its value from (6.6), we obtain
12lF3 12F3
EJ = Ait 3 cos 2 ex- AlL2
By designating
g/A = y
we have
(6.7)
By introducing (6.7) into (6.2) we obtain the expression for the ideal
modulus E;:
(6.8)
where
E; Young's modulus of cable having sag
=
Ee Young's modulus of straight cable
=
}' = specific weight of the cable
L = horizontal length of the cable
a= tensile stress in the cable
We assume for straight locked-coil steel wire rope Young's modulus

equal to Ee= 10 800 tons/in 2 and the approximate value
Y = ~ = 1.37 X 10- 4 tonsjin 3
Then
y2 Ee = 1.37 2 X w-s X 10 800 = 2.02 X 10- 4 tons/in 2

(yL? 2.02 x w- 4 x L 2 x 12 2
-- E = = 2 42 X 10- 3 L 2 tons/in 2
12 e 12 .
Therefore,
(6.9)
where L is in ft and a is in tons/in 2 .

30
28 ~ t:-...
26
\\ I"\" ~
\
""'\. !'-.."'"""'"
\
2~
"'
""
Vi 22
\ \
<!l
-'
10$2 20
\ \
7.1
" \ \.
""'
5.7
w 18 "'z
Vl
::;)
16
\ '\. lr
;;;
\.~
-'
::;)
0
0 1~ \ Vl
::E
\ Vl
w
""'
>- 12 a:
z 4.3 >-
w
-'
<!
2: 10
\ \ Vl
-'
w
~
w
::;)
0
w 8
\ >-
Vl
6 '\.
~ " !'....
"-.... 2.8
Fig. 6.14 Variation of

ideal modulus with span
length
0
~00
SPAN
800
l IN
...............
1200
FT
....___
1600 -- 2000
1.4
Assuming numerical values for the span Land stresses CJ, it is possible
to determine from formula (6. 9) different values of the ideal modulus E;,
shown in the diagram (Fig. 6.14).
Static calculations for the live load are based on an idealized modulus
of elasticity E; which decreases as the length of cable increases. If the load
on the sloping cable is increased, its sag is reduced and its ends move
away from each other. Solely from this elongation of the chord, an
apparent Young's modulus can be derived which increases with increasing
load. This effect, together with the elastic deformation of the cable, can
be used to calculate an idealized modulus of elasticity which is then
introduced into the static calculations.
In Fig. 6.14, this modulus is diagrammatically shown on the ordinate
as a function of the cable stress, and the horizontal distance between the
tower and the anchor of the stay cable is shown on the abscissa. For very
long bridges the loss of E; can be as large as 40%.
The economical limit for cable lengths for inclined cable systems is
therefore between 658 and 987ft (200m and 301m). Nonetheless, longer
lengths of cables could be subdivided by intermediate supports to avoid
this disadvantageous effect, but it is debatable how far such a design
could be made to look attractive.
It is certain, however, that even with longer cables, the inclined cable
bridge could still successfully compete with the conventional suspension
bridge.
6.5 Permissible strength of the cables
Based on existing practice, the following permissible cable strengths may

be suggested.
The general safety factor of the cable may be taken asK= 2.5, following
practice in North America and Europe. This coefficient represents the
reserve of the strength of the cable with respect to the loading.
Assuming that the dead load of the superstructure constitutes 60-70%
of the total load, and the corresponding values of the live load are 30-40%,
then the resulting coefficient of the reserve strength of the cable is
K
Kres = - - - - - - - - (6.10)
0.65nl +0.35n 2 (1 + Jl)
where
n1 = I. I = the coefficient of the overloading for the dead load
n2 = I. 4 = the coefficient of the overloading for the live load
1+ J1 = 1.1 = the dynamic coefficient.
Substitution of the above values into (3.10) yields
2.5
Kres = ~ 2 (6.11)
0.65 X 1.1 +0.35 X 1.4 X 1.1
The calculated strength of the cable may be expressed as
R = RauKm 1 m 2 (6.12)
where m 1 = 0. 8 is the coefficient of the performance of material in structure
and
1
m2 = = = 0.78
Kml Kres 0.8 X 0.8 X 2
However, some authors recommend decreasing the calculated strength of

the cable by 5% to take into account the decrease of its bearing capacity
under the transverse compression at supports.
Assuming such a decrease in the allowable stress, we may use
m 2 = 0.95 x 0.78 = 0.74
6.6 Fatigue tests and strength of the cables
l. FATIGUE TESTS
German specifications require that the allowable working load for steel-
wire ropes shall be taken as 42% of their calculated breaking load. The
effective safety factor against fracture or yielding is then 2. 4 or 1. 5 respec-
192 CABLE-STA YEO BRIDGES
~ ''.l
~~v- '"""-"'""'"' '""'
w
--'
;;; 40
~~3 ALLOVo'0 =4~%. f B
0 f---- f - - -
z
w
136
I' 35, ~ f---.
f-
I I I I rr35
I I I <0
0
.
w I I
f- I

:0::
- 20
' I I
I
>-- J14
--'
:0
I
I :
0
.._1 0 '
I
'
I
I
l I
0
0.25 0.5 0.75 1.0 1.25 1.5 1.75 2.0 2.25
Fig. 6.15 Fatigue tests of MILLIONS OF LOAD CYCLES
cables
tively, as for structural steels. But in contrast to structural steels, the

higher sensitivity to fatigue fracture must be taken into account with
cold-drawn steel wires of ultimate tensile strength up to 95 tons/in 2
(156x 106 kg/m 2 ).
The results of fatigue tests carried out so far with locked-coil steel-wire
ropes are shown diagrammatically in Fig. 6.15.
The number of applications of load obtained in individual tests is
indicated on the abscissa while the ordinate gives the upper load limit as a
percentage of the ultimate breaking load. The respective amplitudes
applied in these tests are shown in psi.
All these tests were carried out in connection with actual projects.
However, general conclusions cannot be drawn for all the ranges of stress.
The results are affected not only by the rope diameter but also by the
method of manufacture and, last but not least, by the care taken in
socketing the ends of the rope.
However, the following conclusions may be drawn from careful con-
sideration of the test results. With an upper load limit of 35% of the
breaking load, a stress range of 21 330 psi (15 x 106 kg/m 2 ) is reached,
whilst a repeated stress between zero and about 28 440 psi (20 x 106
kg/m 2 ) (approximately 14% of the ultimate load) can be permitted.
On the basis of tests carried out so far, the following figures are there-
fore permitted: with an upper load limit of 35% of the ultimate load, a
stress range of 21 330 psi and for load repetitions between zero and the
maximum tensile stress, the upper limit should be 28 440 psi.
Further tests have shown that additional transverse compression on the
locked-coil rope does not cause a reduction in its endurance, provided the
transverse compression is limited to 14 400 psi (10.1 x 106 kg/m 2 ) where
the rope is directly supported on steel, and 36 000 psi (25.3 x 10 6 kg/m 2 )
when a soft metal pad at least / 6 in ( 1.6 mm) thick is inserted between rope
and steel.
2. FATIGUE STRENGTH OF THE CABLES

To make the stay cables under dead load stiff, by decreasing the sag effect,
the stresses in the cables should be high. However, for dimensioning of
the cables, we must, of course, consider the additional stresses due to live
load, and these are not only larger in cable-stayed bridges than in suspen-
sion bridges but also positive and negative. This applies mainly to the
upper cables in the side spans which have to anchor the tower top.
The maximum amplitude of stress in such cables was calculated to be
as high as 50 000 psi (35.1 x 106 kg/m 2 ) for highway bridges and 65 000
psi (45.7 x 106 kg/m 2 ) for a 4200 ft (1280 m) span railroad and highway
bridge with the upper limit of stress being 100 000 psi (70.3 x 106 kg/m 2 )
for a steel strength of 200 000-230 000 psi ( 140.6 x 106 -161.9 x 106
kg/m 2 ).
For fatigue, we have to consider those loads which will probably be
repeated more than 2 x 106 times during the life of the bridge. These loads
are a certain percentage of the full live load, which depends on the density
of heavy traffic compared with the load specification.
In Germany, where the highway loads are much higher than the loads
specified by the AASHO, it is assumed only at about 40% for highway
bridges with long spans. This means that the fatigue strength of the cable
must be at least 23 000-26 000 psi (16.2 x 106 -18.3 x 106 kg-m 2 ). This
seems to be a low value, but if we test large cables dynamically, especially
ropes with zinc-filled sockets for anchoring, then we get values as low as
14 000-17 000psi(9.8x 106 -12.0x 106 kg/m 2 )ifnospecialcareistakento
avoid damage by the high temperature of the zinc or by other causes. With
such care, we can get up to 20 000 psi (14.1 x 106 kg/m 2 ), which is still
low.
This low fatigue strength forced designers of older cable-stayed bridges
with locked-coil ropes to reduce the upper limit of the allowable stresses
and use more steel. But this was not satisfactory, and consequently a new
type of anchorage for parallel wire cables was developed, which gives the
same fatigue strength as the cable itself. In this anchorage, the wires get a
BBR button head at their ends lying behind a steel plate which keeps the
wires spread and closes the end of the conical cavity in the steel socket
(Fig. 6.16). The voids are filled with a special mixture of metals and
epoxy resm.
The high quality of this anchorage is such that in fatigue tests more
wires broke outside the anchorage than inside (Fig. 6.17) and the
amplitude of stress which did resist more than 2 x 106 cycles was as high
as 36 000 psi (25.3 x 106 kg/m 2 ), i.e., almost twice as high as for zinc-
filled sockets.
In these tests which had been made with cables of295 wires of diameter
i in (7 mm) and almost 4 x 106 lb ( 1.8 x 106 kg) of static rupture load, it
was found that the fatigue strength of such large units, involving a very
Fig. 6.16 Semicircular

saddle for large numbers
of cables of the fan type
40
II
~~
I
120
190 1-- t-- - - -

0
o-
oo
0- :
~"'
, ..
120
I
I 40
-
Fig. 6.17 Distribution of 20 40 60 80
wire failures along test WI R E
cable after 3.2 million NOTE. FATIGUE TEST OF PARALLEL WIRE CABLE
stress cycles D.&= 7200-4700 = 2500 kg/cm2 ( 35,500 1bs/;n2)
large length of wire, was considerably lower than for short single-wire
specimens-the difference being as high as 35%. Therefore, tests with
single wires or small cables do not give the true picture for the actual large
structure.
The first fatigue tests of such large cables were made at the Otto-Graf
Institute of the University of Stuttgart. Later a new device which was
developed at the EMP A in Zurich was employed, using prestressed steel
beams.
The protection of the cables against corrosion is done more and more
frequently by a wrapping with glass fibre tissue drenched in polyethylene
or polyurethane, the voids between the wires being also filled with a resin.
Good protection against corrosion should be considered of great im-
portance, even if the cables can be replaced, as can be done in the case of
cable-stayed bridges with many separate stays.
6. 7 Corrosion protection
Wires in the cables should be protected from corrosion. The most

effective protection is obtained by hot galvanizing which may be used
according to the ASTM Specifications. There are three different zinc
coatings classified as A, B, and C, depending on the coating thicknesses.
The ASTM Specifications provide values of breaking strength for the
above types. Also zinc dust-zinc oxide paints are suggested which may be
used to restore the original zinc coating. The individual wires or strands
in the different layers are often made with varying corrosion protection,
where the outer z-shaped wires are galvanized and the inner wires are
not. To reduce the inner cavities, a filling of red lead is made. Sometimes
none of the wires are galvanized, and the outer corrosion protection is
maintained by normal painting.
In the construction of the Papineau Bridge in Montreal, Canada, an
effective corrosion protection was achieved by surrounding the galvanized
wire strand by a 5 mm polyethylene layer during the fabrication of the
strand in the plant. Prefabrication parallel-wire strands, as used in multi-
cable-stayed bridges, may be protected against corrosion by a plastic
coating or a stainless tube, and the mortar is injected when the cable is
under full dead load stress to reduce cracking of the material.
Corrosion protection is increasingly provided by wrapping the cables
with glass fibre tissue drenched in polyethylene or polyurethane, the
voids between the wires also being filled with a resin. Good protection
against corrosion should be considered of great importance, even if the
cables can be replaced, as can be done in the case of cable-stayed bridges
with many separate stays. l\;ew developments are required to aid in
protecting cables from the problems of corrosion.
6.8 Behavior of the bent cable
Under longitudinal tension applied to a spirally wound rope, transverse

forces are developed between the individual wires. This reduces the
ultimate capacity below the sum of the capacities of the individual wires
for two reasons :
(a) a combined stress system exists at the contact areas, and
(b) plastic flow at the contact areas causes necking of the wires and a
resulting reduction in their cross-sectional areas.
When the rope is bent over a saddle, two additional effects are present:
(c) bending stresses are set up, and
(d) transverse radial forces are applied to the rope.
For single wire of diameter d, bent to a diameter D at its centerline, the

bending stress is calculated as follows (Fig. 3 .18).
Fig. 6.18 Determination D

of bending stress of wire =2
After substituting into the formulaf=My// the value M=Eljp, we

obtain
(6.13)
where E is the modulus of elasticity of the wire.

For a spirally wound rope, over a saddle of moderate length, it appears
probable that shear movement can occur between adjacent wires, and
that the bending stress approaches the value given in (6.13), with d equal
to the diameter of the rope.
Considering that each wire in the strand makes one complete turn
around the core of a strand, each wire takes either the upper or lower
position and the corresponding stresses change their signs. This results in
the equalizing of the stresses in the wires. In addition, due to the friction
effect under transverse compression, there is a certain redistribution of
the stresses among the separate wires in the cross-section of the cable.
Due to these factors, the bending of the cables over saddles is dis-
regarded in the analysis.
More important is the effect of the transverse compression of the cables,
which results in bi-axial stress of different signs in the wires, which leads
to reduced bearing capacity of the material.
Recent investigations in Germany in connection with the erection of
many large cable-stayed bridges confirmed that the transverse compres-
sion sharply decreases the bearing capacity of the cables.
To ensure the required performance of the cable, which according to
German specifications should withstand 2 x 106 cycles of variable loading,
it is necessary to limit the transverse compression, or to decrease the
amplitude of the vibratory stresses in the wire.
Experimental investigations indicate that for vibratory stresses in the
cables in the range of 21 500-23 000 psi (15.1 x 106 -16.2 x 106 kg/m 2 ),
corresponding to an increase from the dead load to the dead plus 0.6 of the
live load, the transverse compression should be not greater than 36 000 psi
(25.3 x 10 6 kg/m 2 ), for cables having diameter 2.15-3.00 in (54.6-76.L

mm).
If the cable is directly supported by steel bearings, the limiting average
value of the transverse compression should be limited to 21 500 psi
(15.1 x 10 6 kg/m 2 ). At greater amplitudes of vibrating stress, the intensity
of the transverse compression should be decreased. Therefore, the radius
of the curvature of the cable is determined mainly by the need to provide a
bearing area large enough to limit the average value of the transverse
compresswn.
German specifications require that the ultimate strength of the wire
should not exceed 21 300 psi (15.0x 106 kg/m 2 ). The corresponding
ultimate stress of a complete rope is of the order of 19 500 psi (13. 7 x 106
kg/m 2 ). The ratio, 0.91, between these figures represents the reduction due
to contact pressures between the wires.
It is normal to require a safety factor of at least 2.5 8 9 .
The severity of the bend is measured by the ratio of the wire to the
saddle diameter, and corresponding typical examples of German practice
are given in Table 6.2.
Table 6.2. Typical saddle diameters-German practice.
Bridge Saddle Rope Max. wire

Saddle diam. Saddle diam.
diameter diameter height
Rope diam. Wire height
(in) (in) (in)
Severin 305 2.71 113 0.236 1300
Leverkusen 199 2.34 85 0.197 1010
For the Usk River Bridge in Great Britain 3 in (76 mm) diameter
locked-coil ropes were used, bent over a saddle of96 in (2.44 m) diameter.
Therefore, the ratio of saddle to rope diameter is 32.
To improve the cable performance and increase its bearing capacity,
construction of the cable supports is of great importance. The surfaces of
the saddles should have a suitable curvature, to achieve gradual transition
from the state of transverse compression to the state of the free hanging
cables. It is also recommended that the upper cover of the support is made
somewhat shorter than the lower support. This is necessary to eliminate
the concentration of the transverse shear forces between the compressed
and free part of the cable. It is also recommended that a soft pad is used
under the bent cable, and that polished gutters are provided for the
bearing surface.
198 CABLE-STA YEO BRIDGES
6.9 Cable supports on the towers
Cable supports on the towers may be either fixed or movable or a com-

bination ofboth. A typical arrangement of these supports may be described
by examining the supports on existing bridges. Supports are usually
provided at the top of the tower as well as at the intermediate locations
along the tower, depending on the number of cables used for the particular
bridge system.
1'.:1 [1
I
I
I
/' I
I
~---- --
I
I
I
I I
' ~
~ --
I ---~
Fig. 6.19 Attachment of

cables on top of the tower,
Stromsund Bridge
1. FIXED SUPPORTS
Different solutions have been used for the construction of fixed supports
at towers. For the Stromsund Bridge, the tension cables terminate on the
top of the tower and their attachments are shown in Fig. 6.19.
The cable sockets at this point are provided with eyes attached to the
ribs of the tower-head bearings by pins. Thus, while the cables cannot
slide, they are free to pivot vertically. This relative fixing of the cables
increases the stiffness of the system.
A different type of fixed cable connection at the top of a saddle, in
three levels, is shown in Fig. 6.20.
Figure 6.21 shows a combined type of cable connection: the bottom
cable is immovable, but the middle and upper are connected to the rocker
type saddle.
7 CABLES 3Ys"
/ "
7 CABLES zYecl>
..,._/
Fig. 6.20 Three-level

SECTION A-A cable connections
SECTION A-A
Fig. 6.21 Combined cable
connections
On the Severin Bridge, the cable is connected to an immovable saddle,

with upper clamps fixed to the saddle (Fig. 6.22).
For Knie Bridge, the saddles were movable in the vertical direction by
hydraulic jacks used for erection purposes (Fig. 6.23). Such saddles are
typical for the harp type of cable arrangement. However, for the fan type,
with all cables concentrated at the top, it is possible to anchor all cables at
the tower top or to use one large and wide semicircular saddle.
Another method of anchoring cables without crossing each other is
shown in Fig. 6.24, as used in the case of the Mannheim Rhine Bridge.
The sockets of the cables are supported by heavy cross bars between thick
steel plates which must carry over the cable forces by tension. In this
bridge, the steel plates had to be 156 in (8 mm) thick and of high strength.
LONGIT DINAL SECTION
9" I 1 II
~T
Fig. 6.22 Cable con- 1"
nection to the fixed saddle, t---~~----~.r-
Severin Bridge SECTION A-A
Fig. 6.23 Knie Bridge

saddle arrangement
ELEVATION
Fig. 6.24 Anchoring of

cables at thick steel plates,
PLAN Mannheim Bridge
This solution requires a large amount of welding and special care to avoid
temperature stresses. The many ropes of the Bonn Bridge were anchored
in a similar way.
In the case of many stay cables of the fan type, Leonhardt 10 suggested
as the best solution the use of a wide semicircular saddle of concrete,
covered with a steel plate (Fig. 6.16).
The cables are spread transversely into one or two layers only. For some
of the cables, sliding due to the differential forces between main span and
side span will have to be prevented by bolt pressure or other means. This
solution is especially favorable on top of an A-shaped tower for very large
spans.
2. MOVABLE CABLE SUPPORTS

In the case of application of movable supports, these take the form of
appropriate rocker or roller devices. Typical arrangements of the movable
cable connections are shown in Figs. 6.25 and 6.26. For the North Bridge,
Dusseldorf, the movable support used is in the shape of a rocker (Fig. 6.25).
6'-7 11
00
'
I
1 I 311 1 I 3 It
3 I 1 11
Fig. 6.25 Rocker support

for cables, North Bridge,
Dusseldorf
5'- 4 Y.a."
6'12." OIA.STEEL
R0.LLR.S
SECT I ON
Fig. 6.26 Roller support

for cables, George Street
Bridge, Newport
6.10 Anchoring of the cables at the deck
}. Slt\GLE-STRAJ'\0 1\t\CIIORAGES
Stay cables constitute the main load carrying elements, therefore the
details of their structural connections to the stiffening girders, the towers
and substructure are very important. These cable connections should
provide full transfer of loads, protection against weather, initial
tensionjng and adjustments, as well as access for inspection.
A socket widely used for the anchoring of parallel-wire strands 11 is
shown in Fig. 6.27. The wires are led through holes in a licking plate at
the end of the socket and have the bottom heads providing the resistance
against slippage of wires. The cavity inside the socket is filled with hot
zinc alloys. To improve the fatigue resistance of the anchor a cold casing
material is used. To indicate a high amplitude socket it is called HiAm
(Fig. 6.28).
Fig. 6.27 Socker for

parallel-wire srrands
plora Fig. 6.28 1-liAm socke r
The parallel steel wires are encased in a polyethylene pipe and the
space between wires and pipe is grouted for corrosion protection after
erection of the structure. The anchorage socket is filled with steel balls
and an epox'Y and zinc dust binder. In the Freyssinet type socket the
strand is anchored to an anchor plate (Fig. 6.29).
This wedge anchor is used during erection and after application of
204 C \BI.I.-S'I \) 11> IIRJD(,J.'>
Fig. 6.29 frcyssinc1

anchor
dead load the anchor tube is filled with epo.Ky resin. Under live load the
additional cable force will be trans form ed by shear from the cable strand
to the tube.
2. \\LI.TI-STR \1\1) \"\<.II OR \GES

There are different types of structural connections to provide effective
transmission of forces from the cables into the stiffening girders or
trusses. Some cross-sectional configurations of the stiffening girders
allowing the most direct connections are shown in Fig. 6.30.
l(b l
I I
~
I I
I( cl I
~ (J
Fig. 6.30 Cross-
sections of stiffening : (d) I
girders \\ith direc1 cable
conncc1ion~
c::::l.....__ __..c;J
To transfer the cable forces to the main clements of the stiffening

girders, relati\'ely small brackets or diaphragms arc required. Also, large
structural members may be added at the cable anchor locations to
provjde transmission of the cable force (Fig. 6.3 1).
STRUCTURAL DETAI LS 205
(e)
I I
I tt l i
l =~=r====~=r::::J I
f.'ig. 6.31 C ross
lI' (O I sections of stiffening
gi rders with indirect
cable connections
In the case of box-type stiffening girders, the cables pass between the
two webs of the girders and are anchored by their cable sockets against a
cast-steel anchor body.
The anchor body is arranged so that hydraulic jacks can be positioned
to produce the required initial tension in the cables. This permits re-
tensioning at any time (Fig. 6.32).
Fig. 6.32 Anchorage of

cables on the stiffening
SECT! ON A-A girders , Stromsund Bridge
On the first cable-stayed bridges, the cables were anchored inside a box
girder close to the edge of the bridge (Fig. 6.33). The ropes of each cable
are spread sufficiently to give space for the anchor sockets, which rest on
transversal ribs. The webs of the box girder must be strengthened locally
to resist the large cable forces. The whole anchorage is concealed inside
the box girder. For the Severin Bridge in Cologne, a similar anchorage
was chosen (Fig. 6.34).
At the Knie Bridge, Dusseldorf (Fig. 6.35), the five pairs of cables were
anchored to a transversal bracket in an inclined plane in order to get the
longitudinal main girder, which has only one web, sufficiently behjnd the
edge.
The cantilever moments of these brackets are in equilibrium with a
couple of forces acting transversely over the width of the bridge. The
compressive force is carried by the orthotropic plate of the bridge deck;
206 C \JJLE-ST\YED BRIDGES
ELEVATI ON
Fi~t.
(>.33 Cable anchorage
inside a box girder at
Dusseldorf North Bridge
for the tension force a strong tic had to be provided between the bottom
flanges of the main girders (Fig. 6.36).
This solution gi,cs the Knie Bridge a ''cry slender and light appearance.
However, from a structural point of view, simple ways of hanging such
bridge decks by stay cables had to be developed.
As Leonhardt suggests, a better solution is offered by shorter spaces
between the cables with consequenrly small forces to be anchored, and by
the shapes which he found to be aerodynamically optimum. The sharp edge
can be used to get the cable forces well spread out longitudinally and to
carry the load tra nsversely, if it is made to act as a part of a triangular
hollow box girder (Fig. 6.37).
A ,ertical gusset plate may be joined at the edge to which the cable
socket is bolted, but the change of angle bet" een cable and ded may
cause fatigue difficulties. Adjustment of the length of the cable must be
provided for, in this case by a turnbuckle.
The solution proposed by Leonhardt is to take the cable through the
box girder imide a pipe welded to the longitudinal web, and to let it act by
compression from the rear side (Fig. 6.38). In this way, a large amount of
STRUCTURAL DET AILS 207
CABLE I ANCHORAGE
CABLE ANCHORAGE
SECTION BB
Fig. 6.3-l Anchorage

arrangementS, Severin
SECTION A-A Bridge
ELEVATION AA
Fig. 6.35 Inclined

bracketS for anchoring
stay cables, Knie Bridge
Fig. 6.36 Reaction forces

to resist cable forces, ._n1e
Bridge I" a i I I
1 tA BlE
1[
2 tAB lE S
Fig. 6.37 Anchoring of Fig. 6.3R Anchoring of
single cable to the triangular single or I\\ in cables to the
edge of a bo~ girder edge of a box girder by
means of~ pipe welded
into the web
adjustment can be made with shims or with a threaded ring. In addition,

the unavoidable changes of angles of inclination of the cables can be
smoothed our by elastic bending of the pipe and by a neoprene cushion
inside the upper end of the pipe. Such anchorages may be protected
against corrosion very safely by the use of special plastic materials that fill
all voids. This solution is simple if we have to anchor only one, two or at
most four cable units, and if the forces at each anchor point arc not too
large for normal rhjckncsses of sheet plates to resist. These considerations
indicate that the most convenient solution is to use a large number of stay
cables spaced reasonably closely.
It is desirable to provide jacking details capable of modifying the cable
forces. These can be arranged at the cable anchorages or at the tower tops.
They are necessary to adjust for creep in the cables, errors in the cable
lengths, or variations in their elastic modulus. They may also be used to
modify the stress distribution due to dead load- for example, by pre-
stressing the main span upwards.
In the case of stiffening trusses, the anchorages of the cables may be
attached to the web plate in the plane of the truss as shown in Figs.
6.39-6.41.
When the cables arc in a single vertical plane along the median of the
--,
32' -I 0" 4 5'- I 1"
Fig. 6.39 Great Belt Crossing compelition. Project by Sverdrup and

Parcel and Associates. Anchorage of cables at stitlening truss
SECTION B-B
ELEVATION a._l
Fig. 6.40 Great Belt
Crossing competition.
Project by Fried, Krupp
and Rheinhausen.
Anchorage of cables at
SECTION A-A stiffeni ng rruss
bridge, the concentrated cable forces are transmitted to the central girder
system, as used at the Maxau and the Papineau Bridges (Figs. 6.42 and
6.43 respectively).
In the case of very large cable forces, it is necessary to transmit the
forces from the central girder system onto a stiffening girder. In certain
circumstances, s ubstantial strengthening of the bottom, deck and web
plates will be necessary to ensure that the very large forces are distri-
buted over the full width and depth of the stiffening girder.
: I
9
I
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~_ _l
-;r
0
17ig. 6.41 Great Belt Crossing competition. Project by Philips Holzman,

A. G. Anchorage of cables at stiffening truss
.
~
~I
--~
"''
.:;.
;:..'
7'-3'1-L" ...
~
foig. 6A2 Derail of cable

anchorage, Maxau Bridge
Cable anchorages in the deck structure often consist of transverse

inclined beams which span between longitudinal internal web plates. The
ends of the cables, which are suitably socketed, are supported from these
beams and a smooth transfer of forces onto the deck structure is achieved.
An example of this type of cable anchorage is the New Galecopper
Bridge, Holland. l n this bridge each main cable consists of two groups,
each of six cables of 3 in (76 mm) diameter, full-locked and galvanized.
The cables are connected to the middle of two main girders through cross-
girders (Fig. 6.44).
STRUCfURAL DETAILS 211
BOOT (IIATERPROOF)
2 PlATES 14' 0 x 1
2 PlATES 14" x 1Y4"

Fig. 6.43 Detail of cable
anchorage, Papineau
Bridge, Montreal
The web of the main girder is locally thickened to Ii\ in (W mm), due
to the normal and shear forces. On each side of the cable anchorage there
is a main cross-girder to distribute the cable force uniformly to the six
main girders.
6. 11 Stiffening girder a nchorages
When negative bearing loads will occur at the free end bearings of the
bridge, the main girders are connected to the abutment by vertical anchors,
resisting tension and compression. The arrangements of these anchorages
are illustrated by the following examples.
At Stromsund Bridge (Fig. 6.45), the vertical anchors resist c hangeable
' ertical reactions and permit horizontal movements of the stiffening
girder. H owever, the horizontal forces arc transferred per pendicu larly to
the abutments through special spur bearings allowing longitudinal
movements.
The end girder anchorage of the Jiilicher Street Bridge consists of two
anchor plates connected by a pin (Fig. 6.46). Figure 6.+7 shows an anchor
arrangement at the orrh Bridge, Dusseldorf.
At the Papineau Bridge (Fig. 6.48), the outer stay cable, at its shore end,
is tied to the bridge deck structure. The deck, in turn, is linked to anchors,
which are grouted into bedrock. Weight of the heavy abutment structure
also resists overturning.
6-~~
SECTION 0~4 8R I OG(
Pig. 6.+t Detail of cable

~nchorage, 1ev. Galecopper
Bridge SECTION 8-8
f'ig. 6.4 5 Anchorage of VIEII A-A

stiffening girder at abut-
ment. Striimsund Bridge
STRL CT I,;R \1. D"T\11.5 213
~
'I
'I
.
fig. 6.46 Anchorage at

Jiilicher Street Bridge,
DUsseldorf
6. 12 Erection methods
The erection procedure depends on the structural system of the bridge, the
site conditions, dimensions of the shop-fabricated bridge units, equip-
ment and other factors characteristic of a particular project.
Stiffening girders and deck are erected either by the cantilever method
or by using a few intermediate temporary supports. For this purpose,
cranes are used moving on the already erected structure, or floating cranes
which may erect whole prefabricated sections.
During erection by the free cantilevering method, temporary guy ropes
are sometimes introduced to restrict the excessive deflections caused when
more panels are added. Figure 6.49 shows a typical erection procedure,
as applied to Stromsund Bridge, using the cantilever method. As erection
proceeds, the stiffening girders are connected to the cables and adjusted to
the proposed elevation. When the appropriate points are reached, the
cables are attached and tensioned by jacking up the saddle bearings.
.
::
'
\1)
Fig. 6.47 Anchorage at

Dusseldorf North Bridge
The erection procedure for cable-stayed bridges with only a central

main girder and cables in a single plane is basically the same as that used
with the two-plane cable system. A typical example is the erection of the
Erskine Bridge (Fig. 6.50).
Erection was carried out by cantileYering from the first span of each
approach viaduct, so that the bridge grew from the abutments along each
viaduct, then each side span and, finally, each half of the main span, until
the two halves met over the center of the river. The first few sections were
lifted by specially designed gantry-type cranes onto falsework to support
the first span while the joints between sections were welded up.
If the towers are connected to the plate girders, whole sections arc
erected behind abutments on earth embankment and subsequently mo' ed
towards the final position. Often particular care must be taken not to
interfere with the existing traffic. In such cases, the whole superstructure
is assembled on the side of the site and jacked forward on movable bearings
-as for instance, in the case of the Ji.ilichcr Street Bridge (Fig. 6.51).
STRUCTURAL DETAILS 2 15
J-611
30"
TRANSVERSE SECTION
Fig. 6.48 Anchorage
assembly at the Papineau
Bridge, Momreal
The bridge was assembled unit by unit from the rear end and was
continually moved forward as construction proceeded, so that with the
last shove the entire bridge was moved into its final position. It should be
noted that the sliding movement was not performed with the aid of rollers,
but on teflon sliding pads.
Erection of the metal towers for cable-stayed bridges does not present
special difficulties. The following methods are used in practice:
(1) For relatively small spans, the towers were raised to the designed
position by hinging them up at the erection joints.
(2) For bridges having greater spans, the towers are erected by using
cranes, erecting the prefabricated members, and connecting them by
riveted or welded joints.
(3) In the case of reinforced concrete towers, having great weight, special
methods of erection are used.
c~
- CANTILEVERING BRIDGEWORK TO
FIRST TEMPORARY SUPPORT.
~
2 - CANT I LEVERING BRIDGEWORK TO
SECOND TEMPORARY SUPPORT.
~
3 - CANTILEVERING BRIDGEWORK TO
,, ' l
4 n
PERMANENT SUPPORT.
4 - ERECTING PYLON AND BRACING

IT AGAINST MAIN GIRDER.
5 -CANTILEVERING BRIDGEWORK TO
BEYOND ANCHOR PO I NTS OF SHORT
CABLES.
6 - RETURNING DERRICK TO PIERSn

INSTALLING SHORT CABLES,REMOVING
TEMPORARY PYLON BRACING.
-TENSIONING SHORT CABLES.
BEYOND ANCHOR PO I NT OF LONG
CABLES.
- RETURNING DERRICK TO PYLON~

INSTALLING LONG CABLES.
- TENSIONING LONG CABLES.
CENTRE OF gRJDGE. PLACING BALAST
IN POSIT I ON. INSERTING CENTRAL
FITTING SECTION.
12 - PLACING ROADWAY CONCRETE, FINISHING
ROADWAY AND BR I DGEI<ORK.
Fig. 6.49 Cantilever

erection method, Strom-
sund Bridge
Monolithic reinforced-concrete towers may be erected by using slip

forms or by application of rigid reinforcing, to connect the forms to them.
In this case, the rigid skeleton is raised to a vertical position by rotation
around the erection pins together with a light crane attached to the
horizontal beam. All remaining work for the installation of the forms and
concreting are made with the help of this crane. After hardening of the
concrete, the crane is dismantled.
Reinforced concrete towers consisting of standard parts may be erected
using creeping cranes moving along the erected parts and placing separate
blocks ahead.
~I ''~'
I I I !!! I I I I
=
1-A CANTILEVER 3~ BOXES 1-B ERECT TOWER.
2-A
i'''~R
CONNECT Fl RST TEMPORARY
ANCHORAGE (2 STRANDS).
I
,,,,~A
3-A DI SCONECT FIRST ANCHORAGE 3-B ERECT BOX.
ljj~
4-A CONNECT THIRD TEMPORARY 4-B ERECT BOX
ANCHORAGE (4 STRANDS).
,,,~,
5-A CONNECT AND JACK PERMANENT 5-B DISCONNECT TEMPORARY
CABLES. ANCHORAGES.
=;z::l
11 ~:i::I::o:::co:::::r::::I:1:::r:::::Cil9 1 1' 1~11
CONTINUE CANTILEVER ERECTION.
li~lllilll~! Fig. 6.50 Erection of the

main span, the Erskine
Bridge, Glasgow
6.13 Adjustment of the cables
During erection of the cable-stayed systems having radial or parallel

cables, there are a few methods of cable adjustment to obtain the most
convenient distribution of the bending moments in the stiffening girder
under dead load. This adjustment may be performed by changes in the
tension of the cables and corresponding changes in the elevations of the
stiffening girder at the locations of the cable connections to the stiffening
girder.
The required change in the length of the cable is determined as shown
in Fig 6.52 by the formula
(6.14)
Fig. 6.51 Erection

procedure, Jiilicher Street
Bridge, Dusseldorf
Fig. 6.52 Cable elongation

where
11Ln = elongation of the cable
Ln = the original length of the cable
P = load at the joint
A = cross-sectional area of the cable
E = modulus of elasticity of the cable.
In the case of the cantilever method of erection, to minimize repeated

adjustment of separate cables, it is useful to calculate the required tension
and the geometry of positions of all cable attachments to the stiffening
girder during all phases of the erection.
To achieve this, the following method of analysis may be used. It is
necessary to determine the deformed, final elevation of the stiffening
girder, taking into consideration the additional displacements to regulate
the forces in the cables.
Erection should meet the requirements that, on completion, the girders
should follow a prescribed gradient and the cables and towers should have
their true system lengths. To accomplish this, all members, before erec-
tion, must have a deformed shape the same as, but opposite in direction to,
that which they would have under dead load. The stiffening girder is
accordingly cambered, and also lengthened by the amount of its axial
shortenings under dead load. The towers and cables are treated in similar
manner.
For the calculation of the erection positions of the cable-stayed system,
the stiffening girder is assumed weightless, and bent following the curve
of the camber, but with lowering of the girder at the tower support
according to the ordinate of the elevation. Given this positioning of the
axis of the girder, it is necessary to determine, for each cable, the required
elongation for the attachment of the stressless cables to the girder. For
this operation, cables are considered as shortened corresponding to the
deformed scheme of the camber.
The values of these elongations are used further for the analysis of the I'
forces and deformations in all stages of erection, by substituting them into i:
the loading terms of the equilibrium equations. Analysis of the cable-
stayed system, regarded as a system with changeable degrees of statical
indeterminancy, is carried out with regard to the increase in the number
of cables during erection. Moduli of elasticity of the cables are used l\
I
corresponding to the expected strains in the cables.
During erection of the cable-stayed system on the intermediate sup-
ports, it is recommended that the tensioning in the cables is controlled I
with regard to the unchanged positions of the elevations of the cable !i
i(
connections to the stiffening girder in all stages of erection.
Single strands in the stay cable may be tensioned either simultaneously :I
-the most effective method-or one by one, or in groups of equal numbers I
!I
'I
of strands. In the group method, the rate of tensioning of each strand

should be equal, so that the overall tension of the cable is uniformly
distributed. Separate tensioning of the cables is substantially less effective,
because in this case, in order to raise the cable connection to the girder, it
is necessary to compress the remaining cables, which act as elastic bars,
to the corresponding value.
By disregarding the changes of the forces in cables during the raising of
the cable connection joint to the stiffening girder, and considering that all
cables have equal cross-sections, we assume the change in the force during
the first tensioning to be in the tensioned cables:
S+P/n (6.15)
and in the remaining cables
p
-5--- (6.16)
ns-n
where
S = force in the cable
P = force due to the jacking of the single cable
ns = total number of strands in the stay cable
n = the number of the simultaneously post-tensioned strands.
The corresponding raising of the cable-connection joint, defined by

the number of non-tensioned cables, is
~= Pl (6.17)
(ns-n)EA
The depth of the packing blocks under the anchorages which is equal to
the raising of the cable connection joint during one cycle, when all strands
of the cable stays are post-tensioned by some value of the force, is
L ~ = __!_!___+ Pl Plns
(6.18)
nEA (ns-n)EA n(ns-n)EA
The tensile stresses in the cables are controlled by the manometers

connected to the jacks.
For the determination of the forces in the cables, the evaluation of the
natural vibration frequencies of the cables may be considered as a safer
method 12 . The frequency of the vibration as a function of the cable
tension may be determined by analogy with the transverse vibration of the
p1ano w1re
f= !!_:__
2lo
f\N)
-J\;} (6.19)
where
f = natural frequency in s - l
nc = number of half-waves in the length of the cable
10 = free or flexible length of the cable
N = tension in the cable, assumed to be uniform along the cable
m = q/g = mass of the vibrating cable in kip x s 2 /ft 2 , where q is the
weight of the cable in kip/ft and g is the acceleration of the
gravity force.
The most convenient observations can be made when the whole length
of the cable vibrates, or at nc= 1, and
(6.20)
The vibrations of the cable may be easily generated by swaying the

cable for a few seconds. After the vibrations start, the time is counted
for fifty subsequent vibrations. By assuming that the cable force is deter-
mined by the interval t 50 for fifty oscillations, the expression (6.20), after
substitution off= 50/ t 50 , yields
(6.21)
One check on the calculation of the tension in the cables is that the sum
of all horizontal components of the cable forces at the top of the tower
should be equal to zero. Practice indicates that the deviations from the
actual values are not greater than 1-1.5%.
References
1. American Society for Testing and Materials, Standard A-586-68

Specifications for Zinc-Coated Steel Structural Strand, 1968.
Specifications for Zinc-Coated Steel Structural Wire Rope, 1970.
3. Scalzi,]. B., Podolny, W. Jr. and Teng, W. C., Design Fundamentals
of Cable Roof Structures, ADUSS 55-3580-01, United States Steel
Corporation, Pittsburgh, Pa, October, 1969, p. 6.
Specifications for Zinc-Coated Steel Structural Strand, 1968.
5. Scalzi,]. B., Podolny, W. Jr. and Teng, W. C., Design Fundamentals
of Cable Roof Structures, ADUSS 55-3580-01, United States Steel
Corporation, Pittsburgh, Pa, October, 1969, p. 8.
6. Beyer, E. and Ernst, H.]., 'Briicke Jiilicher Strasse in Dusseldorf',
Bauingenieur, 39(12), 469-477, December, 1964.
7. Ernst, H.]., 'Der E-Modul von Seilen unter Beriicksichtigung des

Durchhangers', Bauingenieur, 40(2), 52-55, 1965.
8. Brown, C. D., 'Design and Construction of George Street Bridge
over the River Usk, at Newport, Monmouthshire', Proc. Inst. civ.
Engrs, 32,31-52, September, 1965.
9. Feige, A., 'Evolution of German Cable-Stayed Bridges', Acier-Stahi-
Steel, 31(12), 523-532, December, 1966.
10. Leonhardt, F. and Zellner, W., 'Cable-Stayed Bridges: Report on
Toronto, 1970.
11. Andra, W. and Zellner, W., 'Zugglieder aus Paralleldragtbundelm
und ihre Verannerung bei hoher, Dauerschwellbelastung', Die
Bautechnie, 8, 9, 1969.
12. Ernst, H.]., 'Montage eines Seilverspannten Balkens im Gross-
Briickenbau', Stahlbau, No. 5, 101-108, May, 1956.
Chapter 7
Methods of Structural Analysis
7.1 Introduction
A number of techniques can be used for the analysis of cable-stayed

bridges. Examples include the use of a scaled-down model for testing,
and the use of an analytical model which considers the linear and
nonlinear behavior of the cable-stayed bridge when subjected to static
and dynamic conditions ofload. For the latter model, certain parameters
should be defined and idealized, such as the restraints at the joints, the
stiffness or flexibility of each member, and connections between the
cables, stiffening girders and towers. One- and two-plane systems of the
bridge may be considered as one- and two-dimensional space frames,
respectively. ,.,
1:
The analysis of the cable-stayed bridges under static and dynamic

loads, considering their linear and nonlinear behavior along with the
above parameters, is discussed in the following sections. !
li
I
I
7.2 Linear analysis and preliminary design r
I
I. LINEAR ANALYSIS
Cable-stayed bridge systems are generally many times statically indeter-
minate. A statically determinate basic system may be formed by different
methods. The deflections of the basic system under applied loads may be
determined by applying the classical theory of structures or so-called
first-order theory, by neglecting the deformation of the system when
formulating the equilibrium conditions.
For a statically determined basic system, the resulting equations are
linear in the loads and in the internal forces, and linear superposition is
valid for the internal forces caused by different loads or load groups.
If Hooke's law is assumed to be valid, linear superposition applies also
to the displacements, and, therefore, to the determination of the stresses
of cable-stayed bridge systems.
If the analysis of cable-stayed bridges is based generally on the

assumption that the elastic displacements of a structure are proportional
to the applied load, it is defined as linear behavior. However, for the
case of cable-stayed bridges, this assumption has proven to be
approximate and, for large spans, unsafe. When the actual performance
of the bridge is analyzed and the final deformed geometry is considered,
then the loading moments, deflections and stresses have larger
magnitudes if nonlinearity is neglected.
2. PRELIMINARY DESIGN
The design process for a cable-stayed bridge system with accepted
geometrical layout may be divided into the following stages:
(a) A preliminary set of sectional properties is assumed for each member
of the system.
(b) The sectional properties assumed in Stage (a) are analyzed, applying
one of the statical methods of analysis. Stresses and displacements
under the given loads on the system are determined and compared
with the maximum unit stresses and maximum displacement-span
ratios allowed by the specifications.
(c) A new set of sectional properties is chosen to satisfy the requirements
of the specifications. The above stages are repeated until we obtain a
specified relation between the sectional properties assumed in Stage
(a), and those obtained in Stage (c).
Several general methods for the linear structural analysis of a cable-
stayed bridge system are available. We may call those methods that do
not require the use of an electronic computer 'classical methods'.
Using a classical method, we thus have to carry out a structural
analysis of a cable-stayed bridge system by manual computation. One of
the disadvantages is that we must assume linear behavior of our bridge
system. This is because it is highly impractical to attempt a manual
iteration of a system of equations associated with nonlinear behavior.
7.3 Nonlinear analysis
Nonlinear performance of the cable-stayed bridges generally depends on

the behavior of the cables, stiffening girders and pylons.
1. NONLINEARITY OF THE CABLES

Nonlinearity of the cables originates with an increase in the loading
followed by a decrease in the cable sag, which produces an elongation of
the cable and corresponding axial tension. To overcome this nonlinear
effect, the method of equivalent modulus of elasticity was proposed to
:-IETIIODS OF STRuCTuRAL Al'\ALYSIS 225
include the normal modulus and the effect of sag and tension load.
These factors are expressing changeable stiffness of stay cables. Actually,
the stiffness depends on the tensile stress, length of the cable and its
deflection.
The equivalent or ideal modulus of elasticity of the cable as expressed
by Ernst is
(7.1)
where
E = modulus of elasticity of straight cable
l = horizontal length of the cable
y = specific weight of the cable
o = tensile stress in the cable
Different values of the ideal modulus are shown in Fig. 7.1, indicating
the primary influence of stress in the cable. For a stress of o = 14 ksi,
the stay cable stiffness for a horizontal span of 300 ft (91.5 m) is equal,
according to Ernst's formula, to one half of a straight cable, orE= 0.5E0
(where E0 = 29 X 103 ksi). However, for cables with a horizontal span of
E kai
3
29 xiO
0"' kai
3 100
2Bx1o
90
80
27xla3 75
3 70
26 x10 611
3 60
211x10
3 115
24xi0
140
130
120
110
10
90
60
70
60
so
40
30
20 Fig. 7 .I Variation of the
ideal modulus of
10 elasticity of a stay cable
Lft
0 with change oflength and
stress
600ft (183m), stressed beyond 56 ksi, the value of E remains close to E0 ,

orE= 0.94 E0 Also, for l = 600ft (183 m) and o = 10 x 103 ksi, E =
0.96 E0 . Therefore, in cable-stayed bridges with medium length spans
where the dead weight is a significant ratio of the total load, the stress in
the stay cables is sufficiently high, so that the variation in the ideal
modulus of elasticity due to variable loads can be neglected.
This no longer applies to bridges with long spans. There, the
efficiency of a stay cable decreases rapidly as the length increases. For
l = 1000 ft (304.9 m), o = 60 X 103 ksi, Ei = 0.88 E and for l = 1000 ft,
o = 70 X 103 ksi, Ei = 0. 91 E. In that case, it is necessary to use stay
cables capable of carrying high stresses.
2. NONLINEARITY OF STIFFENED GIRDERS AND PYLONS

When stiffened girders and pylons are subjected to the simultaneous
action of compression loads and bending moments, then the interaction
of loading and axial forces results in nonlinear behavior. The degree of
nonlinearity depends on the intensity of the compressive load compared
with the buckling load and the magnitude of deflection caused by the
bending action. Because of the presence of high compressive forces in
the relatively slender stiffening girder and towers, the girder and the
towers need to be analyzed as a beam column. The axial compression
force increases the bending moment of the beam column, and the
resulting relationship is nonlinear.
3. NONLINEARITY DUE TO DEFORMATION OF THE STRUCTURE

