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Epithelialmesenchymal The transforming growth factor- (TGF) superfamily invivo and innate genetic variation among individuals59.
transition of cytokines, which consists of TGFs, activins, inhibins, This makes the pathway a particular challenge for drug
(EMT). The transformation of Nodal, bone morphogenetic proteins (BMPs), anti- development. Nevertheless, over the past decade several
a keratin-expressing epithelial
Mllerian hormone (AMH; also known as Mllerian- drugs targeting the TGF signalling pathway have been
cell into one with fibroblastic
properties that express
inhibiting factor) as well as growth and differentiation developed by pharmaceutical companies and biotechnol-
mesenchymal markers. factors (GDFs), is conserved through evolution and ogy firms alike. Drug design strategies have been numer-
found in all multicellular organisms1. The TGFs perse ous and include the development of small-molecule
Extracellular matrix
are involved in many cellular processes, including growth inhibitors (SMIs) and monoclonal antibodies, as well
(ECM). Matrix that supports
connective tissue and is inhibition, cell migration, invasion, epithelialmesenchymal as the inhibition of gene expression; some drugs have
composed of proteoglycans, transition (EMT), extracellular matrix (ECM) remodelling reached PhaseIII clinical trials for a number of disease
hyaluronic acid and fibrillar and immune-suppression2. However, although normally applications, particularly fibrosis and oncology. There is
proteins secreted from the cell dynamically regulated and involved in maintenance of an increasing number of preclinical examples of TGF
and rich in bound growth factors.
tissue homeostasis, TGFs are often chronically over- inhibitors that are capable of reducing cancer progression
Fibrosis expressed in disease states, including cancer, fibrosis and and metastasis, and that augment existing cancer therapies
The excess accumulation of inflammation, and this excessive production of TGF (such as radiation therapy in breast cancer) while simul-
fibroblasts and associated
drives disease progression by modulating cell growth, taneously guarding against radiation-induced fibrosis10.
extracellular matrix.
migration or phenotype. The TGF signalling pathway has Additionally, there are novel reports of targeting TGF
therefore become a popular target for drug development. signalling in less prevalent indications, such as reduction
1
Helen Diller Family Knowledge about cellular activities gleaned from of vascular symptoms of Marfan syndrome (MFS)11,12.
Comprehensive Cancer
Center, University of
studying one disease is often applicable to others. For Although there have been many reviews on the pleio-
California at San Francisco, example, inhibition of TGF-induced EMT a process tropic action of TGF during tumorigenesis, which is
San Francisco, California that contributes to cancer progression is a goal not characterized by tumour-suppressing activity of TGF at
94158, USA. only of oncologists but also of cardiovascular surgeons to an early stage of cancer and tumour-promoting activity
2
Cardiovascular Research
prevent neointimal hyperplasia, and of nephrologists and at later stages1316, few focus specifically on drug targets,
Institute, University of
California at San Francisco, pneumologists in the treatment of fibrosis3. In addition, the drug classes and possible therapeutic applications beyond
San Francisco, California immune-modulatory activities of TGF have implications the oncology arena. The translation of anti-TGF thera-
94158, USA. in many diseases, including cancer, cardiovascular disease, pies has been pursued most intensively for oncology;
Correspondence to R.J.A. asthma, rheumatoid arthritis and multiple sclerosis4. however, this Review also discusses the potential of the
e-mail: RAkhurst@cc.ucsf.edu
doi:10.1038/nrd3810
TGF action is highly context-dependent and influ- TGF signalling pathway as a target for non-neoplastic
Published online enced by cell type, culture conditions, interaction with disease therapies and addresses the associated challenges
24 September 2012 other signalling pathways, developmental or disease stage in the development and application of these strategies.
Box 1 | Canonical signal transduction pathway of the TGF superfamily of growth factors
The basic framework of the canonical signal transduction pathways of three subfamilies of the transforming growth
factor- (TGF) superfamily TGFs, activins/inhibins/Nodal and bone morphogenetic proteins (BMPs) is highly
conserved. The ligand binds to a specific set of typeI and typeII receptors, which are both serine/threonine kinases,
followed by signal transduction by SMAD proteins31,205. Although each subfamily transmits the signal through a specific
signalling pathway, the interaction among the TGF, activins/inhibins/Nodal and BMP subfamilies is well recognized during
development and in postnatal homeostasis of various organs (BOX3). Upon ligand binding and resultant heterotetrameric
receptor complex formation, the constitutively active typeII receptor phosphorylates the typeI receptor, which in turn
propagates a signal by phosphorylating the receptor-specific SMADs (RSMADs)31,205. Unlike typeI and typeII receptors,
typeIII receptors do not possess kinase activity and are not required for signal transduction; however, they bind to specific
ligands and modulate the signalling pathway either positively or negatively31,205. Phosphorylation of RSMADs at two serine
residues within the extreme carboxyl terminus by typeI receptor kinase activity promotes association with the common
mediator SMAD (coSMAD), SMAD4, resulting in nuclear accumulation and sequence-specific binding to DNA in concert
with other DNA-binding transcription factors that bind distinct sequences adjacent to the SMAD-binding element (SBE)27,
and together these complexes modulate transcription. The inhibitory SMADs (ISMADs), SMAD6 and SMAD7, antagonize
RSMAD activation by competing with RSMADs for typeI receptor interaction and/or by recruiting specific ubiquitin
ligases or phosphatases to the activated receptor complex, thereby targeting it for proteasomal degradation or
dephosphorylation, respectively. SMAD7 inhibits signalling from all branches of the TGF superfamily, whereas SMAD6 is a
specific inhibitor of the BMP signalling pathway. The table indicates the basic molecules in the signal transduction pathway,
including three types of receptors and SMADs, for three subfamilies of the TGF superfamily of ligands: TGFs, activins/
inhibins/Nodal and BMPs.
Molecular TGF pathway* Activin/inhibin/Nodal BMP pathway*
category pathway*
Ligands TGF1, TGF2, TGF3 Activin A, activin B, inhibin A, BMP2, BMP4, BMP5, BMP6, BMP7,
inhibin B, Nodal BMP8A, BMP8B, BMP9, BMP10
TypeI TRI (ALK5), ALK1 ALK4 (ACVR1B or ACTRIB), ALK1 (ACVRL1, SKR3), ALK2 (ACVR1,
receptors (ACVRL1 or SKR3) ALK7 (ACVR1C or ACTRIC) ACTRI), ALK3 (BMPR1A), ALK6 (BMPR1B)
TypeII TRII ACTRIIA, ACTRIIB BMPR2, ACTRIIA, ACTRIIB
receptors
TypeIII TRIII (betaglycan), CRIPTO1 (TDGF1), RGMA, RGMB (DRAGON), RGMC
receptors endoglin, CRIPTO3 CRIPTO3 (TDGF1P3), TRIII (HJV or HFE2), endoglin
(TDGF1P3) (betaglycan)
RSMADs SMAD2, SMAD3 SMAD2, SMAD3 SMAD1, SMAD5, SMAD8
CoSMAD SMAD4 SMAD4 SMAD4
ISMADs SMAD7 SMAD7 SMAD6, SMAD7
*Alternative protein names are listed in brackets. ACTR, activin receptor; ALK, activin receptor-like kinase; BMP, bone morphogenetic
protein; BMPR, BMP receptor; RGM, repulsive guidance molecule; TR, TGF receptor; TDGF, teratocarcinoma-derived growth factor.
