T. P.
8002
Process Variables of In Situ Combustion
WILLIAM L. MARTIN
JOHN D. ALEXANDER
JUNIOR MEMBER AIME
ABSTRACT
This paper describes the results of
II laboratory investigation conducted
to obtain data for an evaluation of
the in situ combustion process as
a method of producing crude oil
from reservoirs. Air and fuel re-
quirements, rates of advance, com-
bustion temperatures, and coke and
fluid distributions are presented. The
mechanism of oil recovery by in situ
combustion is discussed.
Five crude oils ranging in gravity
from 10.9 to 34.r API were pro-
duced from a semiadiabatic, uncon-
solidated sand pack by in situ com-
bustion. Experimental conditions
were varied over a wide range in or-
der to determine the inter-relation-
I'hips of process variables. The mini-
mum air flux requirement for selt-
sustained combustion was found to
he less than 10 scf/hr-ft'. The rate
of advance of a self-.lustained com-
hustion zone was found to be nearly
proportional to the air {lux at the
combustion front.
The effects of pressure and in-
jected air .flux were studied in a
series of experiments using a 21.r
API crude. A minimum air require-
ment was observed at an air flux of
20 scf/hr-ft'. The oil saturation con-
sumed as fuel averaged 5.5 per cent
of pore volume. The effect of air
pressure was found to be .<mall for
experiments having high combustion
efficiencies.
This study should promote a bet-
ter understanding of the prohlems
and mechanisms involved in labora-
tory investigatiolls and .field applica-
tions of the in situ combustion pro-
cess. The data presented will be use-
Original manuscript received in Society of
Petroleum Engineers office on Aug. 7, 1957.
Revised manuscript received Dec. 30, 1957.
Paper presented at 32nd Annual Fall Meet-
ing of Society of Petroleum Engineers in
Dallas. Tex .. Oct. 6-9. 1%7.
PETROI.EIJM TRA:\'S;\(:TJO~S. AJ~H
MEMBER AIME
CONTINENTAL OIL CO.
PONCA CITY, OKLA.
JOHN N. DEW
MEMBER AIME
ful in the interpretation of results of
field tests. When tempered with volu-
metric sween efficiencies, the data
can he used- in . making preliminary
economic appraisals of the process
as applied to reservoirs containing
high porosity unconsolidated media.
INTRODUCTION
The purpose of this work was to
obtain laboratory data for an evalua-
tion of the in situ combustion pro-
cess as a method of producing crude
oil from reservoirs.
In situ combustion basically con-
sists of (1) injecting air into a reser-
voir through selected input wells to
create an air sweep through the res-
ervoir, (2) igniting the crude at the
injection well, and (3) propagating
the combustion front through the
reservoir by continued air injection.
By this means, oil is swept toward
producing wells in the area. The fuel
for combustion is supplied by heavy
residual material (coke) which has
been deposited on the sand grains
during distillation and cracking of
the crude oil ahead of the combus-
tion front.
Recovery of petroleum by a com-
bustion or heat wave process is not
a new idea. F. A. Howard was
granted a patent in 1923 on a pro-
cess in which air and a combustible
gas were pumped into an injection
well and ignited.' Russian engineers
reported on field experiments with a
crude oil gasification process in
1935'. Other known early field tests
include those conducted near Bar-
tlesville and Ardmore, Okla., in
1942.' More recently completed field
tests include an inverted seven-spot
by Sinclair Oil Co. in the Delaware-
Childers field, Nowata County,
Okla.'; a three-well and an inverted
SPE 914-G
five-spot test by Magnolia Petroleum
Co. in Jefferson County, Okla:"; and
a test by California Research Corp.
in the Irvine-Furnace field in Ken-
tucky. The Worthington Corp. has
completed a test in cooperation with
the Forest Oil Corp. in Clark Coun-
ty, Ill.'
Several field tests are now in prog-
ress. Sinclair has acquired a 600-
acre lease in the Humboldt-Chanute
field, Allen County, Kans., and is
under way with a large-scale opera-
tion. Three field tests are under way
in California. The General Petroleum
Corp. is conducting an inverted five-
spot pattern test in the South Bel-
ridge field in Kern County under a
cooperative agreement with 11 other
companies, including Continental Oil
Co. California Research Corp. is
conducting a four-well pattern test in
Midway-Sunset field near Maricopa,
and Richfield Oil Corp. is under way
with a test in the Ojai field in Ven-
tura County.
Although the published informa-
tion is valuable concerning results
of field tests, little laboratory data
other than that reported by Kuhn
and Koch' are available to aid in
appraising the tests from a technical
or economic standpoint. Engineering
data needed to evaluate the process
include the amount of air required
per barrel of oil recovered, minimum
injection rates which will support
combustion, rates of advance, air re-
quired per unit volume of reservoir
cleaned, amount of oil recovered, and
amount of oil consumed as fuel. The
present laboratory investigation was
undertaken to provide these data for
that portion of the reservoir swept
by the combustion zone.
The first phase of this investiga-
tion was exploratory in nature and
was conducted at injection pressures
less than 100 psig. Data were ob-
tained over a wide range of experi-
mental conditions in an effort to ob-
serve, qualitatively, the effect of some
of the many variables that affect the
in situ combustion process. At times
several air flow rates were studied
during a single experiment. During
the second phase of the work, the ef-
fects of pressure and injected air flux
were studied by means of long-term,
stabilized experiments conducted at
constant inlet pressure an.d exit gas ANAL.YSIS ECUIPMENT fL.OW SHEET

flow rate.

