TEC CENTER

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FHWA/TX-90+1190-1 .
LIBRARY
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TRUCK TIRE PAVEMENT CONTACT PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION July 1989
CHARACTERISTICS FOR SUPER SINGLE 18-22.5 j 6. Prlorming OrgOftiulion Code
AND SMOOTH llR24.5 TIRES
7. Author Is)
8. Pet/arming Organization Report No.
Rex William Hansen, Carl Bertrand,
K. M. Marshek, and W. R. Hudson Research Report 1190-l
9. Prlarmin; Otganization Name and Addteaa 10. Wotk Unit No.

Center for Transportation Research

The University of Texas at Austin 11 . Conttocl or Grant No.
Austin, Texas 78712-1075 Research Study 3-8-88/9-1190i
~:;-;-----:--:----:-:--"";""':'"77"------------------------413. Type of Report and Period Co~d
12. Sponaoring A;ency N- ond Addreu
Texas State Department of Highways and Public Interim
Transportation; Transportation Planning Division
P. 0, Box 5051 14. Sponaorin; Agency Code
Austin, Texas 78763-5051
15. Supplementary Hatea
Study conducted in cooperation with the U. S. Department of Transportation, Federal
Highway Administration
Research Study Title: "Tire Contact Pressure Distributions"
16. Abatract

Within the last 50 years truck sizes, allowable wheel loads, and tire inflation pressures have
increased. In order to establish pavements capable of sustaining the increased loading, the actual loading
mechanisms and their magnitudes had to be identified. To identify the magnitudes, static testing was
performed at The University of Texas at Austin on a specially manufactured Armstrong 11R24.5 LR-G
smooth tread tire and also on a commercially available Goodyear 18-22.5 LR-H wide-base, newly-recapped
super single tire. Contact pressure distributions were obtained for the 11R24.5 radial tires at inflation 90
and 105 and loaded to 5,000, 6,000, and 7,000 pounds. The 18-22.5 recap bias tire was inflated to 85 and
100 psi and tested at wheel loads of 8,000, 10,000, and 12,000 pounds. The pressure data acquisition
system used to obtain the tire contact pressures consisted of three main components: a load frame (powered
by a manual hydraulic system) for mounting and loading the test tires, Fuji pressure sensitive film to record
pressure distributions, and a film analysis package using the Adage 3006 Graphics system to process the
pressure distribution data. The contact pressure data were presented as numerical pressure distribution
maps and also illustrated as two-dimensional spectral graphics and three-dimensional surface plots. The
experiments indicated that for the 11R24.5 tire and the 18-22.5 tire, increased wheel loads at constant
inflation pressures generally resulted in more uniform contact pressures throughout the contact area. The
same increased wheel loads were also accommodated by a lengthening of the contact area. On the other
hand, increased inflation pressures at constant wheel loads resulted in a reduction of contact area and
increased contact pressures in the contact patch's central region. Low inflation pressures tended to cause
the wheel load to be distributed more heavily to the contact patch's central area for the radial tire and more
heavily to the sidewall contact area for the bias tire.

17. Ky Words
truck sizes, allowable wheel loads, No restrictions. This document is
tire inflation pressures, contact available to the public through the
pressure distributions, contact area, National Technical Information Service,
magnitudes, static testing Springfield, Virginia 22161.
19. Socvrity Claulf. (of thla roport) 20. S.curity Cl .. alf. (of thla lt.,.l 21- No. of Pog.. 22. Priu
Unclassified Unclassified 88
I
Form DOT F 1700.7 ce-u)
TRUCK TIRE PAVEMENT CONTACT PRESSURE DISTRffiUTION
CHARACTERISTICS FOR SUPER SINGLE 18-22.5
AND SMOOTH 11R24.5 TIRES

by

Rex William Hansen

Carl Bertrand
K. M. Marshek
W. R. Hudson

Research Report Number 1190-1

Research Project 3-8-88/9-1190

Tire Contact Pressure Distributions

conducted for

Texas State Department of Highways

and Public Transportation

in cooperation with the

U.S. Department of Transportation

Federal Highway Administration

by the

CENTER FOR TRANSPORTATION RESEARCH

Bureau of Engineering Research
THE UNIVERSITY OF TEXAS AT AUSTIN

July 1989

\t

The contents of this repon reflect the views of the

authors, who are responsible for the facts and the accuracy
of the data presented herein. The contents do not necessar-
ily reflect the official views or policies of the Federal
Highway Administration. This repon does not constitute a
standard, specification, or regulation.

11
 PREFACE
This is the frrst of two reports which describe work done
on Project 1190, "Tire Contact Pressure Distributions."
The study was conducted at the Center for Transportation
Research (CTR), The University of Texas at Austin, as part
of a cooperative research program sponsored by the Texas
State Department of Highways and Public Transportation
and the Federal Highway Administration.
Many people contributed their help toward the comple-
tion of this report Thanks are expressed to Dr. Torn
Tielking for his guidance, to Mr. Larry Walker of Walker
LIST OF REPORTS
Report No. 1190-1, "Truck Tire-Pavement Contact
Pressure Distribution Characteristics for Super Single 18-
22.5 and Smooth 11R24.5 Tires," by Rex William Hansen,
Carl Bertrand, Kurt M. Marshek, and W. Ronald Hudson,
ABSTRACT
Within the last 50 years truck sizes, allowable wheel
loads, and tire inflation pressures have increased. In order
to establish pavements capable of sustaining the increased
loading, the actual loading mechanisms and their
magnitudes had to be identified. To identify the
magnitudes, static testing was performed at The University
of Texas at Austin on a specially manufactured Armstrong
11R24 .5 LR -G smooth tread tire and also on a commercially
available Goodyear 18-22.5 LR-H wide-base, newly-
recapped super single tire. Contact pressure distributions
were obtained for the 11R24.5 radial tires at inflation 90 and
105 and loaded to 5,000, 6,000, and 7,000 pounds. The 18-
22.5 recap bias tire was inflated to 85 and 100 psi and tested
at wheel loads of 8,000, 10,000, and 12,000 pounds. The
pressure data acquisition system used to obtain the tire
contact pressures consisted of three main components: a
load frame (powered by a manual hydraulic system) for
mounting and loading the test tires, Fuji pressure sensitive
iii
Tire Company for his extraordinary support, to Mrs. Peggy
Johnson, and to all the CTR personnel, especially Lyn
Gabbert, Loretta McFadden, Art Frakes, and Rob Harrison.
We acknowledge their contributions and greatly appre-
ciate their efforts to make this a successful project
Rex William Hansen
Carl Bertrand
Kurt M. Marshek
W. Ronald Hudson
presents experimental data on the effect of tire inflation
pressure and static wheel load on contact pressure distribu-
tion for the bias Goodyear 18-22.5 and the smooth radial
Armstrong 11R24.5 tires. July 1989.
fllm to record pressure distributions, and a f.tlrn analysis
package using the Adage 3006 Graphics system to process
the pressure distribution data. The contact pressure data
were presented as numerical pressure distribution maps and
also illustrated as two-dimensional spectral graphics and
three-dimensional surface plots. The experiments indicated
that for the 11R24.5 tire and the 18-22.5 tire, increased wheel
loads at constant inflation pressures generally resulted in
more uniform contact pressures throughout the contact area.
The same increased wheel loads were also accommodated
by a lengthening of the contact area. On the other hand,
increased inflation pressures at constant wheel loads
resulted in a reduction of contact area and increased contact
pressures in the contact patch's central region. Low
inflation pressures tended to cause the wheel load to be
distributed more heavily to the contact patch's central area
for the radial tire and more heavily to the sidewall contact
area for the bias tire.
 SUMMARY
The rate of deterioration of highway pavements over the
last 50 years appears to have been accelerating. During this
time, legal truck sizes, weights, wheel loads and tire inflation
pressures have also increased. This report is one of several
studies seeking to establish tire-pavement contact pressure
distributions, in order to serve the pavement designers in
their estimations of pavement deterioration and to assist leg-
islators in defining tire policies.
This report presents: (1) an extensive review of the
literature related to this project and (2) the results of an
experiment involving two truck tires statically loaded on a
steel plate. The smooth radial Armstrong 11R24.5 LR-G
and the bias Goodyear 18-22.5 LR-H super single tires were
tested and studied for this report. The smooth radial Arm-
strong 11R24.5 was especially manufactured for research
testing and was made available for this project The bias
Goodyear 18-22.5 super single was chosen for its popularity
on Texas highways.
The testing consisted of making prints of a tire in contact
with a solid steel plate at different axial loads and tire
inflation pressures. These prints were produced by using
Fuji prescale film. Fuji prescale film allowed the entire
IMPLEMENTATION STATEMENT
The work undertaken in this project provides tire con-
tact areas and tire contact pressure distributions for the tested
truck tires at several inflation pressures and wheel loads.
These values are available for use in evaluating the effects of
truck tire inflation pressure and axle load on the structural
iv
pressme distribution to be captmed under a color-intensity
principle. By analyzing the Fuji prints, tire contact pressure
distributions were defmed. Tire side movements were
measmed for the smooth radial Armstrong 11R24.5 tire, to
allow designers to relate their theoretical values with om
experimental results.
The main contributions of this project can be summa-
rized as follows:
(1) At low wheel loads, the load is supported by the
central and edge portions of the smooth radial11R24.5.
(2) As the wheel load was increased on the smooth
radial 11R24.5 tire (while kept at constant inflation pres-
sure), the contact pressures became more uniform.
(3) At constant wheel load, as the tire inflation pressure
increased, the contact pressures in the tread's central region
increased more than did the pressures in the sidewalls.
(4) Increased wheel load on the radial tire, at constant
tire inflation pressure, was accompanied by a lengthening in
the contact patch.
(5) For bias tires the shape of the contact area is more
circular with an oval tendency, while for radial tires the
shape is rectangular.
capacity of pavements. Such information could lead to
changes in methods employed in current highway pavement
design, and could also assist legislators in defining truck tire
policies.
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

PREP ACE..................................................................................................................................................................................................................... iii

LIST OF REPORTS ...............................................................:................................................................................................................................. Ill

ABSTRACT................................................................................................................................................................................................................. Ill

S~Y .................................................................................................................................................................................................................. IV

Th1PLE11ENTATION STATEMENT................................................................................................................................................................. iv

CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION
Background.........................................................................................................................................................................................................
Objective ..............................................................................................................................................................................................................
Scope and Organization of the Study .....................................................................................................................................................
Research and Approach.................................................................................................................................................................................
CHAPTER2. RELATEDSTUDffiS
Surveys of Tire Types and Inflation Pressures.................................................................................................................................... 2
Future Trends in Tire Types and Inflation Pressures....................................................................................................................... 3
Inflation Pressure Effects on Operator Costs....................................................................................................................................... 4
Results of Over-Inflation...................................................................................................................................................................... 4
Results of Under-Inflation.................................................................................................................................................................... 4
Results of Proper Inflation................................................................................................................................................................... 4
General Tire Contact Pressure Characteristics.................................................................................................................................. 5
Membrane Theory and Historical Background......................................................................................................................... 5
Tire-Pavement Contact Stresses...................................................................................................................................................... 5
Stress Components and Orientation....................................................................................................................................... 5
Longitudinal Shear Pressure...................................................................................................................................................... 5
Lateral Shear Pressure................................................................................................................................................................. 6
Factors Affecting Contact Pressure Distributions.................................................................................................................... 6
Inflation Pressure and Wheel Load........................................................................................................................................ 6
Speed and Pavement Friction.................................................................................................................................................. 9
Steering............................................................................................................................................................................................... 10
Tire Contact Pressure and Its Effect on Flexible Pavement Life.............................................................................................. 10
Wheel Load and Inflation Pressure Effects................................................................................................................................. 10
Studies Discussing Wheel Loads and Inflation Pressures........................................................................................... 10
Studies Discussing Fatigue........................................................................................................................................................ 11
Studies Discussing Rutting ........................................................................................................................................................ 12
Surface Modulus, Base Modulus, and Thickness Effects .................................................................................................... 16
Possible Pavement Life Saving Solutions............................................................................................................................................ 16
Conclusions......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 17
CHAPTER 3. EQUIPMENT, PARAMETERS, AND PROCEDURES
Experimental Apparatus ................................................................................................................................................................................ 18
Truck Tires and Rims ............................................................................................................................................................................ 18
Load Frame and Platform.................................................................................................................................................................... 18
Manual Hydraulic Power Supply ..................................................................................................................................................... 18

v
 Hewlett-Packard Data Acquisition System ......................................................................................... 18
Load Cell Calibration .................................................................................................................... 19
Fuji Prescale Film and Teflon Shim Stock........................................................................................ 19
Film Analytical Tools ......................................................................................................................... 20
Adage Analysis System .......................................................... :...................................................... 20
Experimental Parameters ...................................................................................................................... 20
Tires ........................................................................ .'................................................................. 20
Loads ......................................................................................................................................... 21
Inflation Pressures . .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . . . . . . .. . . . ... .. . . . .. . . . . .. .. . .. .. .. .. . . . . .. .. . . .. .. . . .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. . . .. . .. . . . .. . . .. .. .. . .. .. . . .. . . .. 21
Experimental and Adage Analytical Procedures ......................................................................................... 21

CHAPTER 4. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS

-
Radial Armstrong 11R24.5 Load Range-G Smooth Tread Tire .................................................................... 22
Bias Goodyear 18-22.5 Wide-Base Super Single Tire ................................................................................. 37
Experimental Results .................................................................................................................... 37
Discussion of Results ......................................................................................................................... 38
Characteristics of the Smooth Tread 11R24.5 Tire .............................................................................. 38
Characteristics of the Wide-Base 18-22.5 Tire .................................................................................... 38
Experimental Error . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . . .. .. .. . . .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. . . .. .. .. .. .. . . .. . .. .. .. .. . .. .. . .. . . .. .. .. .. .. .. . . . .. 38
Fuji Prescale Film ........................................................................................................................ 53
Load Apparatus............................................................................................................................ 53

CHAPTER 5. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Summary of Research ......................................................................................................................... 54
Conclusions...................................................................................................................................... 54
Recommendations .................................................... :.. .. . . .. . .. .. . . .. . ... .. . . .. .. . . . . .. . . . .. . . . . .. . . . . .. .. . . .. .. . . . . . . . . . .. . . 54

REFERENCES .. ..... . . .. . .... . . . .. .. .. . . .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. ... .. . .. ... . .. .. .. .. . .. .. .... .. .. .. .. .. . .. ..... .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. . . . ... .. .. . . .. .. .. .. .... . .. . . 56

APPENDIX A. TIRE MARKETING SURVEY ............................................................................................ 59

APPENDIX B. LOAD FRAME SCHEMATIC AND PARTS LIST ................................................................. 65

APPENDIX C. LOAD-CELL CALIBRATION............................................................................................. 66

APPENDIX D. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES FOR PRODUCING PRESSURE PRINTS ........................... 67

APPENDIX E. SMOOTH 11R24.5 LR-G MOVEMENT DATA ..................................................................... 68

APPENDIX F. SMOOTH 11R24.5 LR-G TIRE PRESSURE HISTOGRAMS .................................................. 70

APPENDIX G. WIDE-BASE 18-22.5 LR-H TIRE PRESSURE HISTOGRAMS ................................................ 73

APPENDIX H. ADAGE PRI:l'.TT ANALYSIS PROCEDURE .......................................................................... 76

APPENDIX I. NUMERICAL PRESSURE MAP PROCEDURE ................................................................... 81

Vl
 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION
BACKGROUND
Within the last 10 years truck sizes, allowable loads, and
tire inflation pressures have greatly increased. Tire manu-
facturers have been compelled to produce tires capable of
operating at higher inflation pressures for various reasons.
(1) Increased fuel costs have led tire manufacturers to
attempt to decrease tire rolling resistance to increase
fuel economy (Ref 1). One example is the production
and marketing of wide-base super singles.
(2) Higher inflation pressures are normally associated
with increased axle loads (Ref 2).
(3) High tire deflection due to low pressure leads to heat
build-up and premature tire failure; high pressure tires
will run cooler and, therefore, have a loriger life (Ref
3).
(4) Higher inflation pressure decreases the probability of
hydroplaning and may influence skid resistance (Refs
. 2 and 3).
(5) For a given load, a smaller tire may be used with a
higher inflation pressure, decreasing the tire weight
and thus allowing a greater pay-load to be carried (Ref
2).
(6) Use of wide-base super single truck tires instead of
dual rear tires decreases the tire weight, allowing a
larger pay-load to be carried.
Item 6 is of special interest in this study because of the
increased popularity of the wide-base super singles. Al-
though weight savings appear to be the most important factor
in the super single's popularity, other advantages also exist.
The tire/wheel cost is reduced because it is less expensive to
buy one super single tire and wheel than two dual tires and
wheels. In addition, the vehicle handling ability is increased
with super singles. It is also easier to maintain the single tire
since it is not necessary to access an inside dual tire (Ref 4 ).
The increased popularity of super single tires has caused
concern to pavement design engineers. In fact, the state of
Utah has restricted their use through legislation. It appears
the super single tire contact area is smaller than the contact
area for a set of duals, and, therefore, higher pavement
stresses are produced if pay-loads are not reduced. The
super singles also have manufacturer-recommended infla-
tion pressures as high as 120 psi, which may increase the
contact pressure between the tire and the road surface,
resulting in increased stress and strain within a pavement and
decreasing pavement service life.
Although, historically, highway designers have at-
tempted to counteract the effects of increased loading
through improved pavement designs, pavement deteriora-
tion continues to increase. The actual pavement loading
mechanisms and their magnitudes must be identified in
1
order to establish asphalt material properties capable of
sustaining the increased loading conditions.
Current pavement design analyses assume a uniform
pressure.distribution nearly equal to the tire inflation pres-
sure loaded over a circular tire-pavement contact area.
Research has shown the actual tire-pavement contact area
tends to have a non-circular pressure distribution and higher
contact pressures, depending on the user and vehicle operat-
ing characteristics, tire manufacturer, tire type, wheel load,
and tire inflation pressure.
OBJECTIVE
The objective of this study is to provide pavement
design engineers with a better understanding of the actual
contact pressures of tires currently running on U. S. high-
ways. The results from this study will provide other research
teams with data to confirm existing tire-pavement model
pressures and to continue further research on pavement life
management. The objective will be realized by studying and
discussing results from related studies and by measuring tire
contact pressure data for a smooth, radial, 11R24.5 load-
range-G (LR-G) tire and a wide-base, bias, 18-22.5 load-
range-R tire (LR-H).
SCOPE AND ORGANIZATION OF THE
STUDY
Chapter 2 contains a brief summary of studies and
results from similar experiments and from theoretical mod-
eling. Descriptions of the tire types, test parameters, testing
medium, and the testing apparatus used in the experiment are
presented in Chapter 3. The pressure distribution data and
results are discussed in Chapter 4. In Chapter 5 a summary,
conclusions, and recommendations for the direction of
future research are presented. Detailed descriptions of a tire
marketing survey, load frame schematic, load cell calibra-
tion, experimental procedures, analytical procedures,
smooth 11R24.5 radial tire movement data, and tire pressure
histograms are contained in Appendices A through I.
RESEARCH AND APPROACH
To identify the pressure magnitudes, static testing was
performed at The University of Texas at Austin on a smooth
tread Armstrong 11R24.5,LR-G ,and a wide-base Goodyear
18-22.5, LR-H, super single tire, at various inflation pres-
sures and axle loads. Fuji prescale film was used to record
the tire contact pressures. The images were then digitized
using an Adage 3006 graphics system supported by a VAX
work station in order to measure the tire contact pressures
and display the data.
 CHAPTER 2. RELATED STUDIES
It is essential, prior to experimentation, to study the small variation in inflation pressure existed. The maximum
existing state of knowledge relating to the proposed study. inflation pressure measured was 150 psi. The study also
In order to identify tire-pavement contact pressures, the included an analysis considering five variables which may
types ofloading mechanisms mustfrrst be defmed. To do so, affect tire contact pressure, including tire construction,
a literature study of technical publications was carried out vehicle type, axle location, tire diameter, and tread depth.
and the related information reviewed. These publications The Texas study concluded that axle location and tire diame-
were also searched for suitable testing parameters, such as ter were insignificant and that tire construction was the most
tire type, axle load, and tire inflation pressures, as well ~ significant.
existing tire technology, types of testing apparatus, analyu- The Montana study reported 2,365 truck tires were
cal modeling methods, and the effects of increased tire measured during July and August, 1984. Their study
inflation pressures. The summary and findings of the litera- showed that 81 percent of the tires observed were steel belted
ture search are presented below, followed by conclusions. radials, with an average inflation pressure of 105 psi, and
that 17 percent were bias ply, with an average inflation
SURVEYS OF TIRE TYPES AND pressure of 84 psi. This study included measurements of
INFLATION PRESSURES ambient air temperature to determine its influence on the tire
II
characteristics. It was reported that, as the ambient tem-
II In order to characterize the pavement loading mecha-
perature rises, the tire temperature also rises, at approx~
nisms and their magnitudes, officials from various state
mately the same rate, but the tire inflation pressure 1s
Departments of Transportation conducted independent field
unaffected. They also reported that 11 percent of the truck
surveys in Wisconsin (Ref 5), Texas (Ref 6), Montana (Ref
tires had inflation pressures greater than 110 psi.
7), and Illinois (Ref 8). Additional surveys in New Mexico,
The Illinois data were never published but the results
Florida, and Washington have been mentioned in the litera-
were made available through the Illinois Department of
ture, but their reports are currently unavailable (Refs_ 8, 3,
Transportation. The available data showed an average in-
and 9). The surveys were performed on trucks stoppmg at
flation pressure of 97 psi, with a high of 130 psi and a low of
randomly selected, state-required weigh stations. The pro-
52 psi. Their report did not include the number of tires
cedures, conditions, and items surveyed differed from state
observed nor the tire types.
to state, but some measurements included tire size, tire type,
. To add to the field survey results available in the
manufacturer, axle load, inflation pressure, and tire tempera-
literature, tire manufacturers were polled to determine the
ture. Generally, the studies concluded that the tire inflation
most popular tire types currently running on U.S. highways.
pressure varied according to tire type, size, and manufac-
In September 1988 six leading tire manufacturers were
turer.
contacted by telephone and then sent a survey letter from
The Wisconsin study tested 6,780 tires, and the most
The University ofTexasat Austin concerning popular truck
common brand observed was Michelin, followed by
tire marketing data. Five of the manufacturers responded:
Goodyear and then Bridgestone. Wisconsin researchers
Michelin, Uniroyal Goodrich, Goodyear, Armstrong, and
discovered that the current recommended cold pressures
General Tire. Kelly Springfield did not respond, saying the
exceeded those used in the AASHO tests (Ref 10), which
requested information was proprietary. The Rubber Manu-
were 70 to 80 psi, by 20 to 30 psi. When the surveyors
facturers' Association was also contacted but did not release
allowed a 10 psi increase in tire inflation pressure to com-
any information, because the requested information was
pensate for the heat caused by rolling resistance, they deter-
considered proprietary.
mined that 12 percent of the total survey population were
Most of the respondents answered that the majority of
still inflated by 10 psi above the manufacturer's recom-
their truck tires marketed are radials; the exceptions were the
mended cold pressure. It was noted that, although this
Uniroyal Goodrich Company, which does not manufacture
percentage may seem small, it can be significant when
radial truck tires, and the Armstrong Tire Company, which
considering the effect in reducing pavement life. The report
said that only 40 percent of its total tire sales are radials. The
said the most common tire size observed was an 11-24.5 and
responses indicated that the radial 11R24.5 load range~G
the second was an 11-22.5.
(LR-G),radial11R22.5 LR-G, bias 10.00-20 LR-F,and bms
In Texas 1,486 tires were measured and analyzed ac-
11.00-22.5 LR-F are the most popular truck tires in use
cording to the type of truck on which the tires were mounted.
today. The most popular radial and bias wide-base super
The most prevalent truck type observed (70 percent) was a
single tires are the 16.5R22.5 LR-J and 15-22.5 LR-H. The
3-S2,anditwasusedtocarry mostmajortypesofcommodi-
load range is a method tire manufacturers use to specify
ties. Radials were the most common tire type, occurring
maximum recommended wheel loads. For example, the
twice as often as bias tires. The radial tires also had higher
manufacturer's recommended maximum allowable wheel
inflation pressures than the bias tires, but the researchers
load for a single 11R24.5 LR-G tire is 6,430 pounds, and the
concluded that after adjusting for tire construction only a

