11/25/2016 CIVIL ENGINEERING SEMINAR TOPICS: SOIL LIQUEFACTION

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SOILLIQUEFACTION
CONTENTS

CHAPTER1
1.1INTRODUCTION
1.2DEFINITION
1.3WHATISLIQUEFACTION&WHYDOESITOCCUR?
1.4CAUSEBEHINDLIQUEFACTION
CHAPTER2
LITERATUREREVIEW

CHAPTER3
3.1SOILPROPERTIESDURINGLIQUEFACTION

3.2POREWATERPRESSUREDURINGLIQUEFACTION
3.3EARTHQUAKELIQUEFACTION
3.4FACTORSAFFECTINGSOILLIQUEFACTION
3.5CONSEQUENCEOFLIQUEFACTION
CHAPTER4
4.1SANDPHENOMENONS

CHAPTER5
5.1SOILLIQUEFACTIONTRAGEDIES

5.2EFFECTS
5.3MITIGATIONMETHODS
CHAPTER6
6.1SUMMARY

REFERENCES

ABSTRACT
Thepresenceofsiltandclayparticleshaslongbeenthoughttoaffectthebehaviorofasandundercyclicloading.Unfortunately,areviewofstudiespublished
intheliteraturerevealsthatnoclearconclusionscanbedrawnastohowalteringfinescontentandplasticityactuallyaffectstheliquefactionresistanceofa
sand. In fact, the literature contains what appears to be contradictory evidence. There is a need to clarify the effects of fines content and plasticity on the
liquefactionresistanceofsandysoils,andtodeterminemethodsforaccountingfortheseeffectsinengineeringpractice.

Inordertohelpanswerthesequestions,aprogramofresearchintheformofalaboratoryparametricstudyintendedtoclarifytheeffectswhichvaryingfines
contentandplasticityhaveupontheliquefactionresistanceofsandysandswasundertaken.Theprogramofresearchconsistedofalargenumberofcyclic
triaxial tests performed on two sands with varying quantities of plastic and nonplastic fines. The program of research also examined the applicability of
plasticity based liquefaction criteria and the effects of fines content and plasticity on pore pressure generation. Lastly, a review of how the findings of this
study may affect the manner in which simplified analyses are performed in engineering practice was made. The results of the study performed are used to

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clarify the effects of nonplastic fines content and resolve the majority of the inconsistencies in the literature. The effects of plastic fines content and fines
plasticity are shown to be different than has been previously reported. The validity of plasticity based liquefaction criteria is established, the mechanism
responsible for their validity is explained, and a new simplified criteria proposed. The effects of fines content and plasticity on pore pressure generation are
discussed,andseveralrecommendationsaremadeforimplementingthefindingsofthisstudyintoengineeringpractice.

CHAPTER1
1.1INTRODUCTION
Liquefaction is the phenomena when there is loss of strength in saturated and cohesionless soils because of increased pore
water pressures and hence reduced effective stresses due to dynamic loading. It is a phenomenon in which the strength and
stiffnessofasoilisreducedbyearthquakeshakingorotherrapidloading.
Liquefactionoccursinsaturated,saturatedsoilsarethesoilsinwhichthespacebetweenindividualparticlesiscompletelyfilledwithwater.Thiswaterexerts
apressureonthesoilparticlesthat.Thewaterpressureishoweverrelativelylowbeforetheoccurrenceofearthquake.Butearthquakeshakingcancausethe
waterpressuretoincreasetothepointatwhichthesoilparticlescanreadilymovewithrespecttooneanother.

Although earthquakes often triggers this increase in water pressure, but activities such as blasting can also cause an increase in water pressure. When
liquefactionoccurs,thestrengthofthesoildecreasesandtheabilityofasoildeposittosupporttheconstructionaboveit.

Soilliquefactioncanalsoexerthigherpressureonretainingwalls,whichcancausethemtoslideortilt.Thismovementcancause
destructionofstructuresonthegroundsurfaceandsettlementoftheretainedsoil.
Itisrequiredtorecognizetheconditionsthatexistinasoildepositbeforeanearthquakeinordertoidentifyliquefaction.Soilis
basicallyanassemblageofmanysoilparticleswhichstayincontactwithmanyneighboringsoil.Thecontactforcesproducedby
theweightoftheoverlyingparticlesholdsindividualsoilparticleinitsplaceandprovidestrength.

