MP Welding

Manufacturing Process
Module II
Welding:- diffusion, definition of welding, metallurgy of welding, applications, classification,

mechanism - welding design:- effect of weld parameters on weld quality, heat input, heat flow
and distortions - Gas welding:- details, equipment, fluxes and filler rods flame cutting - Arc
welding:- applications, equipment, polarity, governing factor in fusion welding - electrodes
and types TIG - GMA - CO2 process - Submerged arc, electroslag, plasma arc and flux
cored arc welding - Resistance, thermit solid state welding - Electron and laser beam
welding explosive welding - inspection and defects in welding - heat affected zone, grain
size variations in joint strength - Brazing and soldering - adhesive bonding Extrusion:
Metal flow mechanism and types extrusion defects.
Welding
Welding is the Permanent joining process of joining similar or dissimilar metals by
the application of Heat, with or without the application of pressure and addition of Filler
Material.
WELDABILITY
Weldability is the capacity of a material to be welded under fabrication conditions and to

perform satisfactorily in the intended service. Weldability depends up on -
1. Melting Point of the metal.
2. Thermal Conductivity
3. Thermal Expansion
4. Surface Condition.
5. Change in Microstructure
A metallic material with adequate weldabilty should fulfill the following requirements :
Have good strength after welding.
Good corrosion resistance after welding.
Have good weld quality.
Weldability Tests: are testing conducted to gather information about the behavior of a
material during welding.
ADVANTAGES OF WELDING:
1 Dept of Mechanical Engineering, ICET Mulavoor

It produces a permanent joint.
Overall cost of welding equipment is low.
Large number of metals can be welded.
Welding operation can be mechanized.
Welding operation is economical.
High corrosion resistance compared to bolting and riveting.
Portable welding equipments are available.
DISADVANTAGES OF WELDING :
Welding operation distorts (deforms) the work-pieces.

Skilled worker is a must to produce good weld.
Welded joints require heat treatment.
Edge preparation is necessary.
Produces chemical and physical changes.
Some welding operation gives off harmful radiations.
Practical Applications of Welding :
Welding has been employed in industry as a tool for:
a) Fabrication works.
b) Repair and maintenance works.
Few important applications are given below.
Aircraft Constructions: - Engine Parts, Turbine engine frames for jet engine parts.
Automobile Construction: - Car wheels, body parts etc.
Bridges
Buildings: - Trusses.
Pressure Vessels and Tanks
Storage Tanks
Rail Road Equipment
Piping and Pipelines
Ships
Machine Tool Frames
Household and office furniture.
Earthmoving machinery and cranes.

CLASSIFICATION OF WELDING :
Welding of metals can be divided into two categories.
1. Plastic Welding and 2. Fusion Welding.
1. Plastic Welding: In this type of welding the metals to be joined are to be heated to the
plastic state and then forced together by external pressure without the addition of filler
material. Eg. Forge Welding, resistance welding.
2. Fusion Welding: In this type of welding no pressure is involved but a very high
temperature is produced in or near the joint. The metal at the joint is heated to the molten
state and allowed to solidify. The heat may be generated by electric arc, combustion of
gases or chemical action. A filler may be material is used during the welding process. eg.
Oxy-Acetylene Welding, Carbon Arc Welding etc
TYPES OF WELDING :
1. Gas Welding 5. Solid State Welding

a) Oxy-Acetylene Welding a) Friction Welding
b) Air-Acetylene Welding b) Explosive Welding
c) Oxy-hydrogen Welding c) Ultrasonic Welding
d) Pressure Gas Welding d) Diffusion Welding
2. Arc Welding 6. Radiant Energy Welding
a) Carbon Arc Welding a) Electron Beam Welding
b) Plasma Arc Welding b) Laser Welding
c) Submerged Arc Welding
d) Metal Arc Welding
e) Electro-Slag Welding
f) Flux Cored Arc Welding
g) Gas Metal Arc Welding (MIG)
h) Gas Tungsten Arc (TIG)
i) Atomic Hydrogen Arc
Welding
3. Resistance Welding
a) Butt Welding
b) Projection Welding
c) Spot Welding
d) Percussion Welding
e) Seam Welding
4. Thermo Chemical Welding Process
a) Thermit Welding

PLASTIC WELDING OR FORGE WELDING
Principle
In Forge Welding the parts to be welded are heated, mating surfaces are then upsetted, cleft shape
is formed at the mating surface and joined by applying excess pressure at the mating surfaces.
Forge welding can be carried-out for wrought iron and low carbon steels.
Forge welding is possible in metals having thickness above 30 mm.
The parts to be welded are heated to about1000C. Heating is done using coke or charcoal.
Then the parts to be welded are upsetted at the ends.
A cleft shape is formed on the ends.
After applying suitable flux, the parts are placed end to end and are hammered together.
This forms a strong weld.
Types of Forge Welding
1. Fire Welding : In this type of Forge Welding, the parts to be joined are heated in fire by
the Blacksmith and join them by hammering.
2. Water Gas Welding : In this type, parts are heated by water gas flame (consisting of
hydrogen, carbon monoxide and nitrogen) and joined by hammering or by means of
pressure rollers.
Used to manufacture pipes, containers etc.
Advantages :
Have good strength if joined correctly.

Disadvantages :
Skilled labor is required.

Process restricted to mild steel and wrought iron.

Process is slow.
Applications :
Used for making pipes, containers etc.
FUSION WELDING
In case of fusion welding it can classified low temperature welding and high temperature
welding. When heat is generated to develop low temperature it is called low temperature
welding like soldering and brazing. Other fusion welding methods are high temperature
welding methods.
Fusion welding can also be classified on the basis of method of heat generation like gas
welding, electric arc welding, resistance welding, thermit welding, etc.
GAS WELDING
It is a fusion welding in which strong gas flame is used to generate heat and raise temperature
of metal pieces localized at the place where joint is to be made. In this welding metal pieces
to be joined are heated. The metal thus melted starts flowing along the edges where joint is to
be made. A filler metal may also be added to the flowing molten metal to fill up the cavity at
the edges. The cavity filed with molten metal is allowed to solidify to get the strong joint.
Different combinations of gases can be used to obtain a heating flame. The popular gas
combinations are oxy-hydrogen mixture, oxygen-acetylene, etc. different mixing proportion
of two gases in a mixture can generate different types of flames with different characteristics.
Advantages Of Gas Welding :
Oxy-Fuel gas can be easily controlled.

Suitable for thin sheets.
Equipment is portable.
It can weld most common materials.
By changing the nozzle the torch can be use for heating, brazing and cutting purposes.
Cost is low.
Welder has considerable control over the temperature of the metal in the weld zone.
Disadvantages Of Gas Welding :
Heavy sections cannot be joined.

Flame temperature is less than that of arc.
Refractory metals (eg. Tungsten, molybdenum, tantalum etc) and reactive metals (eg.
Titanium and zirconium) cannot be gas welded.
Fluxes used produce fumes that are irritating to eyes, nose and lungs.

Slower than Arc Welding Process.
Distortion to the work piece is more compared to Arc Welding process.
Gases are expensive.
Careful handling and storing is required.
Equipment is expensive.
Applications :
Used for joining thin sections.

Used for joining metals which cannot be heated to high temperatures.
Uses in automobile and aircraft industry.
Used for joining various ferrous and non-ferrous metals.
Important Types of Gas Welding are
Oxy-Acetylene Welding
Air-Acetylene Welding
Oxy-Hydrogen Welding
Oxy-Acetylene Welding
Oxy-acetylene welding can used for welding of wide range of metals and alloys. Acetylene
mixed with oxygen when burnt under a controlled environment produces large amount of
heat giving higher temperature rise. This burning also produces carbon dioxide which helps
in preventing oxidation of metals being welded. Highest temperature that can be produced by
this welding is 3200oC. The chemical reaction involved in burning of acetylene is
2C2H2 + 5O2 = 4CO2 + 2H2O + Heat
Important Parts of Oxy-Acetylene Welding Equipment:

1. Acetylene Cylinder: Acetylene cylinder is painted maroon and the valves
are screwed left handed. Usual sizes are around 2800 and 5600 litres. Mild steel
cylinder is charged to a pressure of 15.5 bar.
2. Oxygen Cylinder : Oxygen cylinders are painted black and the valves are
screwed right handed. Usual sizes are around 3400, 5200 and 6800 litres. Mild steel
cylinder is charged to a pressure of 136.6 bar.
3. Oxygen and Acetylene pressure Regulators :

The pressure of the gases obtained from the cylinders is considerably higher than the gas
pressure required to carry out the welding operation. The purpose of regulators is to
1. Reduce the pressures of gases
2. To produce steady flow of gases.
Pressure regulators is fitted with two pressure gauges. One indicates the pressure inside the
cylinder and the other indicates the reduced pressure at which gas is going out.
4. Welding Torch or Blow Pipe :

