Professional Documents
Culture Documents
P.M.B 1526,
OWERRI, IMO STATE
A SEMINAR REPORT
ON
FM TRANSMITTER AND FUTURE RADIO TECHNOLOGY
WRITTEN BY
CHUKWU, CHIMA O.
20081598993
SUBMITTED TO
FEBRUARY, 2013.
CERTIFICATION
This is to certify that this Seminar report was written by CHUKWU, CHIMA O.
with registration number 20081598993, department of Electrical/Electronic
Engineering of the School of Engineering and Engineering Technology, Federal
University of Technology, Owerri.
APPROVED BY
Engr. Dr. F. K. OKPARA Date
Seminar Supervisor
..
Engr. Dr. C. C. Mbaocha Date
Seminar coordinator
..
Engr. Dr. F. K. OKPARA Date
Head of Department
i
DEDICATION
This work is dedicated to God Almighty for His unconditional love and
provision.
ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Special thanks to Engr. Mrs Ehis and Engr. Obinna for their tireless effort in
ensuring that I deliver the best and also for constantly egging me on. I have
learnt a lot within these few weeks of our work together. You are simply great
and I pray for Gods continual blessing upon your lives.
To my team members- gozie and kesandu, you are wonderful. God bless you
real good.
iii
ABSTRACT
iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Certification...i
Dedication..ii
Acknowledgement....iii
Abstract....iv
Table of Contents...v
List of Figures......vii
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.0 Background.........1
1.1 Objectives......2
1.2 Scope.....3
1.3 Significance.......3
1.4 Report Overview....4
CHAPTER TWO
FM TRANSMITTERS
2.0 Overview....5
2.1 Block Diagram..6
2.2 Circuit Design...8
2.3 FM Transmitter Limitations....9
2.4 FM Transmitter Optimization...10
v
CHAPTER THREE
MODERN RADIO TRANSMISSION TECHNOLOGIES
CHAPTER FOUR
27
4.0 SDR, HD Radio and Cognitive Radio Compared.........27
4.1 Conclusion ...29
29
Reference.........30
30
vi
LIST OF FIGURES
Fig 2.1 6
Block diagram of an FM transmitter....6
Fig 2.2 7
Calculation of inductor value....7
Fig 2.3 7
Calculation of Frequency Value...............7
Fig 2.4 8
Schematic of FM Transmitter............8
Fig 2.5 11
An FM signal with Noise.......11
Fig 2.6 12
Pre-emphasis Circuit.....1
Fig 2.7 13
Block Diagram of a Basic PLL.....13
Fig 3.1 15
How HD Radio Works.....15
Fig 3.2 16
FM HD Radio Hybrid Mode....16
Fig 3.5 17
FM HD Radio Extended Hybrid Mode.....17
Fig 3.4 FM HD Radio Full Digital Mode......18
18
Fig 3.5 SDR Architecture......20
20
Fig 3.6 Digital Upconverter..22
22
Fig 3.7 Digital Downconverter..23
23
vii
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.0 BACKGROUND
For a long time radio was the largest mass media but in recent years it has lost a number
of listeners. In contrast, total media consumption has increased. Young people are
abandoning traditional media and want to decide on where, when and how they receive
media content, for example via Internet and mobile telephones. Listeners are most
interested in easily being able to select radio stations, to have better sound quality and
audibility and to increase accessibility for people with visual and auditory impairments.
Listeners also want a wider range of radio channels over the whole country. Consumers
needs must be met hence the need for advancements in the field of radio broadcast.
1
New technology creates the necessary conditions for improvements. This seminar also
evaluates the different technologies on the basis of questions like:
1.1 OBJECTIVES
ii. To present some modern digital technologies that has been developed for
effective FM signal generation.
2
1.2 SCOPE
This seminar covers the design of FM transmitters for quality audio transmission and
explains some of the modern trends in FM signal generation, highlighting their
prospects. It also covers the advantages these technologies offer over traditional radio
broadcasting and brings to light various distinguishing features possessed by these
technologies.
1.3 SIGNIFICANCE
The role that radio plays in the society is an important issue to consider in discussions
about which technology can best distribute radio in the future. The fact that radio has
an important role in society can be clearly seen in the number of listeners. Despite the
rise in the total consumption of media, radio has lost a number of listeners according to
a survey reported in [3, pp. 40-49].
The medium of radio has many positive characteristics for listeners. It is:
iii. Possible to listen to everywhere, including sparsely populated areas and while in
motion in cars and trains
3
vi. An important medium for traffic information, shipping and mountain rescue.
Radio needs to be developed to satisfy the needs of future consumers, hence the need
for this study.