1.2DEFINITION
APhenomenonwherebyasaturatedorpartiallysaturatedsoilsubstantiallylosesstrengthandstiffnessinresponseto
anappliedstress,usuallyearthquakeShakingorothersuddenchangeinstresscondition,causingittobehavelikea
liquidiscalledSoilLiquefaction.
BestCivilEng

1.3WHATISLIQUEFACTION&WHYDOESITOCCUR?
Liquefactionistheprocessthatleadstoasoilsuddenlylosingstrength,mostcommonlyasaresultofgroundshakingduringa
largeearthquake.Notallsoilshowever,willliquefyinanearthquake.
Thefollowingareparticularfeaturesofsoilsthatpotentiallycanliquefy:
Theyaresandsandsiltsandquitelooseintheground.Suchsoilsdonotsticktogetherthewayclaysoilsdo.
Theyarebelowthewatertable,soallthespacebetweenthegrainsofsandandsiltarefilledwithwater.Drysoilsabovethe
GATE201
watertablewontliquefy. Engineerin
Whenanearthquakeoccurstheshakingissorapidandviolentthatthesandandsiltgrainstrytocompressthespacesfilledwith INR204.00
water,butthewaterpushesbackandpressurebuildsupuntilthegrainsfloatinthewater.Oncethathappensthesoillosesits
strengthithasliquefied.Soilthatwasoncesolidnowbehaveslikeafluid.

Therewasan

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Fig(1.30&1.31)SomeexamplesofSoilLiquefaction.

WHATHAPPENSNEXT?
Liquefied soil, like water, cannot support the weight of whatever is lying above it be it the surface layers of dry soil or the
concretefloorsofbuildings.
Theliquefiedsoilunderthatweightisforcedintoanycracksandcrevassesitcanfind,includingthoseinthedrysoilabove,orthe Engineering4

cracks between concrete slabs. It flows out onto the surface as boils, sand volcanoes and rivers of silt. In some cases the OurPrice:Rs

liquefiedsoilflowingupacrackcanerodeandwidenthecracktoasizebigenoughtoaccommodateacar.

Someotherconsequencesofthesoilliquefyingare:

Settlementofthegroundsurfaceduetothelossofsoilfromunderground.
Followers
Lossofsupporttobuildingfoundations.
Floatingofmanholes,buriedtanksandpipesintheliquefiedsoilbutonlyifthetanksandpipesaremostlyempty.
Nearstreamsandrivers,thedrysurfacesoillayerscanslidesidewaysontheliquefiedsoiltowardsthestreams.This
iscalledlateralspreadingandcanseverelydamageabuilding.

Ittypicallyresultsinlongtearsandripsinthegroundsurfacethatlooklikeaclassicfaultline.

Notallofabuildingsfoundationsmightbeaffectedbyliquefaction.

Theaffectedpartmaysubside(settle)orbepulledsidewaysbylateralspreading,whichcanseverelydamagethebuilding.Buried
servicessuchassewerpipescanbedamagedastheyarewarpedbylateralspreading,groundsettlementorflotation.

Fig(1.32&1.33)SomeexamplesofSoilLiquefaction.

AFTERTHEEARTHQUAKE
Aftertheearthquakeshakinghasceased,andliquefactioneffectshavediminished(whichmaytakeseveralhours).

Thepermanenteffectsinclude:
Lowering of ground levels where liquefaction and soil ejection has occurred. Ground lowering may be sufficient to make the
surfaceclosetoorbelowthewatertable,creatingponds.
Disruptionofgroundduetolateralspreading.
Theliquefiedsoilthatisnotejectedontothegroundsurfaceredensifiesandregainsstrength,insomecasesredensifiedsoilis
strongerthanbeforetheearthquake.
Carefulengineeringevaluationisrequiredtodeterminewhethergroundthathassufferedliquefactioncanberedeveloped.

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Fig(1.34&1.35)someexamplesofSoilLiquefaction.

1.4CAUSEBEHINDLIQUEFACTION
Itisrequiredtorecognizetheconditionsthatexistinasoildepositbeforeanearthquakeinordertoidentifyliquefaction.Soilis
basicallyanassemblageofmanysoilparticleswhichstayincontactwithmanyneighboringsoil.Thecontactforcesproducedby
theweightoftheoverlyingparticlesholdsindividualsoilparticleinitsplaceandprovidestrength.