DESCRIPTION OF APP ARA TUS

The two phases of the experimen-
tal work were conducted in two dis- :::~l v::~::s~ /
crete, but basically similar, lahora- gll1Il\TI:1_--'

tory apparatus.
1I"""l'''''''~TI''l.!.ll
The simulated reservoirs consisted USEII ... S ....... C.""lSS
IIcaUl.101t

of vertical stainless steel tubes
packed with unconsolidated sand and
fitted with the necessary controlling
and recording equipment. The first
tube was 4 ft long and 4.85 in. in
diameter with a wall thickness of
1/16 in. A porous stainless steel
plate at the bottom of the tube pre-
vented sand production. Eleven ther-
mocouples in wells spaced at 4-in.
intervals were used to measure tem-
peratures at the center of the sand
pack. Eleven additional thermocou-
ples were placed against the outside
of the tube opposite the wells. A
thermocouple at the top gave an in-
dication of the igniter temperature.
The ignitor heater consisted of a
coil of nichrome wire wound on 11
ceramic cone attached to the top of
the apparatus. Five other heaters
were wound around the tube so that
the wall temperature of 8-in. inter-
vals could be controlled by adjusting
a Variac connected to each heater.
Fig. 1 shows a schematic flow dia-
gram of the second apparatus. It was
basically similar to the first except
that provision was made for experi-
mentation at elevated pressures. The
second tube was 6 ft long and 5%
in. in diameter with a wall thickness
of 0.035 in. It was supported within
a steel pressure jacket designed to
withstand 1,000 psi. During an ex-
periment, the pressure in the jacket
was maintained equal to the injec-
FJG. l~~FL()\V SHEET FOR LABORATORY
teen heaters were wound around the
tube, each controlling the tube wall
temperature of a 4-in. interval.
Other details of the air supply and
flow control and measuring sys-
tems are included in the flow sheet
(Fig. 1).
DESCRIPTION OF MATERIALS
The unconsolidated sand packs
were prepared with Blackhawk E
grade sand obtained from the Stand-
ard Silica Corp., Ottawa, Ill., and
used as received. The sand was
packed to the same reference levels
in the tubes by slowly pouring in
sand from the top while vibrating
the tube. The porosities resulting
from this technique averaged 36 per
cent. The permeability to air of the
clean sand before and after burning
was about 10 darcies.
The five crude oils studied in the
first phase of the investigation ranged
in gravity from 10.9 to 34.20 API.
ASTM distillation and viscosity data
are shown in Table 1. The crude
used during the second phase was
the 21.2 0 API gravity crude de-
TABLE I-VISCOSITY AND ASTM DI5TlllATION DATA
10.9
Crud& Type API
Temperature,
h Sl1T COlldBl;STlO!\i :\PPARATll~.
scribed in Table I. This crude had a
carbon-hydrogen weight ratio of 7.23.
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
The tubes were charged with a
known weight of sand which was
packed to a definite volume as de-
scribed. Frequently, a previously used
pack was reused. After the gas per-
meability was measured, the pack
was evacuated and saturated with
water. A known weight of crude was
then flooded through the pack, and
gas permeability was established with
a gas drive at room temperature.
The ignition procedure for the
constant-flux experiments included
an initial heating of the sand face
during a nitrogen drive. This was
continued until a temperature gradi-
ent was established similar to those
previously observed during combus-
tion. Combustion actually began
when the injected gas was changed
from nitrogen to air. This ignition
procedure decreased the tendency for
liquid block formation and promoted
early stabilization of the experiment.
Pack temperatures were recorded
18.3 0 21.2 28.9 34.2
API API API API
Viscosity, Centistokes

tion pressure in the pack. The pres- 100 2,970 2,590 1 J3.7 13.1 9.50
210 29.3 J 2.7 3.28 2.69
sure difference across the tube wall Volume Per Cent Distilled Boiling Point, f
was limited to 100 psi. IB~ 19, 214 270 145 149
5 232 275 334 228 233
Sand pack temperatures were 10 254 334 405 290 274
15 42~ 454
measured in a central 14 -in. thermo- 20 486 498 492 414 369
well with a thermocouple probe con- 25 535 526
30 5eO 601 552 520 47J
sisting of four thermocouples spaced 35 581 133%) 564'
40 595 630' 592 557'
at 4-in. intervals. The outside tube 45 607
wall temperatures were measured 50
55
620
630
654'

with thermocouples placed at 4-in. 60 634

65 628'
intervals along the tube length. Six- Crocking temperaturE'

\' 0 J :2 l:~. IlJ.'lH

continuously on a multipoint rec-
RUN NO 15
order. The outside temperatures at ~
w CRUCE 21 2 API
all levels were maintained slightly 30 ~6 -I II'R(SSUAE 600 PSIG
2
AIR FLUX 31.8 SCF/HR-FT
less than the corresponding inside "~
z

temperatures by manually adjusting

the tube wall heater Variacs. This
i;'

"
u
~.
0
~
I 5000 It
~ I"
type of control provided semiadia- ~ 20
,. 4000
~
w
!i
~4
batic conditions with a slight radial ~
';i ~

heat loss to the surroundings. ~
0
~
~3- 3000 (5
~

During the experiments, cumula- 0

w :-
tive oil and water production, pres- ~
~
0
0

~ ~

sure drop across the pack, pressure ~ 10 ~

0

at pack inlet, and the location of the ~

combustion front were all plotted gl 1000

against cumulative run time so that

a graphical picture of the progress
of the run was available. Fig. 2
0
- .
shows most of these data for Run 15. FIG. 2-ExPERIMENTAL DATA. RUN No. 15.