Oxygen and the fuel gas are mixed in the welding torch. Welding Torch controls the flow of
gases to the welding nozzle.
FLAME FORMATION AND ITS DIFFERENT TYPES

Flame is established by burning (controlled) of the two gases mixture at the outlet of blow
pipe or torch. The proportion of gasses in the mixture is controlled by controlling the flow
rate of each of the two gasses. Here, it should be clear that burning of acetylene generates
heat and oxygen only supports acetylene in burning. Insufficient supply of oxygen leaves
acetylene unburnt in atmosphere creating pollution and adding cost of waste acetylene. A
general nomenclature of the flame established in oxy-acetylene welding is given in Figure
below. The flame can be divided in to three zones. Zone 1 is very near to the outlet of torch,
where oxygen reacts with acetylene and burning of two gases takes place. Zone 2 produces
carbon monoxide and hydrogen in ratio 2 : 1 by volume. This zone gives the highest
temperature of the flame. This zone is suppose to consume the oxygen available here and
contribute reducing properly to the flame. Zone 3 is the outermost zone of the flame.
Temperature of this zone is comparatively low. This zone converts CO to CO2 and H2O
vapours. On the basis of supply proportion of acetylene and oxygen, flames can be divided
into three categories, neutral flame, carburizing flame and oxidizing flame. These are
described here.
Neutral Flame
A neutral flame is obtained when equal amount of O2 and C2H2 are mixed and burnt at the
outlet of welding torch. The flame consists of two sharply defined zones inner white flame
cone outer envelope of blue colour as shown in Figure below. In this flame none of two
gasses is supplied in excess. This flame is of white cone and has the maximum use for
successful welding of many metals.
Carburizing Flame
This flame is obtained when excess of acetylene is supplied than which is theoretically
required. This flame is identified by three zones the inner cone which is not sharply defined,
an outer envelope as same in case of neutral flamed and middle zone surrounds inner one
extended to outer envelope. It is white in colour due to excess acetylene. Larger the excess of
acetylene larger will be its length. To get a neutral flame a systematic procedure is to make
carburizing flame first and then increase oxygen supply gradually till the excess acetylene
zone disappears. The resulting flame will a carburizing flame. Its temperature generation
range is 3100oC to 3300oC. It is used for the welding of metals where risk of oxidation at
elevated temperature is more like aluminium, its alloys and lead and its alloys. The metals
which have tendency to absorb carbon should not be welded by carburizing flame as they
become brittle localized.
Oxidizing Flame
This flame as an excess of oxygen over that required for a neutral flame. The ratio O2 : C2H2
= 1.15 to 1.50. To have this flame set carburizing flame first convert it to neutral flame and

than reduce the supply of acetylene to get oxidizing flame. Its inner cone is relatively shorter
and excess oxygen turns the flame to light blue colour. It burns with a harsh sound. It is used
for metals which are not oxidized readily like brasses and bronzes.
Filler Metal :
Filler Metals are additional metal added to the weld.

The composition of Filler Rod is same or nearly the same as that of the part being welded.
Filler metal (Welding Rod) added increases the strength of the bond formed as additional
metal is melted and allowed to solidify.
Filler metal is usually available in the rod form.
Fluxes :

During Welding, if the metal is heated/melted in air, oxygen from air combines with the
metal to form oxides which result in poor quality, low strength welds.
The flux metal is fusible and is non-metallic.
Fluxes are available as powders, pastes or liquids.
Flux chemically reacts with the oxides and a slag is formed. Slag floats over the molten
metal which is later removed.
Flux also act as a cover preventing oxygen and other gases to enter the molten pool.
After welding slag is removed by chipping, filling or grinding.
Composition of Flux : Borates, potassium Chloride, Lithium Chloride, Borax etc.
Requirement of a good Flux :
Should have a lower melting point than the base metal.

Should protect the weld from surroundings.
Should not cause corrosive action to the weld.
Should help the formation of slag.
Welding of Metals
Metal Use of Flux
Steel No Flux is used.
Cast Iron Flux is essential.
Stainless Steel Flux is needed to ensure better control of molten metal.
Flux is necessary due to the formation of oxide film on

Aluminum and its Alloys the metal. Compounds of lithium, sodium and
potassium are used as flux.
Flux is not necessary. However for copper alloys, borax

Copper and its Alloys
based flux is used.
Flux is a must. Flux may contain sodium chloride,

Magnesium and its Alloys
potassium fluoride , magnesium chloride etc
Nickel and its Alloys No Flux is used.
ARC WELDING
Electric arc welding is one of the fusion welding processes in which coalescence of the metal
is achieved by the heat from an electric arc between an electrode and workpiece. A line
diagram indicating the whole process is shown in Figure below. Electric arc is generated
when electrode is brought into contact with the work and is then quickly separated by a short
distance approximately 2 mm. The circuit operates at low voltage and high current so arc is

established in the gap due to thermoionic emission from electrode (Cathode) to workpiece
(Anode). The arc is
sustained due to continuous presence of a thermally ionized column of gas. This arc produces
at temperature of the order of 5500oC or higher. In this way a pool of molten metal consisting
of workpiece metal and filler metal is formed in the welding zone. The electrode is moved
along the joint with perpendicular zig-zag motion. The solidified molten weld pool makes the
strong welded joint. Movement of the electrode relative to workpiece is accomplished by
either manually or by mechanical means in case of automatic welding machines. Better
uniformity and good quality weldments are possible in case of automatic welding process.
ARC WELDING EQUIPMENT

Power Source
Both AC (Alternative Current) and DC (Direct Current) can be used for welding. AC
machines are recommended for ferrous metal and DC machines are recommended for
other metals for better result. Main constituent of welding machine is transformer which
convert the supply to low voltage and high current. For AC welding power is required at
80 to 110 volt and 50 to 80 ampere. In case of DC welding power is required at 8 to 25
volts and 50 ampere. Polarity is also are significant factor. Two types of polarities are
possible in case of DC welding.
Straight Polarity
Electrode is made negative pole and workpiece is made positive pole. It is also called as
electrode negative.
Reversed Polarity
Electrode is made positive pole and workpiece is made negative pole. It is called
electrode positive too. As we know that two third of the total heat is generated at positive
pole and only one third at negative pole. Polarity is decided according to the requirement
of heat at either pole.
Welding Electrodes
These are also called welding rods. Two types of welding electrodes are generally used.
Consumable electrodes and non-consumable electrodes. Consumable electrodes are the
source of filler metal in case of arc welding. Consumable electrodes can further be
classified into two categories coated and bare electrodes. Bare electrodes are simple rods

mode of filler metal with no coating over them. In case of bare electrode flux is required
additionally. These electrodes are rarely used.
Non-consumable Electrodes
They are made of tungsten or carbon. These do not melt in the process of welding and so
called non-consumable electrodes. Their depletion rate is very low. In case of non-
consumable electrodes metal and flux is supplied additionally. Generally non-consumable
electrodes are used in TIG welding processes.
Coated Consumable Electrodes
These are the most popular arc welding electrodes. No additional filler metal and flux are
required with them. In general these electrodes have core of mild steel and coating over
them of flux material. Coating on the electrode performs many functions. It develops a
reducing atmosphere and prevents oxidation, forms separable slag from metal impurities,
establishes arc providing necessary alloying elements to the weld pool. The common
ingredients act as flux which help in slag formation are asbestos, mica, silica, fluorspar,
stealite, titanium dioxide, iron oxide, metal carbonates, etc. Ingredients used to produce
reducing atmosphere are cellulose, dalomine, wood flour, starch. Iron powder provides
higher deposition rate. Manganese oxide and potassium silicate and titanate are the
alloying elements and stabilizers.
TYPES OF ARC WELDING :
1. Carbon-Arc Welding
2. Metal Arc Welding (MMAW-Manual Metal Arc Welding) or (SMAW-Shielded Metal
Arc Welding)
3. Metal-Inert-Gas Arc Welding (MIG)
4. Gas-Tungsten-Arc Welding (TIG)
5. Plasma Arc Welding
6. Submerged Arc Welding (SAW)
7. Electro-slag Welding
8. Flux-cored Arc Welding (FCAW)
1. Carbon-Arc Welding:

Single Carbon Electrode Welding Twin Carbon Electrode Welding
Principle:
Carbon-Arc Welding is an arc welding process in which weld is produced by heating

the work-piece with an arc setup between the carbon electrode and the work-piece.
In this method a rod of carbon is used as negative electrode and work being welded as
positive.
The arc produced between the 2 electrodes heats the metal to the melting temperature
(about 3200 C).
The reason to use Carbon electrode is that less heat is generated at the electrode tip
than at the work piece and carbon electrode will fuse with the job.
In Carbon Arc Welding D.C is used to prevent electrode disintegration and the amount
of carbon deposit at the weld metal.
There are two types of Carbon Arc Welding. They are
1) Single Carbon Electrode Welding
2) Twin Carbon Electrode Welding
Advantages :
Heat input to the work-piece can be easily controlled.