P
Drosha
SMAD7
SMAD2 or SMAD3 P Extracellular matrix regulation. The ECM is a complex
mG AAAAA structure that surrounds mammalian cells. It is the major
Transcriptional regulation SMAD-mediated
Nucleus
component of connective tissue and is composed of mul-
miRNA processing
tiple proteins, such as collagen, elastin, fibrillin, fibro
Figure 1 | Schematic overview of the canonical, SMAD-dependent TGF nectin, lamin and proteoglycans. Fibrosis is characterized
signalling pathway. The transforming growth factor- (TGF) ligands are synthesized by the accumulation of fibroblasts, which secrete exces-
Nature Reviews | Drug Discovery
as a large latent TGF complex consisting of mature dimeric TGF associated with its sive amounts of ECM. As TGF is widely documented to
latency-associated peptide (LAP) and a latent TGF-binding protein (LTBP) (not shown). increase collagen synthesis and deposition by fibroblasts,
Upon activation, TGF dimers induce heteromeric complex formation between specific
TGF has become a central therapeutic target for different
typeII and typeI receptors (such as TGF receptor type II (TRII) and TRI, respectively).
TypeII receptors then transphosphorylate the typeI receptors, which propagate the types of fibrosis. TGF activity and the synthesis of ECM
signal into the cell by phosphorylating TGF receptor-specific SMADs (RSMADs: proteins are mutually regulated. Several genes encoding
SMAD2 and SMAD3). They form heteromeric complexes with the common mediator ECM proteins that are known to be important in driving
SMAD (coSMAD: SMAD4) and translocate to the nucleus. Once in the nucleus, the fibrosis are directly regulated by TGFSMAD signalling
RSMADcoSMAD complex preferentially associates with the genomic SMAD-binding pathways. There is a reciprocal regulation of TGF by the
element (SBE) in a sequence-specific manner. However, high-affinity binding of the ECM: latent TGF bound to ECM components, such as
RSMADcoSMAD complex with the SBE generally occurs in concert with other fibronectin and fibrillin, is inactive until physiological or
DNA-binding transcription factors that bind to distinct sequences adjacent to the SBE27. pathological processes initiate its release. This is seen in
The nuclear proteins SKI and SNO (also known as SKIL) antagonize the transcriptional MFS, in which the mutation of a fibrillin-encoding gene
regulation by SMADs. An inhibitory SMAD (ISMAD), SMAD7, inhibits the TGF pathway
results in reduced fibrillin levels and a consequent increase
through multiple mechanisms, including by mediating the degradation of the typeI
receptor, inhibiting phosphorylation of RSMADs by the typeI receptor kinase or in levels of unbound TGF; this, in turn, leads to the acti-
inhibiting the formation of the RSMADcoSMAD complex. In addition to regulating vation of TGF signalling, which is possibly responsible
transcription, RSMADs can modulate microRNA (miRNA) biogenesis by facilitating the for the aetiology of many Marfanoid features11,12.
processing of primary miRNA into precursor miRNA in the nucleus. The coSMAD is
not required for the regulation of miRNA biosynthesis by RSMADs. mG and AAAAA Immune-suppression and inflammation. The lethal
represent 5 capping and 3 polyadenylation of mRNAs, respectively. postnatal inflammatory phenotype of Tgfb1knockout
mice19,20,54 demonstrates the important immune-suppres-
sor function of this ligand. The widespread expression
Ecadherin is commonly downregulated in many can- profile of TGF receptors on all immune cell types sug-
cers, and its overexpression can suppress invasion by gests that they have broad activities, including responses
tumour cells. The TGFSMAD pathway mediates the in cytotoxic CD8+ effector Tcells, CD4+ effector T helper
Myofibroblast expression of high mobility group AT-hook 2 (HMGA2), 1 (TH1) and TH2 cells, suppressive regulatory T (TReg) cells,
A contractile fibroblast that which is important for the induction of SNAIL (also natural killer (NK) cells, monocytes, macrophages, neu-
expresses smooth muscle actin
and myosin, and contributes to
known as SNAI1) and SLUG (also known as SNAI2): two trophils and eosinophils (FIG.4). Cell type-specific mouse
disease progression in cancer zinc-finger transcription factors that are known to repress gene knockout studies with Tgfbr2 demonstrate both
and fibrosis. the Ecadherin gene33. In breast and skin cancer, tumour direct and indirect actions of TGF on effector Tcells4.
Crosstalk with
other pathways
TGF RAS
Hedgehog
TRII Notch
WNT
IFN
TNF
P P PI3KAKT
TRII TRII TRI
Cytoplasm
P P P P
p38
TRI
ERK
P
R-SMAD R-SMAD
SMAD4
SMAD4
RHO
RAF AKT
JNK p38
R-SMAD
complex
MEK
Drosha
R-SMAD
SMAD4
JUN mG AAAAA
SMAD-mediated
ERK miRNA processing
Nucleus
Figure 2 | Schematic representation of non-canonical TGF signalling and crosstalk with other signalling
pathways. In the non-canonical pathways, the activated transforming growth factor- (TGF)
Nature receptor
Reviews complex
| Drug Discovery
transmits a signal through other factors, such as TNF receptor associated factor 4 (TRAF4) or TRAF6, TGF-activated
kinase 1 (TAK1), p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (p38MAPK), RHO, phosphoinositide 3kinase (PI3K)AKT,
extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK), JUN Nterminal kinase (JNK) or nuclear factor-B (NFB). TGF signalling
can be influenced by pathways other than the canonical and non-canonical TGF signalling pathways, such as the
WNT, Hedgehog, Notch, interferon (IFN), tumour necrosis factor (TNF) and RAS pathways. The crosstalk between
TGF and other pathways defines the activities of TGF to propagate spatial- and temporal-specific signals. miRNA,
microRNA; ROCK, RHO-associated protein kinase; R-SMAD, receptor-specific SMAD; TR, TGF receptor. mG and
AAAAA represent 5 capping and 3 polyadenylation of mRNAs, respectively.
