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Vacuum measurements
N.B. 2) is performed by means of pressure measurements (1), at two ends of a tube with a known
conductivity.
I=G p1 -p2 =S1p1 -S2p 2
There is no universal gauge that can measure from atmosphere to UHV pressure a (dynamic range of
1015). The instrument chosen depends on the pressure range and the residual gases in the vacuum.
Mechanical gauges in which solid or liquid diaphragm is moved by the gas molecules hitting it, give
absolute pressure measurement unaffected by gas properties Unfortunately they are ineffective below
10-5 Torr.
Gauges which measures some bulk gas property, such as heat conduction or viscosity, are dependent on
gas composition and are effective over limited pressure range below approximately 100 Tr and above
10-4 Tr. Gauges for high vacuum and ultra high vacuum are generally based on charge collection, that
is the residual gas molecules are ionised, and the resulting current measured. Although such gauges will
ionise vapours as well as permanent gases, their response depends on parameters other than ionisation
potential, making accurate total pressure measurement difficult in a gas mixture.
3.1.1 Barometers
1) Toricelli vacuum meter
3) Shortened barometer.
4) Mechanical membrane gauge.
insert figure:
Operation principles:
Bring the Hg level in the compression capillary 1 to y-y. The Hg level in the reference capillary 2,
identical to 1, will be higher, at the line z-z. Equilibrium condition: p 2=H+p1 in [Tr] units, where H is
the difference between the Hg levels in 1 and 2. The compression ratio, k=V 1/V2, is set by the ration of
the volume of the container 3 (V 1 , known and constant for a given gauge) to V 2=(/4)d2h.. In the
equilibrium conditions p1V1=p2V2, i.e.,
2
Vd h
p1 = 2
(H+p1 )= (H+p1 )=ch(H+p1 )
V1 4V1
chH
p1 =
1-ch
d 2
where c = is the gauge constant. Typically ch = 1 , and the measured pressure p1 chH
4V1
In the linear method (case a, see figure) we keep the level difference constant h=h0. Then:
ch 0
p1 = H c1H
1-ch 0
cH
p1 = H c2H 2
1-cH
We want the compression ration k to be as high as possible, therefore we want d to be as small as
possible, but there is an obvious limit to reducing d. The best realistic k 104-105, allowing for
measuring down to p 10-6 Torr.
N.B. This is an absolute pressure gauge - important for calibration of relative vacuum meters.
The gauge can operate either with mercury or with vacuum oil. There is a problem of contamination by
the measuring agent and false effect due to the pumping by liquid. N2 traps located at the system input.
Insert figure
The constant depends on the type of the gas through the accommodation coefficient (depending also on
the state of the surface). The coefficient accounts for thermal energy transfer - non-perfect scattering.
A particle scattered from the surface at temperature T does not fully accommodates the speed
corresponding to that temperature.
For heavy molecules 1.
For light molecules 0.3 -- 0.4 (dirty surface)
For light molecules 0.1 (for H2) -- 0.03 (for He) (clean surface)
Fig. 7c.
Gas molecules execute torque momentum on the measuring disk. The torque transfer efficiency
depends on the gas pressure. The pressure is measured by examining the torque applied on the upper
disk. In some gauges the discs are magnetically suspended.
Pressure range: 10-2 - 10-6 Torr
Heat conductivity of a gas depends on its pressure (through the number of molecules) The basic idea is
shown in Fig 7d:
Current carrying Pt or W wire (D) changes its resistance with changing temperature:
R T R 0 1 T
1 -3 1
Pt =310-3 , W =4.510
K K
If the current through the wire is kept constant then the voltage drop VI I 0 R T will be a measure of
the pressure. That is a constant current gauge. The opposite case: the voltage is maintained constant by
adjusting the bias current (which is a measure of the pressure). That is a constant resistor gauge.
Power delivered to the wire P I 20 R T I 0 VT is dissipated by:
1) gas
2) radiation
3) through the wire holders
For low-pressure 2) and 3) start to dominate and set the measurements limit.
3.1.4.1. Pirani
In a Pirani gauge two filaments, often platinum, are used as resistance in to arms of a Wheatstone
bridge. The reference filament is immersed in a fixed gas pressure, while the measurement filament is
exposed to the system gas. The current through the bridge heats both filaments. As in T/C gauge, gas
molecules conduct heat away from the immersed filament and unbalance the bridge. Pirani gauges have
roughly the same pressure measurement range as T/C gauge and are used in identical application, but
generally provide faster response.