Work-piece distortion is negligible.
Process can be mechanized.
Suitable for thinner pieces.
Disadvantages :
Separate filler metal is needed slowing the process.

Chances of carbon deposit.
Applications :
Welding of Sheet Steel, Copper Alloys, brass , bronze and aluminum.

On many applications, Carbon Arc Welding has been replaced by TIG Welding.
2. Flux Shielded Metal Arc Welding (MMAW or SMAW):
Principle :
Flux Shielded Metal Arc Welding is an arc welding process in which weld is produced
by heating the work-piece with an arc setup between the flux coated electrode and the
work-piece.
Steel when exposed to air forms oxides and nitrides. These impurities weaken the
weld.
To prevent this molten metal is shielded by enveloping it completely with an inert gas
or flux.
In this method a metal rod is used as negative electrode and work being welded as
positive.
Arc melts the electrode and the job.
The arc produced between these two electrodes heats the metal to the melting
temperature (about 2400-2600 C).
Both A.C and D.C can be used.
Shielding can be in the following 4 forms :
1. Coated or Covered Electrode Welding.
2. Gas Shielded Welding.
3. Tape -Shielded Welding.
4. Flux Shielded Welding.
Advantages :
Flux Shielded Metal Arc Welding is the simplest of all the arc welding process.
Equipment is portable.
Big range of metals and alloys can be welded.
Disadvantages :
Mechanization is difficult due to the limited length of electrode.

Process is slow.
Metal transfer is not clear.
Applications :
Used for fabrication work and maintenance work.

All commonly employed metals and alloys can be welded.

Metal-Inert-Gas Arc Welding (MIG) or (GMA-Gas Metal ARC):
Principle
MIG make use of the high heat produced by the electric arc between the consumable
electrode and material to be welded.
Gas Metal Arc Welding is a shielded metal arc process.
The electrode is continuously fed through a gun.
The current ranges from 100 to 400 A depending upon the diameter of the wire.
The speed of melting of the wire may be up to 5m/min.
Usually constant voltage D.C machine is used for MIG Welding.
Welding Gun is either water cooled or air cooled.
Welding wire is often bare.
CO2, argon or argon helium mixtures are often used as shielding gases.
Shielding is done to prevent contamination of weld.
Advantages :
Does not require much skill.

Continuous welding at high speeds can be carried out.

Deeper penetration is possible.
Process can be mechanized.
Thick and thin sections can be welded easily.
Large metal deposition rates can be obtained.
No flux is used.
Faster compared to TIG and Metal Arc Welding.
Disadvantages :
Welding Equipment is much complex.
Difficult to weld small corners.

Slightly complex than TIG.
Applications :
Used for welding of carbon, silicon and low alloy steels, stainless steels, aluminum,
magnesium, copper, nickel and their alloys, titanium etc.
Used for manufacture of refrigerator parts.
Used in industries like aircraft, automobile, pressure vessel and ship building.
Gas-Tungsten-Arc Welding(GTAW) or Tungsten Inert Gas Welding (TIG) :
Principle
Gas Tungsten Arc Welding is a shielded metal arc process.

TIG Make use of the high heat produced by the electric arc between the non-
consumable tungsten electrode and material to be welded.
Tungsten Electrode is used only to generate an arc.
Filler metal may be or may not be used.
Shielding is obtained by an inert gas such as helium or argon or mixture of two.

Shielding is done to prevent contamination of weld.
Usually A.C machine is used for TIG Welding (for nonferrous alloys) except for
ferrous alloys d.c is used.
End of the welding gun is water cooled.
Advantages :
More different types of metals can be welded such as carbon steel, nickel steel,
aluminum, brass, bronze, titanium.
Unlike metals can be welded to each other like mild steel, stainless steel, brass to
copper.
Heat affected zone is very low.
No flux is used.
Clear visibility of arc.
Smooth welds can be obtained.
Disadvantages :
Under similar applications MIG is faster than TIG.
Tungsten if transferred can contaminate the same.

Costly.
Applications :
Welding sheet metals and thinner sections.

Used in precision welding in atomic energy, aircraft and instrument industries.
Difference between TIG Welding and MIG Welding
SL.N TIG Welding MIG Welding

o
1. TIG uses non-consumable tungsten Uses continuous coil electrode of same

electrode. chemical composition as the material
being welded.
2. TIG welding electrode serves the MIG welding electrode serves the purpose
purpose of producing the arc only. of producing the arc as well as filler
metal.
3. TIG is not fast as MIG. MIG is fast.
4. Skilled labour is required. Not required.
5. If filler metal is engaged, operators both Electrode and gas come through same
hands are engaged. gun.
6. TIG is water cooled. No cooling required.

7. TIG is not used for welding plates It is best suited for plates having thickness
thicker than 6mm. more than 6mm.
8. Penetration is not so deep. Deeper penetration can be obtained.
Submerged Arc Welding (SAW)( Hidden Arc Welding) or (Subarc Welding)
Principle
Submerged Arc Welding is an arc welding process in which coalescence (joint) is

produced by heating the work-piece with an arc setup between a bare metal electrode
and the work-piece.
a) In Submerged Arc Welding, the arc is submerged under a layer of Flux and so the arc
is invisible.
b) Flux is fed through a Flux Hopper.
c) The upper portion of flux is in contact with the atmosphere.
d) The Flux may be made of silica, metal oxides or other compounds.
e) Bare electrode (Steel stainless steel or copper etc) is fed through the gun.
f) Normally d.c is employed for Submerged Welding, but a.c is also used.
g) Instead of flux covered electrode, granular flux and a bare electrode is used.
h) SAW is an automatic process for the production of high quality butt welds.

Advantages :
Often automated, so faster.

Deep penetration and high quality weld is possible.
Less distortion.
Operator can work without safety equipment.
Wire electrodes are inexpensive.
No sparks.
Practically no edge preparation is necessary.
Smoot welds can be obtained.
Disadvantages :
Since the operator cannot see the welding being carried out, he cannot judge
accurately the progress of welding.
Cant be used for plates less thickness.
Slag has to be removed continuously.
Cant be used for welding cast iron due to high heat input.
Cast iron, Al alloys, Mg Alloys, Pb and Zn cannot be welded by this process.
Applications :
Fabrication of pipes, penstocks, pressure vessels, boilers, structural shapes etc.

Used in automotive, aviation, ship-building and nuclear power industry.
For welding of metals like mild steel, medium and high tensile low alloy steels.
Flux-Cored Arc Welding (FCAW)
Principle :
Flux-Cored Arc Welding is an arc welding process in which coalescence (joint) is

produced by heating the work-piece with an arc setup between a continuous tubular
consumable electrode and the work-piece.

Equipment consists of a constant-voltage d.c source, a wire feeder and a light weight
welding gun.
Flux is contained with in the electrode.
The flux provides the necessary shielding for the pool.
The heat of the arc melts the surface of base metal and the end of the electrode.
Welding gun is similar to MIG welding gun.
Sometimes additional shielding is provided with a gas.
FCAW is a modification of MIG/CO2 in which a solid wire is replaced by a flux-cored
electrode.
Advantages :
Provides high quality weld at lower costs.

Welds variety of steel over a wide thickness range.
Visible arc-easy to weld.
Reduced distortion compared to SMAW.
Disadvantages :
Used only to weld ferrous metals, primarily steels.

FCAW produces a slag covering which has to be removed.
Equipment is costly. But increased productivity compensates for this.
Applications :
FCAW is widely used for medium thickness steel fabrication work.

Used for welding in bridges, ship building etc.
Electroslag Welding
Electroslag Welding is a welding process, in which the heat is generated by an electric
current passing between the consumable electrode (filler metal) and the work piece through a
molten slag covering the weld surface.