to avoid the off-target toxicity associated with systemic Monoclonal antibodies. The advantages of monoclonal
delivery of first-generation ASOs. In the case of glio antibodies are their specificity and extracellular mecha-
blastoma, this was achieved using intrathecal catheter nism of action an advantage when trying to mop up
delivery directly into the tumour 74. More recently, the excess extracellular ligand. This is tempered by the less
company has started developing intravenous delivery convenient intravenous mode of delivery. However, pro-
approaches for pancreatic cancer, which appear to be longed pharmacokinetic stability permits infrequent drug
effective in mouse models73 and were recently shown to administration. Cambridge Antibody Technologies and
be safe in humans84. Genzyme developed humanized (or murinized for pre-
An antiTGFB2 antisense strategy has also been clinical studies) monoclonal antibodies specific to indi-
used to generate augmented tumour vaccines. Belagen vidual ligands, such as lerdelimumab (CAT152)88,89 and
pumatucelL (Lucanix; NovaRx) is such a drug, in metelimumab (CAT192)90, or with pan-ligand specificity,
which an ~900nucleotide TGFB2 antisense construct such as fresolimumab (GC1008)9193. These antibod-
is transfected into allogeneic non-small-cell lung cancer ies have proceeded through various stages of preclinical
(NSCLC) cells, which are then used as a tumour vaccine. and clinical development. Of these three humanized
Here, drug delivery is not an issue as the drug is in fact antibodies, fresolimumab has progressed furthest in the
genetically engineered NSCLC tumour cell lines. This clinic for both neoplastic and non-neoplastic applica-
tumour vaccine has superior activity compared to con tions. This drug was found to be well tolerated and safe
ventional tumour vaccination approaches85,86. A significant at 15mg perml in PhaseI trials for metastatic melanoma
dose-related survival difference was seen in patients who (MetM) plus renal cell carcinoma93 and at 1mg perml for
received 2.5107 cells per injection, allowing progression the fibrotic disorder focal segmental glomerulosclerosis92.
to a PhaseIII clinical trial87. Lerdelimumab88,89 and metelimumab90, despite passing
TGF
Invasive carcinoma
Tumour-
Normal epithelium or carcinoma in situ initiating cell
EMT Metastasis
Oncogenes
Growth
inhibition Immunosuppression
T cell
TGF
Macrophage
Polarization of IL-11 Osteolysis
recruitment
TANs (N1N2) and PTHRP
TAMs (M1M2) TGF
Bone
Autoinduction
TGF Autoinduction
VEGF
VEGF Vessels
IL-6 CTGF
Stromal modication Angiogenesis
Figure 3 | Biphasic activities of the TGF signalling pathway during tumorigenesis: from the tumour suppressor
to the tumour promoter. Transforming growth factor- (TGF) has biphasic actions during Nature Reviews | Drug
tumorigenesis, Discovery
suppressing
tumorigenesis at early stages but promoting tumour progression later on, which is the underlying paradigm for the
action of TGF during disease progression in general and thus complicates the development of therapies targeting TGF
signalling. The light grey arrows indicate a positive feedforward loop resulting in higher levels of TGF, which is a feature
of non-neoplastic as well as neoplastic diseases. The current goal in cancer therapy is to downmodulate excessive
levels of TGF ligands and to target the tumour-progressing versus the tumour-suppressing arm of TGF action;
the latter goal will almost certainly require more-specific second-generation drugs. CTGF, connective tissue growth
factor; EMT, epithelialmesenchymal transition; IL, interleukin; PTHRP, parathyroid hormone-related protein;
TAMs, tumour-associated macrophages; TANs, tumour-associated neutrophils; VEGF, vascular endothelial growth factor.
safety tests, failed to show efficacy in fibrotic models Biotech, using peptide mimetics of TRIII (also known as
of corneal scarring and systemic sclerosis, respectively, betaglycan and TGFBR3), completed a PhaseIIa clinical
and were therefore discontinued90. Despite a promising trial for scleroderma and skin fibrosis, showing safety and
PhaseI oncology trial of fresolimumab, after Genzyme efficacy when topically applied to skin (TABLE1; BOX4).
was acquired by Sanofi the company made the decision This company has plans to extend to PhaseIIb/III trials
to focus on fibrotic applications of this drug. in 2013 (J. Dotor, personal communication). A peptide
Eli Lilly entered the monoclonal antibody arena with a antagonist of TGF activation, LSKL (Leu-Ser-Lys-Leu),
pan-TGF ligand-specific blocking antibody, LY2382770, binds to a conserved sequence in the LAP region of the
which has progressed to PhaseII trials for kidney fibrosis latent complex and has demonstrated efficacy in reduc-
(TABLE1). Since merging with ImClone, Eli Lilly has also ing TGF signalling invitro97. This antagonist is based on
developed a TRII-blocking antibody, IMCTR1 (REF.94), thrombospondin and specifically blocks TGF activation.
which has just entered clinical trials for breast and colon The issue of peptide drug delivery is not a problem for
cancer (ClinicalTrials.gov identifier: NCT01646203). In topical application; however, to progress to systemic deliv-
addition, Biogen Idec and Stromedix have developed an ery, Digna Biotech has partnered with Flamel Technologies
anti-integrin 6 antibody that prevents the activation to investigate proprietary peptide delivery systems.
of TGF and has been used efficaciously in preclinical
studies of fibrosis and cancer 95; it is in a PhaseII trial Small-molecule inhibitors. There are a plethora of SMIs
for fibrosis (ClinicalTrials.gov identifier: NCT01371305). that specifically target the typeI receptor of TGF to
inhibit the phosphorylation of SMAD2 and SMAD3
Ligand traps and peptides. Genzyme developed a ligand while keeping at least some non-canonical responses,
trap by fusing Fc to the extracellular domain of TRII, such as TAK1 activation, intact. These drugs are gener-
but this construct never reached clinical trials96. However, ally ATP mimetics that bind competitively within the
an alternative ligand trap approach, pursued by Digna hydrophobic ATP binding pocket of the receptor kinase.
Dendritic cell:
Maturation
Antigen presentation
Chemotaxis
Neutrophil:
Eector function B cell:
Inammatory cytokine secretion IgA class switching
N1N2 Activation
Apoptosis
Figure 4 | TGF effects on immune cells. Transforming growth factor- (TGF) has effects on most immune cell types.