2

maximum allowable wheel load for a single 11R24.5 LR-H
tire is 6,610 pounds. The survey letter, participants, and
responses can be seen in Appendix A.
It appears from the literature that radial truck tires are
becoming more predominant Brown stated that use of bias menting with tires that are self-sealant or have run-flat
tires is declining and that they are now replaced 80 to 100
percent by radials (Ref 3). Yeager also made similar com-
ments when predicting future tire manufacturing trends (Ref
17). This also seems to agree with the operator/owner
viewpoint, because, normally, radials can carry heavier . formity and further reduce rolling resistance by modifying
loads and travel with less wear than bias tires (Ref 11).
The information from tire manufacturers and research-
ers is corroborated by truck operators, whose competitive
environment forces them to carefully evaluate tire perform-
ance. Lee Butler, the tire supervisor for Central Freight
Lines, Incorporated, related that, although radials have
higher initial cost, bias tires cost more to operate because of
their construction (Ref 4). The change to radials is also
hastened by their increased safety margins, longer tread life,
and lower rolling resistance, which results in increased fuel
economy. The low profile radial, by design, has the same
cross section whether loaded or unloaded, which results in
better stress distribution, and improved travel wear, stabil-
ity, cornering, and weight distribution. Because of the many
advantages radial tires have over bias tires, Mr. Butler's
company is converting almost completely to radials.
FUTURE TRENDS IN TIRE TYPES AND
INFLATION PRESSURES
There is little available literature that predicts trends in
tire design and manufacturing characteristics. However,
what was obtained provided a data base from which some
useful tire testing parameters could be selected. Most ex-
perts agree that the popularity of radials will continue to
grow, especially in the case of all-season radials.
Yeager (Ref-17), while forecasting tire manufacturing
trends, predicted that production of original equipment (OE)
radial tires would continue at the 1983 rate through 2005 .
He also predicted that the amount of radial replacement tires
would increase from 65 to 88 percent The increase in radial
production is apparently due to their increased wear life.
Yeager states that, currently, the average set of radial auto-
motive tires travels approximately 39,000 miles before
being replaced, but some of the newer designs are capable of
traveling 55,000 to 65,000 miles.
Because the all-season radial is fuel efficient and rela-
tively quiet, and provides good traction on wet and snowy
roads, it has become very popular. In 1990, 80 million all-
season radials will be produced for both the OE and replace-
ment markets. The all-season tire, with its performance
capability and lower profile, is becoming more widely used.
Yeager lists additional significant improvements for all-
season tires, including new belt materials, improved han-
dling, noise reduction, improved rolling resistance, and self-
3
sealing or run-flat capability with low pressure warning
devices.
In order to reduce automobile costs, auto manufacturers
are committed to eliminating the spare tire. They are experi-
capability. Yeager states that several major tire manufactur-
ers currently have self-sealing tires and that a low pressure
warning system is only a few years away.
Tire manufacturers are attempting to improve tire uni-
design and production procedures and methods. Rollii:Jg
resistance has also been reduced by increasing inflation
pressures. This trend will continue to increase with the
widespread use oflow profile tires and variable comfort sus-
pension systems. RobertS uses 125 psi inflation pressure in
his theoretical study to establish material properties for thin
asphalt concrete surfaces on granular bases (Ref 1). He
justifies using this high pressure by stating that, although
125 psi may appear high, "representatives from tire manu-
facturers indicate within the next 5 years inflation pressures
will continue to rise, to nearly 150 psi." He believes higher
inflation pressures were brought about because increased
fuel costs prompted the trucking industry to attempt to
reduce rolling resistance and thereby increase fuel economy.
Therefore, the tire manufacturers have responded by mar-
keting both bias and radial tires that operate at higher
inflation pressures.
Yeager believes the marriage of performance tires with
all-season tires will dominate the tire market well into the
1990's. He expects that, by the year 2005, the performance
and all-season tire will account for over 60 percent of the
total OE and replacement market.
It appears likely that, within a decade, nearly a fourth of
all auto tires will be made without human hands touching the
material during the manufacturing process. Manufacturers
are attempting to optimize tire uniformity by implementing
computerized equipment. They are also performing various
laboratory testing to determine wheel loads and slippage in
order to reduce tread wear.
Another significant trend in truck tires is the replace-
ment of dual tires with a wide-base super single. Pa-
pagianakis and Haas (Ref 16) after interviewing tire manu-
facturers and trucking fiims noted the increased popularity
of wide-base super single tires. Bridgestone felt that within
10 years wide-base tires will be as common in North Ameri-
can trucking fleets as they are in Europe. The trucking firms
of Labatt and Manitoulin Transport claim a superior per-
formance for the wide-base tires as compared to conven-
tional duals. The wide-based tires are mounted on non-
driving axles and steering axles. Manitoulin also reported
that wide-base tires have a longer service life. The draw-
backs to wide-base tires appear to be the lower load limit
common! y legislated for wide-base tires, vehicle down time,
and inventory complexity (Ref21). Ifload penalties for the
wide-base tires are lifted, both fleet operators stated they
 4
would use wide-base tires on all their non-driving axles.
Both manufacturers and operators believe that, regardless of
the current load penalties, the economical benefits obtained
from using wide-base tires will cause their market to grow.
Zekoski, an engineer for the Goodyear Tire Manufac-
turing Company (Ref 21), believes radialization will con-
tinue to grow in applications that are traditionally bias-
dominated, such as school buses, pick-up trucks, and deliv-
ery trucks, to increase fuel economy and driving factors.
Zekosk:i also addressed the possible impact of European
tires. He states that European tires generally are one load
range higher than tires manufactured in the United States.
Tires manufactured in the United States are built to the
specifications of the Tire and Rim Association (T&RA).
Recently, there has been a trend in Europe to manufacture
tires having higher loads and inflation pressures to meet the
111111 increasing regional legal load limits. Zekosk:i believes that,
as the global market place continues to mature, an increasing
amount of these tires will enter the United States. The small,
high-load tire, such as the 215n5R17.5, which has a sug-
gested inflation pressure of 125 psi and a maximum load
capability of 4,805 pounds, is a good example of tires which
currently exceed T&RA allowable limits.
INFLATION PRESSURE EFFECTS ON
OPERATOR COSTS
Vehicle and truck operators often believe that by reduc-
ing the rolling resistance of their tires they can achieve better
fuel economy and thus lower operating costs. In order to
reduce the rolling resistance, they increase the inflation
pressure in their tires. Studies show that, although the
majority of truck operators maintain tire inflation pressures
within the manufacturer's recommended standards, some
operators do not. Field data show that tire inflation
pressures range between 40 and 150 psi, with the majority
falling between 95 and 105 psi (Refs 3 and 6). As much as
12 percent of the tires surveyed in the Wisconsin study were
over-inflated.
As was discussed previously, to better understand what
inflation pressures are being used, it would be beneficial to
know what causes an operator to vary his tire inflation
pressure. Ultimately, it must be economics, but what pro-
portion do tire expenditures represent of the total operator
costs? Butler stated, "Tires are the number two cost in
maintaining a fleet, second only to fuel" (Ref 4). In order
to minimize the cost, proper tire maintenance is essential.
Butler stated that improper inflation pressure accounts for
more than 80 percent of required tire and truck service. He
further discussed the results caused by tire over-inflation,
under-inflation, and proper inflation, which are summarized
below.
Results of Over-Inflation
A rolling tire that is over-inflated is more rigid and will
not absorb road shocks properly, and, therefore, over-
inflation is detrimental to the vehicle suspension system.
The tire becomes subject to impact breaks and is more likely
to be cut, snagged, or punctured. Also, overstress is
produced in the rim, possibly shortening rim life and
increasing costs.
Costs are also increased because increasing the tire
inflation pressure never improves tire performance or
strength but, rather, it decreases the tire service life. An
increase in air pressure above the manufacturer's rated
specifications will not increase load carrying capacity, but
will cause premature wear in the center or the crown of the
tire, reducing tread mileage, and, thereby, increasing tire
cost Irregular tire carcass shoulder wear is also caused by
over-inflation, which reduces the possibility for retreading.
Results of Under-Inflation
Under-inflation not only causes higher rolling resis-
tance, thereby decreasing fuel economy, but increases stress
in the shoulder areas of the tire. Thus, abnormal flexing
occurs in the shoulders and sidewalls, which produces
excessive heat. The heat beaks down rubber compounds or
causes ply separation, resulting in lost tire strength. If heat
build up continues the tire eventually blows out An
increase in heat also may shorten the tire's carcass life by
decreasing its possibility of being retreaded.
The problems caused by under-inflation are increased
when dual tires are used. If the two tires have different
inflation pressures, the larger tire carries the majority of the
lO!ld and possibly beComes overloaded. The smaller tire
will scrub, causing irregular wear and resulting in shorter
tread life.
Results of Proper Inflation
Properly inflated tires are more likely to distribute the
load evenly, and, therefore, they have greater stability and
lower rolling resistance. This combination results in in-
creased fuel economy. The tires run cooler and have the
proper casing deflection, thus increasing tire service life.
The operator and cargo will be safer because the proper tread
footprint is maintained. This proper footprint not only de-
creases the chance of hydroplaning but also allows proper
braking and traction.
Butler (Ref 4) estimated that maintaining the proper
inflation pressure can reduce tire costs by up to 20 percent.
These cost savings are made through such things as im-
proved retreadability, resulting in a lower tire cost per mile.
A smoother ride also reduces costs because less damage to
the vehicle suspension occurs if the proper load carrying
capacity is maintained. From the operator's standpoint, it
is very important to maintain the proper tire inflation pres-
sure. Thus, it is reasonable to assume that most operators
stay within the recommended load range and inflation pres-
sure of their tires simply because of the cost saving incen-
tives mentioned above.
 5

GENERAL TIRE CONTACT PRESSURE One is parallel to the central plane of the tire and is called the
CHARACTERISTICS longitudinal stress component; the other is perpendicular to
the central plane of the tire and is called the lateral stress
Currently very little data are available concerning truck
component (see Fig 2.1).
tire contact pressures. Normally it is common in pavement
design to assume the tire contact pressure distribution is
circular and that the contact pressure is equal to the tire
inflation pressure, as described by membrane theory. This
section describes membrane theory and background and
discusses more recent studies in tire con tact pressure charac-
teristics.
Membrane Theory and Historical Background

_..-
It is known that, if an inflated membrane lacking any
bending stiffness (e.g., an infinitely thin wall) is in contact
with a flat surface, the contact pressure at each point is equal
to the membrane's inflation pressure. The ideal footprint
Fig 2.1. Force diagram representing the total reaction
would be circular, but in actuality a tire footprint is some- of the ground to the tire expressed as the combined
what more rectangular. This line of reasoning indicates the effect of two forces, one normal and one tangential to
primary component of the vertical contact pressure is the the ground plane (Ref 12).
internal inflation pressure (Ref 12). Therefore, current tire
data bases are comprised of inflation pressures, not tire/
Longitudinal Shear Pressure. The two tangential sub-
pavement contact pressures. These models are hardly ac-
components, lying in the contact plane, are generally called
curate because carcass stiffnesses as well as the stiffness in
the shear components. The shear components are created
the sidewalls prohibit equal pressure distribution in the
whe~ an inflated tire is deflected against the pavement,
contact area (Ref 18). To obtain a better knowledge of
causmg the doubly curved surface of the tread to become a
actual pavement loading it is helpful to understand the char-
flat surface. When the tire is vertically deflected against a
acteristics which influence the tire contact area. The actual
flat surface, the motion is restrained by friction between the
contact area is a function of speed, inflation pressure, wheel
. tire and pavement, creating perpendicular horizontal shear
load, wheel camber, steering, braking, vehicle suspension,
components of contact pressure [see Fig 2.2(a)).
and tire configuration, among others.
Knowledge of how a wheel load is transmitted to the
road by a tire is essential to pavement design. The actual
process a tire goes through when transferring an axle load to
pavement is described by Tielking and Roberts (Ref 13).
They state that a tire supports the axle load by establishing
a contact area (footprint) between the tread and pavement
surfaces. Changing the axle load or the tire inflation
pressure altered the tire's footprint As the load is adjus ted (a) under a standing tire.
v..,..____
changes in inflation pressure are slight, but when either the
load or the inflation pressure is altered, the tire s contact area
and shape are altered significantly.
Tire-Pavement Contact Stresses Entry Exit
In order to characterize the stress applied to the pave-
ment by a tire, it is advisable to first defme the stress
components, their orientation, and causes. In this section
the stresses are divided into components and some are sub- (b) under a rolling contact.
divided into subcomponents. Fig 2.2. Direction of pavement shear forces (Ref 13).
Stress Components and Orientation. The tire-
pavement contact force can be represented by two
When the tire rolls freely without camber, the shear
components, one perpendicular to the contact surface, called
press~e is redirected due to the superposition of an angular
the normal component, and one tangential to the contact
vel?C1ty on the tread surface. The longitudinal component
surface. This latter component may be further subdivided
into two subcomponents, each lying in the contact plane. of tue force on the pavement changes direction twice, as can
6
be seen in Fig 2:2(b). Bonse and Kuhn experimentally con-
finned this in 1959 by rolling a tire over a circular force-
measuring stud placed in a manhole cover (Ref 19).
Lateral Shear Pressure. The paths of two tread ribs can
be seen in Fig 2.3. As the tread is flattened against the
Fig 2.3. Rib path through the contact region of a
rolling tire (modified from Ref 13).
pavement, the ribs are pulled toward the footprint center.
Friction inhibits the ribs inward movement, creating a lateral
shear pressure. Tielking and Roberts believe the magnitude
of the lateral shear is dependent on tire construction, with the
radial tires producing about 50 percent lower peak pressure
values than bias tires. They also believe the lateral shear
applies a much higher stress to the pavement than longitudi-
nal shear pressure does. The experiments performed by
Bonse and Kuhn, in which various vehicle tires were driven
over a circular force measuring stud, seem to support this
trend for automobile tires also (Ref 19).
Factors Affecting Contact Pressure Distributions
Although many factors, such as speed, steering, tire
camber, braking, inflation pressure, pavement friction, and
wheel load, affect the load components of the contact pres-
sure distribution, published articles tend to be narrow in
scope, discussing only one or two of the above stated
variables. For this report the majority of the discussion is
limited to inflation pressure, wheel load, speed, steering, and
pavement friction.
Inflation Pressure and Wheel Load. Tielking and
Roberts (Ref 13) state that the major influences on tire-
pavement contact pressure are inflation pressure and axle
load. In view of the small effects of speed and pavement
friction on the normal pressure distribution for a free-rolling
tire, it is believed that the normal contact pressures measured
with nonrotating tires deflected against a frictionless surface
are a realistic representation of the normal pressures under a
real tire traveling at highway speeds. Therefore, significant
effects of pavement deterioration accelerated by changes in
inflation pressure and/or axle load can be studied using
1
contact pressures measured from a statically loaded tire.
Zekoski contradicts this by stating the normal and horizontal
components vary if they are examined in a static versus
dynamic condition but does not explain his reasoning (Ref
21).
The earliest approach to quantifying the average contact
pressure was to statically load a tire to a known value while
simultaneously making an ink footprint. To calculate the
contact pressure the known load was then divided by the
footprint's area. Problems existed with this method, the
greatest of which was the lack of a suitable method for
determining contact pressure distributions and pressure
quantities. Lippman and Oblizajek performed a variation
of this experiment by producing a footprint and then multi-
plying the footprint area by the tire inflation pressure to
obtain the load borne by the tire. When this value was
compared to the actual load applied to the tire, a difference
of 30 percent was not uncommon (Ref 15). The authors
concluded that differences in the normal pressures from the
inflation pressures are due to structural mechanisms, such as
bending, local carcass and belt tensions, and buckling at the
crown center. This proved that membrane theory was not
appropriate for quantifying tire-pavement contact pressures.
In order to better quantify the foot-print pressures
Lippman and Oblizajek used transducers to measure the
actual contact pressures. The transducers were placed so as
to measure the contact pressure at the center of each rib of a
freely rolling tire moving at a velocity of 2 to 3 miles per
hour. the measurement locations for three locations on a
five-ribbed tire can be seen in Fig 2.4.
Positive Sense of
Velocity
Road Forces Acting
of1ire
on Tread Rubber
...
lI
I
I
I
)
Outer Rib
Central Rib
Intermediate Rib
Fig 2.4. Identification of measurement locations for a
five-ribbed tire (modified from Ref 15).
The trends in the pavement normal force distribution
and both horizontal force distributions for each rib of a
radial-ply tire loaded to 1,580 pounds and inflated to 26 psi
can be seen in Figs 2.5, 2.6, and 2.7, respectively. In Fig 2.5
the normal contact pressure measured by transducers as the
tire was rolled over at zero camber is shown. Note that the
outer two ribs have slightly larger contact pressures and that
the contact pressures are fairly constant throughout the
contact area.
 7

In Fig 2.6 the longitudinal shear force Axle Centered

distribution for the same five-ribbed radial-ply
tire is plotted. Note that the longitudinal Interfacial 50
I } i b Number

stresses of the three internal ribs change direc- Pressure, 25~

psi
tion twice, as previously discussed and also as 0 1
showninFig2.2(b). The result may sometimes Distance
be that the average traction over the length of into Patch, in.
the contact zone is zero, but for the entire tire's
contact zone the resulting traction is generally
equal to the rolling resistance of the tire.
The tractions on the right side of the me-
dian plane tend to oppose the forces on the left
side, as shown in Fig 2.7, in which the lateral
shear stresses are plotted. Lippman states that
the lateral component tends to be negligible at
the median plane of the tread, as required by
symmetry. Lippman observed that the lateral
traction in a free-rolling tire often rises continu-
ously through the tire contact interface and then Fig 2.5. Pavement normal force distribution for
falls continuously during the exit half of the radial-ply at 26 psi and axle load of
contact patch. The inflation pressure deter- 1,580 pounds (Ref 15).
mines the length of the contact area, deflection
of the tire, magnitude of the for and aft forces,
and magnitude of the contact pressure. Re-
Axle Centered
search perfonned by Seitz and Russman, Fore &Aft
Traction,
Bonse and Kuhn, and Ginn and Marlow exhib-
psi
ited similar trends for nonnal, lateral, and lon-
gitudinal stresses (Refs 18, 19, and 20, respec-
tively). into Patch,
in.
The work perfonned by Lippman and
Oblizajek measured the contact pressures for
steel-belted radial-ply, glass-ply bias-belted,
and 4-ply bias-belted tires. For a constant in-
flation pressure of 26 psi and loads of 1,580,
1,185 and 1,975 pounds, the maximum values
of nonnal pressure usually occurred at the outer
lateral edges of the footprint as shown in Fig
2.5. Nonnal contact pressure values lower
than the inflation pressure sometimes occurred
and were attributed to structural mechanisms,
such as bending, local carcass and belt tensions,
and buckling at the center crown. Contact pres- Fig 2.6. Pavement longitudinal shear force
sures higher than inflation pressure can be at- distribution for radial-ply at 26 psi and axle load of
1,580 pounds (Ref 15).
tributed to tire design, which accounts for side-
wall and tread stiffness, and to grooves and to
voids in the tread. These grooves and voids in the tread in the glass and bias-ply tires as opposed to radial tires can
cause the pressure under the ribs to be higher than the be attributed to stiffer side wall construction. The maxi-
inflation pressure because they must partially support the mum nonnal pressure values ranged from 70 to 150 psi for
inflation over these grooves and voids. Although the maxi- bias-belted and radial-ply tires inflated to 24 psi and 55 to 60
mum pressure seemed to always be at the outer ribs, the steel- psi, respectively. A common longitudinal component for
belted radial tires tended to have a more unifonn pressure freely rolling tires was 60 psi.
distribution within the footprint than either the glass-ply and As the wheel load is increased, the nonnal contact
bias-ply tires did. In fact, the glass-ply and bias-ply tires had pressure at the central ribs is redistributed slightly but the
two and three times higher pressures, respectively, at the majority of the increased wheel load results in an increased
tires' outer ribs than at the inside ribs. The higher pressures contact area length. The outer ribs not only increased in
8
20 ~Rib Number
Lateral 10
Traction. 0 and did not adjust them for load changes. As
psi -10
-20
Distance into
Patch, in.
Fig 2.7. Pavement lateral shear distribution for
radial-ply at 26 psi and axle load of
1,580 pounds (Ref 15).
contact length but also increased in average pressure values.
Lippman and Oblizajek attributed this phenomenon to the
growing bending stresses in the tire's sidewall and buttress
regions combined with an increased sidewall overhang
beyond the tread edge. The increased overhang results in an
additional vertical component of air pressure acting on the
inner surface of the sidewall beyond the tread edge. This
subsequently causes the transmission of reaction forces to
the two outer ribs and their two adjoining ribs.
While conducting research to determine the contact
pressure characteristics of a freely rolling tire, Seitz and
Hussman (Ref 18) also determined that tire inflation pres-
sure has a large influence on a tire's contact pressure distri-
bution. Within the opemting range of a conventional auto-
mobile tire, higher inflation pressures led to more uniform
contact pressures. In other words, as the inflation pressure
inc~eased. the centerline's contact pressure also increased
while the shoulder's contact pressure remained relatively
unchanged. The authors also noted that the contact pressure
for bias tires was more sensitive to speed than it was for
radial tires. As the speed was increased the contact pressure
below the sidewalls decreased while the centerline contact
pressure increased. They concluded that the horizontal
stress is mostly affected by speed, not inflation pressure,
whereas the normal stress is mostly affected by inflation
pressure, not speed. Work conducted by Bonse and Kuhn
(Ref 19) also concluded that tire inflation pressure has no
effect on horizontal stress but does affect the normal stress.
Zekoski, performing experiments for Goodyear Tire
and Rubber company (Ref 21 ), made similar conclusions
concerning normal stresses. Using line haul operating con-
ditio~s. which are characterized by long distance intercity
mileage, he assumed that cold inflation pres-
Axle Centered
sures were the same all around the vehicle
the wheel load was increased at a constant
inflation pressure, the shoulder contact pres-
sure increased relative to the unchanged
centerline contact pressure. Figure 2.8 illus-
tmtes that bias-ply tires tend to be more
sensitive to wheel loading than radial tires.
Zekoski stated that, for an increase of one
pound of load, the bias tire's shoulder pres-
sure increased 0.03 psi versus a 0.02-psi
increase for the radial tire. In contrast, when
the inflation pressure was increased at a
constant wheel load, the tire's shoulder con-
tact pressure did not increase. The increased
inflation pressure caused an increase in cen-
terline contact pressure relative to the un-
changed shoulder contact pressure. Figure
2.9 shows thatradial-ply tires tend to be more
sensitive to tire inflation pressure than bias-
ply tires. For a one-psi increase in inflation
pressure the radial tire's centerline pressure
increased 1.5 psi, whereas the bias tire's inflation pressure
increased one psi.
Zekoski concluded that the maximum contact
pressure's sensitivity to wheel load and inflation pressure
depends on the shape of the lateral cross-section of the
normal contact pressure distribution. For example, if the
centerline contact pressure is greater than the shoulder
contact pressure, and inflation pressure is increased while
mairitaining a constant wheel load, the maximum contact
pressure will increase. However, if the shoulder pressure
was the greatest, increasing the inflation pressure would
have little effect on the maximum contact pressure.
0~------~------~------~------~
2000 3000 . 4000 5000 6000
Loads {lbs)
Fig 2.8. Shoulder pressure versus wbe~lload for
bias-ply and radial-ply tires {modified from Ref 21).
 9