Parts to be joined are positioned approximately an inch apart and an electrode (weld wire)
guide tube is positioned between the parts. Copper cooling shoes are clamped to the sides,
bottom and top of the joint and contain the molten slag and metal during the weld. After the
components are assembled power is applied and the wire is fed through the guide tube. When
the wire reaches the start block there is momentary arcing which melts the granulated flux,
forms the slag pool and extinguishes the arc. The process is initiated by filling the joint with
the flux and starting an arc by short circuiting. The consumable guide tube directs the
electrode (welding wire) and conducts the welding current to the molten slag pool. The
electrical resistance of the slag pool generates heat which melts the wire, the guide tube and
the edges of the two components to be joined. The temperature obtained is approximately
1800 degree Celsius at the surface and 1930 degree Celsius inside under the surface. This
much heat is sufficient to fuse the edges of the work pieces and the welding electrode. As the
wire and guide tube are melted by the flux the liquid metal sinks through the slag to the metal
pool below and solidifies. Since the slag is less dense than liquid steel, it floats to the top and
protects the metal from exposure to air. With continuing addition of weld wire the molten
steel fills the gap, solidifies and fuses the two components.
The slag reaches a temperature of about 3500F (1930C). This temperature is sufficient for
melting the consumable electrode and work piece edges. Metal droplets fall to the weld pool
and join the work pieces.
Electroslag Welding is used mainly for steels.
Advantages of Electroslag Welding:

High deposition rate - up to 45 lbs/h (20 kg/h);
Low slag consumption (about 5% of the deposited metal weight);
Low distortion;

Unlimited thickness of work piece.
Disadvantages of Electroslag welding:

Coarse grain structure of the weld;
Low toughness of the weld;
Only vertical position is possible.
Applications:
ESW is often used to weld stiffeners in structural box columns and wide flanges.
Manufacture of large Presses and machine tools work with large heavy plates.
Other machinery applications include kilns, gear blanks, motor frames, press frames,
turbine rings, shrink rings, crusher bodies, rebuilding metal mill rolls and rims for road
rollers
Pressure vessels for the chemical, petroleum, marine, and power generating industries
Plasma Arc Welding

In plasma arc welding, a shielded arc is struck between a non consumable electrode and the
torch body, and this arc transforms an inert gas into plasma. A plasma is a gas which is heated
to an extremely high temperature and ionized so that it becomes electrically conductive.
Similar to GTAW (TIG), the plasma arc welding process uses this plasma to transfer an
electric arc to a work piece. The metal to be welded is melted by the intense heat of the arc
and fuses together. In the plasma welding torch a tungsten electrode is located within a
copper nozzle having a small opening at the tip. A pilot arc is initiated between the torch
electrode and nozzle tip. This
arc is then transferred to the
metal to be welded. Shielding
gas is obtained from the hot
ionized gas issuing from the
orifice. Auxiliary inert
shielding gas or a mixture of
inert gases is normally used.
By forcing the plasma gas and

arc through a constricted
orifice, the torch delivers a
high concentration of heat to a
small area. With high
performance welding
equipment, the plasma process
produces exceptionally high quality welds. Like gas tungsten arc welding, the plasma arc
welding process can be used to weld most commercial metals, and it can be used for a wide
variety of metal thicknesses.
Advantages of Plasma Arc Welding (PAW):

Requires less operator skill due to good tolerance of arc to misalignments;
High welding rate;
High penetrating capability (keyhole effect);
Disadvantages of Plasma Arc Welding (PAW):
Expensive equipment;
High distortions and wide welds as a result of high heat input (in transferred arc
process).
Resistance Welding (RW)
Resistance Welding is a welding process, in which work pieces are welded due to a
combination of a pressure applied to them and a localized heat generated by a high electric
current flowing through the contact area of the weld.
Heat produced by the current is sufficient for local melting of the work piece at the contact
point and formation of small weld pool (nugget). The molten metal is then solidifies under
a pressure and joins the pieces. Time of the process and values of the pressure and flowing
current, required for formation of reliable joint, are determined by dimensions of the
electrodes and the work piece metal type.
AC electric current (up to 100 000 A) is supplied through copper electrodes connected to the
secondary coil of a welding transformer.
The following metals may be welded by Resistance Welding:
Low carbon steels - the widest application of Resistance Welding

Aluminum alloys
Medium carbon steels, high carbon steels and Alloy steels (may be welded, but the
weld is brittle)
Advantages of Resistance Welding:
High welding rates;

Low fumes;
Cost effectiveness;

Easy automation;
No filler materials are required;
Low distortions.
Disadvantages of Resistance Welding:
High equipment cost;

Low strength of discontinuous welds;
Thickness of welded sheets is limited - up to 1/4 (6 mm);
Resistance Welding (RW) is used for joining vehicle body parts, fuel tanks, domestic
radiators, pipes of gas oil and water pipelines, wire ends, turbine blades, railway tracks.
The most popular methods of Resistance Welding are:
Spot Welding (RSW)

Flash Welding (FW)
Resistance Butt Welding (UW)
Seam Welding (RSEW)
Spot Welding (RSW)
Spot Welding is a Resistance Welding (RW) process, in which two or more overlapped metal
sheets are joined by spot welds.
The method uses pointed copper electrodes providing passage of electric current. The
electrodes also transmitt pressure required for formation of strong weld.
Diameter of the weld spot is in the range 1/8 - 1/2 (3 - 12 mm).
Spot welding is widely used in automotive industry for joining vehicle body parts.

Flash Welding (FW)
Flash Welding is a Resistance Welding (RW) process, in which ends of rods (tubes, sheets)
are heated and fused by an arc struck between them and then forged (brought into a contact
under a pressure) producing a weld.
The welded parts are held in electrode clamps, one of which is stationary and the second is
movable.
Flash Welding method permits fast (about 1 min.) joining of large and complex parts.
Welded part are often annealed for improvement of Toughness of the weld.
Steels, Aluminum alloys, Copper alloys, Magnesium alloys, Copper alloys and Nickel
alloys may be welded by Flash Welding.
Thick pipes, ends of band saws, frames, aircraft landing gears are produced by Flash
Welding.

Resistance Butt Welding (UW)
Resistance Butt Welding is a Resistance Welding (RW) process, in which ends of wires or
rods are held under a pressure and heated by an electric current passing through the contact
area and producing a weld.

The process is similar to Flash Welding, however in Butt Welding pressure and electric
current are applied simultaneously in contrast to Flash Welding where electric current is
followed by forging pressure application.
Butt welding is used for welding small parts. The process is highly productive and clean. In
contrast to Flash Welding, Butt Welding provides joining with no loss of the welded
materials.
Seam Welding (RSEW)
Seam Welding is a Resistance Welding (RW) process of continuous joining of overlapping

sheets by passing them between two rotating electrode wheels. Heat generated by the electric
current flowing through the contact area and pressure provided by the wheels are sufficient to
produce a leak-tight weld.
Seam Welding is high speed and clean process, which is used when continuous tight weld is
required (fuel tanks, drums, domestic radiators).

Solid State Welding (SSW)
Solid State Welding is a welding process, in which two work pieces are joined under a
pressure providing an intimate contact between them and at a temperature essentially below
the melting point of the parent material. Bonding of the materials is a result of diffusion of
their interface atoms.
Advantages of Solid State Welding:
Weld (bonding) is free from microstructure defects (pores, non-metallic

inclusions, segregation of alloying elements)
Mechanical properties of the weld are similar to those of the parent metals
No consumable materials (filler material, fluxes, shielding gases) are required
Dissimilar metals may be joined (steel - aluminum alloy, steel - copper alloy).
Disadvantages of Solid State Welding:
Thorough surface preparation is required (degreasing, oxides removal,

brushing/sanding)
Expensive equipment.
The following processes are related to Solid State welding:
Forge Welding (FOW)

Cold Welding (CW)
Friction Welding (FRW)
Explosive Welding (EXW)
Diffusion Welding (DFW)
Ultrasonic Welding (USW)
Explosive Welding (EXW)
Explosive Welding is a Solid State Welding process, in which welded parts (plates) are
metallurgically bonded as a result of oblique impact pressure exerted on them by a controlled

detonation of an explosive charge.
One of the welded parts (base plate) is rested on an anvil, the second part (flyer plate or clad
plate) is located above the base plate with an angled or constant interface clearance.
Explosive charge is placed on the flyer plate. Detonation starts at an edge of the plate and
propagates at high velocity along the plate.
The maximum detonation velocity is about 120% of the material sonic velocity.
The slags (oxides, nitrides and other contaminants) are expelled by the jet created just ahead
of the bonding front.
Most of the commercial metals and alloys may be bonded (welded) by Explosive Welding.
Dissimilar metals may be joined by Explosive Welding:
Copper to steel;
Nickel to steel;
Aluminum to steel;
Tungsten to steel;
Titanium to steel;
Copper to aluminum.
Advantages of Explosive Welding
Large surfaces may be welded;

High quality bonding: high strength, no distortions, no porosity, no change of the
metal microstructure;
Low cost and simple process;
Surface preparation is not required.
Disadvantages of Explosive Welding:

Brittle materials (low ductility and low impact toughness) cannot be processed;
Only simple shape parts may be bonded: plates, cylinders;
Thickness of flyer plate is limited - less than 2.5 (63 mm);
Safety and security aspects of storage and using explosives.
Explosive Welding is used for manufacturing clad tubes and pipes, pressure vessels,
aerospace structures, heat exchangers, bi-metal sliding bearings, ship structures, weld
transitions, corrosion resistant chemical process tanks.