In a cable-stayed bridge, the deformation of the superstructure under
loading affects the value of the stresses. Therefore, the principle of
superposition may be applied only with certain limitations. This
problem is treated by the deformation theory or so-called second order
theory by taking into account the effect of the deflections of the structure
in calculating the stresses and forces. The equilibrium conditions are
written down for the geometry of the deformed structure and they are no
longer linear. The internal forces of the bridge are not directly
proportional, but grow at a faster rate than the external loading. Due to
the deformations of the structure, there are additional stresses, which are
not proportional to the additional loads. These stresses may be
determined by the method of successive approximation. At the first
stage, the stresses are calculated considering the initial geometry of the
structure, applying the principles of linear analysis. The deformations
obtained are used further to determine the modified geometry of the
structure. At the second stage, the linear analysis is applied again for the
structure with modified geometry. This method is repeated until the
deformations remain constant from one stage to the next. Two or three
times are generally sufficient.
METHODS OF STRliCTliRAL ANALYSIS 227
In summary, for the nonlinear performance of cable-stayed bridges,

the analysis procedure is to consider the nonlinear behavior of the cables,
caused by the variation in sag with tensile force, and the nonlinear
behavior of the bending members, caused by the interaction of axial and
bending deformations.
7.4 Dynamic analysis
The majority of cable-stayed bridge methods of analysis are limited to

static loads with very little information being presented concerning
dynamic behavior. However, under the influence of wind, seismic and
traffic loads, there is a dynamic response by cable-stayed bridges.
Therefore, the dynamic analysis of cable-stayed bridges is concerned
with their aerodynamic and seismic behavior. Dynamic studies include
the determination of the natural modes and frequencies of the bridge
under aerodynamic forces. The second type deals with the response of
the bridge under earthquake action.
A detailed investigation of dynamic behavior has been performed by a
few researchers. Morris 1 applied a lumped mass form of the nonlinear
analysis proposed by Johnson and Brotton2 . This method assumes that
loads act only at the nodes, and this assumption is carried into this work.
Two-dimensional formulation is used as well as a sign convention
identical to that of Jonatowski and Birnstiel 3 . The dynamic equations
were written by Morris in the following matrix form:
[M] {D} + [C] {D} + [KJ {D} = {P} (7.2)

where
[M] = the mass matrix. It is made up of lumped masses consisting
of half the weight of each member framing into a node. The
rotary inertia contribution was computed by assuming that
half of each member rotates as a rigid bar out of the node
[C] = the damping matrix
{D} = the displacement matrix (u, v, and 8 at each joint)
{iJ} = the elements which are the velocities at the nodes
{D} = the matrix containing the accelerations u, v, w, ex,
8y, 8z
[K] = the matrix formed from member stiffness matrices [K]
evaluated at the deformed position of the member. The
matrix elements of eq. (7.2) are referred to a global system of
co-ordinates, therefore the elements of [K] are also referred
to these co-ordinates
{P} = the force matrix, made up of concentrated forces and couples
at the nodes
228 CABI.F-S"L\ l"FD BRIDGES
The dynamic equations were solved with the aid of Newmark's linear
acceleration method 4 . This required the assumption that the velocity and
acceleration at a time level n + 1 can be expressed as a function of the
displacement n + 1, the time interval 1'1t, and the value of the previous
state, n.
The developed theory was programmed in Fortran and run on a
Unival 1108 computer. There were four basic programs required for a
computer analysis and two cable-stayed bridges were analyzed in some
detail, shown in Figs. 7.2 and 7.3. The bridge in Fig. 7.2 had dead load
as concentrated loads at the nodes: 800 kips at 1 and 6, 1600 kips at 2, 5,
7 and 8, 1718 kips at 4 and 185 kips at 3.
Fig. 7.2 Unsymmetrical

cable-stayed bridge
'
.~~!.
4 at 100 tt =400 tt I
?Jib,.
lOOft 1 lOOft 1
Fig. 7.3 Symmetrical

cable-stayed bridge
B~~:
j
~-~~
~~~3
.1
eati50tt=900tt ,J,zoo~ eati50tt=900tt
Fleming and Egeseli 5 ' 6 presented results of an investigation concerned

with the dynamic response of cable-stayed bridges to several different
types of dynamic service loads. A two-dimensional mathematical model
of the structure was used. Also, the overall load-deformation relationship
considered was nonlinear under normal design loads. The first nonlinear
consideration was the behavior of the undivided cable stays and the
second one was the behavior of the towers and girders when they are
subjected to combined loading and axial loads. Considering the
nonlinearity of the inclined cable stays, they were considered as an
equivalent modulus of elasticity following the Ernst formula:
(7.3)
where
Eeq = the equivalent modulus of elasticity
E = the cable material modulus of elasticity
H = the horizontal projected length of the cable
W = the weight per unit length of the cable
METHODS OF STRuCTuRAL Al'\ALYSIS 229
A = the cross-sectional area

T = the cable tension before the load increment is applied
The nonlinear behavior of the other members in the structure, due to the
effect of large bending and axial deformation, was considered by
introducing the concept of stability function 7
For dynamic analysis, the mathematical model of the single-load
bearing plane of Nord Bridge, Germany, was considered (Fig. 7.4). This
mathematical model has 22 nodes and 31 individual members. The mass
of the structure was assumed to be lumped at the nodes. Both
translational and rotational degrees of freedom were initially considered.
The model damping coefficients were computed by using the approximate
approach described by Biggs 8 . The method employed in the dynamic
analysis was a step by step integration algorithm, developed by Argyris et
aP, which works in terms of the inertia force vector and its time
derivatives at the beginning and end of a time step. This is an iteration
approach which approximates the displacement by a fifth degree
polynomial with time. An integration step of 0.3 times the smallest
natural period of the system is needed for convergence. The advantages
of the procedure are that they do not involve matrix inversion when a
lumped mass matrix is employed and when the number of degrees of
freedom is large, the capacity of the computer core is insufficient and the
external storage unit must be used, thus greatly increasing the
computation time. I,
,,
.
,,
7.5 Application of computers
Except in the case of a very simple cable-stayed bridge, a computer is

necessary for the solution of this type of structure, being used primarily
for analysis rather than for a design application. Computer programs are
necessary to generate the influence diagrams for cable forces, stiffening
girder, bending moments and shears, tower and pier reactions. The
computer is also required for rapid evaluation of effects and loadings of :I,
various parameters that have been taken into account in achieving a
reasonably efficient design. Probably the most important problems are
8 19
Fig. 7.4 Nord Bridge

II 22 elevation
230 C\BLE-S"IAYFD BRID<iFS
the determination of the optimum section of the stiffening girder section,

and cable configuration and size. The nonlinear behavior of cables,
whose sag varies with changing axial load, presents problems in the
solution of the bridge system more complex than those of a structure of
linear behavior. A convenient method of accounting for the nonlinear
behavior of the stay-cable bridge system is to introduce the concept of a
straight line chord member with a modified or ideal modulus of elasticity
substituted for the actual cable member. The use of this concept allows
the application of a plane frame computer program properly adapted to
account for nonlinearity by an interaction procedure. Several general
computer programs, such as FRAN, STRESS, or STRUDL, are
available which use either the stiffness or flexible approach.
References
1. Morris, N. F., 'Dynamic Analysis of Cable-Stiffened Structures',

ASCE]. Struct. Div., 100, 971-981, May, 1974.
2. Johnson, D. and Brotton, D. M., 'A Finite Deflection Analysis for
Space Structures', Space Structures, Ed. R. M. Davies, John Wiley and
Sons Inc., New York, 1967.
3. Jonatowski, ]. ]. and Birnstiel, C., 'Inelastic Stiffened Suspension
Space Structures',ASCE]. Struct. Div., 96, 1143-1166,June, 1970.
4. Newmark, N. M., 'A Method of Computation for Structural
Dynamics', ASCE]. Engng Mech. Div., 85, 67-94, July, 1959.
5. Fleming, ]. F. and Egeseli, E. A., 'Dynamic Behavior of Cable-
Stayed Bridges', Earthqu. Engng Struct. Dynam., 8, No.1, 1-16, 1980.
6. Egeseli, E. A. and Fleming, ]. F., 'Dynamic Behavior of Cable-
Stayed Bridges', Proceedings of the Symposium on Earthquake Structural
Engineering, August 19-21, 1976, StLouis, Missouri, pp. 59-72.
7. Livesley, R. K. and Chandler, D. B., Stabili~y Functions ji1r Structural
Frameworks, Manchester University Press, 1956.
8. Biggs,]. M., Introduction to Structural Dynamics, McGraw-Hill, New
York, 1964.
9. Argyris, ]. H., Dunne, P. E. and Angelopoulos, T., 'Nonlinear
Oscillations Using the Finite Element Technique', Comp. Mech. Appl.
Mech. Engng, No. 2, 203-250, 1973.
Chapter 8
Approximate Structural Analysis
8.1 Participation of the stiffening girder in the bridge system
The performance of the stiffening girder as an integral part of the cable-

stayed bridge is similar to the behavior of the continuous girder on elastic (
,,,
,,,
supports. However, during the initial stage of erection and prestressing
of the cables under dead load, cable connections to the girder may be
considered as rigid supports. {1
~' I
In the second stage of the loading, which includes final dead load and
live loads, the connections deflect elastically due to the cables' extensions
and displacements of the towers. Resulting deflections of the cable
connections reduce the stiffness and bending moments in the stiffening
girder.
It is obvious that due to the reduction of the rigidity of the stiffening
girder, the additional bending moments caused by the deflection of the
cable connections to the tower will be also smaller. However, the reduc-
tion in the rigidity of the main girder decreases the longitudinal distribu-
tion of the loading on the adjacent connections of the cables and this
results in overloading and greater stretching of the cables.
Experimental investigation 1 of stiffening girders with different stiff-
nesses showed that the change in the cross-section of the girder affects
the bending moments. However, as Fig. 8.1 shows, this influence is
nonlinear.
Change of the moment of inertia of the stiffening girder has no sig-
nificant effect on the stresses in the inclined cables and flexural stresses
in the girders and towers. This fact makes it possible to develop an
approximate method of analysis of inclined cables which neglects the
flexural and longitudinal deformations of the girder.
The influence of the stiffness of the girder on the deflection of the cable
connection to the girder is also insignificant. If the moment of inertia of
the girder is doubled, the deflection of the connection under the maximum
M KFT
1300 M1
~~
Hz
1200
v
- M3
1100 ~/
1000 1/ /
900 ~v /
~ v/
v
800
~
/; v/
700
600
500 /L I
400
/;1/
3000
//1 I
200
Vii_
II!
Fig. 8.1 Variation of
bending moments in a
100
v
stiffening girder as a
0
0 1x10 4 2x10
4
3x10 4 4x10 4 5x1o"' 6x10 4 7x10 4 8x10
. 9x10 4
function of EI EI x 10 6 KFT f
loading is reduced by only 0.8-2.3%. An exception is found in the

connections of the cables near the towers. At these locations, the influence
of the stiffness of the girders on the deformations under the loadings is
substantially greater. However, the deformations of the girders are
determined by the deflection of the middle part of the span. Therefore,
the conclusion that the influence of the girder stiffness on deflections is
relatively small is correct, and it is reasonable to design the stiffening
girder to have the minimum possible moment of inertia.
Practically, the depth of the stiffening girder is determined by its local
bending at the ends of panels and, with bridge systems having only one
main box girder, by the resistance of this box girder against torsion.
Experience in the design and performance of cable-stayed bridges
indicates that the depth of the stiffening girder may be used as 1\ - /8 of the
panel length, or as 1 60 - 2 60 of the main span.
APPROXIMATE STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS 233
8.2 Optimum inclination of the cables
The height of the tower greatly affects the stiffness of the bridge system.
As the angle of inclination of the cable with respect to the stiffening
girder increases, the stresses in the cables decrease, as does the required
cross-section of the tower. However, as the height of the tower increases,
the length of the cables, and therefore their axial deformations, also
increase, as well as the amount of metal in the cables.
In order to find the optimum amount of material and inclination of the
cables, the following simplified bridge system, hinged at the locations of
the cable connections to the stiffening girder is considered (Fig. 8.2).
The following notation is used:
An = cross-sectional area of the cable in in 2
In = length of the cables in inches
y = specific weight of the cable material in lb/in 3
W = weight of the cable in lb
an = the angle of inclination of the cable
na = In cos an = the horizontal projection of the cable length
n = the corresponding number of the panels
a = length of the panel in inches
E = modulus of elasticity of the cable material in psi I''
I
Fn = force in the cable in lb
f = permissible stress in the cable in psi
Pn = vertical component of the force in the cable in lb
The weight of the cable is
(8.1)
and
na A = Fn
l =--
n COS (Xn n J
(8.2)
,I
,I
By substituting (4.2) into (4.1), we obtain

Pn nay
W=-----
J sin (Xn cos (Xn
Assuming Pn = 1, and designating nay/J = C, we obtain
W=-,------
c (8.3)
sin (Xn cos (Xn
Therefore, the weight of the cable is a function of 1/(sin an cos an).

\7\
T
,.. b
I
.. j
~ DISPLACEMENT OF THE TOWER'S TOP
I
I
I
I
I
I
_ _ _ _ _ _JI
THE VERT I CAL DEFLECT I ON 0 THE VERT I CAL DEFLECT I ON OF THE

OF THE JOINT n DUE TO THE JOINT n DUE TO THE ELONGATION OF
l"ig. 8.2 Analysis of the ELONGATION OF THE CABLE llln THE CABLE l l l 0 AND DISPLACEMENT OF
simplified bridge system
THE TOP OF THE TOWER b UNDER LOAD
pn = 1.
Let us now analyse the relation between the inclination of the cable
and the deflection of the stiffening girder at locations of the cable connec-
tions to the stiffening girder at joint n (Fig. 8.2).
The force in the cable Fn due to the load Pn = 1 at the joint n is
Fn = Pn/sin rxn (8.4)

The corresponding elongation of the cable is
/':./ = Pn/n (8.5)

" EAn sin rx"
The force in the upper cable F 0 transferred by the tower from the cable
Fn is
Fn COS (Xn
Fo=--- (8.6)
cos rx 0
The corresponding elongation of the cable F 0 is
A Pnlo cot (/.n

D./0 = ----"--'---- (8.7)
EA0 cos a0
and the corresponding displacement of the top of the tower is (Fig. 8.2 (a))
h = 1110 /cos l/. 0 (8.8)
The vertical deflection of the joint n due to the elongation 11/n of the cable
is (Fig. 8.2 (b))
11/n Pn/n
~n an
11 (8.9)
"" = = EA sin 2 a"
The vertical deflection of the joint n due to the elongation 1110 of the cable
and displacement h of the top of the tower, due to the load Pn at the joint
n (Fig. 8.2 (c)) is
Pnlo cot 2 an
(8.10)
EA 0 cos 2 a0 ,,
Therefore, the total vertical deflection of the joint n under the load P is
2
P"l" Pnlo cot an
11tot = 11vn+11no = EA 2 +EA 2 (8.11)
n sm (/.n 0 cos (/. 0 I
After substituting into expression (8.11) the values !f
,,
,,.:
'
I,'
I I'
II
we obtain
i
~'
(8.12)
where the constants
If the angles and the number of panels are equal,
Then formula (8.12) yields
11tot = C 3 /(sin a cos a) (8.13)

where C 1 +C 2 =2C 1 =2C 2 =C 3 .
6
~+~
1-
0
1-
<J 5
:z
0
1\ I
v
;::: 4
\
u
....
...J
u.
....
0 3
~ ............ L/
"'....
0
"'-
"' 2 I
__..... I
I I
I I
I I
I I
I RECOMMENDED I
Fig. 8.3 Relation between

:
I
LIMITS I
I
I I
the cable inclination and
deflection of the joint
I I I I I I
0(
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 w
Comparison of the expressions (8.3) and (8.13) indicates that the

displacement of the joint in the stiffening girder, and therefore the
bending moment, follows the same pattern as the change in the weight
of the cable. The values of ~tot as functions of the angle rxn are shown in
Fig. 8.3.
The diagram shown in Fig. 8.3. indicates that the optimum angle of
the cable inclination is 45 and may vary in the reasonable limits of
25-65. The low values of the angle of inclination correspond to the
external cables, while the greater values correspond to the cables nearest
to the tower.
8.3 The height of the tower and length of the panels
The height of the tower as a function of the panel length na, may be
expressed as follows:
h = na tan 25 = 0.465na (8.14)
With three cables at each side of the tower
h = 0.465 x 3a = l.4a (8.15)
and with four cables

h = 0.465 x 4a = 1.86a (8.16)
The middle panel is usually longer than the remaining panels and may
be taken to be 1.3a. In that case, the ratio of the tower height to the length
of the midspan, considering, for instance, six panels, is
h 1.4a l
- ------,-----,-,---~- so h:::::::- (8.17)
l (6+ 1.3)a 5.2 5.2
The number and length of the panels are basically determined by the
bridge system and its structural characteristics.
As discussed in Section 8.1, it is possible to reduce the moment of
inertia of the girder, and for this purpose it is necessary to reduce the
panel length. However, the reduction of the girder's depth is limited,
because of connection of the cable to the girder. Technically it is certainly
convenient to have the minimum number of cable connections, to reduce
the work of regulation of the forces in the cables.
A comparison of the existing structures indicates the following opti-
mum values of the panel length:
(1) For central spans in the range 450-490 ft (137-150 m), panels of
65ft (19.8 m) are recommended.
(2) For the smaller central spans the panels should be 50-55 ft (15.2-
16.8 m).
(3) For central spans longer than 550ft (168m), panels should be 100ft
(30.5 m) long.
The middle panel performs differently from the other panels, because
it is not compressed by the horizontal component of the cable forces,
and therefore it is possible to use a somewhat longer middle panel. The
size of the middle panel substantially affects the distribution of the load-
ings between the remaining parts of the stiffening girder. At greater
stiffness of the girder at the middle panel, the non-loaded part contri-
butes more to the increased carrying capacity of the loaded part.
The optimum size of the middle panel is determined under the
assumption of full use of the material of the girder. Experience indicates
that the length of the middle panel may be 20-30% longer than the other
panels.
8.4 The relation between the flanking and central spans
In the case of an equal number of cables at both sides of the tower and
constant panel lengths, the lengths of the flanking spans are determined
by structural considerations. Such an approach provides optimum
solutions. However, local conditions may affect the length of the flanking
spans and it is sometimes possible to reduce its length. This may result
in a reduction in the number of the cables.
The reduction in the length of the flanking spans somewhat increases
the stiffness of the bridge and therefore the deformations of the upper
cables which are maximally loaded.
The deficiency of the cable-stayed system with reduced flanking spans
consists in the increase of the negative reactions of the end supports,
which reg uire special arrangement. Increasing the length of the flanking
spans over the one required by structural conditions is not suitable be-
cause it affects the performance of the whole structure. In this case, some
cables may be excluded from the action because they will not possess the
necessary reserve in tension under dead load.
8.5 Number and spacing of the cables
Some cable-stayed bridges have only a few stay cables, others have a
large number of stays to support the stiffening girder (Fig. 8.4). For the
comparison of these different arrangements, large spans of at least 800 ft
(240 m) should be considered.
It is evident that using a small number of stay cables leads to large
I'ig. 8.4 Comparison of
bridge systems
cable forces, which require strong and complicated anchoring devices

and the strengthening of large areas of the deck for distribution of the
thrust. A considerable depth of the main girder is necessary in order to
bridge the large distance between the few cables. There is no doubt
that a larger number of stay cables with smaller spacing simplifies the
anchoring and permits use of a shallower main girder. This shallowness
facilitates a favorable cross-section for aerodynamic stability and
simplifies erection. It should be noted also that additional depth does not
help much to decrease the deflection. Actually, it is not the amount of
deflection which counts but the change of slope and the curvature of the
deflection line under the heaviest concentrated loads and the frequencies
of oscillation of the bridge.
For highway traffic, the radius of the curvature remains sufficiently
large if the girder with an orthotropic plate is about 8 ft (2.4 m) deep.
Due to the high position of the neutral axis of such structures, this depth
corresponds to a depth of about 13 ft (4 m) in a conventional stiffening
girder as far as curvature is concerned. Considering this small depth, the
spacing of the stay cables should not be more than 60-100 ft (18-30 m).
A large number of stay cables with such a small spacing leads to the
optimum in economy and structural simplicity. The spacing should
decrease from the tower to midspan so that the cable forces do not
become too different. Special attention should be given to the abutment
and the pier cables. There must be a strong cable from the top of the
tower to the abutment at the end of the side span or to the intermediate
piers in order to restrict the horizontal movement of the tower.
The fixed end of such a cable makes it stiffer than cables which end at
the deck within the side span. Therefore, most of the cable forces coming
up from the main span are picked up by this stiff anchoring cable. It is
necessary to provide for the transfer of forces from the main span cables
to the strong anchor cables by clamps on the cable saddle or by fixed
anchorages at the tower.
Since Homberg 2 introduced this system in 1966 for the construction
of multi-stay cables for the Bonn-Nord Bridge, it has found wide
application. When stay cables are regularly spaced longitudinally along
the deck at 20 to 30 ft (6.2 to 9.2 m), such a close arrangement has the
following advantages:
(a) The bending strength of the stiffening girder is increased and it may
support heavier loads.
(b) Concentrated forces at anchorages are reduced.
(c) Bending moments between points of suspension are decreased.
(d) Deck erection by the cantilevering method is simplified.
(e) The replacement of stay cables in the case of deterioration may be
achieved more easily.
(f) The damping capacity of the bridge system is increased with a larger
number of stay cables of different lengths and natural frequencies.
8.6 Multispan bridges
The analysis and design of multispan cable-stayed bridges has been

discussed in detail by Gimsing 34 . A comparison of the behavior of three-
span and multispan cable-stayed bridges under loading indicates
substantial deflection of the multispan bridge (Fig. 8.5).
Fig. 8.5 Deflection of

cable-stayed bridges
having (a) one main span
and (b) three main spans
In a typical three-span bridge the horizontal displacement of the tower

top is reduced by the end cable which is anchored to the stiffening girder
at the abutment. However, in a multispan bridge the inner cables are
connected to the flexible stiffening girders, which deflect and produce
rotation of the tower. Therefore, it is necessary to provide reasonable
horizontal stiffness for the fixed tower, which may be achieved by the
use of the triangular A-shaped tower (Fig. 8.6). At such a tower a one-
sided load induces a vertical load on the tower and a horizontal force at
the stiffening girder. Thus multispan cable-stayed bridges require
special consideration with regard to deflections. To reduce the
horizontal displacement of the tower tops, and therefore the deflections
of the stiffening girder, it is necessary either to design the tower as a
triangular shape or to connect all towers by a horizontal cable.
Fig. 8.6 Triangular

type tower
8. 7 Multiple cantilever spans
When dealing with several large spans, the cantilever type of a cable-
stayed bridge presents a structurally sound and economical solution.
The Maracaibo Bridge may be considered as a typical example of this
type. General arrangements of this bridge and similar types of structures
are shown in Fig. 8.7.
Another example is presented by a bridge crossing the river Ganges
in India, designed by Leonhardt5, having a large number of stay cables
524.8' 770.8'

1
278.8' I
I 1- 770.8'
I
Fig. 8. 7 Cantilever type
of cable-stayed bridge
I z46 I 511.5' 511.5'

I 511.5' 511.5'
I
Fig. 8.8 Multispan
cantilever type of cable-
stayed bridge
(Fig. 8.8). The towers of such bridges must be stiff to carry the large
cantilever moments to the foundation. For this purpose, A-shaped
tower frames can be recommended. Expansion joints are needed in the ,,
middle of each span, which are usually obtained by a short drop in beams. :l
,,
1
:I,.
8.8 Inclined cable under its own weight .I
;I
For the analysis of the inclined cable, let us consider a cable supported ,,
I
at two points at a different elevation. The cable is uniformly loaded by
its own weight, with intensity of w lb/ft (Fig. 8.9).
~B
H~~~~~~~~~_,,L,-,-,-,~
RA
I'ig. 8.9 Inclined cable

under its own weight
The differential equation of the equilibrium curve is

w sec c/J
(8.18)
H
where c/J is the inclination of the cable to the horizontal at any point.
Since tan cp = dyjdx, eq. (8.18) may be written as

2
d y -
~---1+~
w[ (dy)2]1/2 (8.19)
2
dx H dx
Integrating this equation, taking the origin at the lowest point of the
curve, we obtain the equation of the cable curve
y = _1 (ecx+e-cx_ 2 ) (8.20)
2C
where
C = w/H
This is the equation of a catenary. Therefore, a cable under its own
weight hangs in a catenary.
If the sag ratio fJ= h/l is small, all of the formulae for the catenary may
be replaced, with sufficient accuracy, by the formulae for parabolic
cables. Long cable stays may have relatively great sag under their own
weight. Therefore, it is important to investigate the influence of such
sag on the elongation of the cable stay.
Let us consider the inclined cable AB of span l subjected to the action
of the initial tensile force N 0 and its own weight, having projection equal
to the w (Fig. 8.1 0). Assume that under deformation, the cable elongates
along its initial direction. The length of the cable at the initial uniform
loading w is
I w2 P cos 3 a
Lo = --+----;;-- (8.21)
cos a 24 F6
Under change of the loading, the horizontal component of cable tension
becomes F 1 , and span increases by an amount~.
Fig. 8.10 Inclined cable

under its own weight and
axial force
Therefore, the expression for the new length ofthe cable is

l+ ~ w 2 P cos 3 a
(8.22)
L 1
= cos a+ 24Pi
Hence the increase of the cable length is
~
2 3
w z3 cos a ( 1 1)
~L = L 1 -L 0 = --+ ---
cos a 24 Pi P6
(8.23)
~ w 2 P cos 3 a P 2 - P 2
= --+ 0 1
cos a 24 P6Pi
The elastic elongation of the cable having cross-sectional area A and a
modulus of elasticity E may be expressed by the formula
~L ~
~
(Pcos-Pa _l_)
1 0 _1_
cos a EA
(8.24)
By equating the right-hand sides of eqs. (8.23) and (8.24), we obtain

~ w2 P cos 3 a (P0 + Pd(P0 - Pd (P1- P 0 )l
--+
cos a 24 P6Pi
=--~-
2
EA cos a
and
(8.25)
If the stay is taken to be a straight bar, its elongation is
(8.26)
and the horizontal displacement of the support is

(P 1 -P0 )l
~ 1 = ~Lcosa = - - - - (8.27)
EA cos a
Therefore, the ratio of the exact and approximate values of the horizontal
displacement of supports is
~ (P1 + P0 )w 2 l 2 cos 5 a EA
~1 =
1
+ 24P6Pi
(8.28)
The same value may be found by considering the ratio of the exact and
approximate values of the elongation of the cable in the direction of AB.
By expressing this ratio by forces P= N cos a, we may obtain
(8.29)
Assuming that the cable performs as a simple bar under tension, we use
Therefore the deviation is defined by the fraction in the right-hand

side of the expression (8.29).
We transform this expression (4.29) by designating the specific weight
of the unit volume of the cable material as y:
~ - 1 (N1 +No)Y2 A312 cos2 II.E

(8.30)
~-
1
+ 24N 21 N 02
By designating the allowable stress fan as
fan= Nt/A
we obtain
22 2
~-l y 1 Ecos 11.(N1 +N0 )N1
(8.31)
~1 - + 24/ 3 N6
Let us assume the following values for the steel cable:
y = 0.285 ib(in3 E = 24.5 x 106 psi
For an estimate of the possible deviation, assume that 11.=0. At a rela-

tively long length of the cable I= 600ft, we obtain
0.285 2 x 7200 2 x 24.5 x 106 (N1+N0)N1
~1 1+ 24/3 N6
432 x 10 10 (N1+ N 0)N1
1+ /3 N6
Assuming the allowable stress relatively small fan= 40 000 psi, we obtain
~ 432 x 1010 (N1+ N 0)N1
~ 1
1
+ 64x 10 12 N6
1+0.0675 (N1+;o)N1
0
The ratio Nt/N0 of bridges with relatively large spans usually does not
exceed 1.1-1.3. If we take, with safety, N 1/N0 = 1.5, we obtain
~I ~1 = 1+ 0.0675 X 2.5 X 1.5 = 1.253
At the more realistic allowable stress fan= 70 000 psi, we have
Considering that the angle 11. is usually greater than 20, then even at
!an= 40 000 psi,
~~~1 = 1.224
And at.fau=70 000 psi
Therefore, if we consider the cable as a simple bar, under tension,

even at very unfavorable conditions, the deviation will not be greater
than about 1%.
8. 9 Bridge systems
Typical cable-stayed bridge structural systems of which the analysis is

discussed in this chapter are shown in Fig. 8.11. These structural systems
possess the following characteristics:
Fig. 8.11 Typical cable-

stayed structural systems
(a) The towers are sufficiently flexible to be regarded as pinned at both

ends.
(b) The stiffening girders are continuous.
(c) The stay cables are connected to the towers and to the stiffening
girders.
(d) The bearings at the abutments have vertical anchors to transfer
negative reactions.
I. TWO-DIMENSIONAL OR PLANE BRIDGE SYSTEM

For the purpose of analysis of the bridge as a plane system, two cases
may be considered:
(a) The cross-section of the superstructure consists of a single box
girder and the points of attachment of the cables are located at the
246 CABLE-ST AYEO BRIDGES
longitudinal central line of the bridge. In this case, a box girder is

supported centrally or along the longitudinal center-line by bearings
and inclined cables. This cable system has to be designed for total
dead and live loads. And if the deck structure is provided with canti-
levered portions at the sides, a torsionally rigid form of construction
for this box girder should be designed.
(b) If the superstructure contains two main girders, it is assumed for
analysis of the plane system that each main girder constitutes one half
of the bridge cable system, and does not cooperate with the other.
2. THREE-DIMENSIONAL OR SPACE SYSTEM

For the analysis of the plane system, it was assumed that the two main
girders, each consisting of one half of the bridge beam and its cable
system, do not cooperate with each other. Actually, however, they are
interconnected by transverse diaphragms located at the points of attach-
ment of the cables. Consequently, if their deflections are unequal, the
box girders are subjected to torsion, and the bridge acts as a torsionally
rigid beam grillage.
In view of the special structural behavior of cable-stayed bridges,
standard practice at present is to design the structural system of a bridge
not merely as a plane or two-dimensional system, but to utilize the
spatial, three-dimensional or transverse structural properties and to
consider them in structural analysis.
Considerable simplification can be achieved if the load is split up in
the transverse direction into a symmetrical and an anti-symmetrical
portion. For symmetrical loading, the shear force at the center of a
diaphragm is zero in the case of two main girders connected by the
diaphragm. And for anti-symmetrical loading, the bending moment at
the center of a diaphragm is zero.
The splitting-up of the grillage into two subgrillages does, however,
have the disadvantage that the most unfavorable condition of loading
cannot be directly obtained from an influence line, but has to be found
by trial and error. The flexural influence is, however, usually greatly
predominant over the torsional influence. Therefore, the influence lines
for bending alone do, in fact, determine the nature and position of the
loading with a sufficiently high degree of certainty.
A more accurate analysis of the system may be obtained by considering
it separately for bending due to central or non-eccentric loading and for
torsion due to external twisting moments, which cause displacement of
the central loading to its actual eccentric position. The analysis for central
loading of the three-dimensional system is identical with that for the plane
system. The torsional analysis-according to the usual torsion theory
envisaging a warping effect-would presuppose that the cross-sectional
shape of the beam is retained by the rigid diaphragms. This investigation
would yield hardly any saving in weight and the only part of the design
that could be intluenced to any appreciable extent by such analysis is the
dimensioning of the bottom flange plates. For this reason, the numerical
analysis of the torsion is often neglected. For practical purposes, it is
sufficient to base the design on the values obtained from the influence
lines of the plane system, using the maximum live load acting on a main
girder.
8.10 The degree of redundancy
The degree of statical indeterminancy of the cable-stayed bridge system

with the radial or parallel disposition of the cables is determined by the
formula
I= C+2S-H-3
where
C = the total number of the cables,
S = the total number of the stiffening girder supports, and
H = the number of movable connections or hinges, considering also the
movable supports of the cables on towers.
Generally, cable-stayed bridges are many times statically indeterminate
structures. For instance, the cable-stayed plate girder system of the
Dusseldorf North Bridge having six parallel cables at each tower and
also ten transverse diaphragms at the locations of the cable connections
to the stiffening girder (Fig. 8.12), is a 46 times statically indeterminate
structure 6 .
To reduce the amount of work connected with the design analysis of
such a complicated system, it is necessary to simplify the statical scheme
and consequently to reduce the number of redundants to a minimum.
With reference to the above example, it is possible to exclude ten trans-
verse diaphragms from the original statical scheme and consequently
reduce the statical indeterminancy ten times.
8.11 Performance of the cable system
The structural analysis of the cable-stayed bridge system is based on the

assumption that the cables possess reasonable reserves in tension, which
should be greater than the possible compressive forces which may
originate at certain positions of the loading. This assumption permits
cables to be considered as rigid bars, stressed by tension and compression
and providing the geometrical stability of the cable system under arbitrary
loading. In cable-stayed bridges with a radial or harp cable system, the
q q
11111111111111 q 1111111111111
illllllli!ll!lilil!llllllllll!ll
3a 3a 3a 3a
12.
~~m~l~~q(f~~
~
Fig. 8.12 North Bridge,
Dusseldorf. Structural
;,71111
f V!Zzzz[mzzza tYIIIJ
l
system
SECT I ON A-A
stiffening girder performs as a continuous beam on elastic supports at

the locations of cable attachments, with rigid supports at the towers and
at the end bearings.
The complexity of the stiffening girder performance is increased by
the non-uniformity of its deformations at the cable attachments, due to
stretching of the cables and to dependence on the angle of inclination of
the cables with respect to the stiffening girder. The nature of stress
distribution in the cables, and consequently the bending moments in the
stiffening girder, depend to a great extent on how the cables are connected
to the towers.
At cable connections of the fixed type, the forces due to concentrated
loading at arbitrary locations along the stiffening girder are always trans-
8 LOADING IN THE MIDDLE SPAN
,,,
:.
!
LOADING IN THE FLANKING SPAN

Fig. 8.13 Performance of
the radial cable-stayed
bridge system
mitted by the upper cables to those parts of the stiffening girder which are
above the fixed bearings (Fig. 8.13). The remaining cables connected to the
stiffening girder are much more flexible, and therefore there is no
appreciable transfer of force along them from the loaded cables to the
top of the tower.
Under the action of concentrated loads on the middle span, the force
in the loaded cable acting on the tower causes tension in the upper cables.
However, under loading in the flanking span, the upper cable is subjected
to compressive forces, which result in a decrease in the initial tension in
these cables.
When cables are attached to a tower with movable supports, the forces
from the loaded cables do not transfer to the more rigid upper cable. In
this case the load on the stiffening girder is distributed over two
connections only.
When the bridge system is loaded by a uniformly distributed load over
the whole length or by a symmetrically distributed loading, the perfor-
25 0 CABLE-ST AYEO BRIDGES
mance of the system changes. In this case, each cable is acting under the
corresponding load and is in equilibrium with the symmetrically posi-
tioned cable on the opposite side of the tower. The deflection of the
cable connection to the girder is minimal, being caused by the elastic
stretching of the cables and the flexural deformations of the girder at
both sides of the tower. Due to this type of load distribution, the type of
cable connection to the tower does affect the performance of the whole
bndge system.
The rigidity of the tower and the way it is fixed to the pier or to the
stiffening girder do not practically influence the behavior of the bridge
system under any loading position. This may be explained by the rela-
tively great height of the tower, which means that its deformation with a
rigid anchorage is similar to that with a hinged support, and part of the
horizontal forces acting on the tower may be neglected.
When the cables are arranged parallel to each other, the forces from
one connection to another can transfer only by bending of the section
~ A ~ SYSTEM I.
3 154. 1 2,.;~ 8~2. J, ,;~r 314.~ -~
.....-!:::/ [1 ~ ~ r--.. .....- ':;/ b1 ~ ~

~r;;..
f--..
r>
SYSTEM II.
"'~
""'
.......-:: ~ t: t---..,.__ .....- ~ ~8 ~ f--.. SYSTEM Ill.
rn mfr
~
nfr
.._
I~ ::= ~ ~ ~
1"\; ~
~
.... ' ,~
~.
-
_,
~~ -:7
.JfT. - ..:.-.. -
.:.: p
"""
-,
~ r-
~
......
1'\. /
~
'~ v
Fig. 8.14 Deflections of
the bridge system ~~7"""":::,~
'./ ::::...~"
of the tower between them. This may cause substantial bending moments
in the towers. For this reason, with the harp system it is more convenient
to attach only one of the cables, and to connect the remaining ones by
using movable bearings. The most effective scheme may be to use fixed
connections of the upper cable as mostly affecting the performance of the
stiffening girder.
The deflections of the typical cable-stayed bridge system as well as
the influence lines for cable forces and types of cable connections are
shown in Fig. 8.14. The minimum deflections, and therefore the mini-
mum bending moments in the stiffening girder under the radial system,
are obtained with all cable-tower connections fixed (System I I) (Fig. 8.14).
With the fixed connections of the bottom (System I) and middle cables
(System III) cables of the radial system perform similarly to the system
with parallel cables with fixed middle cables (System II).
The reduced participation of cables with fixed connections to the
towers in the performance of the whole bridge system is confirmed also
by comparison of the influence lines for both systems.
8.12 Linear analysis and preliminary design
I. LINEAR ANALYSIS
Cable-stayed bridge systems are generally many times statically in-
determinate. A statically determinate basic system may be formed by
different methods. The deflections of the basic system under applied
loads may be determined by applying the classical theory of structures
or so-called first-order theory, by neglecting the deformation of the
system when formulating the equilibrium conditions.
For a statically determined basic system, the resulting equations are
linear in the loads and in the internal forces and linear superposition is
valid for the internal forces caused by different loads or load groups.
If Hooke's law is assumed to be valid, linear superposition applies
also to the displacements, and therefore to the determination of the
stresses of cable-stayed bridge systems.
2. GENERAL DATA
The analysis of cable-stayed multiply statically indeterminate bridge
systems is relatively complicated. For this reason it is useful to have
simple and convenient methods providing fast determination of the
dimensions and cross-sections of the elements 7 For this purpose we
consider two typical cable-stayed bridge systems with continuous
stiffening girders, as shown in Figs. 8.15 and 8.16.
0.214t
r 1 I o. 415ll
0 .--:77 ~~.13BL_.fi ~
1 2 3 4 5 6
I t7 s , 10 l1.n
1
r--.r---.b=+O. 60 l
v "" i'
' r-
v=-0.21 t
- v~n-~ 'l'J
FA1
FA4
FA5
v~-'- r--re-,=+~31t
nJ
FA2
F.
0
FA6 1--
I...., t-
v ~I'- i'
nlJ35t
r-r-
FA3 n. =-0. 00564 L2
M3
r-1-"' .__v
Ms .0. =-0. 0054 7l'
M4 I _Lj_j_
0.018 l ~
~1 M5
I I I
0.~3~t ~ ,\
IDJJ. .
r--r--
M1-2 M6
ll
0.0492L -
~ _l...d.....- ~ ~~=+0. 00802 ~
r-
n11
1 t7 ~~0.00854L2
o.~5jOt
Fig. 8.15 Influence lines Fig. 8.16 Influence lines

for cable forces and for cable forces and
bending moments of a bending moments of a
7-panel bridge 13-panel bridge
Figures 8.15 and 8.16 show typical influence lines and their areas.
All influence lines for cable forces, except FA 3 in Fig. 8.15, have in the
main span ordinates of practically the same sign. The influence line of
the stay cable A3 has a relatively small negative area, which is about
3-4% of the positive area of the influence line.
For the cable stay AS (Fig. 8.16), the negative area is about 9% of the
positive area, and for A6, about 10%. The remaining two cable stays
have only positive areas of the corresponding influence lines. It may
therefore be reasonable, to determine approximately the cable-stay
forces in the main span, to assume that the live load acts on the main
span only. Also the forces in these cable stays from the dead load will be
0~
A
0
B
I
1
2
2
0
N3, N2 , N1 \
o. 01512 B 1 3
-- ,..i, 1,--/ /
0. 011 2
o.oos1'
-0.0051
0
2
,.
~ -,L7'
'v
,
I I
--
____,
I
I
'L-::\ ~
' ,
I
{
0.01012
0.00512
-
-0.0112 0~ ./..-
1..-F.: --......: ~:
-
Y'v-~ I~"
-0.015
0. 333l o. 401
0. 4001 0. 431
0. 4441 0.4SL
l L
Fig. 8.17 Distribution of Fig. 8.18 Distribution of

the bending moments of a the bending moments of a
5-panel bridge 7-panel bridge
determined assuming that this loading is located along the main span.
This is because the areas of the influence lines at the side spans are
relatively small or large, but have different signs.
3. BENDING MOMENTS IN STIFFENING GIRDERS

If the girder has a constant cross-section, then this section should be
chosen according to the bending moment in the midspan, because the
influence line has the maximum area there. Therefore, the placement
of the live load along the main span results in the maximum effect for
almost all elements of the structural systems considered here. Also, the
dead load should be used along the main span only. In this case, only the
cable forces will be obtained, with relatively large error.
4. INFLUENCE OF THE PANEL LENGTH

At small changes in the panel lengths the angles of inclination of the
separate cable stays and their cross-sections change a little. Apparently,
the most advantageous arrangement is when the bending moments in
the main span of stiffening girders are distributed uniformly along the
span.
Figures 8.17 and 8.18 show bending-moment diagrams resulting from
uniformly distributed loading q = 1 along the main span, assumed as
a simple span. Comparison of the bending-moment diagrams indicates
that at equal panels, the maximum moments occur at the middle panel.
With increase of the middle panel, the locations having the maximum
moment do not change, but the bending moment increases from M =
0.007gP to M=0.0125gP, or about 78%.
If the middle panel is decreased, the bending moment in the middle
of the span also decreases. And the maximum moment is located in the
adjoining panel and is given by M=O.lOSgP. Therefore, this bending
moment is substantially greater than in the case of panels of the same
length. For the case shown in Fig. 8.18, the distribution of the moments
is similar.
If the middle panel is reduced, the maximum moment will be some-
what reduced-by about 4-5% in comparison with the moment diagram
for the case of equal panels.
For the preliminary design it is possible for a cable system with five
equal panels (Fig. 8.17) to use the formula
Mmax ;::::; 0.007gz2 (8.32)
and for one with seven panels (Fig. 4.16)
Mmax ;::::; 0.006gz2 (8.33)
If we consider q as total load (dead and live), then from formulae
(8.32) and (8.33) we may obtain the approximate value of the maximum
bending moment in the stiffening girder under vertical loads. The cable-
stay forces depend on factors such as length of the span, number and
size of panels, if they are of unequal lengths, and angles of inclination
of the cables.
It is possible to exclude the influence of the angles of inclination if
we determine first the vertical components of the cable forces which, as
the analysis shows, depend slightly on the angles of inclination or the
height of the tower.
Figure 8.19 illustrates the influences of the panel lengths on the
vertical components of the cable-stay forces. The average values of these
components may be expressed by a straight line with the equation
v = l.SOql (1-1.06Jc) (8.34)

n
v
LEGEND:
0 n= 5 panels
Fig. 8.19 Ratios between

1.53.!.
1. 0
n
s.!.n
- 7
~
n ~
....__ c
c
0
pane 1 s
~
the panel length and ~
vertical component of the 0.5 s.!.
cable force n 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
where
2 the distances from the towers to the points of the attachments of
=
the cables.
v = vertical component of the cable stay force.
Knowing the vertical components of the stay forces, it is easy to find
the forces as follows :
_ v _ l.SOq/(1-1.062)
F;- -.---- --~~.----~ (8.35)
sm !X; n sm lt;
If the bridge system has five panels (Fig. 8.17), it is possible to find
forces for each cable:
0.237ql 0.174q/
Fl = --.--- F2=-.-
sm rx 1 sm r:x2
(8.36)
Fo = F1 cos rx1+F2 cos r:x 2 = (0.237 + 0.174)_f!}__
cos r:x 0 tan rx 1 tan r:x 2 cos r:x0
By analogy, for seven panels
0.182q/ 0.146q/ 0.117q/
Fl = - . - - F2 = --.--- F3 = - . - -
sm rx 1 sm r:x2 sm rx 3
(8.37)
Fo = (0.182 + 0.146 + 0.117)_f!}__
tan rx 1 tan r:x2 tan rx 3 cos rxo
These formulae allow determination, to the first approximation, of the
forces in the elements of a cable-stayed bridge system under vertical
loadings.
....
5. DETERMINATION OF THE CABLE FORCES IN THE MAIN SPAN
A symmetrical single-span cable-stayed system with a uniformly distrib-
uted load acting along the whole span (Fig. 8.20) is six times statically
indeterminate. The cable forces in the six cable stays could be considered l:I
as redundants. Due to symmetry of the system and loading, the sym- I
metrically positioned cables have equal forces.
The unknown redundants may be determined by using the method of
superposition
X1611 +Xzc512+X3613+~1p = 0
Xlc52l+Xzc522+X3c523+~2p =0 (8.38)
X1 631 + Xzb32 + X3b33 + ~3p = 0

The values of the coefficients of the redundants, for instance, c5 11 , are
determined using the formula

bridge system
(8.39)
In this formula the first term indicates the bending deformation of the
stiffening girder along the span, and the second the axial deformations
of the cables and towers. Practice shows that the first term is substantially
larger than the second, therefore we may write
j M 2 dx
511 = Jz ----kJ- e11 (8.40)
where e11 is a coefficient somewhat greater than 1.

In the case of a girder of constant cross-section, the integral Jz Mi dx
may be found by considering the bending-moment diagram (Fig. 8.20).
By multiplying the area of the diagram by itself, we obtain
J1 M 21 dx=3a
2 2 . 2 2b . 2
1 sm 1X 1 +a 11 sm IX 1 (8.41)
Therefore
(8.42)
By analogy with formula (8. 40) the coefficient 5 12 = 6 21 will be equal to
5 _ Jz M 1M 2 dx (8.40)
12 - EI el2
We find the integral_h M 1 M 2 dx by multiplying the moment diagrams

shown in Fig. 8.20, .or
+ (a 2 sin a 2 )b 2 J
a 1 sin a 1
Since b2 = l- 2a 2 , we obtain
J, M M
1 2 dx = [a 1 a 2 l-tai-a 1 a~] sin a 1 sin a 2 (8.44)
Therefore
(8.45)
,,.
By analogy, it is possible to determine the remaining coefficients of the
equations (8.38).
r
+ b2) sm 2 IY.2
0
~ a22(2
3a2
u22 = EI 822
(8.46)
It is also necessary to determine the loading terms. For example, it is

possible to determine ~lp as the change of the distance between the
ends of the cut cable A I under the action of a given load.
For this purpose, we first determine the displacement of the joint 1
due to the bending of the beam under distributed load q
qlai qai qP a 1
-------- (8.4 7)
I2EI 24EI 24EI
25 8 CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
The componental displacement along the stay A1 is y 1 sin ct 1 . Because

during such displacements, two cable stays are acting simultaneously,
we obtain
(8.48)
By analogy, we obtain
(8.49)
(8.50)
The values of the coefficients e in formulae (8.46) may be taken approxi-

mately as
(8.51)
and
(8.52)
These coefficients may be used in approximate computations of the
systems with 3-13 panels.
6. THE INFLUENCE OF TEMPERATURE

For the determination of cable forces due to change of temperature, we
may use the basic equations
X1b11 +Xzb12+X3b13+~ 1 x = 0
X1b21 +Xzbzz+X3b23+~2x =0 (8.53)
X1b31 +X2b32+X3b33+~3x =0
The coefficients of the unknowns are the same as in eqs. (8.38), and
they may therefore be determined according to formulae (8.46).
The free terms of the equations are
~ 11 = L: S 1 sat
~ 21 = L S 2 sctt (8.54)
~ 31 = L: S 3 sat
where
ct = the coefficient of the linear deformation of the element
t = the increase of the temperature in F.
Using the above equations, it is possible to obtain cable forces and

consequently the vertical components of these forces. Further, it is

possible to determine the bending moments in the girder.
At a given distribution of the panels these moments depend to a small
degree on the height of the towers or the angles of inclination of cable
stays. For instance, for the midspan of the bridge system with seven
equal panels, it is possible in the first approximation to determine the
bending moment in the midspan as
Elat
M 112 = 38-- (8.55)
1
and for the five panel girder
E!at
M 112 = 30-- (8.56)
1
The sign of the bending moment is determined by the sign of the
change in temperature. If the temperature changes by 100F, the bending
moment in the stiffening girder changes between 25% and 40%. This
influence should be considered in the design of the girder. However, it is
possible to disregard similar changes in the cables amounting to 2-4%.
Therefore, for preliminary design of the cable system this data may
suffice when considering five- and seven-panel cable bridge systems.
However, adjustment of the cable forces in these systems may substan-
tially change bending moments in the stiffening girder. It is possible
to decrease the bending moments by a factor of approximately two, and
sometimes more. The cable forces may increase by 5-10%. Therefore,
such adjustment is advisable.
7. THE ANALYSIS OF CANTILEVERED SYSTEMS

For the analysis of cantilevered cable bridge systems it is possible to
consider a single tower with cantilevers extending from the tower in
Fig. 8.21 Cantilevered

systems
Fig. 8.22 Statically

indeterminate
cantilevered
system
both directions. Then, if there are hinges for supports, the system
shown in Fig. 8.21(a) is statically determinate, but that shown in Fig.
8.21(b) is twice statically indeterminate. If, in the system shown in
Fig. 8.2l(b), the stiffening girder has no hinges at the tower, the degree
of statical indeterminancy is increased by two.
Let us consider the system shown in Fig. 8.21 (a) but with the stiffening
girders rigidly connected to the towers (Fig. 8.22). For this system the
basic equations of equilibrium are
X1b11 +X2 b 12 +Ll1P = 0
(8.57)
X1b21 +X2 b 22 +Ll 2 P = 0
There, due to symmetry
(j _ (j
11 - 22 -
_ ~ 5i 1/1 ~
'-- E1Al + '--
fMEIdx 2
(8.58)
The above equation is valid for the cables, parts of the stiffening
girder under compression and the tower in the case of a constant cross-
section. If the cross-section of the tower varies, then the term expressing
the deformation of the tower under compression should be expressed in
the form of the integral
5 2 dx
f EAx
distributed from the top of the tower to the Section A. The integrals are
valid for the bent elements or for the sections of the girder AB and AC
as well as over the top part of the tower.
By analogy, we may obtain
(j
12 -
_ (j _
21 -
~ 5 1 52/1
'-- EA1 +
f M 1 M 2 dx
EI (8.59)
In this formula, the sum and integral are valid only along one element-
the upper part of the tower. In the remaining elements the forces and
moments are equal to zero due to forces X 1 and X 2 . The shape of the
influence line for the cable force X 1 is shown in Fig. 8.22.
8.13 Approximate weight of the bridge system
1. STIFFENING GIRDER
The problem of the determination of the approximate own weight of
girders for the preliminary design is not yet properly developed. Techni-
cal literature provides very scarce information on this subject. However,
on the basis of the analysis performed in the previous section it is possible
to obtain very approximate values of the weight of the structure using
formulae (8.32) and (8.33) indicating the maximum bending moments in
the five- and seven-panel bridge systems.
Taking account of the change of temperature, the expression for the
maximum bending moment may be used as follows 7
M = 0.005(1/'g+p+q)F (8.60)
where
g = the theoretical weight of the stiffening girder per linear foot of the
span
p = the uniformly distributed weight of the deck per linear foot of the
span
q = the uniformly distributed live loading carried by a single girder per
linear foot of the span
1/J = the construction coefficient of the stiffening girder.
If we denote by /g the allowable flexural stress, the required section
modulus of the girder is
O.OOS(v,g+p+q)F
w= (8.61)
/g
The section modulus of the stiffening girder may be expressed by its
cross-sectional area. In the case when the cross-section of the girder con-
sists of an I or a box section, and assuming the equal areas of the top and :!
bottom chords (Fig. 8.23), it is possible to write approximately :t,,,,,
:t
Ac(h/2) _ A ~ A h
2 2
_ bh (8.62)
I
w- 6 + h/2 - w 6 +
Fig. 8.23 Proposed

cross-sections of stiffening
girders
Assuming that the cross-sectional areas of a single chord and web are
equal, Ac=Aw, therefore A= 3Aw and, from (8.62),iit follows that
(8.63)
and, substituting for W into the above expression from (8.61), we obtain
A = 2.5 W = 0.0125(1/Jg+ p+q)F

(8.64)
h [gh
By multiplying the theoretical cross-sectional area of the girder by the
specific weight of the material y, we obtain for the theoretical weight of
the stiffening girder per unit length
0.0125(1/Jg+ p+ q)l 2 y
g= (8.65)
[gh
and, after transformation, this becomes
p+q
(8.66)
g = /gh/O.OI25Fy-I/J
Assuming the depth of the stiffening girder is equal to h=l/100, we

obtain the constructional weight
p+q
(8.67)
gs = [g/I.25lrI/J-l
This formula was obtained without taking into consideration the axial
force acting in the stiffening girder. However, in the middle panel there
is no axial force, and at the sections where large axial forces may originate,
the bending moments, as a rule, are relatively small. Therefore, formula
(8.67) may be used as the first approximation, using the construction co-
efficient 1/1= 1.4.
Formula (8.67) was developed for the five-panel system. In the case of
seven panels, the corresponding formula is
p+q
(8.68)
gs = /g/1.07/}1/J-1
Comparison offormulas (8.67) and (8.68) indicates that for the larger
spans it is more economical to divide the span into a greater number of
panels. The above formulas may provide a satisfactory solution only for
spans in the range of 900-1300 ft (270-400 m).
Larger spans should be divided into nine, eleven and even greater
numbers of panels, to obtain a relatively light stiffening girder.
2. CABLES
Using the formulas expressing the weight of the stiffening girders, it is
possible to determine the approximate weight of the cables. The loadings
of the cables depend on the number of cables. When reducing the number
of cables, their loadings increase. Therefore, it may be assumed that the
weight of the cables depends to some extent on the number of cables.
On the basis of the above assumptions, the weight of the cables for a
five-panel bridge is determined by using formulas (8.36):
0.237(g+p+q)l
Fl = .
sm 1)(
1
(8.69)
0.174(g+ p+ q)l
F2 = .
sm 1)(2
The lengths of the first and second cables are
.
:l(,
.,
Assuming the allowable stress as fc and the specific weight as y, we '.,
.,11
obtain the weights of the cables 'I
,,!
Q = F 1 11 y 0.047(g+ p+q}Py
.,
I
1
fc cos 1)( 1 sin 1)( 1 cos 1)( 1 fc
(8.70)
0.0696(g+ p+q)Py
~=------
sin 1)( 2 cos 1)( 2 fc
Assuming the height of the tower as
I
h= 7= 0.143/
then
tan 1)( 1 = 0.713 tan 1)( 2 = 0.357
Q(l = 35 30' 1)(2 = 19 40'
and
sin 1)(
1
cos 1)( 1 = 0.463 sin 1)( 2 cos 1)( 2 = 0.312
Therefore
2
Ql = 0.102(g+p+q)yl
!c
(8.71)
~ = 0.223(g+ p+q)y/
2
!c
After distributing the weight of the four cables uniformly along the
span, we obtain the theoretical weight per unit length of the span,
0.65(g+ p+q)yl
gc = Jc (8. 72)
The cable force is

F 1 cos oc 1 F 2 cos oc 2
Fo =
cos oc 0
+ --=----=-
cos oc 0
0.237{g+ p+ q)l 0.174{g+ p+ q)l
=
tan oc 1 cos oc 0
+tan
-- ---
oc 2 cos oc 0
By assuming oc 0 = 30, we obtain
F0 = 0.948(g+p+q)l (8.73)
Then, considering the length of two cable stays as equal to
2X0.143/ = 0.571 we obtain their weight
sin 30
Qn = Fy 0.
571 = 0.54{g+ p + q)Fy
!c !c
and the weight per unit length is
0.54(g+p+q)ly
go= (8.74)
!c
The total weight of all cable stays is
1.19{g+ p+ q)ly
gc = (8.75)
!c
3. TOWER
The load on the tower is
F1 = F 1 cos oc 1 +F2 sin oc 2 +0.948 sin 30
= (0.237+0.174+0.948 sin 30)
X {g+ p+q)/ = 0.900{g+ p+q)/ (8.76)
The weight of two towers, assuming the height of the towers as equal
to 0.143/, is
n __ 2x0.900(g+p+q)lxO.l43ly __ 0.257(g+p+q)Fy
J<J (8.77)
!t !t
and weight per unit length
_ 0.257{g+ p+ q)ly ,,,
gt- !t '+'t (8.78)
APPROXIMATE STRUtTURAL ANALYSIS 265
where 1/1 1 designates the construction coefficient and fr is the allowable

stress for the tower. Using 1/J,= 1.8, we obtain the weight of metal per
unit length of the tower:
0.462(g+ p+ q)ly
gt = (8.79)
8.14 Approximate methods of analysis
1. BASIC CONCEPTS
Several general basic methods may be employed to carry out the approxi-
mate structural analysis of a cable-stayed bridge. For linear analysis the
'slope~deflection' or any force or energy method could provide us with
the conditions required to determine the unknown redundants and thus to
solve the problem. The same applies for non-linear analysis, except that
...,
the solution of the virtual work, continuity or energy equations becomes ,,
in this case more cumbersome and numerical iteration methods have to I,
'
be employed.
.,
Compared with suspension bridges, cable-stayed bridges display a i~
,,,,
different structural behavior. The loads acting on the stiffening girder of
a cable-stayed bridge are transferred to the cables at connections, whereas, (
in the case of a suspension bridge, transverse forces due to the action of 'i
suspension rods are applied along the cables.
The analysis of a cable-stayed bridge may be divided into two parts.
In the first part, bending moments, axial and shear forces and deflections
'
I
due to dead and live loads are determined. In the second part, the post- .l
tensioning forces in the cables required to reduce to specified values the
stresses and strains determined in stage one are calculated.
The analysis discussed is limited to the case of a two-dimensional cable-
stayed bridge system.
:i
.I
~:
:I
2. ANALYSIS BY CLASSICAL METHODS I
As before, we mean by classical methods those methods of analysis

which do not require the use of a digital computer.
To analyse a cable-stayed bridge by classical methods, first a system of
equations is written equal in number to the number of redundants. The
procedure of assembling these equations is well known. Energy or virtual
work conditions, or compatibility requirements for slopes and deflec-
tions at joints, may be employed.
The main difficulty in classical methods lies in solving this system of
equations. However, several techniques, listed below, simplify the cal-
culations. These procedures are:
(A) Selection of bending moments as redundants. The selection of bending

moments at fixed and flexible supports as redundants permits the writing
of a five-moment equation at each support. This yields a banded well-
conditioned system of equations. If the internal forces in cables are
selected as redundants, the resulting system of equations is not banded
and hence more difficult to solve than in the previous case. Also, the cal-
culation of bending moments in the stiffening girder becomes a lengthy
operation.
(B) Hinged stiffening girder. It is possible to choose the statically deter-

minate system as the basic structural scheme, assuming a cross-section
along the symmetry axis and hinges in the stiffening girder at the inter-
mediate supports and the locations of the attachments of the cables (Fig.
8.24).
The bending moments at cable connections to the stiffening girder
and the forces representing the action of the separated half of the bridge
system are used as redundants. The analysis may be simplified by taking
into consideration the symmetry of the bridge systems.
(C) Stiffening girder as continuous beam on elastic supports. For a relatively

simple and rapid solution of the system of linear equations by a classical
method, the 'beam-on-elastic-supports analogy' may be used.
A cable-supported bridge structure can be analysed similarly to a con-
tinuous beam on elastic supports. In such an analysis, it is necessary to
predetermine the sectional and geometrical properties of the cables, tower
supports and beam sections. After an initial analysis, it may be necessary
to adjust certain of these properties to obtain a satisfactory state of stress.
Fig. 8.24 Hinged

stiffening girder
The effect of the axial force in the beam sections due to the inclined cables
must be considered in the final analysis. The extent to which the axial
force may influence the design of the beam sections depends on the cable
arrangement.
If we choose the continuous stiffening girder on elastic supports as a
basic system and the cable forces are taken as redundants, then the
amount of the calculation doubles by comparison with the previous cases.
The beam-an-elastic-supports analogy (Fig. 8.25), has been suggested
by Smiths. Intended by its author as a computer method, it may also be
used as a classical method. Smith shows how to determine the equivalent
spring constant for any specific cable-stayed bridge system. For the case
of movable cable-to-tower connections, that is, when cables are free to
slide along their supports, if the shortening of the tower is neglected, the
elastic support spring constant K, the vertical force needed to develop a
unit displacement (Fig. 8.26), may be obtained as follows:
IfF is the internal force in the cable, then from Fig. 8.26,
FL
!1L = (l)x sin a= EA (8.80)
K = Fsin a (8.81)
but from (8.80) we have
EA
F= ysin a (8.82) :;
,,
I
f(TYI liTh
:I
"'
:1
I I I I I ,.~t
1 Fig. 8.25 Beam-on-elastic-
supports analogy
,,:r"
Fig. 8.26 Elastic support

spring constant
~ ~r----- 1 I
X sinCX.
Fig. 8.27 Stiffening-

girder-on-elastic-supports
analogy. Determination of
the cable forces
After substituting (8.82) into (8.81), the value of the elastic sprmg
constant is
EA
K = ysin 2 r:x (8.83)
In the preliminary design stage, the beam-an-elastic-supports analogy

enables us to determine the bending moments for the continuous beam
and to find forces in the cables as follows (Fig. 8.27)
X = Mn-Mn~t
(8.84)
" a sin r:x
If shortening of the tower is also considered, the spring constant may

be derived in a similar manner and its expression becomes
1
K= 2 (8.85)
(H,/A,E,)+(LcfAcEc sin r:x)
where H, is the height of the tower. The suffix t applies to sectional and
elastic properties of the tower and the suffix c to the corresponding proper-
ties of the cable.
Further details regarding how to determine K for a more general case
are outlined by Smith.
It should be pointed out that this procedure may be applied either in
conjunction with available tables for continuous beams on elastic sup-
ports or by carrying out a complete analysis. In the latter case, the solution
of the five-moment system of equations, written on the basis of continuity
of slopes and displacements at joints, may be obtained with the five-
diagonal algorithm. This algorithm represents an extension of the well-
known three-diagonal algorithm 9
Fig. 8.28 Use of symmetry

and asymmetry in the
analysis of a cable-stayed
bridge system
(D) Symmetry and asymmetry. The use of symmetry and asymmetry

allows the system of equations to be halved in size. Structurally, this is
equivalent to the substitution of the two subsystems shown in Figs.
8.28(b) and 8.28(c) with the system represented in Fig. 8.28(a).
The right end support on Fig. 8.28(b) is capable of resisting bending
moments only. It will prevent the right end from rotating, but not from
moving upwards or downwards. In other words, the vertical reaction at
this point will be zero.
For the cable-stayed bridge represented in Fig. 8.28, by decomposing
the vertical load into a symmetrical plus an asymmetrical load the 10 x 10
system of equations is reduced to two 5 x 5 systems which may be solved
with less difficulty than the 10 x 10 system.
Application of the above procedure reduces the amount of work
required to carry out a theoretical analysis. In cases where the size of the
system of equations is larger than 8 x 8, then, even after reduction using
symmetry, the calculations become cumbersome and the use of a digital
computer is recommended.
8.15 Nonlinear analysis
Cable-stayed bridges belong to the systems in which the deformation of

the superstructure under loading affects the values of the stresses acting
in them. Due to this, the principle of the superposition of the forces may
be applied only with certain limitations.
The linear analysis of cable-stayed bridge systems is markedly in error
for most of such systems in that the change in geometry is notuegligible.