250
--Bias Ply
-Radial Ply
Bias Duals I 130%
200 Radial Duals 1 165%

385/65R22.5 Radial Single I 195%

~
150 ~========~-~
:::1 425165R22.5 Radial Single j110 o/o
tiJ
tiJ ~------------~~----~
~
c..
~
<..)
100

50 --- -....
100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200

Maximum Contact Pressure Rating (%)

Fig 2.10. Maximum contact pressure relative to
inflation pressure (modified from Ref 21).
0~----~------~------~------~
110 130
60 70 90 pressures. An equation enabling the prediction of the av-
tnftation Pressure (psi) erage contact pressure from a given inflation pressure was
Fig 2.9. Centerline pressure versus tire inflation obtained. From Fig 2.11 he concluded that, for a constant
pressure for bias-ply and radial-ply tires (modified wheel load, the change in contact pressure is only about 30
from Ref 21). percent of the change in the inflation pressure.
Speed and Pavement Friction. Although researchers
In order to quantify contact pressure magnitude, Zek- Tielking and Roberts (Ref 13) primarily investigated the
oski compared contact pressures for bias-ply and radial-ply effect of inflation pressure and wheel load on contact pres-
duals and wide-base super singles. The tires Zekoski tested sure, they also conducted a small study of the effect of speed
are listed in Table 2.1. and pavement friction. Their results showed that both speed
In Fig 2.10 the maximum contact pressure values rela- and pavement friction only slightly influence the contact
tive to operation inflation pressures are plotted. The single area. If the speed or pavement friction is increased, the
wide-base tires have larger contact pressures than either the contact area is only slightly increased. Seitz and Hussman
bias or radial-ply duals, and the 385/65R22.5 wide-base confrrmed the speed phenomenon in their study (Ref 18).
singles have a contact pressure almost twice their inflation To quantify the effect of speed, Bonse and Kuhn (Ref
pressure. Zekoski reported the maximum contact pressure 19) drove various vehicles having various types of tires over
for the bias duals inflated to 1OOpsi was 105 psi, for the radial a circular force measuring stud having a cross-sectional area
duals inflated to 105 psi was 130 psi, for the 385/65R22.5 of one square inch and a stress recorder box mounted inside
wide-base single inflated to 130 psi was 190 psi, and for the a manhole cover. They found that vehicle speed had no
425/65R22.5 wide-base single inflated to 120 psi was 155 significant effect on the nonnal stress but did have an effect
psi, all at the same wheel load. As can be seen in Fig 2.10, on the horizontal shear stresses. With a tire inflation pres-
the wide-base singles had much higher contact pressures sure of 28 psi the nonnal pressure measured at the tire
than the bias-ply or the radial-ply duals. centerline was 30 to 44 psi. At an inflation pressure of 70
In order to show a correlation between inflation pres- psi the peak force at the centerline was 70 to 88 psi, and the
sure and average contact pressure for use in design, Van maximum peak force was 15 to 24 psi greater at the edge than
Vuuren (Ref2) plotted contact pressures versus tire inflation at the center. At constant speed the longitudinal stress for
a car tire was 11 psi and for a truck tire was 22
psi. During acceleration or deceleration the
TABLE 2.1. TffiES RESTED BY ZEKOSKI IN ORDER TO longitudinal stress increased up to 40 psi.
I
QUANTIFY CONTACT PRESSURE MAGNITUDE {REF 21) The lateral pressures were zero psi at the tire's
Recommended Cold center and 33 psi near the edge, and the
Axle Configuration Ply Type Tire Size Inflation Pressure (psi) direction of the lateral stress was always
Duals Bias 1000-20/22 85 towards the footprint's center.
While conducting research to detennine
11-22.5/24.5 85
the contact pressure characteristics of a freely
Radial 11R22.5f24.5 105 rolling tire, Seitz and Hussman (Ref 18) noted
285(75R24.5 110 that the contact pressures for bias tires were
295(75R22.5 110 more sensitive to speed than those for radial
tires. As the speed was increased, the contact
Wide-Base Singles Radial 385/65R22.5 120
pressures below the sidewalls decreased
425/65R22.5 110
10

while the centerline contact pressure increased. They 800

concluded that the horizontal stress is mostly affected by
speed, not inflalion pressure, whereas the normal stress is '@'
mostly affected by inflation pressure, not speed. a..
~ 600
Steering. Lippman and Oblizajek (Ref 15) measured
~e contact pressures for steel-belted radial-ply, glass
biaS-belted, and 4-ply bias-belted tires at a constant
inflation pressure of26 psi and loads of 1,580, 1,185 and

~
1,975 pounds. Their data show that generally the maxi-
mum values of normal pressures usually_occurred at the
outer lateral edges of the footprint. When they altered
the steering angle by one degree, only a slight redistribu-
tion of pressure and an increase in lateral pressure oc-
q 0.27llp 258
12.6 kN
\
lire Load .i
curred. No difference in footprint area was documented 0~----~~----~----~~----~
for either the glass-ply or the bias-ply tires. In contrast, 0 200 400 600 800
the one degree steering angle modification caused the lire Inflation Pressure (p) (kPa)
steel-belted radial tire's footprint to shorten on one side
and lengthen a similar amount on the other side. Fig 2.11. Relationship between tire inflation pressure
Lippman and Oblizajek attribute this phenomenon to the and contact pressure for constant wheel load (Ref 2).
twisting distortion of the relatively rigid belt structure in
the .radial tire. Steering results in the broadening of the slip theory, but the nonuniform contact pressures were based on
regwn at the end of the footprint area, releasing stresses, and experimentally produced contact pressures. Chen used
therefore decreasing the load. 1EXGAP-3D, a linearly elastic, finite element program, to
predict the performance of Texas farm-to-market flexible
TIRE CONTACT PRESSURE AND ITS pavements under various inflalion pressures and wheel
EFFECT ON FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT LIFE loading conditions. The computer model used inflation
pressuresof75,90, and 110psi and wheel loads of 4,500and
A pavement must be able to provide the load bearing
5,400 pounds. Chen assumed the nonuniform pressure dis-
surface for which it is designed. This depends on the ex-
tributi(;ms were symmetrical about the tire print's longitudi-
pected traffic loads, density of traffic, and desired service
nal and lateral axes, and, therefore, he needed to analyze only
life. The pavement must maintain an adequate surface con-
one-quarter of the tire-pavement interaction.
dition such that it is able to permit comfortable and safe
Chen found that an increase in inflation pressure from
driving within the design speed limit The service life is
75 psi to 110 psi results in an approximate increase of 102
dependent on the actual loading the pavement receives.
micro strain ( 1 microstrain =1 x 10'6 inch/inch) at the bottom
Traditionally, pavement design engineers have been primar-
of a 1.5-inch-thick pavement (Fig 2.12). The figure also
ily concerned with only the wheel loading effects, but, re-
shows that as the pavement thickness increases the effect of
cently, additional research efforts have investigated how
tire pavement contact pressure decreases.
environmental loading and pavement structure affect as-
Chen also compared the tensile strains at the bottom of
phalt pavement life. The discussion below is limited to
the pavement surface calculated using the 1EXGAP-3D
stresses in an asphalt pavement system caused by wheel and
uniform pressure model with those of layer program EL-
inflation pressure, base and surface modulus effects, and
SYMS using a circular uniform pressure model. The EL-
thickness.
SYM5 model tended to over predict the strains, except for
Wheel Load and Inflation Pressure Effects the 1.5-inch-thick pavement (see Fig 2.12).
Figure 2.13 shows the effect of wheel load on critical
This section includes research summaries pertaining to
tensile strain for both the experimental uniform pressure
the effects of wheel and inflation pressure on asphalt pave-
model and the theoretical uniform pressure model. For both
ments as well as studies that discuss the influence wheel
models, as the load increased, the tensile strains at the
loads and inflation pressures may have on pavement fatigue
bottom of the pavement surface also increased.
and rutting.
Figure 2.14 shows that an inflation pressure increase of
Studies Discussing Wheel Loads and Inflation Pres
47 percent produced an insignificant increase in compres-
sures. Chen (Ref 27) used various computer pavement
sive strain at the top of the subgrade for both theoretical
models to determine the difference between uniform and
uniform pressure and experimental nonuniform pressure
nonuniform contact pressure distributions on asphalt pave-
models. Chen reported that the uniform pavement model
ment systems. The uniform contact pressure was equated to
consistently produced larger subgrade compressive strains,
the inflation pressure, according to traditional membrane
except for thick surface pavements.
 11

Figure 2.15 shows that the wheel load has a significant

effect on the compressive strains at the top of the subgrade
for both uniform pressure and nonuniform (experimental)
pressure models. The figure shows that for a 20 percent g -
increase in wheel load there is a corresponding 20 percent rJ)
rJ)
increase in subgrade compressive strain. Q)
c:
..:.::.
Tielking (Ref 13) reported that in pavement analysis an .sa
.t=
empirical approach is inappropriate when tire contact pres- r-
Q)
sure effects are considered because the current pavement (.)

condition is the result of past traffic applications with vary- ~

ing and unknown inflation pressures. Tielking developed
a model which could input various tire parameters, such as
inflation pressure, tire deflection, and tire rigidity. He then
computed tire-pavement contact pressures for a 10.00-20 F
nylon cord truck tire. The calculations were performed
using representative conditions currently found on Texas
highways. The inflation pressures were 75 and 125 psi and
the wheel load was 4,500 pounds. The calculated contact
pressures are shown in Fig 2.16, from which it can be seen
that an increase in inflation pressure caused a decrease in
contact area and, subsequently, increased contact pressures.
Roberts and Rosson (Ref 6) used a modified version of
the finite element program ll...LIPAVE in order to determine
the required material properties for the proper performance
of an asphalt pavement. The modifications allowed a
nonuniform contact pressure distribution to be input for a tire
foot-print symmetrical about the footprint's centerline. The
tire modeled was Tielking's 10.00-20 bias-ply truck tire
loaded to 4,500 pounds and inflated to 75 psi and 125 psi, as
shown in Fig 2.16. In Fig 2.17 the effect of the change in
inflation pressure on the tire contact pressure can be seen.
Roberts and Rosson noted that as the inflation
pressure increased, the tensile strain, for various surface
thicknesses, decreased (see Fig 2.18). The data in Fig
2.18 were produced by modeling various thicknesses of
an asphalt pavement having a modulus of 400 ksi over
an 8-inch-thick base having three different stiffness
moduli. For a thin surface on a low modulus base, the
tensile strains were near or exceeding 1,000-micros-
train, which Monismith (Ref 26) considers to be the
upper limit for linear behavior of asphalt concrete
mixes.
Roberts and Rosson also compared the strains cal-
culated using the uniform contact pressure model
(having a contact pressure equal to the inflation pres-
sure) with the strains calculated by the nonuniform
contact pressure. The horizontal arrows for both pres-
sure types demonstrate that as inflation pressure in-
creases the tensile strain also increases, but the nonuni-
form contact pressure results in much higher strains.
For a surface thickness of 2 inches or less the tensile
strains are almost 100 percent higher. For thick pave-
ments the strains increase but the change in strain is
much less (Fig 2.19).
:::l
(/)
2.0
1.5 L -....L.IIIt.-.I--.I--.I---'---1..._J.L....I.-----l
140 160 180 200 220 240 280 300
lensile Strain at Bottom of Surface (Microstrain)
Fig 2.12. Effects of Pressure Distribution model on
critical tensile strain at the bottom of the surface.
[Note: U and L, respectively, represent the results
obtained using TEXGAP3D and ELYSYM5. The
values 7545 and 11045 are for a wheel loaded at 4,500
pounds with inflation pressures of 75 and 110 psi,
respectively (Modified from Ref 27).]
Studies Discussing Fatigue. Traditionally fatigue has
been associated with high tensile strains in the bottom of the
pavement surface layer. Chen used the tensile strains com-
puted by 1EXGAP-3D at the bottom of the asphalt layer to
approximate the number of 18-kip axle load applications
required to cause alligator cracking to appear. By substitut-
ing the tensile strains computed from 1EXGAP-3D into
-o- T9054
-c- U9054
...,._ u 9054
-4- T9054
1.5 L - - L - - w : : : ; - . l - - . 1 -......a=::...--111:--L--.L-----l
150 160 170 180 190 200 210 220 230 240
Tensile Strain at Bottom of Surface (Microstrain)
Fig 2.13. Effects of axle load on critical tensile strain
at the bottom of the surface. [Note: T designates a
treaded tire with nonuniform (experimental) pressure
model, and U designates a uniform pressure model.
The values 9045 and 9054 represent, respectively,
a 90 psi tire inflation pressure with loads of
4,500 and 5,400 pounds (Ref 27).]
12

Eqs 2.1 and 2.2, the number of loads of constant stress were in the cement-stabilized base's horizontal tensile strain than
predicted: would an increase in contact pressure. Therefore, the ce-
log Nr (10%) = 15.947-3.291log et -0.854log E* (2.1) ment-stabilized base is much more sensitive to changes in
wheel load than increased contact pressures.
log Nr (45%) = 16.086-3.291 log et-0.854log E* (2.2) Failure caused by the surface densification of thick
asphalt pavements was shown to occur at contact pressures
Nf = the number of loads of constant stress of 41 psi and 84 psi. This was determined using the stable
necessary to cause fatigue cracking, state of air voids content (a measure of compaction under a
e(
= the
initial tensile microstrain at the repeated load) for various mixes at various temperatures.
bottom of the surface, and Van Vuuren's results indicate that for the same mixture
E* = the complex modulus of the asphalt- under similar e~vironmental conditions, contact pressures
concrete surface (ksi). of 41 and 84 psi caused an average permanent deformation
of about 3 and 4 percent, respectively.
Figure 2.20 shows the effect increasing. the inflation p~es
Finally, Van Vuuren stared that pavement failure in-
sure has on fatigue damage life for vanous surface thick-
duced by soil subgrade consolidation could not be attribured
nesses for cracking that is less than 10 percent and greater
to an increase in contact pressure. An increase in contact
than 45 percent of the wheel path area. As can be seen, an
pressure is mostly dissipared throughout the the asphalt layer
increase in inflation pressure (for a constant wheel load)
and does not cause significant increases in the subgrade
results in a significant increase in surface tensile strain and
stresses and strains. In other words, soil subgrade consoli-
therefore a significant decrease in pavement service life for
dation is caused primarily by increased wheel load, not in-
both the 10 percent and 45 percent cracking models. For a
creased contact pressure.
2-inch pavement a 47 percent increase in infla~on pre~sure
resulted in 33 percent reduction in pavement hfe. Figure
Studies Discussing Rutting. Traditionally, rutting has
been associated with high compressive strains at the top of
2.21 shows that for increased wheel load, at a constant
the subgrade. It is generally distinguished in two separate
inflation pressure, a reduction in pavement life for both
types: (1) rutting caused by mechanical abrasion and (2)
fatigue cracking models occurred. For a 4-inch pavement,
rutting due to irreversible deformations.
a 20 percent increase in wheel load resulted in a 36 percent
In order to measure horizontal pavement deformation,
reduction in pavement life.
Eisenmann and Hilmer (Ref 25) repeatedly rolled both
Earlier pavement modeling was performed by Van
single and dual tires over a steel box containing an asphalt
Vuuren (Ref 2), using the Chevron computer program to
test speciinen placed on top of a rubber plate. The rubber
analyze various linear elastic pavement structures under
plate represented the soil subgrade. The specimens w~re
many combinations of wheel loads and inflation pressures.
cut perpendicular to the rolling direction and pavement diS-
He attributed high contact pressure to four types of pavement
placements measured. The vertical deformation was re-
failure: (1) fatigue of the surface layer, (2) fatigue of ce~ent
duced by lowering the wheel load and using duals rather than
stabilized bases, (3) surface densification, and (4) consolida-
single tires. Horizontal deformation occurred at both the
tion of the subgrade.
surface and the upper region of the asphalt base course, and,
Van Vuuren also attributed pavement fatigue to exces-
therefore, rutting is also a resultant of lateral displacement of
sive horizontal tensile stresses and strains in the bottom of
the material in the pavement surface and base. These lateral
the surface layer. For a 1.97-inch (50-mm) pavement, his
shifts of the material were observed in the asphalt cross-
model showed that an increased wheel load caused a de-
section.
crease in horizontal tensile stress at the bottom of the surface
Eisenmann imd Hilmer also stated that rutting caused by
layer. This implies that higher wheel loads were less detri-
irreversible deformation may be prevented either by opti-
mental to an asphalt pavement than lower wheel loads, for
mizing the pavement design and construction, such that the
tires kept at a constant contact pressure. However, it is very
heavier loads and inflation pressures can be sustained, or by
seldom that a reduction in wheel load is not also associated
optimizing the loads and conditions, so that the asphalt
with a decreased contact pressure, as lighter vehicles are
design strength and integrity is not exceeded. Eisenm~
generally fitred with tires which operate at lower inflation
and Hilmer felt that rutting is influenced by a change m
pressures (58 psi). He computed that, for dense-graded
wheel load as well as a change in the inflation pressure.
premix and high stiff gap-graded premix surfaces, a contact
Eisenmann and Hilmer concluded that rutting can be
pressure of 87 psi will require as many as 106 to 107 load
influenced by a combination of both wheel load and tire
repetitions to initiate cracking. Thus, contact pressures
inflation. Theoretical investigations based on the elastic
larger than 87 psi should be avoided.
multilayer theory using computations made by BISAR, an
Van Vuuren's results show that pavement failure
elastic layer computer model, showed that increases in the
caused by the failure of a cement-stabilized base could be
wheel load, at constant inflation pressure, resulted in in-
primarily attributed to increased wheel loads.. He ~d that
creased deformari9n in the lower regions of the pavement.
an increase in wheel load would cause a far higher mcrease
 13

Conversely, a change in inflation pressure at a constant load 4.0

-o- T11045
caused deformation at the pavement surface. -a-u 11045
Chen (Ref 27) stated that rutting can be attributed to - U7545
~ 3.5 - - T7545
high compressive strains and permanent deformation in the
~
subbase. Figure 2.22 shows the effect increasing the wheel (/)
(/)
load has on the subgrade rutting damage life for various ~ 3.0
surface thicknesses. The number of loads required to cause ..:.:
.S:l
rutting was calculated by substituting in the strain computed ..c:
r-
by TEXGAP-3D into Eq 2.3 : Q) 2.5
(.)