The figure depicts the activity of TGF on immune cell subsets that is relevant to human diseases. M1M2 and N1N2
indicate polarization of macrophages and neutrophils, respectively, from type I to type II.Nature Reviews | Drug A;
IgA, immunoglobulin Discovery
TH, T
helper; TReg, regulatory T.
migration, invasion and metastasis, as well as effects on higher dose levels of GC1008 and/or longer exposure to
the tumour microenvironment (FIGS3,4). Standard cyto- the drug, and the lesions resolved on drug withdrawal91,93.
toxic screens used by the pharmaceutical industry to To put this toxicity into context, non-melanoma skin
identify anticancer drugs were therefore not relevant, and cancers, such as SCC and keratoacanthoma, develop
therapeutic utility could only be determined by invivo in approximately 1530% of patients with MetM who
efficacy in animal models and ultimately in theclinic. are treated with BRAF inhibitors such as vemurafenib
Two major concerns in TGF drug development have and dabrafenib129, and therapy with sorafenib and TNF
been the inadvertent inhibition of the tumour-suppressing antagonists produced similar findings130,131. Recent data
arm of TGF signalling in cancer 120122 and the develop- from studies with vemurafenib for MetM therapy suggest
ment of adverse side effects unrelated to cancer, such that these lesions arise from pre-existent mutant RAS-
as widespread inflammation, autoimmunity or cardio- containing cells within sun-damaged skin132. Intriguingly,
vascular defects that have been revealed by mouse gene one study of keratoacanthoma that appeared in sorafenib-
knockout studies1921,123. Preclinical studies suggested that treated patients showed somatic TGFBR1 missense muta-
attenuation of TGF-mediated growth inhibition would tions133, one of which was also identified as a causative
not be a major issue96,124,125. However, clinical trials to date82 germline mutation for MSSE128.
have not revealed the cardiac valvulopathy 126 or hyper- Cancer stem cells, or tumour-initiating cells (TICs), are
ostosis and chondrocyte hypertrophy and hyperplasia127 defined by their capacity to self-renew and to initiate and
observed in rat preclinical toxicology studies. Moreover, persistently propagate the entire tumour. Targeting the
there has been no widespread evidence of inflammatory cancer stem cell for destruction or irreversible quiescence
complications in clinical trials reported to date54,82. These is therefore the Holy Grail of oncology, especially as these
reassuring safety findings are supported by evidence cells are exceedingly resistant to both chemotherapy and
from patients with the rare disease multiple self-healing radiotherapy, and are responsible for tumour metastasis
squamous epithelioma (MSSE), who have germline-null and recurrence after therapy 134. Several groups have now
mutations in the gene encoding TRI but develop only reported the phenomenon that TGFinduced EMT can
self-limiting and mostly non-malignant skin lesions128. drive tumour cells towards a more stem cell-like pheno
Intriguingly, in a PhaseI clinical trial of GC1008 for the type characterized by increased expression of stem cell
Tumour-initiating cells
(TICs). The putative cancer treatment of MetM, patients developed skin lesions, ker- markers and enhanced tumour-initiating activity invitro
stem cells that have the ability atoacanthoma or squamous cell carcinoma (SCC) that and invivo43,135. In breast cancer 135, the TGF and WNT
to maintain tumour growth, were similar to the skin abnormalities reported in MSSE, signalling pathways were shown to be the most com-
differentiate into all cell types with the appearance of keratoacanthoma and SCC seem- monly activated signalling pathways in cancer stem cells
of a heterogenous tumour,
and to re-establish secondary
ingly influenced by the extent of exposure to GC1008. that had been fractionated from the bulk tumour on the
tumours with exceedingly These lesions, which appeared on sun-damaged skin, were basis of expression of stem cell markers such as CD44hi
high efficiency. manifested in approximately 25% of patients who received and CD24low. In preclinical studies, TGF inhibitors
have been shown to deplete the stem cell compart- glioblastoma-initiating cells (GICs, which express the
ment in various cancers including breast cancer 135, stem cell markers CD44, ID1, ID3, SOX2 and SOX4)
glioblastoma136138 and chronic myeloid leukaemia139 responded to LY2109761 by downregulating the expres-
which leads to increased lifespan in several mouse sion of stem cell genes. Moreover, patient-derived glio-
models of metastatic cancer. Anido etal.137 showed that blastoma neurospheres transplanted orthotopically into
non-obese diabetic/severe combined immunodeficient It has been argued that TGF inhibitors might, how-
mice (NOD/SCID mice, which do not have T cells or ever, release isolated and disseminated tumour (stem)
B cells) responded to LY2109761 by decreasing in size cells from dormancy by initiating proliferation and/or
and reducing their expression of stem cell markers137. disrupting the stem cell niche. A couple of recent studies
The same research team is currently undertaking a may give credence to this notion, as systemic TGF inhibi-
PhaseI/II clinical trial for glioblastoma using the closely tion resulted in increased numbers of circulating tumours
related drug LY2157299 (REF.137). Importantly, they as well as micro- and macro-metastases in mouse models
showed a reduction of CD44 and ID1 RNA levels after of head and neck SCC and mammary cancer invivo140,141.
2months of LY2157299 treatment in tumour biopsy It might therefore be wise to use TGF inhibitors in com-
material from one patient with glioblastoma for whom bination with cytotoxic drugs to coax tumour cells out
a salvage surgical resection was performed both before of their quiescent niche while simultaneously targeting
and after 2months on the trial137. The ability to reduce those that respond proliferatively to TGF inhibition
the number of stem cells in an aggressive tumour such using chemotherapy. This strategy may be highly ben-
as glioblastoma is a majorcoup. eficial for flushing out dormant disseminated tumour
Pyrrole-imidazole TRX-FOXH1B
polyamide TRX-LEF
Co-TFs
SMAD2 or SMAD3 TF
TGFB1 gene Target gene expression
Nucleus
Figure 5 | Schematic representation of therapeutic approaches for blocking TGF signalling. Transforming growth
factor- (TGF) signalling can be inhibited by: sequestering ligands using soluble receptor ectodomain constructs
(ligand traps) derived from TGF receptor type II (TRII) or TRIII; using TGF-neutralizing antibodies; or with TRII or
Nature Reviews | Drug Discovery
TRI kinase inhibitors. Furthermore, translation of TGF mRNA can be blocked by targeting TGF mRNA with antisense
oligonucleotides, thus preventing the production of the ligand. Different small-molecule kinase inhibitors against TRI
have been developed to block its kinase activity. Peptide inhibitors against specific TGF ligands are also used. Other
approaches block the transformation of TGF from the latent to the active form. Three molecules are shown that either
affect TGF signalling indirectly (losartan) or that have an as-yet-unidentified target (tranilast and pirfenidone). All of
these approaches decrease the initiation of intracellular receptor signalling pathways, such as phosphorylation of
downstream receptor-specific SMADs (RSMADs), and thereby blunt the transcriptional regulation of target genes.