1ABLE 2-COMBUSTION DATA-EXPLORATORY EXPER IMEI,TS

RESULTS Saturation Average Approximate
Crude Oil at Ignition, Injection Combustion Rate of Oxygen
In general, correlations attempted Gravity, Per cent of Porosity Exit Flux Pressure, Temperature, Advance, to Carbon
Run API Oil Water scf/hr - ft:! psig OF It/day scl/hr - ft'
with the short-term exploratory data 28.9 70.5 8.4 250 26
-----
850 12:5' ~
showed trends in fair agreement with 28.9 56.6 9.5 255 17 725 4.7 1.4
28.9 52.7 13.2 131 21 750 3.5 1.7
the data obtained in the second 128 13 650 2.6 1.1
phase; however, correlations of the 10.9 63.2 8.7 75 90 1,000 5.0 10,1
8.9 96 850 0.7 1.5
exploratory data have been omitted 23.2 96 850 2.8 3.5
107 95 950 10.8 10.9
in favor of the more representative 18.3 72.5 7.8 60.0 44 950 3.4 7A
constant-flux data. Table 2 gives data 32.2 26 850 2.6 3.8
1.9
16.8 6 ?CO 1.2
from the exploratory phase of the 18.3 66.0 15.6 18.3 34 800 1.9 2.6
74.4 48 900 6.8 10.1
investigation. Table 3 gives the initial 18.3 44.1 20.2 23.2 18 825 2.5 3.2
fluid saturations, experimental con- 38.6 10 850 3.3 4.0
18.3 53.5 18.4 21.2 70 825 2.8 3.2
ditions, and material halance data 9.9 56 625 0.9 1.0
9 34,2 47.6 15.5 20.1 8 750 2.4 2.1
from the constant flux runs. Table 4 10 34.2 42.1 17.2 18.6 65 750 2.5 1.9
gives process data ohtained under lOA 65 625 0.7 1.0
11 34.2 43 .3 J 8.1 20.1 64 750 3.2 2.5
stabilized comhustion conditions dur- 20.6 64 625 0.8 1.1
12 21 2 75.0 10.7 21.5 27 800 2.8 2.8
ing the constant flux runs.
CO;\1BUSTION FRONT AOVANCf
TABLE c-EXPERIMENTAL CONDITIONS AND MATERIAL BALANCE DATA-CONSTANT flUX
Fig. 3 shows three successive tem- EXPERIMENTS - 21.2 API CRUDE
Run 11 14 15 16 17 18'
perature profiles of the sand-packed ---_._----
Pressure ot Combustion Front, psi:) 30 30 600 600 600 600
tube which were measured during fluid Content at Ignition
Grams 01 Oil 4.689 5,053 6,408 5.135 5,851 5.692
Run 1. The first maximum on each Grams 01 Water 454 1,925 922 1,000 884 860
of these curves is indicative of the Saturations at Ignition, Vol. per cent of Porosity
Oil 52.3 56.6 76.2 61.0 69.6 67.7
location of a high temperature zone Water 9.0 19.7 10.0 10.9 9.6 9.4
which accumulated while the ignitor Oil Produced
WI. per cent of Chorge ot Ignition 86.6 90.2 92.2 90.4 89.9
was maintained at a high temperature Vol. per cent of Porosity 45.3 50.9 70.5 55.2 62.4
Estimated Oil Burned
and the air rate was low. The second WI. per cent of Charge 10.6 9.32 8.54 10.2 8.52
maximum on each curve developed Vol. per cent of Porosity 5.08 4.83 5.62 5.70 5.29
CarbonHydrogen Ratio of Burned Residuum, lb/lb 9.0' 9.0' 8.54 9.64 12.3
when the air injection rate was in- Oil Material Balance Check, Wt. per cent 967:' 99.9" 100.7 100.7 104.4
Ilnterrupted
creased after the initial heating per- 2A$sumed
iod. The latter peaks were used to lo- :-lBased on assumed C/H ratio

cate the combustion front and meas-

ure its rate of advance. TABLE 4-PROCESS DATA-CONSTANT flUX EXPERIMENTS-21.2 API CRUDE
Fig. 4 shows the location of the Run 13 14 15 16 17 18
Injected Air Flux, scf/hr-ft:! 29.5 29.7 31.B 63.5 125 10.7
combustion front and the high tem- Produced Gas Flux, scf/hr.ft:! 28.2 28,3 30,0 60.6 121 10.0
perature zone created hy the ignitor Rate of Advance of the Combustion
Front, ft/doy 2.90 3,26 3.05 5.17 B.39 0.854
heater as these two zones moved Average Combustion Temperature, ') f 825 800 775 800 8:0 650
through the sand pack. It is evident Average C02 in Exit Gas, Vol. per cent 10.8 10.7 10.9 9.9 7.7 11.4
Average CO in Exit Gas, Vol. per cent 3.2 4.1 3.4 3,3 2.0 3.1
from Figs. 3 and 4 that the rate of Average 02 in Exit Gas, Vol. per ccnt 3.3 2.2 1.9 3.9 8.6 1.0
Carbon Burned, Ib/IOO Ib of sand deaned 0.99 0.94 1. 11 1.23 1.10 1.24
advance of the first zone is less than Residue Burned, Yol. per cent of porosity 5.08 4.81 5.69 6.23 5.49 6.42
that of the combustion zone. Under Oxygen Consumed to Carbon Oxides,
scf/hr.ft' 3,51 3.63 3.78 7.00 10.52 1.29
the prevailing conditions, heat in the Total Oxygen Consumed, scf/hr-ft:! 5.25 5.59 6.07 10.93 15.74 2.13
Oxygen Consumed to Carbon Oxides,
first zone moved more slowly by con- scf/ftS of sand cleaned 29.1 26.7 29.8 32,5 30.1 36.3
vection and conduction than the Total Oxygen Consumed, scf/ft:-.!
41.2 47.9 50.8 45.1 59.8
of sand deaned 43.4
~ombustion front moved by the in Dxygen Consumed, per cent of oxygen jnj~b'ed 84.9 90.1 91.4 82.3 60,3 95.6
Air Required, scf/ft::l of sand cleaned 245 219 251 295 358 301
situ generation of heat assisted by Averoge Instantoneous GOR, scf/bbl 5,000 5,600 4,400 5,800 6,800 5,100
f()nvection and conduction. Minimum Cumulative GOR, scf/bbl 6,cOO 5,700 4,600 7,400 8,100 6.600
Cumulative GOR at GOR= 10,000, scf/bbl 6,800 6,200 5,100 7,500 8,300 6,800
Rates of advance of combustion =
:umuiative GO~ 01 GOR 20,000, scf/bbl 7,200 6,700 5,400 ;,800 9,000 ;,20Q