{g
W18 = 6.15 x 1017 (1/e/ 0 (2.3) ;::,
C/)
2.0
where
W18 = the number of weighted 18-kip axle loads
1.5 ' - - - - ' - - - - ' - - - ' - - - _ ._ _..........-LI......--1
before excessive permanent deformation, and
300 350 400 450 500 550 600 650
ec = the compressive microstrain at the top of the
Compressive Strain at Top of Subgrade (Microstrain)
subgrade.
Fig 2.14. Effects of inflation pressure on compressive
As the wheel load is increased the subgrade compressive
strain at the top of the subgrade layer. [Note: T
strainalsoincreases,resultinginareducedpavementlife. A designates a treaded tire with nonuniform
wheel load increased 20 percent increased the subgrade (experimental) pressure model, and U designates a
compressive strain 19 percent, resulting in a 50 percent uniform pressure model. The values 7545 and 11045
reduction in pavement life. represent, respectively, a tire loaded at 4,500 pounds
Chen also demonstrated that tire inflation pressure has with inflation pressures of 75 and 110 psi (Ref 27).]
an insignificant effect on subgrade rutting. Axle loads have
a significant effect on subgrade compressive strain and
4.0 -o- T9054
therefore cause subgrade rutting.
Huhtala (Ref 22) experimented by rolling common -o- U9054

truck radial tires over two different thicknesses of asphalt

pavement. Both pavements had strain gages located --
.5
3.5
- - - U9054
- - T9054

throughout the asphalt and subgrade layers. By testing (/)

(/)
Q) 3.0
various radial tires at three different loads and inflation c:
..:.:
pressures, he was able O perceive that pavement strains were .S:l
..c:
different for different tires and inflation pressures. He de- r-
termined that: s
l1l
2.5

(1) Wide-base tires tended to be more aggressive, produc-
ing greater strains under the same load than dual tires,
by a factor of 3.5 to 7.
(2) The load was very seldom evenly distributed on both
of the dual tires, as is assumed in design.
(3) Stresses varied between various wide-base tires. The
narrower wide-base tires produced greater strains
under the same wheel loads.
(4) Smaller dual tires produced larger strains at the same
wheel loads than normal size conventional dual tires.
(5) As tire inflation pressure was increased, the tires
produced larger strains. An optimum inflation pres-
sure does not seem to exist as far as the pavement is
concerned, but an inflation pressure increase of 20
percent increased the tires' ability O produce 120 to
140 percent larger strains.
(6) The contact pressure was highest in the tire centerline,
for the limited amount of data obtained.
Huhtala also addressed the fact that common asphalt
design practices are based on a circular, even contact pres-
sure distribution, which does not account for two unevenly
't:
;::,
C/)
2.0
1.5
300 400 500 600 700 eoo
Compressive Strain of Subgrade (Microstrain)
Fig 2.15. Effects of wheel load on compressive strain
at the top of the sub grade surface. [Note: T
designates a treaded tire with nonuniform
(experimental) pressure model, and U designates a
uniform pressure model The values 9045 and 9054
represent, respectively, a 90 psi tire inflation pressure
with loads of 4,500 and 5,400 pounds (Ref 27).]
loaded dual tires. In other words, it is assumed in pavement
design that the wheel load is evenly divided between the two
tires. His experiments exhibited that an uneven load is more
likely the case. He attributed this uneven loading to the
difference .in tire structure, which varies from manufacturer
to manufacturer, the difference in increased "hot" inflation
 14

683
441 1234 441
786 979 786
186 345 kPa 186
786 979 786
441 1234 441
683

120
Base Moduli
- - - 4886 9 0.239
- - 7000 9 0.235
- 878790.265
Fig 2.16. Contact pressures in footprint of 10.00-20
truck tire: wheel load held constant at 4,500 pounds. E
g
(/l
(/l

~
~
~

0~--------~----~------~--------~-------~--~
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
Microstrain at Bottom of Surface

Tire Fig 2.18. Effect of tire inflation pressure on horizontal

2000 Faotf}rint
tensile strain in surfaces of different thicknesses
I"' (modified from Ref 13).
1750 Meridian

ro 1500
a.
-:.
~ 1250
__ ' ...._ \ \

::I
lJ)
lJ)
Ql 1000
a..'-
ts 750 \
ro \
c0 \
(.) Tire Load \
20 kN \
\
\
250 \
\
0
0
Tire
10
2
20 30
3
40 50
' \
70
Center Meridian Distance (mm)

Fig 2.17. Effect of inflation pressure on contact

pressure calculated for 10.00-20 bias truck tire with
4,500-pound load (modified from Ref 7).
 15
120 Uniform Contact Pressure
c Nonuniform Contact Pressure
100

80
~

60 Base 0369
Modulus: 87879 '')l
40 :::;.-'#
#/#
20 C""
0
0 100 200 300 400
Microstrain at Bottom of Surface

Fig 2.19. Comparison of strain calculated for uniform

contact pressure with strain calculated for nonuniform
contact pressures; surface modulus
400 ksi (modified from Ref 13).

-a-T 11045 (>45%)

-o-T 11045 (<10%)
- T 7545 (>45%)
- T7545 (<10%)

3.00 4.00 5.00 6.00

Pavement Life for Fatigue Cracking
{millions of cycles)
4.0
Fig 2.20. Effects of inflation pressure on pavement
fatigue damage life. [Note: T designates a treaded
tire. The values 7545 and 11045 represent a tire
loaded at 4,500 pounds with inflation pressures of .S 3.5
75 and 110 psi, respectively (Ref 27).] (/)
(/)
CP
c:
..:.::
.!::2 3.0
:
CP
(.)
ctl
1:: -o- T 9054 (>45%)
~ 2.5 -o- T9054(<10%)
U)
- T 9045 (>45%)
- T9045 {<10%)

1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5

Pavement Life for Fatigue Cracking
(millions of cycles)

Fig 2.21. Effects of axle load on pavement fatigue

damage life. [Note: T designates a treaded tire.
The values 9045 and 9054 represent a 90 psi
tire inflation pressure with loads of 4,500 and
5,400 pounds, respectively (Ref 27).]
16
pressure occurring during driving,and the direction in which
the wheel load is applied to the pavement. To apply the
same load, both tires must have the same wear, manufacturer ~ 3.5
and brand, age, and tire pressure, and both must also be either .,
new or retreaded. He also stated that common design prac-
tices neglect the differences in loading caused by uneven
roads and the vehicle's suspension. .::.:.
.~
Haas and Papagianakis, in an article addressing pave- .c
f-
ment rutting, stated that inflation pressures, regardless of tire
type, are much higher than they were two decades ago. They
't:
explain that the increased popularity of radial-ply tires r/)
seems to be partially responsible for the increased inflation
pressure: They felt that tire manufacturers design tires with
higher inflation pressures in response to the trucking
industry's request for lower rolling resistance. These pres-
sures are on the order of 110 psi, as opposed to the 75 to 80-
psi pressures used 20 years ago (Ref 24).
Haas and Papagianakis state that it is well known that
pavement deformation takes place in all the pavement lay-
ers, not only in the subgrade, and, therefore, longitudinal
cracking could originate at the surface rather than at the
asphalt base. It was evident to them that stress contributing
mechanisms. pertaining to rutting required further study.
For example, the compressive strains at the top of the
subgrade which contribute to asphalt rutting have been
shown to be affected by changes in inflation pressure. The
higher the inflation pressure the higher the compressive
stress and the higher the rutting potential.
Papagianakis and Haas (Ref 16) state that higher infla-
tion pressure may cause pavement rutting by the shear
displacement of the surface area. The higherpressure seems
to cause the double ruts which have been recently appearing
on many Ontario, Canada, highways. They state that ex-
perimental investigations and their analytical study indicate
that the tire inflation pressure impact on pavement distress,
in terms of shear deformation of the asphalt surface area,
appears to be severe.
They also state (Ref 16) that early research efforts have
shown that at comparable loads, axles on single tires cause
higher pavement damage than axles on dual tires.
Surface Modulus, Base Modulus, and Thickness
Effects
Roberts (Ref 6), performing analytical studies on flex-
ible pavements using IU..IPAVE, a layer computer model,
determined that when designing thin surfaces, less than 1.5
inches, it is best to use low (flexible) surface moduli. When
designing thick surfaces, greater than 2 inches, it is best to
use high (rigid) surface moduli. If a thin pavement is used
with a high modulus or a thick pavement is used with a low
modulus, excessive strains (greater than 300 microstrain)
will occur. For a surface thickness of between 1.5 and 2
inches, the surface modulus must be greater than 300 ksi. If
a surface modulus of less than 300 ksi is used, the
pavement's service life will be reduced. Roberts states that
4.0
(/)
(/)
a>
c: 3.0
2.5
(I)
(.) -o- T9045
C!l
::::!
-+- T9054
2.0
1.5
0.0 10.0 20.0 30.0 40.0 50.0
Subgrade Rutting Damage Life
(millions of cycles)
Fig 2.22. Effects or axle load on pavement sub grade
rutting damage life. [Note: T designates a treaded
tire, and the values 9045 and 9054 represent a
90 psi tire inflation pressure with loads of
4,500 and 5,400 pounds, respectively (Ref 27).]
all the pavements discussed above should be placed on a
strong base having a high modulus of rigidity. Premature
fatigue cracking can occur when the surface thicknesses are
between one and three inches and are placed over flexible
bases. The author summarizes that only through a combi-
nation of good surface and base materials can tensile strains
be reduced to levels that will provide adequate fatigue resis-
tance and service life.
POSSIBLE PAVEMENT LIFE SAVING
SOLUTIONS
The literature clearly states that a major cause of pave-
ment fatigue and rutting is increased wheel load and tire
inflation pressure. Various researchers and highway offi-
cials have attempted to address this problem. Brown (Ref
3), at a symposium for high pressure truck tires, said that,
through legislation and improved engineering, pavement
life could possibly be maintained and extended.
The possible legal measures he mentioned were (1)
placing legal limits on tire pressures, (2) placing controls on
the manufacture of high pressure tires, (3) requiring ap-
proval of any new tire carcass design by FHW A. (4) requir-
ing approval, both for safety and reduced road damage, for
any new suspension system (considering tires as a compo-
nent of the suspension system), and (5) using tire pressure as
a factor in setting truck user taxes.
Nine states have already implemented conditional pro-
visions for load as a function of tire inflation pressure. The
regulation is generally expressed as two allowable loads per
tire, one for an inflation pressure below 100 psi and another
for inflation pressures above 100 psi (e.g., in Colorado,

allowable wheel loads are 9,000 and 8,000 pounds for infla-
tion pressures less than 100 psi and over 100 psi, respec-
tively).
Sharma (Ref 14) states that, generally, vehicle legisla-
tion requires lower axle load limits for axles mounted with
wide-base tires, compared to conventional dual tires. He
believes that in countries that have not passed this kind of
legislation the higher pavement damage caused by wide-base
tires is recognized and possible legislative changes are be-
coming crucial issues. Some countries have implemented
special provisions regulating load limits per unit tire width.
He mentions that these provisions were initially intended for
tires mounted on steering axles but invariably are applied to
other axle positions. In conclusion, Sharma stated that very
few jurisdictions regulate tire inflation pressures, because of
concern over accelerated pavement damage. He also men-
tioned that he had no indication of how the tire inflation
pressure provisions were enforced where they existed.
The possible engineering improvements Brown (Ref 3)
gave were (1) use of a better mix criteria, (2) use of more
appropriate and better calibrated structural design models,
(3) possible development of better binders and cements, and
(4) emphasis on better quality control and better and more
timely maintenance.
Other researchers, Papagianakis and Haas (Refs 16 and
24), while investigating rutting and the effects wide-base
tires have on asphalt, discussed possible paths for future
research in order to deter pavement rutting and fatigue. They
felt that structural analysis should concentrate on the tire-
pavement interface in order to identify the additional distress
contributing mechanisms. The currently used finite element
programs, BISAR and ILLIPAVE, account for tensile bend-
ing only at the bottom of the asphalt layer and for compres-
sion only at the top of the subgrade layer. As previously
discussed, these stresses historically have been used as the
critical fatigue and rutting distress parameters. Papagianakis
and Haas state that permanent deformation occurs in all
layers of the pavement system, not just in the subgrade.
Therefore, the compressive strains at the top of the asphalt
surface must be accounted for, because they have been
shown to be dramatically affected by high inflation pres-
sures.
17
CONCLUSIONS
From the literature review the following conclusions
may be made.
(1) Generally, for bias tires, as the inflation pressure in-
creases, the pressure distribution at the center of the
tire increases and approaches a pressure similar to that
at the outside edges.
(2) Steel-belted radial tires tend to have a more uniform
footprint than glass-ply or bias-ply tires because radi-
als have less stiff side walls.
(3) It is in the operator'sinterest to maintain his tires at the
manufacturer's recommended tire inflation pressures
and wheel loads.
(4) An increase in wide-base super single popularity is
likely to decrease pavement service life.
(5) Thin farm-to-market (FM) pavements should have a
low modulus, and thick pavements should have a high
modulus. Both thin and thick pavements should be
placed on strong base material in order to provide an
adequate service life.
(6) Wheel loads have a significant effect on the compres-
sive strain at the top of the sub grade, and therefore may
cause rutting.
(7) Increased inflation pressure does not significantly
affect the compressive strain at the top of the subgrade.
(8) Both wheel load and tire inflation pressure have a sig-
nificant effect on the horizontal tensile strains at the
bottom of the pavement layer. These increased tensile
strains may cause cracking. Tire inflation pressure
has a significant effect on the tensile strains at the
bottom of thin pavement layers (less than 2 inches).
Thus, high inflation pressures may cause premature
fatigue failure. Both increased wheel load and in-
creased inflation pressure may decrease pavement
service life by over 30 percent.
(9) Modeling asphalt strains using a tire having uniform
contact pressures will generally yield greater strains
than models using a tire having nonuniform contact
pressures.
(10) More legislation and improved engineering may be
possible means to curtail pavement fatigue and rutting
caused by high wheel loads and inflation pressures.
 CHAPTER 3. EQUIPMENT, PARAMETERS, AND PROCEDURES
Increases in truck axle loads and in truck tire inflation surface. A detailed schematic of and parts list for the load
pressures, panicularly during the last decade, have gener- frame are in Appendix B.
ated increased interest in their possible effects on pavement
life. As shown in the literature, many static and dynamic Manual Hydraulic Power Supply
experiments have been conducted in an attempt to model and Various systems for applying and controlling the load
analyze the actual loading the pavement receives. Static were considered and evaluated. Eventually a manual hy-
testing and analysis was perfonned at The University of draulic power system was selected because of its user
Texas at Austin. The equipment, parameters, and proce- friendliness, availability, and economy. The system con-
dures have been changed from experiments previously per- sisted of a hydraulic hand pump, a manifold, hydraulic
formed at The University of Texas and therefore are dis- hoses, and a 5,000-psi in-line pressure gage, as shown in Fig
cussed in detail below. 3.1.
This system was very simple to use, convenient, and
EXPERIMENTAL APPARATUS accessible. The hand pump was capable of delivering over
To obtain the tire-pavement contact pressure distribu- 20,000 pounds of force. The in-line pressure gage was
tion of various tires, a static method of loading the tires was simply used to measure the in-line pressure which, when
used The experimental apparatus consisted of truck tires multiplied by the ram's bore area (7.069 square inches),
and rims, a load frame and platform, a manual hydraulic served as a check on the load values calculated from the
power supply, a load cell and data acquisition system, two voltages displayed by the data acquisition system.
sheets of 5-mil (0.005-inch) Teflon, and the Fuji prescale Hewlett-Paclu:t.rd Data Acquisition System
ftlm.
The actual loads applied to the tires were monitored
Truck Tires and Rims using a Hewlett-Packard (HP) 3497 A Data Acquisition sys-
The truck tires tested were a specially manufactured tem, an HP 150 computer, and a HP 44421 A 20-channel
smooth tread Armstrong 11R24.5, load range-G tire, guarded input module. Communication was accomplished
mounted on a Budd rim and a newly recapped, commercially via a HP IB interface. The 20-kip load cell output voltage
available Goodyear wide-base super single 18-22.5, load was monitored on the acquisition system's front panel. A
range-R tire mounted on a 13.00 x 22.5 rim. The average calibration. curve, previously derived as discussed below,
tread depth of the bias super single was enabled the user to monitor the output voltage and obtain the
0.5 inch as measured at a location 2
inches from the tire's exterior tread
edges.
Load Frame and Platform
The load frame and platform were
constructed at The University of Texas
Load Frame ----tllol
in 1984 forCTR Project 386 (Ref 23)
and reassembled for this project At the
time of this report the load frame and
platfonn were located at The University
of Texas at Austin. The load frame, tire,
and load platform configuration can be
seen in Fig 3.1.
A new axle and hub assembly was
constructed which enabled the wheel
hub to be moved and secured such that
the applied load was transferred through
the tire and rim's approximate centroid.
This enabled the production of a more
unifonn pressure print The load plat-
form used was a 2-inch polished steel
platen placed on top of the concrete
Fig 3.1. Load frame schematic using the OTC manual hydraulics.

18

voltage which corresponded to the desired maximum load.
The acquisition program, written in GW BASIC, allowed
horizontal and vertical deflection data to be obtained for
each tiie, as well as the applied load value.
To monitor and obtain a desired maximwn load, the
output voltage given by the data acquisition system was
constantly monitored. The load was then held and released
according to Fuji's recommendations, described in Appen-
dix D.
Load Cell Calibration
To determine the applied load a Lebow 20-kip load cell
was used. In order to assure the load cell's accuracy it was
calibrated against a Conamp 20 Digital Calibration system.
The Conamp system was calibrated and certified September
15, 1986, by the National Standards Testing Laboratory in
accordance with ASTM Specifications E 74-81. The
Conampsystem includes both 10-kip and 100-kip load cells.
To determine the applied load for this experiinent, it was
decided that the 10-kip load cell would provide the most
accurate representation of the expected load range. The
Conamp system displayed a direct digital readout of the
loads on the calibration cell.
The calibrations of the Lebow load cell and of the HP
acquisition system's output voltage readings were
accomplished using the following procedure. Prior
to tiie installation the topmost cross member of the
load frame was lowered to a position above the steel
loading platen with enough room to allow insertion
of the calibration cell. The calibration cell readout
was zeroed using the zero adjustment knob. Then
the CAL button was depressed and the specified cali-
bration offset was dialed on the display. The calibra-
tion offset adjustment knob was then locked into
position and the zero load value rechecked. C-sheet
Pressure was applied to the system by pumping
the hydraulic pressure pump. A record was kept of
the HP load cell voltages, calibration cell load
readouts, and the in-line pressure as monitored by a
pressure gage. The ram was lowered until the calibration
cell indicated a slight compressive load was being applied to
the system. At various voltage increments the operator
stopped applying pressure to the system and locked the
pump to prevent the hydraulics from leaking back, which
would have allowed the pressure to dissipate. While the
pump was locked the parameters mentioned above were
recorded. This process was continued through the entire 10-
kip range of the calibration load cell.
The calibration curve and the resulting line equation
were derived by plotting the HP voltages versus the calibra-
tion cell's load outputs. The resulting line did not go through
the origin since there was an initial tensile load on the Lebow
load cell. This tensile load was caused by the weight of the
load cell and its connectors hanging from the end of the ram.
The slope of the resulting line equation and theY -intercept
19
were then used in the acquisition program to obtain the load
on the tiie specimen from the voltages read by the HP
system. A diagram of the calibration curve and data used to
produce the curve can be seen in Appendix C.
Fuji Prescale Film and Teflon Shim Stock
The Fuji prescale film was used to convert the contact
pressure distributions to various intensities of red. The
prescale film is comprised of"A" and "C" films. Both films
have a low compressibility, polyester base. The A film has
a thin coating of microcapsulated, color-forming materihl,
and the C film has a thin coating of color developing
material. The microcapsules on the A film are of various
sizes, which allows them to break at different pressure
levels. Large microcapsules break at relatively low pres-
sures (e.g., 70 psi) while small capsules break at higher
pressures (e.g., 285 psi).
To produce a color density image, the A and C film
sheets are superimposed, with the coated surfaces face to
face. As pressure is applied to the film, the microcapsules
on the A film break, releasing the color forming material.
This color-forming material then reacts with the color devel-
oping material on the C film. The result is permanent reds
of varying intensities on the C film (see Fig 3.2).
Substrate
tB ~::::,:.::,
ro/bmb ). / j)f.iyffl ....,._Intermediate Layer
Substrate
.
Fig 3.2. Working principle of the Fuji prescale rllm
(modified from Ref 2).
A sheet of 5-mil (0.0005inch) Teflon is placed above
and below the Fuji fiim to prevent shearing from occurring
between the Fuji Film's A and C sheets. As discussed in
Chapter 2, a tiie statically loaded on a pure frictionless
surface probably closely resembles the same tiie rolling on
an asphalt surface at highway velocities. Previously, brass
shim stock was used to prevent shearing, but to further
reduce the amount of friction between the surfaces, a more
frictionless shim stock was desirable. Therefore, the 10-mil
sheets of Teflon were selected. Being an almost frictionless
surface they would not only prevent shearing between the A
and C film but also allow the tire surface to fully expand
when loaded to allow production of a full tire footprint.
For the wide-base super single tiie, two sets of fllm
sheets had to be overlapped because the tire was wider than
one sheet. Wider film is currently unavailable. The film
20

overlap, shim stock, and tire configura-

Film Overlap
tion can be seen in Fig 3.3.