AT1, angiotensin II type1 receptor; co-TFs, co-transcription factors; FOXH1B, forkhead box protein H1B; LEF, lymphoid
enhancer-binding factor; LSKL, Leu-Ser-Lys-Leu peptide; TRX, thioredoxin.
cells, as alluded to by Carlos Arteaga many years ago142. treatment with TGF inhibitors or their derivatives.As
A further cautionary note is warranted, however, on the TGF inhibitors are not directly cytotoxic, the use of these
basis of two reports indicating that TGF may decrease inhibitors in combination with cytotoxic chemothera-
the cancer-initiating cell population of diffuse type gastric peutics may be particularly efficacious. The activation of
carcinoma143 and breast carcinoma144 despite having little TGF signalling in response to chemotherapeutics may
or no effect on cellular proliferation. Finally, TGF inhibi- drive the generation of cancer stem cells (via EMT), result-
tors might act on the stem cell niche by recruiting bone ing in their chemoresistance134. This event may be targeted
marrow mesenchymal stem cell-derived myofibroblasts with TGF inhibitors, as demonstrated by the synergistic
that home in on the primary tumour, contribute to the activity of doxorubicin and TGF inhibitor combination
tumour microenvironment as cancer-associated fibro- therapy on breast cancer growth and metastasis147. Studies
blasts and consequently promote tumour progression145. in multiple myeloma also suggest that TGF inhibitors
Clearly there are tissue- and cell type-specific effects of could potentiate the cytotoxic effects of melphalan and
TGF inhibition that can influence the action of TGF dexamethasone148. In vitro, the exposure of multiple mye-
on the cancer stem cell and its niche146. Understanding loma cells to differentiated versus immature MC3T3E1
the differential molecular mechanisms that elicit these proosteoblastic cells potentiated chemotherapy-induced
variable responses will be critical to a judicious choice of multiple myeloma cell death. As TGF inhibition acts
within the bone microenvironment to elicit osteoblastic TGF responsiveness. Transduction of CTLs with a virus
differentiation148,149, this combinatorial approach holds encoding a DNRII154 has reached PhaseI clinical trials,
great promise for the treatment of multiple myeloma and recent preclinical data indicate that combining CTL
and other bone metastatic cancers. Likewise, in a mouse therapy with TRI-targeting SMIs may also significantly
model of serous gastric cell carcinoma, Ki26894 had an improve Tcell survival and antitumour Tcell cytotoxic-
additive effect with a fluorouracil analogue in reducing ity 155. Augmenting adoptive Tcell therapy with SMIs may
tumour growth150. Finally, another mechanism whereby be a particularly attractive application of TRI SMIs as
TGF inhibition can augment conventional therapies is in patients need not be exposed to genetically engineered
enhancing drug delivery to the tumour. There are reports Tcells. Moreover, patients might only require short-term
that TGF inhibition can reduce interstitial tumour exposure to the drug for efficacy in this application, thus
pressure44, which enhances the delivery of SMIs, and avoiding the side effects of long-term SMI drug exposure,
regulates vascular leakiness, which enhances the deliv- such as inflammation19, cardiovascular complications126,
ery of nanoparticle-encapsulated drugs, particularly in bone and/or cartilage problems127, subphyseal hyperosto-
highly fibrotic and drug-refractile tumour types such as sis as well as chondrocyte hypertrophy and/or hyperplasia,
pancreatic cancer 151. and reducing the risk of developing SMI drug resistance156.
Adoptive Tcell therapy involves the harvesting and Another clinical application with great promise is
exvivo expansion of autologous tumour-specific CTLs augmenting radiotherapy by inhibiting the TGF path-
followed by their reintroduction into the patient to stimu- way 10,81,157. Radiation not only physically activates latent
late tumour killing 152. Used most extensively in the treat- TGF invitro but also induces the biological release of
ment of MetM and lung cancer, this therapy often fails this growth factor as part of a stress response158. Several
owing to the apoptosis of regrafted CTLs. Preclinical groups have reported the positive role of TGF in sup-
studies suggest that failure may be due to the direct effects porting the DNA damage repair pathway, particularly
of TGF on CTLs153, and strategies to prevent such failure through activation of p53 and phosphorylation of ataxia
include the use of genetically modified CTLs with reduced telangiectasia mutated (ATM) after radiation therapy159.
Cl
O N
O N N O
N O N N N
O N
NH2 NH2 NH2
N N F NH
N
H
N HN
N
O
SB-431542 (GlaxoSmithKline) LY2157299 (Eli Lilly) SD208 (Scios) N O SM16 (Biogen Idec)
O O OH O
H N
N
O
O
Tranilast Pirfenidone
H
O N
H
N
N H
H N
O
* N H H
O H N N
H O N
N * N H
N
O H N
H H O O N
N
N O * H H H
O N N N
H H N
N
N
N O O * H
H H O O
N O *
N N
H H H
N O
N
H
Pyrrole-imidazole polyamide N
N
H
Figure 6 | Structures of representative small-molecule inhibitors of TGF signalling. Depicted are the molecular
structures of a selection of small-molecule inhibitors identified to target the transforming growth
Nature factor-
Reviews | Drug (TGF)
Discovery
signalling pathway. SB-431542, LY2157299, SD208 and SM16 are all ATP mimetics that inhibit TGF receptor type I
(TRI; also known as TGFBR1) kinase activity. Pyrrole-imidazole polyamide blocks transcription of the TGFB1 gene.
Pirfenidone and tranilast have unknown molecular mechanisms of action. Dashed lines denote putative hydrogen
bonding with bases in DNA; asterisks indicate positions where hydrogen bonds form with nucleotide residues of DNA
within the TGFB1 gene promoter.
Barcellos-Hoff s group demonstrated that LY2109761 to leukaemia. However, refractory cytopaenias are the
and ID11 both attenuate radiation-induced activation of major cause of morbidity and mortality in sufferers.
p53 and ATM in breast cancer cells invitro and invivo, It was recently shown that reduced expression of SMAD7,
thus preventing DNA repair and accentuating the cyto- an inhibitor of TRI, was a common and significant event
toxic effect of radiation81. Even short-term dosing with observed in CD34+ myeloid progenitor cells in the bone
TRI inhibitors might provide a considerable therapeutic marrow of patients with MDS160. Indeed, low levels of
advantage in potentiating radiotherapy, with the added myeloid SMAD7 expression were seen in most patients
benefit that the local activation of pro-tumorigenic stroma with MDS, regardless of the risk for progression to leu-
and tissue fibrosis a major complication of radiation kaemia. Downregulation of SMAD7 expression sensi-
therapy 10 may also be suppressed by these drugs. tized myeloid precursors to TGF such that even very low
In partnership with Genzyme, this group is currently levels of the ligand elicited an increase in TGF respon-
undertaking a PhaseI trial of fresolimumab in combi- siveness, as defined by P-SMAD2 levels and enhanced
nation with radiotherapy for metastatic breast cancer. immune-suppressive effect, thus providing another
Eli Lilly is also undertaking a PhaseI/IIa trial to test the opportunity to utilize TGF inhibitors for therapeutic
safety and efficacy of LY2157299 in combination with utility in human disease.
