Erosion

and sediment transport

Lecture content Skript: Ch. VIII

rationale for understanding and modelling erosion and sediment transport processes
surface erosion
mechanisms
interaction with climate, land cover and topography
annual scale surface erosion model

sediment transport in streams

mechanisms
measurements
sediment characterisation
condition for incipient motion
sediment transport equation

Hydrology Erosion and Sediment Transport - Autumn Semester 2016 1

Erosion and sediment transport
is driven
by hydrological processes in the watershed
by stream hydraulics in rivers
plays an important role with regard to
evolution of landscape
loss of agricultural soils
stability of river beds
water resources infrastructures (dams, )
natural hazards
coastal processes

Brienzersee,)Hochwasser)2005)
Hochwasser/Murgang) Copyright Philip Owens
2002
Hydrology Erosion and Sediment Transport - Autumn Semester 2016 2
Examples of effects of erosion and sediment transport on water
infrastructures
filling in of reservoirs
reduces the active volume of the reservoir
intake
can put at risk the correct operation of the
reservoir organs (e.g. intakes)
multipurpose
river bed aggradation reservoir deposited sediments = dead volume
due to sediment deposition after a flood event
due to imbalance between sediment supply from
upstream and flow energy

scour in river beds and embankment erosion

undermines the stability of river cross sections

pumps and turbines

water supply derivations

ecosystems

Hydrology Erosion and Sediment Transport - Autumn Semester 2016 3

Soil erosion potential in EU

http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/statistics_explained/index.php?title=File:Soil
_erosion_by_water_(tonnes_per_ha_per_year),_2006,_EU-
27,_NUTS_3_.png&filetimestamp=20130425135806

Hydrology Erosion and Sediment Transport - Autumn Semester 2016 4

Soil erosion potential in CH [Weisshaidinger & Leser, 2006]

Hydrology Erosion and Sediment Transport - Autumn Semester 2016 5

Long-term effects of erosion and sediment transport
Landscape scale evolution
temporal scales >100 years
large space scales (large river basins, areas)

early stage
landscape dominated tectonic activities
lakes, waterfalls, rapids
youth stage
lakes and swamps drained, deepening of
gorges, formation of tributary valleys
early maturity
river profile and first riparian wetlands
formed, broader tributary valleys
A natural levees
maturity D alluvial deposit
large floodplain, meandering river, L abandoned meanders
floodplain formation also in tributary
C lateral rivers
valleys
P floodplain
full maturity S alluvial slopes
Hydrology Erosion and Sediment Transport - Autumn Semester 2016 6
Watershed scale erosion and sed. transport processes
watershed scale evolution
hillslope and river as space continuum
Naiman et al. (Riparia, 2005)

Sediment storage
Sediment production area:
Sediment transfer area: both area: deposition
erosion is dominant
erosion and deposition take place dominates
Hydrology Erosion and Sediment Transport - Autumn Semester 2016 7
Erosion and its forms (1/8): splash erosion
space scale
point
time scale
short term, event

Hydrology Erosion and Sediment Transport - Autumn Semester 2016 8

Erosion and its forms (2/8): surface erosion
space scale
area, hillslope, agricultural field
1 100 m2
time scale
short term, event, related to overland flow
effects
erosion of agricultural soil
Copyright Philip Owens 2002
transport of phosphorus used in agriculture
into water bodies

Typical values (t ha-1 yr-1):

Bare soil 23
Vineyard 20
Maize 14

Grassland 1
Orchards 1
"Praxis"Unterrichtslm"
Forest <1
Hydrology Erosion and Sediment Transport - Autumn Semester 2016 9
Erosion and its forms (3/8): rill erosion