FILM ANALYTICAL TOOLS 13st Tire

Many analytical tools were consid-
ered for interpreting the color densities on
the Fuji film (Refs 23, 29, and 30). The
Adage system was chosen as the prime
analytical tool because of its user friend-
liness, digitizing speed, and availability.
The primary reason for using the Adage c-Film"
system was because its results can be
quickly confrrrned as discussed by Chan
(Ref30), by either rerunning the analysis
and then comparing the results, or by
comparing the load calculated by the Fig 3.3. Teflon shim stock and film layout.
Adage with the actual applied load. The
user may also adjust the calibration curve,
scanned or from an image previously stored on a disk file.
permitting a better approximation of the contact pressures.
Each byte of the digitized image represents a brightness level
At the time of this writing the Adage analysis system was
at that byte's location on the graphics screen. The tire print's
located at The University of Texas at Austin.
pressure distribution is determined by using a calibration
Adage Analysis System curve to transform the image array of pixel intensities into a
corresponding pressure value array. The system is con-
The Adage system was used to determine the tire
trolled by a tire image analysis program written by
contact pressure from color density prints. Pressure values
Wakeland (Ref 31) and modified by Chan (Ref 30).
and plots can be obtained much quicker using the Adage
After the image data are digitized the Adage system
system than by using the CIPD densitometer used in C1R
allows the user to display the results in several graphical
Project 386 (Ref 23). A short discussion of the Adage
presentations. The user may choose to display the calibra-
Analysis System's components and their purposes is given
tion cur-Ve or display the data as a two-dimensional spectral
below. A more comprehensive explanation of the Adage
plot, three-dimensional surface plot, or two-dimensional
system, including its uses and procedures, can be found in
Chan (Ref 30) and in the Advanced Graphics Lab (AGL). contour plot. The data are smoothed using a boxcar smooth-
ing technique in order to add some continuity to the graphics.
The procedure for using the Adage analysis system is in-
The pressure values can also be downloaded from the
cluded in Appendix H.
Advanced Graphics Laboratory's VAX 11n8o to a Macin-
The Adage analysis system consists of an Eikonix
Scanner and an Adage 3006 Graphics System controlled by tosh II and printed using a Macintosh laser printer.
a tire image analysis program. The Eikonix Scanner is used
to scan and digitize the color density image for processing by EXPERIMENTAL PARAMETERS
the Adage system. An image is scanned horizontally line- As with any experiment, the test parameters must be
by-line and concurrently displayed line-by-line on the chosen with care. Pressure prints were produced for various
Adage monitor until the image is fully displayed. combinations of tires, loading, and inflation pressures. The
A scanner program provided by the AGL controls the actual parameter values and reasons for their selection are
scanner. The scanner resolution can be selected from the discussed below. The parameters can also be seen in Table
defaulted 512 x 512 pixels (i.e., 512 lines by 512 picture 3.1.
elements per line) per image to a maximum of 1024 x 1024
pixels per image, from a control panel on the Adage's Tires
monitor. The 1024 x 1024 resolution was used for all image After careful consideration two truck tires were selected
digitizing performed using the tire analysis program, as for experimentation, an Armstrong 11R24.5 tire and a
shown in Appendix H. Goodyear super single 18-22.5 tire. The reasons for their
The Adage 3006 Graphics system is supported by a selection are discussed below.
VAX work station, the Y AXSTATION II (YSII), which is The Armstrong 11R24.5 LR-G smooth tread tire was
networked to the AGL's Y AX 11nso. The University of specially manufactured for research testing and was on loan
Texas ETHERNET, a computer communication network, to this project The smooth tire surface allowed thefootpriru
handles the communication protocol. The graphic monitor area to be easily measured and the average pressure to be
can display digitized images either directly as the image is
 21

treated as a single tire, commonly paired with another tire of

TABLE 3.1. TIRE EXPERIMENTAL PARAMETERS the same make to form a pair of "duals." The super single
Inflation 18-22.5 tire was treated as a single tire normally replacing a
Pressure set of "duals,'' and, therefore, the allowable wheel load on
Tire Type (psi) Load (lb)
the super single was almost twice as high as the load allowed
11R24.5 on the IIR24.5 tire. The applied loads were 5,000, 6,000,
LoadRangeG 90 5,000
and 7,000 pounds for the 11R24.5 LR-G tire and 9,000,
6,000
10,000, and 12,000 pounds for the 18-22.5 bias LR-H tire.
7,000
105 5,000 Inflation Pressures
6,000 As stated in Chapter 2, tire inflation pressures have be~m
7,000 measured as high as 150 psi (Ref 1) but for safety purposes
18-22.5 it was decided to go only slightly above the manufacturer's
Load RangeH 85 9,000
recommended maximum tire inflation pressure. The tire
10,000
inflation pressures used were 95 and 110 psi for the IIR24.5
12,000 LR-G tire and 90 and 105 psi for the 18-22.5 bias LR-H tire.
100 9,000
Both the applied wheel loads and tire inflation pressures can
10,000 be seen in Table 3.1.
12,000
EXPERIMENTAL AND ADAGE
calculated in order toconfinn the testing equipment's accu- ~ALYTICAL PROCEDURES
racy. The 11R24.5 is generally considered to be the truck
Standard experimental and analytical procedures were
tire most commonly found on U.S. highways today (Refs I
implemented to minimize experimental error. This also
and 5) and is commercially available.
aided in reproducing similar results. The experimental pro.
The wide-base 18-22.5 truck tire was selected because
cedures using the Fuji prescale film to produce a contact
of increased interest in the effects wide-base super single
pressure footprint can be seen in Appendix D. The analyti-
tires have on highway pavement service life. Super singles
cal procedures for the Adage system and for using Macin-
have become very common on European highways and are
tosh II can be found in Appendix H and Appendix I,
now becoming more popular on the North American Conti-
respectively. For a more detailed analysis of the Adage
nent. A recapped bias-ply tire was selected because the
system and its uses consult Chapter 5, Section 3 of Chan (Ref
wide-base 18-22.5 tires' increased popularity with Texas
30), the Digital Equipment Corporation guide (Ref 32), and
users made a recap readily available for testing.
the Research Systems Incorporated guide (Ref 33).
Loads
The loads chosen for this experiment are based on
20,000-lb and 18,000-lb axle loads. The 11R24.5 tire was
 CHAPTER 4. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
Using the Fuji prescale film and the Adage analysis
system, contact pressure distributions from the new,
smooth Armstrong, 11R24.5 LR-G radial tire and the
recapped Goodyear wide-base, super single 18-22.? LR-H
bias tire were recorded and analyzed. The expenmental
parameters, resulting contact pressures, and discussion of
results for each tire are presented here, followed by a
discussion of experimental errors.

RADIAL ARMSTRONG 11R24.S LOAD

RANGEG SMOOTH TREAD TIRE
A smooth 11R24.5 LR-G radial tire was chosen for
experimentation in order to aid other research teams to
verify data they produced using Tielking's finite element
Fig 4.1. Numerical pressure
computer model, as discussed in Chapter 2 (Refs 6 and 13).
map orientation.
The experimental wheel loads and inflation pressures are
presented, followed by the resulting tire contact pressures.
The maximum pressure, mode, and contact area re-
The measured deflections for the 11R24.5 tire can be seen
corded from each tire print are tabulated in Table 4.2.
in Appendix E. Frequency histograms for each numerical
Comparing the tabulated contact areas shows that, as the
contact pressure print can be seen in Appendix F. The
wheel load was increased at a constant inflation pressure, the
experimental wheel loads and inflation pressures used to
tire contact area increased. The table also shows that, at a
test the smooth, Annstrong radial 11R24.5 LR-G tire are
constant wheel load, as the inflation pressure increased, the
listed in Table 4.1.
contact area decreased.
The resultant contact pressure distributions for the
Figures 4.2, 4.5, and 4.8 show the effect of an increase
new, smooth tread, Annstrong 11R24.5 LR-G radial tire
in wheel load on the contact area for the smooth surface
can be seen in Figs 4.2 through 4.19. The contact pressure
radial tire, at a constant inflation pressure. As the load
maps are sample (50 x 50) subarrays of smoothed pressure
increased' from 5,000 pounds to 7,000 pounds the contact
data extracted from the original pressure distribution data
pressures in all the contact regions increased. The contact
arrays. For each pressure map, a two-dimensional spec-
pressures in the sidewall regions increased by the greatest
trum graphic representation and a three-dimensional sur-
amount, nearly approaching the central region pressures.
face plot representation which were produced on the Adage
These phenomenon are better illustrated in Fig 4.20. As the
analysis system are included (see Appendix H for A~ge
wheel load increased the contact pressures also tended to
display procedures). The orientation of these n~mencal
became more uniform throughout the contact area. The
pressure maps, (e.g., Fig 4.2) and spectrum graphics (e.g.,
histograms in Appendix F verify this characteristic.
Fig 4.3) are indicated in Fig 4.I. The gaps and roug~ edges
Figures 4.20 and4.21 show the change in load distribu-
displayed on the two-dimensional spectrum graphics and
tion in the contact area by displaying the loads supported by
three-dimensional surface plots are contact areas where the
five equal rectangular regions. These regions are oriented
contact pressure was lower than the Fuji prescale film was
parallel to the tread rolling direction. Wheel loads of 5,000,
capable of recording.

TABLE 4.1. RADIAL 11R24.5 TIRE TABLE 4.2. RADIAL 11R24.5 TIRE EXPERIMENTAL
EXPE~ENTALPARAMETERS RESULTS

Inflation Maximum
Pressure Inflation Wheel Contact Contact
Tire Type (psi) Load (lb) Pressure Load Mode
Pressure Maximum Area
11R24.5 (psi) (lbs) (Esi) Location (psi) (in.2)
LoadRangeG 90 5,000 90 5,000 136 Tread Center 78 68.2
6,000 6,000 121 Tread Center 76 77.1
7,000 7,000 139 Tread Center 74 88.4
105 5,000 105 5,000 110 Tread Center 76 66.0
6,000 6,000 124 Tread Center 78 76.1
7,000 7,000 133 Tread Center 84 82.5

22
 23

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Fig 4.2. Pressure map for the smooth radial 11R24.5 load range-G tire int1a.ted to 90 psi and loaded to 5,000
pounds. The pressure print is roughly 10.9 inches long and 7.5 inches wide.
 24

Fig 4.3. Two-dimensional spectrum graphic for the smooth radial-ply 11R24.5 load
range-G tire inflated to 90 psi and loaded to 5,000 pounds.

Fig 4.4. Three-dimensional surface plot for the smooth radial-ply 11R24.5 load
range-G tire inflated to 90 psi and loaded to 5,000 pounds.

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 25

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Fig 4.5. Pressure map for the smooth radialllR24.5 load range-G tire inflated to 90 psi and loaded to 6,000
pounds. The pressure print is roughly 12 inches long and 7.6 inches wide.
26

Fig 4.6. Two-dimensional spectrum graphic for the smooth radial-ply 11R24.S load
range-G tire inflated to 90 psi and loaded to 6,000 pounds.

Fig 4.7. Three-dimensional surface plot for the smooth radial-ply 11R24.S load
range-G tire inflated to 90 psi and loaded to 6,000 pounds.
 27

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Fig 4.8. Pressure map for the smooth radial11R24.S load range-G tire inflated to 90 psi and loaded to 7,000
pounds. The pressure print is roughly 12.4 inches long and 7.6 inches wide.
28

Fig 4.9. Two-dimensional spectrum graphic for the smooth radial-ply 11R24.5 load
range-G tire inflated to 90 psi and loaded to 7,000 pounds.

Fig 4.10. Three-dimensional surface plot for the smooth radial-ply 11R24.5load
range-G tire inflated to 90 psi and loaded to 7,000 pounds.
 29

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Fig 4.11. Pressure map for the smooth radial 11R24.S load range-G tire inflated to lOS psi and loaded to 5,000
pounds. The pressure print is roughly 9.9 inches long and 7.5 inches wide.
30

Fig 4.12. Two-dimensional spectrum graphic for the smooth radial-ply 11R24.5
load range-G tire inflated to 105 psi and loaded to 5,000 pounds.

Fig 4.13. Three-dimensional surface plot for the smooth radial-ply 11R24.5load
range-G tire inflated to 105 psi and loaded to 5,000 pounds.
 31

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Fig 4.14. Pressure map for the smooth radiall1R24.5 load raoge-G tire intlated to 105 psi and loaded to 6,000
pounds. The pressure print is roughly 10.8 inches long and 7.6 inches wide.
 32

Fig 4.15. Two-dimensional spectrum graphic for the smooth radial-ply 11R24.5
load range-G tire inflated to 105 psi and loaded to 6,000 pounds.

Fig 4.16. Three-dimensional surface plot for the smooth radial-ply 11R24.5 load
range-G tire inflated to 105 psi and loaded to 6,000 pounds.

....
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Fig 4.17. Pressure map for the smooth radiai11R24.S load range-G tire inflated to 105 psi and loaded to 7,000
pounds. The pressure print is roughly 11.5 inches long and 7.6 inches wide.
34

Fig 4.18. Two-dimensional spectrum graphic for the smooth radial-ply 11R24.5
load range-G tire inflated to 105 psi and loaded to 7,000 pounds.

Fig 4.19. Three-dimensional surface plot for the smooth radial-ply 11R24.5load
range-G tire inflated to 105 psi and loaded to 7,000 pounds.
 35

2000
c 5,000 lbf
1800 Inflation Pressure = 90 psi II 6,000 lbf

-
g
1600

1400
7,000 lbf

"0
!IS
0 1200
....I
"0 1000
(I)
'5
..c
;:: 800
iii
0 600
Fig 4.20. Histogram for the smooth radiall1R24.S
400
load range-G tire, showing the change in the load
distribution across the tread width at an inflation 200
pressure of 90 psi and wbeelloads of S,OOO, 6,000, and
0
7,000 pounds. Left L-of-C Center R-ot-C Right

Position Across Tread Width

2000
lills.ooo lbt
1800 Inflation Pressure .. 105 psi II 6,000 tbf
1600 7,0001bf
.-...
g 1400
"0
!IS
0
1200
....I
"0 1000
(I)
'5 800
..c
;::
iii 600
Fig 4.21. Histogram for the smooth radial 11R24.S 0
400
load range-G tire, showing the change in the load
distribution across the tread width at an inflation 200
pressure of lOS psi and wheel loads of 5,000, 6,000,
and 7,000 pounds. Left L-of-C Center R-of-C Right
Position Across Tread Width

2000

1800 Wheel Load = 5000 (lbf)

Ell 90 psi
B 105 psi
1600

1400
"0
!IS
0
....I
"0
(I)
'5 800
..c
;::
iii 600
0
Fig 4.22. Histogram for the smooth radial 11R24.S 400
load range-G tire, showing the change in the load 200
distribution across the tread width at 5,000 pound
wheel load and inflation pressures of 90 and lOS psi. 0
Left L-of-C Center R-of-C Right
Position Across Tread Width
36

2000
Ell 90 psi
1800 Wheel Load ; sooo (lbf)
11!1105 psi
1600

g- 1400

"ca0
....I

"'5(I)

800
,Q
.....
iii
0
Fig 4.23. Histogram for the smooth radiall1R24.5
load range-G tire, showing the change in the load
distribution across the tread width at 6,000 pound
0
Left L-of-C Center Rof-C Right wheel load and inflation pressures or 90 and 105 psi.
Position Across Tread Width

2000

1800 Wheel Load .. 7000 (lbf) I!J 90 psi

rl105psi
1600
;Q 1400

"ca
0
....I
1200

1000
"'5
(I)

:g 800
iii 600
0
400
Fig 4.24. Histogram for the smooth radiall1R24.5
200 load range-G tire, showing the change in the load
distribution across the tread width at 7,000 pound
0 wheel load and inflation pressures of 90 and 105 psi.
Lett LOfC Center R-ot-C Right
Position Across Tread Width

TABLE 4.3. BIAS 18-22.5 TIRE TABLE 4.4. BIAS 18-22.5 TIRE EXPERIMENTAL
EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
PARAMETERS

Maximum
Inflation Inflation Wheel Contact Contact
Tire Pressure Load Pressure Load Pressure Maximum Mode Area
Type <psi) ~ (psi) (lbs) (psi) Location (psi) (In.2)
18-22.5 85 8,000 340 Tread Center 75.60
Load Range H 9,000 82
85
10,000 10,000 391 Tread Center 91 99.90
12,000 12,000 249 Tread Center 58 114.94
100 9,000 100 8,000 316 Tread Center 58 74.40
10.000 10,000 342 Tread Center 66 87.70
12,000 12,000 238 Tread Center 94 112.04

6,000, and 7,000 pounds are shown for each of the five
regions. Figure 4.21 shows that, as the inflation pressure is
increased for the same loading conditions, the five regions
appeared to increase equally.
Comparing the contact speco:ums shown in Fig 4.3 and
Fig 4.12 reveals that, for a constant wheel load, an increase
in inflation pressure causes the contact pressure located at
the tire's central region to increase while the contact pressure
at the side wall region decreases. Figures 4.22 and 4.24
clearly illustrate this pressure redistribution behavior for
5,000 and 7,000-pound wheel loads, respectively. How-
ever, because of eccentric loading and asymmetric tire con-
so:uction, the response of this tire in Fig 4.23 appears
distorted. Yet, the researchers still believed the data showed
a valid trend, and, using this figure, verified it by comparing
the sum of the right and left load distribution sections for the
tire inflated to 90 psi with the sum of the right and left load
distribution sections for the tire inflated to 105 psi. The sum
for the tire inflated to 105 psi is less than the tire inflated to
90 psi, and, therefore, as the inflation pressure increased, the
amount of wheel load carried by the side wall area decreased.
At the same time, the amount of wheel load transferred to the
central region of the contact patch increased.
BIAS GOODYEAR 18-22.5 WIDE-BASE
SUPER SINGLE TIRE
A wide-base super single, 18-22.5 LR-H, bias-ply re-
tread tire was chosen for experimentation because of its
increased use on Texas highways. The experimental wheel
inflation pressure increases it is accompanied by an increase
loads and inflation pressures are presented, followed by the
resulting tire contact pressures. Frequency histograms for
each numerical contact pressure distribution print can be
seen in Appendix G. The experimental wheel loads and
inflation pressures used to test the recapped General wide-
base 18-22.5 LR-H tire are listed in Table 4.3.
Experimental Results
The results of the contact pressure analysis are shown in
Figs 4.25 through 4.42. The results for the 18-22.5 tire are
presented, using numerical contact pressure maps, two-
dimensional speco:um graphics, and three-dimensional sur-
face plots, as were previously seen for the 11R24.5 smooth
tread tire. The numerical contact pressure maps (e.g., Fig
4 .25) and speco:um graphics (e.g., Fig 4 .26) are oriented as
shown in Fig 4 .1. The gaps and rough edges displayed on
the two-dimensional speco:um graphics and three-dimen-
sional surface plots are areas where the contact pressure was
lower than the Fuji prescale fllm was capable of recording.
The maximum pressure, mode, and contact area re-
corded from each tire print are tabulated in Table 4.4.
Comparing the tabulated contact areas shows that, as the
wheel load was increased, while keeping the inflation pres-
sure constant, the tire contact area increased. The table also
shows that, at a constant wheel load, as the inflation pressure
increased, the contact area decreased.
37
Figures 4.25, 4 .28, and 4.31 show the effect an increase
in wheel load, at a constant inflation pressure, has on the
contact area for the 18-22.5 tire. As the load was increased
from 8,000 pounds to 10,000 pounds the contact pressures
over the entire contact patch also increased, with the largest
increase occurring in the central region. These phenomena
are better illustrated in Fig 4.43. As the wheel loads in-
creased the contact pressures tended to become more uni-
form throughout the contact patch. This trend is verified by
the histograms in Appendix G.
Figures 4.43 and 4.44 show the changes in load distri-
bution in the 18-22.5 tire contact area by displaying the
portion of wheel load supported by five equal rectangular
regions. These regions are oriented parallel to the tread
rolling direction. Figure 4.43 shows that, as the load in-
creased from 8,000 to 10,000 pounds and from 10,000 to
12,000 pounds, the contact pressures in all the regions
increased. Figure 4.44 shows that as the load increased from
8,000pounds to lO,OOOpounds asirnilartrendoccurred. For
the increase from 10,000 to 12,000 pounds the trend discon-
tinued. The pressure in thecentralregionremained the same
but the contact pressures in the sidewall regions increased.
Except for the contact pressures where the load was
increased from 10,000 to 12,000 pounds in Fig 4.43, the
results in both Figs 4.43 and 4.44 are in contradiction with
the theory associated with bias-ply tires as discussed in
Chapter 2. In Chapter 2, it was stated that the contact
pressures for a bias-ply tire are normally highest at the
sidewall regions for low inflation pressures but that as the
in contact pressures at the contact area's central region. If
the inflation pressure continues to increase at a constant
wheel load the contact pressure in the center region will
eventually surpass the pressures at the sidewall regions.
These strange contact characteristics can be attributed
to the super single tire's construction. The tire is very rigid
and its tread is convex so that at low wheel loads only the
center portion of the tread is in contact with the pavement
surface, which causes a circular contact print to be produced
(Figs4.26andFig4.35). As the load is increased the contact
area becomes wider and more oval shaped (Fig 4.29). When
the applied load was increased from 10,000 pounds to
12,000 pounds, the full tread width established contact and
the contact patch then lengthened to accommodate the
additional load, as displayed in Fig 4.32. InFig4.32 it is also
evident that the sidewall tread established contact with the
pavement surface and thus the change in wheel load from
10,000 pounds to 12,000 pounds resulted in a large increase
in contact pressure at both the tread's center and sidewall
regions. These characteristics are better illustrated in Fig
4.43.
At a tire inflation pressure of 100 psi when the wheel
load was increased from 8,000 to 10,000pounds, the contact
pressure increased only in the center region, which is in
character for a bias tire inflated to high pressure. The high
38
inflation pressure also caused a smaller contact area to occur,
preventing the sidewall tread from establishing contact with
the pavement (compare Figs 4.35 and 4.38). However, as
the load was increased to 12,000 pounds, the higher inflation
pressure prevented lengthening of the contact area in order
to transfer the additional wheel load, and, therefore, the
additional load was transferred to the sidewall region. At the
same time, the contact pressures in the central region re-
mained relatively constant.
The comparison of Fig 4.26 and 4.35 revealed that, at a
constant wheel load, an increase in inflation pressure from
85 to 100 psi caused the contact pressure in the center region
to increase. This is logical because, if a decrease in contact
area occurs because of an increase in inflation pressure, the
contact pressures would be expected to increase.
Figures 4.45 and 4.46 show typical contact pressure
trends for bias-ply tires. They show that an increase in
inflation pressure, at a constant wheel load, is accompanied
by an increase in contact pressure in the center region and a
decrease in contact pressure at the sidewall region. How-
ever, the trends described by Fig 4.47 look the opposite of
what is expected for a bias tire for an increase in inflation
pressure at a constant wheel load. As the inflation pressure
increases the distributed load in the center region should
increase with an accompanying decrease in the sidewall
region similar to that shown inFigs4.45 and4.46. It appears
as if just the opposite has occurred. By looking at Fig 4.47
more closely, it can be seen that the largest differences
between the 85 and 100-psi columns is less than one percent
of the applied wheel load. This is about the accuracy of the
load cell voltage readout of the load frame apparatus. There-
fore, in order to determine the contact pressure characteris-
tics for the change in inflation pressure for the 12,000-pound
wheel load, it is necessary to look at the tabulated contact
area in Table 4.4 and the pressure distribution maps (Figs
4.31 and 4.40). The contact patch produced from the tire
inflated to 100-psi has a slightly smallercontactarea than the
patch produced at 85 psi, and, therefore, should have slightly
larger contact pressures. Comparing Figs 4.31 and 4.40
shows that the contact pressures are almost the same. Thus,
since the change in contact area is small and the data in Figs
4.31 and 4.40 appear the same, the increase in inflation
pressure from 85 psi to 100psi had a very small effect at the
12,000-pound loading.
DISCUSSION OF RESULTS
For both the smooth treaded 11R24.5 radial tire and the
wide-base 18-22.5 bias tire at constant inflation pressures,
an increase in wheel load was accompanied by an increase
in contact area. Similarly, at constant wheel loads, both tires
experienced a decrease in contact area as the tire inflation
pressure was increased. This is where similarities between
the two tires end. Both tires do have interesting character-
istics unique to tires of the same construction type, and they
are presented below.
Characteristics of the Smooth Tread 11 R24.5 Tire
The 11R24.5 radial tended to be characterized by a
fairly uniform contact pressure. The frequency histograms
in Appendix F illustrate that most of the measured pressure
values are within a small range of pressures. It appears that,
as the wheel load increased, the contact pressure distribution
becomes more uniform, especially in the range of 5,000 to
6,000 pounds at 95 psi.
For the same tire, as the wheel load increased, the
contact pressures at the center portion of the tread were
slightly redistributed, but the majority of the increased load
was accommodated by an increased contact length. The
outer ribs not only increased in contact length but also
increased in average contact pressures. The largest contact
pressures occurred in the center portion of the tread because
the belt of a radial tire is more rigid than its sidewalls. The
increased pressure in the sidewall regions can probably be
attributed to growing bending stresses in the sidewall com-
bined with an increase in sidewall overhang beyond the tread
edge. Lippman and Oblizajek (Ref 15) stated that the in-
creased overhang results in an additional vertical component
of air pressure acting on the inner surface of the sidewall
beyond the tread edge.
An increase in wheel load on a radial tire seems to cause
the sidewall pressure to increase, and an increase in tire
inflation pressure causes the center contact pressure to
increase.
Characteristics of the Wide-Base 18-22.5 Tire
The pressure distribution data produced by loading the
wide-base 18-22.5 bias tire show that the pressures were
highest in the tread's center region. As the wheel load
increased the pressures in the center of the tire increased
until the load was large enough to establish contact of the full
tread width. After this point the contact area lengthens to
accommodate any additional wheel load.
The pressures were also high along the edges of the
tread. This can be attributed to the tread grooves causing the
tread ribs to support the inflation pressure over the tread
grooves.
The pressures transmitted to the pavement by the super
singles are much larger than the inflation pressure.
EXPER~ENTALERROR
As is customary in re}X)rting experimental results, a
section pertaining to the experimental error is included. In
the methodology reported in this document, possible sources
of error became apparent during trial runs, when ink prints
were produced. The ink print experiments led to careful
procedural practices which helped avoid experimental error
during the Fuji film experimentation. The few errors which
did occur during the actual tire testing, and which possibly
affected the results, are discussed below.
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40

Fig 4.26. Two-dimensional spectrum graphic for the wide base bias 18-22.5 load
range-H tire inflated to 85 psi and loaded to 8,000 pounds.