Ultrasonic Welding (USW)
Ultrasonic Welding is a Solid State Welding process, in which two work pieces are bonded as
a result of a pressure exerted to the welded parts combined with application of high frequency
acoustic vibration (ultrasonic).
Ultrasonic vibration causes friction between the parts, which results in a closer contact
between the two surfaces with simultaneous local heating of the contact area. Inter atomic
bonds, formed under these conditions, provide strong joint.
Ultrasonic cycle takes about 1 sec. The frequency of acoustic vibrations is in the range 20 to
70 KHz. Thickness of the welded parts is limited by the power of the ultrasonic generator.
Ultrasonic Welding is used mainly for bonding small work pieces in electronics, for
manufacturing communication devices, medical tools, watches, in automotive industry.
Advantages of Ultrasonic Welding:
Dissimilar metals may be joined;

Very low deformation of the work pieces surfaces;
High quality weld is obtained;
The process may be integrated into automated production lines;
Moderate operator skill level is enough.
Disadvantages of Ultrasonic Welding:
Only small and thin parts may be welded;

Work pieces and equipment components may fatigue at the reciprocating loads
provided by ultrasonic vibration;

Work pieces may bond to the anvil.

Electron Beam Welding (EBW)
Electron Beam Welding is a welding process utilizing a heat generated by a beam of high
energy electrons. The electrons strike the work piece and their kinetic energy converts into
thermal energy heating the metal so that the edges of work piece are fused and joined
together forming a weld after Solidification.
The process is carried out in a vacuum chamber at a pressure of about 2*10-7 to 2*10-6 psi
(0.00013 to 0.0013 Pa). Such high vacuum is required in order to prevent loss of the electrons
energy in collisions with air molecules.
The electrons are emitted by a cathode (electron gun). Due to a high voltage (about 150 kV)
applied between the cathode and the anode the electrons are accelerated up to 30% - 60% of
the speed of light. Kinetic energy of the electrons becomes sufficient for melting the targeted
weld. Some of the electrons energy transforms into X-ray irradiation.
Electrons accelerated by electric field are then focused into a thin beam in the focusing coil.
Deflection coil moves the electron beam along the weld.
Electron Beam is capable to weld work pieces with thickness from 0.0004 (0.01 mm) up to
6 (150 mm) of steel and up to 20 (500 mm) of aluminum. Electron Beam Welding may be
used for joining any metals including metals, which are hardly weldable by other welding
methods: refractory metals (tungsten, molybdenum, niobium) and chemically active metals
(titanium, zirconium, beryllium). Electron Beam Welding is also able to join dissimilar
metals.

Advantages of Electron Beam Welding (EBW):
Tight continuous weld;

Low distortion;
Narrow weld and narrow heat affected zone;
Filler metal is not required.
Disadvantages of Electron Beam Welding (EBW):
Expensive equipment;
High production expenses;
X-ray irradiation.
Laser Welding (LW)
Laser Welding (LW) is a welding process, in which heat is generated by a high energy laser
beam targeted on the work piece. The laser beam heats and melts the work pieces edges,
forming a joint.
Energy of narrow laser beam is highly concentrated: 108-1011 W/in2 (108-1010 W/cm2),
therefore diminutive weld pool forms very fast (for about 10-6 sec.). Solidification of the weld
pool surrounded by the cold metal is as fast as melting.

There are many different lasers that are used for different reasons. Carbon Dioxide
lasers are used for higher power applications. Pulsed Nd:YAG lasers develop a high
pulse energy that allows percussion drilling and the cutting of metals at angles and
thickness not possible with CO2 lasers.
Since the time when the molten metal is in contact with the atmosphere is short, no
contamination occurs and therefore no shields (neutral gas, flux) are required.
The joint in Laser Welding (Laser Beam Welding) is formed either as a sequence of
overlapped spot welds or as a continuous weld.
Laser Welding is used in electronics, communication and aerospace industry, for manufacture
of medical and scientific instruments, for joining miniature components.
Advantages of Laser Welding:
Easily automated process;

Controllable process parameters;
Very narrow weld may be obtained;
High quality of the weld structure;
Very small heat affected zone;
Dissimilar materials may be welded;
Very small delicate work pieces may be welded;
Vacuum is not required;
Low distortion of work piece.

Disadvantages of Carbon Arc Welding:
Low welding speed;

High cost equipment;
Weld depth is limited.
Thermit Welding
Thermit welding is a chemically reaction welding process. The weld joint is produced by
pouring of superheated molten metal around the joint to be welded, applying with or without
of pressure. Thermit welding basically called a mixture of finely divided metal oxide and a
metal reducing agent as aluminium.
Thermit welding principle:
The necessary heat for joining metal of thermit welding is obtained from chemical reaction
of metal oxide and metal reducing agent. Usually iron oxide is used as a metal oxide and
aliminium or magnesium is used as metal reducing agent. The strong chemical attraction of
aluminium for oxygen is the basis for thermit process. First the thermit mixture is ignited by a
burning magnesium ribbon. The ignited temperature of thermit is about 12000C. When
ignited in one spot of mixture, the heat reaction spreads through the mass. The aluminium
merging with the oxygen of metal oxide and setting free the iron, which is deposited on joint
portion into the mold as a highly superheated liquid metal. If theoretical temperature is about
30000C of thermit, due to chilling effect of crucible the temperature is reduced about
25000C. So it is sufficient for welding temperature.
The thermit reaction is required about thirty second to ignite and it is non-explosive process.
Some chemical reaction:

3Fe3O4 + 8Al 9Fe + 4Al2O3 (719.3 Kcal)
Fe2O3 + 2Al 2Fe + Al2O3 (181.5 Kcal)
3MnO + 2Al 3Mn + Al2O3 (403 Kcal)
3CuO + 2Al 3Cu + Al2O3 (275.3 Kcal)

Applications:
1. It has large application in railway track repairing on the spot.
2. It is used in large frame like locomotive frame welding.
3. Thermit welding is used in crank shaft welding.
Basic Metallurgy of Fusion Welding
A typical fusion welded joint varies in metallurgical structure from the fusion zone to the
base material with consequential variations in mechanical properties. This is because of the
fact that fusion welding processes result in melting and solidification with very high
temperature gradient within a small zone with the peak temperature at the center of the fusion
zone. In general, a weld can be divided in four different zones as shown schematically in
Figure below.
Composite Zone
The combination of melted filler metal and melted base metal creates a liquid weld pool that
becomes the composite zone upon cooling. Should the filler metal be of a different chemical
composition compared to the base metal, then the base metal is said to become diluted by the
filler metal. However, due to the electrical sitrring action of the welding arc and
thermodynamic forces, the composite zone is mainly homogeneous.
Unmixed Zone
A very tin region, typically 0.05 - 0.01 in (1.25 - 2.5 mm) surrounding the composite zone is
called the unmixed zone. The metal in this region solidified prior to mixing with the filler
metal since the temperature reached was just above its melting point. The stirring action and
time above the melting temperature is insufficient for mixing to have taken place. Therefore
its chemical composition is essentially the same as the base metal. Although the unmixed
zone is present in all fusion welds, it is readily visible only in those welds using a filler metal
alloy of substantially different chemical composition than the base metal.
Weld Interface

The next zone metallurgically defined in a weldment is the weld interface, typically called
the weld line or fusion line. This interface clearly separates the unmelted base metal on one
side and the solidified weld metal on the other side. In pure metals, the transition from base
metal to weld metal is often difficult to observe metallographically because of epiaxial
qrowth, where during liquid weld metal solidification, the new solid crystals begin to grow
from the existing base metal grains.
Partially Melted Zone
In the base metal immediately adjacent to the weld interface, the temperature from welding is
insufficient for complete melting, i.e. just below the liquidus temperature but above the
solidus temperature, in the solid-liquid region. This area is called the partially melted zone.
In steels, this zone becomes susceptible to hot cracking since the liquidation (melting) of
manganese sulphide inclusions can cause weak localized regions that do not have the hot
strength to withstand the heating/cooling (expansion/contraction) cycle of welding.
Heat-Affected Zone (HAZ)
The HAZ is the subject of continuing interest since it involves a wide range of temperatures
from the welding operation that can significantly alter the base metal's metallurgy and
associated mechanical and physical properties. See the next section.
Unaffected Base metal
The further region from the liquid weld metal (composite zone) is the unaffected base metal.
This region is defined by welding temperature below the lower critical transformation
temperature (A3), 1340oF (725oC) for carbon steels. As such, there are no phase
transformations occur to the original base metal microstructure. However, since the
temperature reached in this region are sufficient to cause precipitation hardening, tempering
or stress relieving, it is important to know the original microstructure and the potential effects
of further heating.
Heat Flow in Welding

Arc welding processes involve the melting of the faying surfaces and the filler metal, if any,
followed by solidification of the molten weld metal. Melting and solidification steps of
welding are associated with the flow of heat and are affected by rate of heat transfer in and
around the weld metal. Metallurgical structure of metal in weld and region close to the weld
metal is mainly determined by the extent of rise in temperature and then cooling rate
experienced by the metal at particular location of HAZ and weld. Further, differential heating
and cooling experienced of different zones of weld joint cause not only metallurgical
heterogeneity but also non-uniform volumetric change which in turn produces the residual
stresses. These residual stresses adversely affect the mechanical performance of the weld
joint besides distortion in the welded components if proper care is not taken.