Erosion%prone%soils% space scale

linear development on erosion
prone soils
Rills%
10 100 m length, < 50 cm depth
time scale
short-term, event scale
effects
slope incision
early channel formation

h"p://www.fao.org/ag/agl/agll/photolib/photolib.jsp?lang=e&nav=next&photo=077<

Hydrology Erosion and Sediment Transport - Autumn Semester 2016 10

Erosion and its forms (4/8): gully erosion

space scale
linear development on rills
10 100 m length, > 50 cm depth
time scale
short-term, event scale
effects
channel incision
river network formation

h"p://www.fao.org/ag/agl/agll/photolib/photolib.jsp?lang=e&nav=next&photo=097=

Hydrology Erosion and Sediment Transport - Autumn Semester 2016 11

Erosion and its forms (5/8): spatial continuity

surface erosion

gully erosion
rill erosion
http://www.fao.org/ag/agl/agll/photolib/photolib.jsp?lang=e&nav=next&photo=055
Hydrology Erosion and Sediment Transport - Autumn Semester 2016 12
Erosion and its forms (6/8): natural hazards

Brienzersee, BE, Hochwasser 2005

Rutschung Hellbchel, Lutzenberg, AR Hochwasser/Murgang
Sept. 1st, 2002
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Erosion and its forms (7/8): river cross section
NB vertical scale amplification x10

8 water level [m]

0 50 100 m

space scale
longitudinal, lateral, vertical
time scale
short-term, event scale
long-term, depending on imbalance between sediment supply and transport capacity
effects
channel incision / aggradation; river lateral migration
Hydrology Erosion and Sediment Transport - Autumn Semester 2016 14
Erosion and its forms (8/8): river longitudinal profile
the longitudinal profile tends to
equilibrium by eroding
upstream and depositing river longitudinal profile
downstream
the process is in equilibrium if
sediment supply equals transport
capacity
-- supply lower erosion,
river bed incision
-- tr. capacity higher
deposition river plan view

plan river course progressively

migrating laterally downstream,
meandering
river cross-sections
long-term evolution, short term
disturbances

Hydrology Erosion and Sediment Transport - Autumn Semester 2016 15

Sediment production / mobilization mechanisms
RAINFALL INDUCED EROSION OVERLAND FLOW INDUCED EROSION

raindrop velocity: 8 10 m/s flow velocity: 5 10 cm/s

splash erosion: v 15 m/s flow depth: O(h) cm
particle size diameter: O(d) mm particle size diameter: O(d) mm +
Hydrology Erosion and Sediment Transport - Autumn Semester 2016 16
Surface erosion: influence of soil, climate and land cover
the more arid the climate, the less vegetation coverage A
the less arid the climate, the higher is erosion and sediment transport on bare ground B
optimal condition for erosion is a limited vegetation coverage and a significant amount of rainfall

B effect of vegetation
not covered by vegetation

sediment transport rate

on hydrograph
proportion of ground

Q(t) bare soil
A forest
cover
AB

ARID
increasing rainfall
HUMID t
Hydrology Erosion and Sediment Transport - Autumn Semester 2016 17
Hillslope erosion: influence of topography
EROSION

EROSION
slope length slope angle
supply exceeds transport capacity all forces controlled by gravity are
saturation effect enhanced by increasing slope
angle due to non linearities of
their dependence on it.

Hydrology Erosion and Sediment Transport - Autumn Semester 2016 18

Estimation of surface erosion through models
direct measurement of surface erosion are complex estimation through models
surface erosion is caused by
natural agents (rainfall, runoff, wind, ice, temperature fluctuations, ), and
anthropogenic influence (land use, soil conservation practice, agriculture, )
most models are developed for estimation of agricultural soil losses
event-based process-based models (e.g. erosion = f(shear stress, overland flow depth)
estimation of erosion over long-term scales empirical relationships

example: UNIVERSAL SOIL LOSS EQUATION (U.S.L.E)

A: annual erosion per unit area A= R K
L S
C P
[tm-2yr-1] climate soil geomorphological land use
controls controls controls controls

R: erosivity index rainfall forcing S: slope factor slope

K: erodibility index soil characteristics C: crop factor land use, vegetation
L: length factor hillslope length P: conservation factor agricultural practice
Hydrology Erosion and Sediment Transport - Autumn Semester 2016 19
USLE equation: erosivity index, R [Wischmeier and Smith, 1978; Renard et al., 1991]

the erosivity index quantifies the energy applied by rainfall to detach sediment particles on
the surface effects of raindrop impact and amount and rate of runoff associated with
rainfall
it is computed as cumulative effect of the contribution of individual events