This problem is treated by the deformation theory of so-called second-
order theory by taking into account the effect of deflections of the
structure in calculating the stresses and forces.
In second-order theory, the equilibrium conditions are written down
for the geometry of the deformed structure. Since in this theory, the co-
efficients of the equilibrium equations depend on the displacements, and
therefore on the internal forces, these equations are no longer linear, and
linear superposition is not applicable. Therefore, when all loads are
increased by the same safety factor, the deflections and the bending
stresses do not increase by the same factor.
With cable-stayed bridges, the stiffening girder is in compression and
consequently the bending moments are increased. In the case of large
longitudinal forces acting on 'elastic levers' and producing considerable
additional bending moments, these forces should be taken into account,
to ensure the required structural safety.
The problem of evaluating the deformation produced in conjunction
with the longitudinal forces, which are dependent on it, acting on the
elastic lever arms of deformation is usually a difficult one, when we are
dealing with the practical treatment of a second-order problem. Even in
simple cases an iteration process is adopted to solve it.
The magnitude of the longitudinal forces is estimated and the differen-
tial equation for bending is solved for this 'limited' condition. Then, with
the limited deflection curve thus obtained, the assumption as to the longi-
tudinal forces is checked and, if necessary, the calculation is repeated
with amended values of the longitudinal forces.
When dealing with a system with a large number of redundancies, the
above procedure would be extremely laborious, and hardly practicable
with respect to the numerical calculations involved.
1. APPROXIMATE SOLUTION
As tested designs indicate, the change of stresses, considering the in-
fluence of deformations on cable-stayed systems, does not exceed a few
percent 10 This is mainly because the cable-stayed superstructure per-
forms as a truss system, and the bending moments in the stiffening girder
depend only on the magnitude of deflection of the stiffening girder at the
locations of cable attachments to the girder.
The relatively small influence of the deformation of the whole system
on the magnitudes of the computed forces in the members of the super-
structure justifies the application of approximate methods of analysis.
The simplest solution of the problem is by using the method of suc-
cessive approximations. Having determined the forces as a result of the
initial design, we subsequently find the deformed state of the system
which includes the following:
I
BRIDGE SYMMETRY
I
llllllllllllklllllllll
I
Fig. 8.29 The deformation

of the cable-stayed bridge
system (a) The deformed
state of the bridge system
(b) Change of angle of
inclination of the cable
(c) Change of forces in the
cables due to deformation
of the system
the displacements of the top of the tower vp and up, and the corres-
ponding joint of the stiffening girder Vv and Uv (Fig. 8.29).
These deformations change the angle of inclination of the cable with
respect to the chord of the girder and consequently lead to the redistri-
bution of the stresses in the girder.
The stress S in the cable becomes S + /:>.S, and the corresponding
vertical and horizontal components change into V + /:>. V and H + !l.H,
where /:>. V, /:>.Hand /:>.S may have positive or negative values.
The first step in the design is the determination of the influence on
the bridge system of the additional components /:>. V and !l.H, and also of
the additional bending moments due to the forces V and H which result
from the deviation of the girder axis from the initial position. The sum
of the additional vertical forces should satisfy the condition 2: V = 0.
By loading the influence lines by these additional vertical forces, we
obtain the corrections !l.M, /:>.N and /:>.S to the first approximation for
the bending moments and normal forces in the stiffening girder and
stresses in the stays, and are able to determine the resultant additional
deformations of the system.
In the same manner, we repeat the calculation in the second approxi-

mation, using the forces and deformations found in the first approxi-
mation. The final values of the forces in the system after n approximations
are expressed as
M 9 = M+~M1+~M2+ .. +~Mn
N 9 = N+~Nl +~N2+ .. +~Nn (8.86)
S 9 = S+~S1 +~S 2 + .. +~Sn
where
M,N,S are the bending moments and normal forces in the stiffen-
ing girder and forces in the cables according to the pre-
liminary design
~M, ~N, ~S are the corresponding additional values, obtained after
each approximation.
The series converge very fast, and generally it is enough to use only
the first approximation.
References
1. Kireenko, B. 1., Cable-Stayed Bridges, Kiev, 196 7 (in Russian).
2. Anonymous, 'Rheinbrucke Bonn Nord', Tiefbau 29-40, 1968.
3. Gimsing, N.]., 'Multispan Stayed Girder Bridges,' Proc. ASCE
Struct. Div., 1989-2003, October, 1976.
4. Gimsing, N.]., Cable Supported Bridges, Concept and Design, John
Wiley & Sons, New York, pp. 194-210, 1983.
5. Leonhardt, F. and Zellner, W., 'Cable-Stayed Bridges-Report on
Toronto, 1970.
6. Beyer, E., Nordbrucke Diisseldorj; Landeshauptstadt, Dusseldorf,
1958.
7. Kachurin, V. K., Bragin, A. V. and Erunov, B. G., Design of
Suspension and Cable-Stayed Bridges, Moscow, 1971 (in Russian).
8. Smith, B. S., 'The Single Plane Cable-Stayed Girder Bridge: A
Method of Analysis Suitable for Computer Use', Proc. Ins/. civ.
Engrs, 37, 183-194, July, 1967.
9. Troitsky, M. S. and Lazar, B., Model Investigation of Cable-Stayed
Bridges, Report No. 1, Sir George Williams University, October,
1969, pp. 22-26.
10. Feige, A., 'Stahlbri.ickenbau', Stahlbau, Handbuch for Studium und
Praxis, Band 2, Stahlbau-Verlags-GMBH, Koln, 1964.
Chapter 9
Exact Methods of Structural Analysis
9.1 Methods of analysis
A cable-stayed bridge is a highly statically indeterminate structure in

which the stiffening girder behaves as a continuous beam supported
elastically at the points of cable attachments. Except in the case of a very
simple cable-stayed bridge, a computer is necessary for the solution of
this type of structure, its use being primarily in analysis rather than in
design application.
Computer programs are necessary to generate the influence diagrams
for cable forces, stiffening girder, bending moments and shears, and
tower and pier reactions. The computer is also required for the rapid
solution of various parametric efforts and loadings that have to be taken
into account in achieving a reasonably efficient design. Probably the
most important problems are the determination of the optimum section
of the stiffening girder section, and cable configuration and size.
In a simplified approach to the solution, the structure is assumed to
be a linear elastic system which may be analysed using the standard
stiffness or flexibility method. Several general computer programs are
available which use this approach, e.g. FRAN, STRESS, STRUDL.
The nonlinear behavior of cables, whose sag varies with changing
axial load, presents problems in the solution of the bridge system more
complex than those of a structure oflinear behavior. A convenient method
of accounting for the nonlinear behavior of the stay cable bridge system
is to introduce the concept of a straight line chord member with a modi-
fied or ideal modulus of elasticity substituted for the actual cable member.
The use of this concept allows the application of a plane frame computer
program properly adapted to account for the nonlinearity by an iteration
procedure.
In the following sections are discussed different methods of analysis,
based on computer applications, considering linear and nonlinear be-
havior of cable-stayed bridge systems.
9.2 The flexibility method
To develop a computer program for a cable-stayed bridge, either the

stiffness or the flexibility method, or both, may be applied. If the flexibility
method is employed, bending moments at fixed and flexible supports
should be chosen as redundants in order to obtain a well-conditioned,
banded, flexibility matrix.
In the following sections, the computer methods are discussed first
for dead and live load and then for post-tensioning forces 1 .
9.2.1 Analysis due to the action of dead and live loads
(A) Linear analysis. Based on the flexibility method, a computer pro-

gram for analysis of a cable-stayed bridge has been developed. The
program reads input data regarding the geometry and sectional proper-
ties of the system and calculates the following:
(a) Influence lines for bending moments, axial and shear forces, displace-
ments and reactions.
(b) Envelopes of maximum bending moments, axial and shear forces for
the most critical combination of dead and live loads.
The computer program applies to a bridge system having an overall
geometry and supports as represented in Fig. 9 .1. The connections be-
tween towers and the stiffening girders are fixed and the cable-tower and
cable-girder connections are hinged. For the system considered, the
redundants have been chosen as shown in Fig. 9.2. The developed flow
chart is shown in Fig. 9.3.
In the flow chart, Steps 2 and 3 represent the statements required to
read and store the geometrical and sectional properties of the system to
be analysed. This data is employed in Step 4 to determine sin, cos, tan,
and cot functions of the angles between the cables and the stiffening
girder.

bridge systems analysed by
the flexibility method
Fig. 9.2 Selection of

redundants for analysis
due to dead and live loads
EXACT METHODS OF STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS 275
11
12
13
14
15
:;
!
,,
,,'!'I
16
~I
i:
17
.;I,,
,,
18
,,:r
19
20
Fig. 9.3 Flow chart

continued on next page
21 24
22 25
26
23
Fig. 9.3 continued
Steps 6 to 23 were developed on the basis of computer methods

described by Gere and Weaver 2 3 To determine influence-line ordinates
for 67locations of the unit load (the intervals taken along the girder were
one-fifth of the length of one member), Steps 6 to 23 are repeated in a
DO loop 67 times. The total computer time required is 3 min 8 s.
The output, Steps 16, 20 and 23, consists of influence coefficients for
bending moments, axial and shear forces, reactions and displacements.
The displacements calculated are shown in Fig. 9.4.
Steps 24-26 determine envelopes of bending moments, axial and shear
forces for the most critical combination of dead and live loads. Step 24
reads DL, the uniform distributed dead load and LL, the uniform distri-
buted live load. Step 25 scans the matrix AMA of axial and shear forces
and bending moments at member ends. The general form of AMA is
AMA 1 , 1 AMA1,2 AMA1,6s
AMA 2 , 1 AMA 2 , 2 AMA 2 , 68
AMA = (9.1)
AMA 93 , 1 AMA 93 , 2 AMA93,6s

Columns 2-68 in (9.1) contain bending moments (lines 3, 6, ... , 93),
axial forces (lines 1, 4, ... , 91) and shear forces (lines 2, 5, ... , 92) at mem-
ber ends for 67 locations of the unit load along the stiffening girder.
Column l contains member ends bending moments, axial and shear
~
18
2Q ;
Fig. 9.4 Displacements
forces due to a uniform distributed load of 1 kips per linear foot along the
stiffening girder.
To obtain moment envelopes, each third line (columns 2-67) is scanned
and all positive terms are accumulated successively in a column vector
AMAP. The same is done for the negative terms which are added and
stored in AMAN.
The next operation is to multiply AMAP by (L x LL )/5 and the first
column of AMA by DL/1000 and to add the results. This gives the final
AMAP, that is the ordinates of the bending moments at bar ends due to
the most critical combination of dead and live loads. The same procedure
is employed for AMAN and also for axial and shear forces.
The total computer time required to calculate and print the envelopes
is 15 s.
The computer program has been written in USASI FORTRAN
language for the Control Data Corporation (CDC) 3300 computer. This
machine has 80k words of core storage (one word is equal to twenty-four
bits) which represents a memory roughly equivalent to 320k bits on the
IBM 360 series. The computer has full floating points and character
hardware, eight disk drives with a total capacity of about 65 million
characters, 5 tape units, 1 printer, 2 terminals, l card reader, one punch,
one plotter and a multiplexor connected to the TWX network.
(B) Nonlinear analysis. The nonlinearity of a cable-stayed bridge system

is caused by large displacements, bending moments, interaction of axial
forces and shortening of members due to bowing. Relations between
stresses and strains at any cross-section are assumed to be linear.
Analysis of plane frames which display the above type of nonlinearity
has been studied extensively in the past decade 4 5 6 7 . Saafan 4 has
developed a physical concept which allows nonlinear analysis by succes-
sive iterations of linear subroutines.
The first step of the analysis determines a vector of displacements based
on the initial geometry of the system and on the external loads. In the
second step, an additional displacement vector, due to the difference
between the joint loads and the resultants of internal bending moments
and axial and shear forces at each joint, is determined. In performing the
second step, the stiffness matrix of the system is assembled on the basis
of the deformed geometry and of the axial loads determined in Step 1.
Each subsequent step, i, uses data determined in the previous step,

i-1. The iteration stops when the last displacement vector obtained is a
negligible fraction of the total displacement.
9.2.2 Calculation of post-tensioning forces
After erection, the cable-stayed bridge is under the action of dead load
only. The bending moments and deflections of the stiffening girder may
be reduced by post-tensioning the cables. A procedure which permits the
reduction of the maximum bending moment due to dead load may be
programmed on a digital computer.
The released structure will be chosen as shown in Fig. 9.5.
Fig. 9.5 Selection of

cables as redundants
Fig. 9.6 Substructure

for calculation of post-
tensioning forces
To determine unit displacements and bending moments due to unit

loads applied along the cables, twelve substructures are considered. Each
substructure consists of the original structure with one cable removed.
Substructure No. 1 is represented in Fig. 9.6. The basic equations for
this case are
(9.2)
N{ N~
-=-== (9.3)
A1 A2
and
a2.2X2+a2.3X3++a2.12X12 = A2.1+A2.2X1
a3,2X2+a3,3X3+ .. +a3,12X12 = A3,1+A3,2X1
(9.4)
a12, 2 X2+ a12,3X3 +a12, 12 X12 = A11, 1+A12. 2X1

Equation (5.4) may be written in matrix form as
[a]*{X} = {A} (9.5)
where
[a]= (9.6)
{X} = {X2, X3, ... , X12} (9.7)

{A}= {A 1 }+{A2}X 1 (9.8)
In (9.8)
(9.9)
and
From (9.5)
(9.11)
Relation (9.2) may be rewritten as
il',,
!'
M,(C 0 -1) = M; X 1 +(M,)*{X} (9.12)
'I
where (.I,,
(9.13) i
Substituting {X} from (9.11) and taking account of (9.8), (9.12)

becomes
xl may now be obtained from

X _ M,(C 0 -1)-(M,)*[ar 1 *{A 1 }
(9.15)
1 - M;+(M,)*[arl*{A2}
and X may be calculated from expression (9.11).
With X 1 and X known, N{ may be determined from
N{ = N;+X 1 Nf++X 12 Nf 2 (9.16)
where i varies from 1 to 12.
The above procedure makes it possible to obtain identical unit stresses
in all cables.
Another approach to the problem of post-tensioning the cables is to
reduce all displacements due to dead load to a specified value.
A procedure has been developed to achieve this reduction. The first
step is to determine the displacements, bending moments, axial and shear

forces and reactions due to a unit force applied successively along each
cable of the bridge. Then, a system of equations is written to express the
condition that the sum of the displacements due to the unknown post-
tensioning forces in cables shall be opposite in sign to the displacements
due to dead load and equal in absolute value to a fraction of these displace-
ments. By solving this system of equations, the unknown post-tensioning
forces are determined.
Finally, the bending moments, axial and shear forces, displacements
and reactions due to post-tensioning are determined from the information
obtained initially by applying unit forces along each cable.
A computer program has been written in the FORTRAN language based
on the above principles. The structure considered is the same as for the
analysis for dead and live loads (Fig. 9.1) This time, however, the cables
had to be chosen as redundants (Fig. 9.5).
The program consists of two parts. The first part contains the following
steps:
( 1) The sectional properties and joint coordinates of the structure are
read into the computer memory.
(2) Sin, cos, tan and cot functions of the angles between the main girder
and cables are calculated.
(3) The matrices AMQ, BRQ, BMJ are calculated and stored in the
computer.
(4) Matrix FM is calculated and stored.
The second part of the computer program contains the following basic
steps:
(1) Matrix F is computed.
(2) Cable 1 is removed from the structure and the substructure shown in
Fig. 9.6 is obtained. In this substructure, the displacements indica-
ted in Fig. 9.4, the bending moments, axial and shear forces at all
member ends, and the reactions due to a unit load applied along
cable 1 are determined.
The procedure of Step 2 in detail is as follows:
2.1 The column corresponding to cable 1 in matrix AMQ is stored in

AML.
2.2 The flexibility matrix F 1 of the substructure shown in Fig. 9.6 is
obtained by removing the row and column corresponding to cable 1
from matrix F.
2.3 The matrix F 1 is modified by increasing all terms on the main
diagonal of the first 12 rows of F 1 by LjEA.
2.4 The vector of displacements associated with the released sub-
structure I, DQL 1 , is calculated:

DQL 1 = AMQi*FM 1 *AML
2.5 The vector Q 1 of the unknown redundants of the released sub-
structure I is calculated :
2.6 The bending moments, axial and shear forces due to a unit load
applied along cable I are calculated:
Steps 2.1 to 2.6 are repeated for alll2 substructures. Vectors AM 1-

AM 12 are stored in matrix AM.
2.7 The matrix of displacements indicated in Fig. 9.4 due to unit loads
acting along cables 1-12 is computed:
DJ= BMJT*FM"AM
2.8 The reactions due to unit loads acting along cables 1-12 are calcula-
ted:
(3) The post-tensioning forces in cables are determined so that deflec-

tions 1-10 and displacements 11-17 are reduced by a factor C 0 < 1.
~I
I
3.1 Displacements due to the action of dead load are read into the com-
puter. Vertical deflections 1-10 and horizontal displacements 11 H
:',
3.2
and 17 are then multiplied by C0 and stored in vector AJ.
Matrix JD is assembled from the first eleven rows and row 17 of
:I
,,
\,I
matrix DJ.
3.3 The post-tensioning forces in cables are determined from j
1
X= JD- *AJ
(4) Final bending moments, axial and shear forces, reactions and dis- il
placements due to post-tensioning are calculated from
!Il I
AMP= AM 1 X 1 ++AM 12 X12

DJF = D}1 X 1 ++D}12 X 12 (9.17)
ARF = AR 1 X 1 ++AR 12 X12
In (9.17), AM 1-AM 12 , DJ1-D}12 and ARcAR 12 are the corres-
ponding column vectors in matrices AM, DJ and AR.
The procedure developed above allows the determination of post-
tensioning forces to be applied in cables to reduce displacements due to
dead load.
9.3 Force-displacement method
A method of linear analysis of cable-stayed bridges suitable for a com-

puter was proposed by Smith 8 9 in 1967.
The analysis is essentially linear and assumes that the deflection is
proportional to the load for all parts, as well as for the whole structure.
In the following pages, the behavior under a load of single and double-
plane cable-stayed bridges is analysed. It is proposed that the behavior
may better be appreciated by isolating and considering separately the
rotation and shortening of the tower. Since this method includes dis-
placements, as well as forces among the unknowns, it may be classified
as a 'mixed force-displacement method'.
9.3.1 Analysis of the single-plane cable-stayed system
Let us consider a single-plane two-span cable-stayed bridge system (Fig.

9. 7). In the first stage of the analysis, the arbitrary load is applied to span
AB, a hinge is introduced at the base of the tower and the elastic stretch-
ing of the cables taken into consideration.
Considering the case when the cables and tower are fully rigid, the
equations of compatibility are then
Vd:Ja+ VJab+ Vefae =Ad (9.18a)
Vaha+ Vb./i,b+ Vehc = Ab (9.18b)
V Jea+ VJeb+ V Jec = Ac (9.18c)

where Va and Ve are the vertical components of the cable forces at D and
E, Vb is the support reaction at B and./i,a is a flexibility coefficient for the
deflection at B due to unit load at D, for the simple beam AC.
The flexibilities of the springs, or the vertical flexibilities of the cables,
at D and E, are respectively
La
~~ = -A,-----E---,--,--;;2:-ll-=- (9.19a)
a s1n ua
e_ Le
fe- A e E Sln
. 2 8e (9.19b)
where A, E, L and 8 represent the cross-sectional area, modulus of

elasticity, length and slope to the horizontal, of the cables, respectively.
The tower flexibility is
H
IT= A E (9.20)
T
(a)
INFLEXIBLE LEVER
(b) (c)
Fig. 9.7 Single plane

cable-stayed bridge system:
(d) (e) (a) Simple, stayed
continuous girder; (b) Load
applied: effect of tower
rotation, tower and cables
axially rigid; (c) Analogous
structure for (b); (d) Effect
of cable elasticity, tower
axially rigid; (e) Analogous
structure for (d); (f) Effect
of tower elasticity;
(g) Analogous structure
(f) (q) for (f)
where His the height of the tower and AT its cross-sectional area.
The rotation of the tower lowers the connections D and E by BD x
and -BE x , respectively. These additional deflection terms must be
added to eqs. (9.18a) and (9.18c). Also, there are the increases Vaf'd and
Vef~ in the deflections at D and E respectively, due to the flexibility of
the springs. Therefore, in eqs. (9.18a) and (9.18c), the coefficient .faa must
be modified to faa+ fa and lee to lee+J~.
As the tower shortens, the anchorage of the cables connected to D and
E drops by a further amount of ( Va+ Ve)fT. Therefore, the coefficients
of Vd and Ve must be further modified by the addition of jT, the tower
flexibility, to each of eqs. (9.18a) and (9.18c).
Due to the angular rotation of the tower, the equation obtained by
taking moments for the tower about its hinge is
(9.21)
Therefore, the equations required for a solution are

Vii:Ja+ fd+ fr)+ Vbfab+ Volfae+ fy)+ </JBD = ~a (9.22a)
Vaha+ Vb.ft,b+ Vohe = ~b (9.22b)
VafJea+Jy)+ Voifee+f'O+Jy) = ~o (9.22c)
VaBD- V 0 BE = 0 (9.22d)
The solution of these simultaneous equations gives the vertical
reactions at D, Band E and allows the shear forces and bending moments
in the girder, and the tension in the cables, to be computed. Also, the
value of </J is derived so that the deflections at the ends of the cables can
be calculated. For example, the deflection at D is given by
(9.23)
It is convenient to express eq. (9 .22) in matrix form and, if an inversion
method is used for solution, other loading conditions may be easily con-
sidered by changing only the ~ matrix. Thus
BD ~c
Ji,b he 0 ~b
(9.24)
feb ifee+f~+fy) -BE ~0
0 -BE 0 0
The upper left-hand part of the coefficient matrix would be the flexi-
bility matrix for the structure if the tower were fixed against rotation.
The additional right-hand column and bottom row arise from the rota-
tion and stability of the tower, respectively. Since the unknowns include
a displacement, as well as forces, the method falls into a 'mixed' category.
Let us consider the following bridge systems:
1. MULTI-CABLE RADIAL SYSTEM

This system, shown in Fig. 9.8, involves the same action as described
above. Each cable-connected point on the girder behaves as if supported
on a spring. The deflection of each of the points is influenced by the rota-
Fig. 9.8 Multi-cable

radial system
tion of the tower in proportion to its distance from the base of the tower,
and all points are affected equally by the shortening of the tower. Thus the
coefficient of the matrix is
iflld+J~+fr) ifJ 9 + fr) idh ifllh+fr) iflle+Jr) BD

([gd+fr) (h 9 + J:+ fr) [gb ([gh+ fr) (he+fr) BG
/i,d /i,g /i,b /i,h fbe 0
(fi,d+ fr) ifh 9 + fr) ];.b (f;.h+ fh+ fr) ifhe+ fr) -BH
(fed+fr) ife 9 +fr) .feb (feh+fr) ifee+J~+ fr) -BE
BD BG 0 -BH -BE 0
(9.25)
To account for axial forces in the stiffening girder, assuming the girder
is free to move longitudinally at A, Fig. 9.7(a), the point of attachment D
drops by an amount
2
Vd cot 8dLdb
AGE
This factor must be included in eq. (9.22a) by further modifying the co-
efficient of vd by adding
.
,,
G - Ldb cot2 ed !I'~
~''I
(9.26) ,,
J db- AGE :'
If the support at A resists longitudinal forces, then the axial compo-
nent from the cable must be divided into a tensile component along AD
and a compressive one along DB. The size of each component is inversely
proportional to the length along which it acts. In this case, the shortening
of DB will be
Lad Vd cot edLdb
(9.27)
Lab AGE
and the coefficient must be modified by adding ..
il
2 (I
!Yb = Lad Ldb cot ed (9.28)
Lab AGE
If a multi-cable system is used, as in Fig. 9.8, the drop of G and D will
be given by
(V9 cot 89 + Vd cot 8d) cot 89 L 9b
AGE
and
(V9 cot 89 L 9b+ Vd cot 8dLdb) cot ed
AGE
respectively. The coefficients of both V 9 and Vd must be modified in
each of the equations for compatibility at G and D.
Fig. 9. 9 Multi-cable fan

system
2. MULTI -CABLE FAN SYSTEM

In a multi-cable fan system, as shown in Fig. 9.9, usually one or all pairs
of cables have fixed supports on the tower. Let us consider the case when
only the outer pair of cables is fixed while the others are supported by
movable bearings.
Assuming small rotations of the tower, the levels of the upper ends of
the cables having movable supports do not change, nor do these cables
contribute to the rotational stability of the tower. Therefore, in the
right-hand column and bottom row of the coefficient matrix, terms are
not required for any vertical deflection and forces at the girder connec-
tions of the undamped cables. The right-hand column and bottom row
have non-zero coefficients only for those points relating to the fixed
cables.
However, any pair of movable cables which have unequal slopes on
opposite sides of the tower cause the saddle to shift whenever there is a
change of load. This results in an effective lowering of the girder cable
connection towards which the shift has occurred, and a rise of the other.
This effect must be included in the analysis. Assume cable GLH on Fig.
9. 9(a) is carried by a saddle on rollers at L. If (} g and (}h are unequal, the
drop ofG is
(9.29a)
and the drop of H is

(9.29b)
Therefore, in the compatibility equations for G and H, the coefficients
of vg and vh, respectively, must be modified once more by the addition
of their coefficient from eqs. (9.29).
3. MULTI-CABLE FAN SYSTEM. ALL CABLES FIXED TO THE TOWER

When all cables are fixed to the tower (Fig. 9.9(b)), there is the possi-
bility of the tower bending as a simple beam between F and B, as well as
rotating. The resulting lateral deflection at L and M will influence the
forces in the cables and the bending moments in the girder.
It may be shown that the vertical deflection of J due to bending of the
tower is
(9.30)
To account for the bending of the tower, the coefficients of Vi, Vk> V9
and Vh in eq. (9.30) must be added to the appropriate coefficients in the
row of the coefficient matrix representing compatibility at J. The co-
efficients in the G, K and H rows must be modified also in a similar way.
4. CANTILEVERED TOWER
In case the tower is cantilevered from the top of the pier, a hinged rota-
tion of the tower is prevented. Therefore, the row and column of the
modified flexibility matrix, representing the equilibrium of the tower
and deflection of the girder resulting from its rotation, respectively, may
be omitted.
:)
:I
I
.,
II
t!
:t
Fig. 9.10 Tower q
cantilevered from base '
Referring to Fig. 9.10, the horizontal deflection of the tower at L due

to forces in the cables at L and F is given by
<5 1 = (V9 cot 89 - Vh cot 8h)fii+(Vd cot 8d- Ve cot 8a)Ji1
where for a uniform cantilever
and
Hence, it may be shown that the vertical deflection of G due to bending

of the tower is
b9 = V9 e31:1~) BG- Vh (~~~) BH

3 2
[2H -3H (H-hd+(H-hd 3 ]GB}
+ Va { 6EfrHh
1
BD
[2H 3 - 3H2 (H- h1)+(H- h1 ?]GB}

-v e { 6E/yHh1
M (9 .31)
Therefore, the coefficients of V 9 , Vh, Va and Vein eq. (9.31) must be

added to the appropriate coefficients in the row of the flexibility matrix
representing compatibility at G. The coefficients in the D, Hand E rows
must also be modified likewise.
5. MULTI-TOWER CONTINUOUS BRIDGE

The analysis of a two-tower system or of any continuous girder involving
any number of towers and cables may be made by initially releasing all
connections to the girder between the end supports A and D (Fig. 9.11).
Fig. 9 .II Arrangement for

a cable-stayed bridge
A single coefficient matrix may then be formed with the necessary

modifications, as outlined above. Its size will be equal to the sum of the
interior rigid supports, the number of cables, and the number of towers
which are hinged at the base.
In the case where the end of a cable is attached to a rigid support, as
are the ends of the outer cables in Fig. 9.11, the parts faa and ha of the
coefficients of Va and Va in the coefficient matrix are zero, and the co-
efficients of these two forces consist solely of the appropriate described
modifications.
The forces Va and Va are, in this case, the vertical components of the
force in the cables at A and D, and not the reactions at A and D. The latter
must be determined separately, when the cable forces and interior sup-
port reactions have been found, by considering the equilibrium of the
girder as a whole.
F'
c'
'Y
SPRING REPRESENTING VERTICAL
G ANALOGOUS
STRUCTURE
FLEXIBILITY OF TOWERS I NFL EX I BLE LEVERS
Fig. 9.12 Elementary

double-plane cable-stayed
FLEXIBILITY OF CABLES bridge
il
iii
''
'~
9.3.2 Analysis of the double-plane cable-stayed system
This method of analysis is an extension of the one proposed for single-

plane structures. An elementary type of double-plane stayed girder is
considered first and the method of analysis developed (Fig. 9.12).
In the eccentrically loaded double-plane structure, the twists of the
girder have to be considered. Therefore, in the analysis the couples on
the girder at all the interior supports must be released also and additional
equations of compatibility written for the twist at those positions.
Assuming now that a full set of interior releases has been allowed, and 'I
:I
that the external loads are applied to the simply supported girder, the . ,
center-line deflections and twists of the girder at D, B and E are, re- n
spectively, Lla, Llb, Llc and 1/1 d, 1/1 b and 1/1 e. ll
~
If the restraints provided by the cables at D, D', E and E' were com- q
pletely rigid against vertical displacement and twist, as for example at '
support B, the compatibility equations would be
(Vd+ V~)fad+(Vb+ V~)fab+(Ve+ V;)fae = Lld (9.32a)
( Vd+ V~)fi,d+ ( Vb + V~)fi,b + (Ve + V;)fbe = Llb (9.32b)

(Vd+ V~)fed+(Vb+ V~)feb+(Ve+ V;)fee = Lle (9.32c)
(Vd- V~)ri/Jdd/2+(Vb- V~)ri/Jdb/2+(Ve- v;)ri/Jde/2 = 1/Jd (9.32d)
(Vd- V~)ri/Jbd/2+(Vb- V~)ri/Jbb/2+(Ve- V;)ri/Jbe/2 = 1/Jb (9.32e)
(Vd- V~)ri/Jed/2+(Vb- V~)ri/Jeb/2+(Ve- V;)ri/Jee/2 = 1/Je (9.32f)

in which Vd is the vertical force on the girder at D,fbd is a flexibility co-

efficient giving the center-line deflection at B for unit load at D, 1/Jbd is a
flexibility coefficient giving the twist of the girder at B for a unit torque
applied at D for the simply supported girder AA 'CC', and r the distance
across the deck between the sets of cables.
However, the restraints at D and E are not rigid but deflect as the cables
stretch and as the towers rotate and shorten. Therefore, eq. (9.32) must
be modified to account for each of these actions as follows :
(a) Suppose towers BF and B' F' rotate through anti-clockwise angles
and ' when the load is applied. The consequent downward center-
line deflections at D and E are
(+')Lbd
and
2
respectively, and the corresponding twists are
and
r r
The effect of these tower rotations may be represented in the equations

by adding each value for deflection or twist to its corresponding equation
-(9.32a), (9.32c), (9.32d) or (9.32f).
(b) Due to the flexibility of the cables, the center-line of the girder at
D and E deflects by
and
respectively, while the resulting twist at these positions is given by
and
r r
where the vertical flexibility of the cable connected at D is
To account for these actions, coefficient hd and fee in eqs. (9.32a) and
(9.32c), respectively, must be modified to
and
Also, in eqs. (9.32d) and (9.32f), respectively,
rt/1 dd rt/1 ee
and
2 2
must be modified to
rt/Jaa+n and rt/Jee +J~

2 r 2 r
(c) The effect of the shortening of each tower, due to the vertical
components of the force in the cables, produces the vertical center-line
deflection at D and E as
[(Va+ Ve)+(V~+ V~)]fr

2
and its effect on the twist is
r
where fr is the vertical flexibility of the tower. Hence, the coefficients of
( Va+ V~) and ( Ve + V~) in each of eqs. (9.32a) and(9.32c) must be further
modified by the addition of fr/2 and the coefficients of ( Va- V~) and
(Ve- V~) in each of eqs. (9.32d) and (9.32f) must be increased by fr/r.
(d) Because the rotations of the towers and 'have been introduced
as additional unknowns, two more equations are necessary for solution,
considering the equilibrium of each tower by taking moments about its
hinge at the base
VaLba- VeLbe = 0 (9.32g)
V~Lba- V~Lbe =0 (9.32h)

ii
Therefore, rewriting eqs. (9.32) in matrix form and including all the l)
:t
modifications gives eq. (9.33). q
The solution of (9.33) gives the vertical reactions at each interior sup- '
port and cable connections, and the rotation of the towers. It is then a
straightforward computation to determine the remaining unknown re-
actions va, v~, vc and v~, and hence the shear force, bending moment
and torque at any point along the girder. It is possible also, by considering
the effect of the tower rotations in conjunction with the stretching of the
cables and shortening of the towers, to calculate the center-line deflec-
tions and twists of the girder at the cable connections.
An inversion procedure for solving eq. (9.33) is preferable since it
allows the simultaneous consideration of several alternative loading
conditions.
fdiJ+nf2+fT/2 fdd+ f'd/2+ fr/2 fab !db fd.+fr/2 fdc+fr/2 Lbd/2 Lbd/2 vd /l.d
hd fbd hb hb he he 0 0 V'd /l.b

f.d+fr/2 f.d+fr/2 feb f.b f..+ }e/2+ fr/2 f..+f~/2+frf2 - Lbe/2 - Lbe/2 vb t-..
rl/ldll/2+ntr+ frlr - (rl/1 dd/2 +nfr +fr/2) rl/1 db/2 -rl/ldb/2 (ri/Jde/2+ fr/2) -(ri/Jde/2+fr/2) Lbd/r -Lbd/r V'b "'d
I (9.33)
o ~ lv,
ri/Jbd/2 ri/Jbd/2 '"'bb/2 - ri/Jbb/2 ri/Jbe/2 - ri/Jbe/2 0 "'b
ri/Jedf2+JT/r -(ri/Jed/2+/T/r) ri/Jeb/2 -ri/Jeb/2 (ri/J f2+f~/r+fr/r) - (rl/1 eef2+f~/r+ fr/r) -Lbe/r Lb~/r ;; 1/Je
Lbd 0 0 0 -Lbe 0 0 0
0 Lbd 0 0 0 -Lbe 0 0 c/J' 0
Fig. 9.13 Cable arrange-

ment involving possibility
of bending in towers
1. EFFECTS OF STIFFENING GIRDER SHORTENING, TOWER BENDING AND

OTHER ACTIONS
The horizontal components of the cable forces induce an axial compres-
sive force in the girder which consequently shortens. If the cross-section
of the girder is light and the axial forces are high, it may be necessary to
account for the effect of the deck shortening on the cable forces and girder
moments.
Other possible actions which may have to be considered, depending
on the particular structural arrangement, include: bending of the towers
when pairs of cables are connected at different heights, as shown in Fig.
9.13; bending of the towers when they are cantilevered from the piers, as
in Fig. 9.14, and the effect of some of the pairs of cables being carried on
roller-supported saddles at the tower. It is possible to consider all these
;i
variations by modifying the coefficient matrix, as was done for the 11
single-plane cable-stayed bridge system. i'
I
.!I
il'
~I
bridge with cantilever
towers ,.[
.. ,
:lj',,
2. DOUBLE-PLANE CABLE SYSTEM WITH A TRIANGULAR TOWER ".,
If the two planes of cables are concentrically connected to a single tri-
angular tower, as illustrated in Fig. 9.15(a), then the previously separate
tower rotations and ' will be constrained to a single value . "I
An advantage of this arrangement is the increase in torsional stiffness .I
of the girder, due to the impossibility of any differential rotation of the
towers. The rotational equilibrium of the combined tower is now depen-
dent on the horizontal components from all the cables for which only a
single equation is required. Therefore, eq. (9.33) now becomes
Lbd vd ~d
0 v~ ~b
-Lbc vb ~e
Matrix flexibility
0 Vi, l/ld (9.34)
matrix, corresponding to that in
eq. (9.33) 0 ve l/lb
0 V'e l/Je
Lbd Lbd 0 0 -Lbc -Lbe 0 <P 0

FLEXIBILITY OF TOWER
SPRINGS REPRESENTING
VERT I CAL FLEXIBILITY
Fig. 9.15 (a) Combined OF CABLES
tower arrangement
(b) Analogous structure for
triangular tower
arrangement
An analogous structure for the combined tower arrangement is iUustra-

ted in Fig. 9.15(b). The inflexible lever represents the combined tower,
while the spring represents the cables which have the same vertical stiff-
ness.
3. DOUBLE-PLANE CABLE SYSTEM WITH PORTAL TOWER

A portal tower arrangement as shown in Fig. 9.16(a) may have the portal
absolutely rigid against warping out of its plane. In this case, the bridge
would behave exactly as a triangular tower system and could be analysed
as described above. However, since complete rigidity is not possible,
warping occurs and it is necessary to include its effect in the analysis.
Assume a load P is applied to the girder eccentric to its longitudinal
center line (Fig. 9.16(a)). In addition to an average anticlockwise rotation
of the towers, there is a tendency towards a differential rotation. It is
resisted by the portal strut to an extent which may depend partly on the
bending and torsional stiffness of the legs and portal strut and partly on
the freedom of the legs of the portal to twist as follows :
IN BENDING AND TORSION
Fig. 9.16 (a) Portal tower

IN BENDING
arrangement (b) Deforma- AND TORS I ON
tion of portal with legs
free to twist (c) Deforma-
tion of portal with legs
restrained against twist
(a) If the legs of the portal are free to twist, the legs are subjected only
to bending, and the portal strut only to twisting, giving a distorted form,
as shown in Fig. 9.16(b). In this case, the longitudinal out-of-plane
deflection {J, at the top of the towers is given by
(9.35)
where
/1 is the moment of inertia of the cross-section of each leg about a trans-

verse axis, } 2 is the polar moment of inertia of the cross-section of the
portal strut, and G is the shear modulus of the strut material.
The warping deflections {J, at the top of the legs F and F' allow
downward and upward deflections of D and D', respectively, equal to
1J,Lbd
H
with a consequent twist of the girder at D equal to
1Jt/fd = 2(Vd cot ed- Ve cot ee)LbdX

(9.36)
Hr
Similarly, a corresponding twist will occur at E:
{J' = _ 2(Vd cot ed- Ve cot 8e)LbeX (9.37)

I
""'"I
'l'e Hr
I
Except for the effects of warping of the portal, the behavior of the :1
structure and its analysis will be the same as that for the double-plane 'I
single-tower structure. Therefore, the system may be represented by I
eq. (9.34) except that the coefficients of Vd and Vein the fourth row of the
matrix, which establish torsional compatibility at D, must be modified
by the addition of
and
respectively.
Similarly, the coefficients of Vd and Ve in the sixth row of the matrix,
which establish torsional compatibility at E, must be modified by the
addition of
and
respectively.
(b) If the supports of the portal are restrained against rotation in the
horizontal plane, the legs and the strut are subjected to both bending and
twisting, giving a distorted configuration as shown in Fig. 9.16(c). It may
be shown by an energy analysis that the resulting twist of the girder at D
is equal to
(9.38)
and the twist at E is given by

Lbe XY
bl/fe = -2(Vd cot ed- Ve cot Be) Hr (X+ Y) (9.39)
where
and X is given for eq. (9.35).