Weld Thermal Cycle
Weld thermal cycle shows variation in temperature of a particular location (in and around the
weld) during the welding as a function of welding time. As the heat source (welding arc or
flame) approaches close to the location of interest first temperature increases heating regime
followed by gradual decrease in temperature cooling regime. A typical weld thermal cycle
shows (Fig. 19.1) the rate of heating (slope of a b), peak temperature, and time required for
attaining the peak temperature, cooling rate (slope of b c). Since distance of the point of
interest away from the weld centerline directly affects all the above parameters heating and
cooling rate, peak temperature of weld thermal cycle therefore each location/point offers
different and unique weld thermal cycle (Fig. 19.2). In general, an increase in distance of
point of interest away from the weld centre-line: decreases the peak temperature
decreases the rate of heating and cooling increases time to attain peak temperature
decreases rate of cooling with increase in time
However, weld thermal cycle varies with distance form the weld centre line but it is also
influenced by heat input rate, amount of heat supplied for welding, weldment geometry,
thermal properties of base metal and initial plate temperature. Thermal properties of metal
like thermal conductivity and specific heat also have affect on weld thermal cycle similar to

that of thickness of plates as they increase the rate of heat transfer from the weld metal and
HAZ
Welding Defects
The defects in the weld can be defined as irregularities in the weld metal produced due to
incorrect welding parameters or wrong welding procedures or wrong combination of filler
metal and parent metal.
Weld defect may be in the form of variations from the intended weld bead shape, size and
desired quality. Defects may be on the surface or inside the weld metal. Certain defects such
as cracks are never tolerated but other defects may be acceptable within permissible limits.
Welding defects may result into the failure of components under service condition, leading to
serious accidents and causing the loss of property and sometimes also life.
Various welding defects can be classified into groups such as cracks, porosity, solid
inclusions, lack of fusion and inadequate penetration, imperfect shape and miscellaneous
defects.
1. Cracks
Cracks may be of micro or macro size and may appear in the weld metal or base metal or
base metal and weld metal boundary. Different categories of cracks are longitudinal cracks,
transverse cracks or radiating/star cracks and cracks in the weld crater. Cracks occur when
localized stresses exceed the ultimate tensile strength of material. These stresses are
developed due to shrinkage during solidification of weld metal.
Fig 13.1: Various Types of Cracks in Welds
Cracks may be developed due to poor ductility of base metal, high sulpher and carbon
contents, high arc travel speeds i.e. fast cooling rates, too concave or convex weld bead and
high hydrogen contents in the weld metal.
2. Porosity

Porosity results when the gases are entrapped in the solidifying weld metal. These gases are
generated from the flux or coating constituents of the electrode or shielding gases used during
welding or from absorbed moisture in the coating. Rust, dust, oil and grease present on the
surface of work pieces or on electrodes are also source of gases during welding. Porosity may
be easily prevented if work pieces are properly cleaned from rust, dust, oil and grease.Futher,
porosity can also be controlled if excessively high welding currents, faster welding speeds
and long arc lengths are avoided flux and coated electrodes are properly baked.
Fig 13.2: Different Forms of Porosities
3. Solid Inclusion
Solid inclusions may be in the form of slag or any other nonmetallic material entrapped in the
weld metal as these may not able to float on the surface of the solidifying weld metal. During
arc welding flux either in the form of granules or coating after melting, reacts with the molten
weld metal removing oxides and other impurities in the form of slag and it floats on the
surface of weld metal due to its low density. However, if the molten weld metal has high
viscosity or too low temperature or cools rapidly then the slag may not be released from the
weld pool and may cause inclusion.
Slag inclusion can be prevented if proper groove is selected, all the slag from the previously
deposited bead is removed, too high or too low welding currents and long arcs are avoided.
Fig 13.3: Slag Inclusion in Weldments
4. Lack of Fusion and Inadequate or incomplete penetration:

Lack of fusion is the failure to fuse together either the base metal and weld metal or
subsequent beads in multipass welding because of failure to raise the temperature of base
metal or previously deposited weld layer to melting point during welding. Lack of fusion can
be avoided by properly cleaning of surfaces to be welded, selecting proper current, proper
welding technique and correct size of electrode.
Fig 13.4: Types of Lack of Fusion
Incomplete penetration means that the weld depth is not upto the desired level or root faces
have not reached to melting point in a groove joint. If either low currents or larger arc lengths
or large root face or small root gap or too narrow groove angles are used then it results into
poor penetration.
Fig 13.5: Examples of Inadequate Penetration
5. Imperfect Shape
Imperfect shape means the variation from the desired shape and size of the weld bead.
During undercutting a notch is formed either on one side of the weld bead or both sides in
which stresses tend to concentrate and it can result in the early failure of the joint. Main
reasons for undercutting are the excessive welding currents, long arc lengths and fast travel
speeds.
Underfilling may be due to low currents, fast travel speeds and small size of electrodes.
Overlap may occur due to low currents, longer arc lengths and slower welding speeds.

Fig 13.6: Various Imperfect Shapes of Welds
Excessive reinforcement is formed if high currents, low voltages, slow travel speeds and large
size electrodes are used. Excessive root penetration and sag occur if excessive high currents
and slow travel speeds are used for relatively thinner members.
Distortion is caused because of shrinkage occurring due to large heat input during welding.
6. Miscellaneous Defects
Various miscellaneous defects may be multiple arc strikes i.e. several arc strikes are one
behind the other, spatter, grinding and chipping marks, tack weld defects, oxidized surface in
the region of weld, unremoved slag and misalignment of weld beads if welded from both
sides in butt welds.
Inspection of Welding
Inspection methods used in Welding is as same as those methods used in casting Process
Commonly used Inspection methods are
1. Visual Inspection
2. Liquid Penetrant based Inspection
3. Magnetic Particle inspection

4. Radiographic Testing
5. Ultrasonic Inspection etc
SOLDERING
Principle
In Soldering the metal pieces are joined by heating the closely placed parts and then filler
alloy called Solder applied in the molten state which upon solidification produces the
desired joint.
Soldering is a common process for joining steel, copper, aluminum and other materials at
a lower temperature.
There is no direct melting of the metals being joined.
During the process the filler alloy flows between the two closely adjacent surfaces of the
work-pieces by capillary action.
Soldered joints do not resist corrosion.
All alloys are not equally wetted by solders. The ease with which a metal can be soldered
depends upon the solubility of solder and the base metal
Surface to be soldered should be cleaned either chemically or mechanically to insure
wetting.
Steps in Soldering :
1. Select the metals to be joined.
2. Design the joint for bond formation.
3. Pre-clean the work-pieces to help wetting of base metal by the solder.
4. Selection of solder to obtain the desired joint.
5. Melting the solder. Solder is melted by using :-
a) Soldering Iron
b) Torch Soldering
c) Dip Soldering
d) Oven Soldering
e) Spray Gun Soldering.
f) Resistance Soldering etc.
6. Alignment of work-pieces. Usually lap joint is preferred than butt joint for soldering.
7. Solder is distributed uniformly over the closely placed metal parts and is allowed to
solidify.

8. Soldered work-pieces are then cleaned to remove the flux residues.
Advantages of Soldering :
Dissimilar metals can be joined.
Disadvantages of Soldering
Soldered joints do not resist corrosion.
Soldered joints are not meant to work under vibrations or strength applications.
Different Solders used are :
i. Tin Lead Solders : Tin-Lead solders are used to join most metals. Bond
produced has good
corrosion resistance.
ii. Tin-AntimonyLead solders : Addition of antimony increases the strength of

the bond.
iii. Lead-Silver Solders : Addition of silver results in an alloy will
readily wet steel and copper.
iv. Cadmium-Silver Solders : Used to join aluminum to itself or to other
metals.
v. Cadmium-Zinc Solders : Used to solder aluminum.
vi. Zinc-Aluminum Solders : Used to solder aluminum.
Soldering Fluxes
Any compound added to increase the wetting of the metal with solders is a Soldering
Flux.
Purpose of Soldering Flux is to
a. Remove oxides and other impurities such as dirt from the surface being soldered.
b. Prevent re-oxidation of the surfaces during the soldering process.
Different type of Soldering Fluxes are :
1. Inorganic or Acid Corrosive Fluxes : Consists of Zinc and Aluminum Chloride.
These fluxes dissolve the oxides and floats on the surface.
2. Organic Acid or Mild Fluxes : Constituents of these fluxes are Lactic Acid,
Steraric Acid, Benzoic Acid etc.
Organic Acid are less corrosive than inorganic acids.