:10
tronts were obtained from slopes of
plots similar to Fig. 4 and are pre-
sented in Tables 2 and 4 along with
corresponding combustion data. The
exploratory data are reoresentative of
constant flux conditions of several
hours' duration, but usually more
than one flux was investigated during
an exploratory run.
During the constant flux experi-
ments, no sharp combustion peaks
were observed because radial heat
losses were better controlled and rates
of advance were generally lower. In
these experiments, the rate of ad-
vance of the combustion front was
obtained by following the progres-
sion of a temperature level known to
be representative of combustion con-
ditions.
Fig. 5 shows the effect of injected
air flux on the rate of advance of the
combustion front. It may be seen
that the rate of advance increases al-
most linearly with increasing flux
above a flux of about 30 scf/hr-ft'.
l3elow this flux of 30, the rate of ad-
vance drops off rapidly with a de-
crease in flux. The most efficient flux
is indicated by the point of tangency
at 20 scf/hr-ft' of a line through the
origin. It is of interest that these
more precise data substantiate the
data obtained in the shorter time in-
tervals during the exploratory work.
The effect of pressure on the rate of
advance appears to be small. It is
also indicated that an increase in
water saturation at low levels in-
creases the rate of advance.
Fig. 6 shows the linear relation-
ship between the rate at which oxy-
gen is consumed and the rate of ad-
vance of the combustion front. The
oxygen converted to carbon oxides
was obtained from gas analysis data.
The total oxygen consumed was cal-
culated as the difference between the
oxygen supplied and the free oxygen
produced. It has been assumed that
the oxygen not appearing in any
form in the produced gases was re-
acted to form water or oxygenated
products, such as organic acids and
alcohols. The presence of oxygenated
compounds in the produced water
was indicated hy its color, odor, and
low pH.
COMBUSTION EFFICIENCY
The percentage of the injected
oxygen which is consumed in pass-
ing through the front is a measure
of the efficiency of the combustion
process. This percentage is calculated
by dividing the rate at which oxygen
is consumed by the rate of oxygen
injection. Fig. 7 shows the percentage
consumed as a function of the in-
3l
jected air flux during the runs with
21.2 API crude. The combustion
temperature for these runs ranged
from 650 to 850F with the average
temperature about 800F. This curve
shows that the combustion efficiency
increases as the flux is decreased for
temperatures greater than 650F.
As seen in Fig. 7, the combustion
efficiencies for the 80 psig runs were
, , less than the efficiency for the 600
DISUNCE flfOliI TO!" OF PIleI(
psig run at the same air flux. This
FIG. 3-TEMPERATURE PROFIl.ES.
RUN No. 1. . effect of pressure is due to decreased
residence time and the kinetics of
combustion. The effect of pressure
on the kinetics of combustion be-
comes even more important when
combustion efficiencies are lower.
The difference in efficiencies ob-
served between the two 80 psig runs
is attributed to water saturation.
MINIMUM RATE OF SELF-
SUSTAINED COMBUSTION
To maintain isothermal combus-
FIG. 4-ADVANCE OF HIGH TEMPERATCRE tion in any situation, heat must be
ZONES, RUN No. 1. liberated by combustion at a rate
equal to the net rate of heat loss to
" the surroundings. The data obtained
. /' '"
in this investigation indicate that it
is not possible to maintain stabilized.
, /' self-sustained combustion in sand
packs by burning residual material at
./"
/ temperatures less than about 600 P 0
due to the kinetics of combustion.
L - Therefore, it is concluded that the
'-7 .lUUII
CRUD
aa'''1
~.'.
2:1.2..... '
minimum rate of self-sustained com-
bustion for unconsolidated sand pack;,
" m ~ ~ ~ ,~
'" '" is that required to replace heat losses
FIG. 5-EFFECT OF INJECTED AIR FLliX that occur at about 600F.
ON THE RATE OF ADVA!"CE.
The minimum air flux in any given
situation is that required to provide
the minimum rate of self-sustained
~
!
. combustion. The minimum rate of
advance of a self-sustained combus-
tion front in any given situation is
that resulting when air is supplied
at the minimum flux.
,
o 'r--,~~~~--+-~ le<l'U_",OCU_O",,,,'
CIIVOE til"""
MINIMUM AIR FLUX
10
No self-sustained combustion front
OnlUI CONIUII[O. IC"t/II._".Z
was observed at air rates less than 9.0
FIG. 6-EFFECT OF OXYGEN CONSUMED ON
THE RAn OF ADVANCE OF THE COM-
scf/hr-ft'. During Run 8, the air flux
BUSTION FRONT. was deliberately reduced from 10 to
4.0 scf/hr-ft'. The temperature of
the combustion zone declined stead-
..
~
........ l-UellD
ily from 625 to 400F, and the con-
~ , -~ '0""
centration of carbon oxides in the
~""De: IL~'~
~ i'--.. exit gases declined from 12.6 to 0.3
per cent in 12 hours. It was apparent
"-
, ~ that the flux of 4 scf/hr-ft' was less
than that required for self-sustained
, I~ combustion.
I Combustion was re-established and
I
,, 40 50 80
maintained by adding a small amount
INJECTED ",It FLU~ , Ie' f 1"'1"2
of heat to the zone from the wall
FIG. 7-EFFECT OF bJECTED AIR Fl.!;X
ON OXYGEN CONSUMED AS PERCENTAGE
heaters. On raising the exit flux to
OF OXYGf.N INJECTF.O. 10.4 scf/hr-ft'. combustion was ob-
VOL 2l3. 1958
served to be self-sustained at about
625F.
An estimate of the minimum air
flux required to support combustion
in unconsolidated sand was calcu-
lated from experimental temperature
gradients by assuming (l) that 100
per cent combustion efficiency was
obtained, (2) that the controlling
heat loss from the combustion zone
was to the cooler sand just ahead,
(3) that convective heat transfer was
negligible, and (4) that the steady-
state law of conduction would de-
scribe the heat loss under conditions
of constant advance, temperature,
and flux. The minimum flux so cal-
culated was 4.0 scf/hr-ft'. A value
between 4 and 10 scf/hr-ft' is be-
lieved to be satisfactory for engineer-
ing calculations involving the heavier
crude oils in unconsolidated reser-
voirs.
MINIMUM RATES OF ADVANCE
Experimental rates of advance as
low as 0.7 ft/day with exit gas rates
of 9 to 10 scf/hr-ft' are listed in Table
2. It is probable that even lower self-
sustained rates could have been dem-
onstrated with the improved ap-
paratus. The combustion zone pro-
gresses through an oil sand by burn-
ing the residual material from the
sand grains. The rate of advance of
a combustion front is therefore in-
versely proportional to the amount
of residual material laid down by
the crude if the air flux and the rate
of combustion remain constant. The
minimum rate of advance is fixed by
the amount of residual fuel that must
be removed at the minimum air flux.
Calculations show that roughly 0.6
Ib of residuum must be burned to
raise the temperature of 100 Ib of
sand from 75 to 600F in the ab-
sence of heat losses. Under these
conditions, a minimum air flux of
4.0 scf/hr-ft' is sufficient to produce
a rate of advance of about 1.0 ft/day
in unconsolidated sand. This rate
~o 60 90
IHJECTEElilIRFlUX,$CF/HR-FT2
FIG. 8-EFFECT OF INJECTED
ON THE AIR REQUIRED PER CUBIC FOOT
OF SAND CLEANED.
scf/hr-ft'. The increase in air re-
quired as the flux was increased from
30 was due to the decreased effi-
ciency shown in Fig. i. The sharp
increase in air requirements at low
fluxes is supported by the data ob-
tained in the exploratory runs. The
data point representing data taken at
SO psig is in agreement with the 600
psig data obtained at similar water
saturations. An increase in water
saturation from 9 to 20 per cent de-
creased the air requirement for
the SO psig runs from 245 to 219
scUft".
During exploratory runs, the exit
gas produced per unit volume of
sand pack intervals cleaned was cal-
culated from the rate of advance
and exit flux data given in Table 2.
A plot similar to Fig. S resulted in
scattered data points, but a minimum
value of about 150 scf of exit gas per
cubic foot of sand pack cleaned was
observed at a flux of 20 scf/hr-ff.
When residual material is not pres-
ent in sufficient quantity to insure a
high combustion temperature (about
SOO to 1,OOOF), the kinetics of
combustion will prevent the oxygen
in air supplied at high rates from
being entirely consumed as it passes
through the front. This excess air is
not used efficiently, although benefit
is gained from movement of heat
by convection. A scattering of air re-
quirement data was obtained during
the experiments with 2S.9 API
crude oil in early runs at high rates.
Calculations assuming no heat loss
and a heat of combustion of 500
Btu/scf of oxygen burned indicate
that the theoretical minimum amount
of air required to clean a cubic foot
of unconsolidated sand by combus-
tion at 750F is about 135 scf/ft'.
Calculations also show that the theo-
100
retical minimum amount of air or
AIR FLUX other gas required to move a heat
wave by convection alone is about
10 scf/lb of sand or about 1,050
scf/ft' of sand pack cleaned.
GAS-OIL RATIOS
The ratios of air injected to oil
produced ranged from 4,000 to 37,-
000 scf/bbl under conditions of sta-
bilized combustion during the ex-
ploratory experiments. Fig. 9 shows
the instantaneous and cumulative
gas-oil ratio vs the percentage of
pack cleaned for Run 13 of the con-
stant flux experiments. The instan-
taneous GOR averaged 5,000 scf/bbl
during the period of stabilized com-
bustion. The cumulative GOR for
Run 13 was a minimum of 6,500
scf/bbl when the front had cleaned
76 per cent of the pack and was
7,200 scf/bbl when the instantaneous
GOR reached 20,000 scf/bbl.
Data from other runs show that
the time required for initial oil pro-
duction decreases as the initial oil
saturation increases. With very high
initial saturations, the instantaneous
GOR starts at a lower value and in-
creases with time. The air required
and oil burned per cubic foot of
sand cleaned does not change appre-
ciably with oil saturation. Thus, an
increase in initial oil saturation de-
creases the GOR's in tube runs, but
the instantaneous GOR is less sensi-
tive to initial oil saturation than the
cumulative. Both are important be-
cause they give an indication of the
I
1
00
I
~_---l_ I
i
I 1