temozolomide-based radiochemotherapy in patients Treatment of primary CD34 + haematopoietic
with newly diagnosed malignant glioma157. stem cells with LY2157299 suppressed the activation
of TRI by its ligand. Moreover, in a liver-specific
Myelodysplastic syndrome. Myelodysplastic syndrome TGF1overexpressing transgenic mouse model of
(MDS) is characterized by abnormal myeloid and/or MDS that exhibits severe anaemia, LY2157299 decreased
erythroid differentiation of bone marrow cells that results P-SMAD2 levels in the bone marrow and significantly
in various anaemias and cytopaenias. In one-third of increased the haematocrit of these mice. Importantly,
MDS cases, a high-risk group of patients can progress in ten out of ten primary bone marrow cultures from
patients with MDS, administration of LY2157299 signifi- Renal fibrosis has long been thought to be driven by
cantly increased erythroid (burst-forming unit (BFUE)) excess TGF, which results in renal scarring and, ulti-
and myeloid (colony-forming unit (CFU); granulocytic mately, kidney failure170. With the increasing incidence of
monocytic) colony numbers invitro, harbouring great diabetes and associated kidney damage in affluent coun-
promise for the treatment of patients with MDS160. tries, this is a clinical application of growing importance.
Mice overexpressing an active form of TGF1 (from
Fibrosis. IPF is a progressive, chronic and irreversible the liver) develop progressive liver and renal fibrosis170.
lung disease occurring in older adults, and has an Interestingly, although mice overexpressing active TGF1
unknown cause161. The main histological features of IPF develop progressive renal injury, latent TGF1 also has a
are heterogeneous parenchyma, with areas of fibrosis protective role in renal fibrosis through negative effects
and honeycombing alternating with areas of less-affected on inflammation49. TGF1 mediates progressive renal
or normal parenchyma. IPF is characterized by a pro- fibrosis by stimulating the synthesis of ECM production
gressive reduction in lung function, with an estimated while inhibiting its degradation49. TGF1 also mediates
20% survival prospect after 5years, making it more renal fibrosis by inducing the transformation of tubular
lethal than many cancers. The progressive fibrotic reac- epithelial cells into myofibroblasts through EMT in a
tion in IPF is associated with an epithelium-dependent similar way to the process seen in IPF171. Blockade of
fibroblast activation, in which TGF plays a major part16. TGF1 with neutralizing TGF antibodies prevents
TGF1, which is secreted by alveolar epithelial cells in or ameliorates renal fibrosis invivo and invitro, dem-
patients with IPF, drives the process by promoting the onstrating the functional role of TGF1 in EMT and
migration, proliferation and differentiation of resident renal fibrosis. A number of therapeutic interventions
mesenchymal cells. V6 integrin, which binds and that block the action of TGF have resulted in various
activates latent TGF1 and TGF3, is highly induced degrees of improvement in kidney structure and function
following lung injury or fibrosis162. TGF activity 163 then in preclinical studies; such interventions include TGF
promotes activation and differentiation of fibroblasts ASOs, a neutralizing anti-TGF antibody, a soluble TGF
into myofibroblasts, which are specialized contractile receptor, blockade of TGF activation by decorin172, an
cells that cause aberrant ECM deposition, leading to the SMI of TGF receptors, delivery of the inhibitor protein
destruction of lung architecture, scarring 162 and reduced SMAD7 (REF.173) and a THBS1blocking peptide that
lung function. TGF also promotes pulmonary EMT that interferes with TGF activation97. A PhaseI/II trial with
additionally contributes to the expansion of fibroblasts GC1008, a pan-TGF-neutralizing antibody, exhibited
and myofibroblasts164. encouraging efficacy in patients with focal segmental
Pirfenidone, a novel compound that inhibits TGF glomerulosclerosis92, and Eli Lilly is undertaking trials
activity invitro, decreased the rate of decline in vital of its own antiTGF1 monoclonal antibody, LY2382770,
lung capacity and marginally increased progression- in diabetic kidney disease.
free survival in patients with IPF. Pooled data from Cardiac fibrosis is a pathological feature that is com-
two concurrent PhaseIII clinical trials in IPF indicated mon to a number of forms of heart disease, including
improvement in pulmonary function in the pirfenidone- myocardial infarction, ischaemic, dilated and hyper-
treated group165. Currently, there are no US Food and trophic cardiomyopathies and congestive heart failure36.
Drug Administration (FDA)-approved drugs for IPF, The cellular basis of cardiac fibrosis is the aberrant accu-
and pirfenidone is the first such drug to be approved for mulation of collagens and other ECM proteins, which
IPF in Europe. Other approaches to develop TGFbased impair ventricular function and predispose to cardiac
therapies for IPF include gene transfer of a soluble arrhythmias. Because TGF has pleiotropic effects in
TRII construct (as a ligand decoy), which attenuated the cardiovascular system and as cardiac fibrosis is a
injury and fibrosis in bleomycin-induced IPF in mice166. multifactorial disease, the development of an effective
P144 (disitertide; Digna Biotech), a synthetic peptide therapy will require a detailed understanding of the
that attenuates TGF activity and is derived from the role of the TGF signalling pathway in this pathogen-
extracellular domain of betaglycan, was also shown to esis. TGF, a potent stimulator of collagen production
reduce carbon tetrachloride-induced liver injury in by cardiac fibroblasts, is induced in response to cardio-
mice78. P17, another Digna Biotech anti-TGF pep- vascular injury. The TGFSMAD pathway activates
tide, has been shown to be efficacious in attenuation of the transcription of several key fibrotic genes, such as
injury and fibrosis in bleomycin-induced IPF in mice167. those encoding connective tissue growth factor (CTGF),
Although P144 has been used clinically for skin fibrosis, fibronectin, collagens and plasminogen activator inhibi-
drug delivery is an issue for the clinical development of tor 1 (PAI1)36. TGF reduces collagenase production and
P144 for IPF. However, Digna Biotech has recently part- stimulates the expression of tissue inhibitor of metallo
nered with Flamel Technologies to investigate the use of proteinases (TIMPs), resulting in an overall inhibition of
a proprietary drug delivery platform for this application ECM degradation and leading to excessive ECM accu-
(see the press release: Flamel Technologies and Digna mulation. P144 has been investigated in a preclinical
Biotech Announce Multiple Product Development model of cardiac fibrosis77, and losartan can reverse fibro-
Agreement). Other anti-TGF therapies in clinical trials sis in a mouse model of hypertrophic cardiomyopathy 174;
for IPF include the pan TGF-neutralizing antibody however, no drug targeting the TGF pathway has yet
GC1008 (Genzyme) and the V6 integrin-blocking reached clinical trials for this application. A recent
antibody STX100 (Stromedix)168,169. study demonstrated that miR21, which is regulated by
SMADs upon TGF activation, is consistently induced the general integrity and elasticity of tissues but also
by cardiac stress. As miR21 plays a part in tumorigen- probably more crucially local TGF signalling 11.