3. Rosin Non-corrosive Fluxes : Are the only non-corrosive flux and has high
electrical resistance.
Different Soldering methods are :
1. Soldering Iron Method
2. Torch method
3. Dip and wave method
4. Induction method
5. Resistance method
6. Furnace and hot plate method
7. Spray method
8. Ultrasonic method
9. Condensation method
1. Soldering Iron Method :
Soldering iron method is the traditional tool for soldering.

Soldering iron has a soldering iron has a copper tip which may be heated electrically or
coke or gas flame.
Soldering iron may vary in size depending up on the use.
Tip of the soldering iron conducts heat from the heat source to the components being
joined. It stores can conveys molten solder also.
Soldering iron are not limited to electrical soldering. Large cans and similar assemblies
can be soldered by Soldering Iron.
Tinning : Process of dipping the hot soldering iron tip in flux and then applying solder
enabling on solder to form a coating on the surface of tip of soldering iron. Tip of
Soldering iron is again dipped in flux and then applied with solder to carry out the
soldering operation.
2. Torch Method :
In Torch Soldering, a gas torch is used to supply heat which may have single or multi-
orifice tips.
Torch may operate on Air and Acetylene, oxygen and acetylene and hydrogen and air
and propane.
Torch Soldering is used when parts are too large for soldering iron.

3. Dip and Wave Method
Dip Soldering consists of dipping the assembled, flux coated joints into the pools of
molten solder.
Dip Soldering is used for mass production of joints.
Wave Soldering is employed to eliminate some drawbacks of Dip Soldering.
In Wave Soldering, the parts to be soldered are carried by a conveyer.
Parts to be soldered touches a wave of solder pumped from solder bath through a narrow
slot.

BRAZING
Principle
In Soldering the metal pieces are joined by heating the closely placed parts and then filler
alloy called Spelter applied in the molten state which upon solidification produces the
desired joint.
Melting point of filler metal is above 427C. There is no direct melting of the metals
being joined.
Most metals and alloys such as carbon steels, cast iron, stainless steels and alloys steels,
copper, bronze, aluminum can be brazed.
Brazing gives a much stronger joint compared to Soldering.
Steps in Brazing :
1. Parts to be welded are cleaned.
2. Flux is applied to prevent oxidation of parts to be joined during heating.
3. Parts to be brazed are heated.
4. Filler material is then fed to the joint area.
5. The flux employed melts at a lower temperature than the filler metal, wets the surface to
be brazed and removes the oxide film and cleans the surfaces.
6. As the capillary action between the base metal and the filler material is more than that
between base metal and flux, the filer material replaces the flux and flows into the joint.
7. The joint filled with liquid filler material upon cooling to room temperature solidifies and
forms the desired joint.
Different Brazing Alloys (Filler metal) used are :
a) Al-Si Filler
b) Mg Filler
c) Cu and Cu-Zn filler
d) Gold Filler metals
e) Nickel filler metals
f) Nickel filler metals
g) Silver Brazing filler metals.
Advantages of Brazing
i. Dissimilar metals can be joined.

ii. Properly brazed joints are air tight.
iii. Brazing gives a much stronger joint compared to Soldering.
iv. Complex parts can be brazed.
v. Brazing produces non-corrosive joints.
vi. Brazing operation does not alter the metallurgy of metals.
Disadvantages of Brazing
Very large parts cannot be brazed because of the difficulty to bring the parts to the brazing
temperature.
A certain degree of skilled labour is required.
Brazing fluxes and filler rods may release toxic gases.
Process is expensive compared to welding.
Applications of Brazing
Brazing can join
1. cast metals to wrought metals
2. non-metals to metals
3. dissimilar metals
Brazing operation is used for joining wrought iron, steels, copper and copper alloys,
aluminum and aluminum alloys, Magnesium and Magnesium alloys and to so many other
materials.
Difference between brazing and welding
Surfaces to be brazed are not raised to the melting point.

Brazing alloy spreads along the joint by capillary action.
There will be penetration into the base metal in welding. But in brazing operation there is
not penetration into the base metal.
Comparison between Soldering and Brazing

In Soldering and Brazing there is no direct melting of base metal being joined.
Brazing alloy or soldering filler alloy flows between the two adjacent surfaces of the
work-pieces.
Both Soldering and brazing process are particularly used for joining dissimilar metals.
Brazing alloy or the solder have a lower melting point than the metals to be joined.
Difference between Soldering and Brazing
Soldering Brazing
SL.No
1. Filler metal has a melting point below Brazing alloy has melting point above 427 C.
427 C
2. Produces joints weaker than those by Produces stronger joint.

brazing.
3. Soldering joints do not resist corrosion. Brazed joints resist corrosion.
4. Air tight joints cannot be obtained. Air tight joints can be obtained.
Adhesive Bonding
Bonding is the surface-to-surface joining of similar or dissimilar materials using a substance
which usually is of a different type, and which adheres to the surfaces of the two adherents to
be joined, transferring the forces from one adherent to the other. Adhesive bonding
technology offers great design flexibility as it can be easily integrated into almost all
available industrial sequences of single-piece work or mass production. As polymer
chemistry has advanced in terms of knowledge, specific adhesives have been developed that
bind very strongly to organic or inorganic materials. With regard to adhesive strength and
deformation, these adhesives meet very specific requirements that result from the
configuration of the adhesive joint. Meanwhile, high-strength adhesive assemblies have been

created with quite short curing periods. The commercially available adhesive can be organic
or inorganic and is deposited on one or both substrate surfaces. Adhesives, especially the
well-established SU-8, and benzocyclobutene (BCB), are specialized for MEMS or electronic
component production.
Advantages
The adherents are not affected by heat
Uniform stress distribution
Possibility to join large surfaces
Possibility to join different materials
Possibility to join very thin adherent
Gas-proof and liquid-tight
No crevice corrosion
No contact corrosion
No precise fits of the adherent surfaces are necessary
Good damping properties
High dynamic strength
Disadvantages
Limited stability to heat
Long-term use may alter the properties of the bond-line
Cleaning and surface preparation of the adherents is necessary in many cases
Specific clamping devices are often required to fix the joint
Nondestructive quality testing is only possible to a certain extent.
Metal Extrusion
Metal extrusion is a metal forming process in which a work piece, of a certain length and
cross section, is forced to flow through a die of a smaller cross sectional area, thus forming
the work to the new cross section. The length of the extruded part will vary, dependant upon
the amount of material in the work piece and the profile extruded. Numerous cross sections
are manufactured by this method. The cross section produced will be uniform over the entire
length of the metal extrusion. Starting work is usually a round billet, which may be formed
into a round part of smaller diameter, a hollow tube, or some other profile.

In this case, a round billet is forced through a die opening creating a round part of reduced
diameter. The ram will continue to move forward, pushing more of the billet material through
the die opening. As this occurs, a continuous length of work will emerge from the other side
of the mold at a certain velocity relative to the speed of the ram. When manufacturing an
extruded product, considerations to support and guide the length of material as it exits the die
are important. As the ram reaches the end of its stroke, a small portion of the billet stock can
not be pushed through the die opening. This last part of the work metal is called the butt end.
The product is cut at the die opening to remove it from the butt end material. In
manufacturing industry, methods have been developed to extrude a wide variety of different
materials. Some materials are better suited for extrusion manufacture than others. Aluminum
is an extremely good material for metal extrusion. Copper, magnesium, zinc, tin and some
softer low carbon steels, can also be extruded with little complication due to the material.
High carbon steels, titanium and various refractory alloys, can be difficult to extrude.
Cold Extrusion Or Hot Extrusion

Metal extrusion is a forming process, like other metal forming processes, it can be performed
either hot or cold
Hot forming, or hot working, involves working a metal above its recrystallization
temperature. Hot working has many advantages in the improvement of the mechanical
properties of the part's material. Cast metal contains pores and vacancies throughout the
material. Hot working will push and redistribute material, closing up these vacancies.
Impurities in molten metal usually combine together in masses upon hardening, forming solid
inclusions within the metal. These inclusions cause weakness in the surrounding material.
Hot working causes these inclusions to break up and distributes them throughout the mass of
metal. Large, irregular, columnar grain structures are usually present in cast parts. Hot
working a metal will break up irregular structures and recrystallize the mass of material into a
finer wrought grain structure. Mechanical properties of the part, such as impact resistance,
ductility and strength characteristics, are improved.
Advantages of cold extrusion over hot extrusion include, not having to heat the work, higher
production rate, no oxidation and scale form on surfaces, greater geometric accuracy, better
surface finish and the ability to strengthen the part by way of strain hardening. In hot
extrusion, like other hot forming processes, the heat transfer between the work piece and the

cooler surfaces of the die presents a problem during the manufacturing operation. In order to
mitigate this issue, die used for extruding can be preheated to lessen the temperature gradient.
Lubricants also help in the reduction of heat transfer between the part and the mold.
Direct Extrusion Compared With Indirect Extrusion
Direct Extrusion
In direct, or forward extrusion, the work billet is contained in a chamber. The ram exerts force
on one side of the work piece, while the forming die, through which the material is extruded,
is located on the opposite side of the chamber. The length of extruded metal product flows in
the same direction that the force is applied.
Figure:209
During direct extrusion, metal flow and forces required are affected by the friction between
the work piece and the chamber walls. Particularly in hot working, oxide scale build up on
the outer surfaces of the work piece can negatively influence the operation. For these reasons,
it is common manufacturing practice to place a dummy block ahead of the ram. The dummy
block is of slightly smaller diameter than the chamber and work piece. As the metal extrusion
proceeds, the outermost surface of the work is not extruded and remains in the chamber. This
material will form a thin shell, (called skull), that will latter be removed. Much of the skull
will be comprised of the surface layer of oxidized scale from the work metal.