Chapter one provides an overview of the seminar by giving description of the topic.
Chapter two deals with FM transmitters, their drawbacks and how they are overcome.
Chapter three covers modern radio transmission technologies: Hybrid Digital (HD) Radio
and Software Defined Radio (SDR); explaining their advantages, limitations and how
they enhance radio communication.
In chapter four, SDR and HD radio technologies were compared with other radio
technologies. It also includes the conclusion
4
CHAPTER TWO
FM TRANSMITTERS
2.0 OVERVIEW
Non-commercial broadcasting.
Commercial broadcasting.
Television audio.
However, they can be in any range, as long as a receiver has been tuned to demodulate
them. Thus the RF carrier wave and the input signal can't do much by themselves they
must be modulated. That is the basis of a transmitter.
5
2.1 BLOCK DIAGRAM
The diagram above is the basic building block of every FM transmitter. It consists of an
AF (Audio Frequency) Amplifier that amplifies the audio voltage from the microphone
and feeds this signal into an RF oscillator for modulation. The oscillator produces the
carrier frequency in the 88-108 MHZ FM band. The low power of the FM modulated
carrier is then boosted by the power amplifier. A buffer amplifier is placed between the
RF oscillator and the power amplifier to eliminate loading of the oscillator. A low pass
filter is also present lo limit the RF signal to a range of choice while the antenna radiates
it.
Self-made inductor has a value determined by its radius r, length x and number of wire
turns n.
6
Fig 2.2: Calculation of inductor value
Frequency
The variable capacitor and self-made inductor constitute a parallel LC circuit also called
a tank circuit which vibrates at a resonant frequency to be picked up by an FM radio.
The underlying physics is that a capacitor stores energy in the electric field between its
plates, depending on the voltage across it, and an inductor stores energy in its magnetic
field, depending on the current through it. The oscillation frequency is determined by
the capacitance and inductance values.
7
2.2 CIRCUIT DESIGN
S1
Key = A antenna
VC L1
R2 C2 0.171H Battery
10k 0.01F 30pF
50% 5-6 turns 5V
Key=A
R1
10k
Q1
C1 C3 C4
4.7pF 0.01F
10F
2N2222A
Mic
R3
4.7k R4
4.7k
In theory, as long as there is a supply voltage across the parallel inductor and variable
capacitor, it should vibrate at the resonant frequency indefinitely. Referring to the
schematic above, C2 and C4 act as decoupling capacitors and typically 0.01 uF (or 0.1 uF)
are used. C4 attempts to maintain a constant voltage across the entire circuit despite
voltage fluctuations as the battery dies. A capacitor can be thought of as a frequency-
dependent resistor (called reactance). Speech consists of different frequencies and the
capacitor C1 impedes them. The net effect is that C1 modulates the current going into
the transistor.
Using a large value for C1 reinforces bass (low frequencies) while smaller values boost
treble (high frequencies). The C3 capacitor across the 2N2222A transistor serves to keep
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the tank circuit vibrating. In reality however, the frequency decays due to heating losses.
C3 is used to prevent decay and the 2N2222A spec sheet suggests a capacitance
between 4 to 10 pF
The C3 capacitor across the 2N2222A transistor serves to keep the tank circuit vibrating.
In theory, as long as there is a supply voltage across the parallel inductor and variable
capacitor, it should vibrate at the resonant frequency indefinitely. In reality however,
the frequency decays due to heating losses. C3 is used to prevent decay and the
2N2222A spec sheet suggests a capacitance between 4 to 10 pF.
The 2N2222A transistor has rated maximums thus demanding a voltage divider made
with R2 and R3 and emitter current limiting with R4. The 2N2222A's maximum rated
power is Pmax = 0.5 W. This power ultimately affects the distance you can transmit.
Overpowering the transistor will heat and destroy it. To avoid this, one can calculate
that the FM transmitter outputs approximately 124 mW and is well below the rated
maximum.
The major drawbacks experienced by FM transmitters are noise and frequency control.
FREQUENCY CONTROL
This arises from the presence of frequency synthesizers (oscillators). Due to limited
bandwidth, it is necessary for the carrier frequency of a radio transmitter to be as exact
as possible. Issues relating to this include:
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Poor frequency Accuracy: The transmitter must be on the exact frequency
that the receiver is expecting it to be. This is primarily determined by the
master reference oscillator.