Soilgrainsinasoildeposit.Theheightofthebluecolumntotherightrepresentsthelevelofpore
waterpressureinthesoil.

Thelengthofthearrowsrepresentsthesizeofthecontactforcesbetweenindividualsoilgrains.
Thecontactforcesarelargewhentheporewaterpressureislow.

Occurrence of liquefaction is the result of rapid load application and break down of the loose and saturated sand and the looselypacked individual soil
particlestriestomoveintoadenserconfiguration.However,thereisnotenoughtimefortheporewaterofthesoiltobesqueezedoutincaseofearthquake.
Instead, the water is trapped and prevents the soil particles from moving closer together. Thus, there is an increase in water pressure which reduces the
contactforcesbetweentheindividualsoilparticlescausingsofteningandweakeningofsoildeposit.Inextremeconditions,thesoilparticlesmaylosecontact
witheachotherduetotheincreasedporewaterpressure.Insuchcases,thesoilwillhaveverylittlestrength,andwillbehavemorelikealiquidthanasolid
hence,thename"liquefaction".

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Fig(1.40)NishinomiaBridge1995Kobeearthquake,Japan.

CHAPTER2

LITERATUREREVIEW

CarminePaulPolito(10Dec1999)
Thepublishedresultsofgeotechnicalstudieswereexaminedinordertodeterminethestateofknowledgeontheeffectsoffinescontentandplasticityonthe
liquefactionresistanceandporepressuregenerationcharacteristicsofsandysoils.

2.1TheEffectsofFineContentandPlasticityonLiquefactionResistance
Bothcleansandsandsandscontainingfineshavebeenshowntobeliquefiableinthefield(MogamiandKubo(1953)RobertsonandCampenella(1985)and
Holzeretal.(1989))andinthelaboratory(LeeandSeed(1967a)Changetal.(1982)andKoester(1994)).Additionally,nonplasticsilts,mostnotablymine
tailings,havealsobeenfoundtobesusceptibletoliquefaction(DobryandAlvarez(1967)Okusaetal.(1980)andGargaandMcKay(1984)).Areviewofthe
literature,however,showsconflictingevidenceastotheeffectwhichfineshaveontheliquefactionresistanceorcyclicstrengthofasand.Themainfactors
thatarereviewedherearetheeffectsofnonplasticfinescontentandtheeffectsofplasticfinescontentandplasticityontheliquefactionresistanceofsandy
soils.

2.2TheEffectsOfNonPlasticFineContent
Thereisnoclearconsensusintheliteratureastotheeffectwhichincreasingnonplasticfinescontenthasupontheliquefactionresistanceofasand.Both
field and laboratory studies have been performed, and the results of these studies indicate that increasing the nonplastic fines content in a sand will either
increasetheliquefactionresistanceofthesand,decreasetheliquefactionresistanceofthesand,ordecreasestheliquefactionresistanceuntilsomelimiting
fines content is reached, and then increases its resistance. To further complicate issues, some researchers have shown that the liquefaction resistance of
siltysandsisnotafunctionofthesiltcontentofthesoilsomuchasitisafunctionofthesoilssandskeletonvoidratio.

2.3TheEffectsofPlasticFinesContentandPlasticityAndPlasticityBased
LiquefactionCriteria
Thereisgeneralagreementintheliteratureastotheeffectwhichthequantityandplasticityofthefinegrainedmaterialhasontheliquefactionresistanceofa
sandysoil.Thereisagreementthatwhetherthefinegrainedmaterialissiltorclay,ormoreimportantly,whetheritbehavesplasticallyornonplastically,tends
to make an important, consistent difference in the cyclic strength of the soil. The majority of studies have shown that the presence of plastic fines tend to
increasetheliquefactionresistanceofasoil.