would be the theoretical maximum The average fuel consumption was 00-'-

self-sustained rate of advance for a only 0.2 lb of carbon per 100 Ib of ~-T-+=-1 I
minimum air flux of 4 scf/hr-ft.'
However, experimental data indicate
sand. Air requirements as high as
1,300 scf/ft" of sand cleaned were
"I-
~2C,O
: \
I I

I!
i ,._- -

~*-
/ '
that heat losses are minimized at a obtained at a flux of 255 scf/hr-fl'. I
rate of advance of 2 ft/day. For this At a flux of 200 scf/hr-ft', the aver- ool----~
\ I : ! I il
\! -~
i
I
case, it would thus be necessary to age air requirement for this crude !

'"
T ,
t----t I
supply air at a flux of S scf/hr-ft' to was about 1,000 scf/ft' of sand. This i :
insure self-sustained combustion. is enough air to move the combustion " 1-:" I

i
NCUWUL"T,VE ( Ir-
zone at a rate of about 5 ft/day by 1
AIR REQUIREMENTS convection alone if radial heat losses 00
hi 1 / r\J
Fig. S is a plot of the air required
per cubic foot of sand cleaned as a
were eliminated. The same air rate
would be used efficiently with a low
I

1
,I;sf.N'UNE::r1I
RUN I!
~U5SC"/HIInl
PACKPRUS"lonIQ
s,.-SlJ'4
cwO[ 2IZ',t,PI
0
function of the injected air flux. This gravity crude oil, and a much faster "
.,., OF P,t,CK
~
~ENGfli Cl-UNEO

curve shows a minimum air re- rate of advance and lower air re- FIG. 9-PLOT OF PnODUCED GOR vs PEl<
quirement of about 240 scf/ft' of quirement per unit of sand cleaned (:""T OF PACK LENGTH (I.EANED.
sand cleaned at a flux of about 20 would he ohserved. Rr:N No, 1.1.