Hence, from these equations, the coefficients of Vd and Vein rows four
and six of eq. (9 .34) may be modified as before, to take account of warping
in the portal.
4. DOUBLE-PLANE MULTI-TOWER ARRANGEMENTS

Complex double-plane arrangements, involving any number and types
of towers, may be analysed by the described method. All interior sup-
ports of the girder should be released to leave a simply supported girder
for which the free deflections and twists may be calculated. Then the
compatibility equations, appropriately modified, and the equilibrium
equations may be formulated to produce a single mixed matrix for the
whole structure.
9.3.3 Conclusions
The over-all behavior of a cable-stayed bridge system may be understood

more easily by considering and superimposing the separate actions of the
tower rotating, the cables stretching, and the tower shortening. The study
of these separate actions leads directly to a mixed force-displacement
method of analysis in which the coefficients are modified to account for
each action. Further modifications may be made to account for bending
of the towers, cantilever towers and shortening of the deck.
The large number of simultaneous equations required for the solution
of the one-plane and double-plane cable-stayed bridges make the use of
an electronic computer desirable. If repeated adjustments and re-
analyses of the structure are required, it is most necessary that the whole
analysis, including the formulation of the matrices and the final computa-
tion of the moments and shears, should be programmed.
9.4 Reduction method
The reduction method, also referred to as the transfer-matrix method, was

introduced in 1956 by Falk 10- 13 as general theory. For the analysis of
cable-stayed bridges, this reduction method is probably most suit-
able14--16. Detailed analysis and application of the reduction method to
cable-stayed bridges was presented by Tang 17 .
The transfer-matrix method is ideally suited to systems consisting of a
number of elements linked together end to end in the form of a chain,
because only successive matrix multiplications are necessary to fit the
elements together.
9.4.1 The problem ,,' li

II
i i!
The main structural characteristic of a cable-stayed bridge is the use of 1j
inclined cables, which, by acting as supports for the bridge girder and
replacing the intermediate piers, enable the girder to span a longer
l
:11
distance. However, this introduces high compressive stresses in both the
.,
bridge girder and the towers (Fig. 9.17) and increases bending moment
and deformations in these elements.
Because this increase is nonlinear or not proportional to the compressive
stress, the analysis becomes more complicated. To analyse these stresses,
a computer program has been developed using the reduction method 10 .
Fig. 9.17 Cable tension

inducing compression in
tower and girder
9.4.2 Assumptions for the analysis
The bridge is assumed to be a plane structure and the gradient of the

bridge is considered as well as the use of different types of cable saddles.
Deformations due to shear, torsion and warping of the section are
neglected. Cables are assumed to take both tension and compression
forces. This assumption is reasonable because all cables must be relatively
highly stressed under load in order to act as effective supports for the
bridge girder.
9.4.3 Linear analysis
In the analysis, the bridge girder and the towers are divided into intervals
by joints, with the length of intervals taken at random in the calculation.
While the stiffness and the slope within each interval are assumed as
constant, the interval must be kept sufficiently small to make this assump-
tion valid. Experience has indicated that subdividing each span into about
five or six intervals yielded satisfactory results. All supports and cable
connections must be joints.
Fig. 9 .I H Interval of
girder or tower
Let us consider any prismatic element with constant cross-section and

slope (Fig. 9.18). The forces, bending moment and deformations at one
end of the element can be expressed in terms of the forces, bending
moment and deformations at the other end of the element by the following
equations:
1
Un+l = un+(L tan {3)c/>n+ZEI'(2eL cos {3-L 2 tan {3)Mn
1 .
+ E ,(3eL2 cos {3-L 3 tan {3-6aL sm {3)Q,
6 1
1
+ 6EI' (6e 2 L cos {3 + 3eL 2 sin {3- L 3 tan2 {3- 3eL2 tan {3
+ 6L cos {3)Nn (9.40a)
wn+l =
1
wn+L</Jn+ ZEI'(- L 2 - 2eL sm
. f3 )Mn
+ ~!' (- L 3 + 6aL sin f3 tan f3- 3eL2 sin f3)Q,

6
1
+ EI' (- L 3 tan f3- 3eL2 - 6aL sin f3- 6e2 L sin f3)Nn (9.40b)
6
L 1 2
L2
</Jn+l = </Jn- EJ'Mn-ZEJ'(L tanf3+2eL)Nn-ZEJ'Q, (9.40c)
Mn+l = Mn+LQ,+L tan /3 Nn (9.40d)

Qn+ 1 = Qn (9.40e)
Nn+ 1 = Nn (9.40f)
where
I' = I cos f3
a= EI'/(EF)
u = horizontal displacement of girder or vertical displacement of towers

w = vertical displacement of girder or horizontal displacement of towers
f3 = slope angle of intervals
= rotation
L = chord length of cable
e = eccentricity of system axis 'I
I
M = bending moment I
N = horizontal force .I
Q = vertical force
E = modulus of elasticity
..
:I
.1
;,
In eqs. (9.40), axial stress deformation, eccentricity of horizontal force :l,/
and slope of the element have been taken into consideration. However, ..
the effect of shear deformation is neglected.
It should be noted that N and Q in the preceding equations are the
sums of the horizontal and vertical components of the axial and shear
forces acting on the cross-section, as shown in Fig. 9.18. Along with the
bending moment M, they are assumed to act at the system axis of the
section. Because the slope and the position of the neutral axis may change
from interval to interval, these notations have the advantage of saving the
work of transforming the forces and deformations from one local co-
ordinate system to another local coordinate system as the slope or position
of neutral axis changes.
With the state vector
Un
wn
cPn
yn = (9.41)
Mn
~
Nn
eq. (9.40) can be written as
(9.42)
in which Fn is the field matrix which contains simply the coefficients of
eq. (9.40).
Using the reduction method, calculation can be started from any
arbitrary point of the bridge. For symmetrical or semi-symmetrical
bridges, the calculation may begin from both ends towards the middle of
the bridge. This procedure reduces some operations and is advantageous
if the bridge is exactly symmetrical. For unsymmetrical bridges, however,
such a method may complicate the programming procedures and increase
the number of redundants. Because the present program deals with both
symmetrical and unsymmetrical bridges, the calculation will proceed
from the extreme left end to the right end of the girder and, separately,
from the top to the bottom of the towers.
Three of the six quantities at the extreme left end of the girder are
unknown. They are u, Q and cjJ if the girder is simply supported, and M,
Q and N if the girder is fixed. The three deformations, u, w and cjJ at the
top of each tower are also unknown. Other redundants will appear auto-
matically as the calculation proceeds. They are the reactions at supports,
cable forces and the quantities ~M, ~Q and ~Nat the junctions of girder
and tower, if these exist.
External loads are assumed to exist at the joints only and all linear
loadings will be summed up to form point loads at these joints. Because
the intervals are small, this, however, does not affect the accuracy of the
result.
For convenience of expression, external load is defined to include all
vertical and horizontal loads, moments, settlement of supports, change in
temperature and forced distortions.
Putting all redundants into one column matrix, X, the state vector at
any point of the bridge can be expressed as
(9.43)
in which zi is the state matrix which is a function of the stiffness of the

bridge only and Li is the load matrix containing all the load terms. They
are obtained by successive matrix multiplications. Substitution of eq.
(9.43) into eq. (9.42) gives
(9.44a)
and
(9.44b)
However, Zi has to be modified according to the boundary conditions
where the redundants first appear, therefore at supports, cable attach-
ments and junctions of girder and towers. External loads, where they
exist, shall be added to the load terms in the column matrix Li. Therefore,
at any arbitrary point i, the state matrix Z and the load matrix L at the left
of i may differ from that at the right of i.
For the solution of the redundants, a system of equations is available
from the conditions of equilibrium and compatibility. At vertical supports,
for instance,
ill':I"
w+cR = 0 (9.45)
:j,
is valid, in which cis the elastic constant (feet per kip) and c= 0 represents .I
I
an unyielding support.
:1
Cables may have different equations of compatibility depending on
different types of cable saddles. For cables fixed at both ends, or for cables
with a fixed saddle, the equation is
"'L
Ll. = . . SL A
-Wy COS CX-Uy Sill cx+wG Sill CX-UG COS CX---Ll.LTM =
0 I
EA I
.I
(9.46)
where
u and w = are displacements
T = denotes towers
..
1
G = denotes girder .1
;,
L = the assumed cable length :!
S = the cable force ''
E = modulus of elasticity of the cable
A = cross-sectional area of the cable
~LTM = the elongation of the cable due to change in temperature or
other factors which have not been included in the other terms
of eq. (9.46).
Two other types of cable saddles which have come into use are shown in
Fig. 9.19(a) and 9.19(b). The displacement of cable ends is shown in
Fig. 9.20.
Fig. 9.19 Two types of

cable saddle
Fig. 9.20 Displacement of

cable ends
For the cable saddle in Fig. 9.19(a), the resultant horizontal com-
ponent of the cable forces must vanish. Therefore the following equations
may be applied:
I!.L = 11Lieft + 11Lright = 0 (9.47a)
S 1 cos cx1+S, cos ex,= 0 (9.47b)
And for the cable saddle in Fig. 9.19(b), the equations are eq. (9.47a) and
(9.47c)
Putting all load terms onto one column matrix, A 0 , the system of
equations for the solution of the redundants can be expressed as
AX= A 0 (9.48a)
in which A contains only elements picked from matrices Z;, and A 0 only
those corresponding elements from matrices L;.
Because matrix A, which depends only on the physical characteristics
of the bridge, is independent of A 0 or external loads, it will be calculated
only once. Term A 0 must be calculated for every loading condition and
influence line. If A is inverted, giving B =A -I, the redundants are simply
X= BA 0 (9.48b)
After the redundants are evaluated, the same procedure is repeated to

compute the forces, bending moment and deformations at every desired
point of the bridge. However, the right-hand side of eq. (9.43) can be
combined to a column matrix and the calculation simplified. Or eq. (9.40)
may be applied directly to reduce operations even further, as many
elements in the field matrices Fi are zero.
A very significant point in using the reduction method is that matrix A
is unsymmetrical. The diagonal elements do not dominate and may be
equal to zero. Therefore care should be taken in the inversion of the
matrix in order to achieve accurate results. This may be done in various
ways. The method of pivotal condensation, using the largest elements as
pivots, has been applied satisfactorily. Besides, this method permits the
matrix A to be overwritten, column by column, by its inverse B during the
inversion, so that storage requirements are reduced.
9.4.4 Influence lines
Influence lines are calculated by applying the Mi.iller~Breslau principle. ii

For a cable-stayed bridge, due to the presence of axial forces, influence :I
.I
lines combining M, Nor other components are necessary. The stress at I
point r in section i, for instance, will read :I
(9.49a)
where
I
Mi = bending moment in the girder
I
Ni = axial force I
.I
TK = the tension of cable K
and the coefficients are
(9.49b) "1
.l
;,
a 3 = effect of non-uniform stress distribution in girder or tower due to :l,/
the influence of T K.
..
Because the live load which gives the maximum values of Mi or Ni does
not necessarily result in the maximum value off,., either the three influence
lines for Mi, Ni and T K must be evaluated simultaneously, or an influence
line in the form of eq. (9. 49a) be evaluated in order to obtain the maximum
and the minimum/... The latter is the simpler procedure.
Combined influence lines in the form of eq. (9.49a) can be calculated by
simple superposition. Instead of the unit deformations or distortion,
!J.cpi, IJ.ui and !J.lc = 1 a combined distortion
(9.49c)
is applied. The resulting deflection curve of the bridge is the influence line
offr.
Many other combined influence lines can be obtained in the same way.
The differential cable tension on a cable saddle, the relative movement of
the bearing plates at supports, etc., are examples for which combined
influence lines are necessary.
In order to simplify the evaluation of stresses and deformation due to
uniform loads, the area included by the influence lines should be esti-
mated. This can be done by subdividing each interval into equal or
unequal parts and integrating the area numerically by means of the
trapezoidal rule. The positive and negative parts are then summed to
form the maximum and minimum. Influence lines may also be modified
according to the corresponding specifications to include the effect of
impact and wind.
9.4.5 Nonlinear ana~ysis
It should be noted that no exact method is yet available for cable-stayed

bridges where cables, towers and girders all behave nonlinearly. The
iterative method described below makes use of the existing computer
program for linear analysis by treating all nonlinear terms as imaginary
external loads. Therefore, only the matrix A 0 has to be computed in every
iteration, but not matrices A and B.
1. CABLES
In the analysis, all cables are treated as straight members and represented
geometrically by their chords. The actual shape of a cable hanging freely
under its own weight and tensioned at both ends is a catenary. However,
the catenary is usually replaced by a quadratic parabola to avoid tedious
Fig. 9.21 Cable

calculations. This is a very good approximation because the cable tension

in cable-stayed bridges is always relatively high.
The true length, or curve lengthS, of a parabola (Fig. 9.21) can be
expressed in series as
2 4 2 4
_ ( G cos cx G cos cx )
5
- L 1+ 24H 2 640H4 + (9.50)
where
G = the total weight of the cable
L = the length of the chord
H = the horizontal component of cable tension T.
The third and subsequent terms in the bracket are very small compared
to the first and second terms, so that they can be neglected. Then, the
differentiation of eq. (5.50) yields
(9.51)
lfEc and Ac are the modulus of elasticity and cross-sectional area of the
cable, respectively, the elongation of the cable due to the change of His
approximately
ds s
(9.52)
dH ECAC cos (J.
Therefore, the axial deformation of the chord due to change of H will be
dL
(9.53)
dH
On the right-hand side of this equation, the first term, which is linear,
represents the elastic elongation of the cable and the second term, which ..
1
is nonlinear and inversely proportional to H 3 , expresses the change in .l
chord length due to the change in shape of the parabola as H changes. :,
J
Therefore, a modified stiffness of cable should be used in the analysis. I
'
Using the chord length as the length of cable, eq. (9.53) gives
(9.54a)
in which
(9.54b)
However, r varies asH varies. AsH increases from H 1 to H 2 , an average

cable stiffness should be used so that
(9.55a)
with
(9.55b)
r 1 = l+G 2 cos 5 r:t.EcAc(H1 +Hz)fl2HiH~
which is obtained by integrating eq. (9.53).
For linear analyses, where cable stiffnesses are kept constant throughout
the whole analysis without any correction, experience showed that
(9.56)
(9.57)
is a very reasonable assumption, where

H DL =
horizontal component of cable tension under dead load,
and
Hmin and Hmax = the minimum and maximum, respectively, of H under
dead and live loads.
In nont'inear analysis, all cable stiffnesses are adjusted in every iteration.
But instead of calculating the matrices A and B every time with the new
cable stiffness, this nonlinear effect can be compensated by applying a pair
of imaginary forces Kat the ends of each cable (Fig. 9.22).
I
{
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
/
/
/ex
Fig. 9.22 Imaginary Fig. 9.23 Deformed cable

forces K
For the n1h iteration, the condition of equilibrium gives
K = (EA)o-(EA)n S (9.58)
(EA)o n-1
in which (EA) 0 is used for the calculation of the matrices A and B, (EA)n
is calculated from eq. (9.53) with H 1 =HvL and H 2 =Sn_ 1 cos r:t., where
sn-1 is the cable force resulted from the (n-l)th iteration.
A second nonlinear effect of cable is caused by the change of the angle r:t.
Fig. 9.24 Total imaginary Fig. 9.25 Imaginary loads

loads of cable of girder and tower
due to displacement at both ends (Fig. 9.23). This change in slope, or the
rotation of the chord, is small compared to the original slope. Therefore,
the changes in vertical and horizontal components of the cable forces are
approximately
1'1H = - S sin IY. 1'1a (9.59)
1'1 v = s cos IY. !'11Y. (9.60)
where
1'1a = (uG+wr) sin a+(wG-uT) cos IY.

(9.61)
L
Summing up both nonlinear effects of cables, the imaginary forces
which have to be applied at the ends of the cables after nth iteration are
shown in Fig. 9.24:
F 1 = Sn sin a/'1a- Kn cos a (9.62)

F2 = Sn cos al'1a- Kn sin a (9.63) 'I
II
2. GIRDERS AND TOWERS !
The differential equation
l'!
d4 w d2w
El= - = q+S- (9.64) 'i:
ds4 ds 2
.l,,,i
will be solved iteratively by assuming the last term to be an imaginary load :!',f
which will be calculated in every iteration from the result of the preceding '
iteration, and then added to the external load q. The recursion
(9.65)
converges very rapidly in the common range of loading.

In order to simplify the calculation, this imaginary load !'1q will be
summed up to form point loads, denoted by 1'1P at the joints (Fig. 9.25).
Because the intervals are small, these imaginary point loads, at an
arbitrary point i for the nth iteration, for instance, can be calculated by the
following equations:
11Pi(n),r = ![S;(w;+ 1+w;Hn- 1 ) (9.65a)

11Pi(n),l = ![S;-1(w;+w;_t)Jrn-1) (9.65b)
where w' = dw/ds and rand l indicate the position of the load, either at the
right or the left side of the point i. Resolving these loads into a pair of
vertical and horizontal forces, eq. (9.65) gives
11 Vi<nJ = -11Pi(nJ, 1 cos /3; _1 -11Pi<nJ,, cos /3; (9.66)

11H;<nJ = 11P;<nJ,l sin /3;- 1 +11P;<nJ,r sin /3; (9.67)
For cable-stayed bridges, however, the angle f3 is usually very small, so
that 11Hi(n) is negligible and cos f3 is approximately equal to 1.0.
Equation (9.66) yields
11Vi(n) = -I1Pi(n),l-I1P;(n),r (9.68a)
11 vi(n) = Hsi-1 (w;+ w;_ 1)- S;(W;+ 1+ w;>Jrn- 1) (9.68b)
3. CALCULATION
All imaginary loads, 11P, F 1 and F2 in the first iteration are zero, which
gives exactly the result of the linear analysis. Thus, the effect of non-
linearity can be obtained simply by subtracting the resultant stresses of
the first iteration from those of the last one. It should be noted that the
convergence of the method is reasonably good. Experience has shown
that three iterations will be sufficient for all possible loading conditions
that may occur in the practical design of cable-stayed bridges. However, a
fourth iteration is sometimes desirable to ensure this convergence.
The same program can also be used to find the critical load under
which the bridge becomes unstable. Repeating the calculation with
increasing external loadings, a curve can be plotted showing the relation-
ship between load and displacement, so that the critical load can be
estimated. However, the convergence of the calculation will slow down as
the load increases.
Because the principle of superposition is not valid due to nonlinearity,
the influence-line method cannot be applied directly. But for design
purposes, the influence line from linear analysis may be used to locate the
approximate positions of the live loads, which correspond to the maximum
or minimum stresses. Then a nonlinear analysis can be carried out for
this specific loading to obtain the maximum or minimum stresses. This
method gives satisfactory results and seems to be the simplest way of
computing the maximum and minimum stresses.
4. CONCLUSIONS
The reduction method for the linear and nonlinear analysis of cable-
stayed bridges is convenient for design purposes. The nonlinear effects
are assumed to be imaginary external loads in the calculation which
results from the relatively simple procedure. The matrix method is very
suitable for using digital computers.
By comparing the results of different iterations, the designer can have a
good understanding how nonlinearity affects the stresses. Usually, this
influence is small for the main girder, where the allowable deflection is
also an important criterion, and is larger for the towers, the stability of
which deserves attention as well.
In many cases, the designer may find the most critical condition govern-
ing the design is not the one due to heavy traffic but rather one during
some erection stage, when the cables are stressed relatively low. In these
cases, it is necessary to use nonlinear analysis for the cable-stayed bridge
system.
9.5 Simulation method
9.5.1 Introduction
A method of simulation for computerized cable-stayed bridge design was

proposed in 1966 by Protte and Tross 18 . il
I
The simulation approach will be discussed along the lines proposed by I
the above authors. It was necessary to establish a program for computa- I
tion of the cable-stayed bridge under the conditions that the towers had a
fixed support and there was no connection at the intersection between the
tower and the main girder. Since an efficient program for computing con-
tinuous girders by the flexibility method was available 19- 21 , the main
system was chosen as a continuous main girder with independent towers
having fixed supports, and cables were introduced as redundants.
In order to analyse different systems of cable-stayed bridges, appro-
priate selections will be made from the following assumptions:
,,
(1) Fixed supports of the towers 1
J
(2) Horizontally immovable supports for the main girder '
(3)
(4)
No connections between tower and main girders at their intersections
Fixed cable-tower attachments. '.
I
In order to use only the originally accepted computer program, the new
assumptions were incorporated in the original system.
9.5.2 General data about simulation and the numerical calculations
Simulation can be effected by introducing additional cables, or by reduc-

ing the bending or axial stiffness of certain parts of the structure.
The hinged support of the tower, for instance, can be simulated by
31 0 CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
choosing a very flexible spring connection. When redundant X;= 1,

deformations due to simulation may occur which are greater than defor-
mations in the original system.
The elements of the system matrix are of higher order, but contain the
essential small members furnished by the geometric dimensions of the
system. In order to avoid the loss of these small numbers, and to avoid
difficulties by inverting the system matrix, it is necessary to use for the
calculation a higher number of digits than usual.
The number of the mantissa floating-point was, therefore, increased
from 8 to 18. The appropriate program, which was written in a symbolic
language, could be applied easily to the computer used. To change to
another value of the mantissa, orily a new translation of the original
program was required.
If simulation is effected by reducing a stiffness, there is an upper and a
lower limit for the magnitude of the actual stiffness. The upper limit
applies under conditions where the property which has to be simulated
(e.g., stiffness of a member) is not yet reached to a satisfactory degree. The
lower limit is imposed by the need for stability in the numerical calcula-
tions. If the lower limit is infringed, the inverse matrix cannot be found
exactly. By increasing the number of digits, the lower limit can be
extended considerably.
After the inversion of the matrix from [A] to [A]- 1 , it must be checked
that the following holds:
[A][Ar 1 = [/]
The elements of the matrix [A] are designated (5ik and elements of the
inverse matrix [A] - I are designated f3ik The equations for a matrix of
the order n can be established as
n
for t=l, ... n;j=l, ... n
n
for i = j = 1, ... n
The error f as a measure of the exactness of the inversion (in percent),

can be calculated as follows:
J= [L~=I 6;k/3kjl x 100% for i-=1-j

max[6;k/3kj[
f = IL~+ I6;kf3kj-ll x 100% for t=j

max[6;k/3kj[
and errors f > 0.1 x 10- 4 are noted. No errors were noted during the
simu.lation, due to the use of 18 digits in the mantissa. Similarly, by
checking the symmetry of the inverse matrix, no inaccuracy was noted.

To determine the most convenient magnitude of the assumed stiffness,
the following procedure is suggested.
A stiffness (not too small) is chosen, and it should be checked in a test-
loading how close the property which has to be simulated is approached.
For example, if a hinged support of the tower is assumed, and if there is
still a small remaining fixed-end moment of some magnitude, the stiffness
has to be reduced. In practice, this means that the reduction of stiffness of
one digit results in a reduction of one digit in the remaining moment. By
the same token, the forces in the whole structure are made more exact. In
general, it is possible to use an even smaller stiffness than necessary for the
required accuracy without getting instability in the calculation.
The magnitude of the assumed stiffness, therefore, falls within a wide
range. The systems, which will be discussed further, were calculated at
the same time by the method ofsuperposition of equations. The calcula-
tion was performed with floating-point numbers using a mantissa of only
8 digits; according to the method and statically determined main system
no numerical difficulties were expected. The results were accurate to
approximately 7 digits.
9.5.3 Analysis of d~fferent systems
1. BASIC SYSTEM
Figure 5.26 shows dimensions, stiffness and loading of the bridge system.
As a test case for all simulations, a loading of 2.0 Mp/m on the right side
span was chosen. Beside this, an example for cable prestressing and for
some influence line was calculated. The accuracy was approximately the
same for every computation.
2. SYSTEM NO. I
1
In System No. 1, the tower has a fixed support, and the main girder has a 1
fixed support at the abutment; there is no connection between the tower
and main girder at their intersection, and attachments of the cables to the
l'
'
tower are fixed (Fig. 9.27).
This system completely satisfies the requirements of the program.
Simulations are not necessary. The results agree with an exact calculation
with approximately 7 digits.
3. SYSTEM NO. 2
System No. 2, shown in Fig. 9.28 has the tower with a fixed support, all
bearings of the main girder are movable; there is no connection between
the tower and the main girder at their intersection, and attachments of the
cables to the tower are fixed.
312 CAB LE-ST AYEO BRIDGES
2.0 Mp/m
1111111111111111111111111111111111111
~~i
co
"'
0
0
0
"'
0
0
0
0 ~ co
_,. 0
- 0
0
0
~ :t 10
20
30 40
:c
>-
"'
'-'
"'0
0
oa:
u.J
co
0
</>07
V>>-
#fa
I
:>:z ou
i5 li!- "'u.J
</>
-'
LENGTH
24 32 28 21 30
IN m.
MOMENT
OF INERTIA 0.015 0.015 0.015 0.017 0.020
MAIN IN m4
GI ROER
CROSS
SECTION 0.12 0.12 0.12 0. 13 0.14
IN m2
MODULUS OF
ELASTIC tTY
E = 2.1 x 1 o7 Mp/m2
CROSS
SECTION A = 0 .006/m 2
IN m2
CABLE
MODULUS OF
E = 1.6 x 107 Mp/m2
ELASTIC I TV
Fig. 9.26 Geometry, System No. 2 differs from System No. 1 in that in this case the main
stiffness and loading of
the bridge system
girder has all movable bearings.
The following simulation is used: In supporting point 50, a horizontal
fixed support is assumed, and the girder between points 40 and 50 is
assumed to have a very small axial stiffness (cross-sectional area A is very
small). The simulation can only be done in those parts of the girder where
there is initially no axial force. If both end supports are connected to the
inclined cables, and therefore axial force acts throughout the girder, one
end has to be extended. This imaginary extension includes a piece of
girder with a very small axial stiffness and with a fixed support at the end.
The calculation has been done with different assumed cross-sectional
areas, Ai=A 50 a.
The accuracy attained by the simulation is shown in Table 9.1 (page
314). In addition to the shown numbers a, one calculation was done with
a= 10- 14 . Even then, no instability of the calculation occurred. The
results are in general agreement with an exact calculation with 6 digits.
4. SYSTEM NO. 3
System No. 3, shown in Fig. 9.29, has a tower with fixed support, one
fixed bearing at the girder, and the normal force acting on the tower at the
BRIDGE SYSTEM SIMULATIONS
~
2 3
4.
50 Fig. 9.27 General
0
"' arrangement of System

No!
Fig. 9.28 General

arrangement of System
No2
Fig. 9.29 General

No3
~ ~(A)
' ,_
'-----------
-------+ "" Fig. 9.30 General
No4
intersection of the girder and tower, and attachments of the cables to the
tower are fixed.
This system differs from System No. 1, because at point 20 the reaction
of the main girder is introduced in the tower as a vertical load.
Simulation: In the original System No. 1, the main girder has no
support in point 20. A vertical cable of 1 mm length is assumed to connect
the tower with the main girder at their intersection. The cross-sectional
area of this cable can be assumed very large (e.g. A= 1024 m 2 ); no in-
stability can occur in the calculation. No differences are necessary in the
steps of the simulation, and accuracy is as before.
Table 9.1. Simulation steps in System No. 2.
Ct. 10-4 10-6 w-s

Nso [Mp] 1.99 0.21 0.02
Girder max. LM (%) 9.22 0.98 0.12

min.LM (%) 0.34 O.o3 0.00
max. LN (%) 2.85 0.29 0.03
min. LN (%) 0.34 0.03 0.00
Tower max. LM (%) 25.9 2.69 0.27

min. LM (%) 8.70 0.90 0.09
max. LN (%) 0.77 0.07 0.01
min. LN (%) 0.36 0.03 0.01
LM=Error for moments, LN=Error for axial forces.
5. SYSTEM NO. 4
System No. 4, shown in Fig. 9.30, has a tower with fixed support,
movable bearings at the girder, the normal and transverse force in the
tower from the girder at the tower-girder intersection, and fixed attach-
ments of the cables to the tower.
This system differs from System No. 1, because the vertical and
horizontal forces are introduced in the tower at point 20 (bolted connec-
tion between main girder and tower).
Simulation: The absence of a horizontal immovable bearing is simulated
as in System No.2 (a= 10- 14 ). The connection between tower and main
girder is replaced by a vertical and a horizontal cable, each 1 mm in length.
The cross-sectional area of these cables is the same as in System No. 2.
6. SYSTEM NO. 5
System No. 5, shown in Fig. 9.31, has a tower with hinged support, a
fixed bearing at the girder, no connection between the tower and main
girder at their intersection, and fixed attachments of the cables to the
tower.
Simulation: The tower is replaced by a simply supported beam with
cantilever. The cantilever has the same length and the same moment of
inertia as the tower. The simply supported beam has a length of only
1.5 mm and a very small amount of inertia Ji= }60 y.
The calculation was done using different values of y, and the accuracy
attained is shown in Table 9.2.'Besides the numbers shown, one calcula-
tion was done withy= 10- 12 . No instability occurred. There was prac-
tically no difference between the two results which, to 7 digits, generally
agreed with the exact calculation.
Table 9.2. Simulation steps in System No. 5.
y w-6 10-7 J0-8
M6o [MPM] -5.82 -0.59 -0.06
Girder max. LM (%) 1.06 0.10 0.01

min.LM (%) 0.06 0.01 0.00
max. LN (%) 0.16 0.02 0.00
min. LN (%) 0.03 0.00 0.00
Tower max. LM (%) 19.44 1.95 0.18

min.LM (%) 0.05 0.00 0.00
max. LN (%) 0.13 0.02 0.00
min. LN (%) 0.07 0.01 0.00
LM=Error for moments, LN=Error for axial forces.
7. SYSTEM NO. 6
System No. 6, shown in Fig. 9.32, has a tower with hinged support,
movable bearings at the girder, a rigid link between tower and girder at
their intersection, and fixed attachments of the cables to the tower.
This system differs from System No. ~ as follows: the tower and the
main girder have a fixed connection at the intersection, the tower has a
hinged end support, and the main girder has movable bearings. At 0:5 m
on both sides of the intersection, the tower and main girder have the cross-
sectional properties J = oo and A= oo.
Simulation: The missing fixed bearing is simulated as in System No.2
and the missing fixed end of the tower is simulated as in System No. 5. In
order to have approximately the same magnitude of the matrix elements
for both simulations, the values ll.= 10- 10 and y= 10- 12 were chosen.
The rigid connection between tower and main girder is replaced by
three short cables of infinite axial stiffness. At a distance a above the
intersection, two cables are attached to the tower. On each side a cable is
leading under an angle of 45 to the fixing point on the main girder. The
third cable is arranged horizontally. The calculation was done for
a=0.5 m and for a=O.l m. There is practically no difference between the
two results. The results are in general agreement with an exact calculation
to 7 digits. Only the influence lines for forces near the intersection point
do not show this accuracy. For example, the influence line for bending
moment which is located 0.5 m to the right of the intersection point,
shows an error of maximum 0.05%. For practical use, however, this value
can be neglected.
BRIDGE SYSTEM SIMULATIONS
~---~- '"'"1ri
END OF
_____
z /
, I
=
A. = A
ro
Fig. 9.31 General

arrangement of System ' ---''
NoS
Fig. 9.32 General

No6
Fig. 9.33 General

No7
Fig. 9.34 General

No 8
8. SYSTEM NO. 7
System No.7, shown in Fig. 9.33, has a tower with fixed support, a fixed
bearing at the girder, and no connection between the tower and girder at
their intersection; cables 1 and 4 have fixed attachments to the tower,
while cables 2 and 3 are supported at the tower by movable bearings.
Here, the difference from System No. 1 is that cables 2 and 3 are con-
nected to the tower by a horizontal movable bearing. No shear forces can
be introduced at this point.
Simulation: In addition to the actual tower, one ideal imaginary tower

is introduced at the same location. Cables 1 and 4 are fixed at the actual
tower, while cables 2 and 3 are fixed at the ideal tower. The ideal tower
corresponds to the tower in System No. 5, and because of the hinged end
support, the cables cannot transmit shear forces. The horizontal com-
ponents of the forces in cables 2 and 3 should be equal. The final forces in
the tower are obtained by superposition of the forces in the actual and
ideal tower.
The calculation was done with y= 10- 12 (see System No. 5). The
results correspond generally to those of the exact calculation. For this
simulation, a slight extension of the program was necessary in order to
evaluate exactly the deformations of the two towers.
9. SYSTEM NO. 8
System No. 8, shown in Fig. 9.34, has a tower with fixed support, a fixed
bearing at the girder, no connection between the tower and girder at their
intersection, cables 1 and 4 have fixed attachments to the tower, cables 2
and 3 are supported at the tower by the roller.
In this case, the difference from System No. 1 is as follows: cables 2
and 3 cannot be considered separately. There is one cable wrapped over a
roller which is fixed at the tower.
Simulation: Even when the two cables are treated separately, there is
only one common redundant. The rows and columns in the system
matrix corresponding to the two cables are added. This way, the order of
the matrix is reduced by one. The solution is in general agreement with
the exact solution to the first 7 digits.
10. SUMMARY OF THE FORCES AND MOMENTS

Table 9.3 (page 318) shows the different systems of cable-stayed bridge
forces at certain sections. It shows a qualitative summary of how the
forces are affected by changes in the support conditions, the cable
connections and the attachments between tower and main girder.
9.6 Stiffness method
9.6.1 Introduction
The analysis of cable-stayed bridges, taking into account their three-

dimensional space action, is a relatively complex problem. If simplified
assumptions are made, the problem may be reduced to a two-
dimensional analysis. Lazar 22 presented a stiffness method of analysis of
cable-stayed bridges. An outline of the method is presented here. The
cable-stayed bridge displays a nonlinear elastic behavior. The nonlinearity
Table 9. 3. Comparison of the moments M and normal forces N for the different systems under 2.0 Mp/m in the right-hand span.
-
w
00
(j
;,.
System No. I System No.2 System No.3 System No.4 System No.5 System No.6 System No.7 System No.8 Ill
r
tTl
I
...,
(JJ
Cable 1 N 122.90 133.75 122.89 122.60 135.02 133.20 126.14 126.76 ;,.
-<
tTl
Cable 2 N 28.05 60.65 28.08 27.08 43.08 47.47 63.70 63.14 t:l
Ill
Cable 3 109.06 109.09 110.29 94.17
N 71.61 88.20 65.24 63.14
s"'
Cl
Cable 4 N 97.25 127.51 97.24 96.50 108.47 107.39 133.64 134.93 tTl
(JJ
Point 10 M -199.46 -374.76 -199.54 -193.84 -280.13 -278.28 -391.31 -390.28

Ne -158.83 -122.53 -158.82 -112.32 -141.78 -122.03 -119.53 -119.31
Nr -184.53 -178.10 -183.55 -137.13 -181.24 -165.52 -177.89 -177.16
Point 30 M 15.75 180.46 15.65 9.79 85.73 87.31 203.06 210.89
Ne -184.53 -178.10 -183.55 -184.95 -181.24 -174.95 -177.89 -177.16
Nr -86.98 -114.05 -86.97 -86.31 -97.02 -96.05 -119.53 -120.69
Point 40 M 102.01 31.74 102.91 102.68 81.20 88.08 11.15 8.64
Point 60 M -447.73 89.11 -447.75 -396.42 0.00 0.00 -103.25 -97.13
N -152.77 -166.97 -182.17 -181.80 -162.01 -190.05 -165,03 -164.69
Point 80 M 268.92 89.11 268.93 273.15 280.16 272.74 41.70 47.81
Ne -152.77 -166.97 -152.78 -152.47 -162.01 -159.89 -165,03 -164.69
Nr -92.75 -110.63 -92.74 -92.30 -102.63 -101.41 -110.33 -lll.l5
EXACT METHODS OF STRUCTuRAL ANALYSIS 319
is due to large displacements, the bending moment-axial force inter-

action and the catenary action of the cables.
9.6.2 Linear analysis
The linear analysis represents no particular problem and any medium

size, two-dimensional plane frame, stiffness computer programs, will
provide the information requried. If computer programs such as
STRUDL, STRESS, FRAN, ELAS, or others, are to be used, the only
adjustments required are for the movable tower-cable connections (Fig.
9.35). The stiffness matrix of a typical movable cable may be established
by considering the cable as a particular bilinear element (Fig. 9.36). The
corresponding cable stiffness matrix is:
cos 2 a sin 2a 0 0 -sin 2a 0 -cos 2 a sin 2a 0

2 2
sin 2a -sin 2a
sin 2 a 00 -2sin 2 a 0 sin 2 a 0
2 2
0 0 00 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 00 0 0 0 0 0
=M -2sin 2a -2sin 2 a 0 0 4 sin 2 a 0 sin 2a -2sin 2 a 0
[SM], 11 ,
L
0 0 00 0 0 0 0 0
-cos 2 a -sin 2a 00 -sin 2a
sin 2a 0 cos 2 a 0
2 2
sin 2a -sin 2 a -sin 2a
sin 2 a 00 0 sin 2 a 0
2 2 2
0 0 00 0 0 0 0 0
(9.69)
!
~"'~
,;,qA
bridge with moveable
tower-cable connections
t Fig. 9.36 Moveable

---- 1
cable, member actions
and displacements
320 C \IlLE-ST".. YED BRIDGES
where
A = area of cross-section
Ec = equivalent modulus of elasticity of cable
L = length of movable cable
a = angle of cable inclination
[SM] 111 , = stiffness matrix of movable cable
The error produced by neglecting the nonlinear behavior of the cable-
stayed bridge may, however, reach 12.4%.
9.6.3 Nonlinear ana(ysis
Progress was made in establishing methods of analysis of framed

structures by taking into account the nonlinearity due to large
displacements, the axial force-bending moment interaction and cable
nonlinearity. The methods developed permit the carrying out of the
nonlinear analysis of a structure by successive iterations of linear
subroutines, provided it is assumed that the external loads act at joints
only. In the first step of the analysis, a vector of displacements based on
the initial geometry of the system and on the external loads is
determined. In the second step, an additional displacement vector due to
the difference between the joint loads and the resultants of internal
bending moments and axial and shear forces at each joint is obtained. In
performing the second step, the stiffness matrix of the system is
assembled on the basis of the deformed geometry and of the axial loads
determined in step one. Each subsequent step i uses data determined in
the previous step i- 1. The iteration continues until the last displacement
vector obtained is a negligible fraction of the total displacement. The
axial loads determined in step i are employed in subsequent step i + 1 in
the following manner:
(1) For the girder and towers, the axial loads are used to compute the
stiffness functions 23 Sh 5 2 , 5 3 , 5 4 of the member stiffness matrix, eq.
(9.70):
-EA 0 0 -EA 0 0
L L
12Els GEis 2 -12Efs GEl 5
0 ------u- I
L2
0 --y;r I ---y;r 2
0 GEls --L-
-y;r 2Eis 3
2 0 --u-
-GEls
2
2El S
--L- 4
[SM] = (9.70)
-EA 0 EA
L
0
--r- 0 0
-l2Efs -GEls
I --u- 2
12Eis -GEls
0 --y;r 0 --y;r I --u- 2
0 GEls
-y;r 2
2El S
-r 0 --u-
-GEls
2
41 S
--L- 3
I:X!\CT ,\IETIIODS OF STRGCTCR/\L :\:\:\LYSIS 321
where
[SM] = stiffness matrix of tower or girder member
E = modulus of elasticity
I = moment of inertia of cross-section
L = length of member
(2) For cables, the axial load is employed to determine the modified
modulus of elasticity.
(9. 71)
where
Ea = actual modulus of elasticity of cable

W = weight of cable per unit length
I = unit stress in cable
This equivalent modulus E" is used in the cable stiffness matrices, eqs.
(9.69) and (9.72), instead of actual modulus E.:
1 0 0 -1 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0
E,A 0 0 0 0 0 0
fSM]rc = (9.72)
L -1 0 0 1 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0
where [SM] = stiffness matrix of fixed cable if it is taken into account

that the final form of the cables after erection is practically a straight
line; for loads applied after erection, the influence of axial forces may be
neglected, in the cable stiffness matrix. This influence should always be
considered, however, for the erection stages.
(3) Computer program. A program for the CDC 3300 digital computer
was written in Algol on the basis of the preceding principles. The
program has shown good convergence after six iterations. The general
outline of the program is the following:
i Linear subroutine:
(a) Read structural data and loads.
(b) Assemble the overall stiffness matrix from the appropriate member
stiffness matrix (use three types of member stiffness matrices: type
one for girder and tower members, type two for fixed cables, type
three for movable cables.
(c) Determine diplacements {DJ}.

(d) Determine residual forces {R} acting at joints, by taking into
account the new geometry of the structure.
(ii) Nonlinear analysis:
Repeat the linear subroutine until {RL + 1 - {RL = 0. In each step, the
stiffness matrices will be assembled on the basis of the axial forces in
members and of the deformation geometry, as determined in the
previous steps. After each step a new displacement vector will be
obtained {D./} = {Df} + {Df}.
(4) Erection and post-tensioning. During the erection process, the

structure is being built up step-by-step. To determine erection stresses
in Stage i (Fig. 9.37) the analysis may be carried out on the substructure
completed in Stage i-1. Nonlinearity should also be considered. After
the erection is completed and part of the dead load is applied on the
stiffening girder, the tension in the cables may be adjusted.
(5) Numerical example. An example was worked out for the cable-stayed
bridge shown in Fig. 9.38. The loads considered were 6000 lb per lin. ft.
The final stress resultants including the influence of nonlinearity are
presented in Table 9.4.
Fig. 9.37 Erection

stage ~-~--
4
J TB =1040 00U in
2
ATB =417 in
2
A 1 =1u5in
A2=
A :
3
Fig. 9.38 Example used
for the calculation of ,.,
stress resultants !. I IOU ft 450ft .1
Table 9. 4. Stress resultants and influence of nonlinearity
Stress resultants Linear behavior Nonlinear behavior Difference, as

(1) (2) (3) a percentage
(4)
Axial force, cable 1 2719.00 kips 2955.00 kips +8.31
Bending moment, 918 X 106 lb in 992 X 10 6 lb in +8.06
interior support
EXACT METHODS OF STRliCTlJRAL Al\"ALYSIS 323
(6) Conclusion. The procedure indicated enables the designer to analyze

a cable-stayed bridge by taking into account both linear and nonlinear
behavior. The nonlinear part is limited to the use of joint loads. For a
nonlinear structure, the principle of superposition does not apply and,
consequently, it is not possible to determine stresses and displacements
by superposition of influence lines as in the case of a linear bridge
system. The analysis of a cable-stayed bridge should be carried out by
loading the system with its full and live loads.
9.7 Finite element method
9. 7.1 Introduction
Most papers published on the static behavior of cable-stayed bridges

relate only to the simplified problem of a two-dimensional frame
structure. One exception is found in a paper by Smith 9 , who presented
an analysis of double-plane cable-stayed girder bridges and treated the
deck as a plate.
In a paper by Kajita and Cheung24 , the cable-stayed bridges were
solved by the finite element method, in which the bridge deck is divided
into a number of small elements and the whole structure is treated as a
three-dimensional system. Only linear analysis was discussed. The paper
also dealt with the dynamic analysis of cable-stayed bridges by
considering the bridge deck as a shell and assuming that the cables
behave as springs. The mode shapes and frequencies of an example
bridge were computed and the effect of the sectional area of cables on
the frequencies was discussed. The method yields bending as well as
torsional modes.
9. 7.2 Static linear ana(vsis
The finite element analysis requires the deck to be divided into

rectangular shell elements and the tower into beam elements. In order to
deal with various saddle types for the cables, a flexibility approach is used
for determining the cable forces. Referring to Fig. 9.39, let
F, , F, = the unknown redundant forces for the cables and tower
respectively
x, , x, = the deflections of plate at the connecting points between
plate and cables and between cable and tower, respectively,
due to F, and F,
x/, x/ = the deflections of the tower at connecting points between
the tower and the cables and between the tower and the
plate, respectively, due to F, and F,
324 C>\BU>ST,\YED BRIDGES
Fig, 9,39 Bridge with

finite element idealization
and redundant forces
y,, y, = the deflections of the plate at the connecting points between

the plate and cables and between the plate and tower,
respectively, due to external loads, and
;;1 , f/ = the coefficients of the flexibility matrices for plate and tower,
respectively
It is then possible to establish the following equations. For plate
deflections:
(9.73)
For tower deflection:
(9. 74)
For compatibility between plate and tower:
(9.75)
The relationship between the displacements at the cable ends, X1 and x/,
is more involved and is dependent on the type of cable saddle used (Fig.
9.40). For a fixed saddle, the cable forces are (Fig. 9.40 (a)):
Fig. 9.40 Cable saddle

types and cable forces
and displacements
1:\:\CT "'IETI!OllS OF STRLCTCR\L \',>\LYSIS 325
where
A;,A1 = sectional areas of cable

lh li = lengths of cable
S;, 1s = cable forces
u;, u1, u, = horizontal displacement
w;, w1, w, = vertical displacements
a;, a 1 = slope angles of cable
For a pinned saddle (Fig. 9.40 (b)):
(9.77)
For a roller saddle (Fig. 9.40 (c)):
S,
(9.78)
cos a;
S=-
.1
--:....5;
cosa 1
In general, eqs. (9.76)- (9.78) can be written as:
(9.79)
where C 1 and C2 are matrices which are related to the cable

characteristics. By combining eqs. (9.73), (9.74), (9.75) and (9.79), the
redundant forces can be computed through the following equation:
-1
CJiz + Cz(iz' {CtYc}
hz- hz J y,
(9.80)
where I is the unit matrix. Once the redundant forces have been solved,
all the other displacements and internal forces of the structures can be
determined.
The computer program developed can be used for solving plane frame
cable-stayed structures, since it is only necessary to use the appropriate
flexibility coefficients (for the frame member) in eq. (9.73).
9.7.3 Numerical example
Figure 9.41 (a) shows a plane frame cable-stayed bridge. Figure 9.41 (b)
shows a three-dimensional bridge with a bridge deck width b = 40 m,
such that the overall moments of inertia for all transverse sections are the
same. Figure 9.41 (c) shows two different loading cases to be considered:
a full uniformly distributed load and a partial uniformly distributed load
over half of the deck. These loads are equivalent to the line load for the
girder of the plane frame structure. Due to symmetry, only half of the
bridge is analyzed, and the deck is divided into 56 shell elements. The
cable forces and the deflections and bending moments of the mid-span
are compared with the results of the plane frame analysis.
i if t II I J I I I J I I I I J II l 1!! t/m
Icl
Load 1
~:::::::::::::::4i t/m 2
Fig. 9.41 Examples of

Load 2
Jl@llt lttlllll !IIIIBY'-=t-'0/b t/m 2
cable-stayed bridges I 200m ~
The results for the full uniformly distributed load (load 1) are
symmetrical with respect to the longitudinal center line of the bridge, and
the transverse variations of deflections and moments are quite small.
Therefore, the bridge can be safely analyzed as a plane frame structure
under such loads.
On the other hand, the partial uniformly distributed load (load 2) is
not symmetrical with respect to the center line of the bridge and the
forces and displacements at symmetrical points are now different, with
the discrepancies becoming larger with increasing bridge width.
Figure 9.42 shows the influence surfaces (b = 40 m) which show that
eccentric loads will induce significantly different responses at sym-
EXACT METHODS OF STRliCTliRAL Al'\ALYSIS 327
I I
-0.3
f 0.0
0.3
(a) Axial force in cable 1
!i#llif!/llll.. 1 ob .3o
(b) Axial force in cable 4
/~-'i<<f!!M$'z/l
0
f
I I I 1_ 0 3
0.0
0.3
(c l Longitudinal bending moment at point B
1
W!!fiil11!
79/~'; 2
. r-0.0003
0 0
0 000.3
Fig. 9.42 Typical
(d) Deflection at point B influence surfaces
metrical points on two sides of the bridge. Such transverse behavior will
not be brought out by the single plane frame.
9. 7.4. Dynamic ana(ysis and example
The well known displacement method using the lumped mass technique
is employed here. To simplify the analysis, the cables are treated as
springs, thus implying that they can take up compression as well as
tension.
The example shown in Fig. 9.41 (a), (b) (b = 20 m) is used for free
vibration analysis. In order to understand better the effect of the cables
on the dynamic behavior of the structures, three different sectional areas
and a different cable arrangement (8 cables instead of 4), as shown in
Fig. 9.43, are used for the three-dimensional structure. The mass per
unit length of the bridge is kept constant for all cases.
An examination of the results shows that the cables have a stiffening
effect and tend to raise the frequencies significantly with increasing cable
area, and that for the same total cable area, the number of cables used
has little effect on the frequencies.
328 CABI.E-STWED BRIDGES
Fig. 9.43 Example of

bridge for dynamic
analysis
~ ~_72om
A
j, ~ I
BOrn~. 200m
BOrn
The mode shapes of the deck and towers for the case of 0.03 m 2 cables
are plotted in Fig. 9.44, while the mode shapes of the girder and towers
are shown in Fig. 9.45. The torsional modes can be obtained only when
the bridge is treated as a time-dimensional structure.
-- 1 '
{a) Transverse mode 1
..
Fig. 9.44 Mode shapes
of deck and towers
~ (c) Transverse mode 3 ( f )Transverse mode 2
d=-=-h
Mode 1
~7~
Mode 2
~ k--. 'C7 -=b

Mode 3
Fig. 9.45 Mode shapes
of the plane frame cable- ---=:J =c---. h
stayed structures Mode4
The finite element method which has been applied to the static and
dynamic analysis of cable-stayed bridges shows that the plane frame
analysis commonly used in design is insufficient to explain all aspects of
behavior of the cable-stayed bridges.
9.8 Torsion of the bridge system
9.8.1 Introduction
The main girders of cable-stayed bridges often consist of single or

multiple cell box girders, as shown in Fig. 9.46. Due to their high torsional
rigidity, hollow sections are highly resistant to torsional and buckling
rp-
w I
Fig. 9.46 Box

cross-sections
loadings and represent a convenient system for the distribution of forces

between longitudinal members in bending.
A method of analysis of twisted cable-stayed bridges, considering their
behavior as a three-dimensional system consisting of a stiffening girder
supported by inclined cables, was studied by Goschy.2 5 26 , based on the
theory of thin-walled structures, developed by Vlasov 27 .
9.8.2 Basic assumptions
In accordance with St Venant's theory of torsion, it is assumed that the

cross-section of the box girder keeps its shape during twisting. This
condition could be satisfied only if the hollow section is stiffened with
transverse diaphragms or stiffening members, at least where forces are
introduced in the girder. In the case of a box girder without diaphragms,
the cross-section will change its shape under distortion.
It is also assumed that the thicknesses of the walls are small in com-
parison with the dimensions of the cross-section, and that the shear
stresses in the walls are uniformly distributed.
9.8.3 Box girder as a space structure
As an example, a three-span cable-stayed bridge with a continuous

stiffening girder of rectangular cross-section, (Fig. 9.4 7) is analyzed.
The applied load p(z) per unit length of the bridge acts over the right-
hand web, and after dividing it into symmetrical and antisymmetrical
parts (Fig. 9.49), we obtain from the antisymmetrical part the uniformly
distributed torque
My 0 = p(z)a
The cross-section of the box girder is stiffened by diaphragms over the

supports and at the locations of the cable attachments to the girder. Under
these conditions, the distortion between two diaphragms takes place under
loading and may be analyzed by cutting the box section into two parts by a
vertical plane and equalizing deformations in the longitudinal and trans-
verse directions.
Considering a simply supported girder with span /1 , the condition of
equality of deformations in the vertical intersection is shown in Fig. 9.50.
In the longitudinal direction, the deflection of the girder is defined
l3
Fig. 9.47 Three span
cable-stayed bridge lf2
1- I ~d a
0
I t X
- dh
I--
~-- --
dh
fig. 9.48 Stiffening

i db
girder. Cross-seLtion
2p (z) p(z) p(z) P (z) p(z)
l t
TI + Fig.'). 49 Decomposition
of vertical load
Fig. 9.50 Transverse

bending of the cross-
section
V = ('la+"{b) a
c 2h
lxa
_____._
2h
-1 xa
2h
~
V=-~
c 2h
Fig. 9.51 Deflection at

I point A
according to the equation

d4 Y1 p(z)-(qa+qb)
(9.81)
dz 4 - Elx
where Elx is the bending rigidity of the girder with respect to the x-axis.
The transverse deflection could be determined considering the distor-
tion of the frame, by applying the method of virtual work (Fig. 9.51).
(9.82)
and
(9.83)
we obtain
(9.84)
where EB designates the bending stiffness of the frame.

In the expression (9.83), the moments of inertia of the walls are given by
the following formulas:
For the upper flange
d6
lo=l2(1-i)
For the bottom flange
and for the vertical wall
where v=Poisson's ratio.

After differentiating eq. (9.84) four times, we obtain
dzy
. 2
a3 d4qa
(9.85)
dz 2 = 24EB dz 4
And after equating the vertical displacements from (9.81) and (9.85) the
following linear differential equation is obtained:
p(z)-(qa+qb) a3
d4qa
Elx 24EB dz 4
From (9.82), it follows that qb= Kq 0 and after substituting this value into
the above equation, we obtain
p(z) 24EB
(9.86)
By designating
),n=bI ~(l+K) J
J[6Bb (9.87)
and substituting into (9.86), we arrive at
d4qa+4A.4 =44p(z) (9.88)

dz4 nqa A I+K
To simplify the calculations, we assume that
(9.89)
and substituting (9.89) into (9.88) yields

4
d q0 (a) + ( ) = 4p(a)
4 (9.90)
da 4 qa a I+ K
The complete solution of the differential equation (9.90) consists of

two parts
(9.91)
where
q1 (a) = the general solution of the homogeneous equation, and
q2 (a) = the partial solution of the general equation.
Both solutions will be obtained following the method developed by
Krylov 28 .
(a) It is convenient to express the general solution in hyperbolic
functions as follows :
(9.92)
where
Y1 = cosh a cos a }
Y2 : t<c.osh a s_in a+sinh a cos a)
(9.93)
Y3 - 2 smh a sm a
Y4 =-!:(cosh a sin a-sinh a cos a)
Derivatives of the functions (9. 93) are shown in Table 9.5.
Table 9.S.
Y; a Y;/arx a2 Y;/arx 2 a3 Y;/arx 3 a4 Y;/arx 4
yl -4Y4 -4Y3 -4Y2 -4Y 1

2 y2 yl -4Y4 -4Y3 -4Y2
3 y3 y2 yl -4Y1 -4Y3
4 y4 y3 y2 yl -4Y4
(b) Following the method proposed by Cauchy, a particular solution

may be obtained to satisfy the following conditions
Y(O) = 0 aY(O) = 0 82 Y(O) = 0 83 Y(O) = 1 (9.94)

arx 8rx 2 8rx 3
It should be noted that these conditions are satisfied by the function Y4 .
When introducing the value rx- t into the function instead of argument rx,
the particular solution may be expressed as
(9.95)
In the case of the uniformly distributed loading p =constant along the

whole span, we have
q2(rx) = - 4pK
1+ o
ia
Y4 (rx-t) dt = -p- [1- Y1 (rx)]
1+K
= _P_(l-coshrxcosrx) (9.96)
l+K
Therefore, the complete solution is
and the constants C 1 , C2, C3 and C4 can be determined from the

boundary conditions.
The transverse bending may be calculated from the distortion of the
Vierendeel frame (Fig. 9.52, page 336). The relative vertical displacement
of this frame may be expressed as
(9.98)
where y indicates the transverse distortion of the cross-section.
At the end supports, due to the rigid diaphragms, after substituting

expression (9.84) into (9.98), we get
- 2 Y2 - qa(li.)a2 - 0
y- a - 12EB -
or
(9.99)
for z=O and z= I.

The boundary condition (9.99) gives for a simply supported girder
C1 Y1(0)+ C2 Y2(0)+ C3 Y3(0)+ C4 Y4(0)

for z = 0 lJ. = 0
(9.100)
cl Yl(Jcl)+ C2 Y2(Jcl)+ c3 Y3(Jcl)+ c4 Y4(Jcl)
+~[1- Y1(Jcl)] = 0 forz =I lJ. =Jet
The additional boundary conditions are

d2y a2 d2 qa(li.)
-=--~-=0
2
d1J. 12EB d1J. 2
for z=O and z=l.
For
-4C 1 Y3(0)-4C 2 Y2 (0)+ C 3 Y 1(0)+ C 4 Y2 (0)

p
+ Y 3 (0) = C3 = o
2
(9.101)
For
2
d qili.) = 0 and z = I
diJ.2
-4C 1 Y3(Jc/)-4C 2 Y4(Jc/)+ C 3 Y1(Jcl)

+C4 Y 2 (Jcl)- 2p Y3 (Jcl) = 0
By solving eqs. (9.100) and (9.101)

p
C 2 Y 2 (Jcl)+ C 4 Y4(Jcl)+z-[l- Y 1(Jcl)] = 0
(9.102)
-4C2 Y4(Jcl)+ C 4 Y2 (Jcl)- 2p Y3(Jcl) = 0
Fig. 9.52 Distortion of

the cross-section
we obtain
C _ -iY2 (Jcl)+iY1 (Jcl)Y3 (Jcl)+2Y3 (Jcl)Y4 (Jcl) ( . )

9 103
2
- p Y~(Jcl)+4Yi(Jcl)
C _ -2 Y'4 (Jcl)2 Y1 (Jet) Y4 (Jcl)- 2 Y 3 (Jcl) Y3 (Jcl)
4
- p Y~(Jc/)+4 Yi(Jcl)
Therefore
(9.104)
9.8.4 Torsional moments
In the longitudinal direction, the deck may be considered as a continuous

box girder on elastic supports. By eliminating the assumed horizontal
supports after re-establishing the connections between the two half-
sections, support reactions produce the torque per unit length (Fig. 9.53):
mq = -2[(l+K)qaG+xr)- Pxr]
(9.105)
= -(1 + K)qaa+ [p-(1 + K)qa]2xT
where xT is the distance of the centre of torsion from the web of a half-
section.
From the vertical forces acting on a half cross-section
(9.106)
together with the vertical component due to the distributed torque

m 2xr
rz = _!1 = (1+K)qa-[p-(1+K)qa]- (9.107)
a a
I~
L,
I~ ~II
ll
l I l lq
/.cysc~1 !I
I Rf2 R R I
tl ~r, t rI
i= ~" E I
I
M =-Ra
p
Mp=-Ra
I Cmq
I I
I~ k .r
r< Fig. 9.53 Concentrated
torques and angle of twist
of the continuous free body
beam
one obtains the resultant force per unit length
(9.108)
Therefore, the reactions at the cable attachments can be determined from
(9.109)
where
1
'
J
dz 1+K{ C
(l+K) o qadada=-;_- CzY3(A/)- 44[Yt(.A./)-1]
+ 1: K [.A.I- Y2 (.A.l)]} (9.110)
By omitting the fictitious supports, we obtain from the reactions the

concentrated torque
Mp = - pa { 1---;-
2xr (D-1)}
----ys- I (9.111)
9.8.5. Torsion of the girder
The girder undergoes not only bending but also torsion when subjected
to a transverse load which does not pass through the shear centre. The
external torsional moment acting on the girder could be divided into
two components: proper torsional moment mvn and the bending torsional
part mvn, or
(9.112)
Between the torsional moment and twist angle exists the known
relation
and
mvn =
where
GIT = the torsional rigidity of the cross-section
Eiw = the sectorial rigidity of the cross-section.
The differential equation of combined torsion and bending can be
written as follows:
(9.113)
where, according to Fig. 5.37,

4A 2
IT=-----
0 L7= 1 f1S;/6;
2ad 3
a b ad 3
h hd 3
2I T
l
=--+-+-
3 3 3
where I w is the sectorial moment of inertia of the girder cross-section.