esis by promoting cell proliferation, increased expression Normal fibrillin 1containing microfibrils interact with
of miR21 might contribute to the progression of fibrotic the large latent TGF complex (LLC) to control the
lesions175. ASOs against miR21 might therefore become release of mature, active TGF181. Mutated fibrillin 1 fails
a novel therapeutic approach for treating cardiac fibrosis. to sequester latent TGF, leading to the promiscuous
activation of TGF11. Thus, MFS highlights the critical
Scleroderma. Scleroderma (progressive systemic sclerosis) role of microfibrils in regulating local concentrations
is a systemic autoimmune disorder characterized by skin of TGF and in maintaining the homeostasis, morpho
sclerosis, calcinosis and changes in microvasculature. genesis and function of various organs181. Dilation of the
Increased expression of TRI and TRII in sclerodermal aortic root, which leads to aortic rupture and sudden
fibroblasts suggests that increased production of typeI death, is a major clinical issue for patients with MFS
collagen by autocrine TGF signalling leads to aberrant and patients of the LoeysDietz spectrum who carry
ECM deposition and scarring 36. Therapeutic approaches mutations in TGFBR1, TGFBR2 and SMAD3. A mouse
to scleroderma have included inhibition of TGF activity model of MFS carrying a heterozygous Fbn1 mutation
in sclerotic tissue. Unfortunately, CAT192, a TGF1- developed an aortic aneurism similar to that of patients
neutralizing antibody, did not show evidence of efficacy with MFS. Administration of TGF antagonists, includ-
in a study on the treatment of patients with early-stage ing a TGFneutralizing antibody or the angiotensin II
systemic scleroderma90; however, GC1008 is now in a type1 receptor (AT1) blocker losartan, successfully res-
PhaseI clinical trial for patients with diffuse systemic cued both cardiovascular and non-cardiovascular mani-
sclerosis. Furthermore, topical application of Digna festations of MFS12,182. As losartan is already in widespread
Biotechs P144 peptide inhibitor of TGF1 has shown clinical use for hypertension and has shown no adverse
some efficacy in reducing skin fibrosis in a PhaseII effects, this drug is currently being tested in PhaseI/
clinical trial for systemic sclerosis (see the press release: II clinical trials for MFS (ClinicalTrials.gov identi-
Flamel Technologies and Digna Biotech Announce fiers: NCT00429364, NCT00593710, NCT00683124,
Multiple Product Development Agreement), with the NCT00723801, NCT00763893, NCT00782327 and
caveat that clinical end points for quantifying skin fibrosis NCT01145612) and may plausibly reduce this life-
have not yet been standardized176. threatening manifestation ofMFS.
Restenosis following coronary artery bypass and angio Postoperative scarring in ocular conditions. Trabecul
plasty. The development of fibromuscular intimal ectomy is a surgical procedure designed to reduce intra
hyperplasia following angioplasty and coronary artery ocular fluid pressure in patients with glaucoma. However,
bypass surgery is a major clinical problem and can lead postoperative scarring and fibrotic blockage of the filter-
to coronary artery graft failure. The success of coronary ing bleb that drains excess ocular fluid are serious com-
artery reconstructive procedures is limited by the high plications of this procedure. In preclinical experiments,
incidence of restenosis secondary to intimal hyperpla- administration of neutralizing antibodies against human
sia. TGF1 is a major player in the early development TGF2 (CAT152) exhibited promising inhibition of scar-
of intimal hyperplasia in arteries and peripheral vein ring after glaucoma surgery in rabbits without having any
grafts. The exact mechanism of action of TGF signal- adverse effects. Initial clinical trials with CAT152 amelio-
ling in intimal hyperplasia and subsequent graft failure rated scarring in patients who received trabeculectomy for
is unclear, but it is speculated that TGF1 contributes intractable glaucoma88,183; however, PhaseIII clinical trials
at multiple steps, including EMT, promotion of fibro- were unable to validate such beneficial effects184. Tranilast,
blast, endothelial and vascular smooth muscle cell pro- another incidental TGF inhibitor, has also been used
liferation, increased collagen synthesis and deposition, successfully to reduce reoccurrence of corneal fibrosis,
and induction of fibrosis177. Soluble forms of the small, or primary pterygium, following corneal surgery 185. It is
leucine-rich proteoglycans decorin and fibromodulin, possible that topical application of more-specific TGF
which possess TGFantagonist activity, exhibit potent inhibitors might also be used in treating corneal haze and
intimal hyperplasia-suppressing effects in cultured conjunctival scarring (TABLE1).
human saphenous vein, offering the potential for thera-
peutic benefit after coronary artery bypass surgery 178180. Challenges and considerations for TGF blockade
The novel pyrrole-imidazole polyamide drug class, tar- Individualized responses to TGF blockade. Many dis-
geted to suppress TGFB1 gene transcription, showed effi- eases being tackled with TGF inhibitors, including fibro-
cacy in reducing neointimal hyperplasia and stimulating sis, inflammation, autoimmunity and cancer, are complex
reendothelialization of carotid arteries in a preclinical in nature and show strong genetic predisposition owing
model of arterial injury 50. to innate genetic variation between individuals. It is well
established that there is considerable phenotypic diver-
Marfan syndrome. MFS is a connective tissue disorder sity in the range of responses to reduced TGF signalling
that affects the musculoskeletal, ocular and cardio- invivo, which are dictated by differential inheritance of
vascular systems. It is caused by mutations in the gene germline genetic variants. This is illustrated by the large
encoding an ECM protein, fibrillin 1 (FBN1)181. Growing spectrum of clinical severity and disease manifesta-
evidence suggests that FBN1 mutations perturb not only tions in individuals with mutations in TGF signalling
pathway genes8,41,186. Moreover, in mouse models of tumour progression. These include an increased ratio of
cancer, asthma and vascular development, outcomes of liver-enriched inhibitory protein (LIP) to liver-enriched
reduced TGF1 levels are strongly influenced by inter- activating protein (LAP), which are isoforms of CCAAT/
acting genetic modifier loci5,9,186,187. It is therefore most enhancer-binding protein- (C/EBP), a central tran-
rational, economical and safe to preselect patient popu- scription factor that binds within the SMAD transcrip-
lations before initiating anti-TGF drug treatment on tion factor complex to elicit TGF-mediated cytostatic
the basis of surrogate markers of TGF involvement in responses196. Upregulation of SIX1 in breast cancer has
the disease process (such as increased TGF ligand and also been shown to be pivotal in the growth-suppressive
PSMAD levels, and specific disease characteristics) and to tumour-progressive switch197, as has downregulation of
contra-indications of possible adverse side effects (such DAB2 (REF.198). Any of these tumour markers, possibly
as susceptibility to inflammation or certain vascular in combination, may be used in the future to predict
conditions). Peripheral blood may provide non-invasive tumour responses to TGF inhibition.
