1) What is the importance of having a reasonably accurate demographic analysis of pre-Columbian

populations?
2) What are the two main theories of the origin of American Indians in North America?
3) What was life like in the Mayan Empire?
4) What was Hopewell culture?
5) Compare Spanish, French, and English patterns of contact with Native Americans: How did different
goals and types of colonization affect the success or failure of relations with Native groups? How did Native
responses to European activities affect the direction that colonies took?

In the history of the aboriginal people of North America, the written records being discussed
thus far, seem to come mostly from European sources. I admit my ignorance regarding whether the
indigenous people in North America had a system of writing or carried written records. I feel the
importance of attaining reasonable demographics regarding the pre-Columbian populations can be
expressed in many ways, yet I will attempt to address only two.
The first scenario I began to ponder was the attitude regarding sentiments toward ancestral
relationships. Analysis of historical evidence generates a perspective that can reveal the interactions
between cultures versus the sentimentality that can warp the lens of accounts that may or may not
have transpired. The importance of collecting accurate demographics of pre-Columbian populations
can reveal connections in terms of bioregionalism in the American indigenous populations which
today are still important to our species via resource acquisition and intraspecific competitions
between people of various cultures.
The other thought I had regarding the importance of collecting accurate demographics relates
to the modern field of study known as epidemiology.
This focus of health science is as pertinent as ever as humankind advances from isolated
bioregions to interconnected globalization. The transmission of viruses, invasive flora and fauna, and
the historical records of the past give plenty of information regarding the potential hazards of these
cultural interactions. For instance, in the documentary We shall remain, it is told that the native
peoples who were decimated by disease, were not becoming more resistant after the first wave of
disease took its victims. Instead, the first wave was almost as equally lethal as the following
contacts. This type of pandemic took casualties not unlike what is being seen in Liberia with the
Ebola virus today. Without vaccines or medicines to treat certain modern viruses, people today are
just as susceptible to epidemics. Generating data in terms of the New World epidemics and the
introduction of foreign pests can give more perspective on how that interaction expresses itself over
time.

Theories regarding the origin of American Indians in North America

By land or by Sea...The Bering Strait theory is a long standing theory on the origins of people
in the Americas. This theory has fairly solid evidence suggesting that Asian people traversed a land
bridge that connected North American continent to modern day Russia. Then from the Archaic period
of 8,000-1,000 B.C. , these people moved further south.
The other popular theory that has been held, is that of the Native people themselves. I choose
to avoid the other major scientific theory (maritime) because it is as contested as the one I have
already listed. The Native people had as many theories regarding their origins as modern scientists
speculate. However, many tribes held the position that their people had always been there. The
ideas of scientific investigation and archeology continuously challenge ethical grounds by asserting
that the need to prove something supersedes the preservation of cultural lore and idigenous
tradition. As an example I quote the following from our class textbook:
The late Dakota writer and scholar Vine Deloria Jr. took a more militant position. He dismissed the
idea that Indians came to America via the Bering Strait as something that 'exists and existed only in
the minds of scientists,' and asserted that 'immense political implications' make it difficult for people
to let go of this theory. (page 19)
This Western mindset is embedded in scientific attitudes today and can even be traced to early
colonial attitudes in Post-Columbian history.

European thinking is very material oriented and often presumes that humans are able to
objectify and control nature. The Mayan Empire for instance centralized upon the premise of time
and eras. The material wealth they accumulated in terms of gold and precious metals were part of a
spiritual tradition. The Spanish lust for gold had long departed from this type of thinking in Europe.
Gold, being a rather flimsy and useless metal was scare and required time to gather.

Ironically, the Native population along the Hudson had the Wampum. When Europeans
introduced metal drills, depreciated in value. By technological advancement, the Wampum
depreciated in both economic and spiritual value. Not unlike the European gold lust, the indigenous
people had seperated their time dependence and relationship with the natural world, into a more
Western practicality.
The Hopewellian culture seems to have celebrated some form of trade and mutual exchange
of various tribal cultures. This system allowed forms of material barter and probably even skill sets
from all over the North American continent. It still seems to have a lot of mystery to it. Prior to
signing up for this course, I had some interest in the work of A. Martin Byers and his theories
regarding the mound buildings and relationships during this period.
While the Spanish had lust and a desire to usurp both people and places, the French took a
similar yet alternative approach to meet the same goals. The French decided to assimilate Indian
culture and explore mutually beneficial living arrangements. They established trade (pelts) and even
made large commitments to learning the languages and customs of the native people. The English
had met the challenges of coexistence by assuming another pivotal role which was well played out
by Edward Winslow. In the documentary, We Shall Remain, we here that Winslow had become in
essence the Outer Chief of the native population, by becoming the intermediary between settlers
and locals.
Ultimately, the Europeans demonstrated the same behavior which was becoming apparent to
most tribal communities. A disposition towards domination of the lands and the homogenization of
the people of those lands via force. At many times, the Natives would attempt to uphold what they
felt was fair or establish their terms, but almost always the colonists responded with irreverence or
contempt. After the colonies were established and strengthened by indigenous support, the European
attitude required cultural assimilation by the Indians.