For pressures lower then 10-3 Tr all measurement are based on ionising gas molecules and measuring
the ion current. Ionisation is achieved by
radiation ( particle)
accelerated electrons
cold glow discharge
N.B. Sensitivity depends on the type of gas through deferent ionisation efficiency No. of ions created
by 1 electron along the path of 1 cm at the pressure of 1 Tr.
B-A heads are available in naked and dressed version, see Fig 7f,g
VA 100 - 150 Volts
Vc -25 - -75 Volts
Ie 10 A - 10 mA
Gage constant k (Tr-1)
I ion 1
k= , p= I ion =sI ion
Ie p kI e
typically k 10 - 30 Tr-1 , therefore for for Ie 1 - 5 mA s 10 Tr/A.
N.B. The ion current in a B-A head is about an order of magnitude smaller then the pressure in Tr.
The B-A gauges lower pressure limit (10-9 Torr range) is caused by emission of the soft X-ray radiation
generated by primary electrons hitting the anode. X-ray photons reaching the ion collector electrode
release photoelectrons. The electron current due to photoemission is indistinguishable from the ion
current of the positive ions collected by the collector electrode. Below 10 -9 Torr the photoemission
current becomes a large enough fraction of the ion current to distort the pressure reading (for vacuum
10-12 Tr. we have to measure current of 10-13A!). Below 10-9 Tr the collector current is:
I c =kIe p+Ie =kI e p 1+
kp
where I e is the X-ray contribution. In order to have the measurement error < 10%: 0.1
kp
Therefore, the low pressure limit for the B-A head:
p min 10 , ~ 10-9Tr range.
k
Readhead gauge
B-A head with extended measuring range: Redhead gauge equipped with an additional thin wire
modulator electrode located within the anode, see Fig 7j.
The procedure consists of taking take two measurements with different potential VM of the modulator:
1) Set VM =VA and measure Ic
2) Set VM =Vc and measure Ic
Assuming that the X-ray contribution to both measurement is the same
E m itte r R
C o lle c to r
k
R M 0U
H
Solutions:
H = constant M0U = constant
R = constant M0U = constant
Insert graph:
Typical spectra for air at 10-9 Tr: Spectra of DC 704 vacuum oil vapour.
Insert graph
H2 2
H2O 18
CH4 16
N2+CO 28
O2 32
Ar 44
M0 R0
Resolution:
M 0 s1 s2
S1 and S2 are the apertures of the emitter and collector boxes. Observe that we cannot reduce s1 and s2
below certain limits because the overall sensitivity will decrease.
M0
Typically: 102
M 0
3.3.2. Omegatron
The principle is based on a cyclotron resonance of charged gas molecules
Insert picture
Electric field between electrodes P1-P2 =Ecos(t), electrons- flow from cathode K to anode A along
(x-x path.), Gas ions are created along x-x, and accelerated by the electric field, in the presence of
magnetic field. The cyclotron resonance frequency:
eH
c
m0
At the resonance condition ions move along opening spiral tracks and each the collector. The resolution
m0 M0 eH 2 R 0
m0 M 0 2 Em0
The Omegatron is a simple and a small device, e.g., 20x20x20 mm. Typical parameters:
M0
Ie ~ A, H ~ 3000 Oe, E ~ 10 V/cm, w for 2<M0 < 100 2.3 MHz to 43 kHz, ~ 10-20
M 0
Build around four rods through which the ionised gas particles are flowing. Between each pairs of rods
there is a voltage difference V0+Vcos(t).
Analysis is performed at = const and at changing V/V0 ratio.
Collector is reacted only by ions with a mass: M0~V/2
.3.5. Direct flight pulse spectrometer
Square shape accelerating pulse; all particles acquire the same energy but due to difference in mass
they have different time of arrival to the collector.
Measurement of collector signal in time. Big complicated but good resolution:
M0
>100
M 0
Leak detector = mass spectrometer tuned permanently to He + a pumping unit. (diffusion pump or TM
based). The pumping unit has precise tuning of the pumping speed (throttle valve) in order to provide
optimum measuring condition for various leaks.