NOISE
Noise is typically narrow spikes of voltage with lots of harmonics and other high
frequency components that add to a signal, interferes with it and sometimes,
completely obliterates the signal information. [5]
FM systems are generally better at rejecting noise than AM systems. Poor design results
in excessive Phase Noise, a smearing of the Transmitter Local Oscillator signal that the
Receiver interprets as noise, making accurate demodulation difficult and a
corresponding high probability of error. Noise can also result from poor power supply
regulation and/or filtering.
10
Use of Limiter Circuits:
Pre-emphasis:
Noise can interfere with an FM signal and particularly with the high-frequency
components of the modulating signal. This technique is used to overcome these high-
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frequency noises. A simple high-pass filter can serve as a transmitters pre-emphasis
circuit. A sample pre-emphasis circuit is shown below:
PLL is basically a closed loop frequency control system whose functioning is based on
the phase sensitive detection of phase difference between the input and output signals
of the controlled oscillator according to [6]. It is used to lock the central frequency of a
transmitter to a stable crystal reference frequency. A basic phase locked loop consists of
three (3) elements:
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Phase Comparator: This circuit block within the PLL compares the phase of
two signals and generates a voltage according to the phase difference
between the two signals.
Loop filter: This filter is used to filter the output from the phase
comparator in the PLL. It is used to remove any components of the signals
of which the phase is being compared from the VCO line. It also governs
many of the characteristics of the loop and its stability.
Voltage Controlled
Reference Phase Comparator
Oscillator
13
CHAPTER THREE
Renee [7], points out that HD Radio is a new technology that enables AM and FM Radio
stations to broadcast their programs digitally, a tremendous technological leap from
today's familiar analog broadcasts. HD Radio is the only current digital radio solution
which operates in the existing FM band. It allows the transmission of the existing
unchanged FM analog signal along with digital subcarriers which provide CD quality
audio as well as the possibility of multiple digital channels. Both the conventional FM
analog signal and the digital sidebands fit within the typical spectral mask allocated for
FM stations (i.e. same spot on the FM dial). [9]
Firstly, the radio station simultaneously creates a digital and analog audio broadcast.
The digital signal is then compressed for multicasting and enhanced services while the
14
analog signal is left untouched, both of which are transmitted at the same time. Signal
travels through the broadcast area while receivers shoot trough bounced signals to
enhance clarity.
15
3.2 FM TRANSMISSION USING HD RADIO TECHNOLOGY
Hybrid Mode: This provides 100kbps data throughput, 96kbps for audio, and
4kbps for ancillary data (song title/artist) which is adjustable. This mode supports
Stereo or mono Analog and may include Subsidiary Communications Authorization
(SCA)/Radio Data System (RDS) with digital subcarriers 20dB below analog.
Full Digital Mode: The Full Digital Mode means that the analog FM signal is
turned off. This is done when the number of HD receivers in use justifies the
change. This mode provides 300kbps data throughput, which may be allocated as
desired.
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Fig 3.4: FM HD Radio Full Digital Mode.
It renders new and crisp, crystal-clear sound without pops, hiss, or fades (i.e.
enhanced sound fidelity)
It provides advanced data and audio services which include
Surround sound
Multi-casting - Multiple audio sources at the same dial position
On-demand audio services -Will give users instant access to news and
information
Store-and-replay Will allow listeners rewind a song they just heard or
store a radio program for replay later
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Buy button- Will turn the radio into an interactive device for e-
commerce, allowing for instant purchases of concert tickets to advertised
products.
It uses the advanced technology to display information text on the radio screen.
This advanced display mechanism of the HD Radio has now enabled syndicated
radio programs to provide regional and local information in a text format.
Its conversion process is unique and easy because there is no service disruption
and same dial position. No new networks need to be constructed to introduce HD
radio
Its free, No subscription fees: It is not a subscription service like satellite radio. It
is the same free, over-the-air broadcast radio only better.
It provides a seamless transition for customers.
While HD Radio seems to have a lot to offer a radio consumer, there are some inherent
disadvantages. These are:
19
3.5 SOFTWARE DEFINED RADO (SDR)
A basic SDR system may consist of a personal computer equipped with a sound card, or
other analog-to-digital converter, preceded by some form of RF front end [17].
20
DUC: Digital upconverter
C FR: Crest factor reduction
DPD: Digital predistortion
DDC: Digital downconverter
PA: Power amplifier
LNA: Low noise amplifier
The figure above illustrates the hardware partitioning of an SDR-based 3G base station
that can be reconfigured to support multiple standards. This is achievable only in an
ideal SDR base station which performs all signal processing tasks in the digital domain
but current-generation wideband data converters cannot support this. Hence, the
analog-to-digital converter (ADC) and the digital-to-analog converter (DAC) are usually
operated at in intermediate frequency (IF) and separate wideband analog front ends are
used for subsequent signal processing to the radio frequency (RF) stages.[18]
Digital IF Processing
Digital IF extends the scope of digital signal processing (DSP) beyond the baseband
domain out to the antenna to the RF domain. This increases the flexibility of the system
while reducing manufacturing costs. Moreover, digital frequency conversion provides
greater flexibility and higher performance (in terms of attenuation and selectivity) than
traditional analog techniques.