Hollow, or semi hollow, parts can be directly extruded with the use of a mandrel attached to
the dummy block.
Indirect Extrusion
Indirect extrusion is a particular type of metal extrusion process in which the work piece is
located in a chamber that is completely closed off at one side. The metal extrusion die are
located on the ram, which exerts force from the open end of the chamber. As the
manufacturing process proceeds, the extruded product flows in the opposite direction that the
ram is moving. For this purpose the ram is made hollow, so that the extruded section travels
through the ram itself. This manufacturing process is advantageous in that there are no
frictional forces between the work piece and the chamber walls. Indirect extrusion does
present limitations. Tooling and machine set up are more complicated, hollow rams are not as
strong and less ridged and support of the length of the metal extrusion's profile, as it travels
out of the mold, is more difficult.
Indirect extrusion can also be used to produce hollow parts. In this process, a ram is forced
into the work material. The ram gives the internal geometry to the tubular part, while the

material is formed around it. Difficulties in supporting the ram limit this process and the
length of tubular metal extrusions that may be manufactured.
Metal Extrusion Die

Metal extrusion die, used in manufacturing extruded sections, must have certain mechanical
characteristics. Extrusion die must be strong and hard, capable of holding their dimensional
accuracy throughout the high stresses created during the manufacturing process. They must
also be resistant to wear, which is always an issue when extruding metal in large quantities.
Dies for hot extrusion must have high thermal resistance and be able to maintain strength and
hardness at elevated temperatures. Tool steels are a common type of material for metal
extrusion molds. Extruding dies may be coated to increase wear resistance. Carbides are
sometimes used for a mold material, carbides do not wear easy and can provide accurate part
dimensions.
Extrusion die angle is an important factor in the manufacturing process, as it is a large

determinant in the flow of material. The amount of force necessary to form a certain cross
section will vary with different die angles. A lower angle will create more friction at the
work-die interface. Friction is a factor that increases the force necessary to extrude a part.
High die angles create more material movement, particularly in the outer regions away from
the center. The greater metal displacement gives a greater turbulence in the metal flow.
Increased turbulence in the flow also increases the amount of force necessary for the
operation. All factors must be calculated in the design of a metal extrusion process.

The optimum die angle will balance out the more extreme friction of lower die angles with
the more extreme turbulence of higher die angles, and be somewhere between the two
extremes. The exact optimum die angle is difficult to determine for any metal extrusion
process due to the influence of other operational factors, such as temperature and lubrication.
The manufacturing engineer must try to provide the best angle based on all the considerations
of a given operation.
Impact extrusion
Impact extrusion is a discrete manufacturing process, in which a metal part is extruded

through the impact of a die with the work stock. The part is formed at a high speed and over a
relatively short stroke. In standard metal extrusions, the force to extrude the work is
commonly delivered by way of a hydraulic press. In impact extrusions, mechanical presses
are most often employed. The force used to form standard extrusions is usually delivered over
a horizontal vector, producing a long continuous product. Force used to form impact
extrusions is usually delivered over a vertical vector, producing a single part with each impact
of the punch. Impact extrusion is most often performed cold. Occasionally with some metals
and thicker walled structures, the work is heated before impact forming it. This process is
best suited for softer metals, aluminum is a great material for forming by impacting.

Hydrostatic Extrusion
In hydrostatic extrusion the work piece is held in a sealed chamber surrounded by pressurized
liquid. Hydrostatic extrusion is actually a form of direct extrusion. The force delivered
through the ram is what pressurizes the liquid. The liquid applies pressure to all surfaces of
the work billet. When the ram moves forward, it is the force from the incompressible fluid
that pushes the work through the die, extruding the metal part.
A critical aspect of manufacturing by this process is setup. The metal work billet must first be
tapered to fit through the die opening, thus creating a seal. This is done before adding the
liquid, in order to prevent leaking. Since the liquid is under great pressure, this taper must be
precise to create a robust bond.
Extrusion defects
Surface cracking occurs when the surface of an extrusion splits. This is often caused
by the extrusion temperature, friction, or speed being too high. It can also happen at
lower temperatures if the extruded product temporarily sticks to the die.

Piping A flow pattern that draws the surface oxides and impurities to the center of
the product. Such a pattern is often caused by high friction or cooling of the outer regions
of the billet.
Internal cracking When the center of the extrusion develops cracks or voids. These
cracks are attributed to a state of hydrostatic tensile stress at the centerline in the
deformation zone in the die. (A similar situation to the necked region in a tensile stress
specimen)
Surface lines When there are lines visible on the surface of the extruded profile.
This depends heavily on the quality of the die production and how well the die is
maintained, as some residues of the material extruded can stick to the die surface and
produce the embossed lines.

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Manufacturing Process

Welding:- diffusion, definition of welding, metallurgy of welding, applications, classification,

Weldability is the capacity of a material to be welded under fabrication conditions and to

1 Dept of Mechanical Engineering, ICET Mulavoor

Welding operation distorts (deforms) the work-pieces.

Practical Applications of Welding :

Welding has been employed in industry as a tool for:

Few important applications are given below.

2 Dept of Mechanical Engineering, ICET Mulavoor

Welding of metals can be divided into two categories.

1. Plastic Welding and 2. Fusion Welding.

1. Gas Welding 5. Solid State Welding

3 Dept of Mechanical Engineering, ICET Mulavoor

Forge welding is possible in metals having thickness above 30 mm.

Then the parts to be welded are upsetted at the ends.

A cleft shape is formed on the ends.

This forms a strong weld.

Types of Forge Welding

Have good strength if joined correctly.

Skilled labor is required.

4 Dept of Mechanical Engineering, ICET Mulavoor

Used for making pipes, containers etc.

Advantages Of Gas Welding :

Oxy-Fuel gas can be easily controlled.

Disadvantages Of Gas Welding :

Heavy sections cannot be joined.

5 Dept of Mechanical Engineering, ICET Mulavoor

Used for joining thin sections.

2C2H2 + 5O2 = 4CO2 + 2H2O + Heat

Important Parts of Oxy-Acetylene Welding Equipment:

6 Dept of Mechanical Engineering, ICET Mulavoor

3. Oxygen and Acetylene pressure Regulators :

4. Welding Torch or Blow Pipe :

FLAME FORMATION AND ITS DIFFERENT TYPES

7 Dept of Mechanical Engineering, ICET Mulavoor

8 Dept of Mechanical Engineering, ICET Mulavoor

Filler Metals are additional metal added to the weld.

9 Dept of Mechanical Engineering, ICET Mulavoor

Should have a lower melting point than the base metal.

Metal Use of Flux

Steel No Flux is used.

Cast Iron Flux is essential.

Stainless Steel Flux is needed to ensure better control of molten metal.

Flux is necessary due to the formation of oxide film on

Flux is not necessary. However for copper alloys, borax

Flux is a must. Flux may contain sodium chloride,

Nickel and its Alloys No Flux is used.

10 Dept of Mechanical Engineering, ICET Mulavoor

ARC WELDING EQUIPMENT

11 Dept of Mechanical Engineering, ICET Mulavoor

TYPES OF ARC WELDING :

12 Dept of Mechanical Engineering, ICET Mulavoor

Carbon-Arc Welding is an arc welding process in which weld is produced by heating

Heat input to the work-piece can be easily controlled.

Separate filler metal is needed slowing the process.

Welding of Sheet Steel, Copper Alloys, brass , bronze and aluminum.

13 Dept of Mechanical Engineering, ICET Mulavoor

2. Flux Shielded Metal Arc Welding (MMAW or SMAW):

Mechanization is difficult due to the limited length of electrode.

14 Dept of Mechanical Engineering, ICET Mulavoor

Used for fabrication work and maintenance work.

15 Dept of Mechanical Engineering, ICET Mulavoor

Does not require much skill.

16 Dept of Mechanical Engineering, ICET Mulavoor