Fig 4.27. Three-dimensional surface plot for the wide-base bias 18-22.5 load range-
H tire inflated to 85 psi and loaded to 8,000 pounds.
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42

Fig 4.29. Two-dimensional spectrum graphic for the wide base bias 18-22.5load
range-H tire inflated to 85 psi and loaded to 10,000 pounds.

Fig 4.30. Three-dimensional surface plot for the wide-base bias 18-22.5 load range-
H tire inflated to 85 psi and loaded to 10,000 pounds.
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pounds. The pressure print is roughly 13.8 inches long and 12.4 inches wide.
44

Fig 4.32. Two-dimensional spectrum graphic for the wide base bias 18-22.5 load
range-H tire inflated to 85 psi and loaded to 12,000 pounds.

Fig 4.33. Three-dimensional surface plot for the wide-base bias 18-22.5 load range-
H tire inflated to 85 psi and loaded to 12,000 pounds.
 45

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pounds. The pressure print is roughly 11.1 inches long and 11.4 inches wide.
46

Fig 4.35. Two-dimensional spectrum graphic for the wide base bias 18-22.5 load
range-H tire inflated to 100 psi and loaded to 8,000 pounds.

Fig 4.36. Three-dimensional surface plot for the wide-base bias 18-22.5 load range-
R tire inflated to 100 psi and loaded to 8,000 pounds.
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:121 Zlt 1h 1l Ut

'Jt lll 100 tO tl ll

]I

12 U U
It H 21

il l:l

u ll ,. 91 10] lU 92 u ,. 11 4il 40 ]0 20

., n
" lQ ,.. ., 14 n u ,, to
92 101

,.
,,

't2
10

n H
tt n tl ,, u
61 H
"u ..
u 14 ..
,, 100 101

Fig 4.37. Pressure map for the wide-base bias 18-22.5load rang-H tire inflated to 100 psi and loaded to 10,000
pounds. The pressure print is roughly 12.1 inches long and 12.1 inches wide.
48

Fig 4.38. Two-dimensional spectrum graphic for the wide base bias 18-22.5 load
range-H tire inflated to 100 psi and loaded to 10,000 pounds.

Fig 4.39. Three-dimensional surface plot for the wide-base bias 18-22.5 load range-
H tire inflated to 100 psi and loaded to 10,000 pounds.
 49

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Fig 4.40. Pressure map for the wide-base bias 18-22.5 load rang-H tire inflated to 100 psi and loaded to 12,000
pounds. The pressure print is roughly 12.3 inches long and 12.4 inches wide.
50

Fig 4.41. Two-dimensional spectrum graphic for the wide base bias 18-22.5 load
range-H tire inflated to 100 psi and loaded to 12,000 pounds.

Fig 4.42. Three-dimensional surface plot for the wide-base bias 18-22.5 load range-
R tire inflated to 100 psi and loaded to 12,000 pounds.
 51

4000
m 8ooo tbt
3500 Inflation Pressure 85 (psi) J1i!1 10000 lbf
12000 lbf
c 3000
~
"0 2500
C1l
0
...J
"0 2000
Q)
'S
.0 1500
;::
_]i
Fig 4.43. Histogram for the wide-base 18-22.5 load c 1000
range-H tire, showing the change in the load
distribution across the tread width at an innation 500
pressure of 85 psi and wheel loads of 8,000, 10,000,
and 12,000 pounds. 0
Left L-of-C Center A-of-C Right
Pos~ionAcross Tread Width

4000
[] 8000 lbf

3500
Inflation Pressure. 100 (psi) II 10000 lbt
12000 lbf
c 3000
~
"0
C1l 2500
0
...J
"0
Q) 2000
'S
.0
;:: 1500
J!2
C
Fig 4.44. Histogram for the wide-base 18-22.5Ioad 1000
range-H tire, showing the change in the load
distribution across the tread width at an innation 500
pressure of 100 psi and wheel loads of 8,000, 10,000,
0
and 12,000 pounds. Left L-of-C Center A-of-C Right
Position Across Tread Width

3000

Wheel Load - 8000 (lbf) Eil 85 psi

2500 1!1100 psi
c
~ 2000
"0
(ll
0
...J
"0 1500
Q)
'S
u; 1000
iS
Fig 4.45. Histogram for the wide-base 18-22.5 load 500
range-H tire, showing the change in the load
distribution across the tread width at 8,000 pound
0
wheel load and innation pressures or 85 and 100 psi. L-of-C Center AofC Right
Position Across Tread Width
52

4000
m 85 psi
3500

3000
Wheel Load 10000 (lbf}
100 psi

g
~

'"C 2500
Cll
Q
...J
'"C 2000
(l)
::;
.1:1 1500
;:::
(j)
i:5 1000

500

0
Left Lof-C Center R-ofC Right
Pos~ion Across Tread Width

Fig 4.44>. Histogram for the wide-base 18-22.5 load range-

H tire, showing the change in the load distribution across
the tread width at 10,000 pound wheel load and inflation
pressures of 85 and 100 psi.

4000
Ill 85 psi
Wheel Load - 12000 (lbf}
3500 8100 psi

g 3000
~

'"C
Ill 2500
Q
...J
'"C
(l)
2000
::;
.1:1
;::: 1500
.i
c 1000

500

0
Left L-of-C Center R-ot-C Right
Position Across Tread Width

Fig 4.47. Histogram for the wide-base 18-22.5 load range

H tire, showing the change in the load distribution across
the tread width at 12,000 pound wheel load and inflation
pressures of 85 and 100 psi.

Fuji Presca/e FUm
Experimentation with the Fuji film provided an oppor-
tunity to see irs advantages and disadvantages. Within a
short time (approximate! y thirty minutes) the film allows the
users to easily distinguish relative pressure magnitudes.
During the experiment, the research team found that the
prescale film color intensity changes with time after expo-
sure and between boxes in different manufacturing lors. In
order to compensate for the film's change with time, calibra-
tion squares were created at the same time period as the tire
pressure prints were taken. To compensate for possible
differences in fJ.lm between boxes having different lot
numbers, a set of calibration squares were produced for each
box of f:tlm used during the same testing period.
The second problem with the Fuji film, as discussed in
Chapter 3, was that the prescale film was not wide enough to
test the 18-22.5 super single tire without overlapping the
sheets. The researchers made every attempt to place the
overlap so it would be within the tread groove during testing.
However, even though the film was placed within the tread
gap prior to loading, the overlap did not remain in the tread
gap for the full duration of the testing. This caused an
increased pressure reading on the super single tire prints
when the overlap was loaded. The authors believe this does
not invalidate the data because the error is small, is easily
distinguished on the two-dimensional spectrum graphics,
and, therefore, can be compensated for by the user.
The final error caused by using the Fuji film resulted
from the fact that the super single tire's contact pressures
may have surpassed the recommended pressure for the Fuji
Super Low film in various locations on the tire print. The
maximum allowable pressure for the Super Low film was
approximately 285 psi. To compensate for the higher pres-
sures the researchers produced calibration squares for pres-
sures ranging up to 320 psi and allowed the Adage system's
calibration subroutine to interpolate the higher pressures
from the calibration curve. To check the accuracy an addi-
tional experiment was conducted usingprescale film having
a higher load range. The researchers laid two different types
of Fuji film, one on top of the other, and loaded them
simultaneously. The two films included the original Super
Low f:tlm and a Low range pressure film. The Super Low
fllm has an approximate measuring range of 0 to 285 psi, as
stated earlier, while the Low film has a pressure range from
285 to 1,000 psi. After the prints were produced the Super
Low prints were scanned and analyzed. The researchers
determined that the maximum contact pressures were within
a short interpolating range of the Super Low film by visually
comparing the prints produced using the Low film to the
Low f:tlm calibration squares.
Load Apparatus
The load apparatus was assembled many times with
various pieces of equipment suitable for monitoring load
53
values, obtaining and maintaining a desired load, and pro-
ducing contact pressure distribution prints. Many of the
pieces eventually failed or were improved upon during the
initial ink print testing. The equipment discussed in Chapter
3 was determined to be the most reliable, repeatable, and
available equipment. Therefore, it was used to produce the
pressure distribution maps presented in this report. During
the testing the researchers were concerned about the amount
of wheel load being lost through friction within the loading ..
apparatus. It also became apparent that play within the load
frame was causing some eccentric loading.
To insure that only a relatively low amount of wheel
load was being lost through friction within the load frame,
the following experiment was run. The load frame columns
were greased and a load cell was placed in between the tire
and steel platen during a trial loading. Readings from the
load cells located at above and below the tire were within 0.6
percent of each other throughout the testing range. There
fore, a negligible loss in applied load occurred due to friction
within the load frame apparatus. To insure that the load
frame would continue to remain frictionless the columns
were kept well greased.
It was noticed that approximately 0.125 inch of play
existed in the load frame during the trial testing of the
11R24.5 tire. This play allowed the tire to wobble from side
to side. The super single tire, on the other hand, exhibited
very little frame play. The researchers determined that the
difference in play between the tires was due to the super
s.ingle tire's larger weight and size. This prohibited the
horizontal movement within the load frame.
In order to remove the looseness in the load frame
apparatus during the testing of the 11R24.5 tire, the various
load frame parts which caused the play were shimmed into
place. This action prevented most of the horizontal move-
ment from occurring. To insure the load frame was plumb
and level throughout the testing, the load frame's cross
beams and load transfer arms were checked with a bubble
level. Throughout the experiments the shims worked satis-
factorily.
In summary, the experiments showed that, for the
11R24.5 radial tire and the 18-22.5 bias tire, increased wheel
loads, at constant inflation pressures, generally resulted in
more uniform contact pressures throughout the contact area.
On the other hand, increased inflation pressures, at constant
wheel loads, resulted in reduction of contact area and in-
creased contact pressures in the contact patch's central
region. Low inflation pressures tended to cause the wheel
load to be distributed more heavily to the contact patch's
c~ntral area for the radial tire and more heavily to the
stdewall contact area for the bias tire. The results and
conclusions are further discussed in the next chapter.
 CHAPTER 5. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Within the last 50 years truck sizes, allowable wheel
loads, truck tire sizes, and tire inflation pressures have
increased. In order to establish pavements capable of sus-
taining this increased loading, the actual loading mecha-
nisms and their magnitudes must frrst be identified. To
identify the magnitudes, static testing was performed on two
tires at The University of Texas at Austin. A summary of the
research performed, conclusions from the results, and rec-
ommendations for future research are presented below.
SUMMARY OF RESEARCH
A load frame was reassembled to provide a static load
on two tires. The ftrst, a specially manufactured smooth
tread Armstrong 11R24.5load range-G tire, was selected so
that its pressure distribution data could be used to verify
contact pressure data produced by Tielking's fmite element
tire model. The second tire, a commercial Goodyear wide-
base super single 18-22.5 load range-H tire, was selected
because of increased interest in the effect these popular tires
have on pavement life. The 11R24 .5 radial was inflated to 90
and 105 psi and at each inflation pressure loaded to 5,000,
6,000, and 7,000 pounds. The 18-22.5 recapped tire was
inflated to 85 and 100 psi and at each inflation pressure
loaded to 8,000, 10,000, and 12,000 pounds.
As the tires were loaded, Fuji prescale film was used to
capture the contact pressure densities. This was accom-
plished by converting the pressures into colors of corre-
sponding density. An Adage 3006 graphics system using an
Eikonix computer image scanner was then used to digitize
the prints, producing an array of corresponding pixel inten-
sities. This array was then converted into an array of corre-
sponding pressure values. Once the array of pressure values
was obtained, the pressure distribution data were displayed
as two and three-dimensional graphics and also printed out
as numerical pressure maps.
Using the Adage graphics system, various tests were
performed to verify the experiment's repeatability. Results
of the tests show that similar data could be reproduced 90
percent of the time with an accuracy of 85 percent.
CONCLUSIONS
From the experimentation on the smooth tread 11R24.5
radial and recapped 18-22.5 bias-ply tires the following
conclusions were made.
(1) At low wheel loads, the load was supported by the
central and edge portions of the radial 11R24.5 tire.
(2) As the wheel load was increased on the radial tire,
while the inflation pressure was kept constant, the
contact pressures became more uniform.
54
(3) At constant wheel load, as the tire inflation pressure
increased, the contact pressures in the tread's central
region increased more than the pressures in the side-
wall region.
(4) Increased wheel load on the radial tire, at a constant
inflation pressure, was accompanied by a lengthening
in the contact patch.
(5) Generally, as the wheel load was increased, while the
inflation pressure was held constant, the contact area
tended to increase. On the other hand, if the wheel load
was kept constant, an increase in tire inflation pressure
was accompanied by a decrease in contact area. The
super single tire exhibited this characteristic only after
the full tread width had established contact.
(6) The super single 18-22.5 bias tire's sidewall regions
initially established contact when loaded to 10,000
pounds. The same tire at a load below 10,000 pounds
had a circular contact area. When the wheel load
exceeded 10,000 pounds the contact area's shape
became more oval.
(7) At constant inflation pressure, after the bias super
single's sidewall regions had established contact,
additional loading was accompanied by a lengthening
of the contact area.
RECOMMENDATIONS
In .order to better quantify wheel loading which can be
used to improve pavement design, the following recommen-
dations suggest the direction for future research.
(1) Test a slightly used llR24.5 load range-G tire and
compare the results to the smooth 11R24.5 tire's test
results, provided in this report.
(2) Test additional wide-base super single tires, especially
radialandlowprofllesupersingle tires. Both manufac-
turers and truck operators predict the continued in-
crease in wide base tire popularity. The effect the wide-
base tires will have on pavement life and pavement
management must continue to be assessed in order to
design pavements capable of sustaining the wheel and
inflation pressure loads for a sufftcient time period.
(3) An additional series of tests should be performed to
determinethecontactpressuresofa285Rn5/24.5,and
15R22.5 LR-G, as recommended by Dr. J. T. Tielking
of Texas A&M.
(4) Perform additional static testing using a simulated
asphalt surface instead of the steel platen. The results
could be correlated with the results of the tests per-
formed using a steel platen. The contact pressures
would be slightly higher using a rough particulate

surface as opposed to a perfectly smooth, uniform
surface because the contact area would be smaller on
the rough surfaces.
(5) Develop a system capable of measuring dynamic
contact stresses (normal and tangential) under a freely
rolling tire. A system capable of measuring changes in
pavement stresses under a freely rolling tire could
provide data useful for determining the effect of cyclic
loading and velocity on pavement life.
55
(6) The Fuji prescale film changes with time and from box
to box. Therefore, to minimize experimental error,
calibration squares must be created at approximately
the same time as the tire pressure prints. If the opera-
tors must use two separate boxes of film to complete
the testing of one tire, then a set of calibration squares
must be produced for each box of film.
 REFERENCES
1. Roberts, F. L., et al, "Establishing Material Properties
For Thin Asphalt Concrete Surfaces On Granular
Bases," Research Report 345-1, Texas Transpor-
tation Institute, Texas A&M University, College
Station, Texas, November 1985.
2. Van Vuuren, D. J., ''Tyre Pressure and Its Effect On
Pavement Design and Performance," Civil Engi-
neering In South Africa, Vol 16, No. 8, August
1974.
3. Brown, J. L., "Proceedings Of A Symposium/Work-
shop On High Pressure Truck Tires," Austin,
Texas, February 1987.
4. Butler, Lee, "Truck Tire Pressure And Pavement
Damage," Proceedings, Symposium/Workshop On
High Pressure Truck Tires, Austin, Texas, Febru-
ary 1987.
5. DeCabooter, Philip H., "Wisconsin Truck Tire Pres-
sure Study," FHW A/WI -88/1, Wisconsin Depart-
ment of Transportation, Division of Highways and
Transportation Services, Madison, Wisconsin,
January 1988.
6. Roberts, F. L., et al, ''The Effect Of Tire Pressures On
Flexible Pavements," Research Report 372-lF,
Texas Transportation Institute, Texas A&M Uni-
versity, College Station, Texas, August 1986.
7. Planning and Statistics Bureau, Montana Department
of Highways, "1984 Truck Tire Study," Helena,
Montana, 1984.
8. "Tire Pressure Survey," Unpublished Data, Bureau Of
Design, Division of Highways, Illinois Depart-
mentofTransportation, Springfield, Illinois, 1986.
9. Thompson, Marshall R., ''Analytical Methods For
Considering Tire Pressure Effects In Pavement
Design," Proceedings, Symposium/Workshop On
High Pressure Truck Tires, Austin, Texas, Febru-
ary 1987.
10. AASHO Road Test, Highway Research Board, "His-
tory and Description of the Project," Report 61A,
1960.
11. Sharp, Asa, "Truck Tire Pavement Interaction," Pro-
ceedings, Symposium/Workshop On High Pres-
sure Truck Tires, Austin, Texas, February 1987.
12. Clark, Samuel K., Editor, Mechanics Of Pneumatic
Tires, National Bureau Of Standards Monograph
122, November 1971.
13. Tielking, J. T., and F. L. Roberts, "Tire Contact Pres-
sure and Its Effects On Pavement Strain," Journal
of Transportation Engineering, Vol 113, No. 1,
January 1987.
56
14. Sharma, J., and J. Mahoney, "Evaluation of Present
Legislation And Regulations On Tire Sizes, Con-
figurations And Load Limits," Unpublished Ex-
ecutive Summary Prepared by the University Of
Washington for Washington Department of Trans-
portation.
15. Lippmann; S. A., and K. L. Oblizajek, ''The Distribu-
tions of Stress Between The Tread And The Road
For Freely Rolling Tires," SAE 74102, Society of
Automotive Engineers, Detroit, February 1974.
16. Papagianakis, A. T., and R. C. G. Haas, "Wide-Base
Truck Tires: Industry Trends And State Of Knowl-
edge Of Their Impact On Pavements," Ministry Of
Transportation and Communications of Ontario,
December 1986.
17. Yeager, R. W., "Tires of the Nineties and Beyond,"
Elastomerics, Vol119, No.2, February 1987.
18. Seitz, N.,and A. W. Hussmann, "Forces and Displace-
ment in Contact Area of Free Rolling Tires," S. A.
E. Transaction, Vol80, Paper No. 710626, 1971.
19. Bonse, R. P. H., and S. H. Kuhn, ''Dynamic Forces
Exerted by Moving Vehicles on a Road Surface,"
Highway Research Board Bulletin No. 233, 1959.
20. Ginn, J. L., and R. L. Marlowe, "Road Contact Forces
of Truck Tires as Measured in the Laboratory,"
SAE Transactions, Vol 76, Paper No. 670493,
1967.
21. Zekoski, J., "Impact of Truck Tire Selection on Con-
tact Pressers," FHW A Load Equivalence W ark-
shop, Sponsored by the Federal Highway Admini-
stration Pavements Division, Turner-Fairbanks
Highway Research Center, McLean, Virginia,
September 13-15, 1988.
22. Huhtala, M., "Field Tests to Compare Tires," FHWA
Load Equivalence Workshop, sponsored by the
Federal Highway Administration Pavements Divi-
sion, Turner-Fairbanks Highway Research Center,
McLean, Virginia, September 13-15, 1988.
23. Marshek, K. M., et al., "Experimental Investigation of
Truck Tire Inflation Pressure on Pavement-Tire
Contact Area and Pressure Distribution," Re-
search Report 386-1, Center for Transportation
Research, The University of Texas at Austin,
August 1985.
24. Haas, R. C. G., and A. T. Papagianakis, "Understand-
ing Pavement Rutting," Roads and Transportation
Association ofCartada, Toronto, Ontario, Septem-
ber 28, 1986.