PETROI.EUM TRANSAf:TIONS. ,\IMF

cost of oil displaced by combustion.
Data in Table 4 show how cumula-
tive and average instantaneous gas-
oil ratios varied with air flux.
OIL PRODUCED
Oil recoveries for the constant flux
experiments ranged from 86.6 to
92.2 per cent of that in place at ig-
nition. The gravity of the produced
oil increased gradually during the
latter stages of all runs, because
heavy components were used for fuel
and lighter hydrocarbons were pro-
duced by cracking and distillation.
As the combustion front approached
the end of the tube, a light oil or
distillate was produced. Presumably,
a condensate zone forms ahead of
the combustion front.
FUEL REQUIREMENTS
Tables 3 and 4 present data con-
cerning the residual material used as
fuel during runs with 21.2 API
crude oil. Although the data vary
slightly from run to run, an average
value of approximately 1.17 Ib of
carbon per 100 lb of sand cleaned
was observed. Table 2 gives explora-
tory dnta on oxygen converted to
carhon oxides. Plots of these data in-
dicate some effect of air flux on fuel
requirements. The constnnt flux runs
show these trends to a lesser degree.
Although rationalizations can be
made to explain the inflections ob-
served, no definite conclusions seem
justified at this time.
The effect of injected air flux on
the amount of 21.2 API oil burned
was slight and may be deduced from
the data in Tables 3 and 4. The
amount of crude consumed as fuel
averaged 5.5 per cent of pore vol-
ume.
The carbon-hydrogen ratio of the
f~e! consumed was calculated by di-
VIdIng the total weight of carbon
burne~, as determined from gas
analysts, by the total weight of hy-
drogen burned, as determined from
the combustion water produced. The
data show that the carbon-hydrogen
ratio increases with combustion tem-
perature and air flux.
SA TURA nON DISTRIBUTIONS
Exploratory Run 12 was inter-
rupted when the combustion zone
had progressed about 1 ft into the
sand pack (about 30 per cent of
pack length) in order to obtain data
on the distribution of crude oil.
residual material, and water near
the combustion zone. The pack was
allowed to cool under pressure.
,lowly depressLJred. and then sam-
pled throughout its length by digging
out the sand.
The sand samples were analyzed
for oil and water content by the Bu-
reau of Mines method.' Samples of
the extracted sand were ignited to de-
termine the amount of insoluble
residue or coke present. These data
are shown in Fig. 10. The data from
other interrupted runs resulted in
similar shaped curves with about the
same amount of residual material
and water but with differin o oil satu-
rations. <0
Inspection of Fig. 10 shows that
the oil saturation (based on a 21.2
API gravity) increased rapidly to 32
per cent in the 8-in. interval ahead
of the burning zone, appeared to
level out in the interval of increasing
water saturation, and then increased
rapidly to about 50 per cent of pore
space at the end of the pack. Water
saturation was detected about 6 in.
from the burning zone and increased
:apidly to a?out 16 per cent, approx-
Imately 14 tn. ahead of the zone. It
is of interest that the maximum coke
content of the sand by analysis
checks the run average amount of
carbon burned as indicated by the
Orsat data during this experiment;
thus. the coked zone contributes
most of the heat liberated by com-
hustion.
Fig. 10 also shows a longitudinal
temperature profile of the pack at
the time the run was terminated. The
maximum concentration of coke or
residual material was observed at a
point which had reached a temper-
ature of about 700F. Water satura-
tion began where the temperature of
the sand had never exceeded the boil-
ing temperature of water. There was
a leveling out of the temperature
. or------.--.,.---.,.----,---~---60
1000 5.0
RUN No.
MeK
I!
CRUOE-21.ZAPI
.OE_-
AIR FLUX - 21.!5SCF/HR.n-2
0
z
<)\
900
.d
Z
4.0
.;
~ 600
-'
!! 3.0
, 1"-
~
400 ~2.0
8
;'-
200
>'
~ 1.0
O~.:,--~>Oo-,.g,.~I~.-..--"~2~.0---2~.O---13.0--...J3.-'....l.-J
FIG. lO-COKE. ,oIL A;'iD WATER DISTRIBUTIO;'i' AND CORRESPONDIN(;
1 EMPERATURE
profile where water saturation in-
creased which reflects the effects of
vaporization and condensation of
water being driven down the tube.
DISCUSSION
MECHANISM OF IN SITe
COMBUSTION
The events which occur as a high
temperature combustion front ap-
proaches a given point in porous me-
dia containing oil and water are as
follows. The temperature increase,
gradually until the condensation and
vaporization point of water is reached.
G
The water vapor in the sweep gas
condenses, and a residual water satu-
ration is maintained by liquid flow.
The residual water then begins to
vaporize and is moved away by the
sweep gas at a rate corresponding to
the rate at which heat is being trans-
ferred from the combustion zone.
Some oil is moved out by distillation
and the increased gas flow resulting
from the vaporization of water. Whe~
all the water has been vaporized.
the temperature at the point in-
creases. During this time, the vis-
cosity of the oil in place decreases.
~nd the volumes of oil and gas are
Illcreased by thermal expansion.
These effects result in additional flow
of liquid oil from the point. In addi-
tion to liquid flow, vaporization of
oil will occur as component vapor
pressures exceed the prevailing pres-
sure. When temperatures approach
600F, most of the original oil satu-
ration will have been moved away
from the point. The residual material
begins to crack, forming lighter hy-
drocarbons and coke. Combustion
will be occurring at rates controlled
by process variables. If the combus-
10 PSIO
---+--
I
50 ~
i
I
..f
u;
0
I
"-
I 40 0
...
~
I", ~
I" 30~
;
1 <)\
1
,e; ::i
2O~
.
~
-'
15
..
10 -'
:>
0
::
"
DISTANCE FROM TOP OF PACK FT
PROFILE. Ru;'i No. 12.
tion zone temperature IS less than more rapidly than heat can be moved teristics and distributions of fluids
nOOop, considerable hydrogen will by the combined processes of con- and solids in combustion zones are
be burned. The resulting water va- duction through the solid matrix and important and are amenable to lab-
por is carried by the sweep gas until convective heat transfer by gases oratory investigation.
it condenses ahead of the zone. As flowing at similar rates. In addition It is apparent that the minimum
temperatures increase from 600 o P. to being faster, the use of in situ rate of advance of a combustion