R = i=1 ( Rev )i
N

where N is the number of event per year, Rev is the erosivity index of an individual event, defined as

Rev = E I 30
E: [MJha-1]
with I30 corresponding to the maximum 30 rainfall intensity within the event ht: [mm]
i: [mmh-1]
E = total energy associated with the rainfall event, computed as
: [MJha-1mm-1]

E = t=1 ht
M

with ht = rainfall depth in each t, M is the number of rainfall intervals in one event and

= 0.119 + 0.0873log ( i ) i 76 mm h 1

= 0.283 i > 76 mm h 1
Hydrology Erosion and Sediment Transport - Autumn Semester 2016 20
USLE equation: erodibility index, K [Wischmeier and Smith, 1978; Renard et al., 1991]

the erodibility index measures the resistance of sediment on the soil surface to
detachment by water
it is defined as the amount of soil that would be eroded for

a standard experimental plot

unitary erosivity index (R = 1)
and ineffective geomorphologic and land cover controls (L = S = C = P = 1)

A = R K L S C P = 1 K 1111 A=K

from experimental investigations K is formulated to be function of

, % of silt/clay; , % of silt/sand M = (100-)

a, % of organic matter
b = f(soil texture) b=1 for very fine granular, b=4 for massive compacted
c = f(soil permeability) c = 1 6 = high low

K = 2.77 10 7 (12 a ) M 1.14 + 4.310 3 ( b 2 ) + 3.310 3 ( c 3)

Hydrology Erosion and Sediment Transport - Autumn Semester 2016 21
USLE equation: template to estimate K

Hydrology Erosion and Sediment Transport - Autumn Semester 2016 22

Sediment transport
sediment particles eroded on hillslopes are transported Naiman et al. (Riparia, 2005)

throughout the river network by means of different

mechanisms

sediment transport (total load) can be defined by

type of movement (bedload and suspended load)
source of sediment (washload and bed material load)

Hydrology Erosion and Sediment Transport - Autumn Semester 2016 23

Sediment transport characterisation

TYPE OF TRANSPORT CHARACTERISTICS

Bed load, gB Coarse, large bed material (gravel, cobbles, ) carried by the stream in a
layer adjacent to the bottom of the river bed by jump and roll mechanisms
Suspended bed load, gBS Bed material carried in suspension close to the bed layer (turbulence
driven transport)
Total bed load, gBT gBT = gB + gBS
Suspended load, gS fine sediment material (e.g. sand), carried in suspension, migrating
between bed and suspension, depending on stream velocity
Wash load, gL fine sediment material NOT present in the bed, eroded upstream on
hillslopes, carried in suspension, silt and clay, 2.410-3 310-1 mm
Total load, gT gT = gBT + gS + gL
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Sediment transport and engineering problems

PROBLEM TYPE OF TRANSPORT

Time needed to fill diversion dams gB , gBT (depending on dam size)
Estimation of dam dead capacity gBT , or gT
Design of channel intakes gBS , or gS
Design of pumping plants gBS , or gBT
River engineering, restoration gBT
Water supply treatment plants gL
Scour studies gBT

Hydrology Erosion and Sediment Transport - Autumn Semester 2016 25

Sediment transport suspended load measurements
requirements to be fulfilled by instruments
flow velocity at the sampler = stream velocity
minimum disturbance on flow at sampling point
sampler intake orientated both vertical and horiz.

depth integrating samplers (A, B):

sampler lowered to the stream bed and raised to
surface at a constant rate sample collected at a
rate proportional to local velocity

point integrating samplers (C):

sample time integrated at a given level

instantaneous samplers (D, E):

tube lowered into streams and aligned to flow, tube
ends closed after short time.