Dividing eq. (9 .113) by the sectorial rigidity EIw and introducing the
notation
(9.114)
Complete solution of the differential equation (9.115) can be written in

the form
where 1/t is the particular solution which may be found following the
method of initial parameters used by Vlasov27 .
First the zero of the coordinate z is placed in some arbitrary section of
the girder. It is assumed that all the geometrical and statical factors
involved in the description of torsion of the girder under the law of
sectorial areas have definite values prescribed for this initial section.
Denoting these factors by 1/1 0 , 81/f 0 /8z, M 0 and N 0 respectively, it is also
assumed that the girder is subjected to the action of the initial factors
only, or that the external forces vanish along the beam. Putting z= 0 for
this section, and using the expressions
(9.117)
where
M = bimoment
N = flexural-torsional moment with respect to the shear centre,
we write, from the general equation (9.116),
l/t 0 (z) = K 1 +K2z+K3 sinh {Jz+K4 cosh {Jz+l/t 1(z)

81/t 0 (z) . 81/t 1 (z)
~ = K 2+K3{3 cosh {Jz+K4 {3 smh {Jz+----a;:-
821/t Glr 821/t

-EI'"8z 2 = - 7 8 z2
. 1 82 1/t 1
- GI { K 3 smh {Jz+ K 4 cosh {Jz+ {3 2 z 2
(z)J (9.118)
8
83 1/t 81/f
-Elw 8z3 +Glr 8z
After substituting into (9.118) z=O, the following system of equations

for the arbitrary constants Kh K 2 , K 3 and K 4 in terms of initial para-
meters is obtained:
81/1 1 (0) _ K
8z
- z+ f3K 3
(9.119)
Solving this system of equations, we obtain
Mo
K1 = 1/Jo+ CIT
No
Kz=-
CIT
(9.120)
1 81/1 1 (0) 1 N 0
K 3 = 73 --a;:---73 CIT
Substituting the expressions for K 1 , K 2 , K 3 and K4 founded from ex-

pressions (9.118), one obtains the general equations by the method of
initial parameters for all four design quantities:
1 81/1 1 (0) . M0 N0 ( 1 . )
1/1 = 1/1 1 + ~ smh [3z- Cfr (cos /3z-1)+ Cfr z- smh f3z
73 73
81/J 81/1 0 1 M0 . N0
-=-cosh f3z--- smh f3z+- (1-cosh f3z) (9.121)
8z 8z f3 CIT CIT
1 81/10 . 1 .
M = -73 CIT 8z smh f3z+Mo cosh f3z+73 No smh [3z
N= N 0
Let a concentrated transverse force, P, at a distance e from the shear

center, act on the girder at some point z= t. In this case, the girder will
be in a condition of combined flexure and torsion. Actually, the load P
if transferred parallel to itself to the shear center, will cause stresses,
determined by the usual elementary theory of bending. The concen-
trated external torsional moment N=Pe obtained by transferring the
force P to the shear center induces complementary sectorial stresses
rJ w and 'w. Omitting the calculation of the beam for a load which causes
flexure according to the law of plane sections, let us examine the calcula-
tion of the girder under the action of a concentrated torsional moment
N=Pe.
Since only an external concentrated force factor N acts on the section

z=t, it follows that Nr= -N= -Pe.
In more general form, the initial section need not be z= 0, but an
arbitrary section z = t (!;;:;: t:;:::: 0). One therefore should use the argument
z= t instead of z in the coefficients, which form a matrix of the initial
parameters, shown in Table 9.6.
Table 9.6.
aifio Mo; No; Nr Pe

ifio --
az CIT CIT CIT CIT
ljf(z) ~sinh {Jz

1 .
1- cosh {Jz z-{i smh {Jz (z-t)-~ sinh {3 (z-t)
aljf(z)
0 cosh (iz - {3 sinh {Jz 1- cosh,{Jz 1- cosh {J(z- t)
az
~sinh {Jz
M(z) 1 . h
0 _!sinh fh cosh {Jz {ism (z-t)
CIT {3
N(z)
0 0 0
CIT
Assuming that in the continuous girder being examined, warping over

intermediate supports is restrained, the boundary conditions are given by
For z= 0 t/1=0 ot/J = o

oz
z= l t/1=0 ot/J = o
oz
The first two conditions directly determine two initial parameters.
The remaining two initial parameters M 0 and N 0 are found from the
last two conditions of Table 9.6.
If a concentrated unit torque Xia= 1 is acting on the girder at a
distance ti (i= 1, 2, ... ) from the left-hand side middle support, the
initial parameters have the value of
For z = l t/1=0
z = l ot/J = o
oz
-M 0 ; ( 1- cosh {3) +- 1) .
N 0 l ( 1-- smh {3
CIT CIT {3
+ Pe [!___sinh f!_ (1- t)- (1- t)J = 0

CIT {3 l
(9.122)
Mo {3 . No
- - - smh {3 +- (1- cosh {3)
CIT l CIT
+ Pe
CIT
[cosh~l (l- t)-1] = 0
From eqs. (9.122) we find
t;+(l- t;) cosh 1{3+(1/{3) sin {3t;-(1/f3) sinh 1{3
+ (1//3) sinh {3(1- t;)-l cosh {3(1- t;)
Mot = -----------------------------------
1{3 sinh 1{3 + 2( 1- cosh 1{3)
(9.123)
1+{3(1-t;) sinh /{3-cosh lf3+cosh /3t;-cosh {3(1-t;)
No; = +--~~~--~~~~~--~~~--~~~
1{3 sinh 1{3 + 2(1- cosh 1{3)
(9.124)
The corresponding angles of twist under the unit torque acting at
the attachments of the cables to the girder will be found by introducing
the values of the initial parameters in Table 9.6.
For the above boundary condition, the following equations are
obtained for the required angles of twist at the connection of the first cable:
(1) For the first cable z = t 1
,,, _ M 01 (1-cosh {3td N 01 ( 1 . h {3 )

'I' 11 - + t 1- - sm t1
CIT CIT {3
(9.125)
(2) For the second cable z = t 2
,,, M 01 (1-cosh/3t 2) N 01 ( 1 . h/3)

'I' 12 = CIT +CIT t2-~ sm t2
1
+ GilT [< t 2 - t d- - sinh {3 (t 2 - t 1 )]
(9.126)
13
(3) For the third cable z = t3
,,, M 01 (1-cosh{3t 3 ) N 01 ( 1 . h/3)

'I' 13 =
CIT
+-
CIT
t 3- -{3 sm t3
+ G~T [(t3-td-~ sinh {3 (t 3-td] (9.127)

EXACT METHODS OF STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS 343 ]
I
I
I
I
Fig. 9.54 Cable system
(4) For the fourth cable z = t4
,,, _ M 01 (l-cosh /3t4 ) N 01 ( I . f3 )

'I' 14 - CIT +CIT t4 -fj smh t4
+ C~T [(t 4- t 1 )-~ sinh f3(t tt)J 4- (9.128)
9.8.6 Deformation of the cables
The elastic elongations of the cables are given by the formulas
(9.129)
The length of the cables can be calculated from Fig. 9.54:
If a unit vertical force is applied at the attachment of the cable to the

girder, its component in the cable is
1 1
xcl = sm
. ()(cl cos ecl xc2 = .
Sin ()(c2 COS
e
c2
(9.131)
The vertical deformation of the cables can be calculated from
~cl
1Jc1
(9.132)
~c2
1Jc2 = .
Sln rxc2 COS
e c2
The antisymmetric deformations of the cables produce twist of the

girder with the angles
2 2
l/ttt=-1Jct
a
l/t 22 = - 1Jc2
a
(9.133)
at distances z=t 1 and z=t 2 from the left-hand support.
9.8.7 Vertical displacements
To determine the vertical displacements, the continuous stiffening girder

is considered as a free body beam. Under pure torsion, deflection curves
of the two adjacent spans at the middle supports have a common tangent.
In the middle span of the free body beam, the following twisting moments
are acting:
concentrated torques MP at distances t 1 , t 2 , t 3 and t 4 from the left-hand
side at the intermediate support
Mxl = +Xta at
(9.134)
Mx2 = +Xza at
and the angles of twist produced by the torques MP at z=t 1 and z=t 2
are given by the following system of equations:
(1- :T 2
D;
1
}!/t 11 +l/121 + l/124 + l/114) Ita= !/tot p/1 a (1- 2
:T D; l)
(9.135)
( 1-
2
:T D; 1) (l/t 12+ l/t22 + l/t 23+ l/t 13) /1 a= l/to2 P
!1
2
a ( 1- : T D; 1
)
Unknown redundant forces acting vertically upwards on the stiffening

girder and downwards in the cables will be denoted by X~> X 2 , X 3 and
X 4 . Due to symmetry, X 1 =X4 and X 2 =X3 .
The fact that there is no relative vertical displacement between cables
and stiffening girder due to the combined action of external and internal
forces can be expressed by the equations:
Using matrix algebra, we can write eqs. (9.136) in the condensed form
Ax=f (9.137)
where the matrix is of order 2 x 2:
~ [t/1 11 + t/1 11 + t/1 14

A= (9.138)
t/12t+t/124
and the column vectors are
(9.139)
Besides the influence of vertical loading, prestressing force and tem-

perature, cables have to be dimensioned to transfer the forces caused by
torsion, as given by the formulas (9.131). These forces are much smaller
when a box girder is used instead of open girders. When a box girder is
used, the torque can never change the sign of the load in the cable in
tension.
On the basis of the above analysis of the torsion of the bridge system,
the following conclusions could be made:
( 1) The stiffening girder of cable-stayed bridges can be treated as an
elastically supported continuous girder.
(2) Due to the significant vertical displacements of the cables, the middle
supports can be eliminated by prestressing the cables.
(3) In case of torsion, produced by eccentrically acting loads, prestressed
cables are of no significance.
9. 9 Analysis of towers
9. 9.1 Introduction
The tower must be generally designed to transfer the cable force to the
base and not to obstruct the roadway. It usually has one of the following
geometrical shapes, discussed in Chapter 1 :
346 C~HI.F-SnYF.D BRIDGES
(a) Single column

(b) A pair of separate columns
(c) A-frame
(d) Portal frame.
The design of the tower depends upon the material employed. This
is either prestressed concrete or, more commonly, steel. The application
of steel for cable-stayed bridge towers offers many advantages. The
lower cost permits a greater height in order to secure a more favorable
slope for the inclined cables.
To meet architectural requirements and to offer resistance to trans-
verse forces, the outline of the tower should taper towards the top. This
also conforms to structural requirements.
The behavior of the tower depends upon the details of its connections
to the cables, deck and pier. It appears to be desirable to design these
connections in such a manner as to minimize tower bending moments.
Comparison of the shapes of the influence lines considering different
types of cable connections to the tower indicates that the choice of type
of such connections affect bending moments acting in the stiffening
girders and towers themselves.
The tower legs should be designed as columns to withstand the vertical
reactions of the cables; also as cantilevers to resist the unbalanced cable
forces. The latter depends upon the saddle design: whether it is fixed or
movable, the temperature and loading conditions, and the inclination
of main and sidespan cables at the saddle. Forces due to wind pressure
on the cables, towers, and stiffening girders must also be accounted for.
9. 9.2 Structural systems of the towers
In the design of cable-stayed bridges, different combinations are possible

between supports for the towers and cable attachments to them, as
shown in Fig. 9.55.
I. TOWER BASE
Generally, a fixed base, connected either to the deck or to the pier, may
be necessary to avoid the more expensive heavy pin bearing, which also
complicates erection. When the tower is finrily anchored at the base to
the tower pedestals, it is free to deflect longitudinally under the de-
formations of the cables when they are fixed to the tower.
Rocker towers, pin-bearing at the base, afford the most economic and
scientific design for bridges of longer span. They eliminate the stresses
from unbalanced cable forces without requiring movable saddle con-
struction. If rocker towers are adopted, they must be secured against
B A S E LEGEND: FIXED SADDLE

ROLLER OR ROCKER SADDLE
FIXED
PIN-
BEAR I NG
Fig. 9.55 Structural

systems for the towers
tipping during erection. This may be accomplished by temporary

connections to the adjoining stiffening girders structure, by wedging or
bracing at the base, or by guying the upper portions of the tower.
2. SADDLES
The cables are generally continuous over saddles located inside the
towers. Saddles are either bolted to the supports or provided with
rollers. When fixed saddles are used, the resultant unbalanced horizontal
forces must be calculated and allowed for in the design of the tower,
unless it is of the rocker type.
If the saddles are movable, the eccentricity of the vertical reaction
under various loading conditions must be accounted for. The roller
support for the saddle permits its horizontal movement. The resultant
of the tensions of the cable should pass through the middle of the roller
nest to give an even distribution of stress. The friction of the rollers is
so small that the angle of inclination of the resultant reaction is negligible.
Instead of circular rollers, rockers may be used, so as to furnish a
greater diameter and thereby reduce friction and roller-bearing stress.
Rockers, however, must be secured against excessive motion liable to
cause overturning.
Rollers serve to reduce the bending stresses in the towers due to an
unbalanced horizontal cable pull resulting from special loading con-
ditions and temperature. On the other hand, they are expensive, add
erection complications, increase maintenance, and merely substitute

eccentric vertical loading for unbalanced horizontal pull. On the whole,
fixed saddles provide a simple and safer solution.
9. 9.3 Loadings
The prime function of a tower is to carry the vertical load transmitted

to it by the cables. In addition to the direct vertical loads, the design of
the towers requires analysis for loads acting both transversely and
parallel to the centerline of the bridge. These loads may be summarized
as follows:
(A) Verticalloads
( 1) Tower weight
(2) Cable reactions which include:
(a) dead load
(b) live load plus temperature change.
(B) Longitudinal loads

(1) Deflection of the tower top due to change in side span cables
(2) Wind
(3) Saddle eccentricity.
For all longitudinal loads, the towers are analysed depending on their
support conditions and types of cable attachments.
(C) Transverse loads

(1) Wind
(2) Saddle eccentricity
(3) Secondary stresses-caused by eccentriCity of vertical loads
resulting from lateral deflection of the towers under wind load
(4) Temperature change.
(D) Seismic loads

Seismic loads in the towers are simplified for the preliminary design
to a static lateral force of 10% of dead load applied transversely and
5% of dead load applied longitudinally. These loads should be
refined for the final design by using a computer dynamic analysis.
Generally, loading of the tower consists of the forces acting on cable
supports, wind forces and its own weight. Under dead load and cable
prestressing, the towers are only under axial loading. Compared to the
great vertical loads the lateral forces caused solely by wind are relatively
small.
9.9.4 Tower analvsis
Under a normal live load, extending across the width of roadway and
distributed asymmetrically, the tower deflects and may also twist. The
tower deviates from a vertical plane, causing the large vertical loads to
become eccentric, producing bending and twisting moments and
stresses. Consequently, the primary problem is the calculation of tower
stresses due to these deformations. However, it may be necessary also
to estimate the transverse and torsional stiffness of the axially loaded
tower.
The primary stresses in the tower shafts are a result of the vertical
cable reactions and the longitudinal bending moments induced by
changes in the side span cable length due to live load and temperature
changes.
The axial loads on the tower shafts vary from a minimum at the top
to a maximum value at the base resulting essentially from the weight
of the tower proper. The longitudinal bending moments vary from near
zero at the top to different values along the tower, depending on the type
of cable supports or attachments to the tower.
Generally, the following basic cases should be investigated by analysing
the tower:
(a) Maximum vertical load Vmax with the corresponding displacement
of the tower f This case should be considered when the whole bridge
is loaded.
(b) Maximum displacement of the tower !max with the corresponding
vertical load V due to loading in the midspan. This is the critical case
for design of the tower.
(c) In the following analysis 2'\ a typical case is considered of a tower
of constant cross-section, having a fixed base, which is loaded by the
vertical force V and which has displacement/ (Fig. 9.56).
By neglecting the weight of the tower proper, therefore, assuming

that the normal force N is equal to the vertical loading V, we obtain the
following expression for the moment at section x:
M(x) = Hx- V[f-v(x)] (9.140)
By substituting (9.140) into the equation

2
Eld v(x)+M(x) = 0 (9.141)
dx 2
we arrive at
d2 v(x)
EI - 2-+ Vv(x) = Vf- Hx (9.142)
dx
~v
~~r-~~~~~-~H___
x v(x)
I ""
1 f-v(x)
I J
I I
I
I
I
I
Fig. 9.56 Tower. View in "1-- EI CONSTANT
cross-section of the bridge I
and by indicating
(9.143)
we obtain
(9.144)
The general solution of the above equation is
C . Hx
v(x ) = 1 COS lXX+ C2 Stn lXX+ f -V (9.145)
Given the following boundary conditions:

x=O v(x) = f
(9.146)
dv
x=h v(x) =0 - =0
dx
the unknown constants of integration C 1> C2 and Hare
C2=--1
sin IXh
(Hh
- - f)
V
H =
IXh
V!Xfcos IXh
COSIXh- sin IXh
( 147)
9
.
After substituting values (9.147) into eq. (9.145) we obtain

sin IXh- sin lXX- (h- x)rx cos IXh
v(x) = f sin rxh-IXh cos rxh (9.148)
and the bending moment from (9 .140) is

sin IXh
M(x) = - J V - . - - - - - (9.149)
sm IXh - IXh cos rxh
and the bending moment at the fixed base is
M (h) = _ JV sin IXh (9.150)

sin rxh - IXh cos rxh
6 II
max M =- ..,..,-:."::::L".:..;fv::o:--:-:-:::-:::-;:-
slnO<h-o<.h cos~h ,,,,
M(x=h) =- fv sin<Xh
sin o<.h- OCh coso01 ,,,,
maxM
tV\ /
/
,,/I 0
I
I
cx.h = -
Er
h
I
--- !...,............
I
COORDINATES~ (maxM) OF THE max.M
I
0 I
x (maxM) =h I x (maxM) =0. 35h CXh

I
I
I Fig. 9.57 Moments in the
tower as function of the
x (maxM) stiffness EI of the tower
The position and value of the maximum bending moment is found by

differentiating eq. (9 .149) with respect to x:
n
X(maxM) = Za (9.151)
and
1
max M = - JV -,---,------,- (9.152)
sin rxh- rxh cos rxh
Equations (9.150), (9.151) and (9.152) are presented graphically in Fig.

9.57.
To determine the bending moment in the tower, we calculate first the
value rxh= J(V/El)h, locate on Fig. 9.57 the dimensionless value
M/JV, and multiply by Vf to find the required bending moment M.
It should be noted that at great rigidity EI, and also at smaller rxh,
the moment is relatively large. The economical design of the tower
requires also such small rigidity EI that the value of rxh should exceed
n/2. Obviously, this means that the tower should be designed so lightly
that under the proper weight of the bridge, we may obtain certain
normal force N, which at least is equal to the Euler load for the tower
fixed at the base and free to move at the top. This means that the line
of influence of the resultant force due to the V and H action, must be as
close as possible to the tower.
Fig. 9.58 Tower built up

from n sections
LI
Fig. 9.59 Section i of the

N.
tower. All values are I
v;
assumed to be positive
(d) Next, the general solution for a tower with varying cross-section
is analysed.
Up to now only the action of the vertical force V and the displacement
of the top of the tower fhave been considered. In addition, the following
factors should be taken into consideration for the calculation of stresses
and deformations of the tower: wind load w in the longitudinal direction
of the bridge, the non-uniform influence of the temperature 11h on the
towers and particularly the eccentricity e of the vertical load V 0 during
erection (Fig. 9.58).
The above influences can be evaluated using the previously developed
differential equation (9.144). In the following, an attempt is made to
find its solution taking account of the varying cross-section of the tower,
which results in varying moments of inertia I and consequently in varying
weight of the tower. In this method, the tower is divided into n sections
(Fig. 9.59).
Table 9. 7.
vi-t '
l';-1 ~-1 J'J.t
VI
x (1-cos cxJ;) X ( 1-COS ct.))
1
---
2
(1-cos ex./.)
11
Elrx;
EI;cx,
d;
x ( 1- cos aJJ
EI;rx;
di
x rx; sin ex);
The connection conditions between the forces and deformations at

points (i - 1) and i constitute the matrix of the segment A;, shown in
Table 9.7.
With the introduction of this transformation or segment matrix, the
normal forces N; and the moment of inertia I; will be assumed as basic
constants; due to this assumption, the tower's own weight will be
expressed by single forces at tower sections, as indicated in Fig. 9.58.
The normal force N; may be expressed as
k=i-l
N = 2:: Vk (9.153)
k=O
These concentrated loads V; induce not only the normal force N but also
the transverse force Q in direct proportion, since
(9.154)
At the beginning of the first section and also at the top of the tower,
the known displacement and the bending moment are
Vo =I (9.155)
The slope of the tower at the top, dv 0 (x)/dx, and the horizontal force H
at the support, may be determined from the boundary conditions. Slope
dv 0 (x )/ dx is determined from eq. (9 .148) at the boundary condition
X= 0.
The horizontal force H is determined from eq. (9 .14 5}, using v 0 ( x) =I

at x=O and dv(x)jdx=O at x=h.
9.9.5 Typical examples
(a) BRIDGE AT MAXAU

In this bridge, described in Chapter 2, a stiffening box girder is suspended
from a single tower which has a pin-bearing base. The upper cable is
supported on the tower by a movable bearing; however, both middle
and bottom cables are supported on fixed saddles (Fig. 9.60).
For the design of the tower 30 , a stability analysis was performed to
study the deformations of the tower, according to second-order theory.
It was assumed that under the influence of the vertical loadings, the
tower would bend. The constant value of r/20= 1.57 in (40 mm) was
accepted as the maximum eccentricity of the saddle in the plane of the
cable system, where r is the corresponding radius of gyration of the tower
cross-section. It was also assumed that the tower is not quite vertical,
due to errors in fabrication or erection with a resulting eccentricity of
1/500= 3.62 in (92.5 mm). The resulting deformation of the tower was
assumed to follow the shape of a sine curve, as shown in Fig. 9.61.
Fig. 9.60 Maxau bridge.

Tower in elevation and
cross-section
j
J
"-
...-
":
in,
"'
Fig. 9.61 Assumed

-deflection of the tower in
the longitudinal direction
Fig. 9.62 The directions

H 1.57 in. of the forces acting on the
deformed tower
- - VM DUE TO PRINCIPAL FORCES

- - - VM DUE TO PRINCIPAL FORCES AND SECONDARY FORCES
Fig. 9.63 Moments in the

tower, using v-load factor
in both directions
In the direction transverse to the span, the deformed tower swayed

due to the forces of cables at support, in the plane of the cable system
(Fig. 9.62), and deviated from the center of the gravity of the stiffening
girder, having assumed a deflection of 1.57 in (40 mm) from the axis of
the tower.
To calculate transverse forces for both principal axes, the v-load
factor was used, according to the German DIN Standards. For design
purpose, the case of maximum bending moments acting in the tower
was considered as a critical one. Under loading in the main span, the
maximum moment is acting at the elevation of the bottom saddle
(Fig. 9.6.3).
(b) THE SEVERIN BRIDGE

The Severin Bridge, described in Chapter 2, has a single triangular
tower, having cables converging at the apex of the triangle (Fig. 9.64).
Fig. 9.64 Severin Bridge.

Tower system
Fig. 9.65 Statically

determinate system of the
tower
Apart from transferring cable forces, the tower is under the influence
of wind components acting in the plane of the deck.
The analysis of the tower 31 32 , was carried out by introducing in
the longitudinal direction of the bridge a vertical cut through the top
of the tower, thus separating the two legs from each other (Fig. 9.65).
The common force across this cut is introduced as a further redundant
quantity. The forces acting upon the tower, for the purpose of this
analysis, were split up into two sets of loads, one being symmetric and
the other antisymmetric with respect to the axis of the structure. For all
the symmetrical cases of loading, the common force in the cut is zero
at the top of the tower, therefore only the two-dimensional main struc-
tural system is operative. For all the antisymmetric cases ofloading there
arises in the statically indeterminate two-dimensional subsystem of the
upstream and of the downstream main girder a horizontal displacement
of the top of the tower. This displacement is of equal magnitude in each
of the two systems, but acts in the opposite direction and is cancelled
by the redundant joining force acting at the top. This means, therefore,
N ( t) My (tm)
-52.30
-52.86
-5374
-54J5
-5462
-6058 Fig. 9.66 Transverse
-6090 forces in the tower under
principal forces
Fig. 9.67 Moments in the

tower under secondary
forces
My (tm)
N ( t)
5357
5161
5502
5601 Fig. 9.68 Transverse

5629 forces in the tower under
6004 the principal and secondary
6035
forces
that in all antisymmetric cases of loading, the top of the tower is im-
movably fixed, so that no tension occurs in the retaining cable VI. The
immovability of the top of the tower has the further effect that the
deflection and therefore also the moments in the girders due to anti-
symmetric loading are smaller than those produced by antisymmetric
loadings of the same magnitude.
The bending moments in the towers under the action of the main
girders loaded by the live load are presented in Fig. 9.66, under wind in
the loaded bridge in Fig. 9.67, and for the principal and secondary forces
in Fig. 9.68. The maximum normal forces transferred by the external
fixed supports amounted to approximately 5630 tons and for internal

cable to approximately 6100 tons.
The stability checking was performed for the buckling around the
y-axis (from the plane of the tower) under the basic assumption of
symmetric load distribution and taking account of the elasticity of the
cable-stayed bridge system. The slenderness ratio of the tower legs is
A= 32.6 (wy= 1.13 and /3y= 0. 775), whereas for the buckling in the plane
of the frame the slenderness ratio Ax= 32.3.
(c) NORTH BRIDGE AT DUSSELDORF

In this bridge, described in Chapter 2, box girders are suspended from
four single columns representing the towers 33 34 . The towers extend
down into the box girders, to which they are rigidly connected with
respect to bending in the longitudinal direction of the bridge. The tower
legs are connected at the bottom by transverse diaphragms and form an
H-shaped portal frame which is supported under each leg by a pin-
bearing (Fig. 9.69).
The towers were designed for ultimate load with respect to yield
point, or according to second-order theory, adopting a load factor
v= 1.71 for the principal forces and v= 1.50 for the combined principal
and secondary forces.
In the analysis, the towers were assumed to have undergone de-
formations in accordance with first-order theory and obtained by
multiplying the transverse loading by v. The longitudinal forces multi-
plied by v were assumed then to act upon the system deformed in this
way.
In order to make approximate allowance for incidental eccentricities,
it was assumed that:
"'
:;
~
,..-
9- "'
:;
"'
-I-
;;,
-"
"'
N
::
- I-
Fig. 9.69 North Bridge at
57.6'
Dusseldorf. Structural ~j
system of the tower
(a) All the saddle supports were located eccentrically on the tower shafts,
0.79 in (20 mm) to one side within the plane of the system and 1.97 in
(50 mm) asymmetrically in the plane of the portal frame.
(b) The shafts were not quite vertical due to errors in fabrication or
erection. The tops of the shafts were assumed to be 3.94 in (100 mm)
out of plumb in the plane of the system and 1.97 in (50 mm) out of
plumb in the plane of the portal.
Within the plane of the bridge system, the tower shaft is subjected to
bending primarily by the horizontal force acting at the fixed saddle
bearing. This loading and the corresponding deformation of the shaft
could increase only as a result of increased loading and deformation of
the main girder. The girder, however, is less endangered by second-
order flexure than the towers. Therefore, it is reasonable to apply the
load factor v due to the longitudinal loading of the shaft, but not due to
the initial first-order deformation of the shaft.
For second-order analysis, the following cases of loading are con-
sidered: eccentric positioning of the saddle bearing, out-of-plumb
positioning of the shaft, and temperature change. The simplifying
assumption was made that the shaft was firmly held by the fixed middle
cable and was rigidly fixed at the base. In the case of live load, these
assumptions would be too inaccurate when the deformation of the whole
system is considered. Therefore, the actual second-order effect of the
live load on the shaft was calculated and the result was multiplied by v.
In the plane of the portal, the shaft is freely deformed by all the loads.
When v times the load is applied to it, the first-order deformation also
becomes v times as large. Fig. 9.70 Moments,
The influence of v times weight of the shaft and cables is included in transverse and axial forces
and deformations of the
the second-order analysis. Difference in the temperature of both shafts tower under principal and
does not produce any additional forces, and only the actual deformation secondary forces
Q (t) N ( t) DISPLACEMENT
X X
IN mm.
6.1 1 6.1 ~-2.0 1-2.0'

270.440 1251.758
11.2,
I 11.2 -712:7
I 136.986
I
I
I !
123.75S
I
1326!2
!
II= I ~ . 113
c C:::
-2330.6 I-2234
Mx ( tm) Q (t) N ( t) DISPLACEMENT

X X
IN mm.
I I
1 3.0 3.0 -2.0 t-2.0
I I
415'
54.7 I 54.7 5. 6
i 5. 6 1196!7
I
166.21 166.2 1 o. 1 1 10.1
l."ig. 9.71 Moments, due to this effect is included. Tp increase the safety, however, this
I
transverse and axial forces
and deformations of the
deformation was also multiplied by v.
tower under principal and Figure 9. 70 shows the distribution of the moments, transverse forces,
secondary forces including axial forces and the displacements in the cross-section, according to
live load
first -order theory, taking account of the action of the main and secondary
forces.
Figure 9. 71 shows the distribution of the moments, transverse forces,
axial forces, as well as the displacements in the cross-section of the bridge
under the action of the main and secondary forces, including live load.
The longitudinal forces do not act in a clearly defined direction but are
always directed approximately towards the base of the tower (Fig. 9. 72).
Fig. '). 72 Cable forces

acting on deformed frame
of the tower
Their direction is somewhat altered by the vertical loads at the joint due
to the weight of the shaft and cables, and in the case of principal and
secondary forces, also by the horizontal deflection of the main girder
due to side wind. For practical computation, the support reactions acting
along the inclined cables were resolved into their vertical and horizontal
components, and the vertical components were increased by amounts
corresponding to the loads at the joints due to the weight of the shaft
and cables.
The stresses in the extreme edges of the shaft were calculated with the
second-order bending moments in both directions and with the corres-
ponding direct forces due to the load multiplied by the load factors
1.71 and 1.50.
In order to determine the reserve strength of the portal with regard
to additional lateral forces, the ultimate load capacity of the towers was
calculated, for the loaded bridge, with the principal and secondary
forces and with an increased value of the wind load.
References
1. Troitsky, M.S. and Lazar, B., Model Investigation ofCable-Stayed

Bridges. Structural Ana~ysis of the Bridge Prototype, Report No. 3,
Sir George Williams University, April, 1970.
2. Gere, ]. M. and Weaver, W. Jr., Analysis of Framed Structures,
Van Nostrand, New York, 1965.
3. Weaver, W. Jr., Computer Programs for Structural Analysis, Van
Nostrand, New York, 1966.
4. Saafan, S. A., 'Nonlinear Behavior of Structural Plane Frames',
Proc. Am. Soc. civ. Engrs, 89 (ST4), 557-579, August, 1963.
5. Merchant, W. and Bratton, D. M., 'A Generalized Method of
Analysis of Elastic Plane Frames', IABSE Symposium, Rio de
Janeiro, 1964.
6. Miller, M. A., Bratton, D. M. and Merchant, W., 'A Computer
Method for the Analysis of Nonlinear Elastic Plane Framework',
International Symposium on Use of Computers in Structural En-
gineering, Dept. of Civil Engineering, University of Newcastle upon
Tyne, England, 1966.
7. Connor,].]. et at. 'Nonlinear Analysis of Elastic Framed Structures',
Proc. Am. Soc. civ. Engrs, 94 (ST6), 1525-1547, June, 1968.
8. Smith, B. S., 'The Single Plane Cable-Stayed Girder Bridge: A
Method of Analysis Suitable for Computer Use', Proc. Inst. civ.
Engrs, 37; 183-194, July, 1967.
9. Smith, B. S., 'A Linear Method of Analysis for Double-Plane
Cable-Stayed Girder Bridges', Proc. Inst. civ. Engrs, 39, 85-94,
January, 1968.
10. Falk, S., 'Die Berechnung des beliebig gesti.itzten Durchlauftragers
nach dem Reduktions verfahren', Ing.-Arch., 24 (2), 216-232, 1956.
11. Falk, S., Das Reduktionsverfahren der Baustatik unter besonderer
Beruchsichtigung der Programmierbarkeit fur digitate Rechnenauto-
maten, Inaugural lecture, Technische Hochschule, Braunschweig,
1956/57.
12. Falk, S., 'Die Berechnung offener Rahmentragwerke nach dem
Reduktionsverfahren', lng.-Arch., 26 (1), 61-80, 1958.

13. Falk, S., 'Die Berechnung geschlossener Rahmentragwerke nach
dem Reduktionsverfahren', lng.-Arch., 26 (2) 96-109, 1958.
14. Kersten, R., Das Reduktionsverfahren der Baustatik, Springer-Verlag,
Berlin, 1962, pp. 6-25.
15. Leckie, F. and Peste!, E., 'Transfer-Matrix Fundamentals', Int.
J. Mech. Sci., 2 (3) 137-167, 1960-61.
16. Peste!, E. C. and Leckie, F. A., Matrix Methods in Elastomechanics,
McGraw-Hill, New York, 1963.
17. Tang, Man-Chung, 'Analysis of Cable-Stayed Girder Bridges',
J. Struct. Div., Proc. Am. Soc. civ. Engrs, ST5, 1481-1496, May,
1970.
18. Protte, W. and Tross, W., 'Simulation as a Design Procedure for
Cable-Stayed Bridges', Stahlbau, 35, 208-211, 1966.
19. Falk, S., 'Die Berechnung des Beliebig Gestiitzten Durchlauftragers
nach dem Reduktionsverfahren', Ing.-Arch., 24 (3), 216, 1956.
20. Scheer,]., 'Beniitzung Programmgesteuerter Rechenautomaten fiir
statische Aufgaben, erlautert im Beispiel der Durchlauftrager-
berechnung', Stahlbau, 27 (9), 225; (10), 275, 1958.
21. Kersten, R., Das Reduktionsverfahren der Baustatik, Springer-
Verlag, Berlin, 1962, p. 46.
22. Lazar, B. E., 'Stiffness Analysis of Cable-Stayed Bridges' ASCE J.
Struct. Div., 98, Paper 9036, July, 1972.
23. Gere,]. M. and Weaver, W. Jr., Ana(ysis of Framed Structures, Van
1\;ostrand, New York, 1965.
24. Kajita, T. and Cheung, Y. K., 'Finite Element Analysis of Cable-
Stayed Bridges', International Association Bridge and Structural
Engineering, Publication 33 II, 1973.
25. Goschy, B., 'Der Kastentrager ohne Zwischenschotte, Berechnung
auf Torsion', Bautechnik, No.5, 159-163, 1966.
26. Goschy, B., 'The Torsion of Skew-Cable Suspension Bridges',
Space Structures, Ed. Davies, R. M., Blackwell Scientific Publica-
tions, Oxford, 1967, pp. 213-220.
27. Vlasov, V. Z., Thin-Walled Elastic Beams (2nd edn), Israel Program
for Scientific Translations Ltd, 1961 (published for the National
Science Foundation, Washington, D.C., and the Department of
Commerce, USA).
28. Krylov, A. N., Analysis of Beams on Elastic Foundation (2nd edn)
Academy of Sciences SSSR, Leningrad, 1931 (in Russian).
29. Kloppel, K., Esslinger, M. and Kollmeier, H., 'Die Berechnung
eingespannter und fest mit dem Kabel verbundenen Hangebriicken-
pylonen bei Beanspruchung in Briickenlangsrichtung', Stahlbau,
No. 12, 358-368, 1965.
30. Schottgen, ]. and Wintergerst, L., 'Die Strassenbriicke iiber den
,
Rhein bei Maxau', Stahlbau, No. 1, 1-9, January, 1968; No. 2,

50-57, February, 1968.
31. Hess, H., 'Die Severinsbrucke Koln', Stahlbau, No. 8, 225-261,
August, 1960.
32. Fischer, G., 'The Severin Bridge at Cologne (Germany)', Acier-
Stahl-Steel, No.3, 97-107, 1960.
33. Wintergerst, L., 'Nordbrucke Dusseldorf, Teil III: Statik und
Konstruktion der Strombrucke', Stahlbau, No. 6, 147-154, June,
1958.
34. Schreier, G., 'North Bridge at Dusseldorf. Analysis, Design,
Fabrication and Erection of the Bridge Spanning the River', Acier-
Stahl-Steel, No. 9, 369-385, 1958.
Chapter 10
Model Analysis and Design
10.1 Introduction
One of the earliest recorded examples of the use of models as an aid to

bridge design was the investigation of alternative designs for the tubular
girders of the Britannia Bridge over the Menai Straits by Stephenson
and Fairbairn 1 in 1846. The models in this case were to a large scale,
about one-sixth the full size, made of the same material as the bridge.
They were direct models loaded in a similar manner as the prototype,
and they were tested by loading to destruction.
In 1922, Beggs 2 introduced his indirect method of model analysis,
where the loading of the model is unrelated to the loading of the proto-
type. The indirect method was later simplified by Eney 3 , Pippard\
Gottschalk 5 and others. In 1932, Baker 6 devised a direct model method
for rigid frames based on the slope-deflection method of analysis.
Model study of suspension bridges has proved invaluable during the
development of designs. Mechanical solution of the live-load and
temperature stresses and deflections of a suspension bridge at Portland,
Oregon, by means of a steel model was first carried out in the USA in
1930 7 8
The use of model studies gave results so close to analytical design
values that a model analysis was adopted for the preliminary and check
design of the great Trans-Bay Bridge at San Francisco 9 . Since that time,
models have been used extensively and effectively in the design of all
major suspension bridges in North America, as well as in Europe. With
the recent introduction of cable-stayed bridges in bridge engineering,
model analysis has been widely and successfully applied in the design
of practically all cable-stayed bridges in Europe 10- 14 and in other parts
of the world.
MODEL ANALYSIS AND DESIGN 365
10.2 Basic concepts
The physical model analysis of cable-stayed bridges may be used for

one or more of the following reasons 15 :
(1) It is a direct design tool which considers the novelty of structural
form and of the proposed bridge type, as well as its architectural and
aesthetical aspects.
(2) The true scale physical model, unlike the mathematical model, is
more than a structural analog. It can copy the exact degree of rigidity,
a:nd the continuity of adjacent structural members. These can be
incorporated only with difficulty in a mathematical solution.
(3) The mathematical analysis may be so complex and tedious that a
model analysis provides a quicker solution which is sufficiently
accurate for the purpose.
(4) It may be desirable to have an iRdependent check on a mathematical
solution of the problem.
(5) The designer may prefer to employ tools of analysis which are free
from the calculation errors inherent in a mathematical model, such
as truncation errors.
(6) At the present time, computer programs are no help to under-
standing the problems of other experts, but models are readily
intelligible.
The use of scale models for solving difficult engineering problems is
now a well-established technique 16 17 which may be used in the pre-
liminary investigations necessary for arriving at an economical and safe
design for cable-stayed bridges.
A number of mathematical methods have been developed for the
analysis of a cable-stayed bridge system. A common feature of all these
methods of analysis, however, is the fact that the calculations are tedious
and time consuming. Admittedly, a solution may be obtained quickly
if the calculations are performed on a digital computer and a suitable
program is available, but it is felt that a structural model gives a simple
and direct solution of the problem. At the same time, it provides the
designer with a physical interpretation of the structure being analysed,
it enables him to get a feeling regarding the relative stiffness of the
different components of the structure, and to visualize deformations
under load. This will contribute substantially to a good design. Model
analysis provides a practical method of acquiring an intuitive sense of
structural behavior.
A multi-redundant nonlinear cable-stayed bridge system presents a
typical problem which may be treated successfully by applying methods
of model analysis. Small-scale cable-stayed bridge models which can
be made with very simple tools can be of great value to the bridge en-
gineer for direct design and verification of analytical calculations.
10.3 Planning
Planning of the model investigation precedes the design and construction

of a cable-stayed bridge model from which the stresses, strains, deflec-
tions and influence lines of the full-size structure may be predicted.
Before the design of the small scale model starts, decisions should be
taken with regard to the following factors:
10.3 .1 The size of the model
In selecting the scale reduction factor for length, the following con-
siderations must be taken into account:
(a) The range of metal shapes commercially available increases as the
size of the model becomes larger.
(b) If the cross-sectional dimensions decrease, the strain gauges are more
difficult to apply.
(c) On a larger scale model, strains and displacements will be recorded
with smaller errors than on a smaller size model.
(d) As the scale-reduction factor for length increases, the manufacturing
tolerances become more difficult to satisfy.
It should be taken into consideration that a larger length scale-

reduction factor permits the building of a model at a relatively smaller
cost, provided suitable structural sections are commercially available
and the connections are simple to manufacture. Also, a smaller model
requires less laboratory space; it is easier to manipulate and needs less
weight for its loading, as compared with a larger model.
In deciding on a scale-reduction factor for length, the scale effect also
should be considered. Not every detail of a model can be reproduced from
the prototype to the same scale and generally, the smaller the model, the
larger the scale effect. The scale effect also depends on the mechanical
behavior of the material, which may vary with the dimensions of the
model.
10.3 .2 .Materials
In deciding on the particular material to be used in the model investiga-

tion, the similitude conditions to be satisfied by the materials of the model
and of the prototype should be considered. If the influence of shear strain
on the magnitude of displacements is negligible, any material exhibiting
linear stress-strain properties under the planned loading conditions is
adequate, since the stresses are below the elastic limit.
The most suitable materials which may be used for models of cable-
stayed bridges are metals and plastics. These two groups display elastic
strain-stress properties up to their proportionate limits and are relatively
easy to manufacture.
The properties of metals and plastics are well described in the litera-
ture18-20 and the primary criterion to be taken into account is the manu-
facturing process of the various metals (steel, aluminum, copper, brass,
bronze) and plastics.
As experience indicates, steel satisfies all requirements for model
investigation to a greater degree than plastics or other metals. It is
relatively simple to manufacture and to instrument, it has a high heat
dissipation factor; its elastic properties do not change with time and it
satisfies similitude requirements for shear strain, as opposed to plastics
which do not meet this condition.
10.3.3 Fabrication methods
Model-fabrication techniques vary depending upon the materials to be

used, and the equipment and personnel available. Ease of fabrication
may well determine the scale of the model.
Because of the wide usage of rolled-shape materials in prototype con-
struction, a major problem in model fabrication is the scarcity of small
rolled-shaped materials. At the present time, the smallest sections rolled
with characteristics similar to wide flange beams might be considered
about! or~ scale sections of reasonable prototype members.
Various materials and fabrication techniques were investigated by
McCoy 21 , Little and Foster 22 and Breen 23 . Economic considerations
rule out rolling or die-extruding miniature sections. Successful pro-
cedures were developed for milling approximately ls scale sections from
rectangular bar stock of both phosphor bronze and steel. AISI C-1020
steel was found to be reasonably machinable and to match many of the
structural characteristics of ASTM A36 steel.
The welding process may induce residual stresses and metallurgical
changes due to the heating effect and the properties of the weld rod. Con-
siderable care must be taken to minimize shrinkage and warping.
10.3.4 Instrumentation methods
The data to be recorded during a model investigation are bending

moments in the stiffening girder and axial forces in cables under a unit
load applied vertically at constant intervals along the girder.
The number oflocations to be instrumented to acquire data should be
equal to the degree of static indeterminancy of the system. All other data
may then be obtained from conditions of static equilibrium.
To determine the ordinates of influence lines of axial forces in cables,
the axial strains have to be measured. For the influence lines of bending
moments in a girder, one method is to measure maximum strains due to
bending and to multiply them by 2EI/h such that the bending moments
are obtained.
A second method is to determine Ui> V;, ei> Vi> ei> the vertical, hori-
zontal and rotational displacements at i and j, by employing dial gauges
only. The joint considered in this application is a girder-cable joint. The
procedure may be extended, however, to any type of joint whose dis-
placements are in a vertical plane and may be defined by three parameters.
In order to amplify the readings and thus to reduce the errors, vertical
square bars have been soldered to the top and bottom joint bars
(Fig. 10.1).
In Fig. 10.1, a, band care the readings obtained. To determine the
e
unknown displacements, first will be written as a function of a and b.
DIAL GAUGE 2
/
\
\
\
\ DIAL GAUGE 3
Fig. 10.1 Determination

of joint displacements
with dial gauges DIAL GAUGE 1
Next, two equations involving u, v, a, band c will be written down. With

three conditions, the three unknowns u, v, 8 may be determined.
If on Fig. 10.1 positive dial gauge readings are takert to the left and
negative readings to the right,
a-b
tan 8 = D (10.1)
2
To obtain the two relations between a, b, c, u and v, the procedure is:
For the first relation
54= H-H cos 8 = H(1-cos 8)
5"1" = H sin 8
55"= u
51"= H sin 8-u
54"= [H sin 8-u] tan 8
but
v-54 = c-54"
or
v-H(l-cos 8) = c-[Hsin 8-u] tan 8
This may be written as
u tan 8-v = H[sin 8 tan 8+cos 8-1]-c = P1 (10.2)
For the second relation
0'7 = B cos 8
6'7 = B sin 8
6"2' = D+v-6"7 = D+v-B sin 8
2'2" = (D+ v- B sin 8) tan 8
but
u+B-0'7 = a-2'2"
or
u+B(l-cos 8) = a-(D+v-B sin 8) tan 8
This may be written as
u+v tan 8 = B[sin 8 tan 8+cos 8-1]-D tan 8+a = P2 (10.3)
From the above relations, the following calculations should be carried
out:
(1) Determine tan 8 from (10.1)

(2) Determine P 1 and P 2 from (10.2) and (10.3)
(3) Determine u and v from
u = [P 1 sin 8+P2 cos 8] cos 8
(10.4)
v = [P 1 sin 8+P2 cos 8] sin 8-P 1
The above expressions for u and v were obtained by solving (10.2) and
(1 0.3).
Expressions (10.4) have been verified graphically and the analytical
procedure was proved to be exact.
10.4 Static similitude conditions
The cable-stayed bridge system displays a nonlinear elastic structural

behavior. Consequently, the similitude conditions to be satisfied by the
scale reduction factors of the governing variables of this system have to
be valid in the nonlinear domain. Their derivation must be based on
principles of dimensional analysis, as these principles are not restricted
by the law of superposition.
Langhaar 24 , Murphy 25 , Beaujoint26 and Preece 27 have applied the
principles of dimensional analysis, as laid down by Buckingham 28 , to
the general case of structural similitude.
The similitude requirements as established by Preece for the general
case of a structure are :
(1) The strains in prototype and model must be equal, or t:v=~>m;
therefore the scale reduction factor for strain is
(10.5)
For the case of a nonlinear elastic cable-stayed bridge system, condition

(6.5) may be disregarded, as it applies only when the nonlinearity is due
to the behavior of the material itself, and not to that of the system.
(2) Poisson's ratio for model and prototype must be equal, therefore
the scale reduction factor for Poisson's ratio is
(10.6)
Equation (10.6) represents the condition that both the model and the
prototype should be made of the same material. To neglect this condition
is equivalent to neglecting the contribution of shear strain when we com-
pute the magnitude of the elastic displacements.
It may be pointed out here that the contribution of shear strain to the
magnitude of elastic displacements in a mathematical model, when using
classical computation methods, is difficult to take into account, as the

force, displacement or energy equations become very complex. Also, if a
computer program is employed, the stiffness matrix of the members
contain more terms and hence more computing time is required to per-
form the calculations. However, if on small-scale structural models that
satisfy similitude condition (10.6), moments and axial and shear forces
are determined, the influence of shear strain is included in the value of
elastic displacements without additional effort.
(3) The model and prototype must be geometrically similar; there-
fore the scale reduction factor for length
(10.7)
is constant in all directions.
Equation (10.7) represents the condition that the longitudinal and
cross-sectional dimensions of the prototype and of the model have to be
related to the same scale factor KL. This condition is extremely difficult
to satisfy in practice. If the assumption is made that sectional properties
are represented by I and A only, condition (10. 7) may be substituted on
the basis of Buckingham's Pi theorem by
and
where
I = moment of inertia of cross-section
K 1 = scale reduction factor for moment of inertia of cross-section
K A = scale reduction factor for area of cross-section
(4) If the temperatures of the model and prototype, as well as their

coefficients of expansion are equal, the scale reduction factor is
(1 0.8)
where
Ka = scale reduction factor for linear expansion
K, = temperature of prototype divided by temperature model
Equation (10.8) represents the conditions to be satisfied by the

temperature and linear expansion scale factors. As such investigations
are performed and data readings are recorded at constant temperature,
and since the bridge system has no constraints which produce
temperature stresses, this condition therefore may be disregarded.
(5) Deflection scale factor is equal to the length scale factor, therefore
up Lv
(10.9)
Urn Lm
where
KY = scale reduction factor for deflection.
Condition (10.9) is valid for all cases of nonlinear elastic similitude.
(6) The materials of model and prototype can be different, therefore
(JP EP
-=E-= K(f= KE (10.10)
(Jm m
where
K" = scale reduction factor for unit stress
KE = scale reduction factor for moduli of elasticity
Expression (10.10) indicates that the scale reduction factor for unit
stress is equal to the scale reduction factor for modulus of elasticity.
(7) The ratio of forces in model and prototype depends on both the
length scale factor and the stress scale factor
EPL; _ EmL;
pp pm
or
EP (Lv)z = pv = K Kz = K (10.11)
E L p (I L p
m m m
where
KP = scale reduction factor for concentrated load.
Equation (10.11) may be rearranged more conveniently, by using
(10.10), as
KEKi = Kp
(8) Considering condition (10.11) and replacing with Pp and P111 as
distributed load acting on a surface, we obtain
or (1 0.12)
where
Kq = scale reduction factor for distributed load acting on a surface
K" = scale reduction factor for unit stress
Condition (1 0.12) may be disregarded as the distributed load applied
on the bridge system is given in lb/in and not in lb/in 2 . It may be shown
that if the distributed load is given in lb/in, the equivalent condition is
Kw = KEKL
where Kw is the scale reduction factor for the distributed load acting on
a bar.
(9) The ratio of densities of the prototype and model materials is
given by the values of the length and stress scale factors
PP LP aP
or (10.13)
Equation (10.13) does not apply in the case of statical loads and may
be disregarded.
Consequently, for a nonlinear elastic cable-stayed bridge system sub-

jected to vertical statical loading, the similitude conditions are
Ky = KL (10.14)
KA = KI (10.15)
KEL 2 = Kp (10.16)
Kv = 1 (1 0.17)
KI = Ki (10.18)
KEKL = Kw (10.19)
Employing the same principles that produced the above conditions,

similitude requirements between bending moments, axial and shear
forces acting on the prototype and bending moments, axial and shear
forces acting on the model may be established as follows:
KM = KpKL (10.20)
K0 = KP (10.21)
KN = Kp (10.22)
Conditions (10.14)-(10.22) represent all similitude requirements to be

employed for the model under statical forces. If eqs. (10.14)-(1 0.22) are
satisfied, the model is a true model subject to the limitations stated
earlier when discussing condition (10.7).
If any one of eqs. (1 0.14-10.22) is not satisfied, the model is distorted.
In practice, it is very hard to satisfy simultaneously conditions (10.15)
and (1 0.18) because of the limited range of small sections commercially
available.
If condition (10.14) is not satisfied, the model ceases to display a
nonlinear behavior. It may be shown, however, that for linear similitude,
this condition is not essential. If only information for influence lines is to

be determined, condition (1 0.14) may be disregarded.
Equations (10-14)-(10.19) inclusive are used for the design of the
model. Equations (10.20)-(10.22) inclusive may be used to compare axial
forces and bending moments determined on the model with axial forces
and bending moments calculated on the prototype.
10.5 Sectional properties and geometry of the model
The following procedure represents a method to calculate the initial

sectional properties for the design of a bridge system with a given geo-
metry, if the sectional properties of a geometrically similar bridge system
are known. The method is based on principles of similitude and is
restricted to the case when both systems are geometrically similar and
of the same material. It may be extended to systems made of different
materials.
The basic assumptions are
Ks = KAKL
KI = KsKL
(10.23)
f,=fe
where P1 is the uniform distributed dead load given by the nonstructural
elements of the bridge system and fis the unit bending stress at extreme
fibers. Suffix e applies to the parameters of the bridge system with known
sectional properties and suffix n to those with sectional properties to be
determined.
Fromf,=fe, we obtain
(10.24)
where M is the maximum bending moment in stiffened girder and Sis

the corresponding section modulus.
Substituting M = K 1rf} into (10.24), we have
Kt PnL~ = PeL~ (10.25)

sn se
In eq. (10.25), K 1 is a dimensionless constant depending on the location
of loads and the type and location of supports, and L is the length of the
main span. Equation (10.25) may be rearranged as
K = K I<?-= P~+P~+P~ Kz (10.26)

s p L ps
e
+ pte + ple L
In eq. (10.26), P' is the uniform distributed dead load given by the
structural elements of the bridge system and P 1 is the uniform distributed
live load.
From P~=dAn and P;=dAe, where dis the density of the stiffening
girder material and A is the area of the girder cross-section, correspond-
ing toM
psn
(10.27)
ps
e
and (10.26) may be written as
K = (Ks/KL)P:+P;+P~ Kz
s p L (10.28)
e
Solving (10.28) forK" we have
K = P;+P~ Kz (10.29)
s Pe-P;KL L
The data on the right-hand side is known. Hence, Ks may be calculated.
The next step is to obtain K1 and KA from (10.23).
10.6 Design of the model
The next procedure in the design of a cable-stayed bridge on an experi-

mental rather than on a theoretical basis, once the layout of the bridge i.s
defined, is to select a set of sectional properties for the prototype and to
design a model according to the principles of similitude.
For the design of an actual cable-stayed bridge, after a set of internal
stresses and displacements has been obtained, it is then compared with
the corresponding stresses and displacements allowed by the specifica-
tions governing the design of that bridge. If the differences are larger
than the acceptable values specified, the sectional properties need to be
adjusted and the investigation repeated. For the adjustment of the sec-
tional properties of a model, only the relative ratios between sectional
properties of the model elements are essential. Therefore, at least one of
these elements may be left unchanged, for instance, the stiffening girder.
The tower and bar type cables may be adjusted relatively easily by
milling. If the stiffening girder needs to be adjusted, this may be done
either by milling or by decreasing the width or the thickness of the flange
or the web thickness. Wire cables may be replaced by a new set of wires.
If the experimental data are recorded with an analog-digital computer,
the technique applied represents a convenient and practical design
method.
A practical illustration of the experimental technique which permits
the application of a small-scale structural model as a direct tool for analy-

sis and design of cable-stayed bridges is given in the following sections.
10.7 Determination of influence lines
The cable-stayed bridge system displays a nonlinear elastic behavior.