the residual material has more of an combustion energy results in substan- front is related to the amount of
opportunity to crack before it is tial savings in the amount of air re- residual material on the sand grains.
burned. Under these conditions more quired to advance the front through For a given minimum air flux, mini-
hydrogen wiII be recovered in the a unit of reservoir space. With rapid mum rates of advance decrease as
produced hydrocarbons, and the ratio rates of advance, the exploratory data the amount of residual material in-
of carbon to hydrogen consumed as and calculations indicate that an ad- creases. In view of the many variables
fuel wiII be increased. vance by burning only requires about affecting minimum rates of advance,
Liquids are moved away from an :20 per cent of the gas injection re- they may be defined as those rates
advancing combustion front in part quired to advance a heat wave by which result when air is supplied at
by vaporization and in part by flow. convection from the sweep gas. We the minimum flux required for sus-
Vaporization occurs at a rate cor- do not wish to im~ly, however, that tained combustion.
responding to the rate of heat trans- the latter technique is without ad-
fer from the zone to the liquids. If MINIMUM AIR RATES
vantage. since recycle of produced
the heat transferred from a combus- combustion gas can often he accom- The instantaneous heat loss from
tion zone causes excessive vaporiza- plished with a minimum of compres- the zone and the ratio of residual
tion, liquid saturations will build up ,ion costs. fuel to rock solids are the important
in cooler portions of the porous ma- There may be a fairly narrow variables relative to the definition of
trix and gas permeability blocks will range of crude oil types which will a minimum air rate. Preheat will
develop. These blocks can reduce the provide the optimum amount of car- tend to reduce the heat loss from a
air flux to levels below that required bon or residual material for propa- burning zone, thereby reducing the
for self-sustained combustion. Per- "at ion of an in situ combustion wave. amount of residual material and air
meability blocks were a technical dif- The methods proposed by Sinclair required to propagate and maintain
ficulty often encountered following appear to be applicable to light the zone at combustion temperatures.
the ignition of crude oils in tube runs crudes." These methods involve in- At low rates of trontal advance. the
and may be important during field jecting fuel gas and/or reducing the amount of preheat exnerienced by
applications of the process:' oxygen content of injected gas so a combustion zone could conceivably
The most striking feature of the that the rate of advance of the com- increase with distance traveled from
,aturation distributions and the tem- bustion zone is the same as the rate the place of ignition. It should also
perature profile shown in Pig. 10 is of movement of heat by convection. increase with pressure because of
the short length of the combustion the higher vaporization temperature
If, on the other hand, one burns of water ahead of the zone. There-
zone and the resulting high tem-
verv heavy crude oils, excess heat fore, minimum air fluxes and residual
perature gradient at the advancing
is developed in the combustion zone material requirements may be lower
front. The transition from hot. because of the relatively large amount
cleaned sand to relatively cool sand in petroleum reservoirs than they are
of residue laid down by these crudes. in laboratory experiments. Ideally.
containing oil and water occurred This excess heat is of no apparent
over a distance of approximately 1 this point has significance over a
value to the process, yet the front relatively short but critical portion
ft. At low rates of advance, the cannot be advanced without consum-
amount of preheat received by the of a conventional five-spot pattern.
ing the residue. This requires large i.e., the area out to about halfway
porous matrix prior to the arrival of quantities of additional air. With very
the combustion zone should increase between injection and production
heavy crudes, it may develop that weIls. It is encouraging to note that
with distance traversed by the front. the air required per unit of sand
This should result in a decrease in the effects expected in the field are
cleaned wiII make the process unat- in the proper direction for a work-
the residual material and air flux re- tractive and means of reducing the
quired for sustained combustion." able process.
air requirements will have to be de-
The effects of preheat would appear veloped. An estimate of the minimum air
to be small at rapid rates of ad- flux required for sustained combus-
For a given crude oiL the rate of
vance. It seems logical also that tion was obtained by heat transfer
advance of a combustion front ap-
losses to over and underburden will calculations and substantiated by ex-
pears to be directly proportional to
be minimized in many field applica perimentation. The indicated mini-
the rate of formation of carbon ox-
tions 'because of the relatively rapid mum flux of 4.0 scf/hr-ft2 is applica-
ides and the rate of total oxygen con-
velocities of advancing in situ com- ble to unconsolidated sand packs
version. But the relationship between
bustion zones as compared with the only. Tube runs with consolidated
the rate of advance and the air flux
rate of heat loss by thermal conduc- media wiII require a higher air flux
is influenced by many inter-related
tion. to compensate for higher thermal
variables, such as the combustion ef-
conductivity of the rock. Under field
ADVANCE OF COMBUSTION ficiency and the amount of residual
conditions, the minimum air flux
FRONTS material burned per unit of sand
will depend largely upon reservoir
The propagation of a high energy cleaned. The length of the combus-
properties and the prevailing thermal
combustion zone through an oil res- tion zone, the pressure and temper-
gradients.
ervoir is the most rapid method of ature, the reactivity of the residuum,
thermal recovery. Experimental and and the air flux affect combustion TOTAL AIR REQUIREMENTS
theoretical data show conclusively efficiencies. The effect of process Two extreme modes of operation
that such a combustion zone moves variables on the combustion charac- exist for in situ combustion. i.e . heat