2.4PlasticityBasedLiquefactionCriteria
Jennings (1980) presents a listing of the thresholds to liquefaction used by engineers in the Peoples Republic of China to separate soils which are
consideredliquefiablefromthoseconsiderednonliquefiable.Soilsmeetingthesecriteriaareconsideredtobenonliquefiableandincludethosewithplasticity
indexesgreaterthan10,claycontentsgreaterthan10percent,relativedensitiesgreaterthan75percent,andvoidratioslessthan0.80.
Othercriteriapresentedarerelatedtoepicentraldistance,intensity,grainsizeandgradation,thedepthofthesandlayer,andthedepthofthewatertable.
Seedetal.(1973)intheirreviewoftheslidesthatoccurredintheLowerSanFernandoDamduringtheFebruary1971SanFernandoearthquakepresenteda
modified form of the Chinese criteria. As reported by Marcuson et al. (1990), soils with greater than 15 percent material finer than 0.005 mm, liquid limits
greaterthan35percent,andwatercontentslessthan90percentoftheliquidlimitshouldbesafefromliquefaction.

2.5TheEffectsOfFinesContentAndPlasticityOnPorePressureGeneration
Therateandmagnitudeofporepressuregenerationmayhaveimportanteffectsontheshearstrength,stability,andsettlement
characteristicsofasoilmass,evenifthesoildoesnotliquefy.Similarly,thepeakporepressuregeneratedmayaffectthestability
ofstructurefoundedon,orinthesoilmass.

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2.6RateAndMagnitudeOfPorePressureGeneration
Therearetwomethodsofexaminingtherateandmagnitudeofporepressuregenerationduringcyclicloadingwhichhavebeenreportedintheliterature.The
firstistoexaminetheporepressuresgeneratedinrelationtotheratioofthenumberofcyclesofloadingappliedtothenumberofcyclesrequiredtocause
liquefaction.ThisisthemethodusedbyLeeandAlbaisa(1974).Porepressuresmayalsobemeasuredintermsofthestrainrequiredtogeneratethem.This
istheapproachedtakenbyDobryetal(1982).

CHAPTER3
3.1SOILPROPERTIESDURINGLIQUEFACTION

SHRINKAGELIMIT
Theshrinkagelimit(SL)isthewatercontentwherefurtherlossofmoisturewillnotresultinanymorevolumereduction.

PLASTICLIMIT
Theplasticlimit(PL)isdeterminedbyrollingoutathreadofthefineportionofasoilonaflat,nonporoussurface.

LIQUIDLIMIT
Theliquidlimit(LL)isoftenconceptuallydefinedasthewatercontentatwhichthebehaviorofaclayeysoilchangesfromplastictoliquid.Actually,clayey
soil does have a very small shear strength at the liquid limit and the strength decreases as water content increases the transition from plastic to liquid
behavioroccursoverarangeofwatercontents.

THEATTERBERGLIMITS
The Atterberg Limits are a basic measure of the critical water contents of a finegrained soil, such as its shrinkage limit, plastic limit, and
liquidlimit.Asadry,clayeysoiltakesonincreasingamountsofwater,itundergoesdramaticanddistinctchangesinbehaviorandconsistency.
Dependingonthewatercontentofthesoil,itmayappearinfourstates:solid,semisolid,plasticandliquid.Ineachstate,theconsistencyand
behaviorofasoilisdifferentandconsequentlysoareitsengineeringproperties.Thus,theboundarybetweeneachstatecanbedefinedbased
onachangeinthesoil'sbehavior.TheAtterberglimitscanbeusedtodistinguishbetweensiltandclay,anditcandistinguishbetweendifferent
types of silts and clays. These limits were created by AlbertAtterberg,aSwedish chemist. They were later refined by Arthur Casagrande.
Thesedistinctionsinsoilareusedinassessingthesoilsthataretohavestructuresbuilton.Soilswhenwetretainwaterandsomeexpandin
volume.Theamountofexpansionisrelatedtotheabilityofthesoiltotakeinwateranditsstructuralmakeup(thetypeofatomspresent).
Thesetestsaremainlyusedonclayeyorsiltysoilssincethesearethesoilsthatexpandandshrinkduetomoisturecontent.Claysandsiltsreact
withthewaterandthuschangesizesandhavevaryingshearstrengths.Thusthesetestsareusedwidelyinthepreliminarystagesofdesigning
anystructuretoensurethatthesoilwillhavethecorrectamountofshearstrengthandnottoomuchchangeinvolumeasitexpandsandshrinks
withdifferentmoisturecontents.