Digital Upconverter
Data formattingoften required between the baseband processing elements and the
upconvertercan be seamlessly added at the front end of the upconverter, as shown in
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Figure 3.6. This technique provides a fully customizable front end to the upconverter
and allows for channelization of high-bandwidth input data, which is found in many 3G
systems. Custom logic can be used to control the interface between the upconverter
and the baseband processing element.
In digital upconversion, the input data is baseband filtered and interpolated before it is
quadrature modulated with a tunable carrier frequency.
22
Digital Predistortion
The 3G standards and their high-speed mobile data versions employ non-constant
envelope modulation techniques such as quadrature phase shift keying (QPSK) and
quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM). This places stringent linearity requirements
on the power amplifiers. The multipliers in the DSP blocks can reach speeds up to 380
MHz and can be effectively time-shared to implement complex multiplications.
Digital Downconverter
On the receiver side, digital IF techniques can be used to sample an IF signal and
perform channelization and sample rate conversion in the digital domain. Using
undersampling techniques, high frequency IF signals (typically 100+ MHz), can be
quantified. For SDR applications, since different standards have different chip/bit rates,
non-integer sample rate conversion is required to convert the number of samples to an
integer multiple of the fundamental chip/bit rate of any standard.
23
3.7 ADVANTAGES OF SDR
The biggest reason to have a Software Defined Radio is the flexibility it offers the
user.
Filtering can easily be changed, depending on the needs
Modes of operation can be changed to accommodate new
communications technologies
All of these functions are controlled in Software, rather than Hardware,
making changes simpler (no new filters/hardware demodulators required-
the code takes care of it)
It provides the ability to look at or view a chunk of the radio spectrum, all
frequencies at the same time, to find stations or place to operate.
It offers a reduced parts inventory.
It takes advantage of the declining prices in computing components.
The Digital Signal Processors (DSPs) present in SDR can compensate for
imperfections in RF components, allowing cheaper components to be used.
Its open architecture allows multiple vendors.
It permits multi-standard support, multiple inputs multiple output (MIMO)
capabilities.
With SDR, maintainability is also enhanced.
SDR has an expensive power requirement due to the presence of FPGAs and x86
processors.
The initial cost for setting up an SDR system is high.
24
An ideal SDR design employs non-existent technology hence it will have a longer
development time.
Software reliability (or the lack thereof) may define overall radio reliability, rather
than hardware limitations.
The choice of architecture depends on the available technology e.g. ADC
performance, semiconductor technology.
DSP complexity can be limited by power requirements.
The Analogue Digital Conversion can limit the simultaneous dynamic range (DR)
The use of linear amplification may be necessary: this can have negative
implications in terms of DC-RF conversion efficiency.
Cognitive radio is a radio or system that senses, and is aware of, its operational
environment and can dynamically and autonomously adjust its radio operating
parameters accordingly [20, pp. 8]. It is an enhancement on the Software Defined Radio
concept wherein the radio is aware of its environment and its capabilities, is able to
independently alter its physical layer behavior, and is capable of following complex
adaptation strategies. It learns from previous experiences and deals with situations not
planned at the initial time of design. Cognitive radios therefore require sensing,
adaptation and learning. Like animals and people according to [20], they
Seek their own kind (other radios with which they want to communicate)
Avoid or outwit enemies (interfering radios)
Find a place to live (usable spectrum)
Make a living (deliver the services that their user wants)
Deal with entirely new situations and learn from experience.
25
3.10 COGNITIVE RADIO ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES
Like every technology, cognitive radio has its limitations which include:
26
CHAPTER FOUR
27
4.2 CONCLUSION
28
REFERENCES
29
[19] P.E. Chadwick, Possibilities and Limitations in Software Defined Radio Design.
[20] J. H. Reed et al, Understanding the Issues in Software Defined Cognitive Radio,
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering.
[21] M. Barousse and T. Oliver, Applications of a Software Defined Radio in Space.
[22] What is Cognitive Radio, http://www.wifinotes.com/mobile-communication-
technologies/cognitive-radio.html
[23] iBiquity Digital Corp; White Paper Archive,
http://www.ibiquity.com/technologypapers.htm
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