This nonlinearity is due to large displacements, bending-moment-
axial-force interaction and shortening of members due to bowing.
The analysis of such a system may be divided into two parts. First,
the positions of loads which give the largest unit stresses at the cross-
sections to be investigated are determined. Secondly, the analysis itself is
performed to calculate unit stresses and displacements. To obtain the
position of the loads producing critical stresses, the configuration of the
influence lines is employed 29 .
When an exact analysis of the nonlinear behavior of the structure is
not justified, as for example, the preliminary design of a cable-stayed
bridge system, the structure may be considered as linear and the analysis
is somewhat simplified. In this case, the principle of superposition to
determine the bending moments and the axial and shear forces may
be applied directly from the influence-line ordinates.
Influence lines may be used, therefore, for both preliminary and final
design. For a preliminary linear design, the ordinates of influence lines
are used to obtain unit stresses or displacements by superposition. For
the final nonlinear design, the configuration of influence lines is employed
to determine the critical positions of the live loads.
The above considerations suggest a procedure for determining in-
fluence lines of cable-stayed bridges as a first step of model investigation.
A first model was designed on this basis, and the investigation is described
as follows 30 .
10.7.1 The prototype
The sectional properties and geometry of the prototype selected as a

typical example are shown in Fig. 10.2. These properties were
determined by employing a procedure described in Section 10.5, which
Jrs = 1,040,000.0 in
2
At 105 in Ars = 417.0 in
Jo 2,720,000.0 in 4
Ao 496.0 in>
Fig. 10.2 Geometry

and sectional properties 450' 1100'
of a bridge prototype 450' .. 1
enables the initial sectional properties for the design of a bridge system
with a given geometry to be obtained, if the sectional properties of a
geometrically similar bridge are known. It was assumed that the bridge
prototype has six lanes and it is supported by two box girders.
10.7.2 The model
Before the design and construction of the model was started, it was
necessary to make decisions with regard to the following factors.
1. THE SIZE OF THE MODEL

The main factors affecting selection of the scale reduction factors for
length are the availability of standard structural sections, the errors in
recording strains and displacements and the manufacturing tolerances.
On this basis, a scale factor KL = 100 was sei~cted.
2. SECTIONAL PROPERTIES AND GEOMETRY OF THE MODEL

This stage of the model design consists of reduction to scale of the dimen-
sions of the prototype, according to the similitude conditions.
In a case where the geometry selected for the bridge system to be
designed is similar to that of an existing bridge with known sectional
properties and where interior and exterior constraints of both systems
are similar, a procedure is suggested in Section 10.5, to determine the
sectional properties of the new bridge based on principles of similitude.
The sectional properties and geometry of the prototype are shown in
Fig. 10.2. The bars are marked by numbers from 1 to 31. The cables are
designated symmetrically about the towers and about the center line of
the bridge system; hence
Al = A6 = A7 = Alz
A 2 = A 5 = A 8 = A 11
A 3 = A 4 = A 9 = A 10
where AcA 12 are cross-sectional areas of the cables.
The materials assumed for the prototype were CSA G40.12 steel for
the girder and towers and wire rope bridge strand for the cables. The
modulus of elasticity of the G40.12 steel was taken equal to E= 29 000
ksi and of the cables as equal toE= 18 000 ksi.
To determine the geometry and the cross-sections of the model, first
KA and K 1 are calculated. After substitution of the value of KL = 100
into the expression (10.15), KA = K[= 10 4 and, according to relation
(10.18), KI = KI~ = 108 .
Dividing the sectional properties of the prototype by the above scale
factors, we obtain
A7 = A~ = A'; = A72 = ~;_ = ~~~ = 0.0105 in 2

A
A'; = A'; = A~ = A7 1 = Af =
42
2
= 0.0042 in 2
KA 10
AP3 37
A'3 = A~ = A~ = A70 = ~ = -----;j: = 0.0037 in
2
KA 10
}P 272 X 106 4
J~ = K~ = 108 = 0.0272 in
m A~ 496 . 2
A 0 = KA = 104 = 0.0496 m (10.30)
m - J~B - 1.04 X 106 - 0 0104 . 2

J TB - KI - 108 - . Ill
m AfB 417 . 2
ArB= KA = 104 = 0.0417 m
J'!Jr = frr = 0.506 X 106 = 0.005 06 in4

KI 10 8
m Afr 314 .
ATT = K = 104 = 0.0314 Ill
2
For statical loads acting in a vertical plane, the above values may be
increased or decreased proportionally. In order to employ commercially
available sections, the above sectional properties, after multiple trials,
were increased by a factor of C= 31.6. Consequently,
= A~ =
2
A7 A'; = A72 = 0.332 in
= A~=
2
Ai = A5 A7 1 = 0.132 in
A'3 =A':= A~= A70 = 0.117 in

2
4
J'FY = 0.86 in
A';y = 1.57 in 2 (1 0.31)

4
J'TB = 0.331 in
A'TB = 1.32 in 2
J'Tr = 0.160in 2
A'Tr = 1.01 in 2
To obtain the longitudinal dimensions of the model, the corresponding

dimensions of the prototype were divided by KL = 100.
10.7 .3 Selection of sections for the model
The sections chosen for the girder are two 2 in x 1 in x ?6 in channels,

made of ASTM-A 7 steel; they have a cross-sectional moment of inertia
in the vertical plane of bending of I= 0.84 in4 and the area of the cross-
section is 1.53 in 2 . The modulus of elasticity was assumed as E=29 000
ksi.
The above properties and moment of inertia are close to the required
sizes, the difference being 2.32% for moment of inertia and 2.61% for
area.
Before selecting channels, the use of tubular sections was considered.
This would have led, however, to a type of cable-girder and tower-girder
connections more complex and more difficult to manufacture.
The towers were designed as variable rectangular shapes milled from
C-1020 steel, having a nominal modulus of elasticity of E= 29 000 ksi.
For the cables, round bars were provided. Preliminary investigations
made with flexible cables did not give satisfactory results, as their elastic
properties were not constant. The bars were made of AISI Cl2L15 steel
and had a nominal modulus of elasticity of E= 29 000 ksi. Consequently,
A 1- A 12 had to be recalculated by decreasing the values given in (10.31)
in the ratio of 18/29=0.62. Thus
AT = A~ = A'!f = AT2 = 0.332 x 0.62 = 0.206 in 2

Ai = A~ = A'S = AT1 = 0.132 x 0.62 = 0.081 in 2 } (10.32)
A'3 = A'; = A~ = AT0 = 0.117 x 0.62 = 0.073 in 2
The sizes selected were tin round bars for members 1, 6, 7, 12 and
5
16 in round bars for all other cables. For members, 3, 4, 8, 9, the deviation
was about 6% from the requirements indicated in (10.32), as closer
sections were not commercially available.
A schematic view of the model with dimensions and sectional proper-
ties is shown in Fig. 10.3. Figure 10.4 represents a photograph of the
model.
Fig. 10.3 Dimensions

and sectional properties
of model A
Jn = 0.162 ;~~)
J0 o.84 An= 1.o3o/
I~ 4' 6" ....I 11 1 0 11 4, 6" I

Fig. 111.4 Model A for

determination of influence
lines. General view
(a)
'
(b)
Fig. I0.5 Connectors.

Model A (a) Girder-cable
connection (b) Cable-
tower connection (c)
Girder- tower connection
fr\
10.7.4 Materials
Steel was employed, as this material has the same elasticity and shear
moduli E and Gas the prototype, its manufacturing and instrumentation
is relatively simple and its elastic properties do not change in time.
10.7 .5 Fabrication
The model was fabricated from standard commercial sections, having

bolted and bolted-welded connections. The sections for the girder were
two 2 in x 1 in x 136 in channels, made of ASTM-A 7 steel.
The towers were designed from C-1020 steel plate with variable cross-
sections. The model being linear, round bars of AISI Cl2Ll5 steel were
provided for the cables.
The connections were designed to avoid eccentric application of forces
and to enable pre-tensioning of cables in order to eliminate any possible
compression forces in cables (Fig. 10.5).
The cable-tower and cable-girder connections were designed to be
movable, which makes it possible to study several bridge layouts on the
same model, if desired. For the same reason, the tower-girder connec- Fig. 10.6 Tower-gird
tions could be either hinged or fixed (Fig. 10.6). connection. Model A
I
I
I
I
I I
I -
_.J
LONGITUDINAL VIEW SECTION B-B
BOLTS
SECT I ON A-A
fig. 10.7 S upport

derai ls. \l ode! A
The supports of the bridge model were designed to satisfy the following
two requirements:
(a) All supports except one should be free to move horizontally, t herefore
no constraints inducing interior stresses would be applied on the
model.
(b) The end supports should be capable of taking uplift forces.
Fig. I 0.!! Uplifr forces

T he support details arc shown in Fig. 10.7. An uplift de,ice, shown in
device. Model A Fig. I 0 .8, was provided to hold down the end supports.
+-------------: r-- ---,

I
I
I
I
I
I
-1-------,----- __
l i ____ _.....
II
II
I
jI
I
I
I
I
: I
c~~=:~~~~~:-~==~::
I
' 11 : I
I I
I I
I I
I I
I
---1
I
I
I
I
I
-~1~-:..-.:-.::::.:.::::::: --.J
--t------------: --:
---------------- -~--, I
1-+----.-F;pL,J - ,I Ir J
I I
I I
iI
II
II
II
l1
FRONT VI Ell SlOE VIE\1
10.7.6 Similitude couditions
Similitude requirements between prototype and model were established

as indicated in expressions (6.33):
K y= KL (I 0.33a)
KA = Kt (I 0.33b)
KEKi = Kp (10.33c)
K. =I (1 0.33d)
K1= K (10.33e)
KgKL = K ..., (10.33f)
KM = KpKL (I 0.33g)
KQ = Kp (1 0.33h)
K,... = KP (10.33i)
Equations (10.33a)- (10.33i) are based on the theory given in Section
10.4. For the model under consideration, all the above conditions were
satisfied and hence, the model may be considered as a 'true model'.
10.7.7 Instmmenlalion
After examining several alternative 31 - 33 , strain gauges were applied on

the girder for reading strains at extreme fibers and in the center of the Fig. 10.9 General view
web. Figure 10.9 shows the model in the instrumentation stage. From of model A
Fig. 10.10 Model A this information, the bending moment at an interior support was
strain-gauge layout
determined. To obtain strains in cables, two strain gauges were applied,
one on each cable.
Seven locations were instrumented, the bridge system being symmetri-
cal and having fourteen redundants (Fig. 10.10). Once the redundants
are established, all other information may be determined from conditions
of static equilibrium.
In the first stage of the investigation, strains were acquired, one at a
time, with a Budd portable digital strain indicator, D-350 and in the
second stage with a DS-366 Data Acquisition System which consists of:
(a) A strain--gauge conditioner to acquire data from strain gauges.
(b) A signal amplifier.
(c) An analog-to-digital converter.
(d) A 4K digital computer.
(e) A teletype console on which strains were printed in J..tin/in for each
channel.
The dial gauge arrangement for determination of deflections is shown
in Fig. 10.11. As an alternative procedure to obtain bending moments
and axial and shear forces from joint displacements, a dial gauge
Fig. 10.11 Dial arrangement, as shown in Fig. 10.12, was employed.
arrangement for
determination of deflec-
The nodal displacements {d} were determined from dial gauge readings
tions. Model A using eqs. (10.1) and (10.4).
17
_, a - b Fig. I 0.12 Dial arrange-

0 = tan D ment for determination of
2 bending moments, axial
u =
(P, sin 8+ P 2 cos G) cos e and shear forces from joint
displacements. Model A
v = (P, sin 8+P2 cos G) sin 8-P 1
where
P1 = H(sin0tan8+cos8-1)- c
P 2 = B(sin ()tan O+cos 0- 1)- D tan O+ a
and a, h, c are the displacements recorded by dial gauges 1, 2, 3, as shown
in Fig. 10.12.
The vector of nodal stress resultant {A} was then obtained from
{A}=[S]{d}, [S] being a bar clement stiffness matrix which includes
stability function. As [S] is a function of {/.1}, an iterative procedure was
needed to determine the nodal stress resultants.
10.7 .8 Loading and recording o.f data
To determine influence lines for axial fo rces, bending momems and Fig. 10. 13 Loading
dc,ices. J\ lodcl A: (a)
deflections, a concentrated load was applied at constant intervals on the De,ke -\ (at joints) (b)
model employing special loading devices, as shown in Fig. 10. 13. J)e\iCC 13 (belW\:Cn jOilllS)
(a) (b)
-1.0
EXP. = -0. 486

TH. = -0.553
-1. 5 -,
~
I
IL ~\
fL ~.
1!/ \
0. 0 ~ - =
~ v
\ ,;?
\ -~
l, if
0. 5 I
'~ 1/
"l
_i\ 1
\\ II
1.0
\\ Jj_
\I\ JL
~ _Ll
L E G E N D
,I
'-
EXP.= 1.210 - - EX PER I MENTAL
Fig. 10.14 lnf1uence
TH. = 1.356
line of axial force in - - - THEORET I CAL
cable 1
1.5
-1.0
-1.5
0.0
1\ v I"\ v
ll
_!.
~'\- VJ
J
_/j_
~
& ,, ~
IL
/
EXP. = 0.380 EXP. = 0.400

0.5
TH. = 0.432
- TH. = 0.406
1 .0
L E G E N D
Fig. 10.15 Inf1uence -- EXPERIMENTAL
line of axial force in

cable 2 1. 5
--- THEORET I CAL
-I . 0
-I . 5
0.0 ~ --
1 ~ ~
\ I
\~ I "' ........ ../
'0 I EXP.= 0.234
TH. = 0.247
0.5
, ""'-A
' ..,
- EXP.= 0.50E
TH.= 0.627
I .0
L E G E N D
-- EXPERI~ENTAL
---THEORET I CAL Fig. 10.16 Influence

I.5 cable 3
-I. 0
-I. 5
0.0
~ / \ /
,'-- ......
,_,
w \
\ /
EXP.= 0.187
TH. =0.255
\ II'
0. 5
I h
/'
EXP. = 0. 536
TH.=0.611
1.0
L E GE ND
- - EX PER I MENTAL
Fig. 10.17 Influence
- - - THEORET ICAL line of axial force in
1.5 cable 4
-1 . 0
- 1 5
0. 0
~ 4
,_ .r
--
' ,~...
EXP.= 0.147
TH. = 0. 182
' \
L
1/
/
0.5
\
\ ~,
/
EXP.= 0.646
TH. = 0. 662
1. 0
L E G E N D
Fig. 10.18 Influence -- EXPERIMENTAL

cable 5
--- THEORETICAL
1.5
-1 . 0
-1 . 5
EXP.=-0.240
TH. =-0.294
v-'
tL ~
If'
0.0
'\ /
~ /j
',\ 17
1\ l~
0.5
'.\ /1
\\ J
\\ 1/
I
'I\ I
1. 0 \\ I
\\ I L E G E N D
'\ ~
EXP .= 1 .200
TH. = 1. 250
-- EX PER I MENTAL
line of axial force in - - - THEORET I CAL
cable 6 15
(\, EXP.= 374 LEGEND

;,
350.
TH. = 361 r---
~ - EXPERIMENTAL
---THEORET I CAL
300. \
\
250.
\
I .~ \
II
200.
150.
li
IP
' 1\
1\
\
100. I \
I \
50. I
I 1\
0. \ 1=:...--
~-
- ..::.:- ~ f-ig. 10.20 Influence
line of bending moment
at intermediate support
-50.
Ic.~
EXP.=-0,0000110
-8.00001 TH. =-0.0000103
I.
I
\
u \
J' \
~
0. 0
II
1\ I ' - -
\
0. 00001 \ I
\ I
\ l/ r1
I I
0. 00002 ~ EXP. =0. 0000195

TH. =0.0000185
L E G E N D
f-ig. I 0.21 Influence
- EXPERIMENTAL line of \'ertical deflection
at joint 2
- - - THEORET I CAL
0.00003
-0.00001 ~ EXP.=-0.0000114
1 1\
TH. =-0. 0000110
0.0
L
'1\.,
1
\ j
0. 0000 1 1 I
J\
' \ ....,/
0.0000 2
v EXP.= 0.0000189
TH. = 0.0000163
L E G E N D
line of vertical deflection --EXPERIMENTAL
at joint 3 ---THEORETICAL
0. 0000 3
-0.00001 lC\ EXP .= -0.0000116
j ~.
TH. = -0.0000106
I \
j_ 1
0. 0
1/
' / -
~
1
.I
!/__
0.00001 1 i'/
I I
I
I
I
I //
\ ,_, '1
1/
0.00002
EXP Yo. 0000213
TH. = 0.0000172
LEGEND
line of vertical deflection -EXPERIMENTAL
at joint 5 ---THEORET I CAL
0.00003
~ EXP.=-0.0000116
-0.000 01 J \
I~
TH. =-0.0000115
I ~
1/ '\
0. 0
' I
- -
I
I
I
J
0. 0000 1
I
d
I
I
if
\\ !I
\ if
0. 00002
I
I if
\\ I
I
\\ ,''l L E G E N D
EXP. =0. 0000292
-~ -/ - EXPERIMENTAL line of vertical deflection
0. 00003
TH. =0.0000253
v ---THEORET I CAL
at joint 6
-0.000 01
I I
EXP. =-0.0000071 0
TH. =-0.0000064 3
AA~
1/ \
~I \
0 0
\ /
/""
- .......
\.,, I
,J
0. 0000 1
II 71
~I ,1
\1,, rt
I,
!I
0. 0000 2 ~I ,'f
I /}
"
\ I L E G E N D
EXP.= 0.0000264
\V -EXPERIMENTAL
- TH. = 0. 0000220
line of vertical deflection
---THEORETICAL at joint 7
0. 00003
-0.00001
EXP, =-0.00000204
TH, =-0.00000183
0.0 v p:,. ~
v ~
"" "" - -/
',
EXP .= 0.00000570
TH. = 0.00000459
0. 00001
0.00002
LEGENO
line of horizontal
-EXPERIMENTAL
displacement at top of
___ THEORETICAL
tower
0. 00003
Before loading, the model sections and loading rods were calibrated in
order to determine whether the data obtained from the strain-gauge
readings corresponded to the assumptions regarding modulus of elas-
ticity and linearity of stress-strain distribution. Strain and displacement
readings recorded were converted to bending moments and axial forces
employing eqs. (1 0.33g)-(l 0.33i) and then plotted; the experimental
values obtained were compared with the theoretical values calculated on
a mathematical model.
The influence lines of axial forces in cables are represented in Figs.
10.14-10.19, and the influence line ofbending moment at intermediate
support in Fig. 10.20. The influence lines of vertical deflections are
represented in Figs. 10.21-10.25, and the influence line of horizontal
displacement at the top of the tower in Fig. 10.26.
The influence line ordinates of the bending moments are given in
inches and the influence-line ordinates of displacements are given in
in/lb.
10.8 Nonlinear behavior
This section describes an experimental procedure to determine the non-

linear behavior of a cable-stayed bridge 34 .
The nonlinearity of a cable-stayed bridge is caused by large displace-

ments of the structure and bending-moments-axial-forces interaction.
Relations between stresses and strains at any cross-section are assumed
to be linear.
The technique used consists in loading a structural model of a cable-
stayed bridge with dead and live loads applied according to the configura-
tion of influence lines, in order to get the most critical axial forces in
cables and bending moments in the stiffening girder. The loads are
applied in two steps. First, a fraction of the dead and live loads is applied
in such a way that the displacements of the system remain small and its
behavior is linear. Then, the model is loaded with its full dead and live
loads under which it displays its real nonlinear behavior. A second set of
strains is recorded for this case. By comparing the two readings, that is,
by dividing the second reading into the first one, the nonlinearity of the
system is determined.
10.8.1 Planning of the model investigation
The general considerations regarding the size of the model, materials to

be employed for the model, fabrication methods, instrumentation and
recording of data, presented in connection with Model A, have also been
taken into account for the planning of Model B.
The prototype selected for Model B was, with the exception of the
main girder, the same as the one employed for determining influence
lines (Fig. 10.27).
To keep the total weight to be applied on the model at a minimum, a Fig. 10.27 Dimensions
and sectional properties
length scale reduction factor of KL = 200 was selected for this model. of the prototype for
The main girder of the model was composed of two rectangular sections model B
JrB ~ 1,040,000 in+
Jrr-:7~
506,000 in4
A3 = 105 in 2
-----"-\
I
Joz~2,500,000i.n 4 Joz ~ 2,500,000 in 4 :J D2.,2, 500 1,\QQO i n4
J 01 =2,720,000 in4 :J 01 =2,720,000 in ..
39-t CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
Jrs 0.00284 in 4
Jrr 0.00134 in 4
~. 0 .00251 inl - ~
I
3x9" 3x9"
I
IJOl 0. 00690 In
Jo1 0.00750 in 41 :Jo10.00750 in'
I I
I
I 10'0 11
Fig. 1().21! Dimcn,ion~

.tnd 'cctional properties
nf model B
(a)
Fig. 10.29 ~lodel B

Conncclions (a) Girder
cable connection
(b) Tower cable connection
(c) Tower-girder
connection
(b) (c)
(a)
rig. I 0.30 Strain and

dial-gauge layouts (a)
Strain-gauge layout (h)
Dial-gauge layout
i in x 1 in, adjusted to comply with variable sectional properties. The

towers were designed as variable rectangular shapes, and piano wires,
reheated to 900F, were employed as cables. The connections were
designed on the same principles as for Model A, that is to avoid eccentric
application of forces and to permit post-tensioning of cables. The dimen-
sions and sectional properties of the model are shown in Fig. 10.28, and
connections are shown in Fig. 10.29.
As for Model A, axial forces in cables and bending moments in the
main girder were determined by electrical strain gauges. For displace-
ments, dial gauges were used. The strain-gauge and dial-gauge layouts
are shown in Fig. 10.30. Data from strain gauges were obtained using the
data acquisition system described in Section 10.7.
To determine the upper limit for which the applied loads are still
proportional to internal forces, a concentrated load was applied at joint 7
and the axial force in cable 6 as a result of this load was recorded. The
results of this test are plotted in Fig. 10.31 and indicate that the cable
displays a linear behavior up to a load equal to 0.3P. Only after this value
is exceeded, the axial force in cable 6 increases at a higher rate than the
applied load. On this basis, a load equal to 20% of the total load was
chosen for the first step of loading. The model during loading is shown
in Fig. 10.32.
Loads were applied at joints and at half distances between joints. The
data recorded were strains and displacements at the locations indicated
Fig. I 0.31 '\nnlineari~ 723 --H~ ~I:_ ~N~I~ ~ - _________ - _______ - __

ol cahle 6 under the
700
actiun of a 'ertical nonlinear '/
concentrJtcd load at ~/
joint 7 '/
'/
I
I
600 '/
'/
'/
'/'-.I in~ar
'/
'/
soo 1
'/
,
f
400
300
Fi!(. IO.J2 General P( I b)

lie" of model B
under load 2P 3P . SP
in Fig. 10.30, which were then compared in order to evaluate the

variation of stresses and strains due to the nonlinear behavior of the
structure. The results obtained are shown in Table 10.1
Table 10.1.
Location and internal Strains (J..tin/in) and displacements Difference

force or displacement (inxl0- 2 ) due to
investigated 20%of Actual Comparative nonlinear
total total total behavior
load load load (%)
(linear) (nonlinear) (linear)
Axial force in Cable I 193.00 1018.00 965.00 +5.50

Axial force in Cable 2 108.00 555.00 540.00 +2.78
Axial force in Cable 3 98.00 495.00 490.00 + 1.02
Axial force in Cable 4 106.00 540.00 530.00 + 1.85
Bending moment at
interior support 113.00 607.00 565.00 +7.42
Displacement at
Joint 7 4.91 25.51 24.55 +3.90
Displacement at
Joint 17 1.15 6.30 5.75 +9.55
This kind of typical information may be used in design to increase the

cross-sections determined on the basis of a linear analysis. The influence
of nonlinearity was found to be smaller for the bending moments in the
main girder at the locations investigated. Also, it was larger for cables
1 and 6, as these cables undergo the largest change of angle due to the
displacement of the stiffening girder and tower.
It should be noted that the model employed had adjustable sectional
properties; the cross-sections of the main girder and towers rna y be de-
creased by milling and cables may be interchanged without difficulty.
10.9 Post-tensioning forces in cables
This section describes an experimental procedure to determine the post-

tensioning forces required in cables in order to reduce the bending
moments and displacements of the stiffening girder and towers of a
cable-stayed bridge 35 .
The technique employed consists of determining bending moments
and displacements under the action of dead load, and bending moments,
axial forces and displacements due to unit forces applied successively
along each cable of the system. From these data, post-tensioning forces
required in cables to reduce bending moments and displacement due to
dead load are determined as follows.
10.9 .1 Post-tensioning j(Jrces in cables to reduce the maximum bending

moment at intermediate supports
The procedure consists in the reduction of M" the maximum bending

moment in the stiffening girder due to dead load, to C0 M" where C0 is
a reduction factor less than unity.
The basic equation for the case of the bridge system represented in
Fig. 10.33 is
(10.34)
In eq. (10.34), .M,l is the bending moment at location r due to the
action of a unit load applied along cable i and Xi is the post-tensioning
force to be applied in cable i to reduce .M, to C ,1'1,. 1
If it is assumed that the post-tensioning forces in cables satisfy the

conditions
X1 = X6 = X7 = X 12 }
X2 = Xs = Xs = Xu (10.35)
x3 = x4 = x9 = xlO
then eq. (10.34) may he reduced to
M~X 1 +M~X2 +M~X3 = M,(C 0 -l) (10.36)

where
Mar = Ml+M6+M7+Ml2
r r r r }
M~ = M;+M;+M~+M; 1 (10.37)
M~ = M;+M;+M;+M;o
Equation (10.36) indicates that there are many possible combinations of

xl' x2 and x3 and two of the three unknown post-tensioning forces may
be selected arbitrarily.
If the sum of the unit stresses due to dead load and post-tensioning is
specified, however, to be identical for cables I, 2, and 3-, that is
(10.38)
where N {is the final post-tensioning force in cable i and A; is the cross-
sectional area of cable i, then, for a given value of C 0 , the post-tensioning
forces in cables X 1 , X 2 , X 3 may be calculated as follows.
Fi[(. I 0.33 Post-

tensioning f(>rces in
cahks. Basic <,\'stem
First, X 2 and X 3 are expressed as functions of X 1 , employing eq.

(10.38). Further, X 1 and X 2 and X, arc substituted in cq. (10.36) and an
expression for XI is obtained. To express Xz and x3as functions of X],
eq. (10.38) is rearranged as a system of two equations with two unknowns
a11Xz+a12X3 = All+A12Xt
(10.39)
where
(10.40)
and
At
A11 = - N3-N1
A3
A1
A 12 = - N~-N~
A3
(10.41)
Az
Azt = -N3-Nz
A3
A
A 22 = ___2 N~- N~
A3
In eqs. (10.40) and (10.41), N;; N,"and N;~ where i varies from 1 to 12,
are axial forces in cables due to unit loads applied as shown in Figs.
10.34(a-c). Solving the system of eqs. (10.39), X 2 and X 3 may be
expressed as
X2 = B 11 +B 12 X 1}
(10.42)
X 3 = B 21 +B 22 X 1
where
400 CABLE-STAYEO BRIDGES
(10.43)
in which B is the determinant of the system of eqs. (10.40), that is

(10.44)
Substituting X 2 and X 3 from eq. (10.42) into eq. (10.36), and

separating X 1, we obtain
M,(C 0 -1)-B 11 M~-M 21 M~
X 1
= M~+B 12 M~+B 22 M~ (10.45)
Once X 1 is known, X 2 and X 3 may be determined from eq. (6.42).

The final forces in cables due to post-tensioning and dead load are
(10.46)
where i varies from 1 to 12. The method developed above is applicable to
any cable-stayed bridge system.
'"' ~1 ~ 1~
I'ig. 10.34 Post-

tensioning forces in
cahles. Substructures
10. 9.2 Post-tensioning forces in cables to reduce displacements
The procedure consists of determining first the matrix of displacements

{DJ} at n selected locations, where n is the number of cables. The dis-
placements are due to a unit force applied successively along each cable
of the bridge system. The size of this matrix is n x n. Further, the vector
{J} of displacements due to dead load at the locations selected is deter-
mined. If C0 is the reduction factor,
{J}+[DJ]*{X} = C0 [}} (10.47)
where {X} is the vector of post-tensioning forces in cables. From eq.

(10.47) {X} may be determined as
{X} = (C 0 -1)[DJt 1 *[J} (10.48)
The information needed to determine the post-tensioning forces by
any of the above procedures may be determined either analytically, or
with the help of a structural model.
References
l. Clark, E., Britannia and Conway Tubular Bridges (2 vols.), vol. I,

Day and Day, London, 1850.
2. Beggs, G. E., 'An Accurate Mechanical Solution of Statically-
Indeterminate Structures by the Use of Paper Models and Special
Gages', Proc. Am. Concr. lnst., 18, 58, 1922.
3. Eney, W. ]., 'New Deformeter Apparatus', Engng. News Rec, 221,
16 February, 1939.
4. Pippard, A. J. S. and Sparkes, S. R., 'Some Experimental Solutions
of Certain Structural Problems', Proc. Inst. civ. Engrs, 4, 79,
1936-37.
5. Gottschalk, 0., 'Mechanical Calculation of Elastic Systems', }.
Franklin lnst., 202, 61-87, July, 1926.
6. Baker, J. F., The Mechanical and Mathematical Stress Analysis of
Steel Building Frames, Institution of Civil Engineers, Selected
Engineering Paper No. 131, 1932.
7. Beggs, G. E., Timby, E. K. and Birdsall, B., 'Suspension Bridge
Stresses Determined by Model', Engng. News Rec., 828-832, 9 June,
1932.
8. Steinman, D. B., 'Rope-Strand Cables Used in New Bridge at Port-
land, Oregon', Engng. News Rec., 272-277, 13 February, 1930.
9. Beggs, G. E .., Davis, R. E. and Davis, H. E., 'Tests on Structural
Models of Proposed San Francisco-Oakland Suspension Bridge',
Univ. Calif Pubs. Engng, 3 (2), 59-158, 1933.
10. Beyer, E. and Schmidt, H., 'Entwurfsbearbeitung und Modell-

versuche', Nordbrucke Dusseldorf, Landeshaupstadt Dusseldorf,
1958, pp. 28-36.
11. Tamms, F. and Beyer, E., Kniebrucke Dusseldorf, Beton-Verlag
Gmbh, Dusseldorf, 1969.
12. Troitsky, M.S. and Lazar, B., Model Investigation ofCable-Stayed
Bridges, Report No. 1, Sir George Williams University, Montreal,
Canada, 1969.
13. Feige, A., 'The Evolution of German Cable Stayed Bridges: An
Overall Survey, Acier-Stahl-Steel, No. 12, 523-532, December,
1966.
14. Brown, C. D., 'Design and Construction of the George Street
Bridge Over the River Usk at Newport, Monmouthshire', Proc.
Inst. Civ. Engrs, 32, 31-52, 1965.
15. Troitsky, M. S. and Lazar, B. E., 'Model Analysis and Design of
Cable-Stayed Bridges', Proc. Inst. Civ. Engrs, 48, 439-464, March
1971.
16. Rocha, M. M., 'Portuguese Practice in Model Tests', Eng. Dig.
Toronto, 21-25, July, 1958.
17. Hossdorf, H., 'Model Analysis Versus Computer', Space Structures:
The International Conference, University ofSurrey, Ed. Davies, R. M.,
Blackwell Scientific Publications, Oxford and Edinburgh, 1966, pp.
391-395.
18. Roll, F., 'Materials For Structural Models', ASCE J. Struct. Div.,
1353-1381, June, 1968.
19. Fialho,]. F. L., 'The Use ofP1astics for Making Structural Models',
Bull. Rilem (8), 65-74, September, 1960.
20. Kinney, G. F., Engineering Properties and Applications of Plastics,
Wiley, New York, 1964.
21. McCoy, R. H., Development of Modelling Techniques for Steel
Structures, Technical Report R63-45, Department of Civil Engineer-
ing, MIT, Cambridge, Mass., USA, August, 1964.
22. Little, W. A. and Foster, D. C., Fabrication Techniques for Small
Scale Steel Models, Technical Report R66-45, Department of Civil
Engineering, MIT, Cambridge, Mass., USA, 1966.
23. Breen,]. E., 'Fabrication and Tests of Structural Models', ASCE
}. Struct. Div., 1339-1352, June, 1968.
24. Langhaar, H. L., Dimensional Analysis and Theory of Models,
Wiley, New York, 1951.
25. Murphy, G., Similitude in Engineering, Ronald Press, New York,
1950.
26. Beaujoint, N., 'Similitude and Theory of Models', Bull. Rilem (7),
14--39, June, 1960.
MODEL ANAL YSJS AND DESIGN 403
27. Preece, B. W. and Davies, ]. D., Models for Structural Concrete,

CR Books, London, 1964.
28. Buckingham, E., 'On Physically Similar Systems: Illustration of the
Use of Dimensional Equations', Phys. Rev. 4 (4), 345, 1914.
29. Homberg, H., 'Influence Lines for Cable-Stayed Bridges', Stahlbau,
24 (2), 40-44, February, 1955 (in German).
30. Troitsky, M.S. and Lazar, B., 'Model Investigation of Cable-Stayed
Bridges-Influence Lines', Report No.2, Sir George Williams Uni-
versity, Faculty of Engineering, February, 1970.
31. Rocha, M. M. and Barges, ]. F., Photographic Method for Model
Analysis of Structure, Publication No. 18, Laboratorio de Engen-
haria Civil, Lisbon, 1951.
32. Beyer, E. et al., 'North Bridge at Dusseldorf', Stahlbau, 24, (2), 25-
33, 1955 (in German).
33. MIT, Data/ink, A User's Manual, Report T-65-03, Massachusetts
Institute of Technology, March, 1965.
34. Troitsky, M.S. and Lazar, B., 'Model Investigation of Cable Stayed
Bridges-Nonlinear Behavior', Report No. 4, Sir George Williams
University, Montreal, Canada, 1970.
35. Troitsky, M.S. and Lazar, B., 'Model Investigation of Cable Stayed
Bridges-Post-Tensioning of Cables', Report No. 5, Sir George
Williams University, Montreal, Canada, 1970.
Chapter 11
Wind Action and Aerodynamic

Stability
11.1 Introduction
Historically, the collapse of the Tacoma Narrows Bridge in 1940, after

only a few months of service, prompted most of the research on aero-
dynamic stability of bridges.
Before the Tacoma Bridge collapsed, bridge engineers were content
to design for static loads produced by lateral winds, and the conventional
design of bridges was focused mostly on the strength of a structure.
A lesson learned from the Tacoma Bridge was the recognition of the im-
portance of aeroelastic investigation in structural design which included
the rigidity, damping characteristics and the aerodynamic shape of the
bridge. At the present time, it is considered more scientific to eliminate
the cause than to build up the structure to resist the effect. The aero-
dynamic phase of the problem is the real challenge to bridge engineers,
and in response to this challenge, we now have the new science of bridge
aerodynamics.
Basically, the research and knowledge of aeronautics and aerodynamics
were brought to bear on the bridge problem, treating the deck section as
an airfoil, i.e. like the wing cross-section of an aircraft. The results have
been equally applicable to suspension and cable-stayed bridges. The
development of the suspension bridge theory led to more economical,
more slender and more ambitious structures. It was in the interest of
maintaining these advantages and at the same time restoring aerodynamic
stability that extensive research was started.
When the first cable-stayed bridge, the Stromsund Bridge, was built
in Sweden in 1955, the problem of aerodynamic stability in bridge design
did receive considerable study. However, that study did not then lead
to explicit design rules and formulas. It should be noted that all extensive
research done so far has not yet completed our knowledge of this problem.
WI:'\D >\CTIO:'\ AND AERODYNAMIC STABILITY 405
11.1.1 The effect of wind
When considering the effect of wind on a cable-stayed bridge, three dif-

ferent aerodynamic mechanisms can be distinguished that may cause
significant oscillatory behavior.
11.1.2 Gusts, or the natural turbulence of the wind
The most obvious effect of the wind is due to the action of gusts. The
wind-gust components affect the periodicity of the vortex shedding,
tending to make it less regular and producing weaker excitation over a
wider range of wind speed.
11.1.3 Action of the vortices
Vortices are formed at the points where the air flow separates from the
surface of a structure. They may break away into the wake at regular
intervals causing a periodic variation of force on the structure.
Excitation due to the periodic formation of vortices in the air-flow in
the wake of the structure is primarily dependent on details of the shape
of the cross-section. If the structure is rigid and the incident flow steady,
the vortex formation would be very precisely periodic at a frequency
proportional to the wind speed.
With a flexible structure, there is a resonant excitation at a critical
wind speed, and the effect of motion of the structure is to modify the
vortex frequency so as to synchronize the excitation with the motion
over a range of wind speeds.
11.1.4 Change in the flow pattern
This change is produced by movement of the structure which may cause

forces tending to increase the motion. In general, all bridges are subjected
to all three forms of excitation.
The above types of motion cause the following kinds of oscillation of
bridges under lateral loads:
( 1) Vertical or flexural oscillations
(2) Torsional oscillations
(3) Coupled flexural-torsional oscillations.
The oscillations excited by wind usually occur in one or other of
the following types of displacements:
(4) Vertical bending of the suspended structure in which the structure

moves up and down, and the two cables are displaced by an equal
amount in the same direction.
(5) Torsion of the suspended structure in which the structure twists
above a spanwise axis and the two cables displace an equal moment
but in opposite directions.
(6) Coupled motion of corresponding models in vertical bending and in
torsion of the suspended structure.
Vertical bending moments have rarely proved dangerous but can be

inconvenient to traffic. Most bridges which have failed because of wind-
excited oscillations, have done so as a result of torsional motions.
The vertical and torsional motions can occur in a number of modes
which are referred to as 'symmetric' when the displacements of each half
of the span about its midpoint are in the same direction, and as 'anti-
symmetric' when these displacements are in opposite directions.
Although modes of oscillation involving stretching of the cables can
occur, for the modes of major interest the cables can be regarded as
inextensible. To maintain a constant length, they must therefore displace
horizontally, as well as vertically, during an oscillation. Symmetric
oscillations occur with 0, 2, 4, etc. nodes within the center span and hori-
zontal longitudinal movement of the cables takes place at the towers and
thus the sidespans are involved in the motion.
Antisymmetric oscillations occur with an odd number of nodes within
the center span. Horizontal longitudinal movements of the cables takes
place at midspan and tower, and sidespan movements are not essential to
the motion.
In still air, an oscillation set up by an initial disturbance decays because
the energy of oscillation is absorbed by the structural damping inherent
in the bridge. The wind can add to the overall damping effect, in which
case the oscillations dies away more rapidly. However, the wind flow over
the bridge can subtract from the damping, and at a critical wind speed,
when the aerodynamic damping is negative and equal to the structural
damping, the overall damping becomes zero and oscillations are main-
tained. In wind speeds above the critical, either the amplitude grows
until structural failure occurs, or the amplitude reached is limited by a
nonlinearity in the system.
The mechanism of the air flow causing instability is complex and an
explanation can be offered only in general terms for a few simple bridge
shapes. No theories exist for calculation of the aerodynamic forces acting
on bridge shapes and therefore recourse has to be made to measurements
on models.
Dimensionless analysis can be used to show that the non-dimensional
aerodynamic forces on a bridge oscillating in vertical bending modes are
\n:\D KTIOI'\ '\1'\D AERODYI'\A,\liC STABILITY 407
dependent on the aerodynamic shape and some of the non-dimensional

quantities.
With the substitution of the corresponding quantities for torsional
motion, these values also apply to the torsional motions of the bridge.
However, measurements of the aerodynamic forces can be obviated by
incorporating in the model correctly scaled inertial, elastic and damping
properties. The oscillatory behavior of the full-scale bridge can then be
related directly to that observed on the model.
The complexity of analysing vertical, torsional and coupled flexural-
torsional oscillations, magnified by their interdependence, has limited
research to an empirical approach. The existing design equations were
developed through experimental work.
The problem of preventing excessive wind-excited motion is proving
more difficult with modern forms of bridges, largely because of the
reduced weight and the reduced natural structural damping inherent in
modern designs.
The obvious result of reduced structural weight is that wind forces
are now greater in relation to the inertia of the structure, and there is also
a secondary effect from the reduction of the lowest natural frequency of
oscillation of a more slender design. Clearly, these features are very
closely related to the economics of modern design, and every effort must
be made to avoid undue limitation due to the risk of wind-excited motion.
A first step in the assessment of the tendency of a proposed bridge to
oscillate in wind is the determination of the natural frequency and modes
of oscillation and the structural damping as explained in detail in the
following sections.
11.2 Wind forces
The wind forces which act upon a bridge depend upon the velocity and
direction of the wind and the size, shape, and motion of the bridge. The
occurrence of resonance between these wind forces and the motion of
the bridge depends upon the same factors. The amplitude of oscillation
which may be built up depends upon the intensity of the wind forces, the
energy storage capacity of the structure, the structural damping and the
duration of a wind capable of exciting motion.
The forces exerted on a bridge superstructure by a wind, assuming
steady flow and a fixed structure, are dependent upon the shape and size
of the cross-section of the deck and the angle of attack of
the wind. Even for a fixed structure, the flow may be unsteady, causing a
periodic system of applied forces. If the bridge moves, the forces are
influenced by both the velocities and accelerations of the structure.
For a complex shape, such as the deck of a cable-stayed bridge, the
theoretical prediction of the behavior is difficult. However, some insight

into behavior is desirable, considering the following aspects of the prob-
lem.
11.3 Static wind action
11.3 .1 Force and moment components
Wind flowing perpendicular to the bridge is diverting from its original

path, and such a deflection leads to changes in the speed of the air. The
pressure exerted by the air on the bridge is altered from that of the
undisturbed stream. As a result of these processes, the bridge experiences
a resultant aerodynamic force which is separated into three components:
the lift, the drag and the pitching moment.
h 90
-r----~---L-----------~
0
"'Yv
__.--- V 1To I SPLACEMENT v
Fig. 11.1 Wind forces
Given a steady flow around a section of area A, with wind velocity V

and angle of attack a, lift and drag forces are developed (Fig. 11.1),
which are here taken normal and parallel to the section. The lift is the
component of force acting upwards, perpendicular to the d~ck plane.
The drag is the component of force acting in the same direction as the
horizontal component of the wind flow. The pitching moment is acting in
the plane containing the lift and the drag.
The lift force is
(11.1)
where
Pa = -iP V2
= the dynamic pressure
p =
the density of air, and
CL = the dimensionless lift coefficient that varies with a
A = the cross-sectional area of the bridge.
11.3 .2 Negative lifl-slope theory
Investigations of the aerodynamic stability of suspension bridges by

Steinman 1- 3 indicate that the main factor is the sign of
(11.2)
WII\;D ACTIO:'\ AND AERODYNAMIC STABILITY 409
Assuming the section is given a downward vertical velocity d Vf dt,

then the effective angle of attack becomes
1dV
a+--
V dt
The increase in lift, considering it as positive upwards, is
(11.3)
If dCL/da is positive, the change in lift tends to oppose the motion, and
can lead to limited but damaging oscillations.
If dCL/da is negative, the change in lift acts in the same sense as the
motion and tends to increase it, leading to oscillations of catastrophic
proportions. In both cases, the steeper the slope, the greater is the rate of
amplification of the oscillations.
If dCL/da is zero, the motion is unaffected by the wind force. According
to Steinman's theory, a desirable cross-section should have dCL/da
equal to zero.
A similar consideration may be applied to torsional oscillations, when
under steady conditions, the lift force is, in general, displaced from the
axis of rotation and causes a torque about this axis. The torque can be
expressed as
(11.4)
where CT is a dimensionless torque coefficient depending on a. Steinman
suggested that a zero slope, dCT/da, or preferably a slight negative slope,
is desirable.
Simple model tests may be used to find static lift graphs, and according
to the Steinman theory, with the requirement that
and dCT = 0 (11.5)

da
0.06
Fig. 11.2 Static lift and

moment coefficients:
(I) Original Tacoma
-0.08 Narrows (2) Golden Gate
(3) Mackinac
they are a sufficient guarantee of safety against the possible aerodynamic

forces, irrespective of the stiffness of the structure.
As an illustration of this theory, the comparison of static lift graphs is
sh~wn fo~ the Mackinac, Golden Gate and original Tacoma Na"''!i\vs
Bndge (F!g.11.2). 1
The Mackinac Bridge cross-section shows a zero slope at zero incidence,

with a tendency toward a negative slope as the incidence is increased 4 .
This bridge was actually built with a stiffening truss and high structural
damping. Tests on spring-supported sectional models indicated no
instability for wind velocities in excess of 1000 mph (1600 km/h).
The advantage of the negative lift-slope theory lies in its focusing
attention on the forces causing instability.
11.4 Dynamic wind action
11.4 .1 Vortex shedding
When we consider the flow of air around a cylinder at rest, eddies are shed
periodically from the cylinder, forming the Karman vortex trai1 5 (Fig.
11.3).
Fig. 11.3 Vortex

development The analysis for steady flow shows smooth curving lines with stagnation
points at opposite ends of the diameter parallel to the flow. These points
develop at the leading edge, however immediately after, an area of
turbulence develops at the rear stagnation point. This area spreads and
forms an eccentric eddy which eventually is carried away downstream. It is
followed by a second vortex from the other side, and so on. Each time an
eddy is released, an unbalanced lateral force acts on the cylinder. If the
cylinder is free to vibrate laterally, the alternating lateral forces may
impose on it a forced vibration with a frequency equal to the eddy
frequency.
The frequency of successive forces is given approximately by
J= SV/d (11.6)
where
d =the diameter of the cylinder
V =the velocity of the wind
S =a dimensionless parameter known as the Strouhal number.
The Strouhal number varies with the form of the section and is about
0.2 for a cylinder.
\\1:'\IJ \CTIOJ\ \:\]) \FROD\:\'\"'IIC ST>\BILITY 411
The periodic forces associated with vortex development can cause

structural oscillations, as in the case of pipeline cable-stayed bridges6 .
As experience indicates, formation of vortices is .the main factor in
cable-stayed bridges having decks supported by the open-type plate
girders.
The periodic shedding of vortices alternately from the upper and
lower surfaces of the bridge deck causes periodic fluctuation of the
aerodynamic forces on the structure. For any particular cross-section of
the bridge the vortex shedding is frequently proportional to the wind
speed range and the maximum amplitude is decreased by increasing the
structural damping.
Plate girder and box girder bridge decks are prone to vortex excitation.
However, the strength varies according to deck configuration, the number
of girders, inclination of webs, and details of the edge of the deck. The
devices which tend to prevent flow separation from the horizontal surface
are beneficial. Design features reducing the intensity of vortex excitation
are:
(a) shallow section;
(b) perforation of edge girder;
(c) fitting a soffit to close off the spaces between the main girders;
(d) fitting tapered fairings to the side faces; and
(e) use of deflection flops on the deck edges.
11.4.2 Flutter
Under pressure of wind, the bridge deck may oscillate in a mode including
both transverse displacements and torsional notation, which is called
flutter. Bleich7 was the first author who pointed out the relation to the
flutter speed of aircraft wings. He distinguished clearly between flutter
and the effect of staggered vortices and expressed the opinion that two
degrees of freedom-bending and torsion-at least are necessary for
oscillations of this kind. Bleich8 developed a simplified practical method
of design against flutter by determining the critical speed of the wind
action.
Since, for a given configuration of the bridge, the aerodynamic force
increases rapidly with the wind speed, while the elastic stiffness is inde-
pendent of the wind, there may exist a critical wind speed at which the
structure becomes unstable. Such instability may cause excessive deforma-
~s, and may lead to the destruction of the bridge.
\ Two pre-calculated tables provide the data from which the response of
the structure to wind action could be, at least approximately, predicted.
The critical velocity may be computed from the formula
(11. 7)
where
w = the flutter frequence
2b = the width of the bridge deck
Kc = wb/ V, the nondimensional ratio
V = the wind velocity
The critical value of Kc is estimated from Bleich's double-entrance
table, computed for ratios w 2 jw 1 from 1.15 to 6.00 and for 11-values
between 0.01 and 0.07, where
w 1 = the known frequency of the first vertical natural mode of vibration
of the system
w2 = the known frequency of the first torsional natural mode of vibration
of the system, and
f1 = sb/m
where
m = w/g = the mass of the bridge per unit length
s = 2npb = the coefficient
p = air density in slugs per cubic foot
In a second table Bleich shows the ratio wjw 1 as a function of Kc and f1
and furnishes the flutter frequency w. Using the values of Kc and w, the
critical velocity Vv may be computed from the formula (11.7).
The effect of damping upon the flutter characteristics in general is
small, and it can be taken into account by multiplying V0 as calculated
from the tables, by 1 + 6, where 6 denotes the logarithmic decrement of
structural damping. This simple rule is sufficiently accurate for values of
6 ::( 0.05. In actual suspension bridges 6 rarely reaches the upper limit
6=0.05.
Since the Tacoma bridge collapse, flutter has been the subject of
several analytical theories which indicate that the magnitudes of the
torsional and bending frequencies should be different from each other in
order to eliminate flutter. The wind speed which causes flutter depends
on the mass and ratio of torsional and vertical bending natural
frequencies. An ideal aerofoil shows positive damping at all speeds in
vertical or torsional oscillations. But a very strong excitation can arise
after the coupling of vertical and torsional motions. The separation of the
torsional natural frequency of the bridge in still air from the vertical
natural frequency has a major effect on the critical speed. A large
spearation calls for a large aerodynamic force to enforce a sustained large
coupled oscillation and structural damping will have little effect. Selberg9
proposed a semi-empirical expression adjusted by test results to estimate
the flutter speed and an exact solution is given by Frandsen 10 . Kloppel
WI:'\D ACTIO:'\ M\D .'\ERODY:'\AMIC STABILITY 413
and Thiele 11 investigated the bridge flutter phenomenon by testing

bridge models of different cross-sectional configurations in a wind
tunnel, and some of these tests were repeated by Taylor 12 (Fig. 11.4).
1.0
0.9 1.0
J .,~
c
"
!
Q.
0.8
0.7 "--- <
1.0
>
" .,
I~
0.6
~ ~
u
...
<I)
0.5
0.4 c:=::::J
E<.> u 0.3 1.0
'-... I I
> >
Q2
0.1
0
=a
Fig. 11.4 Flutter speeds
1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
!(Jr different bridge cross-
w Torsiol'l/wBending sectional configurations
11.4.3 Turbulenre
Observations indicate that the natural wind is not steady but is

turbulent in character. In fact, the wind is acting at certain times with
nonuniform pressure. This wind turbulence creates random velocity
fluctuations in the vertical and horizontal directions in space. Therefore,
the wind pressures along the height and length of the bridge are
nonuniform. Also, turbulence affects vortex shedding and can cause
dynamic excitation through fluctuation of the local wind speed. The
following effects may he considered: horizontal and vertical excitation
due to fluctuating along the direction of the wind component as well as
vertical excitation due to the fluctuating vertical component of the wind
speed. Most bridges have a substantially higher natural frequency for
horizontal oscillations, particularly with wide, slender deck configur-
ations. However the dynamic magnification of the wind load effect will
probably he insignificant. But caution may be necessary for narrow, long-
span cable-stayed bridges.
Turbulence, or gusts of natural wind, may produce a narrow
oscillation called buffeting. In this case the bridge structure will respond
randomly in one or more of its natural modes. In long-span bridge decks,
the buffeting is caused by the variable vertical gust component of the
wind. Thus the deck, which is flutter prone, may also be subjected to
oscillations due to buffeting.
11.5 Vibrations
Vibrations cover the oscillatory motion of the bridge system and its
dynamic conditions. This motion may he of regular form which is
repeated, or it may he irregular or of a random nature. Vibrations are
accompanied by, or are produced by, forces which vary in an oscillatory
manner. In order for bridge vibrations to occur, a mass which stores

kinetic energy is required, as well as an elastic structure which stores
potential energy. The bridge system may be acted on by an external force
which is often repeated and which tends to maintain the oscillation. This
is then designated a forced system, and the motion is called a forced
vibration. If no forced condition exists, the motion is said to be a free
vibration. One complete movement of any repeated motion is called a
cycle and the time for one cycle is termed the period and is measured in
seconds. The natural frequency is the number of cycles of motion
occuring in unit time. When the natural frequency of the structure and
the frequency of the external force coincide they produce a condition of
resonance. The maximum displacement of the motion curve is generally
referred to as the displacement amplitude.
A vibration can also be of an irregular nature when there is no part of
the movement that is repeated. This type of motion, for which there is no
apparent pattern in the vibration record, is called a random vibration. A
random vibration is produced by input forces of an irregular nature
acting upon the vibratory system, for example due to aerodynamic
buffeting.
Self-perpetuating vibrations of the bridge may be linked to a force
originating from deformation or displacement of the structure. In this
case, the structure's own movements tend to increase the energy of the
exciting force.
11.5 .1 Introduction
With the recent introduction of cable-stayed systems in the field of

modern bridge engineering, the problem of their dynamic stability has
arisen. And the first basic practical problem which apparently should be
investigated is the determination of the laws of free vibrations, to eliminate
or to limit the undesired and incidental frequencies.
The vibration of an elastic body is a function of the stiffness EI, as well
as its mass. As the stiffness is increased, in general, it may be stated that
the amplitude of vibration decreases while the frequency of vibration
mcreases.
In case of free vibrations, owing to the inertia forces, the only forces
acting on the body are those developed as a result of its distribution of
mass. A body vibrating freely does so at one or more of its natural
frequencies.
If an external vibrating force system, such as wind, is applied to a body,
the body vibrates at the frequency of the applied force. A condition of
resonance occurs if the frequency of the applied force system coincides
with one of the natural frequencies of the body. At the resonant condition,
the amplitude of vibration approaches infinity with time.
\\1:\ll \CT!Ol\ .\:\ll '.ERODYl\:\J\IIC ST:\I3ILITY 415
In the following, an approximate method is discussed for the practical

determination of the natural vertical and horizontal flexural vibrations, as
well as torsional vibrations of cable-stayed bridges.
Theoretically, cable-stayed bridges may be considered as one system
with distributed masses and with an infinite number of free frequencies.
It should be noted that the installation of the inclined cables transforms
the static system of a continuous stiffening girder into a rather complex
system having a multitude of redundants.
Because of some complexities involved in the presentation of the theory
in a more generalized form, the investigation is confined to the first
symmetric and the first antisymmetric mode of vibration as the most
important modes for the evaluation of the effect of inclined stays upon the
dynamic behavior of cable-stayed bridges.
11.5 .2 Method of solution
The problem is to determine the basis speed with the lowest frequencies.
For the determination of the natural frequencies, the energy method is
used and the analysis is based on Ritz's method, under the assumption
that dead load wand moment of inertia I of the stiffening girder have the
same value in the main and side spans. It is furthermore assumed that
each stay is given an initial tension to resist compressive forces.
By the principle of energy conservation, the sum of the kinetic and
potential energies, i.e. the total energy, of a conservative cable-stayed
system is always constant, or
W + U = E = const (11.8)
where
W = the kinetic energy
U = the potential energy
E = the total energy
For free undamped vibration, the maximum kinetic energy W is
developed when the potential energy U is zero, and vice versa, and there-
fore---according to Rayleigh's principle---the maximum value of the two
forms of energy are equal:
(11. 9)
The analysis is based on Ritz's method, as applied to vibrations of sus-
pension bridges 1 ~
The essential feature of this method is the determination of the
characteristic function which causes the kinetic or potential energy </> of
an oscillating system
(11.10)
to become a minimum, that is