As a hard, rigid solid in the dry state, soil becomes a crumbly (friable) semisolid when a certain moisture content, termed the
shrinkage limit, is reached. If it is an expansive soil, this soil will also begin to swell in volume as this moisture content is
exceeded.Increasingthewatercontentbeyondthesoil'splasticlimitwilltransformitintoamalleable,plasticmass,whichcauses
additional swelling. The soil will remain in this plastic state until its liquid limit is exceeded, which causes it to transform into a
viscousliquidthatflowswhenjarred.

3.2POREWATERPRESSUREDURINGLIQUEFACTION

Astateof'soilliquefaction'occurswhentheeffectivestressofsoilisreducedtoessentiallyzero,whichcorrespondstoacomplete
lossofshearstrength. This may be initiated by either monotonic loading (e.g. single sudden occurrence of a change in stress
examplesincludeanincreaseinloadonanembankmentorsuddenlossoftoesupport)orcyclicloading(e.g.repeatedchangein
stressconditionexamplesincludewaveloadingorearthquakeshaking)

.Inbothcasesasoilinasaturatedloosestate,andonewhichmaygeneratesignificantporewaterpressureonachangeinload
arethemostlikelytoliquefy.

Thisisbecausealoosesoilhasthetendencytocompresswhensheared,generatinglargeexcessPorewaterPressureasloadis
transferred from the soil skeleton to adjacent pore water during undrained loading. As pore water pressure rises a progressive
lossofstrengthofthesoiloccursaseffectivestressisreduced.Itismorelikelytooccurinsandyornonplasticsiltysoils,butmay
inrarecasesoccuringravelsandclays.

OCCURRENCEOFSOILLIQUEFACTION

Liquefactionismorelikelytooccurinloosetomoderatelysaturatedgranularsoilswithpoordrainage,suchassiltysandsor
sandsandgravelscappedorcontainingseamsofimpermeablesediments.

Duringwaveloading,usuallycyclicundrainedloading,e.g.seismicloading,loosesandstendtodecreaseinvolume,which
producesanincreaseintheirporewaterpressures and consequently a decrease in shearstrength, i.e. reduction in effective
stress

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The resistance of the cohesionless soil to liquefaction will depend on the density of the soil, confining stresses, soil
structure.Themagnitudeanddurationofthecyclicloading,andtheextenttowhichshearstressreversaloccurs.

Dependingontheinitialvoidratio, the soil material can respond to loading either strainsoftening or strainhardening.
Strainsoftened soils, e.g. loose sands, can be triggered to collapse, either monotonically or cyclically, if the static shear
stressisgreaterthantheultimateorsteadystateshearstrengthofthesoil.Inthiscaseflowliquefactionoccurs.

3.3EARTHQUAKELIQUEFACTION

Fig(3.30)Sandboilsthateruptedduringthe2011Christchurchearthquake.

Thepressuresgeneratedduringlargeearthquakeswithmanycyclesofshakingcancausetheliquefiedsandandexcesswaterto
forceitswaytothegroundsurfacefromseveralmetresbelowtheground.Thisisoftenobservedas"sandboils"alsocalled"sand
blows" or "sand volcanoes" (as they appear to form small volcanic craters) at the ground surface. The phenomenon may
incorporatebothflowofalreadyliquefiedsandfromalayerbelowground,andaquicksandeffectwherebyupwardflowofwater
initiatesliquefactioninoverlyingnonliquefiedsandydepositsduetobuoyancy.

Onepositiveaspectofsoilliquefactionisthetendencyfortheeffectsofearthquakeshakingtobesignificantlydamped(reduced)
for the remainder of the earthquake. This is because liquids do not support a shearstress and so once the soil liquefies due to
shaking,subsequentearthquakeshaking(transferredthroughgroundbyshearwaves)isnottransferredtobuildingsattheground
surface.

Studiesofliquefactionfeaturesleftbyprehistoricearthquakes,calledPaleoliquefactionorPaleoseismology,canrevealagreatdeal
of information about earthquakes that occurred before records were kept or accurate measurements could be taken. Soil
liquefactioninducedbyearthquakeshakingisalsoamajorcontributortourbanseismicrisk.

TECHNICALDEFINITION
AstateofSoilLiquefactionoccurswhentheeffectivestressofsoilisreducedtoessentiallyzero,whichcorrespondstoacomplete
lossofshearstrength.Thismaybeinitiatedbyeithermonotonicloadingorcyclicloading.
TYPESOFFAILURES

1.CyclicMobility

2.OverTurning
3.SandBoiling

Thesearesomeoffailures.