25. Eisenmann, J., and A. Hilmer, "Influence Of Wheel
Load And Inflation Pressure On The Rutting Ef-
fects At Asphalt-Pavements-Experiments and
Theoretical Investigations," Sixth International
Conference on the Structural Design of Asphalt
Pavements, Ann Arbor, July 1987.
26. Monismith, C. L., "Fatigue Characteristics of Asphalt
Paving Mixtures and Their Use in Asphalt Pave-
ments," Proceedings of Annual Pavement Confer-
ence, Symposium on Fatigue In Asphalt Pave-
ments, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque,
New Mexico, 198 L
27. Chen, H. H., K. M Marshek, and C. L. Saraf, "Effects
of Truck Tire Contact Pressure Distribution on the
Design of Flexible Pavements: A Three-Dimen-
sional Finite-Element Approach," Transportation
Research Report 1095, Transportation Research
Board, National Research Council, Washington,
D. C., 1986.
28. "Fuji Prescale Film General Information," Fuji Photo
Film Company, Limited, Tokyo, Japan, 1986.
57
29. Aalund, M., et aL, "Development Of An Automated
System For Analyzing Fuji Film Images With
CIPD-1 00 Densitometer Of Tire/Pavement Inter-
face Pressure Distribution," Mechanical Engineer-
ing Design Projects Program, The University of
Texas at Austin, Spring 1988.
30. Chan, Gerard, "Computer Image Processing Tech-
nique for Analysis of the Tire Contact Pressures,"
M.S. Thesis, The University of Texas at Austin,
December 1988.
3 L Wakeland, Richard E., "Video Image Analysis of
Pressure Sensitive Film," M.S. Thesis, The Uni-
versity of Texas at Austin, December 1985.
32. Digital Equipment Corporation, "Guide to Using
DCL and Command Procedures on VAXNMS,"
Maynard, Massachusetts, September 1984.
33. Research Systems Incorporated, "Users Guide to
VAX IDL Interactive Data Language," Denver,
Colorado, 1982.
 APPENDIX A. TIRE MARKETING SURVEY
In addition to the literature concerning actual field Overall the response was successful. Fiveoutof six tire
measurements of tire types, inflation pressures, and axle manufacturers surveyed responded. Their responses
loads currently running on U.S. highways, it was believed showed that the radial 11R24.5 load range-G. radial
tire marketing information could also contribute to the 11R22.5load range-G, bias 10.00-20 load range-F, and bias
selection of an appropriate sample of tires to evaluate in this 11.00-22.5 load range-F appear to be the most popular truck
study. The six individuals employed by the major tire tires. The survey responses have been compiled and can be
manufacturers shown below were contacted by telephone. seen in Table A.1 on the following page. It was hoped that
Each individual responded that he would be willing to the data would show a definite result indicating whether the
participate in the survey to the best of his abilities, and, predominant truck tire was a radial or bias-ply tire design.
therefore, on September22, 1988, the survey was mailed. A The responses were very difficult to interpret but some
sample copy of the cover letter and the responses follow on useful data was obtained. Michelin makes nothing but
the next pages. radials; Uniroyal Goodrich does not produce radials yet, but
responded that their share of the market is only two percent;
Mr. Barry Petrea Goodyear responded that 65 percent of the truck tires they
Marketing Department sell are radials; and Arms tong replied that only 40 percent of
Department 530 their market are radials. The tire manufacturers didn't want
Kelly Springfield Tire Company to discuss how much of the total market they may possess so
Willowbrook Road it was hard to judge from the responses whether more radials
Cumberland, Maryland 21502 than bias tires are sold yearly. Although from the survey
(301) 777-6475 response it is not clear whether or not the radial tire is
Mr. Stephen Avery predominant in the U.S., it is apparent that many radials are
Marketing marketed.
Michelin Tire Corporation Three problems eventually arose during the survey
P. 0. Box 19001 which may have affected the results. First, a self addressed,
Greenville, South Carolina 29602 stamped envelope was not included with the survey, as was
(803) 234-5286 stated in the cover letter. Three weeks after the surveys had
been mailed, Michelin, Kelly Springfield, and Armstong
Mr. James Mueller had not responded, and, therefore, a follow-up call was made
Manager, Heavy Equipment Tires to determine the cause of the delay. These company repre-
Armstrong Tire Company sentatives, with the exception of Mr. Petrea, of Kelly Spring-
500 Sargent Avenue field, said the surveys had been mailed. In order to obtain
New Haven, Connecticut 06536-0201 the information not received, the survey was conducted over
(203) 784-2231 the telephone with Mr. Avery and Mr. Mueller of the
Mr. Joseph Zekoski Michelin and Armstong tire companies, respectively. Mr.
Advanced Truck Tire Engineering Petrea declined to participate because he felt that the survey
Department 461 requested proprietary information.
Goodyear Tire Technical Center Second, questions two and three should have been more
1144 East Market Street specific by asking, "What is your most popular radial/bias
Akron, Ohio 44316 truck tire?" At the time the wording used seemed appropri-
(216) 796-3493 ate but it must have been confusing. An example of the
confusion occurred when Mr. Bond of Uniroyal Goodrich
Mr. Charles L. Bond
responded that the company did not market radial tires but
Manager, Business Research
that the most popular radial tire was an 11R24.5load range-
Uniroyal Goodrich Tire Company
G. Apparently he was answering for the total market, not
600 South Main Street
just his sales. It is unclear if the other respondents were
Akron, Ohio 44397-0001
(216) 374-3737 similarly confused because they do market radials.
The last problem was that the answer to question five,
Mr. Thomas G. Salpietra which was intended to quantify the tire types discussed in the
Product Manager preceding questions, was considered proprietary informa-
Commercial Tire Products tion by all but one tire manufacturer. As a result, it was very
General Tire and Rubber Company hard to determine which tire size is the most popular on U.S.
Akron, Ohio 44329 highways from the survey responses. The survey did assist
(216) 798-230 in determining which tires to include in the test sample.

59
60

TABLE A.l. TIRE SURVEY SUMMARY

Most Popular Truck Tires
Percent
Sales Radial Radial Bias Bias
that are Truck Super Truck Super
Manufacturer Radials Tire Single Tire Single
Armstrong 40 11R24.5-G 11R24.5-F
General N/R 11R24.5-G 10.00-20
Goodyear 65 11R24.5-G 16.5R22.5-J 1000 R20-F 15-22.5-H
Michelin 100 275/BOR-G 385/65R22.5 -J
Uniroyal 0 11R24.5-G 11-22.5-F

September 22, 1988

Mr. Barry Petrea

Marketing Department
D530
Kelly Springfield Tire Company
Willowbrook Road
Cumberland, Maryland 21502
Dear Mr. Petrea,
As we discussed on the telephone, I am at the University of Texas conducting research into the effects of truck tire
pressures on pavement life, with special emphasis on wide base "Super Single'' truck tires. Within my report I
intend to present data on the types and numbers of popular truck tires currently running on American highways. I
believe you could make a valuable contribution concerning current truck tire operations which would allow me to
produce a comprehensive and accurate survey. I would appreciate it if you would complete the attached, short survey
and return it in the enclosed, stamped envelope within ten days. If you are able, any other information concerning
this topic would also be appreciated.
Thank you in anticipation of your cooperation.
Sincerely,
Rex W. Hansen
Research Engineer
RWH/wg
Enclosure
 61

General Tire and Rubber Company

Acron, Ohio 44329

Name and telephone

number of r e s p o n d e n t : - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Please give the tire type and sizes (e.g. 11R24.5 type H or 18-22.5 type G) to the following questions where
appropriate. All questions relate to the total market comprising original equipment plus replacement market.
1. Of your total truck tires marketed, what percentage of sales are radials?
______ %
2. What is the most popular radial truck tire?

3. What is the most popular bias belted truck tire?

4. What are the most popular radial and bias belted wide base "Super Single" truck tires you market?
- - - - - - Radial
- - - - - - B i a s Belted
5. What percent of the total U.S. truck tire market do you feel your company has?
______ %
6. Would you like a copy of our research findings?
Dyes D no
1190/Hansen/wg/S88

Michelin Tire Corporation

P.O. Box 19001
Greenville, South Carolina 29602

Name and telephone

number of respondent: - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Please give the tire type and sizes (e.g. 11R24.5 type H or 18-22.5 type G) to the following questions where
appropriate. All questions relate to the total market comprising original equipment plus replacement market.
1. Of your total truck tires marketed, what percentage of sales are radials?
_ _ _ _ _ _%
2. What is the most popular radial truck tire?

3. What is the most popular bias belted truck tire?

4. What are the most popular radial and bias belted wide base "Super Single" truck tires you market?
------Radial
- - - - - - B i a s Belted
5. What percent of the total U.S. truck tire market do you feel your company has?
_ _ _ _ _ _%
6. Would you like a copy of our research fmdings?
Dyes Ono
1190/Hansen/wg/S88
62

Armstrong Tire Company

500 Sargent Avenue
New Haven, Connecticut 06536-0201

Name and telephone

numberofrespondent _______________________________________
Please give the tire type and sizes (e.g. 11R24.5 type H or 18-22.5 type G) to the following questions where
appropriate. All questions relate to the total market comprising original equipment plus replacement market.
1. Of your total truck tires marketed, what percentage of sales are radials?
_ _ _ _ _ _%

2. What is the most popular radial truck tire?

3. What is the most popular bias belted truck tire?

4. What are the most popular radial and bias belted wide base "Super Single" truck tires you market?
------Radial
- - - - - - B i a s Belted
5. What percent of the total U.S. truck tire market do you feel your company has?
________ %

6. Would you like a copy of our research fmdings?

Dyes Ono
1190/Hansen/wg/S88
 63

Uniroyal Goodrich Tire Company

600 South Main Street
Akron, Ohio 44397-0001

Please give the tire type and sizes (eg. 11 R24.5 type H or 18-22.5 type G) to
the following questions where appropriate. All questions relate to the total
market comprising original equipment plus replacement market.

1. Of your total truck tires marketed, what percentage of sales are radials?
(J %

2. What is the most popular radial truck tire?

JIg;. i .s- 6-

3. What is the most popular bias .~ruck tire?
1/- 7.2 ~-;=-
4. What are the most popular radial and bias belted wide base "Super Single"
truck tires you market? ~

- - - - - - - - Radial
- - - - - - B i a s Belted
5. What percent of the total U. S. truck tire market do you feel your company
has? ~/
A- &,. r ;2. I m %
6. Would you like a copy of our research findings?

~yes D no

1190/Hansen/wg/S88
64

Goodyear Tire Technical Center

1144 East Market Street
Akron, Ohio 44316

Name and te.lephone number of respondent: rn r. 'l'~r~.s V, f. c..KeJt.t'P

c~w) q.u- 1lf93
Please give the tire type and sizes (eg. 11 R24.5 type H or 18-22.5 type G) to
the following questions where appropriate. All questions relate to the total
market comprising original equipment plus replacement market.
1. Of your total truck tires marketed, what percentage of sales are radials?
(S %
----=---
2. What is the most popular radial truck tire?
It~ ~If. s ~-G--.

3. What is the most popular bias belted truck tire?

I~{)() .t a.." t.A. -F

4. What are the most popular radial and bias belted wide base "Super Single"
truck tires you market?
Jf...s'R a.QS t.A.;J Radial
/0".. J.~S '-A~ H Bias Belted

5. What percent of the total U. S. truck tire market do you feel your company
has?
_ _ _ _ _ _ Yo

6. Would you like a copy of our research findings?

~yes D no

1190/Hansen/wg/588
 APPENDIX B. LOAD FRAME SCHEMATIC AND PARTS LIST
At the beginning of this project, reassembling the load
frame previously constructed for Project 386 was a difficult
A
u
task. The various parts had to be located or, if they could
not be found, purchased or remanufactured. One of the
major problems was the absence of a detailed diagram or
B
schematic of the load frame and a parts list For that reason
a schematic and parts list are included here.

PARTSUST .'--lr::=;--- a
Item No. Description 't-t---P
A 2 Columns ----..;-,r--- 0
B 1 Load Frame Cross-Head
c 2 2.25 in. x 1.0 in. dia. All-Thread
Bolt
D 6 3.0 in. x 0.5 in. dia. Pin
E 2 8.0 in. x 0.5 in .. dia. Hex-Head
Bolt
F 2 Lock-On Collar
G 2 Column Footings I
I
H 8 Single Bolt Assembly : M
I 1 Solid Axle Assembly I

J*
K*
L*
1
2
4
Loading Cross Beam
Load Transfer Arms
Adaptor Guides
o-&! l
!

M Sleeve With Welded Nut : K

I
N 1 20000-Pound Load Cell
0 1 Hydraulic Actuator E : ~I
~ri.--~-~;~ ~
p 4 Countersunk Alan Head Bolt
Assembly

:~.:..,.~,
Q 1 1.5 x 6.5 x 10 in. Steel Plate
R 1 1.5 x 10.5 x 11 in. Steel Plate
s 4 Bolt Assembly With Leveling
Wedges
T 6 Support Collars
u 4 Cross Pins with 2 Cotter Pins Fig B.l. Load frame schematic.

*Items which have their assembly location engraved on

them. For example, item L *, the adaptor guides, are marked
1L for top left, TR for top right and BR for bottom right.

65
 APPENDIX C. LOAD-CELL CALIBRATION
In order to apply the desired load to the tire, two evident that 99.98 percent of the time the data is the same,
calibration curves were produced which correlated the load and, therefore, it is safe to draw one regression for all the data
cell voltages as read by the HP system with the calibration points, such as in Fig C.2. Figure C.2 was used to calculate
load cell output (see Fig C. I). The curves were produced the multimeter readings used to monitor the applied wheel
from the data in Table C.2. The procedure used to produce load.
the data is presented in Chapter 3, section 1.5.
From Fig C.l, the two samples seem to come TABLE C.l. CALIBRATION DATA STATISTICS
from the same population. To prove this, the
residuals were computed from each sample's Data Standard
regression and tested for sameness using a non- ! ..!!.. Mean Deviation Variances T-Value Probability
paired student's t test about the mean equal to #1 -0.0756061 43.1886 Unequal 0.0003 0.9998
zero. From the results shown in Table C. I, it is #2 -0.0796215 56.0757 Equal 0.0003 0.9998

50
TABLE C.2. CALIBRATION DATA
Multimeter Multlmeter
40
>
_,
cy= 1. 1656 + 2.2 A-3x Readlng#l Load Readlng#l Load
(lb)
Ol
(m Volts) .J!!L (m Volts)
0.012 592.0 0.012 592.0
.!: 30
'"0
ttl 1.130 1088.0 1.560 1282.0
Q)
a: 1.950 1450.0 3.230 2020.0
.....
Q)
(j)
20 3.650 2178.0 4.800 2708.0
. 5.150 2847.0 6.540 3491.0
3
::lE 10 6.750 3579.0 8.550 4380.0
2
y= - 1.2141 + 2.2115e-3x R = 1.000 8.680 4430.0 10.010 5136.0
10.270 5141.0 11.611 5853.0
0
0 5000 10000 15000 20000 12.150 5953.0 13.460 6660.0

Wheel Load (pounds) 13.800 6740.0 15.209 7450.0

15.480 7497.0 16.981 8210.0
Fig C.l. Calibration curve for 60-kip load ceU.
17.450 8338.0 18.930 9090.0
19.180 9124.0 20.690 9905.0
20.950 9931.0 22.440 10697.0
50
22.700 10671.0 24.420 11568.0
24.600 11522.0 26.631 12405.0
>
_,
40 26.500 12412.0 28.010 13165.0
28.200 13158.0 29.750 13965.0
Ol
t::
'6 30 29.850 13940.0 31.650 14820.0
(ll
Q) 31.920 14873.0 33.690 15720.0
a:
....
Q) 33.680 15656.0 35.260 16470.0
(j) 20
,35.420 16508.0 37.490 17569.0
.
3 37.500 17439.0 39.460 18500.0
::lE 10 39.200 18199.0 40.870 19073.0
41.500 19275.0 45.560 19850.0
42.900 19910.0 44.630 20730.0
5000 10000 15000
Load (pounds)

Fig C.2. Combined calibration curve for 60-kip load

cell.

66
 APPENDIX D. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES FOR
PRODUCING PRESSURE PRINTS
To produce the digitized contact pressure prints the
following procedures were performed.
1. Assemble the load frame, aligning, leveling, and
plumbing the members.
2. Connect the hydraulics and HP data Acquisition sys-
tem.
3. Calibrate the load cell.
4. Using the calibration data, plot the voltage versus load
data to obtain a calibration curve. This curve is used
to determine the voltages that correspond to the de-
sired loads.
5. Inflate the tire to the desired maximum inflation pres-
sure.
6. Mount the tire into the load frame.
7. Clean anticipated tire contact areas. Soil and other
contaminants seem to be attracted and cling to the film;
therefore, the tire and platen area need to be as clean as
possible.
8. Clean the loading platen.
9. A paper target needs to be placed and taped to the
platen. Use it to mark the tire groove location in order
to properly place the film overlap.
10. Place the 10-mil Teflon shim stock on the platen and
tape it down for a reference if multiple testing is
desired. Then lay the Fuji film A and C sheets and a
top sheet of Teflon shim stock onto the load platen.
For expected tire footprint widths greater than 10.6
inches the film sheets must be overlapped or placed
side-by-side in order to obtain a full footprint.
11. Lower the tire so that it is in contact with the surface
of the Teflon shim stock.
Maintain Maximum Desired Load
't)
(1l
0
...J
Increase Load
2 4 6 L---------'"'-.. C-Film
lime (minutes)
Fig D.l. The tire loading waveform.
67
12. Begin loading. As Fuji suggests, increase the load.
eventually reaching the desired maximum load over a
minimum of two minutes, as shown in Fig D.l.
13. When the maximum load is obtained, record the in-line
hydraulic pressure as read by the in-line pressure gage.
14. Maintain maximum load for two minutes.
15. Unload the tires.
16. Raise the tire, then remove the top sheet of Teflon and
the fllm. Dispose of the spent A sheet and record the
following information on the C sheet: tire size,
manufacturer's recommended load range, inflation
pressure, load, date, time, temperature, and humidity.
Also, with a pencil draw a 10-inch line and two corner
points on the tire print outside the pressure print region
(see Fig D.2). These are later used in the Adage
analysis.
17. Select one of the three steps below.
a. If additional contact pressures are desired for
the same inflation pressure but at different
loads, go to step 18.
b. If additional contact pressures are desired at a
different location on the tire tread, rotate the
tire to a pre-cleansed area on the opposite side
of the tire.
c. If additional contact pressures are desired for
lower inflation pressures, decrease the tire's
inflation pressure to the next desired testing
inflation pressure.
18. Repeat steps 4 through 16 for each desired load and
inflation pressure.
19. Digitize the prints, using the Adage system.
Tire Foot Print
Imaginary
Rectangular Border
10-in. Scale Une
Fig D.2. Tire print preparation.
 APPENDIX E. SMOOTH 11R24.5 LR~G MOVEMENT DATA
In order for Dr. J. T. Tielking, at the Texas Transporta-
tion Institute, to confirm contact pressure values produced
by his finite-element tire-pavement contact model, the fol-
lowing sidewall deflections were measured. The smooth
11R24.5 LR-G tire deflections were measured at inflation
pressures of90 and 105 psi and at each inflation pressure the
wheel wasloadedto5,000,6,000, 7,000,and lO,OOOpounds.
The deflections at zero inflation pressure and zero wheel
load were also measured. The sidewall deflections for the
tire inflated to 105 psi are in Table E. I, the deflections for the
tire inflated to 90 psi are in Table E.2, and the deflections for
the tire inflated to zero psi are in Table E.3.
Five permanent reference points were selected on both
sides of the tire. The reference point locations can be seen
in Fig E.l. These sidewall points were aligned vertically in
the middle of the tire-platen contact area. The correspond-
ing points on the opposite side of the tire were also selected
and marked. The movement values in the table were the
average movement of a specific reference point with its
counterpart on the opposite side of the tire. For a vertical
reference point, the vertical length of the ram-stroke was
measured at a load of zero pounds. The horizontal and
vertical point coordinates as well as the vertical length of the
ram-stroke were measured to obtain deflection data at each
load. This process was repeated for the 90-psi tire inflation
pressure, as can be seen in Table E.2. Table E.3 is the
deflection of the tire at zero psi and without any applied
wheel load.
The total tire and axle displacement due to the load
during the testing, and the average estimated value of the tire
stiffness (kip/inch) are also included in Tables E.l and E.2.
Note the slight difference in the tire stiffness between the
two inflation pressures.
Figures E.2 and E.3 are graphical representations of the
data shown in Tables E.l, E.2, and E.3. The sidewall
movement for different wheel loads and tire inflation pres-
sures can be clearly observed Note the pronounced vertical
and horizontal movements of each point.

TABLE E.l. SIDEWALL MOVEMENTS FOR THE SMOOTH 11R24.S LR-G

RADIAL TIRE INFLATED TO 105 PSI
Load (pounds)
0 5,000 6,000 7,000 8,000
Points ~ ..!!.. ..!. _x_ ..!. ....L ..!. ....L ..!. ....L
#1 2.0 22.60 2.3 20.30 2.3 19.90 2.4 19.60 2.4 18.60
#2 4.0 15.00 5.0 13.40 5.2 13.10 5.4 13.00 5.8 12.00
#3 4.0 11.10 5.0 950 5.2 9.20 55 8.70 5.9 8.20
#4 2.6 7.30 3.5 5.70 3.8 5.40 4.0 5.00 4.3 4.50
#5 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00
Total Axle
Movement -0.00 -2.60 -3.20 -3.70 -5.20
Average T!.re Stiffness: 4,830 Pounds Per Inch
*Movements are in centimeters.

T ABI::E E.2. SIDEWALL MOVEMENTS FOR THE SMOOTH 11R24.S LRG

RADIAL TIRE INFLATED TO 90 PSI
Load (pounds)
0 5,000 6,000 7,000 8,000
y y y y
Points ~ ..!!.. X X X X
#1 1.9 23.00 2.3 20.40 2.3 19.70 2.3 19.40 2.4 18.10
#2 4.0 14.80 55 13.20 5.5 13.00 5.5 12.70 6.2 11.80
#3 4.0 11.00 5.5 9.30 5.5 8.90 5.6 8.70 6.5 7.80
#4 2.8 7.10 3.8 5.60 4.0 5.20 4.1 4.90 4.7 4.50
#5 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00
Total Axle
Movement -0.00 -3.10 -3.60 -4.00 -5.80
Average Trre Stiffness: 4,290 Pounds Per Inch
*Movements are in centimeters.

68
 69

TABLE E.J SIDEWALL 30

MOVEMENTS FOR THE Load (lbv)
SMOOTH 11R24.5 LR-G Do
5,000
RADIAL TIRE INFLATED 0 6,000
TO ZERO PSI AND ZERO 7,000
Ll. 10,000
WHEEL LOAD

Points X* Y*
1 1.0 18.50
2 3.9 12.50
3 5.2 8.60
4 2.8 4.80
5 0.0 0.00
*Movements are in 7 8
centimeters. Horizontal Movement (em)

Fig E.2. Sidewall movements for the sm'ooth 11R24.5

load range-G radial for an inflation pressure of lOS psi
y and wheel loads of 0, 5,000, 6,000, 7,000, and
10,000 pounds.

' I

30
Load (lbv)
DO
5,000
E' 0 6,000
. 7,000
20 Ll. 10,000
'E
~
g:
0
:E
1 - - - - Point # 2 ~
.5::1 10
t:::
1 - - - - Point # 3 j2

r---- Point # 4

---_..,.X
Point #5 Horizontal Movement (-em)

Fig E.3. Sidewall movements for the smooth 11R24.5

load range-G radial for an inflation pressure of 90 psi
Fig E.l. Schematic of the sidewall points measured for and wheel loads of 0, 5,000, 6,000, 7,000, and
vertical and horizontal movements. 10,000 pounds.
 APPENDIX F. SMOOTH 11R24.5 LR-G TIRE PRESSURE HISTOGRAMS
In order to aid the reader in interpreting the numerical 11R24.5 LR-G radial tire, the frequency diagram for each
contact pressure distribution maps for the smooth treaded contact pressure map is provided here.

3000
(!,)
(.)
c::
~ 2500
:;,
(.)
(.)
2000
0
0 1500
>.
(.)
c::
(!,)
:;, 1000
CT
~
L.l. 500

Contact Pressure (psi)

Fig F .1. Histogram for the smooth radiall1R24.S load range-G tire
inflated to 90 psi and loaded to 5,000 pounds.

4959
5000

4500

(!,)
4000
(.)
c::
~ 3500
:;,
(.)
(.)
0 3000
0
>.
(.)
2500
c::
(!,)
:;, 2000
CT
~
L.l. 1500

1000

500
118 107 116 136

40 80 100 140
Contact Pressure (psi)

Fig F .2. Histogram for the smooth radiai11R24.S load range-G tire
inflated to 90 psi and loaded to 6,000 pounds.