(11.11)
where w denotes the circular frequency of the vibration.
11.6 Vertical flexural vibrations

Both model tests and full-scale experience indicate that the modes and
frequencies of oscillation of cable-stayed bridges are little affected by the
wind and remain closely similar to those calculated. This problem was
investigated and was proposed, as a general theory, by Goschy 14 .
Let us analyse the general type of vertical vibration of a cable-stayed
bridge, shown in Fig. 11.5.
11.6.1 The kinetic energy of the cable ~ystem
The kinetic energy of an element having an infinitesimal mass of the

vibrating structural system may be expressed as
v2
dW= dmz (11.12)
where
dm = the mass element of the cable
v = the velocity of the cable element under consideration.
As the vibrating process is considered as a harmonic oscillation, the
deflection rJ can be determined as a function of the periodic maximum
amplitude rJ(x) at the location x, the vertical circular frequencywv, and the
period T, or
rJ = rJ(x) sin wJ (11.13)
From eq. (7.13), the velocity is
(11.14)
which has its maximum value when

COS WvT = (11.15)
El
Fig. 11.5 Vertical
displacement of an
elemental length of cable
WI!';D ACTION Al\D AERODYNAMIC STABILITY 417
The elementary kinetic energy corresponding to this maximum value

may be obtained by substituting into eq. (11.12) the values from (11.14)
and (11.15):
(11.16)
/ In the case of rigidly fixed towers, the kinetic energy may be considered
as consisting of two terms :
(11.17)
where
d wl = the kinetic energy of the stiffening girder
d W 2 = the kinetic energy of the cables.
The first term of the right-hand side of eq. (11.17) has the following
form:
(11.18)
where p denotes the uniformly distributed dead load of the superstructure.

and for the loaded bridge, this is the sum of the dead weight and uniformly
distributed portion of the live load.
The second term may be expressed as follows:
(11.19)
where
Pc = the weight of the cable per unit length
IJ(s) = the vertical displacement of the cable element ds
g = acceleration due to gravity.
From Fig. 11.2(b), we have the relation
IJ(s) = 'lc(sfsc) (11.20)
and by substituting this value into eq. (11.19), we obtain
2
dw2 -_ Pc 2 'lc 2
2 wv 2 s (11.21)
g sc
where
sc = the length of the inclined cable
IJc = the maximum deflection of the vibrating stiffening girder at the
cable attachment.
The total kinetic energy of the bridge system is determined by integra-
tion over the entire length of the stiffening girder and by summation of
the terms corresponding to the m pairs of cables attached to the girder,
according to the following formula:
(11.22)
11.6.2 The potential energy of the cable
The potential energy of the cable-stayed bridge can be calculated as
U = 1JL PIJ(x) dx (11.23)

It is equal to the strain energy, or the internal work during the deforma-
tion of the structure, expressed by the formula
(11.24)
where
V 1 = the strain energy of the stiffening girder
V2 = the strain energy of the cables
v3 = the internal work performed by the cable forces due to second-order
deformations.
The internal work done by the individual components of the bridge
can be expressed as a function of the vibration amplitude IJ(x) of the
stiffening girder.
Introducing the differential equation of the bending of the beam
M = - EldziJ(x) (11.25)
dx 2
the equation for the flexural strain energy of the stiffening gir.der becomes
vl =! I M2dx =! I EI [d21J(x)Jdx
dx 2
(11.26)
2 JL EI 2 JL
where EI is the flexural rigidity of the stiffening girder.
The cables follow the vertical vibrations of the stiffening girder. There-
fore, due to the periodic lengthening and shortening of the cables, the
cable forces also increase and decrease periodically.
The additional portion of the cable force attains its maximum value Xc
at the amplitude IJ(x), and the internal work done by these additional
forces will be
(11.27)
WII\:D >\CTIO:'\ :\1\:D AERODYI\:AMIC STABILITY 419
Fig. 11.6 Change in the

length of the cable due to
the deflection of the
stiffening girder
In this expression Ec is the modulus of elasticity of the cable, and Ac is its

cross-sectional area.
The elongation of the cable (Fig. 11.6) due to the maximum deflection
n1 can be expressed as
(11.28)
and since
(11.29)
we obtain for the force in the cable C
(11.30)
where r:xc denotes the angle of intersection of the cable and the stiffening
girder.
Finally, the work done by the internal forces in the cables is calculated
with the aid of the equation
m EA 2 2
c !I c sm r:xc
v2 = 1 "
2 L...
c= 1 Sc
(11.31)
Due to the vibration of the structural system, second-order deforma-

tions occur, and cause the cable force to change periodically in magnitude.
Using the notations shown in Fig. 11.7, the increase and decrease of
the vertical component of the cable force can be expressed as
Xcv = Xc sin (r:xc+dr:x)- Xc sin r:xc (11.32)
For dr:x tending towards zero,
cos dr:x ;: : : 1 and sin dr:x;:::::: dr:x
The value of the force Xcv can now be expressed as
(11.33)
Fig. II. 7 Second-order 'l(x}

cable deformations
The angular rotation of the cable is
dQ( = _IJ_co_s_Q(_c (11.34)
and the additional force in the cable can be determined after substituting
(11.34) into (11.33)
(11.35)
where Xc is the cable force due to dead load or due to dead and live loads.
The work done by the internal forces in the cable due to second-order
deformations is given by the expression
v3 = 2:: f"c xcv d1J = 2:: f"c XC cos2 Q(c 1J dl]

m
c= 1 0
m
c= 1 0 Sc
and after integration, we obtain

1 m cos 2 Q(
v3 =- 2:: xc _ _ _cl]~ (11.36)
2 c= 1 5c
11.6.3 The natural frequencies of the cable .~ystem
As the energy equations are now known, the frequency of the vertical
flexural vibrations can be determined by Ritz's method.
By equating sums of the total kinetic energy according to eqs. (11.17),
(11.18) and (11.21) with the total potential energy expressed by eqs.
(11.24), we obtain
or
Wlr\D ACTIO!\: Ar\D AERODYNAMIC STABILITY 421
By equating the maximum values of the energies, according to eq.

(11.9), we may determine the natural frequencies of the vertical
oscillations after Rayleigh, that is
w~ = U(W (11.38)
and the number of vibrations per second or the frequency is
nvo = wvf2n (11.39)
11.7 Torsional vibrations
Between the torsional and flexural deformations there exists the following
15
relationship, proposed by Goschy 16 (Fig. 11.8):
ry(x) = bl/J(x) (11.40)
where
2b = spacing of the stiffening girders
l/J(x) = the periodic maximum angular rotation of the cross-section of
the bridge at the abscissa x.
Fig. 11.8 Torsion of

the cross-section of the
8 bridge (a) Stiffening
girders are rigidly
connected (b) Stiffening
girders are connected by
the flexible floor beams
If the stiffening girders are able to undergo free vibrations (Saint-

Venant's type of torsion), the 'twist', or the angular rotation per unit
length, is
dl/J(x) Mr
(11.41)
dx GJr
11.7 .1 The kinetic energy
Substituting (11.40) into eq. (11.22), we obtain for the kinetic energy of
the torsional vibration the equation
2
WT = w~ ( ( JG t/J
2 g)LAG
2
(x) dx+ b &
3c=1g
I t/J~sc)
= w~WT (11.42)
11.7 .2 The potential energy
After substituting (11.40) into eq. (11.37), we obtain for the potential
energy of the torsional vibration, the following equation:
b2 m 2 b2 m X 2 ,/,2
+-2 c"L. E A ,/,2 S1n r:xc

=1 c
G'l' --+- L.
c sc
"
2 c= 1
c COS r:xc'l' c
sc (11.43)
where
wT = the circular frequency of the torsional vibration

JG = the polar moment of inertia of the stiffening girders and the deck
with respect to the center of gravity of the cross-section of the
bridge
AG = the cross-sectional area of the stiffening girders and the deck
t/1 c = the angular rotation of the cross-section of the bridge at the point
of anchorage of the cable
G = E/2(1+v) =the shear modulus
GJG = ~ {JG L v 3 h = the torsional stiffness of the open cross-section of
the bridge
f3 = the cross-sectional shape factor of the bridge
v = Poisson's ratio.
11.7 .3 The potential energy of the hollow cross-section
When we consider only the warping resistance, we may use the known
formula for the torsional moment:
M = G'1 8t/f(x)- EC J3t/f(x) (11.44)

T JG Jx T Jx3
\\"!:\]) \CTIO:\ \:\]) :\ERODY!\:\1\IIC STABILITY 423
Further, it follows from eq. (11.44) for the potential energy of the
stiffening girders, with C T as twisting constant for the cross-section of the
bridge, that
VT = G]G I (ol/J(x))2 dx- ECT I 031/!(x) ol/f(x) dx (11.45)

2 J L OX 2 1 Ox OX 3
Fig. 11.9 Hollow cross-

section oft he bridge
The potential energy of the stiffening girder, having a closed cross-

section, shown in Fig. 11.9, could be determined from the equation
vc = !G 4A~ I (ol/J(x))2 dx- ECT I 031/!(x) ol/f(x) dx (11.46)

~(1/v) du 1 ox 2 1 ox3 ox
where
AG = the cross-sectional area of the bridge
~1/v) du = the contour integral of a hollow cross-section with wall
thickness v
CT = the twisting resistance of the hollow cross-section
4A 2
GJT = G f I G = the torsional stiffness of the hollow cross-
( 1 v) du .
sectiOn.
Also
and
AG = 2a x 2b
To determine the frequency wT and finally the torsional vibration from
WT
nT=- (11.47)
2n
let us put the difference of the maximum values of the potential and
kinetic energy as equal to 0, or
max VT-max WT = 0
11.7 .4 Floor beams are not rigidly connected to the stiffening girders
It should be noted that the determination of the torsional vibrations can

be substantially simplified when the floor beams are not rigidly connected
to the stiffening girders as it is shown in Fig. 11.8 (b). And, because in
this case the deformation work is greater, the frequencies of the beams
are also greater. Due to the deformation shown in Fig. 11.8 (b), there
exists between the potential energies of the torsion and the bending, the
following relation
(11.48)
and the kinetic energy of the torsion could be determined from the
following expression
Wr = ~r2wv2 L l/1 (x) dx = w}WT

2
(11.49)
with the radius of gyration equal tor= )<JG/A).
11.7.5 Influence of the displacement of the tower and the deflection of the
stiffened girders on the value of the energy
Let us consider the approximate procedure in the case of a movable,

rocker-type tower (Fig. 11.10). The attachments between the cables and
tower are different; the upper cable designated by C is fixed, but the
bottom cable designated by i is movable, having rocker type supports.
The attachment point c of the cable C deflects with the stiffening
girder to the position c1 . The amplitude Yfc = cc 1 causes elongation of
the cable equal to Yfc sin ac.
From the geometric relations, we find
(11.50)
COS /Jc
R A 11
Yfc Sin Pc = LJ.Sc + LJ.
Ah' R
COS Pc
A "
= LJ.Sc + LJ.Sc -
A '
-
COS (Xc
(11.51)
and
_ s; sin /Jc cos f3c _ L

(11.52)
- K 11 2 Yfc - c1'fc
CSC COS (XC
Wll'."D ACTIO!'." Al'."D AERODY!'."AMIC STABILITY 425
{; C1 ~(x) OSCILLATION CURVE

Fig. 11.10 Basic system
of a cable-stayed bridge
with towers supported by
rockers
Due to the horizontal movement~, the pair of cables C generates the

elementary kinetic cable energy
dW~ = T
dm 2
(ti +~ )w~ ds
2
(11.53)
with the auxiliary values

/).h'
~ II_
-- (II )
II se -s
se
and
Equation (7.53) may be expressed as
(11.54)
After integration of eq. (7.54) we obtain
W'2 W'
= _2
w~ 2g 3
11
=Petie2 [ ~ (1+L2)+~
e
s' L2
3 e
J (11.55)
and when the number of the cables fixed to the tower is n, then the total
kinetic energy of the cables is
w; = 1 L Petie2[~ (l+L;)+~
L 2]
11
n
(11.56)
e= 1 g 3 3
The bottom cables designated by i are supported on the towers without
sliding. Therefore, the forces in both cables are equal. The attachments of
the cables at a and b move vertically to the positions a' and b'. These move-
ments reduce kinetic energy of the cables i, which may be expressed in the
following form:
W' = W~ = P; (tJf( +tJf;s;) (11.57)

w~
2
2g 3 3
In the case of r equally supported cables the total energy of the cables is
w; = ~
2i=lg
t ~ (tJ?s; +tJi;s;)3 3
(11.58)
When the towers are supported by rockers, the kinetic energy of the towers
should be taken into consideration.
The horizontal displacement of the tower top at the attachment of the
cables C is, according to eq. (11.52),
If we denote
h 1 = the height of the tower
dm 1 = mass of the tower per unit length
p1 = the distributed weight of the tower
~ = the displacement of the tower,
the reduced kinetic energy of the tower may be determined from the
displacement of the tower as follows:
w~ = w;
Wv
= dmt
2 Jo
rh, ~2 dh (11.59)
From the geometry of the displacement
(11.60)
and after substitution into eq. (11.59), the total kinetic energy of the j
towers is
W' _
3 -
1
2
f,1... 1!!_ L 2
ctJc2 '!3!_ (11.61)
c= 1 g
The displacement of the towers reduces the deformation work of the

cable. The work of the cables C may be
(11.62)
with
' 2 a
K = 1
C +IIScSc COS 2
Pc
COS ll.c
\\11'\D \C:TIOI\ \1'\ll \EROD\S \,\IIC: ST\BILITY 427
Since
(11.63)
the potential energy of the cables, rigidly connected to the towers, is

1 _
n EA
1_ '\'c c 1Jc2 Sln
2/3c
A2- 2 L, K II (11.64)
c= 3 esc
From eqs. (11.30) and (11.63), the relation between the forces of the
cables rigidly connected and the towers supported by the rockers is
clearly
(11.65)
Due to this relation, and considering the second-order deformations of
the n cables, the potential energy may be calculated as follows:
(11.66)
where x; indicates the force in the cables~.

The change in the length of the cables i, placed over the frictionless
support, could be expressed as a function of the deflection of the stiffening
girder
1Ji sin f3i = (~s;+~s7)+1Ju sin rxi (11.6 7)
And because the value of the cable extension is
(11.68)
the deformation work of the cable could be expressed as
A" _ 1_ ~ EiAi (1Ji sin f3i-1Ju sin rxi

2-2L, 1" (11.69)
i=t si+si
The additional second-order work of the cable forces, when the
horizontal oscillations at the attachment points of the cable are taken into
consideration, could be determined from the expression
A"3 = 1_ " x.~

r f3 ( .- .sm 2 rxi )2 (11. 70)
2 L,
1 1J 1 1J11
II f3
i=t 5i sm i
Ritz's method is applicable because the symmetrical and antisymmetri-
cal forms can be approximated respectively by series of the form
L ak sin 2kx and :E bk sin (2k+ 1)x
where the k's are integers.
By selecting a suitable vibration form for a continuous stiffening girder,
the continuity conditions should be satisfied.
11.8 Damping
11.8.1 Introduction
In designing a cable-stayed bridge, attention should be given to the

possibility of generating any of the natural periods of vibration. Due to the
relatively great flexibility of cable-stayed bridges, they are more suscep-
tible to undesirable vibrations than conventional beam structures.
Therefore, because of these vibrations of cable-stayed bridges, the
property of damping is of great importance.
'Damping' is a term broadly used to denote either the dissipation of
energy in, and the consequent decay of, oscillations of all types, or the
extent of the dissipation and decay. The energy losses arise from frictional,
or analogous, forces which are unavoidable in any system, or from the
radiation of energy to space or to another system. Damping is an im-
portant feature of materials systems subjected to cyclic load.
Damping may be defined as the inherent force that causes the gradual
dying out of mechanically excited natural vibrations within a structural
member and reduces the efficiency of transfer of dynamic mechanical
forces through a structure. Alternatively, it is strain energy lost within a
structure as that structure is caused to deflect, usually being significant
only under dynamic loading conditions.
The general definition of damping may be given as the reduction or
suppression of vibration or oscillation. Damping may also be defined as
the phenomenon of energy loss within a material during elastic straining.
It may also be called elastic strain hysteresis, from the appearance of an
elastic stress-strain diagram that reveals the effect.
11.8.2 Damping capacities
The total energy of vibration of a bridge is expressed by the equation
wui f 2
U= zg 11 dx (11.71)
1
where
w = the weight per foot of the structure
w =the circular frequency
11 = the amplitude at any point, x, along the span
The integration over the length of the bridge is necessary in arriving at

the total energy because 11 varies along the span but can be expressed as a
function of x.
WIND ACTION AND AERODYKAMIC STABILITY 429
If the bridge oscillates at a steady rate, neither increasing nor decreasing

in amplitude, the total energy remains constant regardless of the in-
stantaneous values of the kinetic energy, W, and the potential energy, V.
The kinetic energy W = mv 2/2 has the maximum value given by eq.
(11.71), which occurs at the instant when all parts of the bridge pass at
maximum velocity through their normal dead-load positions. At that
instant, the potential energy is zero. At maximum displacement, the
bridge is momentarily at rest and has no kinetic energy, all of the energy
being stored as potential energy due to the position of the mass and the
elastic strain in the bridge members.
Considering a unit length of the structure having a mass, m, and vibrat-
ing at the frequency w, and the amplitude, Y], then according to eq.
(11.71)
(11.72)
If, due to the action of damping or frictional forces, the amplitude is

reduced in one cycle to 17- L117, then the energy is reduced to
(11. 73)
and by subtracting eq. (11.73) from eq. (11.72) loss is
and the proportion of the energy lost in one cycle, known as the damping
capacity, is
(11.75)
Equation (11. 7 5) also expresses the proportion of energy gained if

excited forces cause an increase of ~'11 in the amplitude.
Damping capacity may be defined as the measure of capacity of a
material to absorb mechanical energy during elastic straining. The
damping forces can be conveniently classified as
(a) structural (hysteresis, bearing and rivet friction, plastic yielding of

deck and other elements, etc.) and
(b) atmospheric (opposing inertial and viscous forces from still or moving
air).
It is the combined effect of all damping forces which causes any observed
decay in the amplitude. In order to understand the damping action, there-
fore, it is necessary first to consider the character of structural, viscous,
hysteresis, friction and atmospheric damping.
11.8.3 Structural damping
The character of the structural damping of a complicated structure

depends upon the relative proportions and character of its hysteresis and
friction components. The damping capacity may increase or decrease
with amplitude or be nearly constant. Some field tests on light suspension
bridges have shown it as increasing up to a certain amplitude and then
decreasing 17 This form of curve may be attributed to the gradual
increase in sources of friction as the increasing stress overcomes the static
friction and causes motion to begin progressively at various contracting
surfaces.
The general interplay of members in a structure-e.g., a cable-stay
bridge forced to oscillate by wind or other causes-damps out the vibra-
tions, once excitation is stopped, by absorbing energy in strain in
members, by interaction of vibration of different parts, and by friction in
links, bearings, etc., although the effects may be difficult to separate from
the effects of external air friction.
There is an important source of damping at structural interfaces. In
analysing the damping of a structural assembly it is important to consider
the energy dissipation caused by joint interface effects.
Three types of interfaces are important in damping analysis in structural
mechanics:
(a) Dry interface surfaces, metal-to-metal contact
(b) Lubricated surfaces
(c) Adhesive bonded surfaces, such as brazed and welded joints.
(a) and (b) are generally subjected to a large variety of types ofloads and
displacements in service. Of the various types of motion, the one which
appears to offer the greatest potential for dissipating energy is the relative
shear motion in the plane of the interface.
At present, no method of calculating the structural damping is known,
except measurements rna d eon some suspensiOn . bn'd ges m . N orway 18 .
11.8.4 Viscous damping
If a damping force is directly proportional to the velocity of the vibrating

system, the curve representing the decay of amplitude is the exponential
curve
n _ n -cgt/2w
., -roe (11.76)
in which
1Jo = the initial amplitude
1J = the amplitude at the end of a period of time t
\\1:'\D :\CTIO!\ .\:'\0 i\ERODY!\AMIC STABILITY 431
c = the damping force per unit velocity

g = the acceleration of gravity
w = the weight of the system which vibrates at the amplitude, 1].
Equation (11.76) can also be expressed as
1] = 1Joe-f>NT = 1Joe-l>wt/2n (11. 77)
in which
6 = __!L = !!!_
2wN mw
N being the frequency in cycles per second and w= 2nN being the
circular frequency in radians per second. The quantity 6 is called the
logarithmic decrement, and for viscous damping it is constant for all
amplitudes during a given vibration but is reduced if the frequency w is
increased without changing c or m.
If t = 2rt/ w, the length of one cycle, then N 1 = 1 and eq. (11. 77)
expresses the ratio of two successive amplitudes
-{)
IJ1 I1Jo = e (11.78)
Thus
or (11. 79)
It is difficult to measure accurately the change in amplitude in one cycle
but the change in approximately ten cycles can be measured with
satisfactory precision.
If in eq. (11.77) we putt= 10 x 2njw, this gives the ratio 1J 10 f1Jo = e-los
and 6= lo loge (1] 0 /1] 10 ). Thus the viscous damping force is easily
evaluated by measuring its effect on the amplitude.
The logarithmic decrement is a direct measure of structural damping.
It may be estimated for the structure and reproduced on the model.
A few authors give estimates of structural damping. Steinman 19 gave
an empirical estimate of the logarithmic decrement for structural damping.
Bleich and Teller 20 provided theoretical estimates of damping, together
with the results of a confirmatory series of tests on rolled beams and small
bolted trusses, with a simulated deck. Selberg21 carried out full-scale
tests on eleven bridges, with spans from 230-525 ft (70-160 m). In a
discussion on the paper by Bleich and Teller, he stated that their results
were in agreement with his. Excluding the cases with timber floors, his
tests gave values of the logarithmic decrement varying from 0.04 to 0.19.
These figures are similar to those used by other authors. For example,
Scruton 22 carried out wind tunnel tests on models of the Severn Bridge
with logarithmic decrements due to structural damping from 0 to 0.17.
The final tests used minimum values of0.01 for torsional vibrations and
0.06 for vertical movements.
In tests on a sectional model of the Severn Bridge during erection,

Walsche 23 used minimum values of the logarithmic decrement of 0.077
and 0.069 for torsional and vertical motions, respectively.
It is possible to design for deliberate increases in the damping co-
efficient, for example, by using the riveted or bolted instead of the
welded construction method, by introducing sliding joints in the deck
system, or by inserting hydraulic damping devices between the deck and
the towers. Bleich and Teller presented theoretical estimates for some of
these cases.
11.8.5 Hysteresis damping
Hysteresis damping arises from the absorption of energy due to the

imperfectly elastic behavior of the stressed element.
The stress-strain curve is not perfectly straight and is slightly different
for descending than for ascending loads, as shown by Fig. 11. 11~ which
may represent the behavior of a simple spring, such as a wire supporting a
weight.
+F
+'1,
Fig. 11.11 Hysteresis -F

loop
The area enclosed within the stress-strain curves for a complete, closed
cycle represents force times distance and indicates the energy lost per
cycle. Both the stress and the strain vary directly with the amplitude ofthe
displacement. Therefore, the energy loss is a constant times 17 2 .
For this reason, some authors consider the energy loss arising from
hysteresis as the work done by a damped force which is proportional to the
amplitude and in phase with velocity or as equal to C17 cos wt, and the
work it performs in a cycle is Cn1] 2 , C being a constant, the damping force
per unit amplitude to be determined experimentally.
The damping capacity then is
Cn1J 2 2nC
(11.80)
t/1 = mW 1] /2 - mw 2
2 2
Wll\D ACTIO!\ Al\D AERODY;'\1\MIC STABILITY 433
While eq. (11.80) indicates tjJ to be independent of the amplitude 1'], tests
show that it increases slowly with amplitude and stress. This means that
the damping force actually increases as some fractional power of 11 a little
greater than tjJ.
11.8.6 Coulomb friction damping
The friction force is constant and does not depend upon the amplitude or
frequency; the work it does in a cycle may be expressed as some constant
C1 , times 1J. The damping capacity, the proportion of energy of vibration
damped out per cycle, is then
(11.81)
For such damping, the logarithmic decrement decreases as the ampli-

tude increases. The curve of the decay of amplitude, plotted against time,
is a straight line, rather than the experimental curve in eq. (11. 77).
Notwithstanding the general statement above, Bleich has shown that
under certain conditions, the movement of a frictional force may be
proportional to the square of the movement of the oscillating mass, so that
its work varies as 17 2 and it then has the character of hysteresis damping.
However, this second type of friction damping is small.
11.8. 7 Atmospheric damping
The atmospheric damping forces arise from the relative movement of the
air and the vibrating body and may be viscous or inertial. In the case of a
bridge structure, the flow is essentially turbulent and the forces are mostly
inertial-that is, the force varies as the square of the velocity as stated by
the following equation:
(11.82)
where
p = the mass density of the air, 0.002 38 slugs per cubic foot at sea
level and 60F
V = the velocity in ft/s
C = a constant depending upon the shape and size of the obstruction.
The term p( V 2 /2) is known as the dynamic pressure. Constant C is less
for wide than for narrow members and less for streamlined than for blunt
surfaces.
In still air, the velocity is entirely due to the vibration and is equal to
W1J cos wt. The force is then proportional to w 21] 2, its work is proportional
to W 2 1J 3 and the damping capacity may be expressed as

2 3
1/J = C2 w 17 = 2C2 1J (11.83)
2 2
mW 1J /2 m
which is independent offrequency and increases with amplitude. c2 is an

experimental constant.
In a wind stream, the relative velocity is determined by both the wind
and the motion of the body. The resulting forces and the work they
perform in a cycle do not ear a simple relation to w and 't] such as repre-
sented by eqs. (11.80), (11.81) and (11.83). In fact, at certain velocities,
their sign or phase may change with respect to the motion and they may
develop resonance and tend to increase the amplitude-that is, they may
excite motion. Under these circumstances, their energy is a contribution to,
rather than a dissipation of, the energy of vibration. Mathematically, their
effect can be treated simply as a negative damping whose effect on the
vibration can be measured by a negative logarithmic decrement.
11.8.8 Local and global oscillations of cable systems
The oscillations of the cable stays under dynamic wind action are due to
their flexibility and high stresses. These oscillations may be local,
performed only by a few cables, or global, when the whole cable system,
including the stiffening girders and pylons, is in motion.
Local oscillations generally occur in individual long, slender cables.
They develop due to vortex shedding under wind action. High oscillation
amplitudes occur if the wind speed reaches an intensity such that
frequency of the vortex shedding coincides with a natural frequency of one
or more cables in the system. Global oscillations occur in the multi-cable-
stayed system. In the case of the three-span cable-stayed bridge with a
symmetrical layout, the modes of vibration are either symmetrical or
antisymmetrical depending on the layout of the bridge. Generally, at the
first symmetrical mode the main span and side spans oscillate vertically
out of phase and the pylons oscillate horizontally.
For the attainment of aerodynamic stability, it is important to separate
the frequencies of the corresponding vertical and torsional modes. This is
because the critical oscillation occurs when the frequencies of the two
basic modes coincide. It may happen when the difference between the
natural frequencies of the modes is small.
The most important stabilizing factor is the system damping due to
interference between the various natural frequencies of many cables. In a
multi-cable-stayed structure the cables are of different lengths and have
different frequencies under wind action. Therefore, the behavior of the
stays tends to disturb the formation of the first or second mode of
WII'\D ACTIO!'\ AI'\D AERODYNAMIC STABILITY 435
oscillation and this damping system produces relatively small amplitudes.

Due to this inherent stiffness of the system and damping, cable-stayed
bridges are not substantially affected by wind-induced oscillations.
11.9 Wind tunnel model tests
11.9.1 Introduction
The use of wind tunnels as a means of assessing the aerodynamics of

cable-stayed bridges is now commonly accepted. 24 The main advantage of
the method is that it separates the structural and aerodynamic aspects. It is
standard practice to test any new prototypes for major cable-stayed
bridges in the wind tunnel. At the present time, the best procedure for
predicting the response of bridges to natural wind is to immerse a
structurally simulated model in a turbulent shear layer that simulates as
closely as possible the conditions at the site of the prototype structure.
This method may serve to check the behavior of the bridge predicted by
analytical methods. Much of the present knowledge of wind-actuated
oscillation of suspension bridges has been acquired through model tests
and additional research in this direction is recommended.
The methods of model testing include the following types:
(a) STATIC MODEL

A static model must be scaled correctly with regard to the form, so that
the wind paths, velocities and pressures correspond to those of the
prototype.
The model, representing a section of the bridge, must be long enough
for the distortion due to the flow of air around the ends to be negligible, or
it must have end plates to prevent such end flow. It is mounted in the wind
tunnel with its supports attached to scales outside the tunnel in such a
manner that the vertical and horizontal components of the total force
exerted by the wind can be weighed separately and that the moment of the
resultant wind force about some convenient axis can be determined.
Tests are run at various measured wind velocities and a wide range of
angles of attack.
Static model tests supply information concerning wind-actuated
oscillation of the surface to the extent that the negative-slope theory
applies. Such factors as frequency, resonance and phase are entirely
absent from static model tests. They give information only about
steady forces.
(b) AERODYNAMIC MODEL

An aerodynamic model is necessary for full investigation of the oscilla-
tions, taking into account energy, time, inertia, acceleration, mass, and
moment of inertia, as well as elastic and damping forces. Frequency,
resonance and phase become controlling elements.
If all the properties of an aerodynamical model of the entire bridge are
properly scaled from the prototype, the model moves in the same manner
as the prototype would under the same conditions. Thus, its motion,
distortion, velocity, frequency, acceleration and inertial and elastic forces
represent those of the prototype to appropriate scales.
Model tests are of two kinds:
(c) THE FULL OR AEROELASTIC MODEL TEST

It is considered desirable that the aeroelastic bridge model simulates a
typical contemporary cable-stayed bridge. The mass and stiffness
distribution as well as the geometrical features of the bridge should be
modelled in chosen scales. The basic mechanical characteristics of the
model are provided by the towers, cables and the bridge deck and its
system.
The aeroelastic models of the bridges can be simplified to a degree.
Thus, for example, when only the first bending and the first torsional
vibration systems affect the phenomenon being studied, the model need
not be of elastic construction and is replaced by a rigid structure, whose
natural frequencies and damping represent its elastic nature. When a
structure to be modelled is exceptionally large, the load-bearing
elements cannot all be simulated to the given scale. The corresponding
aeroelastic model must be simplified by concentrating the load-bearing
elements and providing them with so-called cowling which simulates and
serves as a connecting link between them.
Aeroelastic models can be divided into the following three groups 25 :
(1) Perfect aeroelastic models which contain all the load-carrying
elements of the structure and satisfY the requirement of similitude.
(2) Aeroelastic models having dynamic characteristics and the aero-
elastic characteristics are simulated approximately.
(3) Simplified aeroelastic models having a number of load-carrying
elements smaller than that of the full-scale structure.
All three groups are used in studies of the structural response to air
flow and aerodynamic stability. The response of the model has a constant
and a time-dependent component, periodic, harmonic and random,
similar to the full-scale structure. Strains in the load-carrying elements
of the model produce geometric changes in the whole structure.
(c) THE SECTIONAL MODEL

An alternative approach to the full model test is the conventional section
model wind tunnel test of the bridge. This method can simulate well the
1\1:'\1 > \CTIO:'\ \1'\ll \ERODYI'\ \\IIC ST\BIUT\ 437
structural geometry of the bridge, but the simulation of wind turbulence

has been traditionally neglected. Testing of sectional models in smooth
f1ow in aeronautical wind tunnels usually provides conservative estimates
of the wind-induced responses.
A sectional model is a geometrically similar copy of a typical length of
the suspended structure of the bridge. It is rigid and mounted on springs
in a wind tunnel so that the vertical bending and torsional motion of the
full-scale bridge are simulated by vertical and pitching motions of the
model. The inclined cables are not reproduced because their aero-
dynamic effects are negligible.
Properties of the bridge including its elastic forces, its mass and motion,
which determine its inertial forces, can be computed from the model by
subjecting it to wind conditions that simulate conditions at the site.
The motion of such a dynamic section model in a properly scaled wind
duplicates reliably that of a convenient unit length of the bridge. The
wind forces and the rate at which they can build up energy of oscillation
respond to the changing amplitude of the motion, and the rate of energy
change can be measured and plotted against amplitude. Thus, the section
model test measures the one unknown factor which can then be applied by
calculation to the variable amplitude of motion along the bridge to predict
the full behavior of the structure under the specific wind conditions of the
test. These predictions are not precise but are comparable in accuracy
with some other features of design analysis.
Larger model scale and lower modelling costs are advantages offered
by the sectional approach. Whereas the scale ratio for sectional models
may be in the region of 1 :30 or 1 :50, the scale ratio for full models in
conventional wind tunnels may be 1 :200 or higher.
It should be noted that in this field, differences of opinion exist about
which is the correct approach: to use a full-scale model, considering the
surrounding terrain, as well as the accurate meteorological data of the
exact bridge site, or to investigate a sectional bridge model. However, in
modern practice, it is common to simplify the problem by using a
sectional model.
Important developments in wind-tunnel techniques for bridge testing
were made by Scruton 22 . An extensive wind-tunnel program was carried
out to examine proposed sections for the Severn River crossing. Full
model and sectional model tests were conducted and it was established
that the results using the sectional approach provided a satisfactory
picture of the bridge's aerodynamic behavior. When a number of con-
figurations of the suspended roadway were tested, a comparison of the
results obtained from the full-model tests with those obtained from its
sectional-model copy showed very good agreement.
The above conclusions were significant in that they indicated that the
stability of a proposed bridge may be predicted by the comparatively
simple sectional-model test method and that the costly and time-consum-
ing use of a full model for this purpose was not essential.
The conditions for dynamic similarity between model and full-scale
bridge have been discussed by Farquharson26 and Frazer and
Scruton 22 27 .
11.9.2 Dynamic similari~y for model investigation
In order to achieve correspondence between model and full-scale

behavior, it is necessary that certain conditions for dynamic similarity be
satisfied. These conditions are met if the following non-dimensional
parameters are the same for the model and the full-scale bridge.2 8.
(1) (11.84)
where
V = the mean wind speed
D = the model width
Nv and N 6 = the bridge natural frequencies in vertical flexure and in
torsion, respectively.
The velocity scale of the test is derived from eq. (11.84) so that
vm vp
NmDm NPDP
and (11.85)
Vm NmDm
where subscripts m and p refer to model and prototype values.
This requirement links the wind velocity, the natural frequency, and the
scale. Since the period is the inverse of the frequency, a term such as
VfNv represents the distance moved by a particle of undisturbed air
during the time for a complete oscillation. This is rendered dimensionless
by dividing by D.
It is further required that the model center of gravity and the axis of
torsional movement correspond to those of the full-scale bridge. Finally,
for correct simulation of coupled torsion and flexure, it is necessary to
have the ratio NvfNe the same for the model and the full-scale bridge.
(2) (11.86)
\\'1:\D \CTIO!'\ Al'\D AERODYJ\"AMIC STABILITY 439
where m and J are the mass per foot span and the mass moment of inertia
per foot span and p is the air density.
This requirement states that the inertia of the model must be correctly
to scale.
(3)
are the damping logarithmic decrements in vertical flexure and in torsion,
res pecti vel y.
This means that the logarithmic decrement corresponding to structural
damping of the model and the prototype must be the same.
(4) For the equivalence of the model and a full scale, the aerodynamic
similarity parameter is the Reynolds number
VD/v
where vis the kinematic viscosity of air. In many circumstances, serious
errors can arise if the model and full-scale values are not comparable.
Although it becomes impractical for bridge tests to even approach full-
scale values of the Reynolds number, it is well established that for sharp-
edged bluff bodies, flow similarity is practically achieved even for quite
large discrepancies between model and full-scale values.
11.9 .3 Prediction offull-scale behavior from sectional model tests
The values of the critical reduced velocity Vc/N0 D, VcfNvD found by the
model tests may be applied to the full-scale ~ridge with the appropriate
values of structural damping given before. Hence, by substituting the
calculated frequency N for the mode of oscillation under consideration
and the dimension D of the full-scale bridge in the critical reduced
velocity, the critical wind speed for the start of oscillations can be found.
At this speed, the overall damping of the bridge is zero, or
The interpretation of sectional-model test results, therefore, requires a

knowledge of the natural frequencies of oscillation and of the structural
damping of the full-scale bridge. A number of methods are available to
calculate the natural frequencies of cable-stayed bridges with negligible
torsional stiffness inherent in the suspended structure itself.
The need to assign a value of full-scale structural damping does not
arise if measurements of the aerodynamic contribution to damping are
made on the model and are found to be positive for all wind-speed condi-
tions within the practical range. These measurements can be related to
full scale by use of the scaling parameter
(11.87)
If the model tests show the bridge to be unstable, that is, the value of
either bew or bzw found on the model has a negative value in excess of the
the positive value assumed for the structural damping of the bridge,
attempts to introduce the required stability can be made by suitable
modifications to the aerodynamic shape of the suspended structure. In
some instances, it may be possible to stiffen the structure in order to
increase the natural frequencies, and hence the critical wind speed, so that
the oscillations do not occur within the range of winds expected at the site.
For instability due to buffet, the external shape of the bridge is of
secondary importance compared with its natural frequencies and with the
location and configuration of the obstacle causing the turbulent wake.
The prediction of buffet amplitudes on the full-scale bridge from
sectional-model tests is rather uncertain. A basis for an approximate
assessment has been suggested by Scruton 24 25 .
11.10 Prevention of aerodynamic instability
Aerodynamic oscillations of cable-stayed bridges cannot always be

prevented. However, it is desirabl~ to limit the amplitude of oscillation
within a safe margin. The most important methods in controlling aero-
dynamic oscillations are:
aerodynamically shaped deck,
stiffness, and
damping of the bridge system.
11.10.1 Aerodynamically shaped deck
An ideal section of the bridge is one that produces no lift and small drag.
Therefore, the tendency is to design the structure streamlined so that no
separation occurs. Then flutter, if any, will be of the classical type, whose
critical speed is higher than that of the stall flutter and can be predicted
with good accuracy.
For aerodynamic stability, it is generally beneficial to design the
structure so as to minimize the projected area presented to the wind, so as
to reduce the magnitude of the aerodynamic forces. This follows from the
fact that the aerodynamic forces are proportional to the vorticity strength,
which in turn is proportional to the profile drag. A reduction in projected
frontal area decreases the profile drag, and therefore reduces the effective
aerodynamic force.
The aerodynamic stability of a long span bridge can best be established
by shaping the bridge in such a way that
\\'IKD \C:TIO:'\ \:'\D .\ERODY:'\A,\1IC ST \llll .ITY 441
(a) There will be no eddies causing the Karman effect.

(b) There will be zero or minimal uplift forces and pitching moments to
cause flutter or torsional oscillations.
This means that it is necessary to avoid the causes of dangerous oscilla-
tions and not try to counteract them with high rigidity of stiffening trusses.
This important principle was first established by Leonhardt in 19 53, when
he proposed a mono-cable suspension bridge with a flat deck without
stiffening trusses.
The aerodynamically shaped design for the Tagus Bridge, proposed by
Leonhardt31 (Fig. 11.12) was tested by Scruton in 1959 at the National
Physical Laboratory in England. This test proved that aerodynamic
stability can be obtained by simple means with very slender structures.
Following this principle, using a flat hollow box, the Severn Bridge 32 33
in England (Fig. 11.13), and the Lillebelt Bridge 34 in Denmark (Fig.
11.14) were built. The Bosporus Bridge 35 in Turkey (Fig. 11.15), and
the Humber Bridge 36 in England (Fig. 11.16) were designed along the
same principle. Further tests by Selberg in Norway, Kloppel in
Germany, Sabzevari and Scanlan in the USA and Wardlaw in Canada
gave additional proof of the validity of this principle.
All aerodynamic test results show that a sharp edge of the bridge deck
with a sufficiently large top slope gives minimum wind forces and
optimum stability in a steady wind. Usually the bottom plane of the
superstructure has to be closed for stability. Thus, a closed hollow box has
been chosen for most oftoday's suspension bridges. However, the closing
of the bottom increases the cost of wide bridges. To save this extra cost,
Leonhardt left the bottom open at the Knie Bridge in Dusseldorf, in spite
of the fact that the tests showed instability at high wind speeds. The
Fig. 11.12 Type of

bridge proposed by
Leonhardt.
1-
70.84'
~I Aerodynamically tested
in 1959
75 1 -0"
I
105 1 -0"
Fig. 11.13 Severn
Bridge. Cross-section
Fig. 11.14 Lillebelt

t CABLE
8.2 I 14.9
. I
1
41 1
Fig. 11.15 Bosporus

5.B r
1
16.4 1 29 5 I
l
~--------------~75
1
Fig. 11.16 Humber

Wlr\D ACT! OK AND AERODYI"AMIC STABILITY 443
95.12'
~ """, '" ""' ""'' nro!' n n'', ,, , , , , """'"""'~ i

AS BUILT
I
~-"'_ _'_'-"~'i'_"'_'"-'--~
Fig. 11.17 Cross-
section of the Knie
AS TESTED, GAVE WIND STABILITY Bridge, Dusseldorf
bridge has so far not shown any wind oscillations. This is attributed to the
low elevation of the bridge deck above water level and to turbulence of
wind caused by surrounding buildings.
The study, undertaken to prevent oscillations in case they would occur,
indicatedthat a lining outside the main girder, as shown in Fig. 11.17,
would be sufficient to produce stability. On the basis of this study, a cross-
section was proposed with two triangular hollow boxes along the edges,
between which the deck structure is open. The slope of the soffit plate of
the edge boxes should not exceed an angle of about 35.
This idea was recently applied successfully to the Longs Creek Bridge
in Canada. This structure is a cable-stayed, orthotropic girder bridge,
having a main span of 713 ft 4 in (217 m) and a total length of 1092 ft
(333 m) (Fig. 11.18). When erected, it was observed that the bridge
would vibrate in vertical flexure when the wind velocity normal to the
bridge was in the range 25-30 mph (40-48 kph). Amplitudes as high as 8
in (20 mm) were obtained.
Wind-model investigations 37 indicated that the behavior of the bridge
could be duplicated in the model experiments. Various modifications to
Fig. 11.18 Longs Creek

Bridge. Elevation and
cross-section
the external shape were examined and the finally adopted one included
soffit plating between the girders and triangular edge fairings which
consist of a horizontal extension of the soffit plating and a sloping web
(Fig. 11.19).
f-"ig. 11.19 Modified

full-scale bridge
Since being modified, the bridge has been exposed to severe winds and
no motion of the bridge has yet been observed.
Such structures show practically no uplift and no pitching moment
under small angles of wind attack as they correspond to high wind
speeds. Closing the bottom produces onl) a slight improvement. The
wind drag, i.e. its horizontal component, is also very low, only about~ of
that of the old type of suspension bridge, which means a saving in many
respects.
The total depth of such a cable-stayed bridge deck can be as lo" as
6.5- 11.5 ft (2- 3.5 m) for highways and 13 20 ft (4-6 m) for railroad
bridges, depending mainly upon the relationship of live load to dead load
and the ratio between side and main span, but being almost independent
of the length of the main span.
11.10.2 Superiori~)' ofcable-stayed bridges
If an aerodynamical type of bridge deck is used, cable-stayed bridges are

superior to suspension bridges for the following reasons:
\\1:'\IJ ,\C:TlO:\ \!\[) \ERODYK,\MlC STABILITY 445
( 1) In a cable-stayed bridge with many stays, it is rather difficult to

obtain and maintain the first or second mode of oscillation, because the
many cable forces disturb such oscillations quickly by interfering with
smaller wave lengths of higher order.
(2) The high degree of statical redundancy results in a considerable
system damping which prevents flutter from becoming dangerous. How-
ever, this is not the case in suspension bridges, because they can easily be
brought up to resonance oscillations with large amplitudes.
(3) The most dangerous mode of oscillation of suspension bridges-the
anti metric torsional mode-which caused the collapse ofTacoma Narrows
Bridge (Fig. 11.20(a)) is very easy to develop by the pitching moment of
wind forces, because the two cables can move against each other, one
going down in half of the span, the other going up--thus giving no
resistance against torsional movement of the deck. This is why, in a
Fig. 1 L20 Antimetric

torsional mode of oscillation
of a suspension bridge and
of a cable-stayed bridge
(a) Suspension bridge
(b) Cable-stayed bridge
with twin towers (c) Cable-
stayed bridge with
A-towers
suspension bridge, we need such high torsional rigidity of the stiffening

truss systems.
In the cable-stayed bridge, the cables themselves provide a large
resistance against this torsional movement. A difference of deflection in
the two cable planes is mainly due to different deflections of the two tower
legs (Fig. 11.20(b)). These of course, disappear if we use A-framed
towers, as suggested for long spans (Fig. 11.20(c)).
Thus, due to the behavior of the cables themselves, the cable-stayed
bridge is not as liable to wind oscillations as a suspension bridge, and
therefore does not need as large a torsional stiffness as the latter.
11.11 Conclusions
Cable-stayed bridges may be subject to aerodynamic forces which cause

the bridge to oscillate in steady winds. The tendency to oscillate may be
eliminated by attention to the design of the suspended structure, especially
with respect to its aerodynamic shape and to factors which influence
natural oscillation frequencies of the bridge. No satisfactory theory is
available for the prediction of these aerodynamic forces, but a reliable
assessment can be made by wind-tunnel tests on simple sectional models.
The oscillatory behavior in wind of these models can be related to that of
the full-scale bridge, and in particular, the results can be used to predict
the critical wind speeds for the start of oscillations. Such models can also
be employed to examine the buffeting effect on a bridge of a highly
turbulent wake from a nearby structure.
It is possible to design a cable-stayed bridge with a high degree of
security against aerodynamic forces. This involves the calculation of
natural modes of motion of the proposed structure, the carrying out of
dynamic section model tests to determine the factors of behavior, and the
application of these factors to the prototype by suitable analysis.
If the analysis forecasts unfavorable aerodynamic behavior it will also
suggest the general line of modification which is likely to result in improve-
ment at the least expense. The modified design must then be investigated.
References
1. Steinman, D. B., 'Rigidity and Aerodynamic Stability of Suspension

Bridges', Trans. Am. Soc. civ. Engrs., 110, 439-580, 1945.
2. Steinman, D. B., 'Problems of Aerodynamic and Hydrodynamic
Stability', Proceedings of the Third Hydraulic Conference, University
oflowa, 1947, pp. 136-164.
\Yil'\D <\CTIO:\ \1'\D AF.RODY!'\.\1\IIC STA.DILITY 447
3. Steinman, D. B., 'Aerodynamic Theory of Bridge Oscillations',

Trans. Am. Soc. civ. Engrs., 115, 1180-1260, 1950.
4. Steinman, D. B., 'The Design of the Mackinac Bridge for Aero-
dynamic Stability', J. Franklin Inst., 262(6), 453-468, December,
1956.
5. Advisory Board on the Investigation of Suspension Bridges, 'Aero-
dynamic Stability of Suspension Bridges', Trans. Am. Soc. civ.
Engrs. (Paper No. 2761) 721-781, 1952.
6. Steinman, D. B. and Macher, F. ]., '1. Pipeline Bridge stabilized
with Diagonal Rope Stays. II. Wind Tunnel Model Tests of Coosa
River Pipeline Bridge', Virginia Polytechnic Institute Bulletin,
Engineering Experim. Station, No. 84, April, 1953.
7. Bleich, F., 'Dynamic Instability of Truss-Stiffened Suspension
Bridges Under Wind Action', Trans. Am. Soc. civ. Engrs., 114, 1177-
1232, 1949.
8. Bleich, F., McCullough, C. B., Rosecrans, R. and Vincent, G. S.,
The Mathematical Theory of Vibration in Suspension Bridges, Depart-
ment of Commerce, Bureau of Public Roads, 1950, pp. 241-281.
9. Selberg, A., 'Oscillation and Aerodynamic Stability of Suspension
Bridges',Acta Po(ytech. Scand. civil Eng. Build. Constr., Series No. 13,
Trondheim, 1961.
10. Frandsen, A. G., 'Wind Stability of Suspension Bridges, Application
of the Theory of Thin Airfoils', Pract. Int. Symp. Susp. Bridges,
Lisbon, pp. 609-627,1966.
11. Kloppel, K. and Thiele, F., 'Modellversuche im Windkanal Zur
Bemessung von Briicken gegen die Gefahr Winderregeter
Schwingungen', Der Stahlbau, H. 12, 353-365, December, 1967.
12. Taylor, P. R., 'Cable Stayed Bridges and their Potential in Canada',
Engng}. 19, November, 1969.
13. Ritz, W., 'Theorie de transversal-schwingungen einer quadratischen
Platte mit freien Randern', Annln Phys., 28, 4th series, No.4, 737,
1909.
14. Goschy, B., 'Dynamics of Cable-Stayed Pipe Bridges', Acier-Stahl-
Steel, No. 6, 277-282, 1961.
15. Goschy, B., 'Eigenschwingungen der Schragseilbri.icken' (Natural
Frequencies of Cable-Stayed Bridges), Acta Tech. Praha, XXXII,
119-139, 1961.
16. Goschy, B., 'The Torsion of Skew-Cable Suspension Bridg~s', Space
Structures, Ed. Davies, R. M., Blackwell Scientific Publications,
Oxford, 1967, pp. 213-220.
17. Vincent, G. S., 'Aerodynamic Stability of Suspension Bridges with
Special Reference to the Tacoma Narrows Bridge: Part V, Amplitude
Predictions, Damping Tests, and General Investigations', University
of Washington Engineering Experiment Station Bulletin, No. 116, June
1954.
18. Selberg, A., 'Dampening Effects in Suspension Bridges', Pubis int.