3.4FACTORSAFFECTINGSOILLIQUEFACTION
1.SoilType
2.Grainsizeanditsdistribution
3.Initialrelativedensity
4.Vibrationcharacterstics
5.Locationofdrainageanddimensionofdeposit
6.Surchargeload
7.Methodofsoilformation
8.Periodundersustainedload
9.Previousstrainhistory
10.TrappedAir
ThesearesomefactorsaffectingSoilLiquefaction.

3.5CONSEQUENCEOFLIQUEFACTION
Settlements
Lateralspreads
Lateralflows
Lossoflateralsupport
Lossofbearingsupport
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Flotationofbearingsupports
ThesearesomeconsequencesofSoilLiquefaction.

CHAPTER4

4.1SANDPHENOMENONS

QUICKSAND
QuickSandformswhenwatersaturatesanareaofloosesandandtheordinarysandisagitated.Whenthewatertrappedinthebatchofsand
cannot escape, it creates liquefied soil that can no longer support weight. Quicksand can be formed by standing or (upwards) flowing
undergroundwater(asfromanundergroundspring),orbyearthquakes.Inthecaseofflowingundergroundwater,theforceofthewaterflow
opposestheforceofgravity,causingthegranulesofsandtobemorebuoyant.Inthecaseofearthquakes,theshakingforcecanincreasethe
pressureofshallowgroundwater,liquefyingsandandsiltdeposits.Inbothcases,theliquefiedsurfacelosesstrength,causingbuildingsorother
objectsonthatsurfacetosinkorfallover.

The saturated sediment may appear quite solid until a change in pressure or shock initiates the liquefaction, causing the sand to form a
suspension with each grain surrounded by a thin film of water. This cushioning gives quicksand, and other liquefied sediments, a spongy,
fluidlike texture. Objects in the liquefied sand sink to the level at which the weight of the object is equal to the weight of the displaced
sand/watermixandtheobjectfloatsduetoitsbuoyancy.

Fig(4.10&4.11)SomeexamplesforQuickSandPhenomenon.

QUICKCLAY
Quickclay,alsoknownasLedaClayinCanada,isawatersaturatedgel,whichinitssolidformresembleauniqueformofhighly
sensitive clay. This clay has a tendency to change from a relatively stiff condition to a liquid mass when it is disturbed. This
gradual change in appearance from solid to liquid is a process known as spontaneous liquefaction. The clay retains a solid
structuredespitethehighwatercontent(upto80volume%),becausesurfacetensionholdswatercoatedflakesofclaytogetherin
adelicatestructure.Whenthestructureisbrokenbyashockorsufficientshear,itturnstoafluidstate.Quickclayisonlyfoundin
the northern countries such as Russia, Canada, Alaska in the U.S., Norway, Sweden, and Finland, which were glaciated during
thePleistoceneepoch.

Quickclayhasbeentheunderlyingcauseofmanydeadlylandslides.InCanadaalone,ithasbeenassociatedwithmorethan250
mappedlandslides.

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Fig(4.12&4.13)SomeexamplesforQuickClayPhenomenon.
CHAPTER5
5.1SOILLIQUEFACTIONTRAGEDIES

Fig(5.10)1964Niigataearthquake.

Fig(5.11)1964Alaskaearthquake.

Fig(5.12)1989LomaPrietaearthquake.

Fig(5.13)2010Canterburyearthquake.

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Fig(5.14)Liquefiedsoilexertshigherpressureonretainingwalls,whichcancausethemtotiltorslide.

Fig(5.15)FoundationfailureinKeraladuringTsunami(December26th,2004)

5.2EFFECTS

Theeffectsoflateralspreading(RiverRoadin2011Christchurchearthquake)

DamageinBrooklandsfromthe2010Canterburyearthquake,wherebuoyancycausedbysoilliquefactionpushedupanundergroundserviceincludingthis
manhole

Theeffectsofsoilliquefactiononthebuiltenvironmentcanbeextremelydamaging.Buildingswhosefoundationsbeardirectlyon
sandwhichliquefieswillexperienceasuddenlossofsupport,whichwillresultindrasticandirregularsettlementofthebuilding
causing structural damage, including cracking of foundations and damage to the building structure itself, or may leave the
structure unserviceable afterwards, even without structural damage. Where a thin crust of nonliquefied soil exists between
building foundation and liquefied soil, a 'punching shear' type foundation failure may occur. The irregular settlement of ground
mayalsobreakundergroundutilitylines.Theupwardpressureappliedbythemovementofliquefiedsoilthroughthecrustlayer
cancrackweakfoundationslabsandenterbuildingsthroughserviceducts,andmayallowwatertodamagethebuildingcontents
andelectricalservices.