P F: T R (I J. E ,," TII\ N ~ .\ C T , f) N ~. \ ' \1 F 31

propagation with combustion con-
trolling at low fluxes and heat propa-
gation with convection controlling at
high fluxes. It is possible to operate
under self-sustaining conditions at
either extreme, but the total air or
gas requirements per unit of sand
cleaned will be different.
The total air requirements with
combustion controlling are affected
by the characteristics of the crude
oil, the porous matrix, and the com-
bustion efficiency. A figure in the
order of 250 scf/ft' of unconsoli-
dated sand seems appropriate for de-
sign and evaluation calculations.
FUEL REQUIREMENTS
The propagation of a heat wave
through a petroleum reservoir re-
quires an amount of fuel which is
largely fixed by the heat capacity of
the porous matrix, the heat trans-
ferred with the zone, and the heat
losses from the zone as it moves be-
tween wells. A reservoir having a
low oil saturation, if subjected to a
combustion drive, would most cer-
tainly yield less oil than one having
a higher initial saturation of the same
crude oil.
Tube runs do not necessarily give
an absolute measure of the amount
of oil which might be consumed in
a field application of the process.
Analog data reported by Vogel and
Krueger' indicate that fuel require-
ments are affected by numerous var-
iables, induding the rate of advance
and the distance the front has pro-
gressed away from the place of igni-
tion (preheat). The work reported
here did not include enough long-
term data to evaluate the effect of
distance moved in sand-packed tubes.
Data on oil burned may be found
in Table 3. It should be noted that
the data expressed in per cent of
porosity cleaned are representative
of the sand packs used in these ex-
periments. The effect of porosity on
the amount of oil burned was not de-
termined, but the heat capacity and
thermal conductivity of the gross
matrix will be inversely proportional
to porosity; thus, more oil will be re-
quired to heat a unit of low porosity
sand than will be required for a unit
of high porosity sand. The oil con-
sumed, expressed in per cent of po-
rosity, will be increased as the po-
rosity is decreased by two effects:
( 1) more oil is required for fuel and
(2) the oil burned will occupy a
correspondingly larger portion of the
available space. Low porosities will
therefore limit the applicability of
the process.
CONCLUDING REMARKS
This study should promote a better
understanding of the problems and
mechanisms involved in laboratory
investigations and field applications
of the in situ combustion process.
The data presented will be useful in
the planning, operation, and inter-
pretation of field tests. These data,
tempered with volumetric sweep effi-
ciencies, can be used as a guide in
making preliminary economic and
technical appraisals of the process
for reservoirs containing high poro-
sity unconsolidated media; however,
indiscriminate application can lead to
erroneous results and conclusions.
Estimation procedures based on the
application of laboratory data to field
conditions will be subject to con-
siderable uncertainty until several
large-scale field projects have heen
completed and evaluated.
The results of this work and the
following conclusions apply strictly
to the experimental conditions under
which the data were obtained.
CONCLUSIONS
I. The minimum rate of stabilized,
sdf-sustained in situ combustion of
residual material in unconsolidated
sand packs during air injection is
that required to maintain a tempera-
0
ture level of about 600 F.
2. The minimum air flux which
must be maintained to provide this
minimum rate of self-sustained in situ
combustion is about 4 scf/hr-ft' for
adiabatic experiments with uncon-
solidated sand.
3. An in situ combustion zone ad-
vances through a sand pack by burn-
ing residual material; thus, with high
combustion efficiencies, the rate of
advance of a combustion zone is
nearly proportional to the rate at
which air is supplied to the zone
and inversely proportional to the
amount of residual material de-
posited.
4. The minimum self-sustained
rate of advance, in a given situation,
is that resulting when air is supplied
at the minimum flux. The minimum
rate of advance of an in situ combus-
tion front in semiadiabatic, sand-
packed tubes is 0.7 ft/day or less,
depending on the properties and
quantity of the residual material.
5. Total air requirements are de-
pendent on the rate at which air is
supplied to the front. A minimum
air requirement is indicated at an air
flux of 20 scf/hr-ft' in unconsolidated
sand packs containing a specific 21.2 c
i\ PI crude.
6. In situ combustion experiments
in unconsolidated sand packs con-
0
taining a specific 21.2 API crude
can be maintained satisfactorily at
air fluxes above the minimum with
a fuel consumption of about 1.2 lb
of carbon per 100 Ib of sand cleaned.
which corresponds to about 5.5 per
cent of pore volume.
7. The amount of hydrogen asso-
ciated with the carbon burned during
in situ combustion decreases as the
combustion temperature and air flux
at the front are increased.
8. It is indicated that the effect of
pressure on in situ combustion is
small for conditions where high com-
bustion efficiencies exist and the
kinetics of combustion are not con-
trolling.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors wish to express their
appreciation to the management of
Continental Oil Co. for permission
to publish this paper. The authors
also wish to thank all those who as-
sisted in the collection of data and
helped with the solution of special
problems related to this work.
RF:FERENCES
1. Howard, F. A.: "IIIethod of Operat.
ing Oil Well," U. S. Patent 1,473,348.
to Standard Development Co. (Noy.
0, 192.3).
2. Sheinman, A. B., Dubrovai, K. K ..
Sorokin, N. A., Charvigin, 1\1. IlL
Zaks, S. L., and Zinchenko, K. F.:
"Gasification of Crude Oil in Reser
yoir Sands - Part I," Pet. Engr.
(Dee., 1938), 10, 27; Part II, Ibid.
(Feb., 1939), 91, 94. 96, 98, and 100.
:1. Gibbon, Anthony: "Thermal Princi-
ple Applied to Secondary Oil Reeoy
ery," The Oil Weekly (Nov. 6, 1944).
115, 170, 172.
4. Grant, B. F., and Szasz, S. E.: "1),--
velopment of an Underground Heat
Wave for Oil Recovery," Tran".
AIME (1954),201, 108.
e;. Kuhn, C. S., and Koch, R. L.: "In-
Situ Combustion-Newest Method of
Increasing Oil Recovery," Oil and
Gas Jour. (Aug. 10, 1953), 52, 92.
113, 114.
h. Koch, R. L., Gleason, J. F., Jr., anJ
Boston, W. G.: "In-Situ Combustion
Field Tested Again," Oil and Gas
Jour. (Dec. 6, 1954), 53, 102.
7 Walter, H.: "Application of Heat
for Recovery of Oil: Field Test Re-
sults and Possibility of Profitable Op
erations," Jour. Pet. Tech. (Feb ..
1957) IX, No.2, 16.
fl. Rall, C. G .. and Taliaferro, D. B.: "A
Method for Determining Simultane-
ouslv the Oil and Water Saturation,
of Oil Sand,," RI 4004 USBM (1946) .
9. Vogel, 1. c., and Krueger, R. F.:
"An Analog Computer for Studyin
Heat Transfer during a Thermal Re-
covery Process," Trans. AIME (1955)
204, 208.
10. Smith. Robert L.. and Watson, Ken-
neth lVI.: "Oil Recovery Process," e.
S. Patent 2.fi42.94:l Oun" 2:l. 1953)
***
\' (, I. < 2 1 :~. It);; H