markers that might be useful in this respect, including Finally, the effects of interactions with other anticancer
the ability to quantitatively screen patient responses to drugs will need to be considered, as some drugs may res-
TGF inhibition on the basis of measuring P-SMAD2 urrect the growth-inhibitory arm of the TGF signalling
levels in peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PMNCs)188. pathway, which would then counter-indicate their combi-
Similarly, potential adverse inflammatory effects could natorial use with TGF inhibitors199. Indeed, the ability to
be predicted by examining specific immunological specifically target the pro-tumorigenic versus the tumour-
responses of PMNCs189192 to TGF inhibition exvivo. suppressive effects of TGF on the tumour cell perse will
require the development of next-generation drugs focusing
Patient selection for TGF inhibitors in oncology. The on these downstream pathways. In the meantime, much
simplest biomarker for patient selection for TGF research still remains to be undertaken to make inroads
inhibitors in oncology is probably high circulating levels into the area of informed patient selection for oncology
of TGF, as one major goal of this therapy is to reduce, applications of TGF inhibitors.
but not totally ablate, TGF signalling 193. As indicated
above, non-invasive biomarkers for predicting patient Drug resistance. In oncology, the development of tumour
responsiveness and efficacy of TGF inhibitors have drug resistance is inevitable134,200,201. It has been docu-
been developed on the basis of measuring P-SMAD2 mented for standard chemotherapy, pathway-targeted
levels in PMNCs. Indeed, PMNCs can be treated with therapies and is even common with anti-angiogenesis
drugs exvivo to determine, and thus predict, individ- inhibitors200,201. Acquired biochemical resistance of
ual patient responses to SMIs188,193. As TGF inhibitors tumour cells to LY2109761 has been observed in a
certainly act to reduce tumour metastasis, the assay of preclinical model of SCC and may have adverse conse-
circulating tumour cell number may also be a useful quences in driving a more stem cell-like phenotype156,
indicator for therapeutic response. Moreover, as many although this remains to be tested. Carefully restricting
of the pro-tumorigenic effects of TGF are mediated TGF inhibitors to short-term or intermittent usage
by immune system modulation, it might be possible should avoid these complications82. Combinatorial and/
to monitor blood cell or plasma protein profiles for or sequential treatment with complementary drugs will
patient selection and for surrogate monitoring of patient also be important. It is clear that oncologists will need an
responses. arsenal of different anticancer drugs to tackle cancer, in
In cancer (as well as non-malignant diseases), the out- much the same way that antibiotics have been developed
come of reduced TGF signalling may be highly depend- to combat infectious diseases.
ent on the innate genetic background of the individual,
especially when considering tumour microenvironment Conclusion and future directions
effects, such as immune surveillance. Elucidating specifi- In conclusion, TGF signalling inhibitors are generally
cally which genetic variants influence signalling output safe and may be efficacious in several clinical applications,
will not only be useful for dissecting the intricacies of especially in desperate cases such as end-stage cancer or
this signalling pathway invivo, but may also provide IPF. The development of these drugs may offer further
predictive markers for the outcome (desired or unde- therapeutic opportunities. Counterintuitively, there have
sired) of TGF signal inhibition. However, for cancer been reports suggesting that inhibition of the TGF sig-
therapeutics, patient selection may be more complex, as nalling pathway may be beneficial in autoimmune dis
the response of both the tumour cell and host (tumour orders, such as multiple sclerosis, through downregulation
microenvironment and normal patient tissue) to TGF of the TH17 pathway 202,203. Recent studies have also sug-
blockade needs to be considered. Tumour biopsy and gested that TGFSMAD3 signalling regulates glucose
genetic analysis (for example, loss of TGFBR2, SMAD2 tolerance and energy homeostasis, and that blockade of
or SMAD4)194,195 might predict whether the tumour the pathway may be used for regulation of diabetes and
retains growth sensitivity to TGF. Molecular and his- obesity 204. The outlook for anti-TGF signalling therapy
tological analyses may also contribute to the prediction for numerous diseases appears bright. At least four com-
of tumour responses to TGF inhibition. The activa- panies are well on their way in clinical drug development,
tion of alternative intracellular signalling pathways and and further scientific and mechanistic studies are war-
transcription factor profiles has been associated with ranted in order to optimize patient selection and drug-
the switch from tumour suppression by TGF to dosing regimens for each disease application.
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real or imagined?, in reference to Bogdahn etal. typeI activin receptor-like kinase (ALK) receptors ries is funded by grants from the US National Cancer Institute,
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is not the reward, in reference to Bogdahn etal. antagonist, inhibits human glioma cell line Comprehensive Cancer Center to R.J.A., and from the NHLBI,
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Extended adjuvant temozolomide for treatment Roberts, A.B. SB505124 is a selective inhibitor of
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malignant glioma: the first human dose study. and invasiveness and enhances immunogenicity of Rosemary J. Akhursts homepage:
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214. Occleston, N. L. etal. Discovery and development of Cancer Res. 64, 79547961 (2004). Akiko Hatas homepage:
avotermin (recombinant human transforming growth This is the first report of the use of a chemical http://www.cvri.ucsf.edu/Scientist/Hata.shtml
factor 3): a new class of prophylactic therapeutic for inhibitor of TRI showing efficacy in reduced ClinicalTrials.gov website: http://www.clinicaltrials.gov
the improvement of scarring. Wound Repair Regen. tumour growth and invasion as well as increased Flamel Technologies and Digna Biotech Announce Multiple
19 (Suppl. 1), S38S48 (2011). immunogenicity in a mouse model of glioblastoma. Product Development Agreement (27 June 2011 press
215. Platten, M. etal. N[3,4dimethoxycinnamoyl]- 227. Ge, R. etal. Inhibition of growth and metastasis of release): http://www.dignabiotech.com/comun/fichero.
anthranilic acid (tranilast) inhibits transforming mouse mammary carcinoma by selective inhibitor
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growth factor relesase and reduces migration and of transforming growth factor type I receptor
invasiveness of human malignant glioma cells. kinase in vivo. Clin. Cancer Res. 12, 43154330 ALL LINKS ARE ACTIVE IN THE ONLINE PDF
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