Bridgesandlargebuildingsconstructedonpilefoundationsmaylosesupportfromtheadjacentsoilandbuckle,orcometorestata
tiltaftershaking.

Slopinggroundandgroundnexttoriversandlakesmayslideonaliquefiedsoillayer(termed'lateralspreading'),openinglarge
cracks or fissures in the ground, and can cause significant damage to buildings, bridges, roads and services such as water,
naturalgas,sewerage,powerandtelecommunicationsinstalledintheaffectedground.Buriedtanksandmanholesmayfloatin
the liquefied soil due to buoyancy. Earth embankments such as flood levees and earth dams may lose stability or collapse if the
materialcomprisingtheembankmentoritsfoundationliquefies.

5.3MITIGATIONMETHODS

Methods to mitigate the effects of soil liquefaction have been devised by earthquake engineers and include various soil compaction
techniquessuchas:

VibroCompaction(Compactionofthesoilbydepthvibrators)

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DynamicCompaction&

VibroStoneColumns

Thesemethodsresultinthedensificationofsoilandenablebuildingstowithstandsoilliquefaction.

Existingbuildingscanbemitigatedbyinjectinggroutintothesoiltostabilizethelayerofsoilthatissubjecttoliquefaction.

1.VibroCompaction.

2.DynamicCompaction.

3.VibroStoneColumns.

ThesearesomemethodstomitigatetheeffectsofSoilLiquefaction.

CHAPTER6

6.1SUMMARY

ThisPromotessimplecriterionbasedonkeysoilparametersthathelppartitionliquefiableandnonliquefiablesiltysoils.Abrief
reviewofthephysicalcharacteristicsofsiltsandclaysis
firstgiventohelpclarifysomemisconceptionsaboutsiltysoils.Claycontentandliquidlimitare
thenconsideredastwokeysoilparametersthathelppartitionliquefiableandnonliquefiable
silty soils. Several case histories are presented that illustrate the applicability of using clay content as a key soil parameter.
Attentionisdrawntoananalogybetweentheliquidlimitandtheshearstrengthofasoil.
Thisanalogyisexpandedtoshowthattheliquidlimitcanberegardedasakeysoilparameterthatgivesarelativemeasureof
liquefaction susceptibility. Inadequacies of basing criteria for liquefaction of silty soils on just one key parameter are finally

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discussed,leadingtothepromotionofsimplecriteriaforliquefactionofsiltysoils,utilisingtogetherboththeclaycontentandthe
liquidlimitsoilparameters.

REFERENCES

1.KenjiIshihara,NorioOyagi,TextBookofSoilAndFoundations,Vol30,No4,7389,Dec1990.

2.CarminePaulPolito,TheEffectsOfNonPlasticandPlasticFinesOnTheLiquefactionOfSandySoils,10December1999.

3.HansF.WinterkornandHsaiYangFang.,FoundationEngineeringHandbook.

4. T.G.Sitharam,L.GovindaRajuandA.Sridharan(2004).,Dynamicpropertiesandliquefactionpotentialofsoils,SpecialSection:
GeotechnicsandEarthquakeHazards,CurrentScience,Vol.87,No.10,25November2004.

5. Alisha Kaplan (2004).,Soil Liquefaction Undergraduate Research, MidAmerica Earthquake Center and Georgia Institute of
Technology,May2004.

6. EN19985:2004 Eurocode 8 Design of structures for earthquake resistance. Part 5: Foundations, retaining structures and
geotechnicalaspects.Brussels:EuropeanCommitteeforStandardisation.2004.

7.http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/soil_liquefaction

8.http://geology.com>Home>GeologicalHazards

9.http://a4academics.com>Home>SeminarTopics>Liquefaction

10.http://slideshare.net/jagadanand/liquefaction_of_soil

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