single stage samplers (F):

semi-automatic sampling, multi-level, time
integrated
Hydrology Erosion and Sediment Transport - Autumn Semester 2016 26
Sediment transport bed load measurements
slot trap (A):
suitable for small streams
(removable collecting box)

basket sampler (D):

simplest, best suited for coarse
bedload, low sampling efficiency

pan / tray samplers (B)

low stream velocities and rates of
bedload, disturbance of the stream
velocity (lowering of velocity and
reduction of bedload)

pressure difference device (C)

control of flow velocities to reduce
decive induced disturbances

acoustic devices
record the audible sound waves
caused by bedload hitting a plate or
moving in the stream
Hydrology Erosion and Sediment Transport - Autumn Semester 2016 27
Sediment transport estimation
REQUIRED DATA
channel hydraulic geometry
river cross section
hydraulic radius
river bed slope
discharge
bed roughness

sediment characteristics D90

specific weight of particles ~D 6 0

concentration of suspended material ~D 3 5
~D 2 0
granulometric curve and main diameters

Hydrology Erosion and Sediment Transport - Autumn Semester 2016 28

Sediment transport granulometric curve (1/2)

Example of grain size distribution

survey
representative sampling across river bed
material passed through sieves
standard sieve sizes

measurement of the fraction of sediment
retained by a sieve opening
Di = diameter of the particles that
have passed an opening level, with
i = passed percentage in weight
D90 diameter corresponding to the
opening that retained 10% of the material,
i.e. let 90% pass

Hydrology Erosion and Sediment Transport - Autumn Semester 2016 29

Sediment transport granulometric curve (2/2)

D 90

~D 60
~D 35
~D 20

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Sediment transport incipient motion
sediment transport occurs when (hydraulic) thresholds are exceeded, which determines
incipient motion of particles
criteria of incipient motion are based on the exceeding of
a critical flow velocity at the river bed, Vb
a critical shear stress, * 0 = R S > * where =g , R = hydraulic radius, and S = slope

CRITICAL FLOW VELOCITY

V < Vcr no motion V Vcr incipient motion
Vcr estimated from
tables
empirical relationships
equilibrium criteria
D( s )
lift and roll mechanism hydrodynamic forces balanced by weight components Vb, r = 2g
where D = diameter, s = sediment specific weight k
k = shape coefficient
D( s )
drag mechanism hydrodynamic forces against friction Vb, d = 2g f
where f is a friction coefficient k

Hydrology Erosion and Sediment Transport - Autumn Semester 2016 31

Sediment transport shear stress induced motion

sediment transport occurs when (hydraulic) resisting forces are exceeded by mobilizing
hydrodynamic forces threshold condition: 0 > critical shear stress, *

hydrodynamic forces
* = =
resisting forces
F + FD FR
= L
FW FB

* = f (shear stress, particle size and

shape, weight)
0 ds2 0 m u*2
* = = =
s ds m ds ( s m ) ds ( s m ) ds
3 3

Shields diagram

Hydrology Erosion and Sediment Transport - Autumn Semester 2016 32

Sediment transport Shields diagram
valid for a homogeneous mixture of sediments
* = f (sediment properties, ds; flow characteristics, Re*)

area dominated transition regime fully turbulent

by viscosity * = * (Re*) * 0.06
( s m ) ds

MOTION
0
* =

SILT SAND NO MOTION GRAVEL

u*ds
Re* =
Hydrology Erosion and Sediment Transport - Autumn Semester 2016 33
Sediment transport threshold conditions

non homogeneous bed material

partial motion
paving/armoring of the bed (i.e. washing
of fine material, depending on flow
conditions

Hydrology Erosion and Sediment Transport - Autumn Semester 2016 34

Sediment transport estimation of sediment discharge
sediment discharge estimation is carried out by semi-empirical formulas
derived from laboratory experiments steady flow conditions
homogeneous material generally bed-load only

MEYER-PETERS EQUATION
incipient motion * = 0.047 (s ) D50 = resisting force
* < 0.03 no erosion
0.03 * 0.047 transition zone
* > 0.047 erosion
8
bed load sediment discharge: gB =

( 0 * )
32
[kg/s]
1 2 s g
s
8
gB =
1 2 ( s ) g
( 0 * ) 32
[m 3 / ( m s ) ]

where 0 = gRS (ks / kr)3/2 with ks = Stricklers coefficient

kr = 26 / D901/6 [m1/3/s] coefficient accounting for roughness
induced by sediment transport
s = 26002700 kg/m3
Hydrology Erosion and Sediment Transport - Autumn Semester 2016 35