Discipline (academia)

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

"Academic discipline" redirects here. It is not to be confused with School

discipline.
For a topical guide to this subject, see Outline of academic disciplines.
An academic discipline or academic field is a branch of knowledge. It
incorporates expertise, people, projects, communities, challenges, studies,
inquiry, and research areas that are strongly associated with a given
scholastic subject area or college department. For example, the branches
of science are commonly referred to as the scientific disciplines, e.g.
physics, mathematics, and computer science.

Individuals associated with academic disciplines are commonly referred to

as experts or specialists. Others, who may have studied liberal arts or
systems theory rather than concentrating in a specific academic
discipline, are classified as generalists.

While academic disciplines in and of themselves are more or less focused

practices, scholarly approaches such as multidisciplinarity,
interdisciplinarity, transdisciplinarity, and crossdisciplinarity integrate
aspects from multiple academic disciplines, therefore addressing any
problems that may arise from narrow concentration within specialized
fields of study. For example, professionals may encounter trouble
communicating across academic disciplines because of differences in
language or specified concepts.

Some researchers believe that academic disciplines may be replaced by

what is known as Mode 2[1] or "post-academic science",[2] which involves
the acquisition of cross-disciplinary knowledge through collaboration of
specialists from various academic disciplines.

History of the concept

The University of Paris in 1231 consisted of four faculties: Theology,
Medicine, Canon Law and Arts.[3]

Educational institutions originally used the term "discipline" to catalog and

archive the new and expanding body of information produced by the
scientific community. Disciplinary designations originated in German
Universities during the beginning of the nineteenth century.

Most academic disciplines have their roots in the mid-to-late-19th century

secularization of universities, when the traditional curricula were
supplemented with non-classical languages and literatures, social
sciences such as political science, economics, sociology and public
administration, and natural science and technology disciplines such as
physics, chemistry, biology, and engineering.

In the early 20th century, new academic disciplines such as education and
psychology were added. In the 1970s and 1980s, there was an explosion
of new academic disciplines focusing on specific themes, such as media
studies, women's studies, and Africana studies. Many academic disciplines
designed as preparation for careers and professions, such as nursing,
hospitality management, and corrections, also emerged in the
universities. Finally, interdisciplinary scientific fields of study such as
biochemistry and geophysics gained prominence as their contribution to
knowledge became widely recognized.

As the twentieth century approached, these designations were gradually

adopted by other countries and became the accepted conventional
subjects. However, these designations differed between various countries.
[4]
In the twentieth century, the science disciplines included: physics,
chemistry, biology, geology, and astronomy. The social science disciplines
included: economics, politics, sociology, and psychology.

Prior to the twentieth century, categories were broad and general, which
was expected due to the lack of interest in science at the time. With rare
exceptions, practitioners of science tended to be amateurs and were
referred to as "natural historians" and "natural philosophers"labels that
date back to Aristotleinstead of "scientists".[5] Natural history referred to
what we now call life sciences and natural philosophy referred to the
current physical sciences.

Few opportunities existed for science as an occupation outside of the

educational system. Higher education provided the institutional structure
for scientific investigation, as well as economic support. Soon, the volume
of scientific information rapidly increased and people realized the
importance of concentrating on smaller fields of scientific activity.
Because of this, scientific specializations emerged. As these
specializations developed, modern scientific disciplines in universities also
improved. Eventually, academia's identified disciplines became the
foundations for people of specific specialized interests and expertise. [6]

Functions and criticism

A very influential critique of the concept of academic disciplines came
from Michel Foucault in his 1975 book, Discipline and Punish. Foucault
asserts that academic disciplines originate from the same social
movements and mechanisms of control that established the modern
prison and penal system in 18th century France, and that this fact reveals
essential aspects they continue to have in common: "The disciplines
characterize, classify, specialize; they distribute along a scale, around a
norm, hierarchize individuals in relation to one another and, if necessary,
disqualify and invalidate." (Foucault, 1975/1979, p 223.[7])
Communities of academic disciplines
Communities of academic disciplines can be found outside of
academia within corporations, government agencies, and independent
organizations, where they take the form of associations of professionals
with common interests and specific knowledge. Such communities include
corporate think tanks, NASA, and IUPAC. Communities such as these exist
to benefit the organizations affiliated with them by providing specialized
new ideas, research, and findings.

Nations at various developmental stages will find need for different

academic disciplines during different times of growth. A newly developing
nation will likely prioritize government and political matters over those of
the arts and sciences. On the other hand, a well-developed nation may be
capable of investing more into the arts and sciences. Communities of
academic disciplines would contribute at varying levels of importance
during different stages of development.