70
 71

<P
6000 5021
(.)
c
<P
.... 5000
:::l
8 4000
0
0
>. 3000
(.)
c
<P
:::l 2000
r::r
<P
....
u.. 1000
93 116 48 44 19
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
Contact Pressure (psi)

Fig F .3. Histogram for the smooth radial 11R24.5 load range-G tire
inflated to 90 psi and loaded to 7,000 pounds.

4000
(J) 3814
(.)
c 3000
~
::l
(.)
(.)
2500
0
0 2000
>.
(.)
c 1500
(J)
::l
r::r
~ 1000
u..
500
43 2 0 0
20 40 60 80 100 120 140
Contact Pressure (psi)

Fig F.4. Histogram for the smooth radiall1R24.5load range-G tire

inflated to 105 psi and loaded to 5,000 pounds.
72

Q)
3000
(..)
c:
Q)
"-
2500
:::>
(..)
(..)
2000
0
0
>- 1500
(..)
c:
Q)
::l 1000
c::T
~
I.!.. 500
65 21 5 0
20 4o 60 eo 100 120 140
Contact Pressure (psi}

Fig F .5. Histogram for the smooth radial 11R24.S load range-G tire
inflated to lOS psi and loaded to 6,000 pounds.

4000
Q)
(..)
c: 3000
...
Q)
::l
(..)
(..)
2500
0
0 2000
>-
(..)
c: 1500
a>
::l
c::T
~ 1000
I.!..
500

20 40 6o eo 100 120 140

Contact Pressure (psi}

Fig F.6. Histogram for the smooth radiall1R24.S load range-G tire
inflated to 105 psi and loaded to 7,000 pounds.
 APPENDIX G. WIDE-BASE 18-22.5 LR-H TIRE PRESSURE HISTOGRAM S
In order to aid the reader in interpreting the numerical 22.5 LR-H wide-base tire, the frequency diagram for each
contact pressure distribution maps for the bias Goodyear 18- contact pressure map is provided here.

2000
1824
1800

1600
Q)
u 1400
c
~
::::l
u 1200
u
0
0 1000
>.
u
c 800
Q)
::::l
cr'
Q) 600
u:
400

200
89 71 44 36 19 18 9 0 0
40 80 120 160 200 240 280 320 360 400
Contact Pressure (psi)

Fig G.l. Histogram for the wide-base bias 18-22.5load range-H tire inflated to
85 psi and loaded to 8,000 pounds.

2500

2250

2000
Q)
u
c 1750
~
::::l
u
u 1500
0
0 1250
>.
u
c
Q)
::::l 1000
cr'
Q)
u: 750

500

250
87
64 46 37 26 12 22 12 5

240 280 320 360 400

Contact Pressure (psi)

Fig G.2. Histogram for the wide-base bias 18-22.5load range-H tire inflated to
85 psi and loaded to 10,000 pounds.

73
74

1800

1600
(!)
()
c: 1400
~
:::l
()
()
1200
0
0
>.
1000 ..
()
c: BOO
(I)
:::l
c:r
~ 600
u.
400

200
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
280 320 360 400

Contact Pressure (psi)

Fig G.3. Histogram for the wide-base bias 18-22.5 load range-H tire inflated to
85 psi and loaded to 12000 pounds.

1600
1480
1400
(!)
()
c: 1200
~
:::l
()
()
1000
0
0 BOO
>.
()
c: 600
(I)
:::l
c:r
.... 400
(!)
u.
200
76
50 35 27 0 0 0 0
40 80 120 160 200 240 280 320 360 400
Contact Pressure (psi)

Fig G.4. Histogram for the wide-base bias 18-22.5 load range-H tire inflated to
100 psi and loaded to 8,000 pounds.
 75

67 49 12 19 2 0 0
0 40 80 120 160 200 240 280 320 360 400
Contact Pressure (psi)

Fig G.S. Histogram for the wide-base bias 18-22.51oad range-H tire inflated to
100 psi and loaded to 10,000 pounds.

Fig G.6. Histogram for the wide-base bias 18-22.51oad range-H tire inflated to
100 psi and loaded to 12,000 pounds.
 APPENDIX H. ADAGE PRINT ANALYSIS PROCEDURE
The procedure for analyzing the tire-print using the
Adage system consists of five steps. The first step is to set
up the scanner, the second to execute the program, the third
to create a filter, the fourth to construct a calibration curve,
and the fifth to perform the tire-print analysis. The proce-
dures for each step are given below.
At each session, the lighting and scanner settings were
not altered once the filter was created. Both a filter and a
calibration curve were recreated at the beginning of each
print analyzing session. The print analysis program was
user friendly and with practice a print could be fully scanned,
digitized, saved, and printed in approximately thirty min-
utes.
SCANNER SETUP
The Adage system is available for use by many stu-
dents; therefore, the scanning hardware settings generally
change from session to session. This is the standard setup
used throughout the testing:
1. Install the Sigma lens on the lens housing.
2. Set the scanner height so that the largest print of the
group to be analyzed can be fully scanned. This can
be determined by pushing the scanner head in and
looking through the lens at the largest image. The
scanner height should be adjusted so that the image fits
in the frame. For this project the lens height was set
at 64 and 65 em for the 11R24.5 LR-G tire-prints and
65 to 81 em for the 18-22.5 LR-H tire-prints.
3. Set the lens aperture to 4.
4. Focus the lens by pushing the scanner head in and
looking through the lens.
5. Move the overhead table lights so that they are ap-
proximately horizontal to the table top and the eleva-
tion arms to approximately 40 degrees from the plane
of the table top (see Fig H.l).
6. Turn on the four overhead table lights by turn-
ing on the white and black switches.
7. Turn the room lights on and execute the scan-
ning program.
EXECUTING THE PRINT ANALYSIS
SCANNER PROGRAM
To execute the print analysis program, frrst log
in at the AdageN AX terminal by clicking the mouse
and creating a new VT200 window. Then enter the
proper user name and password. At the time of this
writing the user name was MEFZ660.
Prior to executing the scanner program it is
suggested the scanner documentation be read and
available disk space be checked. A copy of the
scanner documentation. is available in the AGL but
can also be printed out by typing
76
PRINT SYS$DOC:SCANNER.DOC. The document
may also be displayed by typing
TYPE SYS$DOC:SCANNER.DOC.
The user should remember that many subroutines are
run and temporary files created during the execution of the
analysis program. To scan, digitize, and obtain a data file,
about 15,000 blocks (I block = 512 bytes) of disk space are
required. If color images on the AGL Adage monitor are
desired for viewing the pressure distribution, about 5,000
additional blocks per image are required. This can create a
problem with the limited disk space available in the AGL.
The researchers found that it was possible to overcome the
lack of sufficient disk space by (1) continually monitoring
the available disk space, (2) deleting unnecessary files, and
(3) obtaining temporary disk space from the AGL. Helpful
commands which may aid the user to determine the amount
ofavailablediskspaceareSHOWQUOTAandDIR/SIZE
at the system ($) prompt
Prior to executing the tire-print analysis program, en-
sure that the plotting pen is operating. To do so, turn the
Digi-Pad power supply on. It is the black box located on the
floor. On a separate VT200 window enter
@SYS$SYSTEM:IDL ADAGE [RET] at the system ($)
prompt The IDL system (IDL>) prompt will then appear in
the VT200window. FirstenterTVINIT,O [Ret]attheiDL
system prompt, followed by TTVCRS,l [Ret] at the next
IDL system prompt. To test whether or not the digitizing
pen and table are working, enter TVRDC,X, Y ,1 [Ret] at the
IDL system prompt. The cursor should appear on the Adage
monitor. As the digitizing pen is moved over the digitizing
pad, the cursor should simultaneously move on the Adage
screen. Click the digitizing pen and enter TVCRS,l[Ret]
to get back to software control of the pen plotter.
The tire-print analysis system is executed by typing
@BATMAN at the system ($) prompt The program
Scanner Height _____.
Fig H.l. Scanner setup.
 77

responds with a main program menu displaying options to
(1) create a filter, (2) calibrate a roll of fllm, (3) execute the
actual tire-print analysis subroutine, or (4) look at the present
calibration curve. The third option should be selected only
after a filter and a calibration curve have been created.
FILTER CREATION PROCEDURE
The filter was created at the start of each print reading
session. The filter was used to compensate for uneven
lighting and any possible changes in the lighting which
existed during the construction of the new calibration curve.
In order to create a filter, follow this procedure.
I. Select the menu option (1) to create a filter.
2. Study the instructions displayed on the monitor in
order to set up the scanner control panel for calibration
and actual scanning. For calibrating the scanner the
exposure should be 100 and the range should be 0 to
4095. For scanning the smooth 11R24.5 LR-G tire,
the exposure was set at 60 and the range at 60 to 2600,
as shown in Fig H.2.
3. Hit the return key to execute the scanner program.
4. When the scanner control panel appears on the moni-
tor, use the mouse and key board to select the appropri-
ate scanner settings for the calibration routine. Select
a 1024 X 1024Image Size with the mouse. Since only
the grey scale color mode is used, the One Mode box
may be selected as shown in Fig H.2. Selecting the
One Mode box will avoid the red, green, and blue cali-
brations, thus shortening the scanner calibration time.
5. Make sure that the white table top surface is clean and
free from marks.
6. Select Calibrate with the mouse. When calibrating
the scanner, the exposure must be equal to 100. After
the calibration is complete the user may change the
exposure and range before scanning.
7. Select Scan with the mouse.
While the scanner is operating, make sure that the
lighting is unifonn. This is done by viewing the plot
line on the scanner control panel. The line should be
approximate! y horizontal. Ifit is not horizontal, adjust
the overhead lights such that the plot becomes horizon-
tal.
If this is the user's frrst attempt at scanning a
panicular type of tire-print, a new set of tire-prints, or
at a previously unused lens height, it is suggested that,
instead of scanning the table top to obtain a filter, frrst
scan a tire-print and the calibration squares to deter-
mine if the exposure and range settings are correct.
a. Place the calibration image on the table.
b. Select Scan with the mouse.
c. Allow part of the calibration squares to be
scanned. Then select pause with the mouse.
d. At this point the user may select different
exposure and range settings and then resume
scanning. This enables the user to see the

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Fig H.2. Scanner control panel setup.


78
effect of various exposure and range settings
in order to optimize the image resolution. If
the users desire, they may also select the
Repeat Line and Pause options with the
mouse simultaneously. This allows the user
to see the effect of different exposure and
range settings on the plot while the same line
is being scanned. If saturation occurs, reduce
the exposure setting and continue scanning.
(Saturation occurs when the image appears
washed out or, in other words, thew hites are so
bright that the image is less clear.) A good
way to obtain the best exposure and range
setting is to select an exposure setting during
scanning. If the data plot is thin, a larger
contrast is desired, and, if the data plot exceeds
the boundaries, a smaller contrast must be
used. To change the contrast, select pause
with the mouse. Then type in the new desired
range values and Wlselect pause. The plot will
shift after the scanner calibrates itself. The
user should attempt to fill as much of the plot
window with data as possible.
e. Perform this for all the calibration squares to
determine the best range.
f. When the best exposure and range settings
have been determined, remove the print from
the table and rescan the table top at the desired
settings to create a new filter.
8. To speed up the scanning process, the user may rese-
lect the settings already chosen underneath the Plot
option, which is generally set at Scanline during the
tire-print analysis. This disables the plotter located on
the scanner control panel by eliminating the required
calculations and thus allows the scanning speed to
increase.
9. When a suitable image is obtained, note the scanner
range and exposure settings and Exit the scanner
program. When the program is exited the filter is
automatically calculated and saved. The program then
displays the filter average value on the monitor and
returns to the main program menu. A good average
filter intensity is near or above 150.
CALIBRATION CURVE CONSTRUCTION
PROCEDURE
Constructing the calibration curve consists of two steps.
First, the calibration square images must be constructed
using Fuji prescale film, and second, the images must be
scanned and stored in a data file. In order to reduce
experimental error, calibration squares were produced at the
same time as the tire-prints for each fllm type used. In the
analytical process a suitable calibration curve was produced
at the beginning of each print analysis session. The two
procedures are presented in more detail below.
II
Creating the Calibration Image
II
The calibration square images were prepared in a proce-
dure similar to the construction of the actual tire contact
..
pressure prints but on a smaller scale. Small squares of Fuji
A and C film were cut out and loaded to predetermined loads, II
in the same manner as the the actual tire contact pressure
prints, using a Wliversal compression testing machine. The
.
more calibration squares produced. the more accurate the II
Adage calibration curve will be. For further details of the
loading procedure, consult Appendix D and Fuji (Ref 28).
.
Due to the Fuji film's tendency to change color intensity
with time, calibration squares were created at the same time
as the tire-prints. One set of calibration squares was suffi- .
cient for testing the 11R24.5 tire; however, during the testing
of the 18-22.5 super single tire both Super Low and Low Fuji ..
prescale films were used. Therefore, two sets of calibration
squares had to be produced, a set for each of the Super Low
.
and Low Fuji films.
Calibration squares were prepared using a one-inch-
square piece of rubber similar to tire rubber. An attempt to .
use tire rubber was made, but the tire's cord construction
made the calibration square prints nonuniform in color
intensity. The calibration squares were loaded to known
loads. The load for each square was divided by the area of
the stained color density to produce corresponding pressure
values. These squares were then taped on a white piece of
paper, as shown in Fig H.3.
The squares were oriented such that lighter squares
were adjacent to darker squares in order to provide a sharp
contrast between pixel intensities during the digitizing proc-
ess. If the calibration squares turned out to be more rectan-
.
gular in shape than square, then each calibration square was
digitized such that the longer side of the calibration square
was parallel to the horizontal axis of the Adage screen. It is
important that each calibration square be oriented properly
because the pixel intensity of each square is calculated from
..
the average of a 60 x 30 rectangular pixel array (0. 72 x 0.36
inch on the Adage monitor). This array is extracted from
each calibration squares center (with the 60-pixel dimension
parallel to the Adage monitor's horizontal axis).
Scanning the Calibration Image
1. Select menu option (2) to construct a calibration
curve.
2. Hit the Return key [Ret] to execute the scanner
program.
3. Ca6brate the scanner as before.
4. Scan the calibration square image. The image must
ftrst be framed by pushing the scanner head in, ena-
bling the user to look through the lens. Center the
image in the frame but do not alter the lamp angles, lens
height, or apenure setting.
5. Exit the scanner program.

~
238 psi
~
170 psi
[]. [gJ
102 psi 68 psi
~ ~
204 psi 136 psi
D
0 psi
Fig H.3. Fuji f'Ilm calibration image.
6. Follow the program instructions to obtain the pressure
versus pixel intensity data required to construct the
calibration curve. Enter the number of calibration
squares but do not include the 0 psi square [Ret].
Starting with the calibration square having the lowest
pressure, enter the pressure value using the VAX key-
board [Ret].
7. Use the digitizer-pen/pad to move the Adage screen
cursor to the center of the corresponding calibration
square and click on the digitizer pen to read in its pixel
intensity value. Be sure to click on the center of the
calibration square because a 60 x 30-pixel intensity
value is averaged and if the corner is selected the 60 x
30 image will overlap onto the white paper. This has
caused many zeros to be averaged into the resultant
pixel intensity.
8. Repeat the procedure by typing in the pressure value
and printing and clicking with the digitizer-pen/pad
until all the calibration squares have been digitized.
Entering 999 [Ret] exits the calibration square data
collection subroutine.
9. The user may select either a quadratic or a cubic curve
fit for the pressure versus pixel intensity data. Select
each curve fit in turn to view a display of the resulting
calibration curve on the Adage monitor. When the
curve is plotted the image also displays the pixel
intensity value (INTN), the actual pressure input value
(ACT), and the curve calibrated pressure value
(CURVE) for each calibration square. This assists the
user in selecting the best fit curve. Once a selection is
made, the program returns to the main program menu.
TIRE PRINT ANALYSIS PROCEDURE
1. Select option (3) to execute the tire-print analysis
subroutine from the main program menu.
2. A new menu appears on the VAX monitor with the
following options:
79
a. Digitize and analyze a tire-print.
b. Display pressure contour plot on the Adage.
c.
d.
Display a 3D map on the Adage monitor.
Display a 2D contour map on the Adage
monitor.
e.
f.
Print the pressure distribution .
Return to the main program menu.
g. Exit the program.
3. Select option (1). Digitize and analyze a tire-print
[Ret].
4. Hit Return again to execute the scanner program.
5.
6.
Calibrate the scanner as before (remember the expo-
sure must be 100 for scanner calibration).
Place the tire-print on the light table. Orient it so that
it is centered and the tread is parallel to the vertical
frame lines as seen through the viewer. As in the
calibration procedure, move the tire-print into position
but do not alter the lamp angles, lens height, or aperture
setting. Taping the print corners and sides down with
masking tape helps reduce shadows on the print caused
by a curled print
7. Adjust the scanner range and exposure settings to the
settings previously used to create the filter and calibra-
tion curve.
8. Scan the tire-print.
9. Exit the scanner program.
10. Follow the program instructions to read in the end
point screen coordinates of the 10-inch line. Use the
digitizer-pen/pad to move the Adage screen cursor to
each end point location. Click the digitizer pen on the
digitizer pad to read the 10-inch line's end point coor-
dinates. The program displays a 10-inch line on the
Adage monitor which is used to calculate the area of
the tire-print to determine an equivalent wheel load
from the pressure distribution.
11. If the 10-inch line is acceptable, enter (1) [Ret] at the
program prompt. If the line is unacceptable, enter any
other number to redefine the 10-inch line.
12. The user now selects a rectangular image around the
tire-print to reduce calculations and speed up calcula-
tion time. Enter (1) [Ret] if the coordinates are
known; otherwise enter in any other value.
a. If (1) was entered, a rectangular border is
drawn around the tire-print image. Go to step
13.
b. If (1) was not entered, the user must use the
digitizer pen to locate the coordinates. Use the
digitizer-pen/pad to move the Adage cursor to
the point just outside the bottom left corner of
the tire-print image and another just above the
tire-print's top right corner, clicking at both
points. Based on the selected corner points,
the program displays the coordinates on the
VAX monitor and a rectangular border en-
closes the tire-print image on the Adage
monitor. This enclosed image is extracted
80
from the Adage's 1024 x 1024 displayed
image, improving computation speed and
accuracy.
13. If the rectangular border is acceptable, enter (1) [Ret]
at the program prompt If the border is unacceptable,
enter any other number to redefine the border. If ( 1)
is entered, the image defined by the border is extracted
and converted from an array of pixel intensities into an
array of pressure values.
14. Record the area value as prompted on the VAX moni-
tor. This is the pixel area as displayed on the Adage
monitor. This value is later used in a separate analysis
program.
15. A subroutine then calculates a wheel load from the
pressure distribution data. The calculated load is then
displayed. Enter the actual load applied to the tire
when prompted by the program. The percentage
difference between the actual and calculated load is
16.
computed and displayed.
Enter (1) [Ret] to command the program to adjust the
data so that the actual and calculated wheel loads are
equal. Entering (1) also computes and displays calcu-
lated loads for five sections of the tire. The tire is
separated into five sections left (L), left of center (LC),
center (C), right of center (RC), and right (R). The
minimum and maximum pressure values for the entire
tire-print are also displayed. The pressure values are
then adjusted so that the calculated load equals the
actual load. The adjusted data are then smoothed and
stored in a file called SMOOTH.DAT, which is used
by subroutines to view the pressure distribution on the
Adage.
17. Program control returns to the print analysis subrou-
tine menu. Select one of the options to view the tire
...
pressure distribution.
18. After viewing the pressure map print-outand spectrum
graphic, the user may opt to remove the "noise" from
the print The program NOW.PRO, when executed,
prompts the user for a desired minimum value, then
replaces all values less than the input minimum with a
zero. NOW .PRO is executed in another VT200 .
window which is opened by clicking on the mouse and
selecting "create a new VT200 window." When the ..
window is opened the program is executed by typing
@NOW.PRO [Ret] at the system prompt($). After
entering the desired minimum value [Ret] and area
value [Ret] recorded in step 14, the gross contact area
and calculated load are displayed on the VAX monitor. ,.
The new calculated load enables the user to see the
consequences of his sweeping of the lower pressure
values. The user is then prompted for the actual wheel
load. The pressure values are then adjusted once more
so that the calculated load equals the actual applied
..
load. Also, to assist the user to determine the conse-
quences of sweeping, the maximum and minimum
contact pressures are displayed. The adjusted data are
then stored in a new version of SMOOTH.DAT. The
swept tire pressure data may then be viewed by return-
ing to the original window which displays the print
analysis subroutine menu and selecting one of the
options to view the data.
19. Exit the program or select the option to digitize another
print. Remember to RENAME file SMOOTH.DAT
before terminating the session for future use. "
..
 APPENDIX I. NUMERICAL PRESSURE MAP PROCEDURE
The numerical contact pressure dislribution maps were
produced by downloading the pressure data from the AGL
VAX computer to a Macintosh II personal computer. The
programs for converting the pressure data from IDL format
into ASCII formatted flies reside in the AGL VAX computer
under accown number :MEFZ660. The procedures for
converting the IDL data file and printing the contact pressure
maps are detailed below. A listing of the programs can be
found in Chan (Ref 30).
File Conversion Procedure
1. Log on to the AGL VAX terminal.
2. Run tire-print analysis program to obtain a
SMOOTH.DAT file.
3. Convert the data file for the graphics display and print
out by typing @Run IBMDATAPREP [Ret], at the
system prompt. When the program has finished con-
verting the data, a message will appear on the VAX
monitor stating that two files, IBM2D3D.DAT and
IBMPRESS .DAT, have been created and are ready for
transfer.
4. Go to the IBM or Macintosh terminal that is to receive
the files.
5. Use the file transfer program, Kermit, or any other
suitable file transfer program to transfer copies of
IBM2D3D.DAT and IBMPRESS.DAT.
81
Contact Pressure Map Print Out
A 50 x 50 element sample contact pressure map of the
tire-print can be obtained by printing the data file
IBMPRESS.DA T. For a clearer presentation of the data,
IBMPRESS.DAT should be printed using a Macintosh wide
base printer. Figures 4.2 and 4.25 were printed on a Macin-
tosh Laserwriter. To produce the pressure figures, the
following procedure was used.
1. Execute Microsoft Word.
2. Select all the data.
3. Change font to Times and font size to 9 point
4. Using the ruler to adjust the paper width to 14 inches
and select the center justified option.
5. Select page setup underneath the file menu, and
change (1) the paper height to 20 inches and (2) all the
margins to 0.5 inch.
6. Select paragraph underneath the format menu and
change the line spacing to a value between 13 and 17.
7. Print the data using a 50 to 55 percent reduction, as
desired, to obtain a contact pressure map.