Ass. Bridge struct. Engng, (10), 183-198, 1950.
19. Steinman, D. B., 'Rigidity and Aerodynamic Stability of Suspension
20. Bleich, F. and Teller, L. W., 'Structural Damping in Suspension
21. Selberg, A., 'Dampening Effects in Suspension Bridges', Pubis int.
Ass. Bridge struct. Engng, (10), 183-198, 1950.
22. Scruton, C., 'An Experimental Investigation of the Aerodynamic
Stability of Suspension Bridges with Special Reference to the
Proposed Severn Bridge', Proc. Inst. civ. Engrs., No. 1, 189-222,
March, 1952.
23. Walsche, D. E. 'A Resume of the Aerodynamic Investigations for the
Forth Road and Severn Bridges', Proc. Inst. civ. Engrs., 37, 87-108,
May, 1967.
24. Kli:ippel, K. and Thiele, F., 'Modellversuch im Windkanal zur
Bemessung von Bri.icken gegen die Gefahr winderregter Schwing-
ungen', Stahlbau, 20(12), 353-365, December, 1967.
25. Kolousek, V., et al., Wind E.Ui:cts on Civil Engineering Structures,
Elsevier, New York, pp. 183-186, 1984.
26. Farquharson, F. B., Vincent, G. S. eta!., Aerodynamic Stability of
Suspension Bridges with special reference to the Tacoma Narrows
Bridge, Bulletin No. 16, University of Washington Engineering
Experimental Station, Parts I to V, 1949-54.
27. Frazer, R. A. and Scruton, C., A Summarized Account ofthe Severn
Bridge Aerodynamic Investigation, Report NPL/Arro/222, HMSO,
London, 1952.
28. Walsche, D. E., 'The Use of Models to Predict the Oscillatory
Behavior of Suspension Bridges in Wind', Proceedings Symposium
No. 16, Wind Effects on Buildings and Structures, National Physical
Laboratory, Teddington, England, 1963.
29. Scruton, C., 'Aerodynamic Buffeting of Bridges', Engineer, 199,
654-657, 1955.
30. Scruton, C., Woodgate, L. and Alexander, A.]., The Aerodynamic
Investigation for the Proposed Runcorn-Widnes Suspension Bridge,
Unpublished Report NPL/Aero/291, National Physical Laboratory,
England, 1956.
31. Leonhardt, F., 'Zur Entwicklung aerodynamisch stabiler Hange-
bri.icken', Bautechnik, 45( 10), 325-326; (II), 372-380, 1968.
32. Gilbert, R., 'Modern Developments in Design and Construction of
Long Span Bridges', Canadian Structural Engineering Conference,
Toronto, 1968, pp. 2-19.
33. Gilbert, R., 'Severn River Suspension Bridge', Civ. Engng, 68-73,
August, 1969.
WII\:D ACTIO~\: 1\:\D AERODYNAMIC STABILITY 449
34. Hopper, C. J. 'Eine neue Strassenhangebri.icke i.iber den Kleinen

Belt' (A new suspension highway bridge over the Little Belt),
Bauingenieur, 45, 226, 1950.
35. Wagner, P. 'Die Bosporus-Bri.icke bei Istanbul' (The Bosporus
Bridge, near Istanbul), Bauingenieur, 45, 371-372, 1970.
36. Anonymous, 'Longest Span Proposed', Engng News Rec., 16, 30 April
1964.
37. Wardlaw, R. L. and Ponder, C. A., 'An Example of the Use of Wind
Tunnels for Investigating the Aerodynamic Stability of Bridges',
Proceedings of the Canadian Good Roads Association Convention,
Edmonton, Alberta, 29 September-2 October, 1969, pp. 480-492.
Chapter 12
Abbreviated Tentative Recommendations

for Cable-stayed Bridges*
12.1 Introduction
These abbreviated recommendations are based on the following data

published by the American Society of Civil Engineers:
(1) Tentative Recommendations for Cable-Stayed Bridge Structures 1,
and
(2) Commentary on the Tentative Recommendations for Cable-Stayed
Bridge Structures 2
The objective of these recommendations is to provide the minimum
requirements for the material, design, fabrication and erection of cable-
stayed bridges. They are not a code or specifications, but their purpose is
to guide and inform engineers.
12.2 Loads and forces
Design loadings and their combinations should be consistent with the

appropriate Specifications of the State Highway and Transportation
Officials (AASHTO) or the American Railway Engineering Association
(AREA). AASHTO Specifications are applicable only to spans up to 500
ft (150 m). For spans in excess of 500 ft, reductions may be used as
recommended in Table 12.1.
12.2.1 Loading conditions
Bridges should be proportioned for the following loads and forces:

* courtesy of the American Society of Civil Engineers
RHH\L\IE:'\D\TIO:'\S FOR C>\lll .F-S'L\YED BRIDGES 451
Table 12.1 Equivalent lane loading
I >oad length Uniform live load Concentrated live load

(ft) (lb/ft)
Moment Shear
(!b) (!b)
0-600 640 18 000 26 000
601-800 640 9 000 13 000
801-1000 640 0 0
1001-1200 600 0 0
1201-over 560 0 0
(1) Dead load.

(2) Live load.
(3) Impact of the live load.
(4) Wind loads.
(5) Erection.
(6) Factors, when they exist: longitudinal, centrifugal and thermal
forces, earth pressure, buoyancy, shrinkage stresses, ice and current
pressure and earthquake forces.
12.2.2 Design loads as applicable to cables
Allowable design loads should be one-third the ultimate breaking

strength of the strand. Where fatigue effects may occur, the allowable
load of the cable may be one-fifth the ultimate breaking strength of the
cable. With lliAm sockets fatigue characteristics are improved and a
cable design stress of 45% of ultimate breaking strength may be allowed.
The effective design breaking strength for helical strands or rope should
be equal to the specified minimum breaking strength of the cable,
except when saddles are used.
12.3 Design assumptions
12.3.1 Span arrangement
Span arrangements are of three basic types:

(1) Two spans, symmetric or asymmetric.
(2) Three spans.
(3) Multiple spans.
12.3.2 Stay geometry
Generally, the stays may be arranged longitudinally as follows:

(1) in a single plane,
(2) in double vertical planes, or
(3) in double inclined planes.
In elevation the stays may be arranged in the following configurations:
radiating, harp, fan, star, or combination.
12.3.3 Bridge deck cross-section
The bridge deck is of a steel, concrete or composite construction:

(1) For steel decks solid web girder types are used, either two main !-
girders or multiple I -girders, single, twin or multi cell rectangular box
girders, or single or twin trapezoidal box girders. For steel bridges,
the box girder with an orthotropic deck is very efficient.
(2) For concrete decks, cast-in-place concrete box girder structures and
precast prestressed segmental construction has been used.
(3) Composite decks generally consist of edge and transverse steel
beams covered by precast concrete slabs.
12.4 Pylons
The type of pylon used is based on site conditions, design, aesthetics and
cable geometry. The various types are the A-frame, diamond, delta, and,
for multi-span structures, the A-frame (Maracaibo).
The ratio of pylon height above the bridge deck to center span length
for a three-span structure should preferably be in the range of 0.6-0.2.
For a two-span asymmetrical structure the longer span may be equivalent
to one-half the span of a three-span symmetrical structure.
To optimize the quantity of cable steel required, it is desirable to
increase the ratio of the pylon height to span length to 0.3 for the
radiating type and 0.4 for harp type.
12.5 Analysis
For a preliminary study of a given geometric layout, a reasonable initial

design may he obtained by considering that the dead load amounts to
approximately 75% of the total load in long-span bridges and that the
RECOi\IME:'\D\TIONS FOR CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES 453
girders are combined to compensate for dead-load deflection. Consider-

ing the structure as simply supported at its cable pick-up points, a
moment diagram may be constructed as for a beam with an assumed total
load. The moment diagram can then be adjusted by assigning the desired
end moments, from which the end shears are calculated. These end
shears are converted to cable forces and then applied to the pylon. The
stresses at any section of the bridge system resulting from the
aforementioned forces and moments may then be evaluated. For a
preliminary design, the stresses under any given load can be efficiently
determined by a computer. It involves the determination of approximate
cable stresses under dead load on the girder plus live load and additional
cable tension. For this analysis, the support provided by the steel cables
should be assumed as nonyielding for dead load and elastically supported
for live load by utilizing an equivalent cable modulus of elasticity or
equivalent stiffness.
The nonlinearity of the bridge, which involves the nonlinear behavior
of the steel cable due to change in sag under various tensions and also
the combined effect of the bending moments and axial forces in the
girder and pylon, should be checked to determine the effect on the stress
distribution.
12.6 Cables
12.6.1 Modulus r!f elasticity
The modulus of elasticity is determined from a specimen and computed

on the gross metallic area, including the zinc coating. The strand or rope
is stressed to not less than 10% of the minimum breaking strength and
not more than 90%, of the prestretching load.
12.6.2 Fqui1alent cable modulus o.{elastici~y
To facilitate the analysis it is convenient to substitute a straight line

chord member for the curved cable member and use the equivalent
modulus of elasticity for the substitute member, eq. (12.1):
E (12.1)
FCif = I + [ (WL) 2 AF/12T1]
where
Ec,1 = equivalent cable modulus
E = cable material modulus
L = horizontal projected length of cable

W = weight per unit length of cable
A = cross-sectional area of cable
T = cable tension
As the cable tension changes, the equivalent modulus at the end of any
load increment is:
Eeq = 1 + [ (WL) 2 (Ti ~ T~ AE/24'fl'fl:J

. I
22
(1 . )
where the subscripts i and f represent the initial and final values of
tension during the load increment. Some designers apply the concept of
equivalent stiffness after the formula:
(A E) eq = AE -
AE
B 2 (12.3)
1 + [12T I AE (WL) ]
12.6.3 Prestretching
Constructional stretch is caused by the lengthening of a strand lay due to

adjustment of the wires in a strand or rope into a more compact section
under load. The stretch is removed by subjecting the strand to a
predetermined load which does not exceed 55% of the rated breaking
strength of the cable.
12.7 Saddles and end fittings
The cables may be continuous and pass through the pylon, supported on
saddles, or may be terminated at the pylon.
12.7.1 Cable saddles
The cable saddles may be constructed from fabricated plates or steel

castings with grooves through which the cables pass. Between the end
and center spans a differential force will occur at the cable saddles unless
they are supported by rollers or rocker bearings. When the saddles are
fixed, the rigidity of the system is at a maximum.
12.7.2 Endfittings
Strands are connected to the structure by end fittings or sockets, which

are either zinc poured or swaged. With a poured socket, the wires at the
RFCOJ\L\IE:\JHTIO:\S FOR C:\BJ.I:snn:D BR]])GES 455
end of a cable are broomed out, cleaned and immersed in a flux solution,
then placed in the basket of the socket, which is then filled with molten
zinc or with epoxy mixtures.
With swaged fittings, the cable end is inserted into a close-tolerance
hole in the end of the fitting which is then placed in a die block of a
hydraulic press. The die block is closed under pressure and the softer
steel of the fitting flows plastically around the harder steel wires.
12.8 Protection
Cable stays and their connections require protection as follows:
(1) Corrosion-as a minimum all cables should have a protective coating

equivalent to Class A zinc coating on all wires.
(2) Wrapping-individual strands should be bundled and wrapped to
prevent water entry; this may be achieved with lead paste and soft
galvanized wire or with a plastic or neoprene covering.
(3) Additional protection-in locations where de-icing salts or other
chemicals are used, special precautions should be taken.
(4) Damage-may be caused by abrasion of the cable ends by the
accidental impact of vehicles.
12.9 Camber
Girders should be cambered to follow the profile gradient line,

considering the dead load and partial live-load deflections. Camber
provisions should be based on a theoretical analysis. Cables should be
capable of being jacked for final corrections.
12.10 Temperature
The thermal effects on the structure should be calculated, based on the

ambient temperature at the time of erection. A recommended ambient
temperature variation may be as follows:
(1) Moderate climates, 0 to l20F

(2) Cold climates, -30 to l20F
12.11 Aerodynamics
12.11.1 General
When considering the effect of aerodynamic behavior of the bridge, wind

tunnel tests are advisable.
12.11.2 Cables and towers
The critical wind velocity, ~,, associated with vortex shedding should be
considered according to formula:
NaD
5=--- (12.4)
where
S = Strouhal number
~~ =shedding frequency equal to the natural frequency of the
structural member
D = projected dimension of the member
Although vortex shedding causes limited amplitudes of motion, it should
be considered for possible overstressing and fatigue.
12.11.3 Bridge deck motion
Wind tunnel tests are made to determine the wind velocity causing
aerodynamic instability, using either full or sectional bridge models.
12.11.4 Bridge deck configuration
For the box section, plate girders and stiffened truss, the ratio of
torsional to flexural frequencies should be greater than 2.
12.12 Fatigue
According to tests at Lehigh University, the fatigue life of the strand was
defined as the number of cycles before the first wire broke and the
loading range had more effect on the fatigue life than the magnitude of
RECOMMENDATIONS FOR CABLE-ST.'\ YEO BRIDGES 457
maximum, minimum or mean loads. Tentative conclusions for the

fatigue characteristics of cables may be summarized as follows:
(1) Strand diameter, wire size and grade have little effect upon the
fatigue life.
(2) The fatigue limit should be expressed in terms of the load range, as a
percentage of breaking strength.
(3) For a given load range, expressed as a percentage of breaking
strength, the fatigue life increases with the number of wires in the
strand.
(4) Zinc-cast end fittings lower fatigue life while swaged fittings can
enhance the fatigue resistance of the strand.
(5) A fatigue limit expressed in terms ofload range indicates 15-30% of
the breaking strength of the strand.
(6) A rapid increase in temperature of the strand can be noted at about
90% of the fatigue life under constant cyclic loading.
12.13 Fabrication
Fabrication includes manufacturing operations such as prestretching,

measuring, cutting, socketing, and proofloading of end fittings.
12.14 Erection
12.14.1 Erection plans and calculations
If no procedure for erection of the bridge is specified in the contract

documents, the contractor should submit his proposed erection method
to the design engineer for consideration with detailed geometry and
stress computations.
12.14.2 Erection devices and falsework
Temporary bracing, stiffeners and falsework should be provided

whenever required by erection procedures.
12.14.3 Adequaq oftemporary connections and supports
The above materials should be adequate as erection progresses.

458 C: \BLE-STAYED BRIDGES
12.14.4 Erection stresses
Erection loads should include wind and erection equipment and stresses
from the application of construction loads during erection should not
exceed the allowable stresses.
12.14.5 Cable installation
Precautions should be taken during erection to avoid damaging the

cables and their coating.
12.14.6 Stay tension adjustment
Provision should be made at the socket anchorages for cable length

adjustment.
12.15 Inspection
12.15.1 General
Material and workmanship should be subject at all times to inspection by

the engineer.
12.15.2 Co-operation
Inspection should be made at the place of manufacture, fabrication, or

erection, and the fabricator or contractor should co-operate with
inspection personnel.
12.15.3 Samples
Samples of material for the cables may be requested by the engineer for
separate testing.
12.15.4 Limitations
Inspection of cables should include additional testing to meet the needs

for bridge construction.
RECO:\l'.IEI'\D\TIOI'\S FOR C>\BLE-ST:\YED BRIDGES 459
12.15.5 Records
Records of physical and chemical properties of materials and test results

on samples should be maintained.
12.15.6 Field impection ofmaterials
Inspection of cable material is advisable as it is removed from the reel

and at the various stages of field fabrication and erection.
12.15.7 Installation
The inspector should determine that cables are installed with striping in
the proper relative position.
12.15.8 Perfimnance tests
Performance tests under a simulated loading may be required which may

be used to verify the performance or adequacy of the cables or other
structural members under design loads.
References
1. The American Society of Civil Engineers, 'Tentative Recommen-

dations for Cable-Stayed Bridge Structures', ASCE J. Struct. Div.,
Proc., 103, No. ST 5, 929-939, May, 1977.
2. The American Society of Civil Engineers, 'Commentary on the
Tentative Recommendations for Cable-Stayed Bridge Structures,'
ASCEJ. Struct. Div., Proc., 103, No. ST 5, 941-959, May, 1977.
Author Index
Advisory Board of the lnwstigation of Casudo, C. F., 173

Suspension Bridges, 447 Cauchy, A., 334
'\lexander, A.J, 44R Chandler, D. B., 230
American Association of the State and Cheung, Y. K., 323, 362
Transportation Officials, 450 Christopher, B. G., 154
American Institute of Steel Construction, Clark, E., 401
40 Clements, L., 109
American Iron and Steel Institute, 3 79 Clive, T. I 1., 40
American Railway Engineering '\ssociation, Connor, J.J., 361
450 Coulter, C. S., 145
t\merican Society f(Jr Testing and 1\laterials,
180, 181, 367, 381 Daniel, II., Ill
American Society of Civil Engineers, 450 Datalnik, A., 403
Andra, W., 173, 222 David, J. D., 403
Angelopoulos, T., 230 Davis, I I. E., 401
Argyris, J. I 1., 230 Davis, R. E., 401
Arnodin, F.J., 14 Deason, P ..1'\l., 109
Aschenherg, I 1., 110 Demers, J. G., Ill
Demers, T. B., Ill
Bacchettal, A., 145 Dischinger, F., 17, 18, 40
Bachelart, I 1., 173 Donnelly, J. A., 173
Bakel, J. F., 364, 40I Dreher, W., 112
Balhachevsky, G. N., Ill Drewry, C. S., 39
Barges, J. F., 403 Dunne, P. E., 230
Baumer, I 1., 109
13eaujoint, l\., 370, 402 Egeseli, E. '\., 228, 230
Beggs, G. E., 364, 401 Ency, W. J., 364, 401
13ell, R. D., 173 Ernst, I I. J., I 08, I 10, 222, 225
Benkhorst, ]., 112 Erunm, B. G., 272
Beresford, F. D., 173 Esslinger, 1\1., 362
13eyer, E., 108, 109, 110, 221, 272, 402,
403 Fairbairn, W., 364
Biggs, J. ;vi., 229, 230 Falk, S., 297, 361, 362
Birdsall, B., 401 Farquharson, F. B., 438, 448
13irnstiel, C., 227, 230 Faustus \' crantius, 4
13leich, F., 411, 431, 432, 433, 447, 448 Feige, A., 222, 272, 402
Boue, P., 109 Ferjencik, P., 113
13ragin, A.\'., 272 Fialho, J. F. L., 402
13reen, J. E., 36 7, 402 Finsterwalder, U., 146
13ridges, C. P., 145 Fischer, G., 108, 363
Brodin, S., 109 Fleming, J. F., 40, 228, 230
Brown, C. D., 108, 222, 402 Forge, A., Ill
Brotton, D. J\l., 227, 230, 361 Foster, D. C., 367, 402
Buckingham, E., 370, 403 Frandsen, .'\.G., 447
AUTHOR Il\DEX 461
Fraser, R. A., 438, 448 Lazar, 13., 272, 317, 361, 362, 402, 403
Freudenberg, G., 109, 110 Leckie, F., 362
Fuchs, D., 173 Le Feuvre, 10
Fuchs, W., 109 Leinekugel Ie Cocq, G., 17, 40
Lenglet, C., 145
Gandil, Ill Lentze, K., 40
Gee, A. F., 144, 145, 146, 173 Leonhardt, F., 19, 40, 173, 201, 206,222,
Gere, J. M., 276, 361, 362 240, 272, 441, 448
Gerold, W., 112 Lewenton, G., 173
Gilbert, R., 448 Lewis, R. E., 173
Gimsing, N.J., 31, 32, 41, 240,272 Lipton, T. M., 173
Gisclard, A. V., 14, 17, 40 Little, W. A., 367, 402
Golub, II., 154 Livesley, R. K., 230
Gottschalk, 0., 3 64, 40 I Liischer, C. T., 5, 39
Goschy, 13., 329, 362, 416, 421, 447 Lustgarten, P ., 144
Graham, I I. J., 146
Grant, A., 145 Macher, F.j., 447
Manniche, K., 154
Hadley, I I. !\1., 144 Marquis, P., Ill
I Iagg, G., 113 Mathint,]., 145
I Iajdin, N., 112 Matsumaro, I 1., 173
Hass, B., I 10 McCoy, R. I 1., 36 7, 3 70, 402
I Iatley, T., 9 McCullough, C. B., 447
Haupt, \\'., 23, 40, 70, 110 Mehrtens, G. C., 39
I Iavemann, I I. K., II 0 Merchant, W., 361
I Ieeb, A., I I2 Mignot, Ill
Hess, I 1., 108, 363 Miller, M. A., 361
Hohne, K.]., 109 Montagne, S., 112
Homberg, II., 36, 41, 109, 239,403 Montercia, J ., 173
Homann, II., 109 lv1orandi, R., 121, 144, 145
Hooke, R., 223, 251 Morley, G. \V., 111
Hopper, C.]., 449 Morphy, G., 402
llossdorf, II., 402 Morris, !\'.F., 227, 230
Moser, W. II., 144
Jeffer, R., 144 Motley, T., 9, 39
je\tovic, L.]., 112 Muller, J., 145
Jolm<;on, D., 227, 230 Miiller-13reslau, 303
Jonatowski, J. J., 227, 230
Nansout:y, de, M., 40
Kachurin, \'. K., 272 Navier, C. L. M., 6, 7, 11, 39
Kajita, T., 323, 362 Newmark, N. lVI., 228, 230
Kammuller, K., 144
Karman, Th. von, 410, 441 Okada, S., 109
Kato, T., 173 Ordish, R., 10
Kealey, T. R., 109
Kersten, R., 362 Paez, A., 144
Kinney, Ci. F., 402 Parkinson,]., 146
Kireenko, 13. 1., 144, 272 Pa\lo, E. 1., !54
Klenschmidt, I I. J., I 10 Payne, R.]., 112
Klingenberg, W., I 13, 146 Peste!, E., 362
Kliippel, K., 362, 4I2, 441,447,448 Pippard, A. J. S., 364, 401
Knox, I I. S. G., 109 Prickett, J. E., !54
Koger, E., 109 Podolny, W. Jr, 40, 221
Kohmann, R., 109 Poisson, S. D., 370, 332
Kollmeier, I 1., 362 Ponder, C. A., 449
Kolousek, V., 448 Poyet, 6
Komatsu, S., 109, 173 Preece, 13. \\'., 370, 403
Koutnv, !\1., 113 Protte, \\., 309, 362
Krylm:, A.!'\., 333, 362
Kuesel, T. R., 107, 113 Rabe,]., 109
Kulicki, J. !\I., !54 Rayleigh, Lord, 415, 421
Reimers, K., 173
Landstrom, 13., 39 Reutter, K., 109
I .anghaar, I I. L., 370, 402 Reynolds, 0., 439
462 AUTHOR INDEX
Ritz, W., 415, 420, 447 Teller, L. W., 431, 432, 448
Rocha, M. M., 402, 403 Teng, W. C., 221
Roebling, J. A., 11, 13 Tesar, A., 112
Roll, F., 402 Thiele, F., 413, 447, 448
Rooke, W. G., 111 Thomass, S., 173
Rosecrans, R., 447 Thul, H., 35, 40, 41, 108, 110
Timby, E. K., 401
Saafan, S. A., 277, 361 Tochacek, M, 113
Sabzevari, A., 441 Torii, Y., 109
Samuel, P., 173 Torrejon, J. E., 154
Sanson, R., 109 Torroja, E., 115, 144
Saul, R., 154 Troitsky, M.S., 40, 112, 272, 361, 402, 403
Scalzi, J. B., 221 Tross, W., 309 362
Scanlan, R. H., 441 Troyano, L. F., 173
Schambeck, II., 146 Tussing, F., 108
Scheer,]., 362 Tyrrell, II. G., 40
Schlaich, ]., 113
Schmidt, H., 402 Urban, ]., 111
Schmitz, II., 144
Schottgen, J., 111, 362 Valentin, 111
Schreier, G., 363 Van der Molten, J. L., 173
Schumann, H., 111 Vincent, G. S., 447, 448
Schussler, K., 108 Vitruvious, F., 38, 39, 41
Schwab, R., 109 \1asov, V. Z., 329, 339, 361
Scruton, C., 431, 437, 438, 441, 448 Vogel, G., 108
Selberg, A., 412, 431,441, 447, 448
Simons, H., 144 Wagner, P., 449
Simonsen, 0. F., 111 Waldner, H. E., 154
Simpson, C. V.J., 40 Walsche, D. E., 432, 448
Smith, B.S., 267, 268, 272, 282, 361 Wardlaw, R. L., 449
Sparkes, S. R., 401 Weaver, W. Jr, 276, 361, 362
Steinman, D. B., 40, 112,401,408,409,431, Webster, L. F., 111
446, 447, 448 Wenk, II., 40, 108
Stephenson, R., 364 Wilson, M. C., 173
Streletzkii, N. N., 144 Wind, H., 144
Strouhal, V., 410, 456 Wintergerst, L., 111, 362, 363
St Venant, Barre de, 329, 421 Wittfoht, II., 110
Svenson, II. S., 154 Woodgate, L., 448
Tamms, F., 109, 402 Young, T., 189

Tang, Man-Ching, 297, 362
Taylor, P.R., 34, 41, 154, 413,447 Zellner, W., 40, 154, 222
Subject Index
abutment, 7R, R4, 85, 86, 92, 94, 9R atmospheric damping, 433
acceleration method, 228 axial
adjustment of cables, 217 deformation, 256
A-frame tower, 24, 58, 66, R9, 117, 125, 165, force, 262, 392
169, 201, 241, 444, 452
aerodvnamics backstay, 123, 127, 129, 140
da~ping, 406 Ballycastle footbridge, Ireland (1967), 171,
f(Jrce, 227,408,410,411,446 172, 173
instability, 440, 456 Barcelona Pedestrian Bridge, Spain, 169, 170
investigation, 56 Barwon River footbridge, Australia, 162, 163
model, 436 Bassin du Commerce footbridge, france,
oscillation, 440 161, 162
shape, 404, 446 Batman Bridge, Tasmania, 92, 93
stability, 62, 67, 239, 404, 408, 434, 440 BBR button head, 193
Aeroelastic bridge model, 436 beam on elastic support, 268
aerofoil, 412 Belgrade railway bridge, 99
aesthetic Benton City Bridge, USA, 116
design, 36 bending
effect, 39 deformation, 256
air flow, 406 moment, 252
Albert Bridge, London (1873), 10 rigidity, 330
allowable stress, 249, 261, 262 stiffness, 332
amplitude stress of wire, 196
stress, 193 bifurcation, 165
vibration, 414 bluff body, 439
anchor socket, 204 box
anchorage, 129 girder, 56, 72, 74, 78, 80, 85, 94, 99, 123,
anchorage of cable, 33, 53, 99, 103, 107, 108, 127, 140, 148, 204,411
133, 193 ribs, 26, 88
angle section, 72, 17 5
inclination of cable, 27 Bonn-l\'ord Bridge, Germany (1967), 74, 77,
twist, 337, 340 78, 200
angular rotation, 2S3, 420, 421, 422 Bonhomme Bridge, 14, 15
angular rotation of cable, 420, 421, 422 Bosporus Bridge, Turkey, +41, +42
analytical model, 223 bracing, 59, 103
'\nnacis Island Bridge, Canada (1987), 151, Bratislava Bridge, Czechoslovakia (1971), 94,
152 95
Ansa de Ia Magliana Viaduct, Italy, (1967), bridge
121, 122 architecture, 36
antisvmmetric oscillation, 406 deck, 452
appa~ent modulus of elasticity, ISS, 186 erection, 103
approximate method of analysis, 265 flatter, 413
Argen River Bridge, Germany, 89, 90 model, 62
464 SUBJECT l:\DEX
bridge (continued) sti!Tening girder, 267

strand, 80 convex profile, 160
Yibration, 414 corrosion, 118, 130, 171, 180, 194
Bridge of the Isles, Canada (1962), 98 corrosion of cable, 455
Brooklyn Bridge, uSA (1883), 13 corrosion protection, 19S, 203
Brotonne Bridge, !'ranee (1977), 130, 131, coulomb friction damping, 433
132, 133, 134 coupled flexural-torsional oscillation, 405,
buckling, 17 S 407
butTer, 99 coupled torsion, 43S
buffeting, 413 creep, 147, 162
buffeting amplitude, 440 critical oscillation, 434
Bundesalle footbridge, Germany, 166, 167 cross
buoyancy, 107, 4SI beam, 99, 119
frame, 99
cable girder, 61
anchorage, 68, 127, IS3, 208, 210 current pressure, 451
f(Jrce, 204, 229, 255, 264
inclination, 236 Dame Point Bridge, CSA, 135, 137, 13S
installation, 4S8 damping
locked-coil construction, 182 capacity, 240, 428, 429, 430, 432, 433, 434
saddle, 454 characteristic, 404
sag, 224 coefficient, 432
socket, 197 effect, 114, 406
stay, 67, 103, 130, 148 f(Jrce, 431, 432, 433
tension, 188, 220, 454 logarithmic decrement, 439
truss, 103 matrix, 227
cable-stayed bridge, 31, 33, 35, 36, 37, 38, pressure, 433
39, 42, 80, 85, 91, 114, 132, 147,167, 176, system, 435
404, 44S deck
camber, 161, 45S anchorage, 124
Canal du Centre Bridge, Belgium, 160 girder, S+
cantilever span, 116 plate, 55, 61, 64, 82
cantileYer tower, 287 slab, 127
cantileYered system, 2S9 truss, 95
C:assagne Bridge, !'ranee, 16, 17 type, 25
cast-in-place deck, 117 dead load, 450
catenary, 187, 242, 304 deflection, 32, 99, 114, 119
cellular box girder, 72, 82, 121 degree of redundancy, 24 7
central span, 123 design of the model, 37S
central spine, 80 diagonal bracing, 17 5
central tower, 70 dial gauge, 39S
circular frequency, 416, 422, 428 diamond-shaped tower, 129
coefficient of overloading, 191 Diepoldsau Bridge, Switzerland, 133, 134,
column matrix, 300 13S
column vector, 34S dimensional analysis, 370
combined railroad-highway bridge, 99 direct model, 364
componental displacement, 258 displacement matrix, 227
composite dissipation of energy, 428
bridge, 147 Dnepr Bridge, Kiev, USSR (1963), 118, 119
cable-stayed bridge, 148 Dnepr River Bridge, CSSR, 60, 120
deck, 147, 148, ISO, 4S2 double-plane cable system, 289
computer program, 228, 230, 273, 274, 277, double-plane multi-tower, 296
280, 321, 326, 365 double vertical plane, 452
concentrated live load, 451 drag force, 440, 480
concrete Duisburg-Neuenkamp Bridge, Germany
box girder, 91 (1970), 81' 82, 83
bridge, 114 Duisburg pedestrian bridge, Germany
deck, 131, 452 (1958), 155
pylon, 132, 138, 147, ISO dvnamic
tower, 40, 63, 64, 98, 99, liS, 119 . analysis, 227, 229, 327, 328
constructional stretch, 185 coefficient, 191
continuous load, 223
beam, 117, 248 pressure, 408
deck, 121 response, 228
SGBJECT 1!\DEX 465
similarity, 43R flatter frequence, 412

stahilitv, 414 flatter speed, 413
wind a~tion, 410 flexibility matrix, 280
Dywidag har, 16R flexibility method, 309
flexural
earth pressure, 451 rigidity, 418
earthquake force, 451 strain energy, 418
East Huntington Bridge, USA, 14R, 150 torsional moment, 339
ecology, 36 floating multi span bridge, 107
economy, 34, 3R floor beam, 80, 148
edge fairing, 444 flow chart, 275
elastic displacement, 234 footbridge, 157, 160, 162, 171
elastic support, 103, 231, 248, 266, 267 force-displacement method, 282
Elhe River Bridge, Germany (193R), 17 force matrix, 227
electronic computer, 1 forestay cable, 91, 123, 129, 140
elliptical pier, 136 foundation, 123, 127
elongation of the cahle, 219, 235, 243 Foyle Bridge, Ireland, 129
end fitting, 454 Franz Joseph Bridge, Czechoslovakia (1868),
endurance, 192 10
energy of vibration, 428 free frequency, 415
em-elope of bending moment, 276 free vibration, 414
epoxy asphalt, 67 Freyssinet
epoxy resin, 127 anchor, 204
erection jack, 162
bridge, 457 socket, 203
device, 457 friction damping, 433
load, 458 frictional force, 429, 433
stress, 458 full-locked cable, 86
erection of cahle-stayed system, 219 full model, 438
Eric Harvie Bridge, Canada (1982), 167, 168
Erskine Bridge, Scotland, 84, 85, 86, 214, Galecopper Bridge, Holland, 87, 210, 212
217 galvanized bridge strand, 68, 74, 80
equivalent Ganges River Bridge, India (1912), 105
lane loading, 451 gas pipeline, 103
modulus of elasticity, 187, 224, 228, 320, geometry of the model, 374
453 George Street Bridge, England (1964), 47,
spring constant, 26 7 48, 180, 201
stiffness, 454 Gibraltar Strait, 107
eury1hmy, 38 girder stiffness, 232
Gisclard system, 14
fairing plate, 67 global oscillation, 434
fan stav svstem, 20, 21 Golden Gate Bridge, USA, 410
fan-rype ~ahle, 61 gusset plate, 206
Faro-Folster Bridge, Denmark (1985), 68, 69 gust, 405
fatigue gutter, 67
fracture, 192
life, 456, 457 Hamburg pedestrian bridge, Germany
limit, 457 (1963), 159
strength of cable, 193 harmonic oscillation, 416
test, 80, 191, 192, 193 harp
fictitious support, 337 cable, 132
field configuration, 44
fabrication, 459 stay system, 20, 21
inspection, 459 Hawaiian Islands, 106
matrix, 300 height of the tower, 236, 264
finite element method, 323, 328 Heilbronn pipeline bridge, Germany, 103
first-order theory, 251, 358, 359 helically-wound strand, 182, 183
five-moment equation, 266 hexagonal box girder, 171
fixed Hi Am
anchorage, 84 anchor, 148
base, 178 cable, 64
hearing, 98 socket, 203, 451
flanking span, 123, 238 high-strength concrete, 130
flatter, 411, 440 high-strength steel, 82
466 SUBJECT INDEX
hinged tower, 25 cable, 94

Hooke's law, 223 strand, 171, 180, 182, 183
horizontal clearance, 67 wire rope, 184, 191, 193, 197
hydraulic damping, 432 logarithmic decrement, 431, 432, 433, 434,
hydraulic jack, 115 439
hyperbolic function, 333 longitudinal
hysteresis, 430 girder, 98
hysteresis damping, 432 load, 348
rib, 59, 70
ice, 451 stiffener, 89
ideal modulus of elasticity, 186, 187, 190, Longs Creek Bridge, Canada, 443
225, 273 Luling Bridge, USA, 68
imaginary load, 307, 308 lumped mass, 227
immovable saddle, 199
impact, 451 M25 Overbridge, England, 140, 141
inclined Macinac Suspension bridge, USA, 410
cable, 121 main
stay, 161 cable, 86
tower bridge, 91, 92, 94 girder, 26, 119, 211, 246
indirect method, 364 span, 67, 84
influence Main Bridge, Germany, 139, 140
coefficient, 276 Manchester Ship Canal Bridge, England, 9
line, 271, 274, 276, 303, 304, 308, 309, Mannheim Rhine Bridge, Germany, 199
346, 368, 376, 385, 392 Maracaibo Bridge, Venezuela (1962), 116,
temperature, 258 117, 118, 120, 240
inertia force, 414 Massena Bridge, France (1971), 82, 83
initial amplitude, 43 mass matrix, 227
inspection, 458 mass moment of inertia, 439
instrumentation method, 367 matrix of displacement, 281
interaction procedure, 230 Maxau Bridge, Germany (1967), 78, 79, 209,
354
Jiilicher Street Bridge, Germany (1963), 70, median, 84
73, 74, 181, 185, 211, 213, 214, 218 Messina pontoon bridge, Italy, 106
metal duct, 138
Karman effect, 441 method
Kawasaki-Bashi footbridge, Japan (1978), 171 analysis, 273
Kessock Bridge, Scotland ( 1982), 65, 66 successive approximation, 270
King's Meadows Bridge, England, 5 superposition, 255
kinematic viscosity, 439 middle panel, 237, 254, 262
kinetic energy, 414,415,416,417,420,422, mode shape, 328
423,424,425,426,429 model
Knie Bridge, Germany, 53, 54 analysis and design, 3 64
Kohlbrand Bridge, Germany (1975), 57, 58, bridge, 164
59 fabrication, 36 7
investigation, 438
large deflection, 17 test, 408, 416, 43 6, 440
large displacement, 393 modulus of elasticity, 181,183,185,196,218,
lateral wind, 404 225, 301, 305, 419, 453
lattice girder, 157 moment diagram, 257
Leverkusen Bridge, Germany (1965), 71, moment of inertia, 486
75 Mount Street Bridge, Australia, 162, 164
lightweight concrete, 116 movable bearing, 251
lift force, 408, 440 multi
Lillebelt Bridge, Denmark, 441, 442 cable fan system, 286
linear cable radial system, 284, 285
analysis, 223, 226, 251, 269, 274, 298, 306, span bridge, 240
319, 397 span structure, 103, 104
elastic system, 273 strand anchorage, 204
subroutine, 321 tower continuous bridge, 288
live loading, 119, 451 multiple
load length, 4 51 box girder, 29
load matrix, 301 cantilever span, 240, 241
local oscillation, 4 34 stay system, 36
locked-coil strand cable, 129
SUBJECT INDEX 467
Nantes Bridge, france, 14 plastic flow, I OS

natural plate girder, 152, 411
frequency, 171, 221, 412, 414, 415, 420, polar moment of inertia, 295
421,438,439,440,456 Polcevera Creek Viaduct, Italy (1966), 120
mode, 227 polyethylene
turbulence, 405 coating, 80, 89
vibration, 220, 428 pipe, 130, 203
navigation channel, 116 tubing, 159
Neckar Bridge, Germany, 97 Pont de Ia Bourse, france (1969), 161, 162
negative damping, 434 pontoon bridge, 105
neoprene strip, !52 portal tower, 24, 103, 118
neutral axis, 299 post
Niagara Suspension Bridge, USA (1855), 12 stressed cable, 107
nodal displacement, 384 stressing, I 03
nodal stress, 385 tensioning, 117
nonlinear analysis, 224, 269, 277, 304, 320, tensioning cable, 279
322 tensioning force, 278, 397, 398, 399, 401
nonlinear behaviour of cable, 273, 392 potential energy, 414, 415, 418, 422, 423,
nonlinearity of stiffening girder, 226 427, 429
Nord Bridge, Germany, 229 precast
North Bridge, Germany (1958), 53, 176, 181, beam, 138
201, 20~ 211, 247, 248, 358 concrete deck, IS 2
North Elbe Bridge, Germany (1962), 70, 71 concrete slab, I 03, 147
1'\orth Romaine River Railroad Bridge, prefabricated
Canada (1960), 95, 96 cable, 143
deck, 117
Oberkassler Bridge, Germany, 87, 88, 89 structure, 119
Ohio suspension bridge, USA, (1867), 12 prestressed
oil pipeline, 103 anchorage, 76, 127, 129, 141, 164
one-plane bridge, 69 cable, 106, 123, 133
optimum inclination of the cable, 233 concrete, 130, 162
orthotropic concrete bridge, 139
deck, I, 20, 25, 26, 34, 58, 59, 61, 67, 69, concrete girder, 29
88, 92, 99, 147, 159, 166, 171, 175, 204 deck, 164
box girder, 148 slab, 140
girder, 443 truss, 97
plate, 99 prestressing force, 345
system, 30 prestretching, 80, 454
type, 66 prestretching load, 185
oscillatory motion, 413 pretensioned cable, 171
outer cable, 69 pretensioned steel strand, 121
overall damping, 439 prototype, 370, 376
pylon, 61, 89, 99, 103, 133, 452, 453
Papineau Bridge, Canada (1969), 80, 81, 195,
209, 211, 215 Quincy Bridge, USA, 148, 150, 151
parallel
cable, 53 radial
wire cable, 158 cable, 148, 157
wire strand, 62, 180, 182, 195, 203 cable-stayed bridge, 249
panel length, 25 3 stay system, 20, 21
parabola, 18 7 railroad
particular solution, 334 bridge, 95, 97, 114
Pasco-Kennewick Bridge, USA, (1978), 130, cable-stayed bridge, 99
131, 132 Railway Bridge, Yugoslavia (1978), 99
pedestrian bridge, 105, 155, 167, 168, 170 reduction method, 297, 300, 303
perfect aeroelastic model, 4 36 Rees Bridge, Germany (1967), 50, 51
performance test, 459 reinforced concrete girder, 29, 163
pendulum support, 94 reinforced concrete tower, 48, 97
physical model, 365 resonance, 407, 414
Pipe bridge, South Africa (1968), 143 Rhone River Bridge, france (1888), IS
pipeline bridge, 103, 104, 105 rigid diaphragm, 335
pipeline cable-stayed bridge, 411 rigidity of box section, 70
pitching moment, 408, 445 River Dnepr Bridge, USSR, 58
plane frame, 277 River Parana Bridge, Argentina, 123, 125
468 SUBJECT INDEX
rocker Sloboda Bridge, Yugoslavia, S8, 90

bearing, 92, 157 slope deflection, 264
tower, 346 socket, 84, 124
Rokko-Ohbashi Bridge, Japan, 59, 61, 62 socket anchorage, 45S
roller, 347 softlt plate, 443
roller saddle, 325 space
rope structure, 330
twisted strand, 183 truss, 147
twisted wire, 182 spandrel beam, ISO
Rother Bridge, England, 168, 169 spine girder, 139
rubber spiral cable, 183
asphalt, 80 stability function, 22 9, 3SS
bearing, 94 starstay system, 20, 21
static
Saale Bridge, Germany (1824), 8 linear analysis, 323
saddle bearing, 82 load, 223
safety factor, 121, 197 loading, 65, 227
sag model test, 435
effect, 193 similitude, 370
ratio, 242 wind action, 408
Saint-Nazaire Bridge, France (1974), 55, 57 statical redundancy, 445
Saone River Bridge, France, 14, 15 stay
scale cable, 17, 64, 65, 72, S6, 97, 132,139,141,
fuctOG 371, 372, 373 160, 161
model, 365, 410 system, 74, 159
second order tension adjustment, 458
deformation, 418, 419, 420, 427 steel
theory, 270, 354, 358, 359 box girder, S4, 90
sectional model, 62, 80, 432, 436, 437, 438 plate girder, 147
seismic tower, 94, 148
disturbance, 127 St Floren! Bridge, France, 49
load, 348 stiffening
semicircular saddle, 194, 201 girder, 57, 59, 162, 166, 175, 203, 231,
Severin Bridge, Germany, 45, 46, 178, 199, 232, 251' 260, 293, 330, 393
200, 204, 207, 355, 431, 432 girder anchorage, 211
Severn Bridge, UK, 441, 442 plate, 30, 74
shear truss, 28, 208, 213, 410
centre, 338, 340 stiffness
lag, 61 function, 320
shell element, 326 matrix, 30, 277, 319, 320, 321, 385
Shiller Street Bridge, Germany (1961), 157, method, 317
!58 strain
shrinkage, 147, 162 energy, 418
shrinkage stress, 451 gauge, 383, 395
similitude requirement, 383 Strait of Georgia, Canada, 107
simplified aeroelastic model, 436 strand of twisted wire, 182
simulation Striimsund Bridge, Sweden (1955), 18, 19,
loading, 459 42, 43, 404
method, 309 Strouhal number, 456
single structural
box girder, 27, 70 analysis, I, 42, 223
cell box girder, 136 damping, 65, 406, 411, 412, 430, 431,
plane cable, 70, 282 440
plane stays, 13 6 detail, 175
plane system, 23, 72 geometry, 437
pylon, 136 model, 37, 376
span, 104 rope, 180
strand anchorage, 203 strand, 180
tower, 24, 78, 80, 148 Sunshine Skyway Bridge, US.'\, 135, 136,
Sitka Ilarhor Bridge, USA (1972), 148, 137
149 suspended
Skew bridge, 87, 139 deck, 114
slenderness ratio, 358 span, 116, 117, 121, 127
sliding form, 63 suspension bridge, 31, 33, 190, 404
SUBJECT INDEX 469
swaged fitting, 455 uniform live load, 451

symmetry, 38 unit matrix, 325
uplift force, 441
Tacoma Narrows Bridge, USA (1941), 404, upper load limit, 192
410, 412, 445 Usk River Bridge, UK, 185, 197
Tagus Bridge, 441
temperature, 45 5 V-shaped tower, 56
Tempul aqueduct, Spain, 115 vector of displacement, 277
tendon, 141 vertical
test model, 99 deflection, 234, 235
thermal force, 451 displacement, 344
thin-walled structure, 329 or flexual oscillation, 405, 416
three-dimensional system, 17 vibration, 99, 413, 414
Tiverton Bridge, UK (1837), 8 vibration
Tjiirn Bridge, Sweden, 64, 65 amplitude, 418
torsion bridge system, 328 cable, 221
torsional Vierendeel frame, 334
frequency, 117 viscous damping, 430
moment, 336, 338 vortices, 405
motion, 406, 407 vortex
oscillation, 62, 405, 408 excitation, 411
rigidity, 80, 94, 95 oscillation, 62
stiffness, 117, 422, 423, 439 shedding, 67, 405, 410, 411, 413, 434,
vibration, 415, 421, 422, 424, 431 456
tower, 70, 82, 86, 99,116,127,141,157,165, trail, 410
176
tower Waal Bridge, Holland, 127, 128
analvsis, 348 Wadi Kuf Bridge, Libya, 124, 126
backstay, 92 walkway, 156
base, 346 warping
leg, 67, 92 deflection, 295
transverse resistance, 422
compression, 196 weatherine steel, 67
diaphragm, 74 Wilmersdorf Stadium footbridge, Germany,
load, 348 165, 166
trapezoidal wind
box girder, 63 action 404
rib, 58 bracing, 103, 104, 156
triangular force, 407
rib, 170 load, 451
stiffener, 82 tunnel, 80 92, 413, 431, 435, 437
tower, 293 tunnel test, 62, 65, 456
truss, 92 velocity, 408, 412, 456
twin wire
rectangular box girder, 27, 127 rope, 56, 184
tower, 24 strand, 84, 127
trapezoidal box girder, 27 \Vye River Bridge, UK (1966), 72, 76
two plane bridge, 42
twisting yield point, 358
constant, 423 Young's modulus, 189, 190
resistance, 423
Zarate-Erazo Largo Bridge, Argentina
ultimate (1978), 63
load, 358 zinc coating, 181, 185, 453
strength of wire, 197 Z-shaped wire, 183
i'

Cable Stayed Bridges Theory and Design 2nd Ed PDF

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Cable Stayed Bridges Theory and Design 2nd Ed PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES

Theory and Design

BSP PROFESSIONAL BOOKS

BOSTON PALO ALTO MELBOURNE

Special acknowledgement is herewith made to the following persons, companies, institutions

Preface to the second edition Vll

Chapter 1 The Cable-stayed Bridge System

Chapter 2 Typical Steel Bridges

Chapter 3 Typical Concrete Bridges

Chapter 4 Typical Composite Bridges

Chapter 5 Typical Pedestrian Bridges

Chapter 6 Structural Details

Chapter 7 Methods of Structural Analysis

Chapter 8 Approximate Structural Analysis

Chapter 9 Exact Methods of Structural Analysis

Chapter 10 Model Analysis and Design

Chapter 11 Wind Action and Aerodynamic Stability

Chapter 12 Abbreviated Tentative Recommendations

Author Index 460

Subject Index 463

The Cable-stayed Bridge System

1.2 Historical review

F igure 1.4 s hows a primitive bridge of bamboo stays interwoven with

Fig. 1.5 Bridge stiffened by eye bars, designed by Faustus Vcrantius,

Fig. l.i King's i\lc;ado"s Bridge, England, 1817

Fig. 1.8 Dryburgh Bridge, England, 1817

Fig. 1.10 Chain-stiffened bridge systems proposed by 'a vier, France,

Fig. Lll Bridge ~cross the Saale River, Germany, 1824

~.. """"~- ---- ...... - "(EJ . -~ -

Fig. 1.13 Harp type stayed bridge by Hatley, England, 1840

Fig. 1.15 Bridge system proposed by Clive, England, 1843

Fig. 1.18 The iagar.a suspension bridge, t:SA, 1855

Fig. 1.19 The Ohio River bridge at Cincinnati, USA, 1867

Consequently, the stayed-beam bridge system was condemned and

Fig. 1.22 The Rhone

Fig. 1.23 (bdow) Bon-

Fig. 1.24 Transporter bridge at Nantes, France, 1903

Fig. 1.25 Typical bridge of Giscla.rd's system

Fig. 1.26 (abow)

Fig. 1.27 (rigltl)

particularly adapted to railroad traffic. In that system the inclined stays

~ 298.6 I 1033.2 I 298.6' I

Fig. 1.28 Cable-stayed

Fig. 1.29 The Stromsund

After 1950, several cable-stayed bridges were proposed at competitions

1.3 Basic concepts

The application of inclined cables gave a new stimulus to the construc-

1.4 Arrangement of the stay cables

According to the various longitudinal cable arrangements, cable-stayed

Fig. 1.30 Systems of cable

1. RADIAL OR CONVERGING SYSTEM

2. HARP OR PARALLEL SYSTEM

3. FAN OR INTERMEDIATE SYSTEM

1.5 Positions of the cables in space

Fig. 1.31 Space positions of cables

1. TWO VERTICAL PLANES SYSTEM

2. TWO INCLINED PLANES SYSTEM

3. SINGLE PLANE SYSTEM

1.6 Tower types

The various possible types of tower construction are illustrated in Fig.

Fig. 1.32 Tower types

J. TOWERS FIXED AT THE FOUNDATION

2. TOWERS FIXED AT THE SUPERSTRUCTURE